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800 | ISO_9660 | ISO 9660, also referred to as CDFS (CD File System) by some hardware and software providers, is a file system standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for optical disc media. It aims at supporting different computer operating systems such as Windows, classic Mac OS, and Unix-like systems, so that data may be exchanged. The Rock Ridge extension to ISO 9660 adds support for POSIX file permissions and ownership, symbolic links, and longer file names; the Joliet extension adds support for longer file names and the Unicode character set; and the El Torito extension enables a disc to boot an x86 compatible system. DVDs may also use the ISO 9660 file system. However, the UDF file system is more appropriate on DVDs since it offers better support for the larger media and is better suited for modern operating systems needs. History A CD-ROM may be mastered with any kind of data on it. Sun Microsystems, for example, uses the Berkeley UNIX UFS file systems on many CD-ROMs. Silicon Graphics' IRIX installation media uses EFS. Mac OS uses HFS Plus. This restricts them to the producer's operating environment, which, while beneficial in the case of platform-specific software distributions, is not appropriate for widely distributing content. Hence, the need for a single volume format that would be accessible on a variety of equipment arose. However, establishing a consensus for a unified definition of file attributes appeared to be impossible. ISO 9660 traces its roots to the High Sierra file system. High Sierra arranged file information in a dense, sequential layout to minimize nonsequential access by using a hierarchical (eight levels of directories deep) tree file system arrangement, similar to UNIX and FAT. To facilitate cross platform compatibility, it defined a minimal set of common file attributes (directory or ordinary file and time of recording) and name attributes (name, extension, and version), and used a separate system use area where future optional extensions for each file may be specified. High Sierra was adopted in December 1986 (with changes) as an international standard by Ecma International as ECMA-119 and submitted for the fast tracking to the International Organization for Standardization, where it was eventually accepted as ISO 9660:1988. The ISO 9660 file system format is now used throughout the industry. Specifications CD-ROM Specifications The smallest entity in the CD format is called a frame, and holds 24 bytes. Data in a CD-ROM is organized in frames and sectors. A CD-ROM sector contains 98 frames, and holds 2352 bytes. CD-ROM Mode 1, usually used for computer data, divides the 2352 byte data area defined by the Red Book standards into 12 bytes of synchronization information, 4 bytes of header data, 2048 bytes of user data and 288 bytes of error correction and detection codes. These codes help prevent the data from becoming corrupted, which could lead to errors for executable data. CD-ROM Mode 2 Form 1, usually used for computer data, has the same user data and error correction as Mode 1, but with a slightly different layout. Its use is not recommended for compatibility reasons. Media Sciences - Mode and Form differences CD-ROM Mode 2 Form 2, intended to be used for error-tolerant data such as audio and video, divides the 2352 bytes into 12 bytes of synchronization information, 4 bytes of header data and 2336 bytes of user data. Mode 2 provides 14% more user data space than Mode 1 by omitting error correction, since a read error in audio or video will only cause a small flaw which may not even be detectable to humans. Video CDs are classified as Mode 2 Form 2. ISO 9660 Specifications The first 32768 bytes of the disk are unused by ISO 9660 data structure, and therefore available for other use. For example, a CD-ROM may contain an alternative file system descriptor in this area, as it is often used by Hybrid CDs to offer Mac OS-specific content. The data structure follows the skipped block with a series of volume descriptors, detailing the contents and types of information contained on the disk (similar to the BIOS parameter block used by FAT and NTFS formatted disks). A volume descriptor describes the characteristics of the file system information present on a given CD-ROM, or volume. It is divided into two parts: the type of volume descriptor, and the characteristics of the descriptor. The volume descriptor is constructed in this manner so that if a program reading the disk does not understand a particular descriptor, it can just skip over it until it finds one it can read, thus allowing the use of many different types of information on one volume. Also, if an error were to render a descriptor unreadable, a subsequent redundant copy of a descriptor could then allow for fault recovery. An ISO 9660 compliant disk contains at least a primary descriptor describing the ISO 9660 file system and a terminating descriptor for indicating the end of the descriptor sequence. Joliet and UDF are examples of file systems adding more descriptors to this sequence. The primary volume descriptor acts much like the superblock of the Unix File System, providing details on the ISO 9660 compliant portion of the disk. Contained within the primary volume descriptor is the root directory record describing the location of the contiguous root directory. (As in UNIX, directories appear as files for the operating system special use). Directory entries are successively stored within this region. Evaluation of the ISO 9660 filenames is begun at this location. The root directory is stored as an extent, or sequential series of sectors, that contains each of the directory entries appearing in the root. In addition, since ISO 9660 works by segmenting the CD-ROM into logical blocks, the size of these blocks is found in the primary volume descriptor as well. The first field in a Volume Descriptor is the Volume Descriptor Type (type), which can have the following values: Number 0: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Boot Record Number 1: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Primary Volume Descriptor Number 2: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Supplementary Volume Descriptor Number 3: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Partition Descriptor Number 255: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Descriptor Set Terminator. The second field is called the Standard Identifier and is set to CD001 for a CD-ROM compliant to the ISO 9660 standard. Another interesting field is the Volume Space Size which contains the amount of data available on the CD-ROM. File attributes are very simple in ISO-9660. The most important file attribute is determining whether the file is a directory or an ordinary file. File attributes for the file described by the directory entry are stored in the directory entry and optionally, in the extended attribute record. Overview of the ISO 9660 directory structure There are two ways to locate a file on an ISO 9660 file system. One way is to successively interpret the directory names and look through each directory file structure to find the file (much the way MS-DOS and UNIX work to find a file). The other way is through the use of a precompiled table of paths, where all the entries are enumerated in the successive contents of a file with the corresponding entries. Some systems do not have a mechanism for wandering through directories and they obtain a match by consulting the table. While a large linear table seems a bit arcane, it can be of great value, as one can quickly search without wandering across the disk (thus reducing seek time). All multi-byte values are stored twice, in little-endian and big-endian format, either one-after-another in what the specification calls "both-endian format", or in duplicated data structures such as the path table. It is therefore theoretically possible to author an ISO-9660 image which delivers different content on different architectures. Restrictions File and directory name restrictions The standard has three different levels: Level 1: File names are limited to eight characters with a three-character extension, using upper case letters, numbers and underscore only. The maximum depth of directories is eight. Level 2: File names are not limited to 11 characters (the 8.3 format) but can be up to the maximum allowed by the 1 byte counter in the directory entry and the filename length byte counter. Typically, this is close to 180 characters, depending on how many extended attributes are present. Level 3: Files are allowed to be non-contiguous (i.e., fragmented), principally to allow packet writing or incremental CD recording). The standard also specifies the following name restrictions: All levels restrict filenames to upper case letters, digits, underscores ("_"), and a dot. Linux converts uppercase letters to lower case while mounting ISO filesystems. File names shall not include spaces. File names shall not start or end with the dot character. File names shall not have more than one dot. Directory names shall not use dots at all. Some CD authoring applications allow the user to use almost any character. While, strictly speaking, this does not conform to the ISO 9660 standard, most operating systems which can read ISO 9660 file systems have no problem with out-of-spec names. However, the names could appear wrong to the user. Directory depth limit The restrictions on filename length and directory depth (8 levels, including the root directory) are a more serious limitation of the ISO 9660 file system. Many CD authoring applications attempt to get around this by truncating filenames automatically, but do so at the risk of breaking applications that rely on a specific file structure. The 4 GiB (or 2 GiB depending on implementation) file size limit All numbers in ISO 9660 file systems except the single byte value used for the GMT offset are unsigned numbers. As the length of a file's extent on disk is stored in a 32 bit value ECMA-119 9.1.4 , it allows for a maximum length of 4 GiB. (Note: Some older operating systems may handle such values incorrectly (i.e., signed instead of unsigned), which would make it impossible to access files larger than 2 GiB in size.) Based on this, it is often assumed that a file on an ISO 9660 formatted disc cannot be larger than 232 in size, as the file's size is stored in an unsigned 32 bit value, for which 232 is the maximum. It is, however, possible to circumvent this limitation by using the multi-extent (fragmentation) feature of ISO 9660 Level 3. With this, files larger than 4 GiB can be split up into multiple extents (sequential series of sectors), each not exceeding the 4 GiB limit. For example, the free software such as infrarecorder and mkisofs as well as Roxio Toast are able to create ISO 9660 filesystems that use multi-extent files to store files larger than 4 GiB on appropriate media such as recordable DVDs. Empirical tests with a 4.2 GiB fragmented file on a DVD media have shown that Microsoft Windows XP supports this, while Mac OS X (as of 10.4.8) does not handle this case properly. In the case of Mac OS X, the driver appears not to support file fragmentation at all (i.e. it only supports ISO 9660 Level 2 but not Level 3). Linux supports multiple extents. kern/95222: File sections on ISO9660 [sic] level 3 CDs ignored FreeBSD only shows and reads the last extent of a multi-extent file. Limit on number of directories Another limitation, less well known, is the number of directories. The ISO image has a structure called "path table". For each directory in the image, the path table provides the identifier of its parent directory. The problem is that the directory identifier is a 16-bit number, limiting its range from 1 to 65,535. ECMA-119 6.9 The content of each directory is written also in a different place, making the path table redundant, and suitable only for fast searching. Some operating systems (e.g., Windows) use it, while others (e.g., Linux) do not. If an ISO image or disk consists of more than 65,535 directories, it will be readable in Linux, while in the Windows environment all files from the additional directories will be visible, but show up as empty (zero length). A popular application using ISO format, mkisofs, aborts if there is a path table overflow. Nero Burning ROM (for Windows) and also Pinnacle Instant CD/DVD does not check whether the problem occurs, and will produce an invalid ISO file or disk without warning. Also, isovfy cannot easily report this problem. This is the only place in the ISO format where a 16-bit number is used, causing such limitations. Multisession support ISO 9660 is by design a read-only, pre-mastered, file system. This means that all the data has to be written in one go to the medium. Once written, there is no provision for altering the stored content. Therefore ISO 9660 is not suitable to be used on random-writable media, such as Hard Disks. Recordable CD media (CD-R) provides: multiple session writing. This means that data can be written to disc and made accessible, then later more data can be added to the disc as long as there is unused space left on the disc. (CD-Rs are Write Once media, so they do not support erasing or overwriting data once written.) The Multisession extension to ISO 9660 makes use of this feature, by defining a rule for operating systems as to how to read an ISO 9660 volume from a CD-R. Instead of looking for the volume descriptor at offset 32768 (block number 16 on a CD) from the start of the disc, it starts reading from the 16th block in the first track of the latest session. Block numbers form a contiguous sequence starting at the first session, and continuing over added sessions and their gaps. Hence, if a CD mastering program wants to add a single file to a CD-R that has an ISO 9660 volume, it has to append a session containing at least an updated copy of the entire directory tree, plus the new file. The duplicated directory entries can still reference the data files in the previous session(s). In a similar way, file data can be updated or even removed. Removal is, however, only virtual: the removed content does not appear any more in the directory shown to the user, but it is still physically present on the disc. It can therefore be recovered, and it takes up space (such that the CD will become full even though appearing to still have unused space). ISO 9660:1999 ISO 9660:1999 is the latest update to the ISO 9660 standard. It improves on the restrictions imposed by the older standard, by extending the maximum path length to 207 characters, removing the eight-level maximum directory nesting limit, and removing the special meaning of the dot character in filenames. Disc images ISO 9660 file system images (ISO images) are a common way to electronically transfer the contents of CD-ROMs. They often have the filename extension .iso (.iso9660 is less common, but also in use) and are commonly referred to as "ISOs". It should be noted an .iso file may be: A single ISO 9660 file system image A multi-track disc image with a table of contents Extensions There are common extensions to ISO 9660 to deal with the limitations. Rock Ridge supports the preservation of POSIX (Unix-style) permissions and longer ASCII-coded names; Joliet supports names stored in Unicode, thus allowing almost any character to be used, even from non-Latin scripts; El Torito enables CDs to be bootable on PCs; Apple ISO 9660 Extensions adds support for Mac-OS-specific file characteristics such as Resource forks, file backup date and more. ISO 13490 is basically ISO 9660 with multisession support. For operating systems which do not support any extensions, a name translation file TRANS.TBL must be used. It should be located in each directory, including the root directory. This is now obsolete, since few such operating systems are in use today. Operating system support Most operating systems support reading of ISO 9660 formatted discs, and most new versions support the extensions such as Rock Ridge and Joliet. Operating systems that do not support the extensions usually show the basic (non-extended) features of a plain ISO 9660 disc. Operating systems that support ISO 9660 and its extensions include the following: DOS: access with extensions, such as MSCDEX.EXE (Microsoft CDROM Extension) or CORELCD.EXE Microsoft Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME: can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, and Joliet Microsoft Windows NT 4, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7 can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, Joliet, and ISO 9660:1999 Linux and BSD: ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, Joliet, Rock Ridge, and ISO 9660:1999 GS/OS: ISO Level 1 and 2 support via the HS.FST File System Translator. Mac OS 7 to 9: ISO Level 1, 2. Optional free software supports Rock Ridge and Joliet (including ISO Level 3): Joke Ridge and Joliet Volume Access. Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar, 10.3 Panther, 10.4 Tiger, 10.5 Leopard: ISO Level 1, 2, Joliet and Rock Ridge Extensions. Level 3 is not currently supported, although users have been able to mount these disks: AmigaOS supports the "AS" extensions (which preserve the Amiga protection bits and file comments) See also Hybrid CD Disk image emulator References External links ECMA-119 This is the ECMA release of the ISO 9660:1988 standard, available as a free download. Technical information on ISO 9660:1999 ISO 9660 Specifications Description of data structures in ISO-9660 CD Recording FAQ Media Sciences - Book types and compatibility, Multisession ISO files: How to write ISO files to CD in the Microsoft Windows Operating System Small, Free Way to Use and Mount Images (ISO files) Without Burning Them in Windows XP Extract a file hierarchy from an iso image (*nix) How to extract ISO files with Linux Mode 1 and 2: Sony Storage Support - What CD-ROM Mode-1, Mode-2 and XA are ? Media Sciences - Varieties of Mode 2 DivXLand - Mode 2 explanation and creation tools | ISO_9660 |@lemmatized iso:71 also:9 refer:2 cdfs:1 cd:36 file:77 system:39 hardware:1 software:4 provider:1 standard:11 publish:1 international:4 organization:2 standardization:2 optical:1 disc:12 medium:12 aim:1 support:25 different:7 computer:3 operate:11 window:10 classic:1 mac:8 unix:7 like:2 data:26 may:8 exchange:1 rock:6 ridge:7 extension:19 add:6 posix:2 permission:2 ownership:1 symbolic:1 link:2 longer:1 name:17 joliet:10 long:3 unicode:2 character:10 set:4 el:2 torito:2 enable:1 boot:2 compatible:1 dvd:5 use:34 however:5 udf:2 appropriate:3 since:4 offer:2 well:5 large:6 suit:1 modern:1 need:2 history:1 rom:16 master:3 kind:1 sun:1 microsystems:1 example:4 berkeley:1 ufs:1 many:4 silicon:1 graphic:1 irix:1 installation:1 efs:1 os:4 hfs:1 plus:2 restrict:2 producer:1 operating:4 environment:2 beneficial:1 case:6 platform:2 specific:4 distribution:1 widely:1 distribute:1 content:10 hence:2 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801 | Republic_of_Afghanistan | Republic of Afghanistan () was a self-declared republic in the Middle East established by Mohammed Daoud Khan in 1973 after a nearly bloodless coup. Daoud became Afghanistans first President and the only president in the Daoud Republic. Daoud is known for his progressive politics and trying to modernizing the country with help from the Soviet Union and the United States among others. In 1978 a military coup took place with help from the communist party, People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. The coup has been given the name, The Saur Revolution. Daoud was murdered during the coup in 1978. The Daoud Republic gave birth to the Republic of Afghanistan (1978-1992). History Formation In 1973, while Mohammed Zahir Shah was in Italy undergoing eye surgery as well as therapy for lumbago, his cousin and former Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud Khan staged a coup d'état and established a republican government. As a former prime minister, Daoud Khan had been forced to resign by Zahir Shah a decade earlier. In the August following this coup, Zahir Shah abdicated rather than risk an all-out civil war. {{History of Afghanistan} Political reforms The same year former Prime Minister of Afghanistan, Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal was arrested for plotting a coup against Daoud's new established government. While its unclear if the coup was made to size the power from Daoud or from former king, Mohammed Zahir Shah. Maiwandwal was arrested and committed suicide in jail before his trial, widespread belief says he was tortured to death. After the coup President Mohammed Daoud Khan established his own political party, the National Revolutionary Party. This party became the sole focus of political activity in the country. The Loya jirga approved Daoud's new constitution establishing a presidential one party system of government in January, 1977. Any resistance or rebellion against the new regime was crushed or suppressed by the government. Rise of communism During Daoud's presidency, relations with the communist countries abroad, especially the Soviet Union and the Afghan communists in the country deteriorated. The Soviet Union saw Daoud's shift to a more western friendly as dangerous, since Daoud was trying to distance himself and Afghanistan from the Soviet Union. He removed and kicked out Soviet military and economic advisers. The Soviets saw Dostum as an "anti-communist" concept because of his new approach towards the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and critizising Communist Cuba's role in the Non-aligned Movement. In 1976 Daoud established a seven year economic plan for the country. He started military training programs with India for example and started economic development talks with Iran. Daoud also turned his attention to the oil rich Middle Eastern nations such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait among others for financial assistance. Daoud had achieved little of what he had set out to accomplish in 1978. The Afghan economy hadn't really made any real progess and the Afghan standard of living had not risen. Daoud had also garnered much criticism for his one-single party constitution in 1977 which alienated him from his political supporters. By this time the Parcham and Khalq faction in the PDPA had reached a fragile agreement on reunification. At this time Communist army officials were planning a military coup against Daoud's government. According to second President of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, Hafizullah Amin, the PDPA had started plotting the coup in 1976 two years before the Saur Revolution. The Saur Revolution On April 27, 1978 the military-communist coup started. The coup started with military troops from the military base at Kabul International Airport starting to move towards the center of the city. It took only 24 hours to consolodate power in the the capitol. Daoud and most of his family was executed in the presidential palace in Kabul the following day. Garthoff, Raymond L. Détente and Confrontation. Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1994. p. 986. The PDPA seized power in a military coup in 1978 which is best known as the Saur Revolution. Nur Muhammad Taraki, Secretary General of the PDPA, became President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Garthoff, Raymond L. Détente and Confrontation. Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1994. p. 986. After the military coup, Taraki assumed the position as President of Afghanistan and Hafizullah Amin assuming the position as Deputy Prime Minister of Afghanistan. References External links Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan | Republic_of_Afghanistan |@lemmatized republic:8 afghanistan:13 self:1 declare:1 middle:2 east:1 establish:7 mohammed:5 daoud:22 khan:4 nearly:1 bloodless:1 coup:15 become:3 first:1 president:6 know:2 progressive:1 politics:1 try:2 modernize:1 country:5 help:2 soviet:6 union:4 united:1 state:1 among:2 others:2 military:9 take:2 place:1 communist:7 party:8 people:2 democratic:4 give:2 name:1 saur:4 revolution:4 murder:1 birth:1 history:2 formation:1 zahir:4 shah:4 italy:1 undergoing:1 eye:1 surgery:1 well:1 therapy:1 lumbago:1 cousin:1 former:4 prime:5 minister:5 stag:1 état:1 republican:1 government:5 force:1 resign:1 decade:1 earlier:1 august:1 follow:1 abdicate:1 rather:1 risk:1 civil:1 war:1 political:4 reform:1 year:3 mohammad:1 hashim:1 maiwandwal:2 arrest:2 plot:2 new:4 unclear:1 make:2 size:1 power:3 king:1 commit:1 suicide:1 jail:1 trial:1 widespread:1 belief:1 say:1 torture:1 death:1 national:1 revolutionary:2 sole:1 focus:1 activity:1 loya:1 jirga:1 approve:1 constitution:2 presidential:2 one:2 system:1 january:1 resistance:1 rebellion:1 regime:1 crush:1 suppress:1 rise:2 communism:1 presidency:1 relation:1 abroad:1 especially:1 afghan:3 deteriorate:1 saw:2 shift:1 western:1 friendly:1 dangerous:1 since:1 distance:1 remove:1 kick:1 economic:3 adviser:1 dostum:1 anti:1 concept:1 approach:1 towards:2 pdpa:5 critizising:1 cuba:1 role:1 non:1 align:1 movement:1 seven:1 plan:2 start:6 training:1 program:1 india:1 example:1 development:1 talk:1 iran:1 also:2 turn:1 attention:1 oil:1 rich:1 eastern:1 nation:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 iraq:1 kuwait:1 financial:1 assistance:1 achieve:1 little:1 set:1 accomplish:1 economy:1 really:1 real:1 progess:1 standard:1 living:1 garner:1 much:1 criticism:1 single:1 alienate:1 supporter:1 time:2 parcham:1 khalq:1 faction:1 reach:1 fragile:1 agreement:1 reunification:1 army:1 official:1 accord:1 second:1 hafizullah:2 amin:2 two:1 april:1 troop:1 base:1 kabul:2 international:1 airport:1 move:1 center:1 city:1 hour:1 consolodate:1 capitol:1 family:1 execute:1 palace:1 following:1 day:1 garthoff:2 raymond:2 l:2 détente:2 confrontation:2 washington:2 c:2 brookings:2 institute:2 p:2 seize:1 best:1 nur:1 muhammad:1 taraki:2 secretary:1 general:1 council:1 newly:1 assume:2 position:2 deputy:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram mohammed_daoud:3 daoud_khan:4 bloodless_coup:1 soviet_union:4 saur_revolution:4 mohammed_zahir:2 zahir_shah:4 prime_minister:5 stag_coup:1 coup_état:1 commit_suicide:1 loya_jirga:1 saudi_arabia:1 hafizullah_amin:2 brookings_institute:2 external_link:1 |
802 | February | February is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. It is the shortest month and the only month with fewer than 30 days. The month has 29 days in leap years, when the year number is divisible by four (except for years that are divisible by 100 and not by 400 in the Gregorian calendar). In common years the month has 28 days. History February, from the Très riches heures du Duc de Berry February, Leandro Bassano Chocolates for Saint Valentine's Day February was named after the Latin term februum, which means purification, via the purification ritual Februa held on February 15 in the old Roman calendar. January and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period. They were added by Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. February remained the last month of the calendar year until the time of the decemvirs (c. 450 BC), when it became the second month. At certain intervals February was truncated to 23 or 24 days and a 27-day intercalary month, Intercalaris, was inserted immediately after February to realign the year with the seasons. Under the reforms that instituted the Julian calendar, Intercalaris was abolished, leap years occurred regularly every fourth year (after a few years of confusion), and in leap years February gained a 29th day. Thereafter, it remained the second month of the calendar year, meaning the order that months are displayed (January, February, March, …, December) within a year-at-a-glance calendar. Even during the Middle Ages, when the numbered Anno Domini year began on March 25 or December 25, February continued to be the second month whenever all twelve months were displayed in order. The Gregorian calendar reforms made slight changes to the system for determining which years were leap years and thus contained a 29-day February. Historical names for February include the Anglo-Saxon terms Solmonath (mud month) and Kale-monath (named for cabbage) as well as Charlemagne's designation Hornung. In Finnish, the month is called helmikuu, meaning "month of the pearl"; when snow melts on tree branches, it forms droplets, and as these freeze again, they are like pearls of ice. Pronunciation Many people pronounce the 'ru' of "February" as you rather than roo, as if it were spelled "Febuary". This comes about by analogy with "January" (which ends in "-uary" but not "-ruary"); as well as by a dissimilation effect whereby having two "r"s close to each other causes one to change for ease of pronunciation. The Scots language names for the month are Feberwary and Februar, the latter usually pronounced with a long "ay" vowel in the first syllable. Patterns February starts on the same day of the week as both March and November in common years, and August in leap years. Having only 28 days in common years, it is the only month of the year that can pass without a single full moon. It is also the only month of the calendar that once every six years and twice every 11 years, will have only four full 7-day weeks. Where the first day of the month starts on a Sunday and the last day ends on a Saturday, this was observed in 2009 and can be traced back 11 years to 1998, another 11 years back to 1987, and 6 years back to 1981; and so on twice 11 years consecutively and once six years either forward into the future or back into the past, unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100. A year of this kind would be a common year starting on Thursday. It cannot happen in a leap year. 2004, which was a leap year, would have observed this format had it been a common year, Events in February Groundhog Day: February 2 United States and Canada Imbolc: February 2 National Foundation Day in Japan: February 11 Valentine's Day: February 14 Flag Day of Canada: February 15 Presidents Day (United States, third Monday) Dominican Republic Independence: February 27 Liberation Day (Kuwait) February 26 Leap Day: February 29 (Every 4 years, with some exceptions) Black History Month (Canada and United States) February symbols The violet. Its birth flower is the violet and the primrose. Birth Months, Flowers, and Gemstones Its birthstone is the amethyst. Further reading Anthony Aveni, "February's Holidays: Prediction, Purification, and Passionate Pursuit," The Book of the Year: A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 29-46. References See also February 29 February 30 February 31 Historical anniversaries External links The Straight Dope: How come February has only 28 days? be-x-old:Люты | February |@lemmatized february:31 second:4 month:22 year:36 julian:2 gregorian:3 calendar:10 short:1 day:21 leap:10 number:1 divisible:2 four:2 except:1 common:5 history:3 très:1 riches:1 heures:1 du:1 duc:1 de:1 berry:1 leandro:1 bassano:1 chocolate:1 saint:1 valentine:2 name:4 latin:1 term:2 februum:1 mean:3 purification:3 via:1 ritual:1 februa:1 hold:1 old:2 roman:3 january:3 last:3 two:2 add:2 since:2 originally:1 consider:1 winter:1 monthless:1 period:1 numa:1 pompilius:1 bc:2 remain:2 time:1 decemvirs:1 c:1 become:1 certain:1 interval:1 truncate:1 intercalary:1 intercalaris:2 insert:1 immediately:1 realign:1 season:1 reform:2 institute:1 abolish:1 occur:1 regularly:1 every:4 fourth:1 confusion:1 gain:1 thereafter:1 order:2 display:2 march:3 december:2 within:1 glance:1 even:1 middle:1 age:1 numbered:1 anno:1 domini:1 begin:1 continue:1 whenever:1 twelve:1 make:1 slight:1 change:2 system:1 determine:1 thus:1 contain:1 historical:2 include:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 solmonath:1 mud:1 kale:1 monath:1 cabbage:1 well:2 charlemagne:1 designation:1 hornung:1 finnish:1 call:1 helmikuu:1 pearl:2 snow:1 melt:1 tree:1 branch:1 form:1 droplet:1 freeze:1 like:1 ice:1 pronunciation:2 many:1 people:1 pronounce:2 ru:1 rather:1 roo:1 spell:1 febuary:1 come:2 analogy:1 end:2 uary:1 ruary:1 dissimilation:1 effect:1 whereby:1 r:1 close:1 cause:1 one:1 ease:1 scots:1 language:1 feberwary:1 februar:1 latter:1 usually:1 long:1 ay:1 vowel:1 first:2 syllable:1 pattern:2 start:3 week:2 november:1 august:1 pass:1 without:1 single:1 full:2 moon:1 also:2 six:2 twice:2 sunday:1 saturday:1 observe:2 trace:1 back:4 another:1 consecutively:1 either:1 forward:1 future:1 past:1 unless:1 break:1 skipped:1 skip:2 others:1 kind:1 would:2 thursday:1 cannot:1 happen:1 format:1 event:1 groundhog:1 united:3 state:3 canada:3 imbolc:1 national:1 foundation:1 japan:1 flag:1 president:1 third:1 monday:1 dominican:1 republic:1 independence:1 liberation:1 kuwait:1 exception:1 black:1 symbols:1 violet:2 birth:2 flower:2 primrose:1 gemstones:1 birthstone:1 amethyst:1 far:1 read:1 anthony:1 aveni:1 holiday:2 prediction:1 passionate:1 pursuit:1 book:1 brief:1 seasonal:1 oxford:2 university:1 press:1 reference:1 see:1 anniversary:1 external:1 link:1 straight:1 dope:1 x:1 люты:1 |@bigram julian_gregorian:1 gregorian_calendar:3 très_riches:1 riches_heures:1 heures_du:1 du_duc:1 numa_pompilius:1 intercalary_month:1 julian_calendar:1 anno_domini:1 anglo_saxon:1 dominican_republic:1 anthony_aveni:1 external_link:1 straight_dope:1 |
803 | Flip-flop_(electronics) | Flip-flop schematics from the Eccles and Jordan patent filed 1918, one drawn as a cascade of amplifiers with a positive feedback path, and the other as a symmetric cross-coupled pair In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a term referring to an electronic circuit (a bistable multivibrator) that has two stable states and thereby is capable of serving as one bit of memory. Today, the term flip-flop has come to mostly denote non-transparent (clocked or edge-triggered) devices, while the simpler transparent ones are often referred to as latches; however, as this distinction is quite new, the two words are sometimes used interchangeably (see history). A flip-flop is usually controlled by one or two control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The output often includes the complement as well as the normal output. As flip-flops are implemented electronically, they require power and ground connections. History The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1918 by William Eccles and F. W. Jordan. William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred Jordan, "Improvements in ionic relays" British patent number: GB 148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5 August 1920). Available on-line at: http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=GB148582&F=0&QPN=GB148582 . W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan (19 September 1919) "A trigger relay utilizing three-electrode thermionic vacuum tubes," The Electrician, vol. 83, page 298. Reprinted in: Radio Review, vol. 1, no. 3, pages 143–146 (December 1919). It was initially called the Eccles–Jordan trigger circuit and consisted of two active elements (radio-tubes). The name flip-flop was later derived from the sound produced on a speaker connected to one of the back coupled amplifiers outputs during the trigger process within the circuit (as such, it may be considered a case of onomatopoeia). This original electronic flip-flop—a simple two-input bistable circuit without any dedicated clock (or even gate) signal, was transparent, and thus a device that would be labeled as a "latch" in many circles today. The flip-flop types discussed below (D, RS, JK, T) were first discussed in a 1954 UCLA course on computer design by Montgomery Phister, and in his book Logical Design of Digital Computers. The author was at the time working at Hughes Aircraft under Dr. Eldred Nelson, who had coined the term JK for a flip-flop which changed states when both inputs were on. The other names were coined by Phister. They differ slightly from some of the definitions given below. The origin of the name for the JK flip-flop is detailed by P. L. Lindley, a JPL engineer, in a letter to EDN, an electronics design magazine. The letter is dated June 13, 1968, and was published in the August edition of the newsletter. In the letter, Mr. Lindley explains that he heard the story of the JK flip-flop from Dr. Eldred Nelson, who is responsible for coining the term while working at Hughes Aircraft. Flip-flops in use at Hughes at the time were all of the type that came to be known as J-K. In designing a logical system, Dr. Nelson assigned letters to flip-flop inputs as follows: #1: A & B, #2: C & D, #3: E & F, #4: G & H, #5: J & K. Implementation Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent) or clocked. Simple flip-flops can be built around a pair of cross-coupled inverting elements: vacuum tubes, bipolar transistors, field effect transistors, inverters, and inverting logic gates have all been used in practical circuits — perhaps augmented by some gating mechanism (an enable/disable input). The more advanced clocked (or non-transparent) devices are specially designed for synchronous (time-discrete) systems; such devices therefore ignore its inputs except at the transition of a dedicated clock signal (known as clocking, pulsing, or strobing). This causes the flip-flop to either change or retain its output signal based upon the values of the input signals at the transition. Some flip-flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, others on the falling edge. Clocked flip-flops are typically implemented as master-slave devices Early master-slave devices actually remained (half) open between the first and second edge of a clocking pulse; today most flip-flops are designed so they may be clocked by a single edge as this gives large benefits regarding noise immunity, without any significant downsides. where two basic flip-flops (plus some additional logic) collaborate to make it insensitive to spikes and noise between the short clock transitions; they nevertheless also often include asynchronous clear or set inputs which may be used to change the current output independent of the clock. Flip-flops can be further divided into types that have found common applicability in both asynchronous and clocked sequential systems: the SR ("set-reset"), D ("data" or "delay" PHY107 Delay Flip-Flop ), T ("toggle"), and JK types are the common ones; all of which may be synthesized from (most) other types by a few logic gates. The behavior of a particular type can be described by what is termed the characteristic equation, which derives the "next" (i.e., after the next clock pulse) output, , in terms of the input signal(s) and/or the current output, . Set–reset flip-flops (SR flip-flops) The symbol for an SR latch. The fundamental latch is the simple SR flip-flop , where S and R stand for set and reset respectively. It can be constructed from a pair of cross-coupled NAND or NOR logic gates . The stored bit is present on the output marked Q. Normally, in storage mode, the S and R inputs are both low, and feedback maintains the Q and Q outputs in a constant state, with Q the complement of Q. If S is pulsed high while R is held low, then the Q output is forced high, and stays high even after S returns low; similarly, if R is pulsed high while S is held low, then the Q output is forced low, and stays low even after R returns low. SR Flip-Flop operation (BUILT WITH NOR GATES) Characteristic table Excitation tableSR Action Q(t) Q(t+1) SR Action00 Keep state 000XNo change01Q = 00110reset10Q = 11001set11Unstable combination,see race condition11X0No change ('X' denotes a Don't care condition; meaning the signal is irrelevant) Toggle flip-flops (T flip-flops) A circuit symbol for a T-type flip-flop, where > is the clock input, T is the toggle input and Q is the stored data output. If the T input is high, the T flip-flop changes state ("toggles") whenever the clock input is strobed. If the T input is low, the flip-flop holds the previous value. This behavior is described by the characteristic equation: (or, without benefit of the XOR operator, the equivalent: ) and can be described in a truth table: T Flip-Flop operation Characteristic table Excitation table Comment Comment 0 0 0 hold state(no clk)000No change 0 1 1 hold state(no clk)110No change 1 0 1 toggle011Complement 1 1 0 toggle101Complement When T is held high, the toggle flip-flop divides the clock frequency by two; that is, if clock frequency is 4 MHz, the output frequency obtained from the flip-flop will be 2 MHz. This 'divide by' feature has application in various types of digital counters. A T flip-flop can also be built using a JK flip-flop (J & K pins are connected together and act as T) or D flip-flop (T input and Qprevious is connected to the D input through an XOR gate). JK flip-flop JK flip-flop timing diagram The JK flip-flop augments the behavior of the SR flip-flop (J=Set, K=Reset) by interpreting the S = R = 1 condition as a "flip" or toggle command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K = 0 does NOT result in a D flip-flop, but rather, will hold the current state. To synthesize a D flip-flop, simply set K equal to the complement of J. The JK flip-flop is therefore a universal flip-flop, because it can be configured to work as an SR flip-flop, a D flip-flop, or a T flip-flop. NOTE: The flip flop is positive edge triggered (Clock Pulse) as seen in the timing diagram. A circuit symbol for a JK flip-flop, where > is the clock input, J and K are data inputs, Q is the stored data output, and Q' is the inverse of Q. The characteristic equation of the JK flip-flop is: and the corresponding truth table is: JK Flip Flop operation Characteristic table Excitation tableJKQnext Comment Q Qnext J KComment 0 0 hold state000XNo change 0 1 reset011XSet 1 0 set10X1Reset 1 1 toggle11X0No change D flip-flop D flip-flop symbol The Q output always takes on the state of the D input at the moment of a rising clock edge (or falling edge if the clock input is active low). The D Flip-Flop It is called the D flip-flop for this reason, since the output takes the value of the D input or Data input, and Delays it by one clock count. The D flip-flop can be interpreted as a primitive memory cell, zero-order hold, or delay line. Truth table: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ||Clock||D||Q||Qprev |- ||Rising edge||0||0||X |- ||Rising edge||1||1||X |- ||Non-Rising||X||Qprev|| |} ('X' denotes a Don't care condition, meaning the signal is irrelevant) 3-bit shift register These flip flops are very useful, as they form the basis for shift registers, which are an essential part of many electronic devices. The advantage of the D flip-flop over the D-type latch is that it "captures" the signal at the moment the clock goes high, and subsequent changes of the data line do not influence Q until the next rising clock edge. An exception is that some flip-flops have a 'reset' signal input, which will reset Q (to zero), and may be either asynchronous or synchronous with the clock. The above circuit shifts the contents of the register to the right, one bit position on each active transition of the clock. The input X is shifted into the leftmost bit position. Master–slave (pulse-triggered) D flip-flop A master–slave D flip-flop is created by connecting two gated D latches in series, and inverting the enable input to one of them. It is called master–slave because the second latch in the series only changes in response to a change in the first (master) latch. The term pulse-triggered means that data are entered on the rising edge of the clock pulse, but the output doesn't reflect the change until the falling edge of the clock pulse. A master slave D flip flop. It responds on the negative edge of the enable input (usually a clock). For a positive-edge triggered master–slave D flip-flop, when the clock signal is low (logical 0) the “enable” seen by the first or “master” D latch (the inverted clock signal) is high (logical 1). This allows the “master” latch to store the input value when the clock signal transitions from low to high. As the clock signal goes high (0 to 1) the inverted “enable” of the first latch goes low (1 to 0) and the value seen at the input to the master latch is “locked”. Nearly simultaneously, the twice inverted “enable” of the second or “slave” D latch transitions from low to high (0 to 1) with the clock signal. This allows the signal captured at the rising edge of the clock by the now “locked” master latch to pass through the “slave” latch. When the clock signal returns to low (1 to 0), the output of the "slave" latch is "locked", and the value seen at the last rising edge of the clock is held while the “master” latch begins to accept new values in preparation for the next rising clock edge. An implementation of a master–slave D flip-flop that is triggered on the positive edge of the clock. By removing the left-most inverter in the above circuit, a D-type flip flop that strobes on the falling edge of a clock signal can be obtained. This has a truth table like this: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ||D||Q||>||Qnext |- ||0||X||Falling||0 |- ||1||X||Falling||1 |} Most D-type flip-flops in ICs have the capability to be set and reset, much like an SR flip-flop. Usually, the illegal S = R = 1 condition is resolved in D-type flip-flops. {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" width=150 !colspan=4|Inputs!!colspan=2|Outputs |- |S||R||D||>||Q||Q' |- ||0||1||X||X||0||1 |- ||1||0||X||X||1||0 |- ||1||1||X||X||1||1 |} By setting S = R = 0, the flip-flop can be used as described above. Edge-triggered D flip-flop A more efficient way to make a D flip-flop is not so easy to understand, but it works the same way. While the master–slave D flip flop is also triggered on the edge of a clock, its components are each triggered by clock levels. The "edge-triggered D flip flop" does not have the master slave properties. A positive-edge-triggered D flip-flop. Uses A single flip-flop can be used to store one bit, or binary digit, of data. See preset. Any one of the flip-flop types can be used to build any of the others. Many logic synthesis tools will not use any other type than D flip-flop and D latch. Level sensitive latches cause problems with Static Timing Analysis (STA) tools and Design For Test (DFT). Therefore, their usage is often discouraged. Many FPGA devices contain only edge-triggered D flip-flops The data contained in several flip-flops may represent the state of a sequencer, the value of a counter, an ASCII character in a computer's memory or any other piece of information. One use is to build finite state machines from electronic logic. The flip-flops remember the machine's previous state, and digital logic uses that state to calculate the next state. The T flip-flop is useful for constructing various types of counters. Repeated signals to the clock input will cause the flip-flop to change state once per high-to-low transition of the clock input, if its T input is "1". The output from one flip-flop can be fed to the clock input of a second and so on. The final output of the circuit, considered as the array of outputs of all the individual flip-flops, is a count, in binary, of the number of cycles of the first clock input, up to a maximum of 2n-1, where n is the number of flip-flops used. See: Counters One of the problems with such a counter (called a ripple counter) is that the output is briefly invalid as the changes ripple through the logic. There are two solutions to this problem. The first is to sample the output only when it is known to be valid. The second, more widely used, is to use a different type of circuit called a synchronous counter. This uses more complex logic to ensure that the outputs of the counter all change at the same, predictable time. See: Counters Frequency division: a chain of T flip-flops as described above will also function to divide an input in frequency by 2n, where n is the number of flip-flops used between the input and the output. A flip-flop in combination with a Schmitt trigger can be used for the implementation of an arbiter in asynchronous circuits. Clocked flip-flops are prone to a problem called metastability, which happens when a data or control input is changing at the instant of the clock pulse. The result is that the output may behave unpredictably, taking many times longer than normal to settle to its correct state, or even oscillating several times before settling. Theoretically it can take infinite time to settle down. In a computer system this can cause corruption of data or a program crash. Flip-flop setup, hold and clock-to-output timing parameters. The metastability in flip-flops can be avoided by ensuring that the data and control inputs are held valid and constant for specified periods before and after the clock pulse, called the setup time (tsu) and the hold time (th) respectively. These times are specified in the data sheet for the device, and are typically between a few nanoseconds and a few hundred picoseconds for modern devices. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to meet the setup and hold criteria, because the flip-flop may be connected to a real-time signal that could change at any time, outside the control of the designer. In this case, the best the designer can do is to reduce the probability of error to a certain level, depending on the required reliability of the circuit. One technique for suppressing metastability is to connect two or more flip-flops in a chain, so that the output of each one feeds the data input of the next, and all devices share a common clock. With this method, the probability of a metastable event can be reduced to a negligible value, but never to zero. The probability of metastability gets closer and closer to zero as the number of flip-flops connected in series is increased. So-called metastable-hardened flip-flops are available, which work by reducing the setup and hold times as much as possible, but even these cannot eliminate the problem entirely. This is because metastability is more than simply a matter of circuit design. When the transitions in the clock and the data are close together in time, the flip-flop is forced to decide which event happened first. However fast we make the device, there is always the possibility that the input events will be so close together that it cannot detect which one happened first. It is therefore logically impossible to build a perfectly metastable-proof flip-flop. Another important timing value for a flip-flop is the clock-to-output delay (common symbol in data sheets: tCO) or propagation delay (tP), which is the time the flip-flop takes to change its output after the clock edge. The time for a high-to-low transition (tPHL) is sometimes different from the time for a low-to-high transition (tPLH). When connecting flip-flops in a chain, it is important to ensure that the tCO of the first flip-flop is longer than the hold time (tH) of the second flip-flop, otherwise the second flip-flop will not receive the data reliably. The relationship between tCO and tH is normally guaranteed if both flip-flops are of the same type. Chaos Balthasar van der Pol was one of the first people to show electronic circuits may exhibit chaos in 1927, with the introduction of the Van der Pol oscillator. Then, Leon O. Chua showed circuits may exhibit chaos in 1983 through the introduction of Chua's circuit. Due to the qualitative nature of flip-flops, especially the Set/Reset Flip-Flop, one may intuitively feel it can exhibit chaos. This has been suggested in the works of Danca et al. Danca M-F. (2008). "Numerical approximation of a class of switch dynamical systems". Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 38: 184-191. and Hamill et al. Hamill D, Deane J, Jeffries D (1992). "Modeling of chaotic DC/DC converters by iterated nonlinear maps". IEEE Trans Power Electronics 7: 25-36. . Hamill et al.[9] discusses the qualitative nature of circuits: Voltages or currents may increase exponentially with time until limited, perhaps by power supply clipping, when the circuit may latch up. This type of instability is put to good use in circuits such as Schmitt triggers and flip-flops.[9] and The waveforms may be noise like or chaotic, in which case they never repeat or latch up; as yet this type of behavior has few applications and is the least well understood.[9] More recently in Blackmore et al. D. Blackmore, A. Rahman, J. Shah (2009). Chaos, Solitons and Fractals. doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2009.02.032 it is shown that discrete models of the Set/Reset Flip-Flop can exhibit chaos, which is done through Melnikov's Method. Flip-flop integrated circuits Integrated circuits (ICs) exist that provide one or more flip-flops. For example, the 7473 dual JK master–slave flip-flop, or the 74374 octal D flip-flop, in the 7400 series. See also Monostable Astable Pulse transition detector Deadlock Notes References (This paper explains the interdependence of setup time, hold time, and clock-to-q delay and shows how to use it for pessimism reduction in static timing analysis.) Ideal pulse circuit without RC-combination and non-clocked JK flip-flops (look discussion) | Flip-flop_(electronics) |@lemmatized flip:119 flop:118 schematic:1 eccles:5 jordan:5 patent:2 file:2 one:20 drawn:1 cascade:1 amplifier:2 positive:5 feedback:2 path:1 symmetric:1 cross:3 couple:4 pair:3 digital:4 circuit:24 term:7 refer:2 electronic:6 bistable:2 multivibrator:1 two:10 stable:1 state:16 thereby:1 capable:1 serve:1 bit:6 memory:3 today:3 come:2 mostly:1 denote:3 non:4 transparent:5 clock:55 edge:26 trigger:17 device:12 simpler:1 often:4 latch:21 however:2 distinction:1 quite:1 new:2 word:1 sometimes:2 use:20 interchangeably:1 see:10 history:2 usually:3 control:5 signal:21 gate:7 output:33 include:2 complement:4 well:2 normal:2 implement:2 electronically:1 require:1 power:3 ground:1 connection:1 first:12 invent:1 william:2 f:5 w:3 henry:1 frank:1 wilfred:1 improvement:1 ionic:1 relay:2 british:1 number:5 gb:1 june:2 publish:2 august:2 available:2 line:3 http:1 espacenet:1 com:1 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804 | Artistic_revolution | Throughout history, forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called artistic revolutions. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways. See also cultural movements. Artistic revolution and cultural/political revolutions The role of fine art has been to simultaneously express values of the current culture while also offering criticism, balance, or alternatives to any such values that are proving no longer useful. So as times change, art changes. If changes were abrupt they were deemed revolutions. The best artists have predated society's changes due not to any prescenience, but because sensitive perceptivity is part of their 'talent' of seeing. Artists have had to 'see' issues clearly in order to satisfy their current clients, yet not offend potential patrons. For example, paintings glorified aristocracy in the early 1600s when leadership was needed to nationalize small political groupings, but later as leadership became oppressive, satirization increased and subjects were less concerned with leaders and more with more common plights of mankind. Examples of revoutionary art in conjunction with cultural/political movements: Trotskyist & Diego Rivera Black Panther Party & Emory Douglas Cuban Poster art Social realism & Ben Shahn Feminist art & the Guerrilla Girls Industrial Workers of the World & Woody Guthrie Artistic revolution of style But not all artistic revolutions were political. Revolutions of style have also abruptly changed the art of a culture. For example, when the careful, even tedious, art techniques of French neo-classicism became oppressive to artists living in more exuberant times, a stylistic revolution known as "Impressionism" vitalized brush strokes and color. Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir burst onto the French culture, effecting a revolution with a style that has become commonplace today. An artistic revolution can be begun by a single artist, but unless that artist gains some understanding, he becomes an iconoclast. The first Abstract Expressionists were considered madmen to give up their brushes and rely on the sheer force of energy to leave an image, but then the import of atomic bombs, all atomic energy, became realized, and art found no better way of expressing its power. Jackson Pollock is the artist best known for starting that revolution. | Artistic_revolution |@lemmatized throughout:1 history:1 form:1 art:9 go:1 periodic:1 abrupt:2 change:6 call:1 artistic:5 revolution:11 movement:4 come:1 end:1 replace:1 new:1 markedly:1 different:1 strike:1 way:2 see:3 also:3 cultural:3 political:4 role:1 fine:1 simultaneously:1 express:2 value:2 current:2 culture:3 offer:1 criticism:1 balance:1 alternative:1 prove:1 longer:1 useful:1 time:2 deem:1 best:2 artist:6 predate:1 society:1 due:1 prescenience:1 sensitive:1 perceptivity:1 part:1 talent:1 issue:1 clearly:1 order:1 satisfy:1 client:1 yet:1 offend:1 potential:1 patron:1 example:3 painting:1 glorify:1 aristocracy:1 early:1 leadership:2 need:1 nationalize:1 small:1 grouping:1 later:1 become:5 oppressive:2 satirization:1 increase:1 subject:1 less:1 concerned:1 leader:1 common:1 plight:1 mankind:1 revoutionary:1 conjunction:1 trotskyist:1 diego:1 rivera:1 black:1 panther:1 party:1 emory:1 douglas:1 cuban:1 poster:1 social:1 realism:1 ben:1 shahn:1 feminist:1 guerrilla:1 girl:1 industrial:1 worker:1 world:1 woody:1 guthrie:1 style:3 abruptly:1 careful:1 even:1 tedious:1 technique:1 french:2 neo:1 classicism:1 live:1 exuberant:1 stylistic:1 know:2 impressionism:1 vitalize:1 brush:2 stroke:1 color:1 edgar:1 degas:1 claude:1 monet:1 pierre:1 auguste:1 renoir:1 burst:1 onto:1 effect:1 commonplace:1 today:1 begin:1 single:1 unless:1 gain:1 understanding:1 iconoclast:1 first:1 abstract:1 expressionist:1 consider:1 madman:1 give:1 rely:1 sheer:1 force:1 energy:2 leave:1 image:1 import:1 atomic:2 bomb:1 realize:1 find:1 good:1 power:1 jackson:1 pollock:1 start:1 |@bigram diego_rivera:1 ben_shahn:1 woody_guthrie:1 neo_classicism:1 edgar_degas:1 claude_monet:1 pierre_auguste:1 auguste_renoir:1 abstract_expressionist:1 atomic_bomb:1 jackson_pollock:1 |
805 | Geography_of_Iraq | Overview map of Iraq Topography of Iraq The geography of Iraq is diverse and falls into four main regions: the desert (west of the Euphrates River), the island plateau (between the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers), the northern highlands of Iraqi Kurdistan, and the alluvial plain or el-'Iraq arabi at the head of the Persian Gulf. The mountains in the northeast are an extension of the alpine system that runs eastward from the Balkans through southern Turkey, northern Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan, eventually reaching the Himalayas. The desert is in the southwest and central provinces along the borders with Saudi Arabia and Jordan and geographically belongs with the Arabian Peninsula. Iraq holds a special distinction in the history of geography: a clay tablet generally accepted as "the earliest known map" was unearthed in 1930 during the excavation of Ga-Sur at Nuzi Yorghan Tepe, near the towns of Harran and Kirkuk, 200 miles north of the site of Babylon. The tablet, measuring 6.8 x 7.6, is usually dated from the dynasty of Sargon of Akkad between 2,300-2,500 BC; an even earlier date for the tablet was promulgated by archeologist Leo Bagrow Encyclopedia Britannica: Maps and geography in the ancient world , placing it in the Agade Period (3,800 BC). Major geographical features Most geographers, including those of the Iraqi government, discuss the country's geography in terms of four main zones or regions: the desert in the west and southwest; the rolling upland between the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in Arabic the Dijlis and Furat, respectively); the highlands in the north and northeast; and the alluvial plain through which the Tigris and Euphrates flow. Iraq's official statistical reports give the total land area as 438,446 km² (169,285 mi²), whereas a United States Department of State publication gives the area as 434,934 km² (167,929 mi²). Desert The desert zone, an area lying west and southwest of the Euphrates River, is a part of the Syrian Desert, which covers sections of Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The region, sparsely inhabited by pastoral nomads, consists of a wide, stony plain interspersed with rare sandy stretches. A widely ramified pattern of wadis - watercourses that are dry most of the year - runs from the border to the Euphrates. Some wadis are over 400 km (250 mi) long and carry brief but torrential floods during the winter rains. Upper Mesopotamia The uplands region, between the Tigris north of Samarra and the Euphrates north of Hit, is known as Al Jazira (the island) and is part of a larger area that extends westward into Syria between the two rivers and into Turkey. Water in the area flows in deeply cut valleys, and irrigation is much more difficult than it is in the lower plain. Much of this zone may be classified as desert. Highlands The northeastern highlands begin just south of a line drawn from Mosul to Kirkuk and extend to the borders with Turkey and Iran. High ground, separated by broad, undulating steppes, gives way to mountains ranging from 1,000 to nearly 4,000 meters (3,300 to 13,100 ft) near the Iranian and Turkish borders. Except for a few valleys, the mountain area proper is suitable only for grazing in the foothills and steppes; adequate soil and rainfall, however, make cultivation possible. Here, too, are the great oil fields near Mosul and Kirkuk. The northeast is the homeland of most Iraqi Kurds. Alluvial plain An alluvial plain begins north of Baghdad and extends to the Persian Gulf. Here the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lie above the level of the plain in many places, and the whole area is a river delta interlaced by the channels of the two rivers and by irrigation canals. Intermittent lakes, fed by the rivers in flood, also characterize southeastern Iraq. A fairly large area (15,000 km² or 5,800 mi²) just above the confluence of the two rivers at Al Qurnah and extending east of the Tigris beyond the Iranian border is marshland, known as Hawr al Hammar, the result of centuries of flooding and inadequate drainage. Much of it is permanent marsh, but some parts dry out in early winter, and other parts become marshland only in years of great flood. Because the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates above their confluence are heavily silt- laden, irrigation and fairly frequent flooding deposit large quantities of silty loam in much of the delta area. Windborne silt contributes to the total deposit of sediments. It has been estimated that the delta plains are built up at the rate of nearly twenty centimeters in a century. In some areas, major floods lead to the deposit in temporary lakes of as much as thirty centimeters of mud. The Tigris and Euphrates also carry large quantities of salts. These, too, are spread on the land by sometimes excessive irrigation and flooding. A high water table and poor surface and subsurface drainage tend to concentrate the salts near the surface of the soil. In general, the salinity of the soil increases from Baghdad south to the Persian Gulf and severely limits productivity in the region south of Al Amarah. The salinity is reflected in the large lake in central Iraq, southwest of Baghdad, known as Bahr al Milh (Sea of Salt). There are two other major lakes in the country to the north of Bahr al Milh: Buhayrat ath Tharthar and Buhayrat al Habbaniyah. Tigris-Euphrates river system The Euphrates originates in Turkey, is augmented by the Nahr al Khabur in Syria ("nahr" means river in Arabic), and enters Iraq in the northwest. Here it is fed only by the wadis of the western desert during the winter rains. It then winds through a gorge, which varies from two to sixteen kilometers in width, until it flows out on the plain at Ar Ramadi. Beyond there the Euphrates continues to the Hindiyah Barrage, which was constructed in 1914 to divert the river into the Hindiyah Channel; the present day Shatt al Hillah had been the main channel of the Euphrates before 1914. Below Al Kifl, the river follows two channels to As-Samawah, where it reappears as a single channel to join the Tigris at Al Qurnah. The Tigris also rises in Turkey but is significantly augmented by several rivers in Iraq, the most important of which are the Khabur, the Great Zab, the Little Zab, and the Uzaym, all of which join the Tigris above Baghdad, and the Diyala, which joins it about thirty-six kilometers below the city. At the Kut Barrage much of the water is diverted into the Shatt al Gharraf, which was once the main channel of the Tigris. Water from the Tigris thus enters the Euphrates through the Shatt al Gharraf well above the confluence of the two main channels at Al Qurnah. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates break into a number of channels in the marshland area, and the flow of the rivers is substantially reduced by the time they come together at Al Qurnah. Moreover, the swamps act as silt traps, and the Shatt al Arab is relatively silt free as it flows south. Below Basra, however, the Karun River enters the Shatt al Arab from Iran, carrying large quantities of silt that present a continuous dredging problem in maintaining a channel for ocean-going vessels to reach the port at Basra. This problem has been superseded by a greater obstacle to river traffic, however, namely the presence of several sunken hulls that have been rusting in the Shatt al Arab since early in the Iran-Iraq war. The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates are essential to the life of the country, but they sometimes threaten it. The rivers are at their lowest level in September and October and at flood in March, April, and May when they may carry forty times as much water as at low mark. Moreover, one season's flood may be ten or more times as great as that in another year. In 1954, for example, Baghdad was seriously threatened, and dikes protecting it were nearly topped by the flooding Tigris. Since Syria built a dam on the Euphrates, the flow of water has been considerably diminished and flooding was no longer a problem in the mid-1980s. In 1988 Turkey was also constructing a dam on the Euphrates that would further restrict the water flow. Until the mid-twentieth century, most efforts to control the waters were primarily concerned with irrigation. Some attention was given to problems of flood control and drainage before the revolution of July 14, 1958, but development plans in the 1960s and 1970s were increasingly devoted to these matters, as well as to irrigation projects on the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates and the tributaries of the Tigris in the northeast. During the war, government officials stressed to foreign visitors that, with the conclusion of a peace settlement, problems of irrigation and flooding would receive top priority from the government. Settlement patterns In the rural areas of the alluvial plain and in the lower Diyala region, settlement almost invariably clusters near the rivers, streams, and irrigation canals. The bases of the relationship between watercourse and settlement have been summarized by Robert McCormick Adams, director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. He notes that the levees laid down by streams and canals provide advantages for both settlement and agriculture. Surface water drains more easily on the levees' backslope, and the coarse soils of the levees are easier to cultivate and permit better subsurface drainage. The height of the levees gives some protection against floods and the frost that often affect low-lying areas and may kill winter crops. Above all, those living or cultivating on the crest of a levee have easy access to water for irrigation and household use in a dry, hot country. Although there are some isolated homesteads, most rural communities are nucleated settlements rather than dispersed farmsteads; that is, the farmer leaves his village to cultivate the fields outside it. The pattern holds for farming communities in the Kurdish highlands of the northeast as well as for those in the alluvial plain. The size of the settlement varies, generally with the volume of water available for household use and with the amount of land accessible to village dwellers. Sometimes, particularly in the lower Tigris and Euphrates valleys, soil salinity restricts the area of arable land and limits the size of the community dependent on it, and it also usually results in large unsettled and uncultivated stretches between the villages. Fragmentary information suggests that most farmers in the alluvial plain tend to live in villages of over 100 persons. For example, in the mid-1970s a substantial number of the residents of Baqubah, the administrative center and major city of Diyala Governorate, were employed in agriculture. The Marsh Arabs (the Madan) of the south usually live in small clusters of two or three houses kept above water by rushes that are constantly being replenished. Such clusters often are close together, but access from one to another is possible only by small boat. Here and there a few natural islands permit slightly larger clusters. Some of these people are primarily water buffalo herders and lead a semi-nomadic life. In the winter, when the waters are at a low point, they build fairly large temporary villages. In the summer they move their herds out of the marshes to the river banks. The war has had its effect on the lives of these denizens of the marshes. With much of the fighting concentrated in their areas, they have either migrated to settled communities away from the marshes or have been forced by government decree to relocate within the marshes. Also, in early 1988, the marshes had become the refuge of deserters from the Iraqi army who attempted to maintain life in the fastness of the overgrown, desolate areas while hiding out from the authorities. These deserters in many instances have formed into large gangs that raid the marsh communities; this also has induced many of the marsh dwellers to abandon their villages. The war has also affected settlement patterns in the northern Kurdish areas. There, the persistence of a stubborn rebellion by Kurdish guerrillas has goaded the government into applying steadily escalating violence against the local communities. Starting in 1984, the government launched a scorched-earth campaign to drive a wedge between the villagers and the guerrillas in the remote areas of two provinces of Kurdistan in which Kurdish guerrillas were active. In the process whole villages were torched and subsequently bulldozed, which resulted in the Kurds flocking into the regional centers of Irbil and As Sulaymaniyah. Also as a military precaution, the government has cleared a broad strip of territory in the Kurdish region along the Iranian border of all its inhabitants, hoping in this way to interdict the movement of Kurdish guerrillas back and forth between Iran and Iraq. The majority of Kurdish villages, however, remained intact in early 1988. In the arid areas of Iraq to the west and south, cities and large towns are almost invariably situated on watercourses, usually on the major rivers or their larger tributaries. In the south this dependence has had its disadvantages. Until the recent development of flood control, Baghdad and other cities were subject to the threat of inundation. Moreover, the dikes needed for protection have effectively prevented the expansion of the urban areas in some directions. The growth of Baghdad, for example, was restricted by dikes on its eastern edge. The diversion of water to the Milhat ath Tharthar and the construction of a canal transferring water from the Tigris north of Baghdad to the Diyala River have permitted the irrigation of land outside the limits of the dikes and the expansion of settlement. Climate Dust storms in Iraq, September 2000 Average temperatures in Iraq range from higher than 48 °C (120 °F) in July and August to below freezing in January. Most of the rainfall occurs from December through April and averages between 100 and 180 millimeters (4 to 7 in) annually. The mountainous region of northern Iraq receives appreciably more precipitation than the central or southern desert region. Roughly 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between November and April, most of it in the winter months from December through March. The remaining six months, particularly the hottest ones of June, July, and August, are dry. Except in the north and northeast, mean annual rainfall ranges between 10 and 17 centimeters (4-6.7 in). Data available from stations in the foothills and steppes south and southwest of the mountains suggest mean annual rainfall between 32 and 57 centimeters (12.6-22.4 in) for that area. Rainfall in the mountains is more abundant and may reach 100 centimeters (39.4 in) a year in some places, but the terrain precludes extensive cultivation. Cultivation on nonirrigated land is limited essentially to the mountain valleys, foothills, and steppes, which have 30 centimeters (12 in) or more of rainfall annually. Even in this zone, however, only one crop a year can be grown, and shortages of rain have often led to crop failures. Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing (just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the western desert to 2 to 3 °C (36 37 °F) and 4 to 5 °C (39 to 41 °F) in the alluvial plains of southern Iraq. They rise to a mean maximum of about 16 °C (60 °F) in the western desert and the northeast, and 17 °C (62 °F) in the south. In the summer mean minimum temperatures range from about 22 °C to about 29 °C (72 to 84°F) and rise to maximums between roughly 38 and 43 °C (100 to 110 °F). Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and have fallen as low as -14 °C (6 °F) at Ar Rutbah in the western desert. They are more likely, however, to go over 46 °C (115 °F) in the summer months, and several stations have records of over 48 °C (118 °F). The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena. The southern and southeasterly sharqi, a dry, dusty wind with occasional gusts of 80 kilometers an hour (50 mph), occurs from April to early June and again from late September through November. It may last for a day at the beginning and end of the season but for several days at other times. This wind is often accompanied by violent duststorms that may rise to heights of several thousand meters and close airports for brief periods. From mid-June to mid-September the prevailing wind, called the shamal, is from the north and northwest. It is a steady wind, absent only occasionally during this period. The very dry air brought by this shamal permits intensive sun heating of the land surface, but the breeze has some cooling effect. The combination of rain shortage and extreme heat makes much of Iraq a desert. Because of very high rates of evaporation, soil and plants rapidly lose the little moisture obtained from the rain, and vegetation could not survive without extensive irrigation. Some areas, however, although arid, do have natural vegetation in contrast to the desert. For example, in the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq there is permanent vegetation, such as oak trees, and date palms are found in the south. Area and boundaries In 1922 British officials concluded the Treaty of Mohammara with Abd al Aziz ibn Abd ar Rahman Al Saud, who in 1932 formed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The treaty provided the basic agreement for the boundary between the eventually independent nations. Also in 1922 the two parties agreed to the creation of the diamond-shaped Neutral Zone of approximately 7,500 km² (2,900 mi²) adjacent to the western tip of Kuwait in which neither Iraq nor Saudi Arabia would build permanent dwellings or installations. Bedouins from either country could utilize the limited water and seasonal grazing resources of the zone. In April 1975, an agreement signed in Baghdad fixed the borders of the countries. Through Algerian mediation, Iran and Iraq agreed in March 1975 to normalize their relations, and three months later they signed a treaty known as the Algiers Accord. The document defined the common border all along the Khawr Abd Allah (Shatt) River estuary as the thalweg. To compensate Iraq for the loss of what formerly had been regarded as its territory, pockets of territory along the mountain border in the central sector of its common boundary with Iran were assigned to it. Nonetheless, in September 1980 Iraq went to war with Iran, citing among other complaints the fact that Iran had not turned over to it the land specified in the Algiers Accord. This problem has subsequently proved to be a stumbling block to a negotiated settlement of the ongoing conflict. In 1988 the boundary with Kuwait was another outstanding problem. It was fixed in a 1913 treaty between the Ottoman Empire and British officials acting on behalf of Kuwait's ruling family, which in 1899 had ceded control over foreign affairs to Britain. The boundary was accepted by Iraq when it became independent in 1932, but in the 1960s and again in the mid-1970s, the Iraqi government advanced a claim to parts of Kuwait. Kuwait made several representations to the Iraqis during the war to fix the border once and for all but Baghdad repeatedly demurred, claiming that the issue is a potentially divisive one that could inflame nationalist sentiment inside Iraq. Hence in 1988 it was likely that a solution would have to wait until the war ended. Area: total: 437,072 km² (168,754 mi²) land: 432,162 km² (166,859 mi²) water: 4,910 km² (1,896 mi²) Land boundaries: total: 3,631 km (2,256 mi) border countries: Iran 1,458 km (906 mi), Saudi Arabia 814 km (506 mi), Syria 605 km (376 mi), Turkey 331 km (206 mi), Kuwait 242 km (150 mi), Jordan 181 km(112 mi) Coastline: 58 km (36 mi) Maritime claims: continental shelf: not specified territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m highest point: Cheekah Dar 3,611 m/11,847 ft (not Haji Ibrahim – 3,600 m/11,811 ft) Resources and land use Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, sulfur Land use: arable land: 12% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 9% forests and woodland: 0% other: 79% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 25,500 km² or 9,850 sq. mi (1993 est.) While its proven oil reserves of 112 billion barrels ranks Iraq second in the world behind Saudi Arabia, the United States Department of Energy estimates that up to 90 percent of the country remains unexplored. Unexplored regions of Iraq could yield an additional 100 billion barrels. Iraq's oil production costs are among the lowest in the world. However, only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared to about 1 million wells in Texas alone. US Department of Energy Information - Assessment of Iraqi Petroleum Assets Environmental concerns Natural hazards: dust storms, sandstorms, floods Environment - current issues: government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Shi'a Muslims, who have inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (salination) and erosion; and desertification. Environment - international agreements: party to: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification Major ecoregions : PA1303 | PA1320 Minor ecoregions : PA0446 | PA1320 | PA0812 | PA1207 | PA1305 | PA1328 | PA0906 | PA1325 | PA1323 References | Geography_of_Iraq |@lemmatized overview:1 map:3 iraq:30 topography:1 geography:4 diverse:1 fall:3 four:2 main:5 region:10 desert:14 west:4 euphrates:22 river:26 island:3 plateau:1 upper:4 tigris:22 northern:5 highland:3 iraqi:7 kurdistan:2 alluvial:8 plain:13 el:1 arabi:1 head:1 persian:4 gulf:4 mountain:7 northeast:7 extension:1 alpine:1 system:3 run:2 eastward:1 balkan:1 southern:4 turkey:8 iran:10 afghanistan:1 eventually:2 reach:4 himalaya:1 southwest:5 central:4 province:2 along:4 border:11 saudi:6 arabia:6 jordan:3 geographically:1 belongs:1 arabian:1 peninsula:1 hold:2 special:1 distinction:1 history:1 clay:1 tablet:3 generally:2 accept:2 early:7 know:5 unearth:1 excavation:1 ga:1 sur:1 nuzi:1 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806 | Johann_Tetzel | Johann Tetzel (1465 – 11 August 1519) was a German Dominican preacher remembered for selling indulgences and for a couplet attributed to him, "As soon as a coin in the coffer rings / the soul from purgatory springs." CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Johann Tetzel In 1517, Tetzel was trying to raise money for the ongoing reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica and it is believed that Martin Luther was inspired to write his Ninety-Five Theses, in part, due to Tetzel's actions during this period of time. "Johann Tetzel" Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911 Edition. Retrieved Jan. 26, 2007 Tetzel was born in Pirna, Saxony, and studied theology and philosophy at the university of his native city. He entered the Dominican order in 1489, achieved some success as a preacher, and was in 1502 commissioned by the pope to preach the jubilee indulgence, which he did throughout his life. In 1509 he was made an inquisitor, and in 1517 Pope Leo X made him commissioner of indulgences for all Germany. He acquired the degree of Licentiate of Sacred Theology in the University of Frankfurt an der Oder, 1517, and that of Doctor of Sacred Theology, 1518, by defending, in two disputations, the doctrine of indulgences against Luther. The accusation that he sold full forgiveness for sins not yet committed, caused great scandal; Martin Luther considered his actions evil, and began to preach openly against him. He was also condemned (though later pardoned) for immorality. It became necessary to disavow Tetzel and, when he discovered that Karl von Miltitz had accused him of perpetrating numerous frauds and embezzlements, he withdrew, broken in spirit, wrecked in health, into the Dominican monastery in Leipzig. Miltitz was later discredited to the point his claims carry no historical weight. Tetzel died in Leipzig in 1519. At the time of his death, Tetzel had fallen into disrepute and was shunned by the public. On his deathbed, Tetzel received a magnanimously penned correspondence from Martin Luther, stating that the child (i.e. the scandal) had a different father. Ganss, Henry. "Johann Tetzel." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company References | Johann_Tetzel |@lemmatized johann:4 tetzel:11 august:1 german:1 dominican:3 preacher:2 remember:1 sell:2 indulgence:4 couplet:1 attribute:1 soon:1 coin:1 coffer:1 ring:1 soul:1 purgatory:1 spring:1 catholic:2 encyclopedia:3 try:1 raise:1 money:1 ongoing:1 reconstruction:1 st:1 peter:1 basilica:1 believe:1 martin:3 luther:4 inspire:1 write:1 ninety:1 five:1 thesis:1 part:1 due:1 action:2 period:1 time:2 britannica:1 edition:1 retrieve:1 jan:1 bear:1 pirna:1 saxony:1 study:1 theology:3 philosophy:1 university:2 native:1 city:1 enter:1 order:1 achieve:1 success:1 commission:1 pope:2 preach:2 jubilee:1 throughout:1 life:1 make:2 inquisitor:1 leo:1 x:1 commissioner:1 germany:1 acquire:1 degree:1 licentiate:1 sacred:2 frankfurt:1 der:1 oder:1 doctor:1 defend:1 two:1 disputation:1 doctrine:1 accusation:1 full:1 forgiveness:1 sin:1 yet:1 commit:1 cause:1 great:1 scandal:2 consider:1 evil:1 begin:1 openly:1 also:1 condemn:1 though:1 later:2 pardon:1 immorality:1 become:1 necessary:1 disavow:1 discover:1 karl:1 von:1 miltitz:2 accuse:1 perpetrate:1 numerous:1 fraud:1 embezzlement:1 withdraw:1 break:1 spirit:1 wreck:1 health:1 monastery:1 leipzig:2 discredit:1 point:1 claim:1 carry:1 historical:1 weight:1 die:1 death:1 fall:1 disrepute:1 shun:1 public:1 deathbed:1 receive:1 magnanimously:1 pen:1 correspondence:1 state:1 child:1 e:1 different:1 father:1 ganss:1 henry:1 vol:1 new:1 york:1 robert:1 appleton:1 company:1 reference:1 |@bigram martin_luther:3 encyclopedia_britannica:1 pope_leo:1 forgiveness_sin:1 robert_appleton:1 |
807 | Communications_in_Gibraltar | Communications in Gibraltar. Telecommunications History Site of the first telephone exchange in City Mill Lane. The first telephones were introduced in 1886 by a private company which was later taken over by the Government of Gibraltar and until 1990, all telephone services were operated by the Telephone Department. International circuits were provided by Cable & Wireless originally founded as the Falmouth, Gibraltar and Malta Cable Company, in 1869. This later operated as the Eastern Telegraph Company from Mount Pleasant, Gibraltar. In 1990, the Government entered into two joint ventures with Nynex of the United States, and BT in the United Kingdom. Gibraltar Nynex Communications (GNC) became responsible for fixed line telephony, and international calls to Spain, while Gibtel (partly owned by BT) became responsible for all other international calls and mobile telephone services. In 2002, BT sold its 50% stake in Gibtel, which merged with GNC to form Gibtelecom, a joint venture between the Government of Gibraltar and Nynex's successor company, Verizon. In April 2007, Verizon sold its shares to Slovenia telecom. Infrastructure Telephones - Numbers in use: 25,000 (2006) Telephones - mobile cellular: 15,000 (2006) The telecommunications infrastructure in Gibraltar is modelled on that of the UK; for example; the ringing tone of fixed telephone lines is identical to that of the UK, although that of mobile phones may resemble that of mainland Europe, with long tones. Telephone jacks are also British Standard BS 6312, as opposed to the RJ11 versions found in other parts of Europe and the world. In the past, it was a popular cliché with travel writers that Gibraltar still had traditional red British-style telephone boxes when there were just a few original ones in service. However, new ones have recently been imported which along with policemen with helmets, seem popular with tourists. Telecom dispute Calling code: +350 Telecommunication services in Gibraltar were subject to Spanish restrictions until February 10 2007. Subsequent to the resolution of the dispute, the Gibraltar telephone numbering plan has been increased to eight digits for land lines, adding a prefix of 200 to the existing Gibtelecom five digit numbers which is required to be dialled from October 2008. Gibtelecom was also prevented from having roaming agreements with Spanish GSM (Global System for Mobile communications)networks so its mobile phones did not operate in Spain. Gibtelecom had roaming arrangements with local GSM networks in most other countries. After the Córdoba Agreement, Gibtel (Gibtelecom's mobile service) could roam on Spanish network Movistar (Telefonica). As of recent customers can now roam on Vodafone and Yoigo. Orange still (September 2008) identifies as AMENA and does not allow Gibraltar phones to register. Fixed Line Services In the 1980s there was a shortage of local line capacity on the existing crossbar exchange, which itself had replaced the relay and Strowger switch exchanges and a modern digital System/X switch was installed. Cable and Wireless, who provided international circuits installed a satellite earth station which made International Subscriber Dialling possible. When the frontier with Spain was re-opened, telephone and telex circuits cut by General Franco were re-established. Subsequently fibre links into the FLAG cable were established and along with microwave links to Morocco giving Gibraltar a resilient communications infrastructure. Provision for Local Loop Unbundling was introduced in Gibraltar, under the 2006 Communications Act, similar to the UK's 2003 Communications Act. Earlier in December 2005, the European Commission initiated the second stage of infringement proceedings against the British Government relating to Gibraltar’s failure to transpose five European Union directives on electronic communications, but these were closed after the relevant legislation was passed into law by the House of Assembly in June 2006 EC Pressures UK Over Gibraltar's Failure To Transpose Telecom Laws . Gibtelecom numbers are now eight digits beginning with 200 and a second operator CTS Gibraltar Limited has announced it will be providing fixed line services beginning with the prefix 216. Mobile Network GSM Network Identifier : GIBTEL Gibraltar Telecommunications International Limited (Gibtel) introduced mobile phones to Gibraltar with a GSM900 network. Mobile phone technology is constantly advancing and the current operator Gibtelecom has kept pace with developments including the advent of data access via mobile phones. The company’s GBP £1.5 million deal with Ericsson was heralded as “opening up a new era for mobile telephony in Gibraltar”. The new General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) network installed by the Scandinavian company allows faster and permanent connectivity for all mobile users, as well as providing high-speed picture and video messaging for owners of the new range of multi-purpose hand-sets Gibwireless . Broadcasting Television Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus three low-power repeaters) (2002) Television Licences: 7,452 (2002) Requirement abolished (2007). GBC Television is operated by the Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) is transmitted on VHF Channel 12 with UHF repeaters on 56 and 53. Until 1999, GBC retransmitted BBC Prime, but was relaunched as a community-based service focusing on local news and other items of local interest. GBC programming starts at around 19:30 and finishes before midnight with the most popular programme being the local news bulletin, News Watch at 20:30. During the day fillers and the sound of GBC radio are transmitted. The station was funded by a mix of advertising, government funding, and an annual television licence fee. In June 2006, the licence was abolished by the Government. The majority of homes also have access to satellite television with mostly United Kingdom channels. Gibraltar also receives Spanish national television and radio stations, as well as Spanish regional (from Andalusia) and local stations (from the Campo de Gibraltar area). Radio Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 0, Internet 1 (2005) Radios: 37,000 (1997) - Radio licences now discontinued The Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) operates Radio Gibraltar on both FM and AM, broadcasting a mix of local programming in English and Spanish, and retransmissions of the BBC World Service. In December 2005, GBC started internet streaming of its radio service which, along with an up-to-date programme guide for GBC television and radio, can be found on the website. The British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) operates two radio stations on FM, BFBS1 and BFBS2 and a private cable television network. BFBS1 and 2 are also available on the Internet streamed from the UK. Amateur Radio Callsigns: ZB0x (VHF only), ZB2xx (Full), ZB3x (novice) + special event stations Amateur Radio started in Gibraltar shortly after the Second World War. The Gibraltar Amateur Radio Society (GARS) is a small but active society representing the interests of Amateur Radio both locally and internationally as a full International Amateur Radio Union (IARU) member society. Each year for Gibraltar National Week amateur radio operators can use the ZG prefix instead of ZB. Special event stations are licensed by the GRA for example the Lighthouse Activity Weekend uses ZB2LGT. Internet Country code (Top-level domain): .gi Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 4 Gibnet Limited, a private company, began internet services in January 1996, with a 64kbs circuit to Spain. In 2005 it merged with Broadband Gibraltar Limited to form Sapphire Networks Limited. Sapphire have their own redundant fibre and microwave infrastructure into and around Gibraltar. Sapphire uses the Gibtelecom ADSL concentrator to reach customers that are outside their own network, and sells high Internet bandwidth services and internet connectivity competing directly with Gibtelecom. GNC Networks, a wholly owned subsidiary of Gibraltar Nynex Communications, commenced services in 1997. GNC Networks was renamed Gibconnect and the parent company became Gibraltar Telecommunications International Limited, which is referred to as Gibtelecom, in 2002. ADSL services were introduced in 2002, by 2005, there were several thousand users. The company is co-owned by the Government of Gibraltar and Slovenia Telecom. In 2000, the Gibraltar Regulatory Authority issued Ladbrokes, who then operated Gibraltar's biggest call centre, with a licence to establish their own internet services. Under this Advanced Business Communications (Europe) began operating on the rock. The company applied for a license in their own right. The GRA eventually denied ABC (Europe) a license. Ladbrokes scaled down their Gibraltar operations and their 'Internet permit' was not renewed. ABC ceased their Gibraltar operations in early 2002. Yachtconnect, A Wi-Fi operator provides a prepaid or subscription wireless internet service around the marinas. CTS Gibraltar Limited launched a WiMax service in 2008, competing against the established ADSL providers. Has now expanded into wired ADSL for nearby housing estates. Has also set up a rival GSM service. Printed media The Gibraltar Chronicle is the world's second oldest English language newspaper to have been in print continuously. Newspapers The largest and most frequently published newspaper is the Gibraltar Chronicle, Gibraltar’s oldest established daily newspaper and the world’s second oldest English language newspaper to have been in print continuously with daily editions six days a week. Panorama is published on weekdays, and Vox, 7 Days, The New People, and Gibsport are weekly. Other newspapers such as the weekly El Faro de Gibraltar, are published in Spanish. Magazines Gibraltar has two prominent monthly magazines; Insight and the Gibraltar Magazine. References External links Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (Internet-streamed radio) BFBS Radio in Gibraltar Gibraltar Regulatory Authority Gibtelecom Sapphire Networks Amateur Radio in Gibraltar See also Gibraltar telecom dispute | Communications_in_Gibraltar |@lemmatized communication:9 gibraltar:48 telecommunication:5 history:1 site:1 first:2 telephone:12 exchange:3 city:1 mill:1 lane:1 introduce:4 private:3 company:10 later:2 take:1 government:7 service:21 operate:8 department:1 international:8 circuit:4 provide:5 cable:5 wireless:3 originally:1 found:1 falmouth:1 malta:1 eastern:1 telegraph:1 mount:1 pleasant:1 enter:1 two:3 joint:2 venture:2 nynex:4 united:3 state:1 bt:3 kingdom:2 gnc:4 become:3 responsible:2 fixed:1 line:6 telephony:2 call:4 spain:4 gibtel:5 partly:1 mobile:12 sell:3 stake:1 merge:2 form:2 gibtelecom:11 successor:1 verizon:2 april:1 share:1 slovenia:2 telecom:5 infrastructure:4 number:3 use:4 cellular:1 model:1 uk:5 example:2 ring:1 tone:2 fix:3 identical:1 although:1 phone:6 may:1 resemble:1 mainland:1 europe:4 long:1 jack:1 also:7 british:4 standard:1 b:1 oppose:1 version:1 find:2 part:1 world:5 past:1 popular:3 cliché:1 travel:1 writer:1 still:2 traditional:1 red:1 style:1 box:1 original:1 one:2 however:1 new:5 recently:1 import:1 along:3 policeman:1 helmet:1 seem:1 tourist:1 dispute:3 code:2 subject:1 spanish:7 restriction:1 february:1 subsequent:1 resolution:1 numbering:1 plan:1 increase:1 eight:2 digit:3 land:1 add:1 prefix:3 exist:2 five:2 require:1 dial:2 october:1 prevent:1 roam:4 agreement:2 gsm:4 global:1 system:2 network:13 arrangement:1 local:8 country:2 córdoba:1 could:1 movistar:1 telefonica:1 recent:1 customer:2 vodafone:1 yoigo:1 orange:1 september:1 identifies:1 amena:1 allow:2 register:1 shortage:1 capacity:1 crossbar:1 replace:1 relay:1 strowger:1 switch:2 modern:1 digital:1 x:1 instal:3 satellite:2 earth:1 station:9 make:1 subscriber:1 possible:1 frontier:1 open:2 telex:1 cut:1 general:2 franco:1 establish:5 subsequently:1 fibre:2 link:3 flag:1 microwave:2 morocco:1 give:1 resilient:1 provision:1 loop:1 unbundling:1 act:2 similar:1 earlier:1 december:2 european:2 commission:1 initiate:1 second:5 stage:1 infringement:1 proceeding:1 relate:1 failure:2 transpose:2 union:2 directive:1 electronic:1 close:1 relevant:1 legislation:1 pass:1 law:2 house:1 assembly:1 june:2 ec:1 pressure:1 begin:4 operator:4 ct:2 limit:5 announce:1 identifier:1 limited:2 technology:1 constantly:1 advance:1 current:1 keep:1 pace:1 development:1 include:1 advent:1 data:1 access:2 via:1 gbp:1 million:1 deal:1 ericsson:1 herald:1 era:1 packet:1 radio:20 gprs:1 scandinavian:1 faster:1 permanent:1 connectivity:2 user:2 well:2 high:2 speed:1 picture:1 video:1 messaging:1 owner:1 range:1 multi:1 purpose:1 hand:1 set:2 gibwireless:1 broadcast:8 television:9 plus:1 three:1 low:1 power:1 repeater:2 licence:5 requirement:1 abolish:2 gbc:8 corporation:3 transmit:2 vhf:2 channel:2 uhf:1 retransmit:1 bbc:2 prime:1 relaunched:1 community:1 base:1 focus:1 news:3 item:1 interest:2 program:1 start:3 around:3 finish:1 midnight:1 programme:2 bulletin:1 watch:1 day:3 filler:1 sound:1 fund:1 mix:2 advertising:1 funding:1 annual:1 fee:1 majority:1 home:1 mostly:1 receive:1 national:2 regional:1 andalusia:1 campo:1 de:2 area:1 fm:3 shortwave:1 internet:12 discontinue:1 programming:1 english:3 retransmissions:1 streaming:1 date:1 guide:1 website:1 force:1 bfbs:2 available:1 stream:1 amateur:7 callsigns:1 full:2 novice:1 special:2 event:2 shortly:1 war:1 society:3 gar:1 small:1 active:1 represent:1 locally:1 internationally:1 iaru:1 member:1 year:1 week:2 zg:1 instead:1 zb:1 license:3 gra:2 lighthouse:1 activity:1 weekend:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 gi:1 provider:2 isps:1 gibnet:1 january:1 broadband:1 sapphire:4 redundant:1 adsl:4 concentrator:1 reach:1 outside:1 bandwidth:1 compete:2 directly:1 wholly:1 owned:1 subsidiary:1 commence:1 rename:1 gibconnect:1 parent:1 refer:1 several:1 thousand:1 co:1 regulatory:2 authority:2 issue:1 ladbrokes:2 big:1 centre:1 advanced:1 business:1 rock:1 apply:1 right:1 eventually:1 deny:1 abc:2 scale:1 operation:2 permit:1 renew:1 cease:1 early:1 yachtconnect:1 wi:1 fi:1 prepaid:1 subscription:1 marina:1 launch:1 wimax:1 expand:1 wired:1 nearby:1 housing:1 estate:1 rival:1 print:3 medium:1 chronicle:2 old:3 language:2 newspaper:6 continuously:2 large:1 frequently:1 publish:3 daily:2 edition:1 six:1 panorama:1 weekday:1 vox:1 people:1 gibsport:1 weekly:2 el:1 faro:1 magazine:3 prominent:1 monthly:1 insight:1 reference:1 external:1 streamed:1 see:1 |@bigram mount_pleasant:1 joint_venture:2 mobile_cellular:1 mobile_phone:5 mobile_telephony:1 repeater_television:1 licence_fee:1 fm_shortwave:1 provider_isps:1 internet_connectivity:1 wholly_owned:1 owned_subsidiary:1 wi_fi:1 external_link:1 |
808 | Ambiguity | Ambiguity is the property of being ambiguous, where a word, term, notation, sign, symbol, phrase, sentence, or any other form used for communication, is called ambiguous if it can be interpreted in more than one way. Ambiguity is different from vagueness, which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct. Ambiguity is context-dependent: the same linguistic item (be it a word, phrase, or sentence) may be ambiguous in one context and unambiguous in another context. For a word, ambiguity typically refers to an unclear choice between different definitions as may be found in a dictionary. A sentence may be ambiguous due to different ways of parsing the same sequence of words. Linguistic forms The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase consists in its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" hereby refers to whatever should be captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word “bank” has several distinct lexical definitions, including “financial institution” and “edge of a river”. Another example is as in apothecary. You could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary." This could mean you actually spoke to the apothecary (pharmacist) or went to the apothecary (drug store). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says “I deposited $100 in the bank,” most people would not think you used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. For example, "Biweekly" can mean "fortnightly" (once every two weeks - 26 times a year), OR "twice a week" (104 times a year). If "biweekly" is used in a conversation about a meeting schedule, it may be difficult to infer which meaning was intended. Many people believe that such lexically-ambiguous, miscommunication-prone words should be avoided wherever possible, since the user generally has to waste time, effort, and attention span to define what is meant when they are used. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "wiggle words" and obfuscation are necessary to gain support from multiple constituents with mutually exclusive conflicting desires from their candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of political science. More problematic are words whose senses express closely-related concepts. “Good,” for example, can mean “useful” or “functional” (That’s a good hammer), “exemplary” (She’s a good student), “pleasing” (This is good soup), “moral” (a good person versus the lesson to be learned from a story), "righteous", etc. “I have a good daughter” is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply prefixes and suffixes can also create ambiguity (“unlockable” can mean “capable of being unlocked” or “impossible to lock”). Syntactic ambiguity arises when a complex phrase or a sentence can be parsed in more than one way. “He ate the cookies on the couch,” for example, could mean that he ate those cookies which were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. Spoken language can contain many more types of ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words, for example “ice cream” and “I scream.” Such ambiguity is generally resolved based on the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly-resolved ambiguity, is called a mondegreen. Semantic ambiguity arises when a word or concept has an inherently diffuse meaning based on widespread or informal usage. This is often the case, for example, with idiomatic expressions whose definitions are rarely or never well-defined, and are presented in the context of a larger argument that invites a conclusion. For example, “You could do with a new automobile. How about a test drive?” The clause “You could do with” presents a statement with such wide possible interpretation as to be essentially meaningless. Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to vagueness. Linguistic ambiguity can be a problem in law (see Ambiguity (law)), because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance. Intentional application Philosophers (and other users of logic) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments, because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say “I oppose taxes that hinder economic growth.” Some will think he opposes taxes in general, because they hinder economic growth. Others may think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth. In writing, the correct insertion or omission of a comma after “taxes” and the use of "which" can help reduce ambiguity here (for the first meaning, “, which” is properly used in place of “that”), or the sentence can be restructured to completely eliminate possible misinterpretation. The devious politician hopes that each constituent (politics) will interpret the above statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true - An opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one, if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. In literature and rhetoric, on the other hand, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx’s classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: “Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. What he was doing in my pajamas I’ll never know.” Ambiguity can also be used as a comic device through a genuine intention to confuse, as does Magic: The Gathering's Unhinged © Ambiguity, which makes puns with homophones, mispunctuation, and run-ons: “Whenever a player plays a spell that counters a spell that has been played[,] or a player plays a spell that comes into play with counters, that player may counter the next spell played[,] or put an additional counter on a permanent that has already been played, but not countered.” Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title “Don’t It Make My Brown Eyes Blue” (where “blue” can refer to the color, or to sadness). In narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel The Great Gatsby. All religions debate the orthodoxy or heterodoxy of ambiguity. Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with 'ambiguity'. Ambiguity within Christianity Living With Ambiguity (and other religions) is resisted by the conservatives and fundamentalists, who regard the concept as equating with 'contradiction'. Non-fundamentalist Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery which fascinates humans. Metonymy involves the use of the name of a subcomponent part as an abbreviation, or jargon, for the name of the whole object (for example "wheels" to refer to a car, or "flowers" to refer to beautiful offspring, an entire plant, or a collection of blooming plants). In modern vocabulary critical semiotics, CSI: Sim8 metonymy encompasses any potentially-ambiguous word substitution that is based on contextual contiguity (located close together), or a function or process that an object performs, such as "sweet ride" to refer to a nice car. Metonym miscommunication is considered a primary mechanism of linguistic humour. Veale, Tony (2003): "Metaphor and Metonymy: The Cognitive Trump-Cards of Linguistic Humor" Psychology and management In sociology and social psychology, the term "ambiguity" is used to indicate situations that involve uncertainty. An increasing amount of research is concentrating on how people react and respond to ambiguous situations. Much of this focuses on ambiguity tolerance. A number of correlations have been found between an individual’s reaction and tolerance to ambiguity and a range of factors. Apter and Desselles (2001) in Motivational Styles in Everyday life: A guide to reversal Theory. M.J. Apter (ed) (2001) APA Books for example, found a strong correlation with such attributes and factors like a greater preference for safe as opposed to risk based sports, a preference for endurance type activities as opposed to explosive activities, a more organized and less casual lifestyle, greater care and precision in descriptions, a lower sensitivity to emotional and unpleasant words, a less acute sense of humor, engaging a smaller variety of sexual practices than their more risk comfortable colleagues, a lower likelihood of the use of drugs, pornography and drink, a greater likelihood of displaying obsessional behavior. In the field of leadership David Wilkinson (2006) Wilkinson, D.J. (2006) The Ambiguity Advantage: What great leaders are great at. New York Palgrave Macmillan. found strong correlations between an individual leader's reaction to ambiguous situations and the Modes of Leadership they use, the type of creativity (Kirton (2003) Kirton, M.J. (2003)Adaption-Innovation: In the Context of Diversity and Change. Routledge. and how they relate to others. Music In music, pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some polytonality, polymeter, other ambiguous meters or rhythms, and ambiguous phrasing, or (Stein 2005, p.79) any aspect of music. The music of Africa is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir Donald Francis Tovey (1935, p.195), “Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value.” Visual art In visual art, certain images are visually ambiguous, such as the Necker cube, which can be interpreted in two ways. Perceptions of such objects remain stable for a time, then may flip, a phenomenon called multistable perception. The opposite of such ambiguous images are impossible objects. Pictures or photographs may also be ambiguous at the semantic level: the visual image is unambiguous, but the meaning and narrative may be ambiguous: is a certain facial expression one of excitement or fear, for instance? Constructed language Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially lexical ambiguity. Lojban and Loglan are two related languages which have been created with this in mind. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to syntax and semantic rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn. Mathematical notation Mathematical notation, widely used in physics and other sciences, avoids many ambiguities compared to expression in natural language. However, for various reasons, several lexical, syntactic and semantic ambiguities remain. Names of functions The ambiguity in the style of writing a function should not be confused with a multivalued function, which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several special functions still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument and/or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: Sinc function Elliptic integral of the Third Kind; translating elliptic integral form MAPLE to Mathematica, one should replace the second argument to its square, see Talk:Elliptic integral#List_of_notations; dealing with complex values, this may cause problems. Exponential integral, M.Abramovits, I.Stegun. Handbook on mathematical functions , page 228 http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_228.htm Hermite polynomial, , page 775 http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_775.htm Expressions Ambiguous expressions often appear in physical and mathematical texts. It is common practice to omit multiplication signs in mathematical expressions. Also, it is common, to give the same name to a variable and a function, for example, . Then, if one sees , there is no way to distinguish, does it mean multiplied by , or function evaluated at argument equal to . In each case of use of such notations, the reader is supposed to be able to perform the deduction and reveal the true meaning. Creators of algorithmic languages try to avoid ambiguities. Many algorithmic languages (C++, MATLAB, Fortran) require the character * as symbol of multiplication. The language Mathematica allows the user to omit the multiplication symbol, but requires square brackets to indicate the argument of a function; square brackets are not allowed for grouping of expressions. Fortran, in addition, does not allow use of the same name (identifier) for different objects, for example, function and variable; in particular, the expression f=f(x) is qualified as an error. The order of operations may depend on the context. In most programming languages, the operations of division and multiplication have equal priority and are executed from left to right. Until the last century, many editorials assumed that multiplication is performed first, for example, is interpreted as ; in this case, the insertion of parentheses is required when translating the formulas to an algorithmic language. In addition, it is common to write an argument of a function without parenthesis, which also may lead to ambiguity. Sometimes, one uses italics letters to denote elementary functions. In the scientific journal style, the expression means product of variables , , and , although in a slideshow, it may mean . Comma in subscripts and superscripts sometimes is omitted; it is also ambiguous notation. If it is written , the reader should guess from the context, does it mean a single-index object, evaluated while the subscript is equal to product of variables , and , or it is indication to a three-valent tensor. The writing of instead of may mean that the writer either is stretched in space (for example, to reduce the publication fees, or aims to increase number of publications without considering readers. The same may apply to any other use of ambiguous notations. Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions , which could be understood to mean either or . In addition, may mean , as means (see tetration). , which by convention means , though it might be thought to mean since means . , which arguably should mean but would commonly be understood to mean Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics It is common to define the coherent states in quantum optics with and states with fixed number of photons with . Then, there is an "unwritten rule": the state is coherent if there are more Greek characters than Latin characters in the argument, and photon state if the Latin characters dominate. The ambiguity becomes even worse, if is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate, and means the state with certain value of the momentum, which may be used in books on quantum mechanics. Such ambiguities easy lead to confusions, especially if some normalized adimensional, dimensionless variables are used. Expression may mean a state with single photon, or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1, or state with momentum equal to unity, and so on. The reader is supposed to guess from the context. Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics Some physical quantities do not yet have established notations; their value (and sometimes even dimension, as in the case of the Einstein coefficients) depends on the system of notations. Many terms are ambiguous. Each use of an ambiguous term should be preceded by the definition, suitable for a specific case. A highly confusing term is gain. For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing. It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled. It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term intensity is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of irradiance, luminous intensity, radiant intensity, or radiance, depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of atomic percent as measure of concentration of a dopant, or resolution of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail which still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also Accuracy and precision and its talk. The Berry paradox arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. Russell/Whitehead, Principia Mathematica Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an underdetermined system (of equations or logic) – for example, leaves open what the value of X is – while its opposite is a self-contradiction, also called inconsistency, paradoxicalness, or oxymoron, in an overdetermined system – such as , which has no solution – see also underdetermination. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and impossible objects, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of M. C. Escher. Pedagogic use of ambiguous expressions Ambiguity can be used as a pedagogical trick, to force students to reproduce the deduction by themselves. Some textbooks H. Haug, S. Koch. Quantum Theory of the Optical and Electronic Properties of Semiconductors, http://www.allbookstores.com/book/9812387560 give the same name to the function and to its Fourier transform: . Rigorously speaking, such an expression requires that ; even if function is a self-Fourier function, the expression should be written as ; however, it is assumed that the shape of the function (and even its norm ) depend on the character used to denote its argument. If the Greek letter is used, it is assumed to be a Fourier transform of another function, The first function is assumed, if the expression in the argument contains more characters or , than characters , and the second function is assumed in the opposite case. Expressions like or contain symbols and in equal amounts; they are ambiguous and should be avoided in serious deduction. See also Abbreviation Amphibology Double entendre Imprecise language Fallacy Formal fallacy Informal fallacy Golden hammer Semantics Ambiguity tolerance Essentially contested concept Self reference Uncertainty Disambiguation Decision problem References External links Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements | Ambiguity |@lemmatized ambiguity:52 property:3 ambiguous:31 word:19 term:13 notation:11 sign:2 symbol:4 phrase:5 sentence:6 form:4 use:34 communication:2 call:4 interpret:5 one:10 way:11 different:5 vagueness:2 arise:2 boundary:1 meaning:10 indistinct:1 context:14 dependent:2 linguistic:6 item:1 may:24 unambiguous:3 another:4 typically:1 refer:6 unclear:1 choice:4 definition:4 find:4 dictionary:2 due:1 parse:2 sequence:1 lexical:5 consist:1 language:17 belong:1 mean:30 hereby:1 refers:1 whatever:1 capture:1 good:7 instance:3 bank:2 several:4 distinct:1 include:2 financial:1 institution:1 edge:1 river:1 example:20 apothecary:4 could:8 say:3 buy:1 herb:1 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809 | Control_store | A control store is the part of a CPUs control unit that stores the CPU's microprogram. It is usually accessed by a microsequencer. A control store is usually implemented as a diode-array of read-only memory. This tradition dates back to the program timing matrix on the MIT Whirlwind, first described in 1947. Modern VLSI CPUs also use a diode matrix for the read-only control store. The original System/360 models of IBM mainframe had read-only control store, but later System/370 and successor models loaded their microprograms from floppy disks into a writeable control store consisting of ultra-high speed random-access read-write memory. This permitted IBM to easily repair microprogramming defects in the field. Even when the majority of the control store is stored in ROM of some sort, computer vendors often sell writeable control store as an option, allowing the customers to customize the machine's microprogram. The control store usually has a register on its outputs. The outputs that go back into the sequencer to determine the next address have to go through some sort of register to prevent the creation of a race condition. In most designs all of the other bits also go through a register. This is because the machine will work faster if the execution of the next microinstruction is delayed by one cycle. This register is known as a pipeline register. Very often the execution of the next microinstruction is dependent on the result of the current microinstruction, which will not be stable until the end of the current microcycle. It can be seen that either way, all of the outputs of the control store go into one big register. Historically it used to be possible to buy EPROMs with these register bits on the same chip. The clock signal determining the cycle time of the system primarily clocks this register. References | Control_store |@lemmatized control:10 store:11 part:1 cpu:3 unit:1 microprogram:2 usually:3 access:2 microsequencer:1 implement:1 diode:2 array:1 read:4 memory:2 tradition:1 date:1 back:2 program:1 timing:1 matrix:2 mit:1 whirlwind:1 first:1 describe:1 modern:1 vlsi:1 also:2 use:2 original:1 system:3 model:2 ibm:2 mainframe:1 later:1 successor:1 load:1 microprograms:1 floppy:1 disk:1 writeable:2 consisting:1 ultra:1 high:1 speed:1 random:1 write:1 permit:1 easily:1 repair:1 microprogramming:1 defect:1 field:1 even:1 majority:1 rom:1 sort:2 computer:1 vendor:1 often:2 sell:1 option:1 allow:1 customer:1 customize:1 machine:2 register:8 output:3 go:4 sequencer:1 determine:2 next:3 address:1 prevent:1 creation:1 race:1 condition:1 design:1 bit:2 work:1 faster:1 execution:2 microinstruction:3 delay:1 one:2 cycle:2 know:1 pipeline:1 dependent:1 result:1 current:2 stable:1 end:1 microcycle:1 see:1 either:1 way:1 big:1 historically:1 possible:1 buy:1 eprom:1 chip:1 clock:2 signal:1 time:1 primarily:1 reference:1 |@bigram ibm_mainframe:1 floppy_disk:1 |
810 | Benjamin_Disraeli | Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS, born Benjamin D'Israeli, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881), was a British Prime Minister, Parliamentarian, British Conservative statesman and literary figure. He served in government for three decades, twice as Prime Minister. A teenage convert to Anglicanism, he was nonetheless the country's first and thus far only Prime Minister of Jewish heritage. Nine famous British Jews Benjamin Disraeli - Britannia Biographies Benjamin Disraeli Howard: I could be caretaker leader if we lose election He played an instrumental role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party after the Corn Laws schism of 1846. Although a major figure in the protectionist wing of the Conservative Party after 1844, Disraeli's relations with the other leading figures in the party, particularly Lord Derby, the overall leader, were often strained. Not until the 1860s would Derby and Disraeli be on easy terms, and the latter's succession of the former assured. From 1852 onwards, Disraeli's career would also be marked by his often intense rivalry with William Gladstone, who eventually rose to become leader of the Liberal Party. In this feud, Disraeli was aided by his warm friendship with Queen Victoria, who came to detest Gladstone during the latter's first premiership in the 1870s. In 1876 Disraeli was raised to the peerage as the Earl of Beaconsfield, capping nearly four decades in the House of Commons. Before and during his political career, Disraeli was well-known as a literary and social figure, although his novels are not generally regarded as a part of the Victorian literary canon. He mainly wrote romances, of which Sybil and Vivian Grey are perhaps the best-known today. He is exceptional among British Prime Ministers for having gained equal social and political renown. He was twice successful as the Glasgow University Conservative Association's candidate for Rector of the University, holding the post for two full terms between 1871 and 1877. Early life Disraeli's biographers believe he was descended from Italian Sephardic Jews. He is related to the Italian-British family Rietti. He was baptized by his Jewish father when his father received a fine from the local Synagogue. He claimed Spanish ancestry, possibly referring to the ultimate origin of his family heritage in Spain prior to the expulsion of Jews in 1492, after which many Jews emigrated temporarily to northern Italy before moving to the Netherlands and then England. Blake, 3. Norman Gash, reviewing Blake's work, argued that Benjamin's claim to Spanish ancestry could not be entirely dismissed. Gash, review of Disraeli, 360–364 He was the second child and eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, a literary critic and historian, and Maria Basevi. Benjamin changed the spelling in the 1820s by dropping the apostrophe. Opponents, however, continued to include the apostrophe in correspondence. Lord Lincoln, writing to Sir Robert Peel in 1846, referred to "D'Israeli." Conancher, "Peel and the Peelites, 1846–1850", 435. Peel did so as well, see Gash, Peel, 387. Even in the 1870s, towards the end of Disraeli's career, this practice continued. See Wohl, 381, ff. 22. His siblings included Sarah (1802–1859), Naphtali (1807), Ralph (1809–1898), and James (1813–1868). Rhind, I, 3. Benjamin at first attended a small school, the Reverend John Potticary's school at Blackheath. Rhind, I, 157. His father had Benjamin baptised in 1817 following a dispute with their synagogue. The elder D'Israeli was content to remain outside organized religion. From 1817, Benjamin attended Higham Hall, in Walthamstow. His younger brothers, in contrast, attended the superior Winchester College. His father groomed him for a career in law, and Disraeli was articled to a solicitor in 1821. In 1824, Disraeli toured Belgium and the Rhine Valley with his father and later wrote that it was while travelling on the Rhine that he decided to abandon the law: "I determined when descending those magical waters that I would not be a lawyer." Blake, 22. On his return to England he speculated on the stock exchange on various South American mining companies. The recognition of the new South American republics on the recommendation of George Canning had led to a considerable boom, encouraged by various promoters. In this connection, Disraeli became involved with the financier J. D. Powles, one such booster. In the course of 1825, Disraeli wrote three anonymous pamphlets for Powles, promoting the companies. Blake, 24–26; Veliz, 637–663 That same year Disraeli's financial activities brought him into contact with the publisher John Murray who, like Powles and Disraeli, was involved in the South American mines. Accordingly, they attempted to bring out a newspaper, The Representative, to promote both the cause of the mines and those politicians who supported the mines, specifically Canning. The paper was a failure, in part because the mining "bubble" burst in late 1825, which ruined Powles and Disraeli. Also, according to Disraeli's biographer, Lord Blake, the paper was "atrociously edited", and would have failed regardless. Disraeli's debts incurred from this debacle would haunt him for the rest of his life. Blake, 33–34. Before his entrance into parliament, Disraeli was involved with several women, most notably Lady Henrietta Sykes (the wife of Sir Francis Sykes, Bt), who served as the model for Henrietta Temple. It was Henrietta who introduced Disraeli to Lord Lyndhurst, with whom she later became romantically involved. As Lord Blake observed: "The true relationship between the three cannot be determined with certainty…there can be no doubt that the affair [figurative usage] damaged Disraeli and that it made its contribution, along with many other episodes, to the understandable aura of distrust which hung around his name for so many years." Blake, 116–119. In 1839 he settled his private life by marrying Mary Anne Lewis, the rich widow of Wyndham Lewis, Disraeli's erstwhile colleague at Maidstone. Mary Lewis was 12 years his senior, and their union was seen as being based on financial interests, but they came to cherish one another. caption|Isaac D'IsraeliFather of Benjamin Disraeli Literary career Disraeli turned towards literature after his financial disaster, motivated in part by a desperate need for money, and brought out his first novel, Vivian Grey, in 1826. Disraeli's biographers agree that Vivian Grey was a thinly-veiled re-telling of the affair of the Representative, and it proved very popular on its release, although it also caused much offence within the Tory literary world when Disraeli's authorship was discovered. The book, initially anonymous, was purportedly written by a "man of fashion" – someone who moved in high society. Disraeli, then just twenty-three, did not move in high society, and the numerous solecisms present in Vivian Grey made this painfully obvious. Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book. Furthermore, John Murray believed that Disraeli had caricatured him and abused his confidence–an accusation denied at the time, and by the official biography, although subsequent biographers (notably Blake) have sided with Murray. Graubard, 139. caption|A Young Disraeli by Sir Francis Grant, 1852 After producing a Vindication of the English Constitution, and some political pamphlets, Disraeli followed up Vivian Grey with a series of novels, The Young Duke (1831), Contarini Fleming (1832), Alroy (1833), Venetia and Henrietta Temple (1837). During the same period he had also written The Revolutionary Epick and three burlesques, Ixion, The Infernal Marriage, and Popanilla. Of these only Henrietta Temple (based on his affair with Henrietta Sykes, wife of Sir Francis William Sykes, 3rd Bt) was a true success. During the 1840s Disraeli wrote three political novels collectively known as "the Trilogy"–Sybil, Coningsby, and Tancred. Disraeli's relationships with other male writers of his period were strained or non-existent. After the disaster of The Representative John Gibson Lockhart became a bitter enemy and the two never reconciled. Cline, "Disraeli and John Gibson Lockhart", 134–137. Disraeli's preference for female company prevented the development of contact with those who were otherwise not alienated by his opinions, comportment or background. One contemporary who tried to bridge the gap, William Makepeace Thackeray, established a tentative cordial relationship in the late 1840s only to see everything collapse when Disraeli took offence at a burlesque of him which Thackeray penned for Punch. Disraeli took revenge in Endymion (published in 1880), when he caricatured Thackeray as "St. Barbe". Cline, "Disraeli and Thackeray", 404–408. This view has been accepted by most historians. See Merritt, 85–88, who argues that St. Barbe was an attack on Thomas Carlyle. Critic William Kuhn argued much of Disraeli's fiction can be read as "the memoirs he never wrote", revealing the inner life of a politician for whom the norms of Victorian public life appeared to represent a social straitjacket – particularly with regard to his allegedly "ambiguous sexuality." Parliament caption|Sir Robert Peel, Bt.Prime Minister 1834–35, 1841–46caption|Lord John MannersFriend of Disraeli, and leading figure in the Young England movement Disraeli had been considering a political career as early as 1830, before he departed England for the Mediterranean. His first real efforts, however, did not come until 1832, during the great crisis over the Reform Bill, when he contributed to an anti-Whig pamphlet edited by John Wilson Croker and published by Murray entitled England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania. The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as odd by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a Radical. Indeed, Disraeli had objected to Murray about Croker inserting "high Tory" sentiment, writing that "it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen." Further, at the time Gallomania was published, Disraeli was in fact electioneering in High Wycombe in the Radical interest. Robert Blake, Disraeli, (New York, 1966), 84–86. Disraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark. In the early 1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause. The other great party, the Whigs, was anathema to Disraeli: "Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig." Blake, 87 Though he initially stood for election, unsuccessfully, as a Radical, Disraeli was a Tory by the time he won a seat in the House of Commons in 1837 representing the constituency of Maidstone. Although a Conservative, Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the demands of the Chartists and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the merchants and new industrialists in the middle class, helping to found the Young England group in 1842 to promote the view that the landed interests should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by middle-class businessmen. During the twenty years between the Corn Laws and the Second Reform Bill Disraeli would seek a Tory-Radical alliance, to little avail. Prior to the 1867 Reform Bill the working class did not possess the vote and therefore had little tangible political power. Although Disraeli forged a personal friendship with John Bright, a Lancashire manufacturer and leading Radical, Disraeli was unable to convince Bright to sacrifice principle for political gain. After one such attempt, Bright noted in his diary that Disraeli "seems unable to comprehend the morality of our political course." Trevelyan, 207. The specific occasion was the 1852 Budget. Disraeli seems to have held out the possibility of Bright, Richard Cobden, and Thomas Milner Gibson eventually joining the cabinet in exchange for the support of the Radicals. Protection Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel passed over Disraeli when putting together his government in 1841 and Disraeli, hurt, gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government, often deliberately adopting positions contrary to those of his nominal chief. Peel's reasons for doing so are disputed. Some historians suggest Edward Stanley's well-known antipathy to Disraeli as the prime factor. Robert Blake dismisses these claims, arguing instead that Peel's need to balance the various factions of the Conservative Party, and the heavy preponderance of aristocrats within the cabinet, precluded Disraeli's inclusion. See Cline, "Disraeli and Peel's 1841 Cabinet" 509–512 and Blake, 165–166. The best known of these cases was the Maynooth grant in 1845 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. The end of 1845 and the first months of 1846 were dominated by a battle in parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws, with the latter rallying around Disraeli and Lord George Bentinck. An alliance of pro free-trade Conservatives (the "Peelites"), Radicals, and Whigs carried repeal, and the Conservative Party split: the Peelites moved towards the Whigs, while a "new" Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Bentinck, and Lord Stanley (later Lord Derby). This split had profound implications for Disraeli's political career: almost every Conservative politician with official experience followed Peel, leaving the rump bereft of leadership. As one biographer wrote, "[Disraeli] found himself almost the only figure on his side capable of putting up the oratorical display essential for a parliamentary leader." Blake, 247 Looking on from the House of Lords, the Duke of Argyll wrote that Disraeli "was like a subaltern in a great battle where every superior officer was killed or wounded." Quoted in Blake, 247–248 If the remainder of the Conservative Party could muster the electoral support necessary to form a government, then Disraeli was now guaranteed high office. However, he would take office with a group of men who possessed little or no official experience, who had rarely felt moved to speak in the House of Commons before, and who, as a group, remained hostile to Disraeli on a personal level, his assault on the Corn Laws notwithstanding. Blake, 260. Bentinck and the Leadership caption|Lord George BentinckConservative leader in the commons 1846–48 In 1847 a small political crisis occurred which removed Bentinck from the leadership and highlighted Disraeli's differences with his own party. In the preceding general election, Lionel de Rothschild had been returned for the City of London. Ever since Catholic Emancipation, members of parliament were required to swear the oath "on the true faith of a Christian." Rothschild, an unconverted Jew, could not do so and therefore could not take his seat. Lord John Russell, the Whig leader who had succeeded Peel as Prime Minister and like Rothschild a member for the City of London, introduced a Jewish Disabilities Bill to amend the oath and permit Jews to enter Parliament. Disraeli spoke in favour of the measure, arguing that Christianity was "completed Judaism," and asking of the House of Commons "Where is your Christianity if you do not believe in their Judaism?" Hansard, 3rd Series, xcv, 1321-1330, 16 December 1847. While Disraeli did not argue that the Jews did the Christians a favor by killing Christ, as he had in Tancred and would in Lord George Bentinck, his speech was badly received by his own party, On the other hand, both Russell and Gladstone thought it was brave for Disraeli to speak as he did. Morley, 501-502. which along with the Anglican establishment was hostile to the bill. Of the 26 Anglican bishops and archbishops who sat in the House of Lords, 23 voted on the measure altogether, and 17 were opposed. Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford and a friend of Disraeli's, spoke strongly against the measure and implied that Russell was paying off the Jews for "helping" elect him. Hansard, 3rd Series, xcviii, 1374-1378, 25 May 1848. Every member of the future protectionist cabinet then in parliament (except Disraeli) voted against the measure. One member who was not, Lord John Manners, stood against Rothschild when the latter re-submitted himself for election in 1849. Bentinck, then still Conservative leader in the Commons, joined Disraeli in speaking and voting for the bill, although his own speech was a standard one of toleration. Blake, 259-260. In the aftermath of the debate Bentinck resigned the leadership and feuded with Stanley, leader in the Lords and overall leader, who had opposed the measure and directed the party whips–in the Commons–to oppose the measure as well. Bentinck was succeeded by Lord Granby; Disraeli's own speech, thought by many of his own party to be blasphemous, ruled him out for the time being. Blake, 261-262. Even as these intrigues played out, Disraeli was working with the Bentinck family to secure the necessary financing to purchase Hughenden Manor, in Buckinghamshire. This purchase allowed him to stand for the county, which was "essential" if one was to lead the Conservative Party at the time. He and Mary Anne alternated between Hughenden and several homes in London for the remainder of their marriage. These negotiations were complicated by the sudden death of Lord George on 21 September 1848, but Disraeli obtained a loan of £25,000 (equivalent to almost £1,500,000 today) from Lord George's brothers Lord Henry Bentinck and Lord Titchfield. Blake, 251-254. Within a month Granby resigned the leadership in the commons, feeling himself inadequate to the post, and the party functioned without an actual leader in the commons for the remainder of the parliamentary session. At the start of the next session, affairs were handled by a triumvirate of Granby, Disraeli, and John Charles Herries–indicative of the tension between Disraeli and the rest of the party, who needed his talents but mistrusted the man. This confused arrangement ended with Granby's resignation in 1851; Disraeli effectively ignored the two men regardless. Blake, 266-269. Office The first Derby government The Earl of DerbyPrime Minister 1852, 1858–59, 1866–68 The first opportunity for the protectionist Tories under Disraeli and Stanley to take office came in 1851, when Lord John Russell's government was defeated in the House of Commons over the Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851. Disraeli was to have been Home Secretary, with Stanley (becoming the Earl of Derby later that year) as Prime Minister. Other possible ministers included Sir Robert Inglis, Henry Goulburn, John Charles Herries, and Lord Ellenborough. The Peelites, however, refused to serve under Stanley or with Disraeli so long as the question of free trade remained unsettled, and attempts to form a purely protectionist government failed. Derby supposedly remarked at the time, "Pshaw! These are not names which I can put before the Queen!" Blake, 301–305. Russell resumed office, but resigned again in early 1852 when a combination of the protectionists and Lord Palmerston defeated him on a Militia Bill. Palmerston got his "tit for tat" with "Johnny Russell", who under pressure from the Crown had dismissed Palmerston from the Foreign Office the previous December. This time Lord Derby (as he had become) took office, and to general surprise appointed Disraeli Chancellor of the Exchequer. The expectation had been that Disraeli would assume the Foreign or Home offices. Disraeli had offered to stand aside as leader of the House of Commons in favour of Palmerston, but the latter declined. The primary responsibility of a mid-Victorian chancellor was to produce a Budget for the coming fiscal year. Disraeli proposed to reduce taxes on malt and tea (indirect taxation); additional revenue would come from an increase in the house tax. More controversially, Disraeli also proposed to alter the workings of the income tax (direct taxation) by "differentiating"–i.e., different rates would be levied on different types of income. Ghosh, 269–273; Matthew, "Budgets", 621. The establishment of the income tax on a permanent basis had been the subject of much inter-party discussion since the fall of Peel's ministry, but no consensus had been reached, and Disraeli was criticised for mixing up details over the different "schedules" of income. Disraeli's proposal to extend the tax to Ireland gained him further enemies, and he was also hampered by an unexpected increase in defence expenditure, which was forced on him by Derby and Sir John Pakington (Secretary of State for War and the Colonies) (leading to his celebrated remark to John Bright about the "damned defences"). Bright's diary quotes the conversation in full. See Trevelyan, 205–206 This, combined with bad timing and perceived inexperience led to the failure of the Budget and consequently the fall of the government in December of that year. On the centrality of the income tax, see Matthew, Gladstone, 121-122. Gladstone's final speech on the failed Budget marked the beginning of over twenty years of mutual parliamentary hostility, as well as the end of Gladstone's formal association with the Conservative Party. No Conservative reconciliation remained possible so long as Disraeli remained leader in the House of Commons. Opposition With the fall of the government Disraeli and the Conservatives returned to the opposition benches. Derby's successor as Prime Minister was the Peelite Lord Aberdeen, whose ministry was composed of both Peelites and Whigs. Disraeli himself was succeeded as chancellor by Gladstone. The second Derby government The Viscount PalmerstonPrime Minister 1855–58, 1859–65 Lord Palmerston's government collapsed in 1858 amid public fallout over the Orsini affair and Derby took office at the head of a purely 'Conservative' administration. He again offered a place to Gladstone, who declined. Disraeli remained leader of the House of Commons and returned to the Exchequer. As in 1852 Derby's was a minority government, dependent on the division of its opponents for survival. Hawkins, 79–105. The principal measure of the 1858 session would be a bill to re-organise governance of India, the Indian Mutiny having exposed the inadequacy of dual control. The first attempt at legislation was drafted by the President of the Board of Control, Lord Ellenborough, who had previously served as Governor-General of India (1841–44). The bill, however, was riddled with complexities and had to be withdrawn. Soon after, Ellenborough was forced to resign over an entirely separate matter involving the current Governor-General, Lord Canning. Blake, 379–382. Faced with a vacancy, Disraeli and Derby tried yet again to bring Gladstone into the government. Disraeli wrote a personal letter to Gladstone, asking him to place the good of the party above personal animosity: "Every man performs his office, and there is a Power, greater than ourselves, that disposes of all this…" In responding to Disraeli Gladstone denied that personal feelings played any role in his decision then and previously to accept office, while acknowledging that there were differences between him and Derby "broader than you may have supposed." Gladstone also hinted at the strength of his own faith, and the role it played in his public life, when he addressed Disraeli's most personal and private appeal: With Gladstone's refusal Derby and Disraeli looked elsewhere and settled on Disraeli's old friend Edward Bulwer-Lytton, who became Secretary of State for the Colonies; Derby's son Lord Stanley, succeeded Ellenborough at the Board of Control. Stanley, with Disraeli's assistance, proposed and guided through the house the India Act, under which the subcontinent would be governed for sixty years. The East India Company and its Governor-General were replaced by a viceroy and the Indian Council, while at Westminster the Board of Control was abolished and its functions assumed by the newly created India Office, under the Secretary of State for India. Blake, 385–386. The 1867 Reform Bill After engineering the defeat of a Liberal Reform Bill introduced by Gladstone in 1866, Disraeli and Derby introduced their own measure in 1867. William Ewart GladstoneFour-time Prime MinisterThis was primarily a political strategy designed to give the Conservative party control of the reform process and the subsequent long-term benefits in the Commons, similar to those derived by the Whigs after their 1832 Reform Act. It was thought that if the Conservatives were able to secure this piece of legislation, then the newly enfranchised electorate may return their gratitude to the Tories in the form of a Conservative vote at the next general election. As a result, this would give the Conservatives a greater chance of forming a majority government. After so many years in the 'stagnant backwaters' of British politics, this seemed most appealing. The Reform Act 1867 extended the franchise by 938,427 – an increase of 88% – by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least 10 pounds for rooms and eliminating rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, and granting constituencies to fifteen unrepresented towns, and extra representation in parliament to larger towns such as Liverpool and Manchester, which had previously been under-represented in Parliament. Conancher, "The Emergence of British Parliamentary Democracy in the Nineteenth Century", 177 This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably Lord Cranborne (later the Marquess of Salisbury), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill, accusing Disraeli of "a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals." Quoted in Blake, 473. Cranborne, however, was unable to lead a rebellion similar to that which Disraeli had led against Peel twenty years earlier. Prime Minister First government The Marquess of SalisburyThree-time Prime Minister Derby's health had been declining for some time and he finally resigned as Prime Minister in late February 1868; he would live for twenty months. Disraeli's efforts over the past two years had dispelled, for the time being, any doubts about him succeeding Derby as leader of the Conservative Party and therefore Prime Minister. As Disraeli remarked, "I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole." Blake, 485–487. However, the Conservatives were still a minority in the House of Commons, and the passage of the Reform Bill required the calling of new election once the new voting register had been compiled. Disraeli's term as Prime Minister would therefore be fairly short, unless the Conservatives won the general election. He made only two major changes in the cabinet: he replaced Lord Chelmsford as Lord Chancellor with Lord Cairns, and brought in George Ward Hunt as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Disraeli and Chelmsford had never got along particularly well, and Cairns, in Disraeli's view, was a far stronger minister. Blake, 487–489. Disraeli's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the established Church of Ireland. Although Ireland was overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, the Protestant Church remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation. An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with Cardinal Manning the establishment of a Roman Catholic university in Dublin foundered in March when Gladstone moved resolutions to disestablish the Irish Church altogether. The proposal divided the Conservative Party while reuniting the Liberals under Gladstone's leadership. While Disraeli's government survived until the December general election, the initiative had passed to the Liberals, who were returned to power with a majority of 170. Blake, 496–502. Second government After six years in opposition, Disraeli and the Conservative Party won the election of 1874, giving the party its first absolute majority in the House of Commons since the 1840s. Under the stewardship of R. A. Cross, the Home Secretary, Disraeli's government introduced various reforms, including the Artisan's and Labourers' Dwellings Improvement Act 1875, the Public Health Act 1875, the Sale of Food and Drugs Act (1875), and the Education Act (1876). His government also introduced a new Factory Act meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875 to allow peaceful picketing, and the Employers and Workmen Act (1875) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts. As a result of these social reforms the Liberal-Labour MP Alexander Macdonald told his constituents in 1879, "The Conservative party have done more for the working classes in five years than the Liberals have in fifty." William Flavelle Monypenny and George Earle Buckle, The Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield. Volume II. 1860–1881 (London: John Murray, 1929), p. 709. Imperialism Disraeli and Queen Victoria, during the latter's visit to Hughenden Manor at the height of the Eastern crisis. Disraeli was, according to some interpretations, a supporter of the expansion and preservation of the British Empire in the Middle East and Central Asia. In spite of the objections of his own cabinet and without Parliament's consent, he obtained a short-term loan from Lionel de Rothschild in order to purchase 44% of the shares of the Suez Canal Company. Before this action, though, he had for the most part opted to continue the Whig policy of limited expansion, preferring to maintain the then-current borders as opposed to promoting expansion. Disraeli and Gladstone clashed over Britain's Balkan policy. Disraeli saw the situation as a matter of British imperial and strategic interests, keeping to Palmerston's policy of supporting the Ottoman Empire against Russian expansion. According to Blake, Disraeli believed in upholding Britain's greatness through a tough, "no nonsense" foreign policy that put Britain's interests above the "moral law" that advocated emancipation of small nations. Blake, p. 760. Gladstone, however, saw the issue in moral terms, for Bulgarian Christians had been massacred by the Turks and Gladstone therefore believed it was immoral to support the Ottoman Empire. Blake further argued that Disraeli's imperialism "decisively orientated the Conservative party for many years to come, and the tradition which he started was probably a bigger electoral asset in winning working-class support during the last quarter of the century than anything else". A leading proponent of the Great Game, Disraeli introduced the Royal Titles Act 1876, which created Queen Victoria Empress of India, putting her at the same level as the Russian Tsar. In his private correspondence with the Queen, he proposed "to clear Central Asia of Muscovites and drive them into the Caspian". Quoted from Disraeli's letter to the Queen in Mahajan, 53. In order to contain Russia's influence, he launched an invasion of Afghanistan and signed the Cyprus Convention with Turkey, whereby this strategically placed island was handed over to Britain. [[Image:Victoria Disraeli cartoon.jpg|thumb|upright|New Crowns for Old depicts Disraeli as Abanazer from the pantomime version of Aladdin offering Victoria an imperial crown in exchange for a royal one.Disraeli cultivated a public image of himself as an Imperialist with grand gestures such as conferring on Queen Victoria the title “Empress of India”.]] Disraeli scored another diplomatic success at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, in preventing Bulgaria from gaining full independence, limiting the growing influence of Russia in the Balkans and breaking up the League of the Three Emperors. However, difficulties in South Africa (epitomised by the defeat of the British Army at the Battle of Isandlwana), as well as Afghanistan, weakened his government and led to his party's defeat in the 1880 election. Title and death Disraeli was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876 when Queen Victoria (who liked Disraeli both personally and politically) made him Earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden. In the general election of 1880 Disraeli's Conservatives were defeated by Gladstone's Liberals, in large part owing to the uneven course of the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The Irish Home Rule vote in England contributed to his party's defeat. Disraeli became ill soon after and died in April 1881. He is buried in a vault beneath St Michael's Church in the grounds of his home Hughenden Manor, accessed from the churchyard. Against the outside wall of the church is a memorial erected in his honour by Queen Victoria. His literary executor, and for all intents and purposes his heir, was his private secretary, Lord Rowton. Disraeli's Judaism Although born of Jewish parents, Disraeli was baptised in the Christian faith at the age of thirteen, and remained an observant Anglican for the rest of his life. Blake, 11. See also Endelman, 115. At the same time, he was culturally Jewish and believed the two positions to be compatible. A famous quote of his response to an anti-semitic snide remark by a British politician runs as follows: "Yes, I am a Jew, and when the ancestors of the right honourable gentleman were brutal savages in an unknown island, mine were priests in the temple of Solomon", to which it is said was replied; "This 'Island' was never not known to us. Exactly where is it that you are coming from?" Adam Kirsch, in his biography of Disraeli, states that his Jewishness was "both the greatest obstacle to his ambition and its greatest engine." http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/25/books/review/Julius-t.html?ref=books Much of the criticism of his policies was couched in anti-Semitic terms. He was depicted in political cartoons with a big nose and curly black hair, called "Shylock" and "abominable Jew," and portrayed in the act of ritually murdering the infant Britannia. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/25/books/review/Julius-t.html?ref=books Disraeli's governments First Disraeli ministry (February–December 1868) Second Disraeli ministry (February 1874–April 1880) Works by Disraeli Line drawing of Disraeli Statue in Parliament Square, London FictionVivian Grey (1826; )Popanilla (1828; )The Young Duke (1831)Contarini Fleming (1832)Alroy (1833) The Infernal Marriage (1834)Ixion in Heaven (1834)The Revolutionary Epick (1834)The Rise of Iskander (1834; )Henrietta Temple (1837)Venetia (1837; )The Tragedy of Count Alarcos (1839); )Coningsby, or the New Generation (1844; )Sybil, or The Two Nations (1845; )Tancred, or the New Crusade (1847;)Lothair (1870; )Endymion (1880; )Falconet (book) (unfinished 1881) Non-fictionAn Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies (1825)Lawyers and Legislators: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies (1825)The present state of Mexico (1825)England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial Gallomania (1832)What Is He? (1833)The Vindication of the English Constitution (1835)The Letters of Runnymede (1836)Lord George Bentinck (1852) Films depicting DisraeliDisraeli (1929) George Arliss (Best Actor Oscar), Joan BennettThe Prime Minister (1941) John GielgudThe Mudlark (1950) Alec GuinnessDisraeli (1978) Ian McShane, Mary Peach Mrs. Brown (1997) Sir Antony Sher References Bibliography Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield External links Benjamin Disraeli Quotes Disraeli as the inventor of modern conservatism at The Weekly StandardMore about Benjamin Disraeli on the Downing Street website. 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811 | Book_of_Numbers | The Book of Numbers (Greek: arithmoi meaning "numbers") or Bamidbar (Hebrew: במדבר, literally "In the wilderness") is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible/Christian Old Testament, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah or Pentateuch. This book may be divided into three parts: The numbering of the people at Sinai, and preparations for resuming their march (1-10:10). An account of the journey from Sinai to Moab, the sending out of the spies and the report they brought back, and the murmurings (eight times) of the people at the hardships by the way (10:11-21:20). The transactions in the plain of Moab before crossing the Jordan River (21:21-36). The period comprehended in the history extends from the second month of the second year, as measured from the Exodus, to the beginning of the eleventh month of the fortieth year, in all about thirty-seven years and nine months; a dreary period of wanderings. They were fewer in number at the end of their wanderings than when they left the land of Egypt. According to tradition, Moses authored all five books of the Torah. According to the documentary hypothesis, Numbers, with its dry style and emphasis on censuses, derives from the priestly source, c. 550-400 BC, and was combined with the other three sources to create the Torah c. 400. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. Title The Hebrew title Bəmidbar, short for bəmidbar Sinai ("in the desert of Sinai"), is taken from the first verse, and "serves to foreground the years of testing in the wilderness that make up the central section of the book (chapters 11-21)." Gregory Goswell, "What's in a Name? Book Titles in the Torah and Former Prophets," Pacifica 20 (2007), 268. The English title Numbers is derived from the Greek of the Septuagint, referencing the numbering of the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai and later on the plain of Moab. Summary Numbering God's people God orders Moses, in the wilderness of Sinai, to take the number of those able to bear arms—of all the men "from twenty years old and upward," the tribe of Levi being excepted, and to appoint princes over each tribe. The result of the numbering is that 603,550 Israelites are found to be fit for military service. Moses is ordered to assign to the Levites exclusively the service of the Tabernacle. God prescribes the formation of the camp around the Tabernacle, each tribe being distinguished by its chosen banner. Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun encamp to the east of the Tabernacle; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad to the south; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin to the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali to the north. The same order is to be preserved for the march. Moses is ordered to consecrate the Levites for the service of the Tabernacle in the place of the first-born sons, who hitherto had performed that service. The Levites are divided into three families, the Gershonites, the Kohathites, and the Merarites, each under a chief, and all headed by one prince, Eleazar, son of Aaron. The Levites who are suited for the service of the Tabernacle—those from thirty to fifty years of age—were then numbered. Preparations are then made for resuming the march to the Promised Land. Various ordinances and laws are decreed. Recommencement of the journey Moses is ordered to make two silver trumpets for convoking the congregation and announcing the recommencement of a journey. The first journey of the Israelites after the Tabernacle had been constructed is commenced, and Moses requests Hobab to be their leader. The people murmur against God and are punished by fire; Moses complains of the stubbornness of the Israelites and is ordered to choose seventy elders to assist him in the government of the people Miriam and Aaron insult Moses at Hazeroth, which angers God; Miriam is punished with leprosy and is shut out of camp for seven days, at the end of which the Israelites proceed to the desert of Paran. The spies are sent out into the lands and come back to report to Moses. The spies have to see how fertile the ground is, how fortified the cites are and how strong the people are. Joshua and Caleb, two of the spies, argue that the land is abundant and is "flowing with milk and honey." The other spies say that it is inhabited by strong and evil men, which causes the Israelites to want to return to Egypt. The Lord talks to Moses and says he will kill all of the Israelites. Moses pleads with God, saying that others would think badly of God for leading his people to the wilderness and abandoning them there. God speaks to Aaron of having to wander in the wilderness for 40 years. Moses is ordered to make plates to cover the altar with the two hundred fifty censers left after the destruction of Korah's band. The children of Israel murmur against Moses and Aaron on account of the death of Korah's men and are stricken with the plague, with 14,700 perishing; Aaron's rod is used to quell the destruction. Aaron and his family are declared by God to be responsible for any iniquity committed in connection with the sanctuary. The Levites are again appointed to help him in the keeping of the Tabernacle. The Levites are ordered to surrender to the priests a part of the tithes taken by them. Preparations for crossing the Jordan After Miriam's death at Kadesh Barnea, the Israelites blame Moses for the lack of water. Moses, ordered by God to speak to the rock, disobeys by striking it, and is punished by the announcement that he shall not enter Canaan. The King of Edom refuses permission to the Israelites to pass through his land. Aaron dies on Mount Hor. The Israelites are bitten by fiery serpents for speaking against God and Moses. A brazen serpent is made to ward off these serpents. The new census, taken just before the entry into the land of Canaan, gives the total number of males from twenty years and upward as 601,730, the number of the Levites from a month old and upward as 23,000. The land shall be divided by lot. The daughters of Zelophehad, their father having no sons, share in the allotment. Moses is ordered to appoint Joshua as his successor. Prescriptions for the observance of the feasts, and the offerings for different occasions are remunerated: every day; the Sabbath; the first day of the month; the seven days of the Feast of Unleavened Bread; the day of first-fruits; the day of the trumpets; the Day of Atonement; the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles; the day of solemn assembly. The conquest of Midian by the Israelites and the massacre of the Midian population is recounted. The Reubenites and the Gadites request Moses to assign them the land east of the Jordan. After their promise to go before the army to help in the conquest of the land west of the Jordan, Moses grants their request. The land east of the Jordan is divided among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. The stations at which the Israelites halted during their forty years' wanderings in the wilderness are enumerated. While in the plains of Moab the Israelites are told that, after crossing the Jordan, they should expel the Canaanites and destroy their idols. The boundaries of the land of which the Israelites are about to take possession are spelled out. The land is to be divided among the tribes under the superintendence of Eleazar, Joshua, and twelve princes, one of each tribe. Numbers ends with a summary statement called a colophon, stating the place and circumstances of composition. Colophons were used in literature of the ancient Near East in the second millennium BC and earlier, and their usage was not understood until fairly modern times. Hermann Hunger, Babylonische und Assyrische Kolophone (Neukirchen: Kevelaer, 1968). Composition Julius Wellhausen ascribed most of the composition of Numbers to the Priestly source, and therefore the 6th century BC, with additional material (including the Balaam story) from the Elohist document (c.850 BC) and the Yahwist (c.950 BC); Richard Elliott Friedman gives a similar division in his The Bible with Sources Revealed. Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed. New York: Harpercollins (2005). ISBN 006073065X, 9780060730659 Other rationalist scholars, following presuppositions that modify in some way or other the presuppositions of Wellhausen's documentary hypothesis, tend to see all the Pentateuchal books as made up of essentially undateable fragments or accretions, but agree with Wellhausen that the Torah reached its final form no earlier than the 5th century BC. Colin Humphreys, The Miracles of Exodus: A Scientist's Discovery of the Extraordinary Natural Causes of the Biblical Stories. New York: HarperCollins (2004): 109. "Many scholars have come to believe that there are four underlying sources of the Pentateuch. These sources are called J, E, D, and P, and they are usually dated from the tenth to the fifth centuries B.C." Baalam and the Deir Alla inscription The Deir Alla text is an inscription which tells a story of "Balaam Son of Beor," a seer apparently famed in the region at this time, and whose prophecies regarding Israel are found in Numbers 22 through 24. Author Timothy Ashley says that as interesting as this inscription is, it does not shed any light on when Balaam lived beyond the information already given in the book of Numbers. The discovery of the Balaam text at Deir 'Alla (ancient Succoth, just north of the Jabbok in Transjordan) provides a strong link between a Balaam tradition and this area, although the existence of a Balaam story there in the 8th/7th cent. (the text is dated c. 850-675 B.C.) may or may not speak of the origins of Balaam in the area some centuries earlier. "The Book of Numbers" by Timothy R. Ashley, (Eerdmans, 1993) p. 446, n. 22. Ketef Hinnom and the Priestly Blessing In 1979, two tiny silver scrolls, apparently used as amulets, were found at the Ketef Hinnom burial site near Jerusalem. On one of the scrolls was a shortened form of the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24-26, The Lord bless you and keep you; the Lord make his face shine upon you and be gracious to you; The Lord turn his face toward you and give you peace. (NIV) On palaeographic grounds, the inscriptions were dated to some time shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 587 BC. [Barkay, G., A.G. Vaughn, M.J. Lundberg & B. Zuckerman, "The Amulets from Ketef Hinnom: A New Edition and Evaluation," Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 334 (2004) pp. 41-71. These inscriptions are important in providing a test for truth or falsity of the classical Documentary hypothesis. Wellhausen, and various other scholars who followed him in denying the supernatural origin of the Pentateuch, assigned the Priestly Blessing of Numbers to the "P" strand or editor. Every chapter of Wellhausen's Prolegomena repeats the theme: the P portions of the Pentateuch were fabricated by the priestly caste in Israel with the goal of fostering their own selfish interests, and this was necessarily done in the post-exilic period. Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (New York: World, 1961). Originally published as Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels (Berlin, 1882). See, for example, pages 150-151 of the English version where Wellhausen insists that his system shows that the priestly portions of Scripture were written after the exile; his presuppositions demand it. The priestly blessing was assigned by Wellhausen and others who followed the presuppositions of the Documentary Hypothesis to the hypothetical "P" document or editor. Wellhausen insisted that this person or persons lived after the exile. Based on the Ketef Hinnom finding of a "P" text that was pre-exilic and other evidence, many advocates of the Documentary Hypothesis now hold that P, or portions of it, could be pre-exilic. For Wellhausen, however, this was not a possibility: there is probably no theme in the Prolegomena that is insisted on as necessary in understanding the Documentary Hypothesis as the theme that P is post-exilic, unless it is the theme that the Pentateuch did not have a supernatural origin but was the creation of late-date deceivers who successfully fooled the populace into thinking that their own creations were written by Moses. See also Book of the Wars of the Lord Torah Balaam Priestly Blessing Wilderness of Sin Weekly Torah portions in Numbers: Bamidbar, Naso, Behaalotecha, Shlach, Korach, Chukat, Balak, Pinchas, Matot, and Masei Inverted nun (only appears twice in the Book of Numbers and seven times in the Book of Psalms) Notes External links Book of Numbers article (Jewish Encyclopedia) Online versions and translations Original language: במדבר Bamidbar - Numbers (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Jewish translations: Numbers at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Numbers (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org Bamidbar - Numbers (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org (King James Version) oremus Bible Browser (New Revised Standard Version) oremus Bible Browser (Anglicized New Revised Standard Version) Numbers at Wikisource (Authorized King James Version) | 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812 | Finnish_Civil_War | The Finnish Civil War was a part of the national and social turmoil caused by World War I (1914–1918) in Europe. The war was fought in Finland from 27 January to 15 May 1918, between the forces of the Social Democrats led by the People's Deputation of Finland, commonly called the "Reds" (punaiset), and the forces of the non-socialist, conservative-led Senate, commonly called the "Whites" (valkoiset). The Reds were supported by Russian SFSR, while the Whites received military assistance from the German Empire. The February and October Revolutions in 1917 caused defeat in World War I and a total collapse of the Russian Empire (which at the time included Finland), and the destruction in Russia resulted in a corresponding breakdown of Finnish society during 1917. The Social Democrats on the left and conservatives on the right competed for the leadership of the Finnish state, which shifted from the left to the right in 1917. Both groups collaborated with the corresponding political forces in Russia, deepening the split in the nation. , , As there were no generally accepted police and army forces to keep order in Finland after March 1917, the left and right began building security groups of their own, leading to the emergence of two independent armed military troops, the White and Red Guards. An atmosphere of political violence and fear grew among the Finns. Fighting broke out during January 1918 due to the acts of both the Reds and Whites in a spiral of military and political escalation. The Whites were victorious in the ensuing war. In the aftermath of the 1917–18 crisis and the Civil War, Finland passed from Russian rule to the German sphere of influence. The conservative senate attempted to establish a Finnish monarchy ruled by a German king, but after the defeat of Germany in World War I, Finland emerged as an independent, democratic republic. , , Manninen, T. 1992 in; Manninen, O. ed., part I pp. 346–395 and pp. 398–433, , , The Civil War remains the most controversial and emotionally loaded event in the history of modern Finland, and there have even been disputes about what the conflict should be called. The Finnish Civil War has also been called The Freedom War, The Brethren War, The Class War, The Red Rebellion, and The Finnish Revolution. Haapala 1993 , , , Approximately 37,000 people died during the conflict, including casualties at the war fronts and deaths from political terror campaigns and high prison camp mortality rates. The turmoil destroyed the economy, split the political apparatus, and divided the Finnish nation for many years. The country was slowly reunited through the compromises of moderate political groups on the left and right. Background The main factor behind the Finnish Civil War was World War I. The conflict caused a collapse of the Russian Empire, mainly in the February Revolution and the October Revolution during 1917. This led to a formation of a large power vacuum and struggle for power. Finland, as a part of the Russian Empire, was strongly affected by the turmoil and by the war between Germany and Russia. Both empires had political, economic, and military interests in Finland. An earlier crisis in the relations between Imperial Russia and the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland had occurred in 1899 as the central administration had strengthened in Saint Petersburg, and the tension and competition rose between the major European powers at that time. The Russian leaders, as part of an attempt to unite the large, heterogeneous empire, had adopted the program of the Russification of Finland, with the aim of reducing Finnish autonomy. The Finns called this policy "the first period of oppression 1899–1905". As a reaction, plans for disengagement from Russia or achieving sovereignty for Finland were drawn up for the first time. , , , , Peasants in the fields. Many Finns were agrarian workers and crofters, who had no political influence in the class society that existed before the parliamentary reform in 1906. Before the first period of Russification, Finland had enjoyed autonomy inside Russia. Compared to other parts of the Russian Empire, Finno-Russian relations had been exceptionally peaceful and stable. As this policy altered due to the changes in the Russian military doctrine, the Finns began to oppose strongly the imperial system. Several political groups with different opposition policies arose; the most radical one, the activist movement, led to covert collaboration with Imperial Germany during World War I. , Major reasons for the rising tensions among the Finns was the autocratic rule of the Russian Tsar, and the undemocratic class system of the estates in the Grand Duchy, originating in the Swedish regime of the 17th century, which effectively divided the Finnish people into two groups, separated economically, socially and politically. The labour movement activity after 1899 not only opposed Russification but also sought to develop a domestic policy that tackled social problems and responded to the demand for democracy. Finland's population grew rapidly in the 19th century, and a class of industrial and agrarian workers and propertyless peasants emerged. The Industrial Revolution and economic freedom had arrived in Finland later than in Western Europe (1840–1870), owing to the rule of the Romanov family. This meant that some of the social problems associated with industrialisation were diminished by learning from the experiences of countries such as England. The social conditions, the standard of living, and the self-confidence of the workers gradually improved between 1870–1914, and at the same time the political concepts of socialism, nationalism and liberalism took root. But as the standard of living rose among the common people, the rift between rich and poor deepened markedly. , , , The Finnish labour movement, which emerged at the end of the 19th century out of folk, temperance Rauli Mickelsson: Suomen puolueet – historia, muutos ja nykypäivä. Vastapaino, 2007. ISBN 978-951-768-217-6. and religious movements and fennomania, had a "Finnish national, working class" character and was represented by the Social Democratic Party, established in 1899. The movement came to the fore without major confrontations when tensions during Russia's failed war against Japan led in 1905 to a general strike in Finland and revolutionary upheaval in the empire. In an attempt to quell the general unrest, the system of estates was abolished in the parliamentary reform of 1906, which introduced universal suffrage. All adults including female citizens were given the right to vote increasing the number of voters from 126,000 to 1,273,000. This soon produced around 50% turnouts for the Social Democrats, although there were no evident improvements for their supporters. The Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, regained his authority after this crisis, reclaimed his role as the Grand Duke of Finland, and during the second period of Russification between 1908 and 1917 neutralized the functions and powers of the new parliament. The confrontations between the Finnish people's representatives of the largely uneducated common man and the Finns of the former estates accustomed to the meritocratic rule and attitudes diminished also the capability of the new parliament to solve major social and economical problems during the ten years before the collapse of the Finnish state. , , , , , Parliamentary reform of 1906 February Revolution (1917) On strike in Helsinki, 1917. Workers demanded food and a complete shifting of legislative power from the Russian government to the Finnish parliament. The more severe program of Russification, called "the second period of oppression 1908–1917" by the Finns, was halted on 15 March 1917 by the removal of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II. The immediate reason for the collapse of the Russian Empire was a domestic crisis precipitated by defeats against Germany and by war-weariness among the Russian people. The deeper causes of the revolution lay in the collision between the policies of the most conservative regime in Europe and the necessity for political and economic modernisation brought about by industrialisation. The Tsar's power was transferred to the Russian Duma and Provisional Government, which at this time had a right-wing majority. , , Autonomous status was returned to the Finns in March 1917, and the revolt in Russia handed the Finnish Parliament true political power for the first time. The left comprised mainly Social Democrats, covering a wide spectrum from moderate to revolutionary socialists; the right was even more diverse, ranging from liberals and moderate conservatives to radical rightist elements. The four main parties were the two old Fennoman parties, the conservative Finnish Party and the Young Finnish Party including both liberals and conservatives; the social reformist, centrist Agrarian League, which drew its support mainly from peasants with small or middle-sized farms; and the conservative Swedish People's Party, which sought to retain the rights of the Swedish-speaking minority. The Finns faced a detrimental interaction of power struggle and breakdown of society during 1917. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Finnish people stood at the crossroads between the old regime of the estates and the evolution of a modern, democratic society. The direction and goal of this period of change now became a matter of intense political dispute, which eventually spilled over into armed conflict due to the weakness of the Finnish state. The Social Democrats aimed at retaining the political rights already achieved and establishing influence over the people. The conservatives were fearful of losing their long-held social and economic power. , , The Social Democratic Party had gained an absolute majority in the Parliament of Finland as a result of the general elections of 1916. The new Senate was formed by Social Democrat and trade union leader Oskari Tokoi. His Senate cabinet comprised six representatives from the Social Democrats and six from non-socialist parties. In theory, the new cabinet consisted of a broad coalition; in practice, with the main political groups unwilling to compromise and the most experienced politicians remaining outside it, the cabinet proved unable to solve any major local Finnish problems. Real political power shifted instead to street level in the form of mass meetings, protests, strike organizations, and the street councils formed by workers and soldiers after the revolution, all of which served to undermine the authority of the state. The rapid economic growth stimulated by World War I, which had raised the incomes of industrial workers during 1915 and 1916, collapsed with the February Revolution, and the consequent decrease in production and economy led to unemployment and heavy inflation. Large-scale strikes in both industry and agriculture spread throughout Finland, the workers calling for higher wages and eight-hour-per-day working limits. The cessation of cereal imports from Russia had produced food shortages in the country, as a response to which the government introduced rationing and price fixing. However, a black market formed in which food prices continued to rise sharply, which was a major problem for the unemployed worker families. Food supply, prices, and the fear of starvation became emotional political issues between farmers in the countryside and industrial workers in the urban areas. The common people, their fears exploited by the politicians and the political media, took to the streets. Despite the food shortages, no large-scale starvation hit the Finns in southern Finland before the war. Economic factors remained a supporting factor in the crisis of 1917, but only a secondary part of the power struggle of the state. , , , Revolutionary Russian servicemen of various political groups added to the feeling of the instability during 1917. Battle for leadership The power struggle between the Social Democrats and the conservatives culminated in July 1917 in the passing of the Senate bill that eventually became the "Power Act", which incorporated a plan by the Social Democrats to substantially increase the power of Parliament, in which they had a majority; it also furthered Finnish independence by restricting Russia's influence on domestic Finnish affairs. The Social Democrats' plan had the backing of Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Bolsheviks, who in July 1917 were plotting a revolt against the Russian Provisional Government. The Agrarian Union, some rightist activists, and other non-socialists eager for Finnish sovereignty supported the act, but both the Finnish conservatives and the Russian Provisional Government opposed the measure because it would reduce their power. In the event, Lenin was thwarted during the "July Days" and forced to flee to Finland. The Provisional Russian Government refused to accept the Power Act and sent troops to Finland, where, with the support of the conservatives, Parliament was dissolved and new elections announced. In those elections, in October 1917, the Social Democrats lost their absolute majority, after which the labour movement's role changed. Until then, it had mainly struggled for new rights and benefits for its members; now the movement was forced to defend the gains it had already made. , , , The collapse of Russia in the February Revolution resulted in a loss of institutional authority in Finland and the dissolution of the police force, creating fear and uncertainty. In response, groups on both the right and left began assembling independent security groups for their own protection. At first, these groups were local and largely unarmed, but by autumn 1917, in the power vacuum following the dissolution of parliament and in the absence of a stable government or a Finnish army, such forces began assuming a more military and national character. , , The Civil Guards (later called the White Guards) were organized by local men of influence, usually conservative academics, industrialists and major landowners and activists, while the Worker's Security Guards (later called the Red Guards) were often recruited through their local party sections and the labour unions. The presence of these two opposing armed forces in the country imposed a state of “dual power" and "multiple sovereignty" on Finnish society, typically the prelude to civil war. , , , , , October Revolution (1917) Lenin's Bolshevik Revolution on 7 November transferred political power to the radical, left-wing socialists in Russia, a turn of events which suited a German Empire exhausted by fighting a war on two major fronts. The policy of the German leaders had been to foment unrest or revolution in Russia in order to force the Russians to sue for peace. To that end, they had arranged for the safe conduct of Lenin and his comrades from exile in Switzerland to Petrograd in April 1917. Furthermore, the Germans financed the Bolshevik party, believing Lenin to be the most powerful weapon they could launch at Russia. , After the dissolution of the Finnish parliament, the polarization and mutual fear between the Social Democrats and the conservatives increased dramatically, a situation made worse when the latter, after their victory in the elections of October 1917, appointed a purely conservative cabinet. On 1 November, the Social Democrats put forward a political program called "We demand" in order to push for political concessions in domestic policy. They planned also to ask for acceptance of Finland's sovereignty from the Bolsheviks in the form of a manifesto on 10 November, but the uncertain situation in Petrograd stalled the plan. After the uncompromising "We demand" program had failed, the socialists initiated a general strike on 14–19 November 1917. At this moment, Lenin and the Bolsheviks, under threat in Petrograd, urged the Social Democrats to seize power in Finland, but the majority of the latter were moderate and preferred parliamentary methods, prompting Lenin to label them "reluctant revolutionaries". When the general strike appeared to be successful, the "Workers' Revolutionary Council" voted by a narrow majority to seize power on 16 November at 5 a.m. The supreme revolutionary "Executive Committee", however, was unable to recruit enough members to carry out the plan and had to call the proposed revolution off at 7 p.m. the same day. The incident, "the shortest revolution", effectively split the Social Democrats in two, a majority supporting parliamentary means and a minority demanding revolution. The repercussions of the event had a lasting effect on the future of the movement, with several powerful leaders staking positions within the party. , The Finnish Parliament, influenced by the general strike, supported the Social Democratic proposals for an eight-hour working day and universal suffrage in local elections on 16 November 1917. During the strike, however, radical elements of the Workers' Security Guards executed several political opponents in the main cities of southern Finland, and the first armed clashes between Civil Guards and Workers' Guards broke out, with 34 reported casualties. The Finnish Civil War would probably have started at that point had there been enough weapons in the country to arm the two sides; instead, there began a race for weapons and a final escalation towards war. , Finnish sovereignty The disintegration of Russia offered the Finns a historic opportunity to gain independence, but after the October Revolution, the positions of the conservatives and the Social Democrats on the sovereignty issue had become reversed. The right was now eager for independence because sovereignty would assist them in controlling the left and in minimizing the influence of revolutionary Russia. The Social Democrats had supported independence since spring 1917, but now they could not use it for the direct political benefit of their party and had to adjust to the right's dominance in the country. Nationalism had become a "civic religion" among the Finns by the end of the nineteenth century, and during 1917 sovereignty was one of the few political questions on which most of the Finnish people agreed. , The Bolshevik government's recognition of Finnish independence was the first concrete expression of Lenin's demand for the right of nations to self-determination. The Senate, led by Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, proposed Finland's declaration of independence, which the Parliament adopted on 6 December 1917. , Though the Social Democrats voted against the Svinhufvud proposal, they decided to present an alternative declaration of independence containing no substantial differences. The socialists feared a further loss of support (as in the October elections) among the nationalistic common people and hoped to win a political majority in the future. They sent two delegations during December 1917 to Petrograd in order to appeal from Lenin an approval of Finnish independence. Both political groups, therefore, agreed on the need for Finnish sovereignty, despite strong disagreement on the selection of its leadership. , , , , The establishment of sovereignty was not a foregone conclusion; for a small nation like Finland, recognition by Russia and the major European powers was essential. Three weeks after the declaration of independence, Svinhufvud's cabinet concluded that it would have to negotiate with Lenin for Russian recognition. During December 1917, the Bolsheviks were under pressure in peace negotiations with Germany at Brest-Litovsk. Russia Bolshevism was in a deep crisis with a demoralized army and the fate of the October Revolution in doubt. Lenin calculated that the Bolsheviks could perhaps hold central parts of Russia but would have to give up some territories on its periphery, including Finland in the less important north-western corner. As a result, Svinhufvud and his senate delegation won Lenin's concession of sovereignty on 31 December 1917. , , Warfare White Guard in Nummi. White Guards were mobilized on 28.01., at 3 a.m. and the Red Guards on 27.01.1918, at 11 p.m. Escalation In hindsight the events of 1917 have been often seen simply as precursors of the Civil War, an escalation of the conflict starting with the February Revolution. But the opposing political factions made many failed attempts of their own to create a new order and prevent social breakdown in 1917. The events of the general strike in November deepened the suspicion and mistrust in Finland and finally put the possibility of compromise out of reach. The conservatives and rightist activists saw the groups of radical workers active during the strike as a threat to the security of the former estates and the political right, so they resolved to use all means necessary to defend themselves, including armed force. At the same time, revolutionary workers and left-wing socialists were now considering removing the conservative regime by force rather than allowing the achievements of the workers' movement to be reversed. The result of this hardening of positions was that in late 1917, moderate, peaceful men and women, as so often throughout history, were forced to stand aside while the men with rifles stepped forward to take charge. , , , , The final escalation towards war began in early January 1918. The most radical Workers' Security Guards from Helsinki, Kotka and Turku changed their names to Red Guards and convinced those leaders of the Social Democrats who wavered between peace and war to support revolution. The Workers' Guards were officially renamed the Red Guards at the end of the same month, under the command of Ali Aaltonen, a former Russian army officer, who had been appointed in December. At the same time, the Svinhufvud Senate and the Parliament decided on 12 January 1918 to create a strong police authority, an initiative which the Workers' Security Guards saw as a step towards legalizing the White Guards. When the Senate renamed the White Guards the Finnish White Army, the Red Guards refused to recognise the title. On 15 January, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, like Aaltonen a former officer in the Russian army, was appointed supreme commander of the White Guards. He located his headquarters in Vaasa, while Aaltonen located his in Helsinki. , , The official starting date of the Finnish Civil War is a matter for debate. The first serious battles were fought during 17–20 January in Viipuri province, in the south-eastern corner of Finland, mainly for control of the town of Viipuri and to win the race for weapons. The White Order to engage was issued on 25 January; the Red Order of Revolution was issued on 26 January. The next day, the White Guards attacked trains carrying a large shipment of weapons from Russia, as promised to the Reds by Lenin. The large scale mobilization of the Red Guards began in the late evening of 27 January, followed by the corresponding act of the White Guards, with disarmament of Russian garrisons in Ostrobothnia during the early hours of 28 January. A symbolic date for the start of the war could be 26 January, when a group of Reds climbed the tower of Helsinki Workers' Hall and lit a red lantern to mark the start of the second major rebellion in the history of Finland. , Brothers in arms Initial frontlines and offensives of the Civil War at the beginning of February (area controlled by the Reds in red, and by the Whites in blue) At the beginning of the war, the front line ran through southern Finland from west to east, dividing the country into White Finland and Red Finland. The Red Guards controlled the area to the south, including nearly all the major industrial centres and the largest estates and farms with high numbers of crofters and tenant farmers; the White Army controlled the area to the north, which was predominantly agrarian with small or medium-sized farms and tenant farmers, and where crofters were few or held a better social position than in the south. Enclaves of the opposing forces existed on both sides of the front line: within the White area lay the industrial towns of Varkaus, Kuopio, Oulu, Raahe, Kemi and Tornio; within the Red area lay Porvoo, Kirkkonummi and Uusikaupunki. The elimination of these strongholds was a priority for both armies during February 1918. Red Finland, later named the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic, was led by the People's Council in Helsinki. Kullervo Manner was the chairman and other members included Otto Ville Kuusinen and Yrjö Sirola. Bolshevist Russia declared its support for Red Finland, but the Reds' vision of democratic socialism for the country did not resemble Lenin's dictatorship of the proletariat, . Lenin tried to prevent disintegration of Russia, but he failed, and many minor, western territories of the former empire declared independency. The majority of the Finnish Social Democrats supported Finland's sovereignty; , , however, the Red Guards dominated the politics of Red Finland with their weapons, and the most radical Guards and the Finnish Bolsheviks, though few in number, obviously favoured annexation of Finland back to Russia. This major question vanished in the air due to the defeat of Red Finland. , The Finnish senate (the Vaasa Senate) relocated to the west-coast city of Vaasa, which acted as the capital of White Finland from 29 January to 3 May, and looked to Germany for military and political aid. Mannerheim agreed on the need for German weapons but opposed any help from German troops in Finland. The conservatives planned a monarchist political system, with a lesser role for Parliament. A section of the conservatives had always been against democracy; others had approved parliamentarianism at first but after the crisis of 1917 and the outbreak of war had concluded that empowering the common people would not work. Moderate non-socialists opposed any restriction of parliamentarianism and initially resisted German military help, but prolonged warfare changed their stance. , , The Finnish Civil War was fought along the railways, the vital means of transporting troops and supplies. The Red Guards' first objective was to cut the Whites' east-west rail connection, which they attempted north-east of Tampere, at the Battle of Vilppula. They also unsuccessfully tried to eliminate the Whites' bridgehead south of the River Vuoksi at Antrea on the Karelian Isthmus, a threat to their rail connection with Russia. The main offensives to the end of March. Whites besiege Tampere and encircle attacking Soviet Russian and Red forces at Rautu, on Karelian Isthmus. The number of troops on each side varied from 50,000 to 90,000. While the Red Guards consisted mostly of volunteers, the White Army contained only 11,000–15,000 volunteers, the remainder being conscripts. The main motives for volunteering were economic factors (salary, food), idealism, and peer pressure. The Red Guards also included 2,000 female troops, mostly young girls, recruited from the industrial centres of southern Finland. Both armies used juvenile soldiers, mainly between 15 and 17 years of age, the most famous example being Urho Kekkonen who fought for the White Army and later became the longest-serving President of Finland. Urban and agricultural workers constituted the majority of the Red Guards, whereas land-owning farmers and well-educated people formed the backbone of the White Army. , , The German intervention (grey) and final offensives of the War Red Guards and the Russian troops The Red Guards seized the early initiative in the war, taking control of Helsinki, the Finnish capital, in the early hours of 28 January, and gaining first advantage with an "attack phase" that lasted till mid-March. However, a chronic shortage of skilled leaders, both at command level and in the field, left them unable to capitalize on their initial momentum, and most of the offensives finally came to nothing. The troops of the Red Guards were not professional soldiers but armed civilians, whose military training and discipline were mostly inadequate to resist the counter-attack of the White Army when it came, still less the onslaught of the German forces who arrived later. Consequently, Ali Aaltonen found himself rapidly replaced in command by Eero Haapalainen, who in turn was replaced by the triumvirate of Eino Rahja, Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta. The last commander of the Red Guards was Kullervo Manner, who led the final retreat into Russia. The only victories of the Finnish Red Guards were the heavy battles against German troops at Hauho and Tuulos, Syrjäntaka, on 28–29 April 1918, during their retreat from southern Finland towards Russia, but these conflicts had only local importance by then. , Red officers on their horses Although some 60,000 to 80,000 Russian soldiers of the former Tsar's army remained stationed in Finland at the start of the Civil War, the Russian contribution to the Red Guards' cause was to prove negligible. When the conflict began, Lenin tried to commit the army on behalf of Red Finland, but the troops were demoralized and war-weary after years of World War I. The majority of the soldiers had returned to Russia by the end of March 1918. As a result, only 7,000 to 10,000 troops participated in the Finnish Civil War, of which no more than 4,000, in separate small units, could be persuaded to fight in the front line. Despite the involvement of a few skilled old Russian army officers such as Mikhail Svechnikov, who led the battles in western Finland throughout February 1918, it seems reasonable to assume that the Russian troops had no significant influence on the course of the war. , , , The number of Russian soldiers active in the Civil War declined markedly once Germany attacked Russia on 18 February 1918. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed between Russia and Germany on 3 March, effectively restricted the Bolsheviks' ability to support the Finnish Red Guards with anything more than weapons and supplies. , , The Russians did remain active on the south-eastern front, however, defending the approaches to Petrograd. White Guards and the German Army The military quality of the common soldier in the White Army differed little from that of his counterpart in the Red Guards, with brief and inadequate training provided for most of the troops. , But the White Army had two major advantages over the Red Guards: the professional military leadership of General Mannerheim and his staff—which included 84 Swedish volunteer officers as well as former Finnish officers of the Tsar's army—and approximately 1,300 "Jäger" (Jääkärit) elite Finnish troops, trained in Germany and battle-hardened on the Eastern Front. Battle of Tampere Unburied bodies – outcome of the Battle of Tampere Mannerheim's strategy was to strike first at Tampere, Finland's most important industrial town in the south-west. He launched the attack on 16 March at Längelmäki, 65 km north-east of Tampere; at the same time the White Army began advancing along a line through Vilppula–Kuru–Kyröskoski–Suodenniemi, north and north-west of Tampere. The Red Guards collapsed under the weight of the assault, and some of its detachments retreated in panic. The White Army cut off the Red Guards' retreat south of Tampere in Lempäälä and lay siege to Tampere on 24 March, entering the town four days later. The true Battle of Tampere began on 28 March, later called the "bloody Maundy Thursday" on the eve of Easter 1918. The battle for Tampere was fought between 16,000 White and 14,000 Red soldiers, and it was the decisive action of the war and the largest military engagement in Scandinavian history to that point. It was Finland's first urban battle, fought in the Kalevankangas graveyard and from house-to-house in the city as the Red Guards retreated. The battle, lasting until 6 April 1918, was the bloodiest action of the war; the motivation to fight for defence had increased markedly among the Reds, and the Whites had to use part of the fresh, best trained detachments of their army. The fighting in Tampere was pure civil war, Finn against Finn, "brother rising against brother", since most of the Russian army had retreated to Russia in March and the German troops had yet to arrive in Finland. The White Army lost 700–900 men, including 50 Jägers. The Red Guards lost 1,000–1,500 soldiers, with a further 11,000–12,000 imprisoned. 71 civilians died mainly due to artillery fire. The eastern parts of the city, with wooden buildings, were destroyed completely. , , After their defeat in Tampere, the Red Guards retreated eastwards. The White Army shifted its military focus to Viipuri, Karelia's main city, taking it on 29 April. The Red Guards' last strongholds in south-west Finland fell by 5 May. , , , German intervention German Maschinengewehr 08-machine gun position in Helsinki The German Empire finally intervened in the Finnish Civil War on the side of the White Army in March 1918. The activists had been seeking German aid in freeing Finland from Russian hegemony since Autumn 1917, but the Germans did not want to prejudice their armistice and peace negotiations with Russia, the latter beginning on 22 December at Brest-Litovsk. The German stance altered radically after 10 February when Trotsky, despite the weakness of the Bolsheviks' position, broke off negotiations, hoping revolutions would break out in the German Empire and change everything. The German government promptly decided to teach Russia a lesson and, as a pretext for aggression, invited “requests for help” from the smaller countries west of Russia. Representatives of the Vaasa Senate in Berlin duly requested help on 14 February. On 7 March, representatives Hjelt and Erich agreed to pay the military costs of German military assistance. The Germans attacked Russia on 18 February. On March 5 a German Naval squadron landed on the Åland Islands in the southwestern archipelago of Finland, where a Swedish military expedition had been protecting Swedish interests and the Swedish-speaking population since mid-February. The Swedish troops were forced to leave the area by May. On 3 April 1918, the 10,000-strong Baltic Sea Division led by Rüdiger von der Goltz struck west of Helsinki at Hanko, and on 7 April, the 3,000-strong Detachment Brandenstein overran the town of Loviisa on the south-eastern coast. The main German formations then advanced rapidly eastwards from Hanko and took Helsinki on 13 April. At the same time, two German battleships and smaller vessels entered the city harbour and bombarded the Red positions, which included the present-day Presidential Palace. The Brandenstein Brigade attacked the town of Lahti on 19 April, cutting the connection between the western and eastern Red Guards. The main German detachment advanced northwards from Helsinki and took Hyvinkää and Riihimäki on April 21–22, followed by Hämeenlinna on 26 April. The efficient performance of the German top detachments in the civil war contrasted strikingly with that of the demoralized Russian troops. , , , Most members of the People's Deputation of Finland fled from Helsinki on 8 April and from Viipuri to Petrograd on 25 April, with only Edvard Gylling remaining in Viipuri. The Finnish Civil War ended on 14–15 May, when a small number of Russian troops retreated from a coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus. White Finland celebrated its victory in Helsinki on 16 May 1918. Red and White terror White firing squad executing Red soldiers in Länkipohja During the civil war, the White Army and the Red Guards both perpetrated acts of terror. According to earlier views, both sides had agreed to certain rules of engagement, but violations occurred from the start, most notably when Red Guards executed 17 troops at Suinula village on 31 January, and when White Army soldiers executed 90 troops at Varkaus on 21 February. After these incidents, both sides began carrying out revenge executions at local level, a trend which escalated to massacres and terrorism. , , , Recent studies indicate, however, that the terror was a calculated part of the general warfare. The highest staffs of both sides planned these actions and gave orders to the lower level. At least a third of the Red terror and perhaps most of the White terror was centrally led. The governments of White Finland and Red Finland officially opposed acts of terror, but such operational decisions were made at the military level. , Both armies deployed "flying detachments" of cavalry, usually consisting of 10 to 80 troops aged 15 to 20, under the absolute authority of an experienced adult leader. These units, which specialized in search-and-destroy operations behind the front lines and during and after battles, have been described as death squads. The Red Guards executed those they considered the main leaders of White Finland or as class enemies, including industrialists, politicians and major landowners. The two major sites of the Red terror were Toijala and Kouvola; there 300–350 Whites were executed between February and April 1918. The White Guards executed Red Guard and party leaders and those who participated in the war and Red terror. During the peak of the White terror, between the end of April and the beginning of May, 200 Reds were shot per day. The White terror hit particularly strongly the Russian soldiers who fought with the Red Guards. , In total, 1,400–1,650 Whites were executed in the Red terror, and 7,000–10,000 Reds were executed in the White terror. The breakdown of the rules of engagement in the Finnish Civil War conformed to a pattern observed in many other civil wars. The Red casualties included 300–400 female soldiers, , , , Aftermath Lives Lost Cause of death Reds Whites Other Total Killed in action 5,199 3,414 790 9,403 Executed, shot or murdered 7,370 1,424 926 9,720 Prison camp deaths 11,652 4 1,790 13,446 Died after release from camp 607 - 6 613 Missing 1,767 46 380 2,193 Other causes 443 291 531 1,265 Total 27,038 5,179 4,423 36,640 Source: National Archive Prison camp in Suomenlinna, Helsinki. More than 11,000 people died in such camps due to hunger, disease, and executions. Bitter legacy The Civil War was a catastrophe for the Finnish nation. Almost 37,000 people perished, 5,900 of whom (16% of the total) were between 14 and 20 years old. A notable feature of the war was that only about 10,000 of these casualties occurred on the battlefields; most of the deaths resulted from the terror campaigns and from the appalling conditions in the prison camps. In addition, the war left about 20,000 children orphaned. A large number of Red Finland supporters fled to Russia at the end of the war and during the period that followed. , , , , War victims in Finland 1914–1920 The war created a legacy of bitterness, fear, hatred, and desire for revenge, and deepened the divisions within Finnish society. The conservatives and liberals disagreed strongly on the best system of government for Finland to adopt: the former demanded monarchy and restricted parliamentarianism; the latter demanded a Finnish republic with full-scale democracy and social reforms. A new conservative Senate, with a monarchist majority, was formed by J.K. Paasikivi. , , , All members of parliament who had taken part in the revolt were removed from office. This left only one social democrat later to be joined by two more. A major consequence of the 1918 conflict was the breakup of the Finnish worker movement into three parts: moderate Social Democrats, left-wing socialists in Finland, and communists acting in Soviet Russia with the support of the Bolsheviks. In foreign policy, White Finland looked to Germany and its military might for support, and at the end of May the Senate asked the Germans to remain in the country. The agreements signed with Germany on 7 March 1918 in return for military support had bound Finland politically, economically, and militarily to the German Empire. The Germans proposed a further military pact in summer 1918 as a part of their plan to secure raw materials for German industry from eastern Europe and tighten their control over Russia. General Mannerheim resigned his post on 25 May after disagreements with the Senate about German hegemony over the country and about his planned attack on Petrograd to repulse the Bolsheviks, which the Germans opposed under the peace treaty signed with Lenin at Brest-Litovsk. On 9 October, under pressure from Germany, the monarchist Senate and the rump parliament chose a German prince, Friedrich Karl, brother-in-law of German Emperor William II, to be the King of Finland—and Finland approached the status of a monarchistic state. All these measures diminished Finnish sovereignty. The Finns, both right and left, had achieved independence on 6 December 1917 without a gunshot but then compromised that independence by allowing the Germans to enter the country without difficulty during the civil war. , , , , , The economic condition of the country had deteriorated so drastically that recovery to pre-conflict levels was not achieved until 1925. The most acute crisis was in the food supply, already deficient in 1917, though starvation had at that time been avoided in southern Finland. The Civil War, according to the leaders of Red Finland and White Finland, would solve all past problems; instead it led to starvation in southern Finland too. Late in 1918, Finnish politician Rudolf Holsti appealed for relief to Herbert Hoover, the chairman of the Commission for Relief in Belgium: Hoover arranged for food shipments and persuaded the Allies to relax their blockade of the Baltic Sea (which had obstructed food supplies to Finland) to allow the food in. , Prison camps The White Army and German troops captured about 80,000 Red prisoners by the end of the war on 5 May 1918. Once the White terror subsided, a few thousand including mainly small children and women, were set free, leaving 74,000–76,000 prisoners. The largest prison camps were Suomenlinna, an island facing Helsinki, Hämeenlinna, Lahti, Viipuri, Ekenäs, Riihimäki and Tampere. The Senate made the decision to keep these prisoners detained until each person's guilt could be examined. A law for a Tribunal of Treason was enacted on 29 May after a long dispute between the White army and the Senate of the proper trial method to adopt. The start of the heavy and slow process of trials was delayed further until 18 June 1918. The Tribunal did not meet all the standards of neutral justice, due to the mental atmosphere of White Finland after the war. Approximately 70,000 Reds were convicted, mainly for complicity to treason. Most of the sentences were lenient, however, and many got out on parole. Still 555 persons were sentenced to death, but only 113 were executed. The trials revealed also that some innocent persons had been imprisoned. , , , , , Uta.fi/Suomi80/Yhteiskunta/Valtiorikosoikeudet Combined with the severe food shortage, the mass imprisonment led to high mortality rates in the camps, and the catastrophe was compounded by a mentality of punishment, anger and indifference on the part of the victors. Many prisoners felt that they were abandoned also by their own leaders, who had fled to Russia. The condition of the prisoners had weakened rapidly during May, after food supplies had been disrupted during the Red Guards' retreat in April, and a high number of prisoners had been captured already during the first half of April in Tampere and Helsinki. As a consequence, 2,900 starved to death or died in June as a result of diseases caused by malnutrition and Spanish flu, 5,000 in July, 2,200 in August, and 1,000 in September. The mortality rate was highest in the Ekenäs camp at 34%, while in the others the rate varied between 5% and 20%. In total, between 11,000 and 13,500 Finns perished. The dead were buried in mass graves near the camps. , , , , The majority of the prisoners were paroled or pardoned by the end of 1918 after the change in the political situation. There were 6,100 Red prisoners left at the end of the year , 100 in 1921 (at the same time civil rights were given back to 40,000 prisoners) and in 1927 the last 50 prisoners were pardoned by the social democratic government led by Väinö Tanner. In 1973, the Finnish government paid reparations to 11,600 persons imprisoned in the camps after the civil war. Vuoden 1918 kronologia. Työväen arkisto. Retrieved 10-23-2007. Compromise Just as the fate of the Finns was decided outside Finland in Petrograd on 15 March 1917, so it was decided outside Finland again on 11 November 1918, this time in Berlin, as Germany accepted defeat in World War I. The grand plans of the German Empire had finally come to nothing, and revolution had spread among the German people due to lack of food, war-weariness, and defeat in the battles on the Western Front. German troops left Helsinki on 16 December, and Prince Friedrich Karl, who had not yet been crowned officially, left his post on 20 December. Finland's status altered from a monarchistic protectorate of the German Empire to an independent democratic republic on the model of the western democracies. The first local elections based on universal suffrage in the history of Finland were held during 17–28 December 1918, and the first parliamentary election after the Civil War on 3 March 1919. The United States and the United Kingdom recognised Finnish sovereignty on 6–7 May 1919. , After the Civil War, in 1919 a moderate Social Democrat, Väinö Voionmaa, wrote: "Those who still trust in the future of this nation must have an exceptionally strong faith. This young independent country has lost almost everything due to the war...." At the same time, a liberal non-socialist, the eventual first president of Finland, K.J. Ståhlberg, elected 25 July 1919, wrote: "It is urgent to get the life and development in this country back on the path that we had already reached in 1906 and which the turmoil of war turned us away from". He was supported in that aim by Santeri Alkio, leader of the Agrarian Union and by moderate Finnish conservatives, such as Lauri Ingman. Ståhlberg, Ingman, Tokoi, and Miina Sillanpää with other moderate female politicians had desperately tried to avoid the war in Jan 1918 with a proposal for a new Senate including both non-socialist and socialist members, but they were run over, , Together with other moderate politicians of the right and the left, the new partnership constructed a Finnish compromise which eventually delivered a stable and broad parliamentary democracy. This compromise was based both on the defeat of Red Finland in the Civil War and the fact that most of the political goals of White Finland had not been achieved. After the foreign forces left Finland, the Finns realised they had to get along with each other and that none of the main groups could be rejected completely from society. The reconciliation led to a slow and painful, but steady, national unification. The compromise has turned out to be surprisingly strong and appears permanent. From 1919 to 1991, Finnish democracy and sovereignty withstood challenges from both right-wing and left-wing radicalism, the crisis of World War II, and pressure from the Soviet Union during the Cold War. , , The Civil War in literature The first generally appreciated book in Finland concerning the war, Devout Misery (), was written by the Nobel Laureate in Literature Frans Emil Sillanpää in 1919. Between 1959 and 1962, Väinö Linna, in his trilogy Under the North Star (), described the Civil War and the Second World War from the point of view of the common people. In poetry, Bertel Gripenberg, who had volunteered for the white army, celebrated its cause in The Great Age () in 1928. Viljo Kajava, who had experienced the horrors of the Battle of Tampere at the age of nine, presented a pacifist view of the civil war in his Poems of Tampere 1918 of the 1960s. Also Kjell Westö's epic novel Where We Once Went () deals with the Finnish civil war, following individuals and families from both the red and white sides of the spectrum, before, during and after the war period. Notes Bibliography Apunen, Osmo (1987), Rajamaasta tasavallaksi. In: Blomstedt, Y. (ed.) Suomen historia 6, Sortokaudet ja itsenäistyminen, pp. 47–404. WSOY. ISBN 951-35-2495-7. Hoppu, Tuomas (2007), Casualties in the battle for Tampere in 1918. Journal of Finnish Military History 26, pp. 8–35. ISSN-0357-816-X. Jussila, Osmo (2007), Suomen historian suuret myytit. WSOY. ISBN 978-951-0-33103-3. Kekkonen, Jukka (1991), Laillisuuden haaksirikko, rikosoikeudenkäyttö Suomessa vuonna 1918. ISBN 951-640-547-9. See also Winter War Continuation War Finnish War History of Finland List of Finnish wars Lotta Svärd External links Uta.fi/suomi80 — History project at University of Tampere War victims in Finland, 1914–1922 — Valtioneuvoston kanslia Monuments of the Reds — The central museum of Labour Vapaussota.fi — Foundation of Invalids of the War The representation of violence in the Finnish photography of the Civil War — Maarteen Patteuw | Finnish_Civil_War |@lemmatized finnish:67 civil:36 war:87 part:14 national:5 social:37 turmoil:4 cause:9 world:10 europe:4 fight:11 finland:85 january:14 may:13 force:18 democrat:23 lead:17 people:20 deputation:2 commonly:2 call:12 reds:1 punaiset:1 non:6 socialist:14 conservative:23 senate:19 white:61 valkoiset:1 red:76 support:17 russian:39 sfsr:1 receive:1 military:21 assistance:2 german:43 empire:16 february:16 october:9 revolution:23 defeat:8 total:6 collapse:7 time:14 include:16 destruction:1 russia:38 result:8 corresponding:3 breakdown:4 society:7 left:7 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813 | BIOS | In IBM PC Compatible computers, the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) , also known as the System BIOS, is a de facto standard defining a firmware interface. The PC Guide - System BIOS The BIOS is boot firmware, designed to be the first code run by a PC when powered on. The initial function of the BIOS is to identify, test, and initialize system devices such as the video display card, hard disk, and floppy disk and other hardware. This is to prepare the machine into a known state, so that software stored on compatible media can be loaded, executed, and given control of the PC. HowStuffWorks: What BIOS Does. This process is known as booting, or booting up, which is short for bootstrapping. BIOS programs are stored on a chip and are built to work with various devices that make up the complementary chipset of the system. They provide a small library of basic input/output functions that can be called to operate and control the peripherals such as the keyboard, text display functions and so forth. In the IBM PC and AT, certain peripheral cards such as hard-drive controllers and video display adapters carried their own BIOS extension ROM, which provided additional functionality. Operating systems and executive software, designed to supersede this basic firmware functionality, will provide replacement software interfaces to applications. Terminology The term first appeared in the CP/M operating system, describing the part of CP/M loaded during boot time that interfaced directly with the hardware (CP/M machines usually had only a simple boot loader in their ROM). Most versions of DOS have a file called "IBMBIO.COM" or "IO.SYS" that is analogous to the CP/M BIOS. Among other classes of computers, the generic terms boot monitor, boot loader or boot ROM were commonly used. Some Sun and PowerPC-based computers use Open Firmware for this purpose. There are few alternatives for Legacy BIOS in the x86 world: Extensible Firmware Interface, Open Firmware (used on the OLPC XO-1) and coreboot. IBM PC-compatible BIOS chips In principle, the BIOS in ROM was customized to the particular manufacturer's hardware, allowing low-level services (such as reading a keystroke or writing a sector of data to diskette) to be provided in a standardized way to the operating system. For example, an IBM PC might have had either a monochrome or a color display adapter, using different display memory addresses and hardware - but the BIOS service to print a character on the screen in text mode would be the same. Boot Block DMI Block Main Block PhoenixBIOS D686. The BIOS chip is housed in a PLCC package, which is, in turn, plugged into a PLCC socket. Prior to the early 1990s, BIOSes were stored in ROM or PROM chips, which could not be altered by users. As its complexity and need for updates grew, and re-programmable parts became more available, BIOS firmware was most commonly stored on EEPROM or flash memory devices. According to Robert Braver, the president of the BIOS manufacturer Micro Firmware, Flash BIOS chips became common around 1995 because the electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) chips are cheaper and easier to program than standard erasable PROM (EPROM) chips. EPROM chips may be erased by prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light, which accessed the chip via the window. Chip manufacturers use EPROM programmers (blasters) to program EPROM chips. Electrically erasable (EEPROM) chips come with the additional feature of allowing a BIOS reprogramming via higher-than-normal amounts of voltage. "Decoding RAM & ROM ." Smart Computing. June 1997. Volume 8, Issue 6. BIOS versions are upgraded to take advantage of newer versions of hardware and to correct bugs in previous revisions of BIOSes. "Upgrading Your Flash BIOS For Plug And Play." Smart Computing. March 1996. Volume 7, Issue 3. The first flash chips attached to the ISA bus. Starting in 1997, the BIOS flash moved to the LPC bus, a functional replacement for ISA, following a new standard implementation known as "firmware hub" (FWH). Most BIOS revisions created in 1995 and nearly all BIOS revisions in 1997 supported the year 2000. "Time To Check BIOS." Smart Computing. April 1999. Volume 7, Issue 4. In 2006, the first systems supporting a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) appeared, and the BIOS flash moved again. The size of the BIOS, and the capacities of the ROM, EEPROM and other media it may be stored on, has increased over time as new features have been added to the code; BIOS versions now exist with sizes up to 8 megabytes. Some modern motherboards are including even bigger NAND Flash ROM ICs on board which are capable of storing whole compact operating system distribution like some Linux distributions. For example, some recent ASUS motherboards included SplashTop Linux embedded into their NAND Flash ROM ICs. Flashing the BIOS Where the BIOS is stored in rewritable memory, flashing the BIOS is overwriting the BIOS contents with a BIOS image. BIOS chip vulnerabilities EEPROM chips are advantageous because they can be easily updated by the user; hardware manufacturers frequently issue BIOS updates to upgrade their products, improve compatibility and remove bugs. However, this advantage had the risk that an improperly executed or aborted BIOS update could render the computer or device unusable. To avoid these situations, more recent BIOSes use a "boot block"; a portion of the BIOS which runs first and must be updated separately. This code verifies if the rest of the BIOS is intact (using hash checksums or other methods) before transferring control to it. If the boot block detects any corruption in the main BIOS, it will typically warn the user that a recovery process must be initiated by booting from removable media (floppy, CD or USB memory) so the user can try flashing the BIOS again. Some motherboards have a backup BIOS (sometimes referred to as DualBIOS boards) to recover from BIOS corruptions. In 2007, Gigabyte began offering motherboards with a QuadBIOS recovery feature. "Quad BIOS is a unique GIGABYTE feature that includes DualBIOS and Xpress BIOS Rescue Technology. This combination delivers a safety assurance mechanism that sports a total of 4 copies of BIOS distributed between the Flash ROM, hard-disk and driver CD." Gigabyte Corporate News, January 15, 2007. Virus attacks There was at least one virus which was able to erase Flash ROM BIOS content, rendering computer systems unusable. CIH, also known as "Chernobyl Virus", affected systems BIOS and often they could not be fixed on their own since they were no longer able to boot at all. To repair this, Flash ROM IC had to be ejected from the motherboard to be reprogrammed somewhere else. Damage from the CIH virus was possible since most motherboards at the time of CIH propagation used the same chip set, Intel TX, and most common operating systems such as Windows 95 allowed direct hardware access to all programs. Modern systems are not vulnerable to CIH because of a variety of chip sets being used which are incompatible with the Intel TX chip set, and also other Flash ROM IC types. There is also extra protection from accidental BIOS rewrites in the form of boot blocks which are protected from accidental overwrite or dual and quad BIOS equipped systems which may, in the event of a crash, use a backup BIOS. Also, all modern operating systems like Windows XP, Windows Vista, Linux do not allow direct hardware access to user mode programs. So, as of year 2008, CIH has become almost harmless and at most just bothers users by infecting executable files without being able to cause any real harm, only triggering numerous virus alerts from antivirus software. Firmware on adapter cards A computer system can contain several BIOS firmware chips. The motherboard BIOS typically contains code to access fundamental hardware components such as the keyboard, floppy drives, ATA (IDE) hard disk controllers, USB human interface devices, and storage devices. In addition, plug-in adapter cards such as SCSI, RAID, Network interface cards, and video boards often include their own BIOS, complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component. In some devices that can be used by add-in adapters and actually directly integrated on the motherboard, the add-in ROM may also be stored as separate code on the main BIOS flash chip. It may then be possible to upgrade this "add-in" BIOS (sometimes called an option ROM) separately from the main BIOS code. Add-in cards usually only require such an add-in BIOS if they: Need to be used prior to the time that the operating system loads (e.g. they may be used as part of the process which loads (bootstraps) the operating system), and: Are not sufficiently simple, or generic in operation to be handled by the main BIOS directly PC operating systems such as DOS, including all DOS-based versions of MS Windows, as well as bootloaders, may continue to make use of the BIOS to handle input and output. However, other modern operating systems will interact with hardware devices directly by using their own device drivers to directly access the hardware. Occasionally these add-in BIOSs are still called by these operating systems, in order to carry out specific tasks such as preliminary device initialization. To find these memory mapped expansion ROMs during the boot process, PC BIOS implementations scan real memory from 0xC0000 to 0xF0000 on 2 kilobyte boundaries looking for the ROM signature bytes of 55h followed by AAh (0xAA55). For a valid expansion ROM, its signature is immediately followed by a single byte indicating the number of 512-byte blocks it occupies in real memory. The BIOS then jumps to the offset located immediately after this size byte; at which point the expansion ROM code takes over, using the BIOS services to register interrupt vectors for use by post-boot applications and provide a user configuration interface, or display diagnostic information. There are many methods and utilities for dumping the contents of various motherboard BIOS and expansion ROMs. Under a Microsoft OS, DEBUG can be used to examine 64 KB segments of memory and save the contents to a file. For UNIX systems the dd command can be used by a user with root privileges: "dd if=/dev/mem bs=1k skip=768 count=256 2>/dev/null | strings -n 8". The BIOS boot specification If the expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots (such as from a network device or a SCSI adapter for which the BIOS has no driver code), it can use the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) API to register its ability to do so. Once the expansion ROMs have registered using the BBS APIs, the user can select among the available boot options from within the BIOSes user interface. This is why most BBS compliant PC BIOS implementations will not allow the user to enter the BIOS's user interface until the expansion ROMs have finished executing and registering themselves with the BBS API. Changing role of the BIOS Some operating systems, for example MS-DOS, rely on the BIOS to carry out most input/output tasks within the PC. Smart Computing Article - What Is The BIOS? - Computing Basics July 1994 • Vol.5 Issue 7 A variety of technical reasons makes it inefficient for some recent operating systems written for 32-bit CPUs such as Linux and Microsoft Windows to invoke the BIOS directly. Larger, more powerful, servers and workstations using PowerPC or SPARC CPUs by several manufacturers developed a platform-independent Open Firmware (IEEE-1275), based on the Forth programming language. It is included with Sun's SPARC computers, IBM's RS/6000 line, and other PowerPC CHRP motherboards. Later x86-based personal computer operating systems, like Windows NT, use their own, native drivers which also makes it much easier to extend support to new hardware, while the BIOS still relies on a legacy 16-bit runtime interface. As such, the BIOS was relegated to bootstrapping, at which point the operating system's own drivers can take control of the hardware. There was a similar transition for the Apple Macintosh, where the system software originally relied heavily on the ToolBox—a set of drivers and other useful routines stored in ROM based on Motorola's 680x0 CPUs. These Apple ROMs were replaced by Open Firmware in the PowerPC Macintosh, then EFI in Intel Macintosh computers. Later BIOS took on more complex functions, by way of interfaces such as ACPI; these functions include power management, hot swapping and thermal management. However BIOS limitations (16-bit processor mode, only 1 MiB addressable space, PC AT hardware dependencies, etc.) were seen as clearly unacceptable for the newer computer platforms. Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) is a specification which replaces the runtime interface of the legacy BIOS. Initially written for the Itanium architecture, EFI is now available for x86 and x86-64 platforms; the specification development is driven by The Unified EFI Forum, an industry Special Interest Group. Linux has supported EFI via the elilo boot loader. The Open Source community increased their effort to develop a replacement for proprietary BIOSes and their future incarnations with an open sourced counterpart through the coreboot and OpenBIOS/Open Firmware projects. AMD provided product specifications for some chipsets, and Google is sponsoring the project. Motherboard manufacturer Tyan offers coreboot next to the standard BIOS with their Opteron line of motherboards. MSI and Gigabyte Technology have followed suit with the MSI K9ND MS-9282 and MSI K9SD MS-9185 resp. the M57SLI-S4 models. Some BIOSes contain a "tattoo", a digital signature placed inside the BIOS by the manufacturer, for example Dell. Computer manufacturers that distribute OEM versions of Microsoft Windows and Microsoft application software can use the tattoo to authenticate licensing to the OEM Windows Installation disk and/or system recovery disc containing Windows software. Dell systems having tattoos do not require entry of the Product Key (the Product Key on the label in fact being invalid), and they bypass Windows Product Activation (a convenience to the user and to Microsoft). The BIOS business The vast majority of PC motherboard suppliers license a BIOS "core" and toolkit from a commercial third-party, known as an "independent BIOS vendor" or IBV. The motherboard manufacturer then customizes this BIOS to suit its own hardware. For this reason, updated BIOSes are normally obtained directly from the motherboard manufacturer. Major BIOS vendors include American Megatrends (AMI), Insyde Software, Phoenix Technologies. Former vendors include Award Software. See also Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) ARCS BIOS boot devices BIOS interrupt calls coreboot, a project whose aim is to create a free replacement for the BIOS Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) Firmware Input/Output Base Address List of computer standards Nonvolatile BIOS memory Open Firmware Power-On Self Test (POST) References How BIOS Works - HowStuffWorks Footnotes External links BIOS Recovery, Chip replacement, Update instructions Wim's BIOS Page - Finding BIOS Updates for your PC, Forum TweakBIOS - BIOS information and tweaking BIOS options explained Identifying motherboards via Award, AMI and Acer BIOS identification strings How to create a Bootable CD / Diskette / USB-Stick e.g. to flash/update the BIOS Information about the BIOS, POST, BIOS recovery and chip replacement BIOS from A to Z BIOS for Beginners BIOS Password reset Some universal and/or firmware flash tools are: UniFlash and flashrom - a Linux tool. Specifications Preventing BIOS Failures Using Intel® Boot Block Flash Memory (December 1998) BIOS Boot Specification 1.01 (January 1996) Implementing a Plug and Play BIOS Using Intel's Boot Block Flash Memory (February 1995) [[pt:BIOS] | BIOS |@lemmatized ibm:5 pc:14 compatible:3 computer:12 basic:4 input:5 output:5 system:32 bios:105 also:8 know:5 de:1 facto:1 standard:5 define:1 firmware:19 interface:15 guide:1 boot:24 design:2 first:5 code:9 run:2 power:4 initial:1 function:5 identify:2 test:2 initialize:1 device:12 video:3 display:6 card:6 hard:4 disk:5 floppy:3 hardware:15 prepare:1 machine:2 known:1 state:1 software:9 store:9 medium:3 load:4 execute:2 give:2 control:4 howstuffworks:2 process:4 booting:1 short:1 bootstrapping:2 program:6 chip:22 build:1 work:2 various:2 make:4 complementary:1 chipset:1 provide:6 small:1 library:1 call:5 operate:11 peripheral:3 keyboard:2 text:2 forth:2 certain:1 drive:3 controller:2 adapter:6 carry:3 extension:1 rom:25 additional:2 functionality:2 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814 | Human_spaceflight | Edward White on a spacewalk during the Gemini 4 mission. A human spaceflight is a spaceflight with a human crew, and possibly passengers. This makes it unlike robotic space probes or remotely-controlled satellites. Human spaceflight is sometimes called manned spaceflight, a term now deprecated by major space agencies in favor of its gender-neutral alternative. As of 2008 human spaceflights are being actively launched by the Soyuz programme conducted by the Russian Federal Space Agency, the Space Shuttle program conducted by NASA and the Shenzhou program conducted by the China National Space Administration. A number of non-governmental startup companies have sprung up in recent years, hoping to create a space tourism industry. For a list of such companies, and the spacecraft they are currently building, see list of space tourism companies. History Prehistory Arabic manuscript of the One Thousand and One Nights The ancient Indian epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana, feature mythical Vimana flying machines that were able to fly within the Earth's atmosphere, and able to travel into space and travel submerged under water. At around 125 AD, a Syrian satirist named Lucian wrote a book on space flight called True Histories Trips to the Moon by Lucian of Samosata,Project Gutenberg . The book was full of tall, unbelievable tales and travelogues on visits to the sun and the moon. Today, the book could easily be discarded as the fantasy of a people of a bygone era. But it was significant in the sense that it kindled the curiosities of the people of the day and stimulated interest in outer space and space travel. Kaguya-hime returning to the Moon in The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter During the Middle Ages, several stories within the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) feature fantastic tales of human spaceflight. For example, "The Adventures of Bulukiya" features the protagonist Bulukiya journeying to the Garden of Eden and to Jahannam, and travelling across the cosmos to different worlds much larger than his own world, anticipating elements of galactic science fiction. "The Ebony Horse" features a robot in the form of a flying mechanical horse controlled using keys that could fly into outer space and towards the Sun. "The Ebony Horse" can be considered an early example of proto-science fiction. Academic Literature, Islam and Science Fiction (cf. ) Illustration courtesy of Civil Air Patrol depicting the legend of Wan Hu, wearing a Song Dynasty official suit The 10th century Japanese narrative, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, may also be considered proto-science fiction. The protagonist of the story, Kaguya-hime, is a princess from the Moon who is sent to Earth for safety during a celestial war, and is found and raised by a bamboo cutter in Japan. She is later taken back to the Moon by her real extraterrestrial family. A manuscript illustration depicts a round flying machine similar to a flying saucer. American author Herbert S. Zim claimed in 1945 Amazon.com: Rockets and jets,: Herbert Spencer Zim: Books that there is a Chinese legend where a scientist named Wan Hu (d. 1500) China's Ming dynasty astronaut in the early Ming Dynasty attempted to travel through space with the help of rockets. However, the account is unsourced, and no known Chinese account exists. In the story, Wan tied 47 rockets filled with explosives to the chair in which he was sitting and ignited them. There was a large explosion, but when the smoke cleared Wan Hu was gone and never seen again. First human spaceflights Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, in his space suit during the Vostok 1 mission The first human spaceflight was undertaken on April 12, 1961, when cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made one orbit around the Earth aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft, launched by the Soviet space program and designed by the rocket scientists Sergey Korolyov and Kerim Kerimov. Peter Bond, Obituary: Lt-Gen Kerim Kerimov, The Independent, 7 April 2003. Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space on board Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963. Both spacecraft were launched by Vostok 3KA launch vehicles. Alexei Leonov made the first spacewalk when he left the Voskhod 2 on March 8, 1965. Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to do so on July 25, 1984. Sergey Korolyov, one of the lead architects behind the Vostok 1 mission The United States became the second nation (and for four decades, one of only two) to achieve manned spaceflight, with the suborbital flight of astronaut Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7, carried out as part of Project Mercury. The spacecraft was launched on May 5, 1961 on a Redstone rocket. The first U.S. orbital flight was that of John Glenn aboard Friendship 7, which was launched February 20, 1962 on an Atlas rocket. Since April 12, 1981 the U.S. has conducted all its human spaceflight missions with reusable Space Shuttles. Sally Ride became the first American woman in space in 1983. Eileen Collins was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission STS-93 in July 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft. Kerim Kerimov, one of the lead architects behind the Vostok 1 mission The People's Republic of China became the third nation to achieve human spaceflight when Yang Liwei launched into space on a Chinese-made vehicle, the Shenzhou 5, on October 15, 2003. The flight made China the third nation capable of launching its own manned spacecraft using its own launcher. Previous European (Hermes) and Japanese (HOPE-X) domestic manned programs were abandoned after years of development, as was the first Chinese attempt, the Shuguang spacecraft. The furthest destination for a human spaceflight mission has been the Moon, and as of 2008 the only missions to the Moon have been those conducted by NASA as part of the Apollo program. The first such mission, Apollo 8, orbited the Moon but did not land. The first Moon landing mission was Apollo 11, during which—on July 20, 1969 -- Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon. Six missions landed in total, numbered Apollo 11–17, excluding Apollo 13. Altogether twelve men reached the Moon's surface, the only humans to have been on an extraterrestrial body. The Soviet Union discontinued its program for lunar orbiting and landing of human spaceflight missions on June 24, 1974 when Valentin Glushko became General Designer of NPO Energiya. The longest single human spaceflight is that of Valeriy Polyakov, who left earth on January 8, 1994, and didn't return until March 22, 1995 (a total of 437 days 17 hr. 58 min. 16 sec. aboard). Sergei Krikalyov has spent the most time of anyone in space, 803 days, 9 hours, and 39 seconds altogether. The longest period of continuous human presence in space lasted as long as 3,644 days, eight days short of 10 years, spanning the launch of Soyuz TM-8 on September 5, 1989 to the landing of Soyuz TM-29 on August 28, 1999. For many years beginning in 1961, only two countries, the USSR (later Russia) and United States, had their own astronauts. Later, cosmonauts and astronauts from other nations flew in space, beginning with the flight of Vladimir Remek, a Czech, on a Soviet spacecraft on March 2, 1978. , citizens from 33 nations (including space tourists) have flown in space aboard Soviet, American, Russian, and Chinese spacecraft. Space programs As of 2007, human spaceflight missions have been conducted by the Soviet Union (/Russia), the United States, the People's Republic of China and by the private spaceflight company Scaled Composites. Several other countries and space agencies have announced and begun human spaceflight programs by their own technology, including India (ISRO), Ecuador (EXA), Japan (JAXA), Iran (ISA), Malaysia (MNSA) and Turkey. Currently the following spacecraft and spaceports are used for launching human spaceflights: Soyuz with Soyuz launch vehicle—Baikonur Cosmodrome Space Shuttle—Kennedy Space Center International Space Station (ISS)—Assembled in orbit; crews transported by the previous two spacecraft Shenzhou spacecraft with Long March rocket—Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center Historically, the following spacecraft and spaceports have also been used for human spaceflight launches: Vostok—Baikonur Cosmodrome Mercury—Kennedy Space Center Voskhod—Baikonur Cosmodrome X-15—Edwards Air Force Base, (two internationally recognized suborbital flights in program) Gemini—Kennedy Space Center Apollo—Kennedy Space Center Salyut space station—Baikonur Cosmodrome Almaz space station—Baikonur Cosmodrome Skylab space station—Kennedy Space Center Mir space station—Baikonur Cosmodrome SpaceShipOne with White Knight—Mojave Spaceport Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million Ansari X Prize. The first private human spaceflight took place on June 21, 2004, when SpaceShipOne conducted a suborbital flight. SpaceShipOne captured the prize on October 4, 2004, when it accomplished two consecutive flights within one week. Most of the time, the only humans in space are those aboard the ISS, whose crew of three spends up to six months at a time in low Earth orbit. NASA and ESA now use the term "human spaceflight" to refer to their programs of launching people into space. Traditionally, these endeavors have been referred to as "manned space missions". National spacefaring attempts Successful manned programs are in bold. Suborbital flights are cursive (Italic type). Nation/Organization Space agency National term First launched astronaut Date Spacecraft Launcher Soviet space program cosmonautкосмонавт kosmanavt | Yuri Gagarin| April 12, 1961| Vostok 1| Vostok|- | | National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)| astronaut| Alan Shepard | May 5, 1961 | Mercury-Redstone 3 | Redstone |- | | China space program | 宇航员 yǔhángyuán航天员 hángtiānyuán | ... | 1973 (abandoned) | Shuguang 1 | Long March 2A |- | | China space program | 宇航员 yǔhángyuán航天员 hángtiānyuán | ... | 1981 (abandoned)January 7, 1979(failed) unconfirmed | Piloted FSW | Long March 2 |- | ESA | European Space Agency (ESA) | astronautspationautspationaute | ... | 1999 (abandoned) | Hermes | Ariane V |- | According to a press-release of Iraqi News Agency of December 5, 1989 about the first (and last) test of the Tammouz space launcher, Iraq intended to develop manned space facilities by the end of the century. These plans were put to an end by the Gulf War of 1991 and the economic hard times that followed. | ... | رجل فضاء rajul faḍāʼرائد فضاء rāʼib faḍāʼملاح فضائي mallāḥ faḍāʼiy | ... | 2001 (abandoned) | ... | Tammouz 2 or 3 |- | | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) | 宇宙飛行士 uchūhikōshi | ... | 2003 (abandoned) | HOPE-X | H-II |- | | China National Space Administration (CNSA)| taikonaut太空人 tàikōng rén宇航员 yǔhángyuán航天员 hángtiānyuán| Yang Liwei| October 15, 2003| Shenzhou 5| Long March 2F'|- | | Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency| astronautastronauta | Ronnie Nader| 2009 (approved)| ESAA-01 (spaceship will come X-15)| Myasishchev M-55|- | | Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) | gaganautbrahmonautantariksha yaatri | ... | 2015 (approved) | ISRO Orbital Vehicle | GSLV Mk II |- | ESA | European Space Agency (ESA) | astronautspationautspationaute | ... | 2018 (planned) | CSTS (ATV evolution) | Ariane V |- | | Iranian Space Agency (ISA) | فضانورد faza navard| ... | 2021 (planned) | ISA manned spacecraft | ... |- | | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) | 宇宙飛行士 uchūhikōshi| ... | 2025 (planned) | JAXA manned spacecraft | ... |- | | ARCASPACE| astronautastronauţ | ...| TBA (approved)| Stabilo-mission8| air-baloon|- | | ... | gökmen | ... | TBA (planned) | ... | ... |- | in 2006 Malaysia proposed the joint space program of islamic world with development of independent manned space facilities | Malaysian National Space Agency (MNSA) | angkasawan'' ... TBA (planned) ... ... Korean Committee of Space Technology (KCST) 우주비행사 ... TBA (planned) ... ... Safety concerns Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns. Life support The immediate needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by the life support system of the spacecraft. Medical issues Effects of microgravity Medical data from astronauts in low earth orbits for long periods, dating back to the 1970s, show several adverse effects of a microgravity environment: loss of bone density, decreased muscle strength and endurance, postural instability, and reductions in aerobic capacity. Over time these deconditioning effects can impair astronauts’ performance or increase their risk of injury. In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back muscles or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. If there is an emergency at landing, the loss of muscles, and consequently the loss of strength can be a serious problem. Sometimes, astronauts can lose up to 25% of their muscle mass on long term flights. When they get back to ground, they will be considerably weakened and will be out of action for a while. Astronauts experiencing weightlessness will often lose their orientation, get motion sickness, and lose their sense of direction as their bodies try to get used to a weightless environment. When they get back to Earth, or any other mass with gravity, they have to readjust to the gravity and may have problems standing up, focusing their gaze, walking and turning. Importantly, those body motor disturbances after changing from different gravities only get worse the longer the exposure to little gravity. These changes will affect operational activities including approach and landing, docking, remote manipulation, and emergencies that happen by landing. This is a big problem for mission success. Radiation damage to the immune system Another factor is that extended space flight might slow down the body’s ability to protect itself against diseases. Some of the problems are a weakened immune system and the activation of dormant viruses in the body. Radiation can cause both short and long term consequences to the blood marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. Because the interior of a spacecraft is so small, a weakened immune system and more active viruses in the body can lead to a fast spread of infection. Isolation During long missions, astronauts have to go through the isolation and confinement of a space environment. People isolated for a long period of time can go into depression. This can negatively influence the mission’s success. Not only are astronauts subjected to near total isolation from the rest of the world, but they have very limited space to move around. These factors can lead to cabin fever and several other psychological problems. When on long missions, astronauts will not be able to quickly return to Earth if a medical emergency occurs. For example, a scientist working in the south pole found a lump in her breast and had to wait two months before a helicopter could come in. In space, even that is not an option. When a medical emergency happens, the astronauts have to rely on the crew and the computers to solve the problem. Launch safety Reentry safety Reliability References See also Astronaut Astronautical hygiene Atmospheric reentry Human adaptation to space Human versus robotic spaceflight Interplanetary travel Monkeys in space Space and survival Space colonization Space exploration Space tourism Spaceflight records SpaceShipOne Timeline of space travel by nationality Timeline of first orbital launches by country X-15 program Lists List of astronauts by name List of human spaceflights List of human spaceflight programs List of manned spacecraft List of space agencies List of space disasters List of spacewalks External links NASA Human Space Flight Official Constellation NASA Web Site Official Orion NASA Web Site Official Ares NASA Web Site Human Spaceflight Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Transitioning to the NASA Constellation Program U.S. Spaceflight History | Human_spaceflight |@lemmatized edward:2 white:2 spacewalk:2 gemini:2 mission:19 human:29 spaceflight:29 crew:4 possibly:1 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815 | Isaac_Bonewits | Phillip Emmons Isaac Bonewits is an influential Neopagan leader and author. He is a liturgist, speaker, journalist, Neo-druid priest, and a singer, songwriter, and independent recording artist. Born in Royal Oak, Michigan, Bonewits has been heavily involved in occultism since the 1960s. Life In 1966 while enrolled at UC Berkeley, Bonewits joined the Reformed Druids of North America or RDNA. Bonewits was ordained as a Neo-druid priest in 1969. During this period Bonewits was recruited by the Church of Satan, My Satanic Adventure but left due to political and philosophical conflicts with Anton LaVey. During his stint in the Church of Satan, Bonewits appeared in the 1970 documentary Satanis. Satanis at the Internet Movie Database Bonewits, in his article "My Satanic Adventure", asserts the rituals in Satanis were staged for the movie at the behest of the filmmakers and were not authentic ceremonies. http://www.neopagan.net/SatanicAdventure.html My Satanic Adventure Bonewits graduated from UC Berkeley in 1970 with a Bachelor of Arts, becoming the only person to have ever received any kind of degree in Magic from an accredited university A Brief Biography of Isaac Bonewits . His first book, Real Magic, was published in 1971. Between 1973 and 1975 Bonewits was employed as editor of Gnostica magazine in Minnesota (published by Llewellyn Publications), established an offshoot group of the RDNA called the Schismatic Druids of North America, and helped create a group called the Hasidic Druids of North America (despite his life-long status as a "gentile"). He also founded the short-lived Aquarian Anti-Defamation League (AADL), an early Pagan civil-rights group. In 1976 Bonewits moved back to Berkeley and rejoined his original grove there, now part of the New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA). He was later elected ArchDruid of the Berkeley Grove. In 1983 Bonewits founded Ar nDraiocht Fein (also known as "A Druid Fellowship" or ADF), which was incorporated in 1990 in the state of Delaware as a U.S. 501(c)3 non-profit organization. He made the organization's first public announcement in 1984, and began the membership sign-up at the first WinterStar Symposium in 1984. Over the years Bonewits has also had varying degrees of involvement with the Caliphate Line of the Ordo Templi Orientis, Gardnerian Wicca, the New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn (a Wiccan organization not to be confused with the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn) as well as others. A Brief Biography of Isaac Bonewits Bonewits is a regular presenter at Neopagan festivals in the US. Bonewits served as Archdruid of ADF until 1996, when he resigned due to the onset of symptoms of Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. He retains the lifelong title of ADF Archdruid Emeritus. A songwriter, singer and recording artist, he has produced two CDs of Pagan music and numerous recorded lectures and panel discussions, produced and distributed by the Association for Consciousness Exploration. He lives in Rockland County, New York, and is a member of the Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans (CUUPS). On July 23 2004 he was married in a handfasting ceremony to a former vice-president of the organization, Phaedra Heyman Bonewits, and has a son from a previous marriage to author Deborah Lipp, Arthur Shaffrey Lipp-Bonewits. At the time of the handfasting, the marriage was not yet legal because he had not yet been legally divorced from Ms. Lipp, although they had been separated for several years by that point. Paperwork and legalities caught up on December 31 2007 making them legally married. Views from Cyberhenge Bonewits is currently encouraging charity programs to help Neopagan seniors, Adopt an Elder and in January 2006 was the key note speaker at the Conference On Current Pagan Studies at the Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, CA. Contributions to Neopaganism Bonewits has coined much of the modern terminology used to define and articulate many of the conceptual themes and issues which affect the North American Neopagan community. Pioneered the modern usage of the terms thealogy, "Paleo-Paganism", "Meso-Paganism", and numerous other retronyms. Possibly coined the term "Pagan Reconstructionism", though the communities in question would later diverge from his initial meaning. Author is unsure whether he "got this use of the term from one or more of the other culturally focused Neopagan movements of the time, or if [he] just applied it in a novel fashion." McColman (2003) p.51: "Such reconstructionists are attempting, through both spiritual and scholarly means, to create as purely Celtic a spirituality as possible." Founded Ar nDraiocht Fein, which was incorporated in 1990 in the state of Delaware as a U.S. 501(c)3 non-profit organization. Developed the Advanced Bonewits Cult Danger Evaluation Frame or ABCDEF Coined the phrase "Never Again the Burning." "The Aquarian Manifesto" Critiqued the Burning Times / Old Religion Murray thesis (in Bonewits's Essential Guide to Witchcraft and Wicca) Bibliography Real Magic: An Introductory Treatise on the Basic Principles of Yellow Magic. (1972, 1979, 1989) Weiser Books ISBN 0-87728-688-4 Authentic Thaumaturgy. (1978, 1998) Steve Jackson Games ISBN 1-55634-360-4 Rites of Worship: A Neopagan Approach. (2003) Earth Religions Press ISBN 1-59405-501-7 OP Witchcraft: A Concise Guide or Which Witch Is Which?. (2003) Earth Religions Press ISBN 1-59405-500-9 The Pagan Man: Priests, Warriors, Hunters, and Drummers. (2005) Citadel ISBN 0-8065-2697-1, ISBN 978-0806526973 Bonewits's Essential Guide to Witchcraft and Wicca. (2006) Citadel ISBN 0-8065-2711-0, ISBN 978-0806527116 Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. (2006) Citadel ISBN 0-8065-2710-2, ISBN 978-0806527109 Real Energy: Systems, Spirits, And Substances to Heal, Change, And Grow. (2007) New Leaf ISBN 1564149048, ISBN 978-1564149046. Co-authored with Phaedra Bonewits. Neopagan Rites: A Guide to Creating Public Rituals that Work. (2007) Llewellyn ISBN 0738711993, ISBN 978-0738711997 Discography Music Be Pagan Once Again! - Isaac Bonewits & Friends (including Ian Corrigan, Victoria Ganger, and Todd Alan) (CD) (ACE/ADF) Avalon is Rising! - Real Magic (CD)(ACE/ADF) Spoken word The Structure of Craft Ritual (ACE) A Magician Prepares (ACE) Programming Magical Ritual: Top-Down Liturgical Design (ACE) Druidism: Ancient & Modern (ACE) How Does Magic Work? (ACE) Rituals That Work (ACE) Sexual Magic & Magical Sex (with Deborah Lipp) (ACE) Making Fun of Religion (with Deborah Lipp) (ACE) Panel discussions The Magickal Movement: Present & Future (with Margot Adler, Selena Fox, and Robert Anton Wilson) (ACE) Magick Changing the World, the World Changing Magick (with AmyLee, Selena Fox, Jeff Rosenbaum and Robert Anton Wilson) (ACE) References Berger, Helen A. (2005) Witchcraft and Magic: Contemporary North America. University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 081223877X, ISBN 978-0812238778 Berger, Helen A. (1998) A Community of Witches: Contemporary Neo-Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States. University of South Carolina Press ISBN 1570032467, ISBN 978-1570032462 Berger, Helen A. & Helen H. & Evan A. Leach, Leigh S. Shaffer (2003) Voices from the Pagan Census: A National Survey of Witches and Neo-Pagans in the United States. University of South Carolina Press ISBN 1570034885, ISBN 978-1570034886 Bond, Lawrence & Ellen Evert Hopman (1996) People of the Earth: The New Pagans Speak Out. (reissued as Being a Pagan: Druids, Wiccans & Witches Today in 2002 Destiny Books ISBN 0-89281-904-9) Interview. Clifton, Chas S. (2006) Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America. AltaMira Press ISBN 0759102023, ISBN 0759102015. Lewis, James R. & Shelley Rabinovitch (2002) The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism. C Trade Paper ISBN 0806524065, ISBN 978-0806524061 Pike, Sarah M. (2004) New Age and Neopagan Religions in America. Columbia University Press ISBN 0231124023, ISBN 978-0231124027 Urban, Hugh B. (2006) Magia Sexualis: Sex, Magic, and Liberation in Modern Western Esotericism. University of California Press ISBN 0520247760, ISBN 978-0520247765 See also Ar nDraiocht Fein Neo-druidism Neopaganism Thealogy Notes External links Neopagan Net (formerly "Isaac Bonewits' Homepage") A Reformed Druid Anthology includes The Druid Chronicles (Evolved). | Isaac_Bonewits |@lemmatized phillip:1 emmons:1 isaac:5 bonewits:27 influential:1 neopagan:10 leader:1 author:4 liturgist:1 speaker:2 journalist:1 neo:6 druid:10 priest:3 singer:2 songwriter:2 independent:1 record:3 artist:2 bear:1 royal:1 oak:1 michigan:1 heavily:1 involve:1 occultism:1 since:1 life:2 enrol:1 uc:2 berkeley:4 join:1 reformed:3 north:6 america:7 rdna:2 ordain:1 period:1 recruit:1 church:2 satan:2 satanic:3 adventure:3 leave:1 due:2 political:1 philosophical:1 conflict:1 anton:3 lavey:1 stint:1 appear:1 documentary:1 satanis:3 internet:1 movie:2 database:1 article:1 assert:1 ritual:5 stag:1 behest:1 filmmaker:1 authentic:2 ceremony:2 http:1 www:1 net:2 satanicadventure:1 html:1 graduate:2 bachelor:1 art:1 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816 | Adrian | Adrian Gender: Male Origin: Latin Meaning: "From Hadria" The male given name Adrian is derived from the Latin Hadrianus, which is more familiar to English speakers as Hadrian. The name means "from Adria", a port on the Adriatic Sea. Adrian was the name of several early Christian saints and martyrs. The name is connected to the ancient Anglo-Saxon tribes of Great Britain, becoming widely known in England in the twelfth century, when Nicholas Breakspear took it as his regnal name when he became the only English pope, Adrian IV. Can also mean, 'strong' in multiple languages. Male forms Variations for males include: Afrikaans: Ad, Adriaan, Adrianus, Arrie, At, Daan, Jaans Albanian: Adrian, Ardian, Ard/Ardi Bosnian: Adrian, Adrijan Bulgarian :Адриан or Адриян (Adrian or Adrijan) Catalan : Adrià Croatian: Jadranko Dutch: Ad, Adriaan, Adrianus, Arie, Arjan English: Adrian, Ade French: Adrien German: Adrian Greek: Αδριανός Hungarian: Adorján, Adrián Italian: Adriano Latin: Hadrian, Hadrianus Polish: Adrian Portuguese: Adriano Romanian: Adrian, Adi Russian: Адриан Spanish: Adrián, Adriano Ukrainian: Адріан, Адріян (Adrian, Adrijan, informal - Adriyanko, Adriyanchik) Female forms Female forms include: Afrikaans: Adri, Adriana, Adrianne Albanian: Adriana, Ardiana Bosnian: Adriana, Adrijana Catalan: Adriana Croatian: Jadranka Czech: Adriana Dutch : Adriana, Adrianne, Adri French: Adrienne Hungarian: Adrienn Italian: Adriana Polish: Adrianna Portuguese: Adriana Romanian: Adriana Serbian: Adrijana Slovak: Adriana Slovene: Adrijana Spanish: Adriana Ukrainian: Адріана, Адріяна (Adriana, Adriyana) Popes Adrian I, Pope from 772 to 795 Adrian II, Pope from 867 to 872 Adrian III, Pope from 884 to 885 Adrian IV, Pope from 1154 to 1159 Adrian V, Pope in 1276 Adrian VI, Pope from 1522 to 1523 Historical people Hadrian, Roman emperor Adrian (Roman governor), first century AD Adrian of Batanea, Christian martyr and saint who died in the early 300s Adrian of Canterbury, an English saint who died in 710; scholar and abbot of St Augustine's Abbey. Adrian of Nicomedia, another early 300s martyr As a surname Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, b. November 30, 1889 London, England; 1932 Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine (shared prize with Sir Charles Scott Sherrington) Edgar Adrian - Biography Nathan Adrian, American swimmer Recent people Adrian, American movie costume designer. Adrian Andermatt, Swiss swimmer Adrian Belew, American guitarist and vocalist (and sometimes drummer, pianist and bass player) Adrián Beltré, Major League baseball player for the Seattle Mariners Adrian Boult, English conductor Adrien Brody, movie actor like in The Pianist, The Village, and others Adrian Cadbury, member of the well-known Cadbury family Adrian Chiles, English television presenter Adrian Dantley, retired basketball player Adrian Darby, British conservationist an academic Adrian Dunbar, Northern Irish actor best known for his television and theatre work Adrian Edmondson, English actor, comedian, director, musician and writer Adrian Erlandsson, Swedish drummer, formerly of Cradle of Filth Adrian Fisher, English Maze Designer Adrian Gilbert Scott, English architect Adrian Gonzalez, Major League baseball player for the San Diego Padres Adrian Gray, English darts player Adrian Grenier, American actor Adrian Griffin, American professional basketball player with the Chicago Bulls Adrian Jones, Former New York Jets Offensive Lineman Adrian Lester, English actor Adrian Lamo, former grey hat hacker and journalist Adrian Lyne, English filmmaker and producer Adrian McPherson, American football player, quarterback Adrian Mole, fictional protagonist in a series of books by Sue Townsend; originally named "Nigel Mole", but changed to avoid confusion with the fictional Nigel Molesworth Adrian Moorhouse, Olympic gold medalist, 100m breaststroke Adrian Murrell, former American football player, running back Adrian Mutu, Romanian striker and vice captain of the national football team, currently at Fiorentina Adrian Năstase, Prime Minister of Romania, December 2000 - December 2004 Adrian O'Connor (born 1978), Irish backstroke swimmer Adrian Orange, American musician, also known as Thanksgiving Adrian Paul, English actor Adrian Pasdar, American actor and film director Adrian L. Peterson, American football player, running back for the Minnesota Vikings Adrian N. Peterson, American football player, running back for the Chicago Bears Adrian Radley (born 1976), Australian backstroke swimmer Adrian Rogers, American pastor, author and a three term president of the Southern Baptist Convention Adrian Scott, American screenwriter and film producer Adrian Smith, guitarist in the heavy metal band Iron Maiden Adrian Sutil, German Formula 1 driver Adrian Thaws, English musician, better known as Tricky Adrian Wilson, American football, safety for the Arizona Cardinals Adrian Young, drummer in the third wave ska band, No Doubt Adrian Heath, former Stoke City football player, now manager for the ULS-1 team, Austin Aztex References See also Adriano Adrien Ardian Disambiguation pages Saint Adrian | Adrian |@lemmatized adrian:69 gender:1 male:4 origin:1 latin:3 meaning:1 hadria:1 give:1 name:6 derive:1 hadrianus:2 familiar:1 english:14 speaker:1 hadrian:3 mean:2 adria:1 port:1 adriatic:1 sea:1 several:1 early:3 christian:2 saint:4 martyr:3 connect:1 ancient:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 tribe:1 great:1 britain:1 become:2 widely:1 know:5 england:2 twelfth:1 century:2 nicholas:1 breakspear:1 take:1 regnal:1 pope:7 iv:2 also:3 strong:1 multiple:1 language:1 form:3 variation:1 include:2 afrikaans:2 ad:3 adriaan:2 adrianus:2 arrie:1 daan:1 jaans:1 albanian:2 ardian:2 ard:1 ardi:1 bosnian:2 adrijan:3 bulgarian:1 адриан:2 адриян:1 catalan:2 adrià:1 croatian:2 jadranko:1 dutch:2 arie:1 arjan:1 ade:1 french:2 adrien:3 german:2 greek:1 αδριανός:1 hungarian:2 adorján:1 adrián:3 italian:2 adriano:4 polish:2 portuguese:2 romanian:3 adi:1 russian:1 spanish:2 ukrainian:2 адріан:1 адріян:1 informal:1 adriyanko:1 adriyanchik:1 female:2 adri:2 adriana:12 adrianne:2 ardiana:1 adrijana:3 jadranka:1 czech:1 adrienne:1 adrienn:1 adrianna:1 serbian:1 slovak:1 slovene:1 адріана:1 адріяна:1 adriyana:1 popes:1 ii:1 iii:1 v:1 vi:1 historical:1 people:2 roman:2 emperor:1 governor:1 first:1 batanea:1 die:2 canterbury:1 scholar:1 abbot:1 st:1 augustine:1 abbey:1 nicomedia:1 another:1 surname:1 edgar:2 baron:1 b:1 november:1 london:1 nobel:1 prize:2 physiology:1 medicine:1 share:1 sir:1 charles:1 scott:3 sherrington:1 biography:1 nathan:1 american:14 swimmer:4 recent:1 movie:2 costume:1 designer:2 andermatt:1 swiss:1 belew:1 guitarist:2 vocalist:1 sometimes:1 drummer:3 pianist:2 bass:1 player:11 beltré:1 major:2 league:2 baseball:2 seattle:1 mariner:1 boult:1 conductor:1 brody:1 actor:7 like:1 village:1 others:1 cadbury:2 member:1 well:1 family:1 chile:1 television:2 presenter:1 dantley:1 retire:1 basketball:2 darby:1 british:1 conservationist:1 academic:1 dunbar:1 northern:1 irish:2 best:1 theatre:1 work:1 edmondson:1 comedian:1 director:2 musician:3 writer:1 erlandsson:1 swedish:1 formerly:1 cradle:1 filth:1 fisher:1 maze:1 gilbert:1 architect:1 gonzalez:1 san:1 diego:1 padre:1 gray:1 dart:1 grenier:1 griffin:1 professional:1 chicago:2 bull:1 jones:1 former:4 new:1 york:1 jet:1 offensive:1 lineman:1 lester:1 lamo:1 grey:1 hat:1 hacker:1 journalist:1 lyne:1 filmmaker:1 producer:2 mcpherson:1 football:7 quarterback:1 mole:2 fictional:2 protagonist:1 series:1 book:1 sue:1 townsend:1 originally:1 nigel:2 change:1 avoid:1 confusion:1 molesworth:1 moorhouse:1 olympic:1 gold:1 medalist:1 breaststroke:1 murrell:1 run:3 back:3 mutu:1 striker:1 vice:1 captain:1 national:1 team:2 currently:1 fiorentina:1 năstase:1 prime:1 minister:1 romania:1 december:2 connor:1 born:2 backstroke:2 orange:1 thanksgiving:1 paul:1 pasdar:1 film:2 l:1 peterson:2 minnesota:1 viking:1 n:1 bear:1 radley:1 australian:1 rogers:1 pastor:1 author:1 three:1 term:1 president:1 southern:1 baptist:1 convention:1 screenwriter:1 smith:1 heavy:1 metal:1 band:2 iron:1 maiden:1 sutil:1 formula:1 driver:1 thaw:1 good:1 tricky:1 wilson:1 safety:1 arizona:1 cardinal:1 young:1 third:1 wave:1 ska:1 doubt:1 heath:1 stoke:1 city:1 manager:1 uls:1 austin:1 aztex:1 reference:1 see:1 disambiguation:1 page:1 |@bigram adriatic_sea:1 anglo_saxon:1 nobel_prize:1 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:1 costume_designer:1 adrian_belew:1 guitarist_vocalist:1 league_baseball:2 seattle_mariner:1 actor_comedian:1 cradle_filth:1 adrian_fisher:1 san_diego:1 diego_padre:1 offensive_lineman:1 adrian_lamo:1 avoid_confusion:1 gold_medalist:1 prime_minister:1 minnesota_viking:1 iron_maiden:1 austin_aztex:1 |
817 | Dalton_Trumbo | Dalton Trumbo (December 9, 1905 – September 10, 1976) was an American screenwriter and novelist, and one of the Hollywood Ten, a group of film professionals who testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947 during the committee's investigation of Communist influences in the motion picture industry. Career Trumbo was born in Montrose, Colorado, and graduated from Grand Junction High School. While still in high school, he worked as a cub reporter for the Grand Junction Daily Sentinel, covering courts, the high school, the mortuary and civic organizations. He attended the University of Colorado for two years (the central fountain at the University was named the Dalton Trumbo Free Speech Fountain in his honor in the mid-1990s), working as a reporter for the Boulder Daily Camera and contributing to the campus humor magazine, the yearbook and the campus newspaper. He got his start working for Vogue magazine. His first published novel, Eclipse, was about a town and its people, written in the social realist style, and drew on his years in Grand Junction. He started in movies in 1937; by the 1940s, he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944), and Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (1945), and Kitty Foyle (1940), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay. Trumbo's 1939 anti-war novel, Johnny Got His Gun, won a National Book Award (then known as an American Book Sellers Award) that year. The novel was inspired by an article Trumbo read about a soldier who was horribly disfigured during World War I. http://www.johnnygothisgunthemovie.com/ Involvement with communism Trumbo aligned himself with the Communist Party USA before the 1940s, although he did not join the party until later. After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, American communists argued that the United States should not get involved in the war on the side of Great Britain, since the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of nonaggression meant that the Soviet Union was at peace with Germany. In 1941, Trumbo wrote a novel The Remarkable Andrew, in which, in one scene, the ghost of Andrew Jackson appears in order to caution the United States not to get involved in the war. In a review of the book, Time Magazine sarcastically wrote, "General Jackson's opinions need surprise no one who has observed George Washington and Abraham Lincoln zealously following the Communist Party Line in recent years." Counsel from Hollywood, Time Magazine, February 3, 1941 Shortly after the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, Trumbo and his publishers decided to suspend reprinting of Johnny Got His Gun until the end of the war. After receiving letters from individuals, including pacifists, isolationists, as well as those with apparent ties to Nazis requesting copies of the book, Trumbo contacted the FBI and turned these letters over to them. Art Eckstein. "Fountain of lies" Thus did Trumbo, in effect, "name names", something that would come back to haunt him years later when others would name him before the House Un-American Committee. Trumbo regretted this decision, which he called "foolish", after two FBI agents showed up at his home and it became clear that "their interest lay not in the letters but in me." Dalton Trumbo. Johnny Got His Gun. Citadel Press, 2000, pg 5, introduction Trumbo was a member of the Communist Party USA from 1943 until 1948. Naming Names, Victor Navasky, 2003 He bragged in The Daily Worker that among the films that communist influence in Hollywood had quashed were adaptations of Arthur Koestler's anti-communist works Darkness at Noon and The Yogi and the Commissar. Hollywood's Missing Movies: Why American films have ignored life under communism. - Reason Magazine Blacklisting In 1947, Trumbo, along with nine other writers and directors, was called before the House Un-American Activities Committee as an unfriendly witness to testify on the presence of communist influence in Hollywood. Trumbo refused to give information. After conviction for contempt of Congress, he was blacklisted, and in 1950, spent 11 months in prison in the federal penitentiary in Ashland, Kentucky. After Trumbo was blacklisted, some Hollywood actors and directors, such as Elia Kazan and Clifford Odets, agreed to testify and to provide names of fellow communist party members to Congress. Many of those who testified were immediately ostracized and shunned by their former friends and associates. However, Trumbo always maintained that those who testified under pressure from HUAC and the studios were equally victims of the Red Scare, an opinion for which he was criticized. Later life After completing his sentence, Trumbo and his family moved to Mexico with Hugo Butler and his wife Jean Rouverol, who had also been blacklisted. There, Trumbo wrote thirty scripts under pseudonyms, such as the co-written Gun Crazy (1950) (Millard Kaufman acted as a "front" for Trumbo). He won an Oscar for The Brave One (1956), written under the name Robert Rich. With the support of Otto Preminger, he received credit for the 1960 film Exodus. Shortly thereafter, Kirk Douglas made public Trumbo's credit for the screenplay for Spartacus. This was the beginning of the end of the blacklist. Trumbo was reinstated in the Writers Guild of America, West, and was credited on all subsequent scripts. In 1971, Trumbo directed the film adaptation of Johnny Got His Gun, which starred Timothy Bottoms, Diane Varsi and Jason Robards. One of his last films, Executive Action, was based on various conspiracy theories about the Kennedy assassination. His account and analysis of the Smith Act trials is entitled The Devil in the Book. In 1993, Trumbo was awarded the Academy Award posthumously for writing Roman Holiday (1953). The screen credit and award were previously given to Ian McLellan Hunter, who had been a "front" for Trumbo. "Great To Be Nominated" Enjoys a "Roman Holiday" AMPAS Death He died on September 10, 1976 from a heart attack in Los Angeles. He was 70 years old. Family Trumbo had three children: one son, filmmaker Christopher; and two daughters, photographer Melissa, known as Mitzi, and psychotherapist Nikola. Mitzi once had a relationship with actor/comedian Steve Martin; Martin later confessed that, at that time in his "tunnel-visioned life," he had never heard of her father. In his autobiography, Born Standing Up, Martin credits his time spent with the Trumbo family as having aroused his interest in politics and art. Works Selected film works Road Gang, 1936 Love Begins at 20, 1936 Devil's Playground, 1937 Fugitives for a Night, 1938 A Man to Remember, 1938 Five Came Back, 1939 (with Nathanael West and J. Cody) Curtain Call, 1941 Bill of Divorcement, 1940 Kitty Foyle, 1940 The Remarkable Andrew, 1942 Tender Comrade, 1944 A Guy Named Joe, 1944 Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, 1944 Our Vines Have Tender Grapes, 1945 Gun Crazy, 1950 (co-writer, front Millard Kaufman) He Ran All the Way, 1951 (co-writer, front Guy Endore) Roman Holiday, 1953 (front Ian McLellan Hunter) The Brave One, 1956 (front Robert Rich) Spartacus, 1960, dir. by Stanley Kubrick Exodus, 1960 (a film based on Leon Uris's novel by the same name, 1958) The Last Sunset, 1961 Lonely are the Brave, 1962 The Sandpiper, 1965 Hawaii, 1966 (based on the novel by James Michener, 1959) The Fixer, 1968 Johnny Got His Gun, 1971 (also directed) The Horsemen, 1971 F.T.A., 1972 Executive Action, 1973 Papillon, 1973 (based on the novel by Henri Charrière, 1969) Novels, plays and essays Eclipse, 1935 Washington Jitters, 1936 Johnny Got His Gun, 1939 The Remarkable Andrew, 1940 (also known as Chronicle of a Literal Man)The Biggest Thief in Town, 1949 (lay)The Time Out of the Toad, 1972 (essays)Night of the Aurochs, 1979 (unfinished, ed. R. Kirsch) Non-fictionHarry Bridges, 1941The Time of the Toad, 1949The Devil in the Book, 1956Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942–62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull) See also The Hollywood Ten'' documentary "Trumbo" documentary "Dalton Trumbo" biography by Bruce Cook "Dalton Trumbo: Hollywood Rebel" biography by Peter Hanson References External links Photo of Trumbo's grave | Dalton_Trumbo |@lemmatized dalton:6 trumbo:32 december:1 september:2 american:7 screenwriter:1 novelist:1 one:8 hollywood:9 ten:2 group:1 film:9 professional:1 testify:5 house:3 un:3 activity:2 committee:4 huac:2 investigation:1 communist:9 influence:3 motion:1 picture:1 industry:1 career:1 bear:2 montrose:1 colorado:2 graduate:1 grand:3 junction:3 high:4 school:3 still:1 work:7 cub:1 reporter:2 daily:3 sentinel:1 cover:1 court:1 mortuary:1 civic:1 organization:1 attend:1 university:2 two:3 year:6 central:1 fountain:3 name:10 free:1 speech:1 honor:1 mid:1 boulder:1 camera:1 contribute:1 campus:2 humor:1 magazine:5 yearbook:1 newspaper:1 get:9 start:2 vogue:1 first:1 publish:1 novel:8 eclipse:2 town:2 people:1 write:8 social:1 realist:1 style:1 draw:1 movie:2 paid:1 writer:5 thirty:3 second:2 tokyo:2 vine:2 tender:3 grape:2 kitty:2 foyle:2 nominate:2 academy:2 award:6 adapted:1 screenplay:2 anti:2 war:6 johnny:6 gun:8 win:2 national:1 book:6 know:3 seller:1 inspire:1 article:1 read:1 soldier:1 horribly:1 disfigure:1 world:2 http:1 www:1 johnnygothisgunthemovie:1 com:1 involvement:1 communism:2 align:1 party:5 usa:2 although:1 join:1 later:4 outbreak:1 ii:1 argue:1 united:2 state:2 involve:2 side:1 great:2 britain:1 since:1 molotov:1 ribbentrop:1 pact:1 nonaggression:1 meant:1 soviet:2 union:2 peace:1 germany:1 remarkable:3 andrew:4 scene:1 ghost:1 jackson:2 appear:1 order:1 caution:1 review:1 time:6 sarcastically:1 general:1 opinion:2 need:1 surprise:1 observe:1 george:1 washington:2 abraham:1 lincoln:1 zealously:1 follow:1 line:1 recent:1 counsel:1 february:1 shortly:2 german:1 invasion:1 publisher:1 decide:1 suspend:1 reprinting:1 end:2 receive:2 letter:4 individual:1 include:1 pacifist:1 isolationist:1 well:1 apparent:1 tie:1 nazis:1 request:1 copy:1 contact:1 fbi:2 turn:1 art:2 eckstein:1 lie:1 thus:1 effect:1 something:1 would:2 come:2 back:2 haunt:1 others:1 regret:1 decision:1 call:3 foolish:1 agent:1 show:1 home:1 become:1 clear:1 interest:2 lay:2 citadel:1 press:1 pg:1 introduction:1 member:2 victor:1 navasky:1 brag:1 worker:1 among:1 quash:1 adaptation:2 arthur:1 koestler:1 darkness:1 noon:1 yogi:1 commissar:1 miss:1 ignore:1 life:3 reason:1 blacklisting:1 along:1 nine:1 director:2 unfriendly:1 witness:1 presence:1 refuse:1 give:2 information:1 conviction:1 contempt:1 congress:2 blacklist:4 spend:2 month:1 prison:1 federal:1 penitentiary:1 ashland:1 kentucky:1 actor:2 elia:1 kazan:1 clifford:1 odets:1 agree:1 provide:1 fellow:1 many:1 immediately:1 ostracize:1 shun:1 former:1 friend:1 associate:1 however:1 always:1 maintain:1 pressure:1 studio:1 equally:1 victim:1 red:1 scare:1 criticize:1 complete:1 sentence:1 family:3 move:1 mexico:1 hugo:1 butler:1 wife:1 jean:1 rouverol:1 also:4 script:2 pseudonym:1 co:3 crazy:2 millard:2 kaufman:2 act:2 front:6 oscar:1 brave:3 robert:2 rich:2 support:1 otto:1 preminger:1 credit:5 exodus:2 thereafter:1 kirk:1 douglas:1 make:1 public:1 spartacus:2 beginning:1 reinstate:1 guild:1 america:1 west:2 subsequent:1 direct:2 star:1 timothy:1 bottom:1 diane:1 varsi:1 jason:1 robards:1 last:2 executive:2 action:2 base:4 various:1 conspiracy:1 theory:1 kennedy:1 assassination:1 account:1 analysis:1 smith:1 trial:1 entitle:1 devil:3 posthumously:1 roman:3 holiday:3 screen:1 previously:1 ian:2 mclellan:2 hunter:2 enjoy:1 ampas:1 death:1 die:1 heart:1 attack:1 los:1 angeles:1 old:1 three:1 child:1 son:1 filmmaker:1 christopher:1 daughter:1 photographer:1 melissa:1 mitzi:2 psychotherapist:1 nikola:1 relationship:1 comedian:1 steve:1 martin:3 confess:1 tunnel:1 visioned:1 never:1 hear:1 father:1 autobiography:1 stand:1 arouse:1 politics:1 select:1 road:1 gang:1 love:1 begin:1 playground:1 fugitive:1 night:2 man:2 remember:1 five:1 nathanael:1 j:1 cody:1 curtain:1 bill:1 divorcement:1 comrade:1 guy:2 joe:1 run:1 way:1 endore:1 dir:1 stanley:1 kubrick:1 leon:1 uris:1 sunset:1 lonely:1 sandpiper:1 hawaii:1 james:1 michener:1 fixer:1 horseman:1 f:1 papillon:1 henri:1 charrière:1 play:1 essay:2 jitter:1 chronicle:1 literal:1 big:1 thief:1 toad:2 aurochs:1 unfinished:1 ed:2 r:1 kirsch:1 non:1 fictionharry:1 bridge:1 dialogue:1 h:1 manfull:1 see:1 documentary:2 biography:2 bruce:1 cook:1 rebel:1 peter:1 hanson:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 photo:1 grave:1 |@bigram dalton_trumbo:6 committee_huac:1 motion_picture:1 adapted_screenplay:1 http_www:1 molotov_ribbentrop:1 ribbentrop_pact:1 soviet_union:2 andrew_jackson:1 abraham_lincoln:1 arthur_koestler:1 elia_kazan:1 otto_preminger:1 shortly_thereafter:1 kirk_douglas:1 kennedy_assassination:1 los_angeles:1 actor_comedian:1 bill_divorcement:1 stanley_kubrick:1 leon_uris:1 henri_charrière:1 external_link:1 |
818 | Erfurt | Erfurt is the capital city of Thuringia and is the main city nearest to the geographical centre of Germany, located 100 km SW of Leipzig, 150 km N of Nürnberg and 180 km SE of Hannover. Erfurt Airport can be reached by plane via Munich. It lies in the southern part of the Thuringian Basin, within the wide valley of Gera River, a tributary of the Unstrut. To the south, the city is surrounded by the hilly forest of Steigerwald. The Krämerbrücke. History 1493 drawing of Erfurt Erfurt was first mentioned in 742 under the name of "Erphesfurt". It was an important trading town during the Middle Ages near a ford across the Gera river. Together with the other five Thuringian woad-towns of Gotha, Tennstedt, Arnstadt and Langensalza it was the centre of the German woad trade. In 1349, during the wave of pogroms which followed the Black Death across Europe, the Jews of Erfurt were rounded up, with more than 100 killed and the rest driven from the city. Recently, the medieval synagogue has been discovered beneath newer buildings, and is being restored (completion expected 2009). In 1392, the University of Erfurt, where Martin Luther was matriculated, was founded. One of the leading German universities for many centuries, it fell upon hard times in the early 19th Century, and was forced to close in 1816. It was refounded in 1994 by the Thuringian state parliament and has regained its status as a leading German academic and research institution. Erfurt became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1802, part of the First French Empire in 1806 as Principality of Erfurt, and was returned to Prussia in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. Although enclosed by Thuringian territory in the west, south and east, the city remained part of the Prussian Province of Saxony until 1944. The city was the site of the failed Erfurt Union of German states in 1850. Bombed as a target of the Oil Campaign of World War II, Erfurt suffered only limited damage and was captured on April 12, 1945, by units of Patton's Third United States Army. On July 3, American troops left the city and the city became part of the Soviet Zone of Occupation and East Germany. After German reunification, Erfurt became the capital of the re-established state of Thuringia. Main sights Erfurt has preserved an intact medieval city centre. The city is known for its two churches, Erfurt Cathedral (Mariendom) and Severikirche, which stand side by side and together form the emblem of the city. Both churches tower above the townscape and are accessible via huge open stairs called Domstufen. Another remarkable site is the Krämerbrücke, a bridge crossing the narrow Gera River. The bridge is covered with 32 inhabited buildings. It was built in 1325 with a church on either bridgehead, one of which, the Ägidienkirche, is still functional. The Augustinerkloster is an old Augustinian monastery. Martin Luther studied at the university and lived in the Augustinerkloster for a few years after 1505. The eleventh century Erfurt Synagogue is thought to be the oldest synagogue building still standing in Europe. It is now a museum displaying the Erfurt Treasure. Culture Martin Luther attended the University of Erfurt and received his bachelor's and master's degrees of theology there. Luther lived there as a student from 1501 to 1511 and, as a monk, from 1505 to 1511. Erfurt is the birthplace of one of Johann Sebastian Bach's cousins, Johann Bernhard Bach, as well as Johann Sebastian Bach's father Johann Ambrosius Bach. Bach's parents were married in 1668 in a small church, the Kaufmannskirche (Merchant's Church), that still exists on the main square, Anger. The sociologist Max Weber was born in Erfurt, and the theologian and philosopher Meister Eckhart was Prior of Erfurt's Dominican Order Johann Pachelbel served as organist at the Prediger church in Erfurt. Pachelbel composed approximately seventy pieces for organ while in Erfurt. After 1906 the composer Richard Wetz lived in Erfurt and became the leading person in the town's musical life. His major works were written here, including three symphonies, a Requiem and a Christmas Oratorio. Erfurt Theater Since 2003, the modern new built opera house is home of Theater Erfurt and its Philharmonic Orchestra. The "grand stage" section has 800 seats and the "studio stage" can hold 200 spectators. In September 2005, the opera Waiting for the Barbarians by Philip Glass premiered in the opera house. The Erfurt Theater has been source of controversy recently. In 2005 a performance of Humperdinck's opera Hänsel und Gretel stirred up the local press since the performance contained suggestions of pedophilia and incest. The opera was advertised in the program with the addition "for adults only". On April 12, 2008, a version of Verdi's opera Un ballo in maschera directed by Johann Kresnik opened at the Erfurt Theater. The production stirred deep controversy by featuring nude performers in Mickey Mouse masks dancing on the ruins of the World Trade Center and a female singer with a painted on Hitler toothbrush moustache performing a straight arm Nazi salute, along with sinister portrayals of American soldiers, Uncle Sam, and Elvis Presley impersonators. The director described the production as a populist critique of modern American society, aimed at showing up the disparities between rich and poor. The controversy prompted one local politician to call for locals to boycott the performances, but this was largely ignored and the premiere was sold out. German staging of Verdi's A Masked Ball on 9/11 with naked cast in Mickey Mouse masks — Telegraph Transport Erfurt lies on two Bundesstraßen (federal motorways): Bundesstraße 4 from Ilmenau in south to Nordhausen in north and Bundesstraße 7 from Gotha in west to Weimar in east. Also there are two Autobahnen crossing each other at Erfurter Kreuz nearby: The Bundesautobahn 4 from Frankfurt am Main to Dresden and the Bundesautobahn 71 from Würzburg to Sangerhausen (and Halle (Saale) via Bundesautobahn 38). There have been trams in the city since 1883. Today there are seven tram lines to most of the parts of Erfurt. Railways run from Erfurt station to Berlin (via Weimar, Naumburg, Halle and Wittenberg), Dresden (via Weimar, Naumburg, Leipzig and Riesa), Frankfurt am Main (via Gotha, Eisenach, Bebra, Fulda and Hanau), Würzburg (via Arnstadt, Suhl, Meiningen, Bad Neustadt and Schweinfurt), Ilmenau, Saalfeld, Nordhausen (via Sondershausen), Magdeburg (via Sömmerda, Sangerhausen, Staßfurt and Schönebeck), Bad Langensalza and Kassel/Göttingen (via Mühlhausen, Leinefelde-Worbis and Heiligenstadt). Universities University of Applied Sciences Erfurt The University of Applied Sciences Erfurt was founded on 1991. It is characterised by a combination of scientific training and its practical applications. In the winter term 2008/09 there studied approximately 4600 students. Faculties Faculty of Social Affairs Faculty of Business, Logistics and Transport Faculty of Landscape Architecture, Horticulture and Forestry Faculty of Architecture Faculty of Civil Engineering and Conservation/Restoration Faculty of Building Services Engineering and Computer Science University of Erfurt The University of Erfurt was founded on 1994 so it is the youngest public universtity in Germany. It sees itself in the tradition of the historic University that had been there as from 1392 to 1816. In the winter term 2008/09 there studied approximately 4700 students. Faculties Faculty of Political Science Arts Faculty Faculty of Education Faculty of catholically Theology Max-Weber-College Twin towns Győr, Hungary, since 1971 Vilnius, Lithuania, since 1972 Kalisz, Poland, since 1982 Mainz, Germany, since 1988 Lille, France, since 1991 Shawnee, United States, since 1993 San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina, since 1993 Lovech, Bulgaria, since 1996 Haifa, Israel, since 2000 Xuzhou, People's Republic of China, since 2005 References External links Erfurt City Panoramas - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours Kraemerbruecke Sister City (since 1993) with Shawnee, Kansas World Shots. Germany. 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819 | Margaret_Thatcher | Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925) is a retired British politician. She was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post. Born in Grantham in Lincolnshire, England, she went on to read chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford and train as a barrister. She won a seat as an MP from Finchley in 1959, as a Conservative. When Edward Heath formed a government in 1970, he appointed Thatcher as Secretary of State for Education and Science. Four years later, she backed Keith Joseph in his bid to become Conservative party leader, but he was forced to drop out of the election; Thatcher felt that Heath's government had lost direction, so she entered the contest herself and became leader of the Conservative party in 1975. As the Conservative party maintained leads in most polls, Thatcher went on to become Britain's Prime Minister in the 1979 general election. Thatcher entered 10 Downing Street with a mandate to reverse the UK's economic decline. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised reduced state intervention, free markets, entrepreneurialism and the selling off of state owned companies. She gained much support after the 1982 Falklands War and was re-elected the following year. Thatcher took a hard line against trade unions, survived an assassination attempt, and opposed the Soviet Union (her tough-talking rhetoric gained her the nickname the "Iron Lady"); she was re-elected for an unprecedented third term in 1987. The following years would prove difficult, as her Community Charge plan was largely unpopular, and her views regarding the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister in November 1990 after Michael Heseltine's challenge to her leadership of the Conservative Party. Thatcher's tenure as Prime Minister was the longest since that of Lord Salisbury and the longest continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool in the early 19th century. She was the first woman to lead a major political party in the UK, and the first of only three women to hold any of the four great offices of state. She holds a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire, which entitles her to sit in the House of Lords. Early life and education Margaret Hilda Roberts was born on 13 October 1925 to Alfred Roberts, originally from Northamptonshire, and Beatrice Roberts née Stephenson from Lincolnshire. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 1 Thatcher spent her childhood in the town of Grantham in Lincolnshire, where her father owned two grocery shops. She and her older sister Muriel (born 1921, Grantham; died December 2004; married name Cullen) were raised in the flat above the larger of the two located near the railway line. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 3 Her father was active in local politics and religion, serving as an Alderman and Methodist lay preacher. He came from a Liberal family but stood—as was then customary in local government—as an Independent. He lost his post as Alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 8 Thatcher was brought up a devout Methodist and has remained a Christian throughout her life. After attending Huntingtower Road Primary School, she won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 5 Her school reports show hard work and commitment, but not brilliance. Outside the classroom she played hockey and also enjoyed swimming and walking. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 6 Finishing school during the Second World War, she applied for a scholarship to attend Somerville College, Oxford, but was only successful when the winning candidate dropped out. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 12 She went to Oxford in 1943 and studied Natural Sciences, specialising in Chemistry. She became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946, the third woman to hold the post. In 1946 Thatcher took the Final Honour School examination, graduating with a Second Class Bachelor of Arts degree. She subsequently studied crystallography and received a postgraduate BSc degree in 1947. Three years later, in 1950, she achieved a Master of Arts advanced degree, according to her entitlement as an Oxford BA of seven years' standing since matriculation. Following graduation, Margaret Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex, to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 17 During this time she joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno in 1948, as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 22 She was also a member of the Association of Scientific Workers. In January 1949, a friend from Oxford, who was working for the Dartford Conservative Association, told her that they were looking for candidates. After a brief period, she was selected as the Conservative candidate, and she subsequently moved to Dartford, in Kent, to stand for election as a Member of Parliament. To support herself during this period, she went to work for J. Lyons and Co., where she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream and was paid £500 per year. Political career between 1950 and 1970 At the 1950 and 1951 elections, she fought the safe Labour seat of Dartford. Although she was unsuccessful in winning the seat losing out to Norman Dodds, she reduced the Labour majority in the constituency by 6,000. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 24 She was, at the time, the youngest ever female Conservative candidate and her campaign attracted a higher than normal amount of media attention for a first time candidate. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 23 While active in the Conservative Party in Kent, she met Denis Thatcher, whom she married in 1951. Denis was a wealthy divorced businessman who ran his family's firm; he later became an executive in the oil industry. Denis funded his wife's studies for the Bar. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 25 She qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation. In the same year her twin children Carol and Mark were born. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 26 Thatcher began to look for a safe Conservative seat in the mid-1950s and was narrowly rejected as candidate for the Orpington by-election in 1955, and was not selected as a candidate in the 1955 election. She had several further rejections before being selected for Finchley in April 1958. She won the seat after hard campaigning during the 1959 election and was elected as a member of Parliament. Beckett, Clare (2006), p. 27 See also: Her maiden speech was in support of her Private Member's Bill (Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960) requiring local councils to hold meetings in public, which was successful. In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party's official position by voting for the restoration of birching. Within two years, in October 1961, she was given a promotion to the front bench as Parliamentary Undersecretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. She held this post throughout the administration of Harold Macmillan, until the Conservatives were removed from office in the 1964 election. When Sir Alec Douglas-Home stepped down, Thatcher voted for Edward Heath in the leadership election of 1965 over Reginald Maudling. Wapshott, Nicholas (2007), p. 63 She was promoted to the position of Conservative spokesman on Housing and Land; in this position, she advocated the Conservative policy of allowing tenants to buy their council houses. Wapshott, Nicholas (2007), p. 64 The policy would prove to be popular. The Hot Seat, James Allason, Blackthorn, London 2006 She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966. As Treasury spokesman, she opposed Labour's mandatory price and income controls, which she argued would produce contrary effects to those intended and distort the economy. Thatcher established herself as a potent conference speaker at the Conservative Party Conference of 1966, with a strong attack on the high-tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps "not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism". She argued that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work. Thatcher was one of few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality and voted in favour of David Steel's Bill to legalise abortion, Margaret Thatcher, The Path to Power (London: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 150. as well as a ban on hare coursing. 'Hare coursing attack; League Against Cruel Sports', The Times (28 February 1989). She supported the retention of capital punishment and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws. Thatcher, Path to Power, p. 151. In 1967 she was selected by the Embassy of the United States in London to participate in the International Visitor Leadership Program (then called the Foreign Leader Program), a professional exchange program in which she spent about six weeks visiting various U.S. cities, political figures, and institutions such as the International Monetary Fund. Later that year, Thatcher joined the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Fuel spokesman. Shortly preceding the 1970 general election, she was promoted to Shadow Transport and, finally, Education. Wapshott, Nicholas (2007), p. 65 Education Secretary (1970–1974) When the Conservative party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election, Thatcher became Secretary of State for Education and Science. In her first months in office, Thatcher came to public attention as a result of the administration of Edward Heath's decision to cut spending. She gave priority to academic needs in schools, and imposed public expenditure cuts on the state education system, resulting in, against her private protests, the abolition of free milk for school-children aged seven to eleven. Wapshott, Nicholas (2007), p. 76 She believed that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk, however she agreed to give younger children a third of a pint, daily, for nutritional purposes. This provoked a storm of protest from the Labour party and the press, Reitan, E.A. (2003), p. 15 and led to the unflattering moniker "Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher". Of the experience, Thatcher later wrote in her autobiography, "I learned a valuable lesson. I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit." She successfully resisted the introduction of library book charges. She did not volunteer spending cuts in her department, contrary to her later beliefs. Her term was marked by support for several proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education. Thatcher was determined to preserve grammar schools, which prepared more students for admission to universities. Reitan, E.A. (2003), p. 14 She abolished Labour's commitment to comprehensive schooling, and instead left the matter to local education authorities. Leader of the Opposition (1975–1979) Margaret Thatcher elected as Leader of the Opposition on 18 September 1975. The Heath government experienced many difficulties between 1970 and 1974. The government executed a series of reversals in its economic policies, dubbed "U-turns". The Conservatives were defeated in the February 1974 general election, and Thatcher's portfolio was changed to Shadow Environment Secretary. In this position she promised to abolish the rating system that paid for local government services, which was a favoured policy proposal within the Conservative Party for many years. Thatcher agreed that the Heath Government had lost control of monetary policy—and had lost direction. After her party lost the second election of 1974 in October, Thatcher, determined to change the direction of the Conservative party, challenged Heath for the Conservative party leadership. Reitan, E.A. (2003), p. 16 She promised a fresh start, and her main support came from the Conservative 1922 Committee. Unexpectedly, she defeated Heath on the first ballot, and he resigned the leadership. On the second ballot, she defeated Heath's preferred successor, William Whitelaw, and became Conservative Party leader on 11 February 1975. She appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained disenchanted with Thatcher to the end of his life for what he, and many of his supporters, perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him. Thatcher appointed many of Heath's supporters to the Shadow Cabinet, for she had won the leadership as an outsider and then had little power base of her own within the party. Thatcher had to act cautiously to convert the Conservative Party to her monetarist beliefs. She reversed Heath's support for devolved government for Scotland. On 19 January 1976, she made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union. The most famous part of her speech ran: The Russians are bent on world dominance, and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen. The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion. They put guns before butter, while we put just about everything before guns. In response, the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda (Red Star) gave her the nickname "Iron Lady". She took delight in the name and it soon became associated with her image as having an unwavering and steadfast character. She was later nicknamed "Attila the Hen" as well. The Labour Government was running into difficulties with industrial disputes and rising unemployment, and eventually collapsing public services during the winter of 1978–79, popularly dubbed the "Winter of Discontent". The Conservatives attacked the government's unemployment record, and used advertising hoardings with the slogan "Labour Isn't Working" to assist them. In an interview in January 1978, Thatcher remarked, "people are really rather afraid that this country might be rather swamped by people with a different culture". Interview for Granada TV with journalist Gordon Burns (27 January 1978), TV Interview for Granada World in Action ("rather swamped"), Margaret Thatcher Foundation. Retrieved 5 January 2008. Critics regarded the comment as a veiled reference to people of colour, thus pandering to xenophobia and reactionary sentiment. She received 10,000 letters thanking her for raising the subject and the Conservatives gained a lead against Labour in the opinion polls; both parties were at 43% before Thatcher's interview, but the Conservatives took a 48% to 39% lead over Labour immediately after. John Campbell, Margaret Thatcher: Volume One: The Grocer's Daughter (Jonathan Cape, 2000), p. 400. In the run up to the 1979 General Election, most opinion polls showed that voters preferred James Callaghan of the Labour party as Prime Minister, even as the Conservative Party maintained a lead in the polls. After a successful motion of no confidence in spring 1979, Callaghan's Labour government fell. The Conservatives would go on to win a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons and Margaret Thatcher became the United Kingdom's first female Prime Minister. Prime Minister (1979–1990) Thatcher's Ministry meets with Reagan's Cabinet at the White House, 1981 Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May 1979, with a mandate to reverse the UK's economic decline and to reduce the role of the state in the economy. Arriving at 10 Downing Street, she said, in a paraphrase of St. Francis of Assisi: Thatcher was incensed by one contemporary view within the Civil Service, that its job was to manage the UK's decline from the days of Empire, and she wanted the country to assert a higher level of influence and leadership in international affairs. She represented the newly energetic right wing of the Conservative Party and advocated greater independence of the individual from the state and less government intervention. She became a very close ally, philosophically and politically, with President Ronald Reagan, elected in 1980 in the United States. During her tenure as Prime Minister she was said to need just four hours sleep a night. First government 1979–1983 New economic initiatives Thatcher's political and economic philosophy emphasised reduced state intervention, free markets, and entrepreneurialism. She vowed to end what she felt was excessive government interference in the economy, and did this through privatising nationally-owned enterprises and selling public housing to tenants. After the James Callaghan Government had concluded that the Keynesian approach to demand-side management failed, Thatcher felt that the economy was not self-righting and that new fiscal judgements had to be made to concentrate on inflation. Blackaby, F.T. (1979). The Economics and Politics of Demand Management IN Cook, S.T. & Jackson, P.M. (Ed.) Current Issues in Fiscal Policy. Martin Robertson, Oxford; pp185-197 She began her economic reforms by increasing interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thus lower inflation. Whitely, Paul (1986). Political Control of the Macroeconomy. SAGE Publications Ltd, London In accordance with her less-government intervention views, she introduced cash limits on public spending Lawson, View from No. 11, pp. 105-6. and reduced expenditures on social services such as education (until 1987) Tom Clark and Andrew Dilnot, Long-Term Trends in British Taxation and Spending, Institute for Fiscal Studies, Briefing Note No. 25 (2002), p. 13, fig. 3.4. and housing. She also placed limits on the printing of money and legal restrictions on trade unions. GDP and public spending by functional classification% change in real terms1979/80 to 1989/90 Nigel Lawson, The View from No. 11 (London: Bantam Press, 1992), p. 301. GDP +23.3 Total government spending +12.9 Law and order +53.3Employment and training +33.3Health +31.8Social security +31.8Transport -5.8Trade and industry -38.2Housing -67.0Defence -3.3 Roger Middleton, 'The Political Economy of Decline', Journal of Contemporary History Vol. 41, No. 3 (2006), p. 580. At the time, some Conservatives expressed doubt over Thatcher's policies. Civil unrest in Britain resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy u-turn. At the 1980 Conservative Party conference, Thatcher addressed the issue directly, saying, "You turn if you want to. The lady’s not for turning!" Thatcher lowered direct taxes on income amid a recession in 1981, but, despite concerns expressed in a letter from 364 leading economists, Letter to The Times, 23 March 1981 indirect taxes were increased. In January 1982, the inflation rate had dropped to 8.6% from earlier highs of 18%, and interest rates fell. By 1983, overall economic growth was stronger and inflation and mortgage rates were at their lowest levels since 1970, though manufacturing output had dropped 30% from 1978 and unemployment reached a figure of 3.6 million. The term "Thatcherism" came to refer to her policies as well as aspects of her ethical outlook and personal style, including moral absolutism, nationalism, interest in the individual, and an uncompromising approach to achieving political goals. American author Claire Berlinski, who wrote the biography There Is No Alternative: Why Margaret Thatcher Matters, argues repeatedly throughout the volume that it was this Thatcherism, specifically her focus on economic reform, that set the United Kingdom on the path to recovery and long term growth. Northern Ireland In 1981, a number of Provisional IRA and Irish National Liberation Army prisoners in Northern Ireland's Maze Prison went on hunger strike to regain the status of political prisoners, which had been revoked five years earlier under the preceding Labour government. Bobby Sands began the strike, saying that he would fast until death unless prison inmates won concessions over their living conditions. Thatcher refused to countenance a return to political status for the prisoners, famously declaring "Crime is crime is crime; it is not political" and felt that Britain should not negotiate with terrorists. However, despite holding this view in public, the British government made private contact with republican leaders in a bid to bring the hunger strikes to an end. After nine more men had starved to death and the strike had ended, some rights were restored to paramilitary prisoners, but official recognition of political status was not granted. Later that year, Thatcher and Irish Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald established the Anglo-Irish Inter-Governmental Council, which would act as a forum for meetings between the two governments. On 15 November 1985, Thatcher and FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough Anglo-Irish Agreement; the first time a British government gave the Republic of Ireland an advisory role in the governance of Northern Ireland. The Falklands Thatcher with close ally and friend, United States President Ronald Reagan, 1981 On 2 April 1982, a ruling military junta in Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands and South Georgia, a British overseas territory that Argentina had claimed since an 1810s dispute on the British settlement. The following day, Thatcher sent a naval task force to recapture the islands and eject the invaders. The conflict escalated from there, evolving into an amphibious and ground combat operation. Argentina surrendered on 14 June and the operation was deemed a success for the British, despite 258 British casualties. Victory brought a wave of patriotic enthusiasm and support for the government. Thatcher's personal approval rating rose from 30% to 59%, as measured by Mori, and from 29% to 52%, according to Gallup. Conservative support climbed from 27% to 44%, while Labour's slipped from 34% to 27%. Simon Jenkins, Brown can lead a rally and win the next election. All he needs is a war, guardian.co.uk (7 May 2009). 1983 Election Economic recovery from the spring of 1982 bolstered the Thatcher government's popularity, and although many contemporary commentators saw the ensuing national poll as a khaki election that was decided by the 'Falklands factor', the war had produced a disaggregated boost to Conservative support of no more than 3% for 3 months, suggesting Thatcher's sustained improvement was due instead to successful macroeconomic management. David Sanders, Hugh Ward, and David Marsh (with Tony Fletcher), 'Government Popularity and the Falklands War: A Reassessment', British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), p. 28. She also faced a divided opposition: Labour was bitterly split; the party had responded to the New Cold War by moving to the left and adopting a policy of unilateral nuclear disarmament, and had lost many senior leaders to the new Social Democratic Party in alliance with the Liberal Party, preventing the formation of an electoral pact against the Conservatives. Labour leader Michael Foot was a left-winger and generally regarded as unelectable, Evans, Eric (2004), p. 23 while Conservatives viewed Thatcher as 'their greatest electoral asset'. Toye, R. and Gottlieb, J. (2005), p. 151 In the June 1983 general election, the Conservatives won 42.4% of the vote, the Labour party 27.6% and the Alliance 25.4% of the vote. Although the Conservatives' share of the vote had fallen slightly (1.5%) since 1979, Labour's vote had fallen by far more (9.3%) and under the first past the post system, the Conservatives won a landslide victory with a massive majority. This resulted in the Conservative party having an overall majority of 144 MPs. Second government 1983–1987 Economic developments After the 1983 election, the Conservative majority expanded, Thatcher continued to enact her economic policies. The UK government sold most of the large national utilities to private companies. The policy of privatisation, while anathema to many on the Left, was a main component of Thatcherism. Many people took advantage of share offers, although many sold their shares immediately for a quick profit and therefore the proportion of shares held by individuals rather than institutions did not increase. By the mid 1980s, the number of individual stockholders had tripled, and the UK government had sold 1.5 million publicly owned housing units to their tenants. In 1985, as a deliberate snub, the University of Oxford voted to refuse Thatcher an honorary degree in protest against her cuts in funding for higher education. Trade unions Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trades unions. Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to curb their power, but these actions eventually collapsed, and gradually Thatcher's reforms reduced the power and influence of the unions. According to the BBC, Thatcher "managed to destroy the power of the trade unions for almost a generation." In 1984 the National Union of Mineworkers ordered a strike, without a national ballot, in opposition to proposals to close a large number of mines and cut thousands of jobs. Thatcher refused to meet the demands of the unions and famously referred to the strike, saying, "We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands. We always have to be aware of the enemy within, which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty." Violence was common during the year-long miners' strike; controversial police tactics were used on strikers. Two miners, Dean Hancock and Russell Shankland, were convicted of the murder of a taxi driver and were sentenced to life imprisonment. After a year of striking, in 1985, the NUM leadership conceded without a deal. The Conservative government proceeded to close 25 pits in 1985; by 1992, a total of 97 pits had been closed with the remaining being sold off and privatised in 1994. These actions had great effect on the industrial and political complexion of Great Britain. The closing of the mines resulted in a loss of jobs and thus an increase in unemployment. In another display of her views of less-government control, Thatcher broke up the state-owned British shipbuilders and privatised the companies. Only few British shipyards survive today. Brighton bombing Thatcher with US First Lady Nancy Reagan at 10 Downing Street, 1986 On the early morning of 12 October 1984, the day before her 59th birthday, Thatcher narrowly escaped injury at the Brighton hotel when her hotel was bombed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. Five people were killed in the attack, including the wife of Cabinet Minister John Wakeham; a prominent member of the Cabinet, Norman Tebbit, was injured, and his wife Margaret was left paralysed. Thatcher was staying at the hotel to attend the Conservative Party Conference, and insisted that the conference open on time the next day. She delivered her speech as planned in defiance of the bombers, Thatcher, Margaret (1993) pp. 379-383 a gesture which won widespread approval across the political spectrum, and measurably enhanced her personal popularity with the public. David J. Lanoue and Barbara Headrick, 'Short-Term Political Events and British Government Popularity: Direct and Indirect Effects', Polity, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Spring, 1998), pp. 423, 427, 431, 432. Cold War Thatcher took office during the later period of what was known as the Cold War, a period of frosty relations primarily between the Western powers and the communist Soviet Union and its satellites. During her first year as prime minister, Mrs Thatcher supported NATO's decision to deploy US cruise and Pershing missiles in Western Europe. She became very closely aligned with the policies of US President Ronald Reagan (1981–1989), and their closeness produced transatlantic cooperation. His policy of deterrence against the Soviets contrasted with the policy of détente which the West had pursued during the 1970s, and caused friction with allies who still adhered to the idea of détente. Thatcher permitted US forces to station more than 160 nuclear cruise missiles at Greenham Common, arousing mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament; Thatcher took a hard line against the protestors. She modernised the British naval fleet with Trident II nuclear submarines. On 19 December 1984, Thatcher and Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China signed the Sino-British Joint Declaration, which committed Hong Kong to the status of a Special Administrative Region. Britain agreed to leave the region in 1997. In April 1986, Thatcher permitted US military forces to utilise British Royal Air Force bases amid the US bombing of Libya. In July 1986, Thatcher expressed her belief that economic sanctions against South Africa would be immoral because they would make thousands of black workers unemployed. Hugo Young, Supping with the Devils (Atlantic, 2003), p. 6. Thatcher was among the first of Western leaders to respond warmly to reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. They met in London in 1984, three months before he became General Secretary. Thatcher declared that she liked him, and told Ronald Reagan, saying, "we can do business together." Following the Reagan-Gorbachev summit meetings from 1985 to 1988, as well as multiple reforms enacted by Gorbachev in the USSR, Thatcher declared in November 1988, "We're not in a Cold War now" but rather in a "new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was." She continued, "I expect Mr Gorbachev to do everything he can to continue his reforms. We will support it." Thatcher was initially opposed to German reunification, as she worried that a united Germany would align itself closer with the Soviet Union and move away from NATO. Görtemaker, Manfred (2006), p. 198 Her liking for defence ties with the United States was demonstrated in the Westland affair when she acted with colleagues to allow the helicopter manufacturer Westland, a vital defence contractor, to refuse to link with the Italian firm Agusta in order for it to link with the management's preferred option, Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation of the United States. Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine, who had pushed the Agusta deal, resigned in protest after this, and remained an influential critic and potential leadership challenger. Thatcher's premiership outlasted the Cold War, which ended in 1989, and those who share her views on it credit her with a part in the West's victory, by both the deterrence and détente postures. Other domestic issues In 1986, in a controversial move, the Thatcher government abolished the Greater London Council, then led by the left-wing Ken Livingstone, as well as six Labour controlled metropolitan county councils. The government stated that they ordered this to decrease bureaucracy and increase efficiency, and encouraged transferring power to local councils for increased electoral accountability. Thatcher's opponents, however, held that the move was politically motivated, as the GLC had become a powerful centre of opposition to her government, and the county councils were in favour of higher local government taxes and public spending. As Prime Minister, Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business. Reitan, E.A. (2003), p. 28 She was just six months older than the Queen, and their relationship was one of much scrutiny; though there was never any personal animosity between the two, Seward, Ingrid (2001), p. 154 the consensus was that they did not get along overly well. Jones, Bill (1999), p. 78 While they displayed public images that largely contrasted, Erickson, Carolly (2005), p. 240 Tim Bell, a former Thatcher advisor, recalled, "Margaret has the deepest respect for the Queen and all her family". Lacey, Robert (2003), p. 258 She was said to greet the Queen with a curtsey every time they met. 1987 Election At the time of the 1987 general election, Labour leader Neil Kinnock presided over a party deeply divided on policy agendas. Foley, Michael (2002), p. 79 Margaret Thatcher, in turn, led her party to victory, winning an unprecedented third term with a 102 seat majority, and became the longest continuously serving Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since Lord Liverpool (1812 to 1827), as well as the only Prime Minister of the 20th century to serve three terms. She was elected riding on an economic boom against a weak Labour opposition. The Conservatives won 42.2% of the popular vote, while the Labour party won 30.8% and Alliance won 22.6 %. Third government 1987–1990 Environmental issues Thatcher, the former chemist, became publicly concerned with environmental issues in the late 1980s. In 1988, she made a major speech communicating the problems of global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain. Continuation of economic changes Thatcher introduced a new system for the government to raise revenue; she replaced local government taxes with a Community Charge or 'Poll tax', in which property tax rates were made uniform, in that the same amount was charged to every individual resident, and the residential property tax was replaced with a head tax whose rate would be established by local governments. Thatcher's revolutionary system was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales the following year. The Thatchers with the Reagans standing at the North Portico of the White House prior to a state dinner, 16 November 1988 A sceptical British public was disenchanted with Thatcher's system of local taxation and it was to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership. What the Thatcher government did not anticipate was that local councils would raise their total shares from the taxes. As a result, the central Government capped rates that seemed out of line, resulting in charges of partisanship and the alienation of small-government Conservatives. The Prime Minister's popularity declined in 1989 as she continued to refuse to compromise on the tax. Unrest mounted and culminated in a number of riots, the most serious of which occurred at Trafalgar Square, London, on 31 March 1990; more than 100,000 protesters attended and more than 400 people were arrested. A BBC Radio poll in September 1989 indicated that almost three-quarters of the public were also against water privatisation. 'News of water sale's death greatly exaggerated', The Times (2 October 1989). Despite public opposition to the poll tax and the privatisation of water, electricity, and British Rail, Thatcher remained confident that, as with her other major reforms, the initial public opposition would turn into support after implementation. A MORI poll for the Sunday Times in June 1988 found that more than 60% of voters agreed that in the long term the Thatcher government's policies would improve the state of the economy, while less than 30% disagreed; although income inequality had increased the poor were still better off than in 1979: 74% of Britons said they were satisfied with their present standard of living, while only 18% were dissatisfied. ‘All Thatcherites now’, The Times (15 June 1988). Europe At Bruges, Belgium, in 1988, Thatcher made a speech in which she outlined her opposition to proposals from the European Community, a forerunner to the European Union, for a federal structure and increasing centralisation of decision-making. Though she had supported British membership in the EC, Thatcher believed that the role of the organisation should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that the EC approach to governing was at odds with her views of smaller government and deregulatory trends; in 1988, she remarked, "We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them re-imposed at a European level, with a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". Senden, Linda (2004), p. 9 A split was emerging over European policy inside the British Government and her Conservative Party. On 30 November 1988, when the European Court of Human Rights ruled that Britain's detention provisions were in breach of European law, the policy split extended to parliament with the presentation of a petition calling for a written British constitution. Thatcher reacted angrily to the ECHR ruling, and to the failure of Belgium and Ireland to extradite a suspected terrorist, Father Patrick Ryan, to face charges in Britain. She told the Commons: "We shall consider the judgment carefully and also the human rights of the victims and potential victims of terrorism." At a meeting before the Madrid European Community summit in June 1989, Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe sought to persuade Thatcher to agree to circumstances under which Great Britain would join the Exchange Rate Mechanism, a preparation for monetary union, and abolish the pound sterling as British currency. At the meeting, they both said they would resign if their demands were not met. Thatcher, Margaret (1993), p. 712 Thatcher, as well as her economic advisor Alan Walters, was opposed to this notion and felt that the pound sterling should be able to float freely, Williams, Andy (1998), p. 216 and that membership would constrain the UK economy. Both Lawson and Howe eventually resigned and Thatcher remained firmly opposed to British membership in the European Monetary System. 1989 Leadership election Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by virtually unknown backbench MP Sir Anthony Meyer in the 1989 leadership election. Of the 374 Conservative MPs eligible to vote, 314 voted for Thatcher while 33 voted for Meyer; there were 27 abstentions. Thatcher noted, "I would like to say how very pleased I am with this result and how very pleased I am to have had the overwhelming support of my colleagues in the House and the people from the party in the country", while Meyer said he was delighted as well: "The total result I think is rather better than I had expected". Her supporters in the Party viewed the results as a success, and rejected suggestions that there was discontent within the Party. Gulf War Thatcher reviews Bermudian troops, 12 April 1990 Thatcher was visiting the United States when she received word that Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein had invaded neighbouring Kuwait. She met with US President George H. W. Bush, who had succeeded Ronald Reagan in 1989, during which Bush asked her, "Margaret, what is your view?" She recalled in an interview that she felt "that aggressors must be stopped, not only stopped, but they must be thrown out. An aggressor cannot gain from his aggression. He must be thrown out and really, by that time in my mind, I thought we ought to throw him out so decisively that he could never think of doing it again." She put pressure on Bush to deploy troops to the Middle East to drive the Iraqi army out of Kuwait. Bush was somewhat apprehensive about the plan, so Thatcher remarked to him during a telephone conversation, "This was no time to go wobbly!" Thatcher's government provided military forces to the international coalition in the Gulf War to pursue the ouster of Iraq from Kuwait. Resignation Despite having the longest continuous period of office of any prime minister in the twentieth century, Thatcher had, on average during her premiership, the second-lowest approval rating of any post-war prime minister, at 40%, only beating Edward Heath; even after the Falklands War it had never risen above 55%; polls consistently showed that she was less popular than the Conservative party. A self-described conviction politician, Thatcher always insisted she did not care about her poll ratings, pointing instead to her unbeaten election record. 'The poll tax incubus', The Times (24 November 1990). Moreover, in relative terms, Thatcher's personal position had remained consistently strong: a Marplan poll for the Sunday Express in October 1988 showed that Thatcher was still trusted by 61% of Britons to lead the country, compared with only 17% for Labour leader Neil Kinnock. Thatcher's capacity to lead was trusted by 87% of Conservative voters and 46% of Labour voters. '61% of voters want Thatcher as leader; Marplan poll', Sunday Times (9 October 1988). A Telephone Surveys poll for the Sunday Express in September 1990, during the Gulf crisis, found that 65% of voters preferred Thatcher as a crisis leader to Kinnock, who polled 20%. 'Gulf factor boosts Thatcher, says poll; In Today's Other Sunday Papers', Sunday Times (2 September 1990). A Mori poll for the Sunday Times in September 1989 showed that Thatcher was still the public's preferred choice of Conservative leader, attracting the support of 32% of voters, her pro-European former cabinet colleague Michael Heseltine coming second on 22%. However, by March 1990, in the face of high inflation and rising unemployment, Thatcher's support had halved to 15%, with Heseltine's doubling to 40%. Opposition to the poll tax and the divisions opening in the parliamentary party over European integration left Thatcher increasingly vulnerable to a challenge. By November 1990 the Conservatives had been trailing Labour for 18 months. Although a Mori survey for the Sunday Times showed that 83% of Conservative voters were satisfied by the way Thatcher represented the United Kingdom in Europe, 'Nearly Two-Thirds of Britons Would Like to See PM Defeated', Agence Europe (6 November 1990). a BBC poll found that Labour had increased its lead by 5 points to 14%, its biggest lead since May, while a poll for the Evening Standard found that Labour had nearly doubled its lead over the Conservatives to 13.2 points. Low poll ratings, along with Thatcher combative personality and willingness to override colleagues' opinions, contributed to discontent in the parliamentary party. On 1 November 1990, Geoffrey Howe, for 15 years one of Thatcher's most 'loyal and self-effacing' supporters, resigned from his position as Deputy Prime Minister over her refusal to agree to a timetable for British membership of the single currency. Peter Millership, 'Thatcher's Deputy Quits in Row over Europe', Reuters News (1 November 1990) In his resignation speech in the Commons on 13 November, referring to Thatcher's promise to veto any arrangement which jeopardised the pound sterling, Howe famously complained: 'It is rather like sending your opening batsmen to the crease only for them to find the moment that the first balls are bowled that their bats have been broken before the game by the team captain.' Sir Geoffrey Howe savages Prime Minister over European stance in Resignation speech', The Times (14 November 1990). Howe's resignation put Thatcher's future in doubt, and was afterwards recognised as dealing a 'fatal blow' to her premiership. Alan Walters, 'Sir Geoffrey Howe's resignation was fatal blow in Mrs Thatcher's political assassination', The Times (5 December 1990). While 59% of the British public polled for The Independent by Number Market Research agreed with Thatcher's opposition to monetary union, 64% still felt she ought to retire. 'British poll shows Thatcher's woes' (Agence France-Presse), Chicago Sun-Times (4 November 1990), p. 35. A few days later Heseltine challenged her for the leadership of the party. A Gallup poll for the Daily Telegraph showed that 28% of voters would be more inclined to vote Conservative if Heseltine were leader, and only 7% would be less inclined. Five separate polls indicated that he would give the Conservatives a national lead over Labour. Heseltine attracted sufficient support from the parliamentary party in the first round of voting to prolong the contest to a second ballot. Although Thatcher initially stated that she intended to contest the second ballot, she consulted with her Cabinet and decided to withdraw from the contest. Thatcher said that pressure from her colleagues helped her to conclude that the unity of the Conservative Party and the prospect of victory in the next general election would be more likely if she resigned. On 22 November, at 09.34, the 65 year old Prime Minister announced to the Cabinet that she would not be a candidate in the second ballot. A statement was soon released from 10 Downing Street: Some sections of the British public were stunned, but there were also scenes of rejoicing at the news. Thatcher went to Buckingham Palace to inform the Queen of her decision. She later arrived at the House of Commons to a debate; Neil Kinnock, Leader of the Opposition, proposed a motion of no confidence in the government, and Thatcher displayed her combativeness. She said: Later years Mrs Thatcher retained her parliamentary seat in the House of Commons as MP for Finchley for two years despite returning to the backbenches after leaving the premiership. She supported John Major as her successor and he duly won the leadership contest, although in the years to come her approval of Major would fall away. She occasionally spoke in the House of Commons after she was Prime Minister, commenting and campaigning on issues regarding her beliefs and concerns. In 1991, she was given a five minute, unprecedented standing ovation at the party's annual conference. She retired from the House at the 1992 election, at the age of 66 years; she said that leaving the Commons would allow her more freedom to speak her mind. After Parliament Margaret Thatcher became a peer in House of Lords in 1992 by the bestowal of a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire. See also: Thatcher had already been honoured by the Queen in 1990, shortly after her resignation as Prime Minister, when awarded the Order of Merit, one of the UK's highest distinctions and in the personal conferment of the sovereign. At the same time it was announced that her husband, Denis, would be given a baronetcy, which was confirmed in 1991 (ensuring that their son, Mark, would inherit a title). In 1995, Baroness Thatcher was appointed a Lady Companion of the Order of the Garter, the United Kingdom's highest order of Chivalry. After leaving the House of Commons, Thatcher remained active in politics. She authored her memoirs in two volumes: The Path to Power and The Downing Street Years, the former released in 1995 and the latter two years prior. She later published a third book, Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World, detailing her thoughts on international relations since her resignation in 1990. The chapters on the European Union were particularly controversial; she called for a fundamental renegotiation of Britain's membership to preserve the UK's sovereignty and, if that failed, for Britain to leave and join NAFTA. In August 1992 Thatcher called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Goražde and Sarajevo in order to end ethnic cleansing and to preserve the Bosnian state. She described the situation in Bosnia as "reminiscent of the worst excesses of the Nazis," warning that there could be a "holocaust" in Bosnia and described the conflict as a "killing field the like of which I thought we would never see in Europe again." She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty, describing it as "a treaty too far" and stated "I could never have signed this treaty". She cited A. V. Dicey, to the effect that, since all three main parties were in favour of revisiting the treaty, the people should have their say. Thatcher at the funeral of Ronald Reagan, June 2004 Thatcher (right) with Mikhail Gorbachev (left) and Brian Mulroney (centre) at the funeral service of Ronald Reagan, June 2004 From 1993 to 2000, Lady Thatcher served as Chancellor of the College of William and Mary in Virginia, which, established by Royal Charter in 1693, is the sole royal foundation in the contiguous United States. She was also Chancellor of the University of Buckingham, the UK's only private university. After Tony Blair's election as Labour Party leader in 1994, Thatcher gave an interview in May 1995 in which she praised Blair as "probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell. I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved." Lady Thatcher visited former Chilean president Augusto Pinochet, once a key British ally during the 1982 Falklands War, while he was under house arrest in Surrey in 1998. Pinochet was fighting extradition to Spain for alleged human rights abuses committed during his tenure. Thatcher expressed her support and friendship for Pinochet, thanking him for his support in 1982 and for "bringing democracy to Chile." In 1999, during Thatcher's first speech to a Conservative Party conference in nine years, she contended that Britain's problems came from continental Europe. Her comments aroused some criticism from Sir Malcolm Rifkind, a former Foreign Secretary under Sir John Major, who said that Lady Thatcher's comments could give the impression that Britain is prejudiced against Europe. In the 2001 general election, Lady Thatcher supported the Conservative general election campaign but this time did not endorse Iain Duncan Smith in public as she had done previously for John Major and William Hague. In the Conservative leadership election shortly after, she supported Iain Duncan Smith because she believed he would "make infinitely the better leader" than Kenneth Clarke. Activities since 2003 Thatcher attends the official Washington, D.C. memorial service marking the 5th anniversary of the 11 September attacks, pictured with Vice President Dick Cheney and his wife Lynne Cheney. Thatcher talks with then-US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Peter Pace, 12 September 2006 Thatcher was widowed upon the death of Sir Denis Thatcher on 26 June 2003. A funeral service was held honouring him at the Royal Hospital in Chelsea on 3 July with Thatcher present, as well as her children Mark and Carol. Thatcher paid tribute to him by saying, "Being Prime Minister is a lonely job. In a sense, it ought to be—you cannot lead from a crowd. But with Denis there I was never alone. What a man. What a husband. What a friend". The following year, on 11 June, Thatcher travelled to the United States to attend the state funeral service for former US President Ronald Reagan and one of her closest friends at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. Thatcher delivered a eulogy via videotape to Reagan; in view of her failing mental faculties following several small strokes, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier. Thatcher then flew to California with the Reagan entourage, and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for President Reagan at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. Thatcher marked her 80th birthday with a celebration at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park on 13 October 2005, where the guests included the Queen, The Duke of Edinburgh, Princess Alexandra and Tony Blair. There, Geoffrey Howe, now Lord Howe of Aberavon, said of his former boss, "Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible." In 2006, Thatcher attended the official Washington, D.C. memorial service to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States. She attended as a guest of the US Vice President, Dick Cheney, and met with US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit. On 12 November, she appeared at the Remembrance Day parade at the Cenotaph in London, leaning heavily on the arm of Sir John Major. On 10 December she announced she was "deeply saddened" by the death of Augusto Pinochet.<ref>{{citeweb|publisher=BBC News|date=2006-12-11|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6167351.stm|title=Pinochet death 'saddens' Thatcher|accessdate=2007-04-09}}</ref> In February 2007, she became the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to be honoured with a statue in the Houses of Parliament while still living. The statue is made of bronze and stands opposite her political hero and predecessor, Sir Winston Churchill. The statue was unveiled on 21 February 2007 with Lady Thatcher in attendance; she made a rare and brief speech in the members' lobby of the House of Commons, reposting, "I might have preferred iron — but bronze will do... It won't rust." In July 2002, theatre producer Paul Kelleher, 37, decapitated a £150,000, marble sculpture of Thatcher. Using a cricket bat hidden in his trousers, Kelleher took a swipe at the statue on display at the Guildhall Art Gallery, central London. When he failed to knock off the head, he grabbed a metal pole to complete the act. See also He was jailed. The statue shows her as if she were addressing the House of Commons, with her right arm outstretched. Thatcher said she was thrilled with it. On 13 September 2007, Thatcher was invited to 10 Downing Street to have tea with Prime Minister Gordon Brown and his wife, Sarah. Brown referred to Lady Thatcher as a "conviction politician" and said of himself, "I'm a conviction politician just like her." William Hague attacked this decision, saying to Brown, "You may fawn now at the feet of our greatest prime minister but you are no Margaret Thatcher. Margaret Thatcher would never have devastated the pension funds of this nation, nor kicked its small businesses in the teeth. We, Gordon, backed her when she rescued our country in the face of every denunciation and insult from the likes of you. Brown's spokesman insisted that the meeting was "not unusual", that it was customary for Prime Ministers to invite their predecessors to tea and that Mr Brown would be "happy" to meet any former Prime Minister. On 30 January 2008, Thatcher met incumbent Conservative Leader David Cameron at an awards ceremony at London's Guildhall where she was presented with a 'Lifetime Achievement Award'. In May 2009, she traveled to Rome to meet Pope Benedict XVI in a private audience at the Vatican. She had previously met Paul VI in 1977 and John Paul II in 1980. Iron Lady to meet the Pope in a private audience at the Vatican Health concerns Thatcher suffered several small strokes in 2002 and she was advised by her doctors not to engage in any more public speaking. As a result of the strokes, her short term memory began to falter. Her former press spokesman Sir Bernard Ingham said in early 2007, "She's now got no short-term memory left, which is absolutely tragic." Thatcher was admitted to St Thomas' Hospital, Central London on 7 March 2008, for tests after collapsing at a House of Lords dinner. She was taken by ambulance to the hospital, where she spent one night. The incident was probably caused by her low blood pressure and stuffy conditions within the dining hall. On 24 August 2008 it was publicly disclosed that Thatcher has been suffering from dementia. Her daughter Carol described in her 2008 memoir, A Swim-on Part in the Goldfish Bowl, first observing in 2000 that Thatcher was becoming forgetful. The condition later became more noticeable; at times, Thatcher thought that her husband Denis, who died in 2003, was still living. Carol Thatcher recalls that her mother's memories of the time she spent as Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990 remain among her sharpest. Legacy Thatcher is well remembered for her famed remarks to the reporter Douglas Keay, for Woman's Own magazine, 23 September 1987: I think we have gone through a period when too many children and people have been given to understand "I have a problem, it is the Government's job to cope with it!" or "I have a problem, I will go and get a grant to cope with it!" "I am homeless, the Government must house me!" and so they are casting their problems on society and who is society? There is no such thing! There are individual men and women and there are families and no government can do anything except through people and people look to themselves first. It is our duty to look after ourselves and then also to help look after our neighbour and life is a reciprocal business and people have got the entitlements too much in mind without the obligations... To her supporters, Margaret Thatcher remains a revolutionary figure who revitalised Britain's economy, impacted the trade unions, and re-established the nation as a world power. She contributed greatly to the end of the Cold War and the fall of communism. But Thatcher was also a controversial figure, in that her premiership was also marked by high unemployment and social unrest. Many critics fault her economic policies for the unemployment level. Richard, Howard (2004), p. 63 Speaking in Scotland in April 2009, before the 30th anniversary of her election as prime minister, Thatcher declared: 'I regret nothing,' and insisted 'she was right to introduce the poll tax and to close loss-making industries to end the country's "dependency culture".' 'Thatcher: I did right by Scots; Thatcher: I regret nothing.(News)', Sunday Times (26 April 2009), p. 1. The Labour party, in modernising its social democratic agenda to make itself electable and 'market friendly', incorporated much of the economic, social and political tenets of Thatcherism. Thatcher's programme of privatising state-owned enterprises has not been reversed. Indeed, successive Conservative and Labour governments have further curtailed the involvement of the state in the economy and have further dismantled public ownership. After her resignation in 1990, a MORI poll found that 52% of Britons agreed that "On balance she had been good for the country", while 48% disagreed, thinking she had not. Kavanagh, Dennis (1997), p. 134 In April 2008, the Daily Telegraph commissioned a YouGov poll asking whom Britons regarded as the greatest post-World War II prime minister; Thatcher came in first, receiving 34% of the vote, while Winston Churchill ranked second with 15%. Prime Minister (Daily Telegraph), YouGov/Daily Telegraph Survey Results, 7 April 2008. Rosalind Ryan, Voters prefer Thatcher and Blair to Brown, poll finds, guardian.co.uk, Monday 7 April 2008. Recently proponents of the 'end of capitalism' thesis Clive Crook, Two readings on "the end of capitalism, Financial Times ft.com/crookblog (15 October 2008). have speculated tentatively about 'the death of Thatcherism', Robert Peston, Humbling of our banks, BBC News (12 October 2008). linking the 1986 deregulation of the financial industry to the 2008 world financial crisis. Harold Meyerson, Gods That Failed, Washington Post (October 15, 2008), p. A21. The Economist, however, rejected a link, arguing: 'There have been too many intervening years, factors and governments for the case to stand up—though it reflects Mrs Thatcher's mythic status that, for some, she must be to blame.' Bagehot, There is no alternative, The Economist (7 May 2009). Conversely, Conservative leaders sense in the crisis 'the death of New Labour'. Thatcher's defenders argue that the current downturn is dwarfed by the wealth generated by decades of growth, and note that the banking crisis began under the divided, tripartite regulatory system introduced by Gordon Brown in 1997. Paul Amery, 'Too heavy financial regulation has created danger', The Financial Times (12 March 2008), p. 15. Others point to Thatcher's control of the money supply and cite the 1986 Financial Services Act as evidence of her own emphasis on 'stringent banking regulation', Claire Berlinksi, The Margaret Thatcher Era Isn't Over Yet, Pajamas Media (October 23, 2008). and contend that the big-spending Labour government only lasted as long as it did 'because it inherited the best economic situation of any 20th-century government'. Thatcher herself made known in April 2009 that she was 'appalled' by Brown's handling of the economy, seeing it as 'a repeat' of the crisis of the 1970s that had brought her radical reforming government to power. Jason Allardyce, 'Thatcher "appalled" by Brown's spending spree', Sunday Times (12 April 2009), p. 8. Pointing to the 'huge convergence around liberal labour markets, liberal migration policies and high levels of public spending,' one leading analyst summed up the new policy paradigm as: 'Thatcher plus Keynes.' Honours Margaret Thatcher's arms. The admiral represents the Falklands War, the image of Sir Isaac Newton her background as a chemist and her birth town Grantham. In addition to her conventional appointment as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC) upon becoming Secretary of State for Education and Science in 1970 Thatcher has received numerous honours as a result of her career, including being named a Lady of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (LG). She is a Member of the Order of Merit (OM) as well as a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) and the first woman entitled to full membership rights as an honorary member of the Carlton Club, a gentlemen's club. In 1999 Thatcher was among 18 included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century, from a poll conducted of Americans. In a 2006 list compiled by New Statesman, she was voted 5th in the list of "Heroes of our time". She was also named a "Hero of Freedom" by the libertarian magazine Reason. 35 Heroes of Freedom Reason, December 2003. Retrieved 10 April 2007 In the Falkland Islands, Margaret Thatcher Day is celebrated as a public holiday every 10 January, commemorating her visit on this date in 1983, seven months after the military victory; Wheeler, Tony (2004), p. 171 Pat Roller, 'Off the Record', Scottish Daily Record (10 January 2004), p. 10. the decision was taken by the Falklands Islands legislature in 1992. 'Falklands to make 10 January Thatcher Day - Newspaper', Reuters News (6 January 1992). Thatcher Drive in Stanley, the site of government, is also named for her. In South Georgia, Thatcher Peninsula, where the Task Force troops first set foot on Falklands soil, also bears her name. Reuters News (6 January 1992). See Thatcher Peninsula US President George Bush awards Thatcher the Presidential Medal of Freedom, 1991 Upon her death, it has been suggested that Lady Thatcher be granted the rare honour of a state funeral. However, this has proved controversial, and the government has stated that they are undecided on the issue. Thatcher has also been awarded numerous honours from foreign countries. In 1990, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honour awarded by the United States. She was also given the Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom, Ronald Reagan Freedom Award, and named a patron of the Heritage Foundation. She was also awarded the Grand Order of King Dmitar Zvonimir, the highest state order of the Republic of Croatia. Cultural depictions Thatcher has been the subject of a number of television programs, documentaries, films and plays; among the most notable depictions of her are Patricia Hodge in The Falklands Play (2002) and Lindsay Duncan in Margaret (2009). She was also the inspiration for a number of protest songs. Titles Styles and titles Baroness Thatcher has held from birth, in chronological order: Miss Margaret Roberts (13 October 1925 – 13 December 1951) Mrs Denis Thatcher (13 December 1951 – 8 October 1959) Mrs Denis Thatcher, MP (8 October 1959 – 22 June 1970) The Rt Hon. Margaret Thatcher, MP, PC (22 June 1970 – 7 December 1990) The Rt Hon. Margaret Thatcher, OM, MP, PC (7 December 1990 – 4 February 1991) The Rt Hon. Lady Thatcher, OM, MP, PC (4 February 1991 – 16 March 1992) The Rt Hon. Lady Thatcher, OM, PC (16 March 1992 – 26 June 1992) The Rt Hon. The Baroness Thatcher, OM, PC (26 June 1992 – 22 April 1995) The Rt Hon. The Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC (since 22 April 1995) Notes References The image at the beginning of this article was provided by the Margaret Thatcher Foundation.External links Margaret Thatcher Foundation Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom—A public policy center dedicated to advancing the ideas of Margaret Thatcher More about Margaret Thatcher on the Downing Street website. Margaret Thatcher biography at Notable Names Database. List of books and articles about Margaret Thatcher on Royal Historical Society Bibliography. 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820 | Mikhail_Gorbachev | Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (, ; born 2 March 1931) was the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, serving from 1985 until 1991, and also the last head of state of the USSR, serving from 1988 until its collapse in 1991. He was the only Soviet leader to have been born after the October Revolution of 1917. Gorbachev was born in Stavropol Krai into a peasant family, and operated combine harvesters on collective farms. He graduated from Moscow State University in 1955 with a degree in law. While in college, he joined the Communist party of the Soviet Union, and soon became very active within it. In 1970, he was appointed the First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, First Secretary to the Supreme Soviet in 1974, and appointed a member of Politburo in 1979. After the deaths of Soviet Leaders Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko, Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by Politburo in 1985. Gorbachev's attempts at reform as well as summit conferences with United States President Ronald Reagan contributed to the end of the Cold War, ended the political supremacy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990. Gorbachev is currently the leader of the Union of Social-Democrats, BBC NEWS | Europe | Gorbachev sets up Russia movement a political party founded after the official dissolution of the Social Democratic Party of Russia on 20 October 2007. Early life Gorbachev was born in the village of Privolnoye, Krasnogvardeisky District, Stavropol Territory, in southern Russia into a peasant family. He faced a very tough childhood under the totalitarian leadership of Joseph Stalin. His paternal grandfather was sentenced to nine years in the Gulag for withholding grain from the collective's harvest. He was ten when Germany invaded the Soviet Union and Nazi troops occupied Stavropol, amid World War II. Although they left by February 1943, the occupation increased the hardship of the community and left a deep and lasting impression on the young Gorbachev. From 1946 to 1950, he worked during the summers as an assistant combine harvester operator at the collective farms in his area. Gorbachev was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labor in 1947 for his outstanding results in bringing in the crop. He would later take an increasing part in promoting peasant labour, which he describes as "very hard" because of enforced state quotas and taxes on private plots. Gorbachev, M. S., Memoirs, 1996 (London: Bantam Books) Gorbachev graduated from high school with a silver medal in 1950, and attended Moscow State University. Despite the hardship of his background, Gorbachev excelled in the fields and in the classroom. He was considered one of the most intelligent in his social class, with a particular interest in history and mathematics. He studied law, and graduated five years later with a law degree (in 1966 he obtained a correspondence degree as an agronomist-economist). During his time at the university, Gorbachev joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and was active in social and political causes. He met Raisa Maksimovna Titarenko, whom he would marry in a small wedding party on 25 September 1953. Raisa would give birth to their first child, a daughter named Irina, on 6 January 1957. Upon his gradutation, Gorbachev briefly worked in the Prokuratura (Soviet State Procuracy) before transferring to the Komsomol, or Communist Union of Youth in Stavropol. He served as First Secretary of the Stavropol City Komsomol Committee beginning September 1956, later moving up to the Stavropol Krai (regional) Komsomol Committee, where he worked as Second Secretary starting April 1958 and as First Secretary from March 1961 onward. Rise in the Communist Party Gorbachev attended the important twenty-second Party Congress in October 1961, where Nikita Khrushchev announced a plan to surpass the U.S. in per capita production within twenty years. At this point in his life, Gorbachev would rise in the Commuist League hierarchy and worked his way up through territorial leagues of the party. He was promoted to Head of the Department of Party Organs in the Stavropol Agricultural Kraikom in 1963. In 1970, he was appointed First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, a body of the CPSU, becoming one of the youngest provincial party chiefs in the nation. In this position he helped reorganise the collective farms, improve workers' living conditions, expand the size of their private plots, and give them a greater voice in planning. He was soon made a member of the Communist Party Central Committee in 1971. Three years later, in 1974, he was made a Representative to the Supreme Soviet, and Chairman of the Standing Commission on Youth Affairs. He was subsequently appointed to the Central Committee's Secretariat for Agriculture in 1978, replacing Fyodor Kulakov, who had supported Gorbachev's appointment, after Kulakov died of a heart attack. In 1979, Gorbachev was promoted to the Politburo, the highest authority in the country, and received full membership in 1980. Gorbachev owed his steady rise to power to the patronage of Mikhail Suslov, the powerful chief ideologist of the CPSU. During Yuri Andropov's tenure as General Secretary (1982–1984), Gorbachev became one of the Poliburo's most visible and active members. With responsibility over personnel, working together with Andropov, 20 percent of the top echelon of government ministers and regional governors were replaced, often with younger men. During this time Grigory Romanov, Nikolai Ryzhkov and Yegor Ligachev were elevated, the latter two working closely with Gorbachev, Ryzhkov on economics, Ligachev on personnel. Gorbachev's positions within the CPSU created more opportunities to travel abroad and this would profoundly affect his political and social views in the future as leader of the country. In 1972, he headed a Soviet delegation to Belgium, and three years later he led a delegation to West Germany; in 1983 he headed a delegation to Canada to meet with Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and members of the Commons and Senate. In 1984, he travelled to the United Kingdom, where he met British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Upon Andropov's death in 1984, the aged Konstantin Chernenko took power; after his death the following year, it became clear to the party hierarchy that younger leadership was needed. Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by Politburo on 11 March 1985, only three hours after Chernenko's death. Upon his accession at age 54, he was the youngest member of Politburo. General Secretary of the CPSU Mikhail Gorbachev became the Party's first leader to have been born after the Revolution. As de facto ruler of the USSR, he tried to reform the stagnating Party and the state economy by introducing glasnost ("openness"), perestroika ("restructuring"), demokratizatsiya ("democratization"), and uskoreniye ("acceleration" of economic development), which were launched at the 27th Congress of the CPSU in February 1986. Domestic reforms Domestically, Gorbachev implemented economic reforms that he hoped would improve living standards and worker productivity as part of his perestroika programme. However, many of his reforms were considered radical at the time by orthodox apparatchiks in the Soviet government. 1985 In 1985, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet economy was stalled and that reorganization was needed. Initially, his reforms were called uskoreniye (acceleration) but later the terms glasnost (liberalisation, opening up) and perestroika (restructuring) became more popular. Gorbachev was not operating within a vacuum. Although the Brezhnev era is usually thought of as one of economic stagnation, a number of economic experiments (particularly in the organisation of business enterprises, and partnerships with Western companies) did take place. A number of reformist ideas were discussed by technocratic-minded managers, who often used the facilities of the Young Communist League as discussion forums. The so-called 'Komsomol Generation' would prove to be Gorbachev's most receptive audience, and the nursery of many post-Communist businessmen and politicians, particularly in the Baltic republics. After becoming General Secretary, Gorbachev proposed a "vague programme of reform", which was adopted at the April Plenum of the Central Committee. He made a speech in May in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) advocating widespread reforms. The reforms began in personnel changes; the most notable change was the replacement of Andrei Gromyko with Eduard Shevardnadze as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Gromyko, disparaged as 'Mr Nyet' in the West, had served for 28 years as Minister of Foreign Affairs and was considered an 'old thinker'. Robert D. English notes that, despite Shevardnadze's diplomatic inexperience, Gorbachev "shared with him an outlook" and experience in managing an agricultural region of the Soviet Union (Georgia), which meant that both had weak links to the powerful military-industrial complex. English, R., D, Russia and the Idea of the West: Gorbachev, Intellectuals and the End of the Cold War, 2000 (Columbia University Press) The first major reform programme introduced under Gorbachev was the 1985 alcohol reform, which was designed to fight widespread alcoholism in the Soviet Union. Prices of vodka, wine and beer were raised, and their sales were restricted. People who were caught drunk at work or in public were prosecuted. Drinking on long-distance trains and in public places was banned. Many famous wineries were destroyed. Scenes of alcohol consumption were cut out from films. The reform did not have any significant effect on alcoholism in the country, but economically it was a serious blow to the state budget (a loss of approximately 100 billion rubles according to Alexander Yakovlev) after alcohol production migrated to the black market economy. 1986 Gorbachev at the Brandenburg Gate in 1986 during a visit to the German Democratic Republic Perestroika and its attendant radical reforms were enunciated at the XXVIIth Party Congress between February and March, 1986. Nonetheless, many found the pace of reform too slow. Many historians, including Robert D. English, have explained this by the rapid mutual estrangement within the Soviet elite of the 'New Thinkers' and conservatives; conservatives were deliberately blocking the process of change. This was exposed in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster. In this incident, as English observes, Gorbachev and his allies were "misinformed by the military-industrial complex" and "betrayed" by conservatives, who blocked information concerning the incident and thus delayed an official response. Jack F. Matlock Jr. stresses that at the time Gorbachev demanded the authorities give "full information" but that the "Soviet bureaucracy blocked the flow". This situation brought international ire upon the Soviets and many blamed Gorbachev himself. Despite this, English suggests that there was a "positive fallout" to Chernobyl, as Gorbachev and his fellow reformers received an increased domestic and international impetus for reform. Domestic changes continued apace. In a bombshell speech during Armenian SSR's Central Committee Plenum of the Communist Party the young First Secretary of Armenia's Hrazdan Regional Communist Party, Hayk Kotanjian, criticised rampant corruption in the Armenian Communist Party's highest echelons, implicating Armenian SSR Communist Party First Secretary Karen Demirchyan and calling for his resignation. Symbolically, intellectual Andrei Sakharov was invited to return to Moscow by Gorbachev in December 1986 after six years of internal exile in Gorky. During the same month, however, signs of the nationalities problem that would haunt the later years of the Soviet Union surfaced as riots, named Jeltoqsan, occurred in Kazakhstan after Dinmukhamed Kunayev was replaced as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan. In 1986, Gorbachev had termed the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan "a bleeding wound" and started the process that would lead to withdrawal in February 1989 (after 14,500 Soviet soldiers had been killed there). See "Pakistan's Allies" first published in The Statesman newspaper Jun405 2006, www.thestatesman.net, republished at http://independentindian.com/2006/06/05/pakistans-allies/ 1987 The Central Committee Plenum in January 1987 would see the crystallisation of Gorbachev's political reforms, including proposals for multi-candidate elections and the appointment of non-Party members to government positions. He also first raised the idea of expanding co-operatives at the plenum. Later that year, May would be a month of crisis. In an almost incredible incident, a young West German, Mathias Rust, managed to fly a plane into Moscow and land near Red Square without being stopped. This massively embarrassed the military and Gorbachev made sweeping personnel changes, beginning at the top, where he appointed Dmitry Yazov as Minister of Defence. Economic reforms took up much of the rest of 1987, as a new law giving enterprises more independence was passed in June and Gorbachev released a book, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World, in November, elucidating his main ideas for reform. Nevertheless, at the same time, the personal and professional acrimony between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin increased; after Yeltsin criticised Gorbachev and others at the October Plenum, he was replaced as First Secretary of the Moscow Gorkom Party. This move only temporarily removed Yeltsin's influence. In 1987 he rehabilitated many opponents of Stalin, another part of the De-Stalinization, which began in 1956, when Lenin's Testament was published. 1988 1988 would see Gorbachev's introduction of glasnost, which gave new freedoms to the people, such as a greater freedom of speech. This was a radical change, as control of speech and suppression of government criticism had previously been a central part of the Soviet system. The press became far less controlled, and thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released. Gorbachev's goal in undertaking glasnost was to pressure conservatives within the CPSU who opposed his policies of economic restructuring, and he also hoped that through different ranges of openness, debate and participation, the Soviet people would support his reform initiatives. At the same time, he opened himself and his reforms up for more public criticism, evident in Nina Andreyeva's critical letter in a March edition of Sovetskaya Rossiya. Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalising policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Alexander Dubček's "Socialism with a human face". When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and his own reforms, Gorbachev replied, "Nineteen years". The Law on Cooperatives enacted in May 1988 was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy, the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the service, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors. The law initially imposed high taxes and employment restrictions although these were ignored by some SSRs. Later the restrictions were revised to avoid discouraging private-sector activity. Under the provision for private ownership, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene. Under the new law, the restructuring of large 'All-Union' industrial organisations also began. Aeroflot, was split up eventually becoming several independent airlines. These newly autonomous business organisations were encouraged to seek foreign investment. In June 1988, at the CPSU's XIXth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus. He proposed a new executive in the form of a presidential system, as well as a new legislative element, to be called the Congress of People's Deputies. 1989 Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the Soviet Union in March and April 1989. This was the first free election in the Soviet Union since 1917. He became Chairman of the Supreme Soviet (head of state) on 25 May 1989. On 15 March 1990, Gorbachev was elected as the first executive President of the Soviet Union with 59% of the Deputies' votes being an unopposed candidate. The Congress met for the first time on 25 May. Their first task was to elect representatives from Congress to sit on the Supreme Soviet. Nonetheless, the Congress posed problems for Gorbachev. Its sessions were televised, airing more criticism and encouraging people to expect ever more rapid reform. In the elections, many Party candidates were defeated. Furthermore, Yeltsin was elected in Moscow and returned to political prominence to become an increasingly vocal critic of Gorbachev. The rest of 1989 was taken up by the increasingly problematic nationalities question and the dramatic collapse of the Eastern Bloc. Despite international détente reaching unprecedented levels, with the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan completed in January and U.S.-Soviet talks continuing between Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush, domestic reforms were suffering from increasing divergence between reformists, who criticised the pace of change, and conservatives, who criticised the extent of change. Gorbachev states that he tried to find the middle ground between both groups, but this would draw more criticism towards him. The story from this point on moves away from reforms and becomes one of the nationalities question and the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union. On 9 November, people in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany, GDR) broke down the Berlin Wall after a peaceful protest against the country's dictatorial administration, including a demonstration by some one million people in East Berlin on 4 November. Unlike earlier riots which were ended by military force with the help of USSR, Gorbachev, who came to be lovingly called "Gorby" in West Germany, now decided not to interfere with the process in Germany. He stated that German reunification was an internal German matter. 'New Thinking' Abroad In contrast to his controversial domestic reforms, Gorbachev was largely hailed in the West for his 'New Thinking' in foreign affairs. During his tenure, he sought to improve relations and trade with the West by reducing Cold War tensions. He established close relationships with several Western leaders, such as West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, U.S. President Ronald Reagan, and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher - who famously remarked: "I like Mr Gorbachev, we can do business together". Gorbachev understood the link between achieving international détente and domestic reform and thus began extending 'New Thinking' abroad immediately. On 8 April 1985, he announced the suspension of the deployment of SS-20s in Europe as a move towards resolving intermediate-range nuclear weapons (INF) issues. Later that year, in September, Gorbachev proposed that the Soviets and Americans both cut their nuclear arsenals in half. He went to France on his first trip abroad as Soviet leader in October. November saw the Geneva Summit between Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan. Though no concrete agreement was made, Gorbachev and Reagan struck a personal relationship and decided to hold further meetings. January 1986 would see Gorbachev make his boldest international move so far, when he announced his proposal for the elimination of intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe and his strategy for eliminating all nuclear weapons by the year 2000 (often referred to as the 'January Proposal'). He also began the process of withdrawing troops from Afghanistan and Mongolia on 28 July. Nonetheless, many observers, such as Jack F. Matlock Jr. (despite generally praising Gorbachev as well as Reagan), have criticised Gorbachev for taking too long to achieve withdrawal from the Afghanistan War, citing it as an example of lingering elements of 'old thinking' in Gorbachev. Matlock, J. F. Jr., Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended, 2004 On 11 October 1986, Gorbachev and Reagan met in Reykjavík, Iceland to discuss reducing intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe. To the immense surprise of both men's advisers, the two agreed in principle to removing INF systems from Europe and to equal global limits of 100 INF missile warheads. They also essentially agreed in principle to eliminate all nuclear weapons in 10 years (by 1996), instead of by the year 2000 as in Gorbachev's original outline. Continuing trust issues, particularly over reciprocity and Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), meant that the summit is often regarded as a failure for not producing a concrete agreement immediately, or for leading to a staged elimination of nuclear weapons. In the long term, nevertheless, this would culminate in the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, after Gorbachev had proposed this elimination on 22 July 1987 (and it was subsequently agreed on in Geneva on 24 November). In February, 1988, Gorbachev announced the full withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan. The withdrawal was completed the following year, although the civil war continued as the Mujahedin pushed to overthrow the pro-Soviet Najibullah regime. An estimated 28,000 Soviets were killed between 1979 and 1989 as a result of the Afghanistan War. Gorbachev in one-on-one discussions with Reagan Also during 1988, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would abandon the Brezhnev Doctrine, and allow the Eastern bloc nations to freely determine their own internal affairs. Jokingly dubbed the "Sinatra Doctrine" by Gorbachev's Foreign Ministry spokesman Gennadi Gerasimov, this policy of non-intervention in the affairs of the other Warsaw Pact states proved to be the most momentous of Gorbachev's foreign policy reforms. In his 6 July 1989 speech arguing for a "common European home" before the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, France, Gorbachev declared: "The social and political order in some countries changed in the past, and it can change in the future too, but this is entirely a matter for each people to decide. Any interference in the internal affairs, or any attempt to limit the sovereignty of another state, friend, ally, or another, would be inadmissible." Moscow's abandonment of the Brezhnev Doctrine led to a string of revolutions in Eastern Europe throughout 1989, in which Communism collapsed. By the end of 1989, mass revolts had spread from one Eastern European capital to another, ousting the regimes imposed on Eastern Europe after World War II. With the exception of Romania, the popular upheavals against the pro-Soviet Communist regimes were all peaceful ones. (See Revolutions of 1989) The loosening of Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe effectively ended the Cold War, and for this, Gorbachev was awarded the Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold in 1989 and the Nobel Peace Prize on 15 October 1990. Coit D. Blacker wrote in 1990 that the Soviet leadership "appeared to have believed that whatever loss of authority the Soviet Union might suffer in Eastern Europe would be more than offset by a net increase in its influence in Western Europe." Coit D. Blacker. "The Collapse of Soviet Power in Europe." Foreign Affairs. 1990. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Gorbachev ever intended for the complete dismantling of Communism in the Warsaw Pact countries. Rather, Gorbachev assumed that the Communist parties of Eastern Europe could be reformed in a similar way to the reforms he hoped to achieve in the CPSU. Just as perestroika was aimed at making the USSR more efficient economically and politically, Gorbachev believed that the Comecon and Warsaw Pact could be reformed into more effective entities. Alexander Yakovlev, a close advisor to Gorbachev, would later state that it would have been "absurd to keep the system" in Eastern Europe. In contrast to Gorbachev, Yakovlev had come to the conclusion that the Soviet-dominated Comecon was inherently unworkable and that the Warsaw Pact had "no relevance to real life." Steele, Jonathan. Eternal Russia: Yeltsin, Gorbachev and the Mirage of Democracy. Boston: Faber, 1994. Collapse of the Soviet Union While Gorbachev's political initiatives were positive for freedom and democracy in the Soviet Union and its Eastern bloc allies, the economic policy of his government gradually brought the country close to disaster. By the end of the 1980s, severe shortages of basic food supplies (meat, sugar) led to the reintroduction of the war-time system of distribution using food cards that limited each citizen to a certain amount of product per month. Compared to 1985, the state deficit grew from 0 to 109 billion rubles; gold funds decreased from 2,000 to 200 tons; and external debt grew from 0 to 120 billion dollars. Furthermore, the democratisation of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had irreparably undermined the power of the CPSU and Gorbachev himself. The relaxation of censorship and attempts to create more political openness had the unintended effect of re-awakening long-suppressed nationalist and anti-Russian feelings in the Soviet republics. Calls for greater independence from Moscow's rule grew louder, especially in the Baltic republics of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia which had been annexed into the Soviet Union by Stalin in 1940. Nationalist feeling also took hold in Georgia, Ukraine, Armenia and Azerbaijan. In December 1986, the first signs of the nationalities problem that would haunt the later years of the Soviet Union's existence surfaced as riots, named Jeltoqsan, occurred in Alma Ata and other areas of Kazakhstan after Dinmukhamed Kunayev was replaced as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan. Nationalism would then surface in Russia in May 1987, as 600 members of Pamyat, a nascent Russian nationalist group, demonstrated in Moscow and were becoming increasingly linked to Boris Yeltsin, who received their representatives at a meeting. Glasnost hastened awareness of the national sovereignty problem. The free flow of information had been so completely suppressed for so long in the Soviet Union that many of the ruling class had all but forgotten that the Soviet Union was an empire conquered by military force and consolidated by the persecution of millions of people, and not a union voluntarily entered into by local populations. Thus, the extremity of local desire for independent control of their own affairs took these leaders by surprise, and the leaders were unprepared for the depth of the long pent-up feelings that were released. Violence erupted in Nagorno-Karabakh - an Armenian-populated enclave within Azerbaijan - between February and April, when Armenians living in the area began a new wave of protests over the arbitrary transfer of the historically Armenian region from Armenia to Azerbaijan in 1920 upon Joseph Stalin's decision. Gorbachev imposed a temporary solution, but it did not last, as fresh trouble arose in Nagorno-Karabakh between June and July. Turmoil would once again return in late 1988, this time in Armenia itself, when the Leninakan Earthquake hit the region on 7 December. Poor local infrastructure magnified the hazard and some 25,000 people died. Gorbachev was forced to break off his trip to the U.S. and cancel planned travels to Cuba and Britain. In March and April 1989 elections to the Congress of People's Deputies took place throughout the Soviet Union. This returned many pro-independence republicans, as many CPSU candidates were rejected. The televised Congress debates allowed the dissemination of pro-independence propositions. Indeed, 1989 would see numerous nationalistic expressions protests. Initiated by the Baltic republics in January, laws were passed in most non-Russian republics giving precedence for the republican language over Russian. 9 April would see the crackdown of nationalist demonstrations by Soviet troops in Tbilisi. There would be further bloody protests in Uzbekistan in June, where Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks clashed in Fergana. Apart from this violence, three major events that altered the face of the nationalities issue occurred in 1989. Estonia had declared its sovereignty in November, 1988, to be followed by Lithuania in May 1989 and by Latvia in July (the Communist Party of Lithuania would also declare its independence from the CPSU in December). This brought the Union and the republics into clear confrontation and would form a precedent for other republics. Following this, in July, on the eve of the anniversary of the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, it was formally revealed that the treaty did indeed include a plan for the annexation of the Baltic countries into the USSR (as happened in 1940) and the division of Poland between the two countries. The unsavory past was exposed and gave impetus to the peoples of the Baltic countries who could now even more legitimately claim that they were subject to oppression. Finally, the Eastern bloc collapsed in the autumn of 1989, raising hopes that Gorbachev would extend his non-interventionist doctrine to the internal workings of the USSR. Crisis of the Union, 1990-91 Gorbachev in 1990 1990 began with nationalist turmoil in January. Azerbaijanis rioted and troops needed to be sent in to restore order; many Moldavians demonstrated in favour of unification with the post-Communist Romania; and Lithuanian demonstrations continued. The same month, in a hugely significant move, Armenia asserted its right to veto laws coming from the All-Union level, thus intensifying the 'war of laws' between republics and Moscow. Soon after, the CPSU, which had already lost much of its control, began to lose even more power as Gorbachev deepened political reform. The February Central Committee Plenum advocated multi-party elections; local elections held between February and March returned a large number of pro-independence candidates. The Congress of People's Deputies then amended the Soviet Constitution in March, removing Article 6, which guaranteed the monopoly of the CPSU. The process of political reform was therefore coming from above and below, and was gaining a momentum that would augment republican nationalism. Soon after the constitutional amendment, Lithuania declared independence and elected Vytautas Landsbergis as President. On 15 March, Gorbachev himself was elected as the only President of the Soviet Union by the Congress of People's Deputies and chose a Presidential Council of 15 politicians. Gorbachev was essentially creating his own political support base independent of CPSU conservatives and radical reformers. The new Executive was designed to be a powerful position to guide the spiraling reform process, and the Supreme Soviet and Congress of People's Deputies had already given Gorbachev increasingly presidential powers in February. This would be again a source of criticism from reformers. Despite the apparent increase in Gorbachev's power, he was unable to stop the process of nationalistic assertion. Further embarrassing facts about Soviet history were revealed in April, when the government admitted that the NKVD had carried out the infamous Katyn Massacre of Polish army officers during World War II; previously, the USSR had blamed Nazi Germany. More significantly for Gorbachev's position, Boris Yeltsin was reaching a new level of prominence, as he was elected Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR in May, effectively making him the de jure leader of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Problems for Gorbachev would once more come from the Russian parliament in June, when it declared the precedence of Russian laws over All-Union level legislation. Gorbachev's personal position continued changing. At XXVIIIth CPSU Congress in July, Gorbachev was re-elected General Secretary but this position was now completely independent of Soviet government, and the Politburo had no say in the ruling of the country. Gorbachev further reduced Party power in the same month, when he issued a decree abolishing Party control of all areas of the media and broadcasting. At the same time, Gorbachev was working to consolidate his Presidential position, culminating in the Supreme Soviet granting him special powers to rule by decree in September in order to pass a much-needed plan for transition to a market economy. However, the Supreme Soviet could not agree on which programme to adopt. Gorbachev pressed on with political reform, his proposal for setting up a new Soviet government, with a Soviet of the Federation consisting of representatives from all 15 republics, was passed through the Supreme Soviet in November. In December, Gorbachev was once more granted increased executive power by the Supreme Soviet, arguing that such moves were necessary to counter "the dark forces of nationalism". Such moves led to Eduard Shevardnadze's resignation; Gorbachev's former ally warned of an impending dictatorship. This move was a serious blow to Gorbachev personally and to his efforts for reform. Meanwhile, Gorbachev was losing further ground to nationalists. October 1990 saw the founding of DemoRossiya, the Russian nationalist party; a few days later, both Ukraine and Russia declared their laws completely sovereign over Soviet level laws. The 'war of laws' had become an open battle, with the Supreme Soviet refusing to recognise the actions of the two republics. Gorbachev would publish the draft of a new union treaty in November, which envisioned a continued union called the Union of Sovereign Soviet Republics, but, going into 1991, the actions of Gorbachev were steadily being overtaken by the centrifugal secessionist forces. January and February would see a new level of turmoil in the Baltic republics. On 10 January 1991 Gorbachev issued an ultimatum-like request addressing the Lithuanian Supreme Council demanding the restoration of the validity of the constitution of the Soviet Union in Lithuania and the revoking of all anti-constitutional laws. In his Memoirs, Gorbachev asserts that, on 12 January, he convened the Council of the Federation and political measures to prevent bloodshed were agreed, including sending representatives of the Council of the Federation on a "fact-finding mission" to Vilnius. However, before the delegation arrived, the local branches of the KGB and armed forces had worked together to seize the TV tower in Vilnius; Gorbachev asked the heads of the KGB and military if they had approved such action, and there is no evidence that they, or Gorbachev, ever approved this move. Gorbachev cites documents found in the RSFSR Prokuratura after the August coup, which only mentioned that "some 'authorities'" had sanctioned the actions. A book called Alpha – the KGB's Top Secret Unit also suggests that a "KGB operation co-ordinated with the military" was undertaken by the KGB Alpha Group. Boltunov, M., Alfa – Sverkhsekretnyi Otryad KGB [Alpha – The KGB's Top-Secret Unit], 1992, (Moscow: Kedr) Archie Brown, in The Gorbachev Factor, uses the memoirs of many people around Gorbachev and in the upper echelons of the Soviet political landscape, to implicate General Valentin Varennikov, a member of the August coup plotters, and General Viktor Achalov, another August coup conspirator and later a putschist against Yeltsin in 1993. These persons were characterised as individuals "who were prepared to remove Gorbachev from his presidential office unconstitutionally" and "were more than capable of using unauthorised violence against nationalist separatists some months earlier". Brown criticises Gorbachev for "a conscious tilt in the direction of the conservative forces he was trying to keep within an increasingly fragile coalition" who would later betray him; he also criticises Gorbachev "for his tougher line and heightened rhetoric against the Lithuanians in the days preceding the attack and for his slowness in condemning the killings" but notes that Gorbachev did not approve any action and was seeking political solutions. Brown, A., The Gorbachev Factor, 1996, (New York: Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-19-288052-7 As a result of continued violence, at least 14 civilians were killed and more than 600 injured from 11-13 January 1991 in Vilnius, Lithuania. The strong Western reaction and the actions of Russian democratic forces put the president and government of the Soviet Union into an awkward situation, as news of support for Lithuanians from Western democracies started to appear. Further problems surfaced in Riga, Latvia, on 20 January and 21, where OMON (special Ministry of the Interior) troops killed 4 people. Archie Brown suggests that Gorbachev's response this time was better, condemning the rogue action, sending his condolences and suggesting that secession could take place if it went through the procedures outlined in the Soviet constitution. According to Gorbachev's aide, Shakhnazarov (quoted by Archie Brown), Gorbachev was finally beginning to accept the inevitability of "losing" the Baltic republics, although he would try all political means to preserve the Union. Brown believes that this put him in "imminent danger" of being overthrown by hard-liners against the secession. Gorbachev thus continued to draw up a new treaty of union which would have created a truly voluntary federation in an increasingly democratised Soviet Union. The new treaty was strongly supported by the Central Asian republics, who needed the economic power and markets of the Soviet Union to prosper. However, the more radical reformists, such as Russian SFSR President Boris Yeltsin, were increasingly convinced that a rapid transition to a market economy was required and were more than happy to contemplate the disintegration of the Soviet Union if that was required to achieve their aims. Nevertheless, a referendum on the future of the Soviet Union was held in March (with a referendum in Russia on the creation of a presidency), which returned an average of 76.4% in the 9 republics where it was taken, with a turn-out of 80% of the adult population. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Armenia, Georgia and Moldova did not participate. Following this, an April meeting at Novo-Ogarevo between Gorbachev and the heads of the 9 republics issued a statement on speeding up the creation of a new Union treaty. Meanwhile, on 12 June 1991 Boris Yeltsin was elected President of the Russian Federation by 57.3% of the vote (with a turnout of 74%). The August 1991 coup In contrast to the reformers' moderate approach to the new treaty, the hard-line apparatchiks, still strong within the CPSU and military establishment, were completely opposed to anything which might lead to the break-up of the Soviet Union. On the eve of the treaty's signing, the hardliners struck. Hardliners in the Soviet leadership, calling themselves the 'State Emergency Committee', launched the August coup in 1991 in an attempt to remove Gorbachev from power and prevent the signing of the new union treaty. During this time, Gorbachev spent three days (19 August, 20 and 21) under house arrest at a dacha in the Crimea before being freed and restored to power. However, upon his return, Gorbachev found that neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to Yeltsin, whose defiance had led to the coup's collapse. Furthermore, Gorbachev was forced to fire large numbers of his Politburo and, in several cases, arrest them. Those arrested for high treason included the "Gang of Eight" that had led the coup, including Kryuchkov, Yazov, Pavlov and Yanayev. Pugo was found shot; and Akhromeyev, who had offered his assistance but was never implicated, was found hanging in his Kremlin office. Most of these men had been former allies of Gorbachev's or promoted by him, which drew fresh criticism. Aftermath of the coup and the final collapse Between 21 August and 22 September, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikstan, and Turkmenistan declared their independence. Simultaneously, Boris Yeltsin ordered the CPSU to suspend its activities on the territory of Russia and closed the Central Committee building at Staraya Ploschad. The Russian flag now flew beside the Soviet flag at the Kremlin. In light of these circumstances, Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary of the CPSU on 24 August and advised the Central Committee to dissolve. Gorbachev's hopes of a new Union were further hit when the Congress of People's Deputies dissolved itself on 5 September. Though Gorbachev and the representatives of 8 republics (excluding Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) signed an agreement on forming a new economic community on 18 October, events were overtaking Gorbachev. With the country in a rapid state of deterioration, the final blow to Gorbachev's vision was effectively dealt by a Ukrainian referendum on 1 December, where the Ukrainian people voted for independence. The presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus met in Belovezh Forest, near Brest, Belarus, on 8 December, founding the Commonwealth of Independent States and declaring the end of the Soviet Union in the Belavezha Accords. Gorbachev was presented with a fait accompli and reluctantly agreed with Yeltsin, on 17 December, to dissolve the Soviet Union. Gorbachev resigned on 25 December and the Soviet Union was formally dissolved the next day. Two days later, on 27 December, Yeltsin moved into Gorbachev's old office. Gorbachev had aimed to maintain the CPSU as a united party but move it in the direction of social democracy. The inherent contradictions in this approach, praising Lenin, admiring Sweden's social model and seeking to keep the three Baltic states, were difficult enough. But when the CPSU was proscribed after the August coup, Gorbachev was left with no effective power base beyond the armed forces. Activities after resignation Gorbachev (left) with former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher at the funeral of Ronald Reagan, 11 June 2004 Following his resignation and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev remained active in Russian politics. Especially during the early years of the post-Soviet era, he expressed criticism at the reforms carried out by Russian president Boris Yeltsin. When president Yeltsin called a referendum for 25 April 1993 in an attempt to achieve even greater powers as president, Gorbachev did not vote, and instead called for new presidential elections to happen soon. Maurizio Giuliano, Müssen schnell wählen (interview), Profil, nr. 19, 10 May 1993, page 61 Following a failed run for the presidency in 1996, Gorbachev established the Social Democratic Party of Russia, a union between several Russian social democratic parties. He resigned as party leader in May 2004 over a disagreement with the party's chairman over the direction taken in the December 2003 election campaign. The party was later banned in 2007 by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation due to its failure to establish local offices with at least 500 members in the majority of Russian regions, which is required by Russian law for a political organisation to be listed as party. Mosnews.com Later that year, Gorbachev founded a new political party, called the Union of Social-Democrats. In June 2004, Gorbachev represented Russia at the funeral of Ronald Reagan. Gorbachev has also appeared in numerous media events since his resignation from office. In 1993, Gorbachev appeared as himself in the Wim Wenders film, Faraway, So Close!, the sequel to Wings of Desire. In 1997, Gorbachev appeared with his granddaughter Anastasia in an internationally-screened television commercial for Pizza Hut. The US corporation's fee for the 60-second ad went to his not-for-profit Gorbachev Foundation. Mikhail Gorbachev appears in Pizza Hut advertising campaign, PRNewswire, 23 December 1997.Retrieved on 3 August 2007. In 2007, French luxury brand Louis Vuitton announced that Gorbachev would be shown in an ad campaign for their signature luggage. Since his resignation, Gorbachev has remained involved in world affairs. He founded the Gorbachev Foundation in 1992, headquartered in San Francisco, California. He later founded Green Cross International, with which he was one of three major sponsors of the Earth Charter. He also became a member of the Club of Rome and the Club of Madrid. In the decade that followed the Cold War, Gorbachev opposed both the U.S.-led NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 and the U.S.-led Iraq War in 2003. On 27 July 2007, Gorbachev criticised U.S. foreign policy: “What has followed are unilateral actions, what has followed are wars, what has followed is ignoring the U.N. Security Council, ignoring international law and ignoring the will of the people, even the American people,” he said. That same year, he visited New Orleans, Louisiana, a spot hard-hit by Hurricane Katrina, and promised to that he would return in 2011 to personally lead a local revolution if the U.S. government had not repaired the levees by that time. He said that revolutionary action should be a last resort. With reference to the 2008 South Ossetia war, in an 12 August 2008 op-ed in The Washington Post, Gorbachev criticized the U.S. support for Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili and for moving to bring Caucasus into the sphere of its "national interest." He later said the following: In September 2008 Gorbachev announced he is going to make a comeback to the Russian politics along with a former KGB officer, Alexander Lebedev. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/3104623/Mikhail-Gorbachev-returns-to-Russian-politics.html Their party is known as the Independent Democratic Party of Russia. He also is part owner of the opposition newspaper Novaya Gazeta. Лебедев и Горбачев стали совладельцами "Новой газеты" Grani.ru 7 June 2006 On 20 March 2009, Gorbachev met with United States President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden in efforts to "reset" strained relations between Russia and the United States. http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20090323/pl_afp/usrussiadiplomacyobamagorbachev_20090323215234 Retrieved on 24 March 2009. On 27 March 2009, Gorbachev visited Eureka College in Eureka, Illinois which is the alma mater of former president Ronald Reagan. He toured the campus and later traveled to Peoria, Illinois as the keynote speaker at the Reagan Day Dinner. http://www.week.com/news/local/42019457.html Retrieved on 24 March 2009. Honors and accolades Former President of the United States, Ronald Reagan awards Gorbachev the first ever Ronald Reagan Freedom Award at the Reagan Library, 1992 In 1990, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his leading role in the peace process which today characterizes important parts of the international community" and even though Russia still blames Gorbachev for their economic crisis, which is still evident today, the West believe it was Mikhail who helped end the Cold War. On 4 May 1992, Gorbachev was awarded the first ever Ronald Reagan Freedom Award at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation & Library In 1993 Gorbachev was awarded a Legum Doctor, honoris causa from Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. He was also given an honorary degree from The University of Calgary in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Gorbachev was the 1994 recipient of the Grawemeyer Award for improving world order, awarded by the University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky. In 1995, Gorbachev received an Honorary Doctorate from Durham University, County Durham, England for his contribution to "the cause of political tolerance and an end to Cold War-style confrontation". Honorary Doctorate from Durham For his historic role in the evolution of glasnost, and for his leadership in the disarmament negotiations with the United States during the Reagan administration, Gorbachev was awarded the Courage of Conscience award 20 October 1996. The Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Recipients List Gorbachev, together with Bill Clinton and Sophia Loren, were awarded the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children for their recording of Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf. In 2005, Gorbachev was awarded the Point Alpha Prize for his role in supporting German reunification. He also received an honorary doctorate from the University of Münster. Religious affiliation Gorbachev was baptised in the Russian Orthodox Church as a child. He campaigned for establishment of freedom of religion laws in the former Soviet Union. Gorbachev has also expressed pantheistic views, saying, in an interview with the magazine Resurgence, "Nature is my god." Remarks by Gorbachev to Ronald Reagan in discussions during their summits, made the President deeply intrigued by the possibility that the leader of the Evil Empire might be a "closet Christian." Reagan seems to have seen this as the most interesting aspect of his meeting with the Soviet leader in Geneva. Red Herring: Mikhail Gorbachev's Not-Quite Conversion Christianity Today (Web-only) 4 April 2008, Vol. 52. At the end of a November 1996 interview on CSPAN's Booknotes, Gorbachev described his plans for future books. He made the following reference to God: "I don't know how many years God will be giving me, [or] what His plans are." In 2005, he said that Pope John Paul II's "devotion to his followers is a remarkable example to all of us" following the pontiff's death. "What can I say -- it must have been the will of God. He acted really courageously." Gorbachev: Pope was 'example to all of us' In a 1989 meeting, he had told him "We appreciate your mission on this high pulpit, we are convinced that it will leave a great mark on history." Record of Conversation between M.S. Gorbachev and John Paul II On the other hand, some have alleged that Gorbachev signed a contract killing against the Holy Father back in 1979, which resulted in a failed assassination attempt. Gorbachev signed JP II KGB death warrant However, he has categorically denied this accusation. Gorbachev denies ordering Pope's assassination Gorbachev was the recipient of the Athenagoras Humanitarian Award of the Order of St. Andrew Archons of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople on 20 November 2005. Athenagoras humanitarian award to Nobel peace prize laureate Mikhail Gorbachev Website of Gorbachev Foundation On 19 March 2008, during a surprise visit to pray at the tomb of Saint Francis in Assisi, Italy, Gorbachev made an announcement which has been interpreted to the effect that he was a Christian. Gorbachev stated that "St Francis is, for me, the alter Christus, the other Christ. His story fascinates me and has played a fundamental role in my life." He added, "It was through St Francis that I arrived at the Church, so it was important that I came to visit his tomb." However, a few days later, he reportedly told the Russian news agency Interfax, "Over the last few days some media have been disseminating fantasies—I can't use any other word—about my secret Catholicism, [...] To sum up and avoid any misunderstandings, let me say that I have been and remain an atheist." In response, a spokesman for the Russian Orthodox patriarch Alexei II told the Russian media: "In Italy, he (Gorbachev) spoke in emotional terms, rather than in terms of faith. He is still on his way to Christianity. If he arrives, we will welcome him." Health In November 2006, Gorbachev was admitted to a hospital in Munich, Germany after he reported that he was not feeling well. He had an operation on a carotid artery in his neck on 21 November 2006. He returned to Russia on 9 December 2006. Naevus flammeus Gorbachev is the most famous person in modern times with visible naevus flammeus. The crimson birthmark on the top of his bald head was the source of much satire among critics and cartoonists. Contrary to some accounts, it is not rosacea. In his official photos as a Politburo member this birthmark was removed. Though some suggested that it be surgically removed, Gorbachev opted not to, as once he was publicly known to have the mark, he believed it would be perceived as him being more concerned with his appearance than other, more important issues. See also Black January – Soviet massacre of Azeris in 1990 Earth Charter Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev, key Gorbachev advisor and ally Sergei M. Plekhanov, other former Gorbachev advisor on the United States and Canada. References Further reading External links MikhailGorbachev.org The Gorbachev Foundation Public Opinion about Gorbachev The Encyclopaedia of Marxism, from which parts of this article have been taken. Green Cross International official site Mikhail S. Gorbachev Biography, in Russian Out in the Cold Guardian interview 8 March 2005 TIME 100 for 2004: Mikhail Gorbachev CNN Cold War – Profile: Mikhail Gorbachev from the 1998 series September 1997 interview Biography, talks, tributes and quotes Ubben Lecture at DePauw University Mikhail Gorbachev's op/ed commentaries for Project Syndicate Commanding Heights: Mikhail Gorbachev (PBS interview), April 2001. USSR – USA: Summit Documents and Materials, Washington 30 May – 3 June 1990 Truth Gorbachev to speak at University of Dallas as McDermott Guest Lecturer Speech by Yegor Gaidar (acting prime minister of Russia, minister of economy, and first deputy prime minister between 1991 and 1994), explaining the underlying reasons for Gorbachev's politics be-x-old:Міхаіл Гарбачоў | Mikhail_Gorbachev |@lemmatized mikhail:13 sergeyevich:1 gorbachev:200 born:1 march:18 last:5 general:10 secretary:19 communist:19 party:46 soviet:91 union:55 serve:4 also:18 head:8 state:25 ussr:8 collapse:10 leader:13 bear:4 october:10 revolution:5 stavropol:9 krai:2 peasant:3 family:2 operate:2 combine:2 harvester:2 collective:4 farm:3 graduate:3 moscow:11 university:12 degree:4 law:19 college:2 join:2 soon:5 become:16 active:4 within:9 appoint:5 first:25 kraikom:3 supreme:13 member:11 politburo:8 death:6 leonid:1 brezhnev:4 yuri:2 andropov:4 konstantin:2 chernenko:3 elect:10 attempt:6 reform:38 well:5 summit:5 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821 | Systems_Concepts | Systems Concepts (now the SC Group) is a company co-founded by Stewart Nelson and Mike Levitt focused on making hardware products related to the DEC PDP-10 series of computers. One of its major products was the SA-10, an interface which allowed PDP-10s to be connected to disk and tape drives designed for use with the channel interfaces of IBM mainframes. Later, Systems Concepts attempted to produce a compatible replacement for the DEC PDP-10 computers. This project was a legendary tragic failure, the archetypal Hacker Dream Gone Wrong. Mars was the code name for a family of PDP-10-compatible computers built by Systems Concepts, including the initial SC-30M, the smaller SC-25, and the slower SC-20. These machines were marvels of engineering design; although not much slower than the unique Foonly F-1, they were physically smaller and consumed less power than the much slower DEC KS10 or Foonly F-2, F-3, or F-4 machines. They were also completely compatible with the DEC KL10, and ran all KL10 binaries (including the operating system) with no modifications at about 2-3 times faster than a KL10. When DEC cancelled the Jupiter project in 1983, Systems Concepts should have made a bundle selling their machine into shops with a lot of software investment in PDP-10s, and in fact their spring 1984 announcement generated a great deal of excitement in the PDP-10 world. TOPS-10 was running on the Mars by the summer of 1984, and TOPS-20 by early fall. Unfortunately, the hackers running Systems Concepts were much better at designing machines than at mass producing or selling them; the company allowed itself to be sidetracked by a bout of perfectionism into continually improving the design, and lost credibility as delivery dates continued to slip. They also overpriced the product ridiculously; they believed they were competing with the KL10 and VAX 8600 and failed to reckon with the likes of Sun Microsystems and other hungry startups building workstations with power comparable to the KL10 at a fraction of the price. By the time SC shipped the first SC-30M to Stanford in late 1985, most customers had already made the traumatic decision to abandon the PDP-10, usually for VMS or Unix boxes. Nevertheless, a number of Mars computers were purchased by CompuServe, which depended on PDP-10s to run its online service and was eager to move to newer but fully-compatible systems. CompuServe's demand for the computers outpaced Systems Concepts' ability to produce them, so CompuServe licensed the design and built SC-designed computers itself. SC later designed the SC-40, released in 1993, a faster follow-on to the SC-30M and SC-25. It can perform up to 8 times as fast as a DEC KL-10, and it also supports more physical memory, a larger virtual address space, and more modern input/output devices. These systems were also used at CompuServe. Systems Concepts remains in business, having changed its name to the SC Group when it moved from California to Nevada some years ago. External links Description of SC-40 at SC Group website | Systems_Concepts |@lemmatized system:10 concept:6 sc:14 group:3 company:2 co:1 found:1 stewart:1 nelson:1 mike:1 levitt:1 focus:1 make:3 hardware:1 product:3 relate:1 dec:6 pdp:8 series:1 computer:6 one:1 major:1 sa:1 interface:2 allow:2 connect:1 disk:1 tape:1 drive:1 design:7 use:2 channel:1 ibm:1 mainframe:1 later:2 attempt:1 produce:3 compatible:4 replacement:1 project:2 legendary:1 tragic:1 failure:1 archetypal:1 hacker:2 dream:1 go:1 wrong:1 mar:3 code:1 name:2 family:1 build:3 include:2 initial:1 small:2 slow:3 machine:4 marvel:1 engineering:1 although:1 much:3 unique:1 foonly:2 f:4 physically:1 consume:1 less:1 power:2 also:4 completely:1 run:4 binary:1 operating:1 modification:1 time:3 faster:1 cancel:1 jupiter:1 bundle:1 sell:2 shop:1 lot:1 software:1 investment:1 fact:1 spring:1 announcement:1 generate:1 great:1 deal:1 excitement:1 world:1 top:2 summer:1 early:1 fall:1 unfortunately:1 good:1 mass:1 sidetrack:1 bout:1 perfectionism:1 continually:1 improve:1 lose:1 credibility:1 delivery:1 date:1 continue:1 slip:1 overprice:1 ridiculously:1 believe:1 compete:1 vax:1 fail:1 reckon:1 like:1 sun:1 microsystems:1 hungry:1 startup:1 workstation:1 comparable:1 fraction:1 price:1 ship:1 first:1 stanford:1 late:1 customer:1 already:1 traumatic:1 decision:1 abandon:1 usually:1 vms:1 unix:1 box:1 nevertheless:1 number:1 purchase:1 compuserve:4 depend:1 online:1 service:1 eager:1 move:2 newer:1 fully:1 demand:1 outpace:1 ability:1 license:1 release:1 fast:2 follow:1 perform:1 kl:1 support:1 physical:1 memory:1 large:1 virtual:1 address:1 space:1 modern:1 input:1 output:1 device:1 concepts:1 remain:1 business:1 change:1 california:1 nevada:1 year:1 ago:1 external:1 link:1 description:1 website:1 |@bigram dec_pdp:2 ibm_mainframe:1 sun_microsystems:1 sc_sc:2 input_output:1 external_link:1 |
822 | Concubinage | Concubinage is the state of a woman or youth in an ongoing, matrimonial relationship with a man of higher social status. Typically, the man has an official wife and, in addition, one or more concubines. Concubines have limited rights of support from the man, and their offspring are publicly acknowledged as the man's children, albeit of lower status than children born by the official wife or wives; these legal rights distinguish a concubine from a mistress. Modern day concubines are widely called mistresses because of the minimal use of the term concubine. Concubinage The term concubine generally signifies ongoing, matrimonial relationships where the woman is of lower social status than the man or the official wife or wives (typically, the concubine is of inferior rank to the official wife or wives). Generally, only men of high economic and social status have concubines. Many historical Asian, European and Arab rulers maintained concubines as well as wives. Historically, concubinage was frequently voluntary (by the girl and/or her family's arrangement), as it provided a measure of economic security for the woman involved. Involuntary, or servile, concubinage sometimes involves sexual slavery of one member of the relationship, typically the woman, being a pleasure slave to the man. Where it has a legal status, as in ancient Rome, and in ancient China, concubinage is akin, although inferior, to marriage. In opposition to those laws, traditional Western laws do not acknowledge the legal status of concubines, but rather only admit monogamous marriages. Any other relationship does not enjoy legal protection; the woman is essentially a mistress. Concubinus In Roman times, this was the title of a young male who was chosen by his master as a lover. Concubini were often referred to ironically in the literature of the time. Catullus assumes in the wedding poem 61.126 that the young manor lord has a concubinus who considers himself elevated above the other slaves. In the Bible In the Bible (Book of Genesis 16 and 21), Abraham took the slave girl Hagar as a concubine. Since Sarah had not conceived up to this point, she offered her maid servant Hagar to Abraham to produce an heir. Abraham did marry Hagar, residing with her according to the Jewish laws of a Pilegesh (Hebrew for Concubine). She produced Ishmael. After a miracle occurred for Sarah, she became fertile in old age and gave birth to Isaac. Sarah then demanded that Abraham drive Ishmael, and Hagar his mother, out of the home and into the desert. Abraham found this to be a very difficult thing to do and it was only after finding out that God concurred with Sarah that he did this. "King Solomon loved, in addition to the daughter of Pharaoh, many foreign women, Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian and Hittite women, from the nations concerning which the Lord had warned the Israelites. "You must not cohabit with them, nor they with you, for they will certainly turn your hearts to their gods". He had 700 official wives and 300 concubines...." (1 Kings 11:1-3). In Genesis 22:24, Nahor, the brother of Abraham, had eight sons by his wife, Milcah, and four sons by his concubine, Reumah. Other uses France In contemporary France, concubinage refers to cohabitation, without unequal connotations – see Concubinage en France. See also cohabitation Common-law marriage Free union harem Ma malakat aymanukum monogamy morganatic marriage pilegesh polygamy polyamory polygyny References All About Females in the Forbidden City, by Roy Bates, 2008, Available from Lulu.com External links Servile Concubinage | Concubinage |@lemmatized concubinage:8 state:1 woman:7 youth:1 ongoing:2 matrimonial:2 relationship:4 man:6 high:2 social:3 status:6 typically:3 official:5 wife:10 addition:2 one:2 concubine:14 limit:1 right:2 support:1 offspring:1 publicly:1 acknowledge:2 child:2 albeit:1 low:2 bear:1 legal:4 distinguish:1 mistress:3 modern:1 day:1 widely:1 call:1 minimal:1 use:1 term:2 generally:2 signify:1 inferior:2 rank:1 men:1 economic:2 many:2 historical:1 asian:1 european:1 arab:1 ruler:1 maintain:1 well:1 historically:1 frequently:1 voluntary:1 girl:2 family:1 arrangement:1 provide:1 measure:1 security:1 involve:2 involuntary:1 servile:2 sometimes:1 sexual:1 slavery:1 member:1 pleasure:1 slave:3 ancient:2 rome:1 china:1 akin:1 although:1 marriage:4 opposition:1 law:4 traditional:1 western:1 rather:1 admit:1 monogamous:1 enjoy:1 protection:1 essentially:1 concubinus:2 roman:1 time:2 title:1 young:2 male:1 choose:1 master:1 lover:1 concubini:1 often:1 refer:1 ironically:1 literature:1 catullus:1 assumes:1 wedding:1 poem:1 manor:1 lord:2 consider:1 elevate:1 bible:2 book:1 genesis:2 abraham:6 take:1 hagar:4 since:1 sarah:4 conceive:1 point:1 offer:1 maid:1 servant:1 produce:2 heir:1 marry:1 reside:1 accord:1 jewish:1 pilegesh:2 hebrew:1 ishmael:2 miracle:1 occur:1 become:1 fertile:1 old:1 age:1 give:1 birth:1 isaac:1 demand:1 drive:1 mother:1 home:1 desert:1 find:2 difficult:1 thing:1 god:2 concur:1 king:2 solomon:1 love:1 daughter:1 pharaoh:1 foreign:1 moabite:1 ammonite:1 edomite:1 sidonian:1 hittite:1 nation:1 concern:1 warn:1 israelite:1 must:1 cohabit:1 certainly:1 turn:1 heart:1 nahor:1 brother:1 eight:1 son:2 milcah:1 four:1 reumah:1 uses:1 france:3 contemporary:1 refers:1 cohabitation:2 without:1 unequal:1 connotation:1 see:2 en:1 also:1 common:1 free:1 union:1 harem:1 malakat:1 aymanukum:1 monogamy:1 morganatic:1 polygamy:1 polyamory:1 polygyny:1 reference:1 female:1 forbidden:1 city:1 roy:1 bates:1 available:1 lulu:1 com:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram morganatic_marriage:1 external_link:1 |
823 | Central_Powers | Kaiser Wilhelm II, Mehmed V, Franz Joseph: The three emperors of the Central Powers. European military alliances in 1914. The Central Powers are depicted in purple, the Allied Powers in gray and neutral countries in yellow. Military deaths of the Central Powers. The Central Powers (German: "Mittelmächte"; Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak"; Turkish: "İttifak Devletleri"; Bulgarian: "Централни сили") was one of the two sides that participated in World War I, the other being the Entente. Member states The Central Powers consisted of the German Empire, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria. The name "Central Powers" is derived from the location of these countries. All four were located between the Russian Empire in the east and the French Third Republic and the United Kingdom in the west. The alliances made between these four nations were a result of Germany's inability to gain power on the "world stage". The Germans then decided to focus on creating an alliance of Mitteleuropa, which means Central Europe. The Balkans were originally desired as members of this alliance, but as the Balkans formed separate, autonomous states this was deemed impossible. The only Balkan state involved in the Central Powers was the Ottoman Empire. Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. 3. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2009. Austro-Hungarian Empire (including German colonial forces) Kingdom of Bulgaria Italy On 7 October 1879, Germany and Austria-Hungary became allies. On 20 May 1882, they were joined by the Kingdom of Italy in what was known as the "Triple Alliance." This alliance was intended to be limited to defensive purposes only. The Triple Alliance (First 8 Articles) The World War I Document Archive, Brigham Young University Library, accessed 2008-04-21 Triple Alliance, 1882 Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, accessed 2008-04-21 When World War I began, the petition made by Germany and Austria-Hungary for Italian intervention was rejected by the Italian Government on the grounds of these two countries declaring war on the Kingdom of Serbia, rather than taking defensive action against it. Italy eventually entered World War I on May 23, 1915, but it fought against Germany and Austria-Hungary rather than with them, because of the land promised them in the Treaty of London made with France and Britain. This treaty promised Italy land in Asia Minor, Africa, the Balkans and others. Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. 3. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2009. Ottoman Empire joins Following the outbreak of war in Europe during August 1914, the Ottoman Empire intervened at the end of October by taking action against Russia, resulting in declarations of war by the Triple Entente. Bulgaria joins Bulgaria, still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at the hands of Serbia, Greece, Romania and the Ottoman Empire, was the last nation to enter the war against the Entente, invading Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces in October 1915. Other movements Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the Irish Nationalists who launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant allies in Europe". During the years 1917 and 1918, the Finns under C.G.E. Mannerheim and the Ukrainian and Lithuanian nationalists fought Russia for a common cause. The Ottoman Empire also had its own allies in Azerbaijan and the Northern Caucasus. The three nations fought alongside each other under the Army of Islam in the Battle of Baku. Armistice Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 29 September 1918, following a successful Allied advance in Macedonia. The Ottoman Empire followed suit on 30 October 1918 in the face of British and Arab gains in Palestine and Syria. Austria and Hungary concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire, and Germany signed the armistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November 1918 after the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, a succession of advances by New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, Belgian, British, French and US forces in north-eastern France and Belgium. + Central Powers by date of surrender Flag Name Surrendered Bulgaria Ottoman Empire Austria-Hungary German Empire Leaders Austria-Hungary Franz Josef I - Emperor of Austria-Hungary Karl I - Emperor of Austria-Hungary Conrad von Hötzendorf - Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff Arthur Arz von Straussenburg - Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff Anton Haus - Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy Maximilian Njegovan - Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy German Empire Wilhelm II - German Emperor Erich von Falkenhayn - Chief of the German General Staff Paul von Hindenburg - Chief of the German General Staff Reinhard Scheer - Commander of the Imperial High Seas Fleet Erich Ludendorff - Deputy Chief of Staff of the German Army Wilhelm Souchon - German Naval Advisor to the Ottoman Empire Otto Liman von Sanders - German Army Advisor to the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire Mehmed V - Sultan of the Ottoman Empire İsmail Enver - Commander-in-Chief of the Ottoman Army Mustafa Kemal Atatürk - Commander of the Second Army Bulgaria Ferdinand I - Czar of Bulgaria Nikola Zhekov - Commander-in-Chief of the Bulgarian Army Vladimir Vazov - Bulgarian Lieutenant General See also Triple Entente Participants in World War I Axis powers (allies of Nazi Germany in WWII) Allies of World War I References be-x-old:Цэнтральныя дзяржавы | Central_Powers |@lemmatized kaiser:1 wilhelm:3 ii:2 mehmed:2 v:2 franz:2 joseph:1 three:2 emperor:4 central:10 power:12 european:1 military:2 alliance:8 depict:1 purple:1 allied:3 gray:1 neutral:1 country:3 yellow:1 death:1 german:13 mittelmächte:1 hungarian:8 központi:1 hatalmak:1 turkish:1 ttifak:1 devletleri:1 bulgarian:3 централни:1 сили:1 one:1 two:2 side:1 participate:1 world:7 war:11 entente:4 member:2 state:3 consist:1 empire:19 austrian:1 ottoman:13 kingdom:5 bulgaria:8 name:2 derive:1 location:1 four:2 locate:1 russian:1 east:1 french:2 third:1 republic:1 united:1 west:3 make:3 nation:3 result:2 germany:6 inability:1 gain:2 stage:1 decide:1 focus:1 create:1 mitteleuropa:1 mean:1 europe:3 balkan:4 originally:1 desire:1 form:1 separate:1 autonomous:1 deem:1 impossible:1 involve:1 hunt:2 lynn:2 making:2 people:2 culture:2 boston:2 bedford:2 st:2 martin:2 austro:6 include:1 colonial:1 force:3 italy:4 october:4 austria:8 hungary:8 become:1 ally:6 may:2 join:3 know:1 triple:5 intend:1 limit:1 defensive:2 purpose:1 first:2 article:1 document:1 archive:1 brigham:1 young:1 university:1 library:1 accessed:2 dickinson:1 college:1 carlisle:1 pennsylvania:1 begin:1 petition:1 italian:2 intervention:1 reject:1 government:1 ground:1 declare:1 serbia:3 rather:2 take:2 action:2 eventually:1 entered:1 fight:3 land:2 promise:2 treaty:2 london:1 france:2 britain:1 asia:1 minor:1 africa:1 others:1 follow:4 outbreak:1 august:1 intervene:1 end:2 russia:2 declaration:1 still:1 resentful:1 defeat:1 july:1 hand:1 greece:1 romania:1 last:1 enter:1 invade:1 conjunction:1 movement:2 support:1 effort:1 reason:1 irish:1 nationalist:2 launch:1 easter:1 rise:1 dublin:1 april:1 refer:1 gallant:1 year:1 finn:1 c:1 g:1 e:1 mannerheim:1 ukrainian:1 lithuanian:1 common:1 cause:1 also:2 azerbaijan:1 northern:1 caucasus:1 alongside:1 army:6 islam:1 battle:1 baku:1 armistice:3 sign:2 september:1 successful:1 advance:2 macedonia:1 suit:1 face:1 british:2 arab:1 palestine:1 syria:1 conclude:1 ceasefires:1 separately:1 week:1 november:2 disintegration:1 habsburg:1 morning:1 hundred:1 day:1 offensive:1 succession:1 new:1 zealand:1 australian:1 canadian:1 belgian:1 u:1 north:1 eastern:1 belgium:1 date:1 surrender:2 flag:1 leader:1 josef:1 karl:1 conrad:1 von:5 hötzendorf:1 chief:9 general:5 staff:5 arthur:1 arz:1 straussenburg:1 anton:1 haus:1 commander:6 navy:2 maximilian:1 njegovan:1 erich:2 falkenhayn:1 paul:1 hindenburg:1 reinhard:1 scheer:1 imperial:1 high:1 sea:1 fleet:1 ludendorff:1 deputy:1 souchon:1 naval:1 advisor:2 otto:1 liman:1 sander:1 sultan:1 smail:1 enver:1 mustafa:1 kemal:1 atatürk:1 second:1 ferdinand:1 czar:1 nikola:1 zhekov:1 vladimir:1 vazov:1 lieutenant:1 see:1 participant:1 axis:1 nazi:1 wwii:1 reference:1 x:1 old:1 цэнтральныя:1 дзяржавы:1 |@bigram kaiser_wilhelm:1 ottoman_empire:12 austro_hungarian:6 austria_hungary:8 brigham_young:1 triple_entente:2 franz_josef:1 commander_chief:4 erich_von:1 von_hindenburg:1 erich_ludendorff:1 chief_staff:1 mustafa_kemal:1 kemal_atatürk:1 |
824 | Aegeus | Arrival or departure of a young warrior or hero, maybe Theseus arriving at Athens and being recognized because of his sword by Aegeus. Apulian red-figured volute-krater, ca. 410–400 BC, from Ruvo (South Italy). For the Spartan hero Aegeus, see Aegeus (hero). In Greek mythology, Aegeus (), also Aigeus, Aegeas or Aigeas (Αιγέας), was an archaic figure in the founding myth of Athens. The "goat-man" who gave his name to the Aegean Sea was, next to Poseidon, the father of Theseus, the founder of Athenian institutions and one of the kings of Athens. The myth Early reign and subjugation to Crete Upon the death of the king his father, Pandion II, Aegeus and his three brothers, Pallas, Nisos, and Lykos, took control of Athens from Metion, who had seized the throne from Pandion. They divided the government in four but Aegeas became king. An ancient subjugation of Athens to Crete is explained by the myth that while visiting in Athens, King Minos' son, Androgeus "breeder of men", managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of jealousy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 3.15.7. The identification of the festival as the Panathenaia is an interpolated anachronism. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter. Aegeus and women Aegeus' first wife was Meta Compare Metis. and the second was Chalciope. Still without a male heir, Aegeus asked the Oracle at Delphi for advice. Her cryptic words were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Plutarch, Vita of Theseus; Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke 3,15.6. Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. Aegeus went to Troezen where he was the guest of Troezen's king Pittheus. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeas to his daughter, Aithra, when he was drunk. Scholion on Euripides' Hippolytus, noted by Karl Kerenyi, The Heroes of the Greeks (1959) p 218 note 407. They slept with each other and then, in some versions, Aethra waded out to the sea to the island of Sphairia, and bedded also with Poseidon. When she fell pregnant, Aegeus decided to go back to Athens. Before leaving, he covered his sandals, shield and sword under a huge rock and told her that when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons back, by which sign his father would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son together named Medus. Theseus and Minotaur In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father's arms. His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land. When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeas, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeas to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeas recognized his sword and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus' hand. Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia. Pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome of the Bibliotheke, 1.5-7; First Vatican Mythographer, 48. Theseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up the white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens he jumped into the sea and drowned, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain. Diodorus Siculus 4.61.4; Plutarch, Vita of Theseus 17 and 22; Pausanias 1.22.5; Catullus 64.215-245; Hyginus, Fabula 41, 43; Servius on the Aeneid 3.74. Henceforth, this sea was known as the Aegean Sea. Sophocles' tragedy Aegeus has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripedes' Medea. Legacy At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeas, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself. Pausanias, 1.14.6. References See also Apollodorus, Bibliotheke. Catullus, LXIV. Plutarch, Theseus. External links Theoi Project - Aegeus | Aegeus |@lemmatized arrival:1 departure:2 young:5 warrior:1 hero:4 maybe:1 theseus:16 arrive:2 athens:17 recognize:2 sword:3 aegeus:20 apulian:1 red:1 figure:2 volute:1 krater:1 ca:1 bc:1 ruvo:1 south:1 italy:1 spartan:1 see:2 greek:2 mythology:1 also:3 aigeus:1 aegeas:7 aigeas:1 αιγέας:1 archaic:1 founding:1 myth:3 goat:1 man:2 give:1 name:2 aegean:2 sea:6 next:1 poseidon:2 father:6 founder:1 athenian:2 institution:1 one:2 king:5 early:1 reign:1 subjugation:2 crete:4 upon:3 death:1 pandion:2 ii:1 three:1 brother:1 pallas:1 nisos:1 lykos:1 take:3 control:1 metion:1 seize:1 throne:1 divide:1 government:1 four:1 become:2 ancient:2 explain:1 visit:1 minos:3 son:5 androgeus:1 breeder:1 men:2 manage:2 defeat:1 every:2 contest:1 panathenaic:1 game:1 jealousy:1 send:3 conquer:1 marathonian:2 bull:2 kill:4 pseudo:3 apollodorus:4 bibliotheke:4 identification:1 festival:1 panathenaia:1 interpolated:1 anachronism:1 angry:1 declared:1 war:1 offer:1 peace:1 however:2 condition:1 would:2 seven:2 woman:2 nine:1 year:1 feed:1 minotaur:4 vicious:1 monster:1 continue:1 help:1 ariadne:1 daughter:2 first:2 wife:1 meta:1 compare:1 metis:1 second:3 chalciope:1 still:2 without:1 male:1 heir:1 ask:2 oracle:1 delphi:1 advice:1 cryptic:1 word:1 loosen:1 bulge:1 mouth:1 wineskin:1 reach:1 height:1 l:1 die:1 grief:1 plutarch:3 vita:2 understand:1 prophecy:2 disappoint:1 go:5 troezen:3 guest:1 pittheus:2 understood:1 introduce:1 aithra:1 drunk:1 scholion:1 euripides:1 hippolytus:1 note:2 karl:1 kerenyi:1 p:1 sleep:1 version:1 aethra:1 wad:1 island:1 sphairia:1 bed:1 fell:1 pregnant:1 decide:3 back:3 leave:1 cover:1 sandal:1 shield:1 huge:1 rock:3 tell:3 grow:2 move:2 bring:1 weapon:2 sign:1 acknowledge:2 return:3 married:1 medea:5 flee:1 corinth:1 wrath:1 jason:1 together:1 medus:1 brave:2 arm:1 mother:1 identity:2 choice:1 safe:1 way:2 land:2 follow:1 dangerous:1 path:1 thief:1 bandit:1 ambitious:1 reveal:1 true:1 welcome:1 suspicious:1 stranger:1 come:2 try:2 encourage:1 capture:1 succeed:1 poison:1 last:1 knock:1 poisoned:1 cup:1 hand:1 thus:1 reunite:1 away:1 asia:1 epitome:1 vatican:1 mythographer:1 depart:1 put:1 white:1 sail:2 successful:1 forget:1 instruction:1 saw:1 black:1 jump:1 drown:1 mistake:1 belief:1 slay:1 diodorus:1 siculus:1 pausanias:3 catullus:2 hyginus:1 fabula:1 servius:1 aeneid:1 henceforth:1 know:1 sophocles:1 tragedy:1 lose:1 feature:1 euripedes:1 legacy:1 traveller:1 inform:1 century:1 ce:1 cult:1 aphrodite:1 urania:1 kerameikos:1 establish:1 whose:1 sister:1 barren:1 childless:1 reference:1 lxiv:1 external:1 link:1 theoi:1 project:1 |@bigram apulian_red:1 aegean_sea:2 pseudo_apollodorus:3 apollodorus_bibliotheke:3 oracle_delphi:1 karl_kerenyi:1 kerenyi_hero:1 theseus_minotaur:1 apollodorus_epitome:1 vatican_mythographer:1 diodorus_siculus:1 hyginus_fabula:1 plutarch_theseus:1 external_link:1 theoi_project:1 |
825 | Afghan_Armed_Forces | The military of Afghanistan is composed of the Afghan National Army, the Afghan National Army Air Corps (formerly the Afghan Air Force), and scattered small-sized authorized militia forces. Being a landlocked country, Afghanistan has no navy. The Afghan military existed since the early 1700s, before the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan. During the 1700s and 1800s, the Afghan military was involved in several wars with Persia on its western border and British India on its southeastern border. The modern military force of the country was first organized in 1880s, when the country was ruled by Emir Abdur Rahman Khan. It was upgraded during King Amanullah Khan's rule in the early 1900s, and modernized during King Zahir Shah's rule from 1933 to 1973. The military of Afghanistan became disfunctional, dissolving into portions controlled by different warlord factions during the early 1990s when President Mohammad Najibullah was forced out of power and the mujahideen rebel groups took control over the country. This era was later followed by the Taliban take over, who established a military force on the bases of Islamic sharia law. Following the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan in late 2001, the military of Afghanistan is being re-created by the international community. Despite early problems with recruitment and training, it is becoming effective in fighting against the insurgent elements. As of 2007, it is slowly becoming able to operate independent from the US-NATO troops in the country, most of whom are now grouped under the International Security Assistance Force. Pajhwok Afghan News (November 2, 2007), Rebel commander crossing from Pakistan killed The President of Afghanistan is the commander in chief of the military of Afghanistan, acting through the Afghan Ministry of Defense. The Afghan military is headquartered at the National Military Command Center in Kabul. History The Afghan military dates back to the early 1700s before the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan, when the Afghans rose in Kandahar and defeated the Persian Safavid Empire. Packard Humanities Institute - Persian Literature in Translation - Chapter IV: An Outline Of The History Of Persia During The Last Two Centuries (A.D. 1722-1922)...THE AFGHÁN INVASION (A.D. 1722-1730) During the 1700s and 1800s, the Afghan military was involved in several wars with Persia on its western border and British India on its southeastern border. Its first organized army (in the modern sense) was established in the 1880s, during the rule of Emir Abdur Rahman Khan. British Battles: Second Afghan War (Battle of Maiwand) and British Battles: Second Afghan War (March to Kandahar and the Battle of Baba Wali) Afghan royal soldiers of the Durrani Empire. Traditionally, Afghan governments relied on three military institutions: the regular army, tribal levies, and community militias. The regular army was sustained by the state and commanded by government leaders. The tribal or regional levies - irregular forces - had part-time soldiers provided by tribal or regional chieftains. The chiefs received tax breaks, land ownership, cash payments, or other privileges in return. The community militia included all available able-bodied members of the community, mobilized to fight, probably only in exceptional circumstances, for common causes under community leaders. Combining these three institutions created a formidable force whose components supplemented each other’s strengths and minimized their weaknesses. Currently virtually a straight copyvio from Ali Ahmad Jalali, Rebuilding Afghanistan's National Army, Parameters (journal), Autumn 2002, pp.72-86, See also examples at British Battles: First Afghan War (Battle of Ghuznee), First Afghan War (Battle of Kabul 1842), First Afghan War (Battle of Kabul and retreat to Gandamak), and British Battles: First Afghan War (The Siege of Jellalabad) Afghan Infantry 1890s. The military of Afghanistan, under King Amanullah Khan, defeated the British in the 1919 third Anglo-Afghan war. After the war ended, the reforming monarch did not see the need for a large army, instead deciding to rely on Afghanistan's historical martial qualities. This resulted in neglect, cutbacks, recruitment problems, and finally an army unable to quell the 1928-9 up-rising that cost him his throne. Ali Ahmad Jalali, Rebuilding Afghanistan's National Army, Parameters (journal), Autumn 2002, pp.72-86 However, under his reign, the small Afghan Air Force was formed in 1924. The military of Afghanistan was reconstructed and improved during King Zahir Shah's reign, which reached a strength of 70,000 in 1933. Following the Second World War, the Soviet Union offered assistance to the Afghan government where the United States did not, and by the 1960s, Soviet assistance started to improve the structure, armament, training, and command and control arrangements for the military. The military reached a strength of 98,000 (90,000 army and 8,000 air force) by this period. Ali Ahmad Jalali, Rebuilding Afghanistan's National Army, Parameters (journal), Autumn 2002, pp.72-86. After the exhile of King Zahir Shah in 1973, the new president, Daud Khan, forged stronger ties with the Soviets by signing two highly controversial military aid packages for his nation in 1973 and 1975. For three years, Afghan armed forces and police officers received advanced soviet weapons, as well as training by the KGB and Soviet commandos. Due to problems with local political parties in his country, President Daud Khan decided to distance himself from the Soviets in 1976. He made Afghanistan's ties closer to the broader Middle East and the United States instead. The Palace Gate (Arg) in Kabul, a day after the Saur Revolution on April 28, 1978. From 1977 to 1978 the Afghan armed forces conduced joint military training with the Military of Egypt. In April 1978 there was a coup, known as the Saur Revolution, orchestrated by the Soviets and members of the government loyal to the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). This led to a full-scale Soviet invasion, led by the 40th Army and the Airborne Forces in December 1979. Before the PDPA takeover, according to military analyst George Jacobs, the armed forces included "some three armored divisions (570 medium tanks plus T 55s on order), eight infantry divisions (averaging 4,500 to 8,000 men each), two mountain infantry brigades, one artillery brigade, a guards regiment (for palace protection), three artillery regiments, two commando regiments, and a parachute battalion (largely grounded). All the formations were under the control of three corps level headquarters. All but three infantry divisions were facing Pakistan along a line from Bagram south to Khandahar." Globalsecurity.org, The 1978 Revolution and the Soviet invasion, accessed October 2007 After the coup, desertions swept the force, affecting the loyalty and moral values of soldiers, there were purges on patriotic junior and senior officers, and upper class Afghans aristocrats in society. Gradually the army's three armoured divisions (4th and 15th at Kabul/Bagram and 7th at Khandahar) and now sixteen infantry divisions dropped in size to between battalion and regiment sized, with no formation stronger than about 5,000 troops. Jane's Military Review 1982-1983, Jane's Main Battle Tanks 1986-1987, David C. Isby, Ten Millon Bayonets, Orion Publishing Group Ltd, 1988 Soviet-backed Afghan troops in 1988. Throughout the 1980s, the military of Afghanistan was heavily involved in fighting against the mujahideen rebel groups who were largely funded by the United States and trained by the military of Pakistan. The rebel groups were fighting to force the Soviet Union to withdraw from Afghanistan as well as to remove the Soviet-backed government of President Mohammad Najibullah. Following the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan continued to deal with attacks from the Mujahideen. For several years the government army had actually increased their effectiveness past levels ever achieved during the Soviet military presence. But the government was dealt a major blow when Abdul Rashid Dostum, a leading general, switched allegiances to the Mujahideen in 1992 and together they captured the city of Kabul. . Ali A. Jalali comments: The fall of the Moscow-backed regime in 1992 disintegrated the state as well as the army. Bits and pieces of the fragmented military either disappeared or joined the warring factions that were locked in a drawn-out power struggle. The warring factions were composed of odd assortments of armed groups with varying levels of loyalties, political commitment, professional skills, and organizational integrity. Ali A. Jalali, Rebuilding Afghanistan's National Army, Parameters (journal), Autumn 2002, pp.72-86. For some further details of this period, see Jane's Defence Weekly 5 February 1992 After the fall of Najibullah's regime in 1992, private militias were formed amongst the mujahideen rebel groups which also included former army and air force personnel. They received logistics support from foreign powers including Russia, Pakistan, Iran, People's Republic of China, Canada, France and the United States. The Afghan Air Force was very significant before and during the Soviet intervention, but by the time of the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, the number of aircraft available was minimal. The United States and its allies quickly eliminated any remaining strength or ability of the Taliban to operate aircraft. With the occupation of airbases by American forces it became clear how destitute the air force had been since the withdrawal of the Soviet Union. Most aircraft were only remnants rusting away for a decade or more. Many others were relocated to neighboring countries for storage purposes. Current organization Defense Minister Abdul Rahim Wardak on the left sitting next to other senior officers of the military of Afghanistan. After the removal of the Taliban government and its replacement by the current government of Hamid Karzai, there has been significant progress toward revitalization of the national military, with two official branches established. The Afghan National Army is under control of the Afghan Ministry of Defense in Kabul, which forms the basic military force. This is nominally to be supported by the Afghan Air Force, although that force currently has only about 45 aircraft. A variety of strong militias are active around the country, who are hostile to the government and NATO forces in the country, among them are also those loyal to the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. See Globalsecurity.org, Afghan Military Forces, accessed October 2007 The Afghan National Army, trained primarily by the military of the United States, is presently organised into 31 Kandaks, or Battalions, 28 of which are considered combat ready. Five regional corps headquarters exist, but at present most Kandaks operate under American or NATO supervision. The National Army's total manpower is around 90,000 Reuters: Afghanistan army to reach targeted strength by March , with 3000 new personnel being recruited each month. A National Military Academy of Afghanistan is being built up to provide future officers, seemingly on West Point lines.ANA Chief of the General Staff, General Bismillah Khan on the left, and former U.S. Army General John Abizaid on the right. The Afghan National Air Corps is largely inoperative, however some progress has been made in rebuilding it. A number of Mi-17 and Mi-24 Helicopters and AN-32 cargo planes are operated by the AAF and maintenance crews are being trained. The manpower of the AAF is around 3600, including 450 pilots, mainly trained during the Communist era. The Afghan National Air Corps also includes some female pilots. As of July 2005, more than 60,000 former militiamen from around the country have been disarmed. see www.ddrafg.com All heavy weapons from Panjshir, Balkh, Nangarhar were seized by the Afghan government. By October 2007, it was reported that the DDR programmes had dismantled 274 paramilitary organisations, reintegrated over 62,000 militia members into civilian life, and recovered more than 84,000 weapons, including heavy weapons. But the New York Times reported this information in the context of a reported rise in the number of hoarded weapons in the face of what has been seen as a growing Taliban threat, even in the north of the country. Kirk Semple, 'Citing Taliban Threat, Afghan Ex-Militia Leaders Hoard Illegal Arms', New York Times, Sunday, October 28 2007, p.8 Weapons and vehicles MI-35 helicopters of the Afghan National Air Corps Scud Transporter Erector Launcher (TEL) of the Afghan National Army shown in the country's 2005 military parade in Kabul. During the 1950s and 1960s Afghanistan received moderate quantities of Soviet weapons to keep the military up to date, including mainly PPSh-41 and RPK machine guns, Sukhoi Su-7, MiG-21 fighter jets, T-34 and Iosif Stalin tanks, SU-76 self-propelled guns, GAZ-69 4x4 light trucks of jeep class (in many versions), ZIL-157 military trucks, Katyusha multiple rocket launchers , and BTR-40 and BTR-152 armored personnel carriers. After the King Zahir Shah was driven into exile in 1973, President Daoud Khan made great attempts to create a strong Afghan military in the Middle east and Asia. During Daoud's Presidency (1973-1978) the Soviets supplied far more sophisticated weapons such as large numbers of AK-47 assault rifles, Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters, Su-22 and Il-28 jets. Large amounts of T-55, T-62, and PT-76 battle tanks were also used. Armored vehicles delivered in the 1970s included ZIL-135s, BMP-1s, BRDM-2s, BTR-60s as well as large quantities of small arms and artillery. In that time Soviets sended for Afghan Army UAZ-469s (kind of jeep), GAZ-66s military trucks. Under the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978-1992), weapon deliveries by the Soviets were increased and included Mi-24 helicopters, MiG-23 fighter aircraft, ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" anti-aircraft self-propelled mounts, BTR-70s armored personnel carriers, BM-27 "Uragan" and BM-21 "Grad" multiple-launch rocket systems and FROG-7 and Scud launchers. DDRAFG Heavy Weapons Some of the weapons that were not damaged during the civil war and rule of the Taliban are still being used today, while the remainder have probably been sold on the black market. Since 2001, the United States has been providing billions of dollars worth military equipment and facilities to Afghanistan. One military package from the United States to Afghanistan in 2007 include 2,500 Humvees, tens of thousands of M-16 assault rifles and body armoured-jackets. It also included the building of a national military command center as well as training compounds in several provinces of the country. Afghan News Network, USA to provide $2 billion of gear to Afghan military The Afghan army will soon receive an additional 100,000 M16 rifles to replace the older AK-47s. Pajhwok Afghan News, ANA to receive 100,000 M-16 rifles: Afghan envoy (Dec. 6, 2007) Some special forces of the ANA are already using the M16s. The US have also been largely responsible for the growth of the Afghan air corps, as part of the Combined Air Power Transition Force, from four aircraft at the end of 2001 to 32 as of early 2009. The aircraft are of Soviet/Russian origin, but either refurbished or purchased by the US. Types include Antonov transport aircraft, Mi-17 troop-carrying helicopters, and Mi-35 attack helicopters. The aircrew are being trained by an American team (soon to be headed by Brigadier-General Walter Givhan http://www.af.mil/bios/bio.asp?bioID=10654 ) but are not of a high standard as of early 2009, with none qualified for night flying or in poor weather. The American intention is to spend around $5 billion by 2016 to increase the force to around 120 aircraft. In March 2008, the New York Times reported that in the past 12 months, the main supplier of munitions to Afghanistan’s army and police forces was a AEY, Inc., a company headed by a 22-year old, whose vice president was a licensed masseur. The Times reported that much of the ammunition was defective, and appeared to involve illegal arms dealing. The company obtained more than 100 million cartridges from stocks in Eastern European countries including Albania, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Romania. C.J. Chivers, "Supplier Under Scrutiny on Arms for Afghans", New York Times, March 28 2008 Canadian Forces will supply the Afghan National Army with surplus C7 assault rifles to bring the ANA up to NATO standards (CTV, CBC report on December 23 2007). Notes References and external Links Ali A. Jalali, Rebuilding Afghanistan's National Army, Parameters (journal), Autumn 2002, pp.72–86 US sets up £215m deal for Afghan arms - from Russia In Depth News and Information on Afghanistan's Military | Afghan_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized military:42 afghanistan:32 compose:2 afghan:50 national:19 army:28 air:13 corp:7 formerly:1 force:30 scatter:1 small:3 size:3 authorized:1 militia:7 landlocked:1 country:14 navy:1 exist:2 since:3 early:7 creation:2 modern:4 state:12 involve:4 several:4 war:12 persia:3 western:2 border:4 british:7 india:2 southeastern:2 first:6 organize:2 rule:5 emir:2 abdur:2 rahman:2 khan:8 upgrade:1 king:6 amanullah:2 modernize:1 zahir:4 shah:4 become:4 disfunctional:1 dissolve:1 portion:1 control:5 different:1 warlord:1 faction:3 president:7 mohammad:2 najibullah:3 power:4 mujahideen:5 rebel:5 group:7 take:2 era:2 later:1 follow:4 taliban:7 establish:3 base:1 islamic:1 sharia:1 law:1 u:7 invasion:5 late:1 create:3 international:2 community:5 despite:1 problem:3 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surplus:1 bring:1 ctv:1 cbc:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 set:1 depth:1 |@bigram emir_abdur:2 abdur_rahman:2 rahman_khan:2 amanullah_khan:2 zahir_shah:4 mohammad_najibullah:2 mujahideen_rebel:3 islamic_sharia:1 pajhwok_afghan:2 commander_chief:1 able_bodied:1 exceptional_circumstance:1 jalali_rebuild:5 anglo_afghan:1 soviet_union:3 daud_khan:2 saur_revolution:2 infantry_brigade:1 commando_regiment:1 globalsecurity_org:2 c_isby:1 soviet_backed:1 abdul_rashid:1 rashid_dostum:1 warring_faction:2 hamid_karzai:1 al_qaeda:1 sukhoi_su:1 mig_fighter:2 self_propel:2 rocket_launcher:1 btr_btr:1 armored_personnel:2 daoud_khan:1 ak_assault:1 assault_rifle:3 billion_dollar:1 antonov_transport:1 brigadier_general:1 http_www:1 af_mil:1 vice_president:1 external_link:1 |
826 | Michael | Michael is a given name that comes from the (Mikha'el), meaning "Who is like God?" In English, it is sometimes shortened to Mike, Mikey, or, especially in Ireland, Mick. Michael is one of the Archangels. Female forms of Michael include Michelle, Michaela, Mechelle, Micheline, and Michaelle, although there are women with the name Michael, such as Michael Learned. Another form is Mychal, which can either be a male or female name. Surnames that come from Michael include Carmichael, Dimichele, MacMichael, McMichael, Micallef, Michaelson, Mikhaylov and Mitchell. Origins The name first appears in the Bible, Numbers , where Sethur the son of Michael is one of twelve spies sent into the Land of Canaan. The Archangel Michael, referred to later in the Bible (Daniel ), is considered a saint by the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. 29 September is the feast day of the three archangels, Michael, Gabriel and Raphael. Popularity Michael is a popular name in the United States, and has been the first or second most popular name given to male babies in the U.S. for each year since 1954. It is in the top 50 most popular boys' names in England and Wales. National Statistics Online - Top 100 names for baby boys in England and Wales The name has been popular in Orthodox Christian countries, and was borne by several rulers of the Byzantine and Russian Empires. In recent years, Michael has been the most popular name in the Philippines, Philippine Names the second most popular name in Finland (Mikael) The World's Most Popular Names and ranks among the top ten names in Denmark (Mikkel) and Ireland. Central Statistics Office Ireland. Top 25 Babies' Names for Boys It is the 23rd most popular name in Canada, Popular Baby Names in Canada and the 37th most popular in Mexico (in the form of 'Miguel'). Nombres más Comunes 2005 Short form and other versions "Mike", "Mick", "Mikiel", "Mikey", "Mikael", "Mic", "Mishka" (common in Russia) and "Mickey" are short forms of, or nick-names for, Michael as a given name. "Mick" is commonly associated with Irish people. Meik and Maik are German short forms of Michael. The German pronunciation of both variants is identical to the English pronunciation of "Mike", since both are directly derived from their English counterparts. Similarly, the Welsh versions "Meical" and "Meic" are pronounced in the same way as their corresponding English analogues. Michiel (mee-KHEEL) is Dutch and the Dutch given name "Chiel" is a variation of Michiel. Mikael, Mikell, Mikkel are Scandinavian. Michael — Name Meaning and Origin In Swedish, "Micke" is a nick-name for "Mikael" (also spelt "Michael"). In Greek "Μιχάλης" ("Michalis" or "Mihalis") is an everyday common form of the "Μιχαήλ" ("Michail" or "Mihail"). In Russian, "Миша" ("Mischa" or "Misha") is a shortened form of "Михаил" (Mikhail). "Мишка" (Mishka) is a common diminutive form, "Миха" (Mikha) is an informal shortened form, and "Михайлович" (Mikhaylovich) is a patronymic form that can be shortened to more informal "Михалыч" (Mikhalych). Michal is Czech. Michał is Polish; Miko is Slavic. Mëhill or Mhill is the Albanian for Michael. The first belongs to the southern (Tosk) dialect, the second to the northern (Gheg) dialect. In Hebrew, "מיכה" (Mikha) is a common shortened form of "מיכאל" (Mikha'el). In Arabic," میکائیل" (Mikā'īl). Miguel is a Spanish and Portuguese form; Michel is French and popular in the Netherlands. Rulers named "Michael" Byzantine emperors Michael I (811–813) Michael II (820–829) Michael III (842–867) Michael IV the Paphlagonian (1034–1041) Michael V (1041–1042) Michael VI (1056–1057) Michael VII (1067–1078) Michael VIII Palaeologus (1259–1282) Michael IX Palaiologos (1277–1320) Russian rulers Mikhail of Vladimir (1174–1176) Mikhail Yaroslavich (1304–1318) Michael I (1613–1645) Michael II (1917) King of Poland Michael of Poland (Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki) King & Princes of Portugal Miguel of Portugal (Michael I) King of Portugal (1828–1834). During exile he used the title of Duke of Braganza Miguel II, Duke of Braganza (Michael II), legitimist pretender to the throne of Portugal. As his father (Michael I) he also used the title of Duke of Braganza Prince Miguel of Braganza Michael (II) older son, married the American citizen Anita Stewart Miguel da Paz (Michael of Peace) older son of King Manuel I of Portugal and heir of all the Iberian Kingdoms (Portugal, Castille and Aragon) Miguel de Bragança, illegitimate son of King Pedro II of Portugal, he was the ancestor of the House of Lafões Rulers of Romania Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul, Hungarian: Vitéz Mihály); Prince of Wallachia (1593–1601), of Transylvania (1599–1600), and of Moldavia (1600) Michael I of Romania (Romanian: Mihai I de România) Tsar of Bulgaria Boris I Michael (852–889) Michael Asen I of Bulgaria (1246–1256) Michael Shishman of Bulgaria (1323–1330) British Royal Family Prince Michael of Kent See also List of most popular given names Theophory in the Bible References | Michael |@lemmatized michael:40 give:5 name:23 come:2 mikha:4 el:2 meaning:2 like:1 god:1 english:4 sometimes:1 shorten:2 mike:3 mikey:2 especially:1 ireland:3 mick:3 one:2 archangel:3 female:2 form:13 include:2 michelle:1 michaela:1 mechelle:1 micheline:1 michaelle:1 although:1 woman:1 learn:1 another:1 mychal:1 either:1 male:2 surname:1 carmichael:1 dimichele:1 macmichael:1 mcmichael:1 micallef:1 michaelson:1 mikhaylov:1 mitchell:1 origins:1 first:3 appear:1 bible:3 number:1 sethur:1 son:4 twelve:1 spy:1 send:1 land:1 canaan:1 refer:1 later:1 daniel:1 consider:1 saint:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:2 eastern:1 orthodox:2 september:1 feast:1 day:1 three:1 gabriel:1 raphael:1 popularity:1 popular:12 united:1 state:1 second:3 baby:4 u:1 year:2 since:2 top:4 boy:3 england:2 wale:1 national:1 statistic:2 online:1 wales:1 christian:1 country:1 bear:1 several:1 ruler:4 byzantine:2 russian:3 empire:1 recent:1 philippine:2 names:1 finland:1 mikael:4 world:1 rank:1 among:1 ten:1 denmark:1 mikkel:2 central:1 office:1 canada:2 mexico:1 miguel:7 nombres:1 más:1 comunes:1 short:3 version:2 mikiel:1 mic:1 mishka:2 common:4 russia:1 mickey:1 nick:2 commonly:1 associate:1 irish:1 people:1 meik:1 maik:1 german:2 pronunciation:2 variant:1 identical:1 directly:1 derive:1 counterpart:1 similarly:1 welsh:1 meical:1 meic:1 pronounce:1 way:1 corresponding:1 analogue:1 michiel:2 mee:1 kheel:1 dutch:2 chiel:1 variation:1 mikell:1 scandinavian:1 origin:1 swedish:1 micke:1 also:3 spell:1 greek:1 μιχάλης:1 michalis:1 mihalis:1 everyday:1 μιχαήλ:1 michail:1 mihail:1 миша:1 mischa:1 misha:1 shortened:3 михаил:1 mikhail:3 мишка:1 diminutive:1 миха:1 informal:2 михайлович:1 mikhaylovich:1 patronymic:1 михалыч:1 mikhalych:1 michal:1 czech:1 michał:2 polish:1 miko:1 slavic:1 mëhill:1 mhill:1 albanian:1 belongs:1 southern:1 tosk:1 dialect:2 northern:1 gheg:1 hebrew:1 מיכה:1 מיכאל:1 arabic:1 میکائیل:1 mikā:1 īl:1 spanish:1 portuguese:1 michel:1 french:1 netherlands:1 emperor:1 ii:6 iii:1 iv:1 paphlagonian:1 v:1 vi:1 vii:1 viii:1 palaeologus:1 ix:1 palaiologos:1 vladimir:1 yaroslavich:1 king:5 poland:2 korybut:1 wiśniowiecki:1 prince:4 portugal:7 exile:1 use:2 title:2 duke:3 braganza:4 legitimist:1 pretender:1 throne:1 father:1 old:2 marry:1 american:1 citizen:1 anita:1 stewart:1 da:1 paz:1 peace:1 manuel:1 heir:1 iberian:1 kingdom:1 castille:1 aragon:1 de:2 bragança:1 illegitimate:1 pedro:1 ancestor:1 house:1 lafões:1 romania:2 brave:1 romanian:2 mihai:2 viteazul:1 hungarian:1 vitéz:1 mihály:1 wallachia:1 transylvania:1 moldavia:1 românia:1 tsar:1 bulgaria:3 boris:1 asen:1 shishman:1 british:1 royal:1 family:1 kent:1 see:1 list:1 theophory:1 reference:1 |@bigram male_female:1 archangel_michael:2 eastern_orthodox:1 england_wales:1 duke_braganza:3 pretender_throne:1 romania_romanian:1 |
827 | Controversy | Controversy is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate usually concerning a matter of opinion. The term originates circa 1384 from Latin controversia, as a composite of controversus - "turned in an opposite direction," from contra - "against" - and vertere - to turn, or versus (see verse), hence, "to turn against." Benford's law of controversy, as expressed by science-fiction author Gregory Benford in 1980, states: "Passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real (true) information available." In other words, the more untruths the more controversy there is, and the more truths the less controversy there is. A controversy is always the result of either ignorance (lack of sufficient true information), misinformation, misunderstandings, half-truths, distortions, bias or prejudice, deliberate lies or fabrications (disinformation), opposed underlying motives or purposes (sometimes masked or hidden), or a combination of these factors. There is often controversy about a significantly different new idea, subject, group or person for a period of time, until honest direct examination of sufficient factual evidence results in widespread agreement on the truths of the matter. Examples: disease is often caused by bacteria or viruses, rather than evil spirits or bad blood; blood is circulated around the body, rather than ebbing and flowing; Earth revolves around the sun, rather than being the center of the universe; Earth is a sphere, rather than flat. Religion today is considered controversial by many atheists and non-theists around the world. Neither “reliable sources” nor “multiple reports” are dependable ways to resolve any controversy, because for centuries, opponents in military and industrial espionage, politics, religion, public relations, and national economies, have used multiple reports and reliable sources of information to manipulate people in war, business, elections, beliefs, public opinion and financial markets – using disinformation or Black propaganda planted secretly or underhandedly, or passed on unwittingly, through double-agents, con men, radio broadcasts, news media, authoritative writings and other means, including gossip and the internet in modern times. Courts of law have long recognized this fact. (See further discussion regarding law below.) Thus, decent and fair courts don’t allow 2nd-hand hearsay evidence (“I heard John say that he heard Mary say so and so”), and require opinion to be clearly labeled as opinion not fact, and instruct juries to base their findings more on hard evidence (like DNA tests and crime scene re-enactments) than on testimony alone, since multiple witnesses can give the same flawed ideas or perceptions, or the same intentional lies and distortions. Reliance on 2nd-hand and 3rd-hand reports, allegations and opinions from “reliable sources” and “multiple reports” – rather than one’s own 1st-hand examination of physical evidence, original writings, and other fully verified facts – is thus prone to drawing wrong conclusions, continuing controversy, and further spreading misinformation and prejudice, as occurred in Nazi Germany regarding Jews, Gypsies and even Catholics. If one really wants to know the facts of a matter, it’s necessary to make your own observations of hard facts and physical demonstrations, plus direct and preferably in-person experience and communication with the individual(s) or group(s) in question, and their own original writings and documents, rather than secondary or later reports, opinions, interpretations or offshoots. Perennial areas of controversy include religion, philosophy and politics. Other minor areas of controversy may include economics, science, finances, and race. Controversy in matters of theology has traditionally been particularly heated, giving rise to the phrase odium theologicum. Controversial issues are held as potentially divisive in a given society, because they can lead to tension and ill will. Because of this, some controversies are considered taboo to discuss in public among other people, unless people are either mature enough or can find a common ground to share and discuss its people's feelings, and one's own direct observations and experiences on a controversial issue. In law In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a legal case; while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil, a controversy is a purely civil proceeding. For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution (Section 2, Clause 1) states that "the judicial Power shall extend ... to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party". This clause has been deemed to impose a requirement that United States federal courts are not permitted to hear cases that do not pose an actual controversy—that is, an actual dispute between adverse parties which is capable of being resolved by the court. In addition to setting out the scope of the jurisdiction of the federal judiciary, it also prohibits courts from issuing advisory opinions, or from hearing cases that are either unripe, meaning that the controversy has not arisen yet, or moot, meaning that the controversy has already been resolved. In early Christianity Many of the early Christian writers, among them Irenaeus, Athanasius, and Jerome, were famed as "controversialists"; they wrote works against perceived heresy or heretical individuals, works whose titles begin "Adversus..." such as Irenaeus' Adversus haereses. The Christian writers inherited from the classical rhetors the conviction that controversial confrontations, even over trivial matters, were a demonstration of intellectual superiority. See Christian theological controversy. | Controversy |@lemmatized controversy:20 state:6 prolonged:1 public:4 dispute:2 debate:1 usually:1 concern:1 matter:5 opinion:7 term:1 originate:1 circa:1 latin:1 controversia:1 composite:1 controversus:1 turn:3 opposite:1 direction:1 contra:1 vertere:1 versus:1 see:3 verse:1 hence:1 benford:2 law:5 express:1 science:2 fiction:1 author:1 gregory:1 passion:1 inversely:1 proportional:1 amount:1 real:1 true:2 information:3 available:1 word:1 untruths:1 truths:1 less:1 always:1 result:2 either:3 ignorance:1 lack:1 sufficient:2 misinformation:2 misunderstanding:1 half:1 truth:2 distortion:2 bias:1 prejudice:2 deliberate:1 lie:2 fabrication:1 disinformation:2 oppose:1 underlying:1 motif:1 purpose:1 sometimes:1 mask:1 hide:1 combination:1 factor:1 often:2 significantly:1 different:1 new:1 idea:2 subject:1 group:2 person:2 period:1 time:2 honest:1 direct:3 examination:2 factual:1 evidence:4 widespread:1 agreement:1 example:2 disease:1 cause:1 bacteria:1 virus:1 rather:6 evil:1 spirit:1 bad:1 blood:2 circulate:1 around:3 body:1 ebb:1 flow:1 earth:2 revolve:1 sun:1 center:1 universe:1 sphere:1 flat:1 religion:3 today:1 consider:2 controversial:4 many:2 atheist:1 non:1 theist:1 world:1 neither:1 reliable:3 source:3 multiple:4 report:5 dependable:1 way:1 resolve:3 century:1 opponent:1 military:1 industrial:1 espionage:1 politics:2 relation:1 national:1 economy:1 use:2 manipulate:1 people:4 war:1 business:1 election:1 belief:1 financial:1 market:1 black:1 propaganda:1 plant:1 secretly:1 underhandedly:1 pass:1 unwittingly:1 double:1 agent:1 con:1 men:1 radio:1 broadcast:1 news:1 medium:1 authoritative:1 writing:3 mean:3 include:4 gossip:1 internet:1 modern:1 court:5 long:1 recognize:1 fact:5 discussion:1 regard:2 thus:2 decent:1 fair:1 allow:1 hand:4 hearsay:1 heard:1 john:1 say:2 hear:3 mary:1 require:1 clearly:1 label:1 instruct:1 jury:1 base:1 finding:1 hard:2 like:1 dna:1 test:1 crime:1 scene:1 enactment:1 testimony:1 alone:1 since:1 witness:1 give:3 flaw:1 perception:1 intentional:1 reliance:1 allegation:1 one:3 physical:2 original:2 fully:1 verify:1 prone:1 draw:1 wrong:1 conclusion:1 continue:1 far:1 spread:1 occur:1 nazi:1 germany:1 jew:1 gypsy:1 even:2 catholic:1 really:1 want:1 know:1 necessary:1 make:1 observation:2 demonstration:2 plus:1 preferably:1 experience:2 communication:1 individual:2 question:1 document:1 secondary:1 late:1 interpretation:1 offshoot:1 perennial:1 area:2 philosophy:1 minor:1 may:1 economics:1 finance:1 race:1 theology:1 traditionally:1 particularly:1 heat:1 rise:1 phrase:1 odium:1 theologicum:1 issue:3 hold:1 potentially:1 divisive:1 society:1 lead:1 tension:1 ill:1 taboo:1 discuss:2 among:2 unless:1 mature:1 enough:1 find:1 common:1 ground:1 share:1 feeling:1 theory:1 differs:1 legal:2 case:5 suit:1 criminal:1 well:1 civil:2 purely:1 proceeding:1 clause:3 article:1 three:1 united:3 constitution:1 section:1 judicial:1 power:1 shall:2 extend:1 party:2 deem:1 impose:1 requirement:1 federal:2 permit:1 pose:1 actual:2 adverse:1 capable:1 addition:1 set:1 scope:1 jurisdiction:1 judiciary:1 also:1 prohibit:1 advisory:1 unripe:1 arise:1 yet:1 moot:1 already:1 early:2 christianity:1 christian:3 writer:2 irenaeus:2 athanasius:1 jerome:1 famed:1 controversialist:1 write:1 work:2 perceive:1 heresy:1 heretical:1 whose:1 title:1 begin:1 adversus:2 haereses:1 inherit:1 classical:1 rhetors:1 conviction:1 confrontation:1 trivial:1 intellectual:1 superiority:1 theological:1 |@bigram science_fiction:1 gregory_benford:1 inversely_proportional:1 ebb_flow:1 revolve_around:1 advisory_opinion:1 adversus_haereses:1 |
828 | Transport_in_Brazil | Transportation in Brazil Railways Urban/suburban rail in Brazil Total actual network: 27,882 km (1,122 km electrified - Excludes urban rail) Broad gauge: 4,057 km gauge Narrow gauge: 23,489 km gauge Dual gauge: 336 km 1000 mm and 1600 mm gauges (three rails) (1999 est.) Standard gauge: 10 km gauge: Estrada de Ferro do Amapá in the middle of the Amazon Rainforest also used standard gauge. A 12 km section of the former gauge Estrada de Ferro Oeste de Minas is retained as a heritage railway. Cities with Metros Belo Horizonte Brasília Fortaleza (Under Construction - 2010) Porto Alegre Recife Rio de Janeiro São Paulo Salvador (Under construction) Railway links with adjacent countries Uruguay - yes - break-of-gauge (Brazil) / (Uruguay) Argentina - yes - break-of-gauge (Brazil)/ (Argentina) Paraguay - no Bolivia - yes - gauge both countries Peru - no Colombia - no Venezuela - no Guyana - no Suriname - no French Guiana - no Tramways (Street Railways) Brazil had a hundred tramway systems. Introduction Currently, there are vintage tramways operating in Belem The Tramways of Belém , Campinas The Tramways of Campinas , Campos de Jordao Campos do Jordão , Itatinga CODESP hydroelectric complex (Brazil) , Rio de Janeiro The Santa Teresa Tramway and Santos The Scottish Trams Of Santos . Highways Brazil has 1.7 million kilometers of roads . The country has a low rate of car ownership of 140 per 1000 population, however in comparison to the other developing economies of the BRIC group Brazil exceeds India and China. Waterways 100,000 km navigable Pipelines crude oil 2,980 km petroleum products 4,775 km natural gas 4,246 km (1998) Seaports and harbors Atlantic Ocean Fortaleza Ilheus Imbituba Paranagua Porto Alegre Recife Rio de Janeiro Rio Grande Salvador Santos São Francisco do Sul São Sebastião Vitoria Itajaí Amazon river Belém Manaus Paraguay River (international water way) Merchant marine total: 174 ships ( or over) totaling / ships by type: (1999 est.) bulk carriers 34 cargo ships 28 chemical tankers 5 combination ore/oil 9 container ships 10 gas carrying tankers 10 multi-functional large load carrier 1 passenger/cargo ships 5 petroleum tanker 59 refrigerated cargo ship 1 roll-on/roll-off 11 short-sea passenger ship 1 Airports 4,263 (2008 est.) Most international flights must go to Guarulhos International Airport in São Paulo or Galeão International Airport in Rio de Janeiro. Belo Horizonte is the main international airport outside Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. A few go to Brasilia, Recife, Natal, and just recently Fortaleza has accepted international flights. With South American integration, more airports can be expected to open to international flights. Airports - with paved runways total: 541 over 3,047 m: 5 2,438 to 3,047 m: 20 1,524 to 2,437 m: 138 914 to 1,523 m: 346 under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 2,736 1,524 to 2,437 m: 73 914 to 1,523 m: 1,306 under 914 m: 1,357 (1999 est.) National airlines BRA Transportes Aéreos Gol Transportes Aéreos OceanAir Pantanal TAM Airlines (TAM Linhas Aéreas) Varig Total Linhas Aéreas Air Minas Webjet See also Rail transport by country References | Transport_in_Brazil |@lemmatized transportation:1 brazil:8 railway:4 urban:2 suburban:1 rail:4 total:6 actual:1 network:1 km:11 electrify:1 excludes:1 broad:1 gauge:13 narrow:1 dual:1 mm:2 three:1 est:5 standard:2 estrada:2 de:9 ferro:2 amapá:1 middle:1 amazon:2 rainforest:1 also:2 use:1 section:1 former:1 oeste:1 mina:2 retain:1 heritage:1 city:1 metro:1 belo:2 horizonte:2 brasília:1 fortaleza:3 construction:2 porto:2 alegre:2 recife:3 rio:6 janeiro:5 são:5 paulo:3 salvador:2 link:1 adjacent:1 country:4 uruguay:2 yes:3 break:2 argentina:2 paraguay:2 bolivia:1 peru:1 colombia:1 venezuela:1 guyana:1 suriname:1 french:1 guiana:1 tramway:6 street:1 hundred:1 system:1 introduction:1 currently:1 vintage:1 operate:1 belem:1 belém:2 campinas:2 campos:2 jordao:1 jordão:1 itatinga:1 codesp:1 hydroelectric:1 complex:1 santa:1 teresa:1 santos:3 scottish:1 tram:1 highway:1 million:1 kilometer:1 road:1 low:1 rate:1 car:1 ownership:1 per:1 population:1 however:1 comparison:1 develop:1 economy:1 bric:1 group:1 exceeds:1 india:1 china:1 waterways:1 navigable:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:2 petroleum:2 product:1 natural:1 gas:2 seaport:1 harbor:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 ilheus:1 imbituba:1 paranagua:1 grande:1 francisco:1 sul:1 sebastião:1 vitoria:1 itajaí:1 river:2 manaus:1 international:7 water:1 way:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:7 type:1 bulk:1 carrier:2 cargo:3 chemical:1 tanker:3 combination:1 ore:1 container:1 carry:1 multi:1 functional:1 large:1 load:1 passenger:2 refrigerate:1 roll:2 short:1 sea:1 airport:7 flight:3 must:1 go:2 guarulhos:1 galeão:1 main:1 outside:1 brasilia:1 natal:1 recently:1 accept:1 south:1 american:1 integration:1 expect:1 open:1 pave:1 runway:2 unpaved:1 national:1 airline:2 bra:1 transport:2 aéreos:2 gol:1 transportes:1 oceanair:1 pantanal:1 tam:2 linhas:2 aéreas:2 varig:1 air:1 webjet:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram km_electrify:1 narrow_gauge:1 mm_mm:1 amazon_rainforest:1 belo_horizonte:2 porto_alegre:2 de_janeiro:5 janeiro_são:2 são_paulo:3 argentina_paraguay:1 colombia_venezuela:1 guyana_suriname:1 french_guiana:1 waterways_km:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 seaport_harbor:1 atlantic_ocean:1 rio_grande:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 tam_airline:1 |
829 | Hellenistic_period | This article focuses on the historical aspects of the Hellenistic age; for the cultural aspects see Hellenistic civilization. float|The Greek kingdoms in Asia, Europe, and Africa The Hellenistic period describes the era which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. During this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its zenith in Europe and Asia. It is often considered a period of transition, sometimes even of decline or decadence Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 , between the brilliance of the Greek Classical Era and the emergence of the Roman Empire. Usually taken to begin with the death of Alexander in 323 BC, the Hellenistic period may either be seen to end with the final conquest of the Greek heartlands by Rome in 146 BC; or the final defeat of the last remaining successor-state to Alexander's empire, the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt in 31/30 BC Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii. Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 . The Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa. Hellenistic Civilization The Greek Empire Alexander's father, Phillip II of Macedon had conquered much of the Greek peninsula, and brought the city states of Boeotia, Attica and the Pelopennesus under his sway, when he was assassinated (probably at the instigation of Alexander himself Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 ). Phillip had planned to attack the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, and his conquest of Greece made this feasible. Succeeding his father, Alexander took this task upon himself. During a decade of campaigning, Alexander conquered the whole Persian Empire, overthrowing the Persian King Darius III. The conquered lands included Asia Minor, Assyria, the Levant, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Media, Persia, and parts of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the steppes of central Asia. The years of constant campaigning had taken their toll however, and Alexander died in 323 BC. After his death the huge territories Alexander had conquered became subject to a strong Greek influence (hellenization) for the next two or three centuries, until the rise of Rome in the west, and of Parthia in the east. As the Greek and eastern cultures mingled, the development of a hybrid Hellenistic culture began, and persisted even when isolated from the main centres of Greek culture (for instance, in the Greco-Bactrian kingdom). In addition much of the area conquered would continue to be ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's generals and successors. Initially the whole empire was divided amongst them; however, some territories were lost relatively quickly, or only remained nominally under Macedonian rule. After 200 years, only much reduced and rather degenerate states remained Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii. Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 , until the inevitable conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt by Rome. The Diadochi After Alexander's death, there were more-or-less forty years of constant war between his generals (the Diadochi) for the rule of his Empire. By about 281 BC the situation had stabilised, resulting in four major domains: The Antigonid dynasty in Macedon and central Greece; The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt based at Alexandria; The Seleucid dynasty in Syria and Mesopotamia based at Antioch; The Attalid dynasty in Anatolia based at Pergamum. Macedon and Greece The Ptolemaic Kingdom The Seleucid Empire Pergamon and the Attalids Other Hellenistic Kingdoms The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom at its maximum extent (c.180 BC) The Greek kingdom of Bactria (or Greco-Bactrian kingdom) began as an offshoot of the Seleucid empire. The sheer size of the eastern Seleucid domains must mean that the satraps governing the provinces had significant freedom from central control. In around 250 BC, the governor of Bactria, Sogdiana and Margiana, one Diodotus, took this process to its logical extreme and declared himself king. At around the same time, the re-emergence of a native Persian dynasty under the Parthian king Arsaces effectively cut the nascent Greco-Bactrian kingdom off from the rest of the Seleucid empire. This probably allowed it to maintain its independence in the medium term, but in the long-term may have contributed to its decline and fall; it could no longer receive manpower or aid from other Hellenistic regions at sufficient levels. Diodotus II, son of Diodotus, was overthrown in about 230 BC by Euthydemus, possibly the satrap of Sogdiana, who then started his own dynasty. In approx 210 BC, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was invaded by a resurgent Seleucid empire under Antiochus III. Whilst victorious in the field, it seems Antiochus came to realise that there were advantages in the status quo (perhaps sensing that Bactria could not be governed from Syria), and married one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son, thus legitimising Greco-Bactria. Soon afterwards the Greco-Bactrian kingdom seems to have expanded, possibly taking advantage of the defeat of the Parthian king Arsaces II by Antiochus. Demetrius, son and successor of Euthydemus, invaded north-western India in 180 BC, after the destruction of the Mauryan empire there; the Mauryans were probably allies of the Bactrians (and Seleucids). The exact justification for the invasion remains unclear, but by about 175 BC, the Greeks ruled over parts of north-western India. This period also marks the beginning of the obfuscation of Greco-Bactrian history. Demetrius possibly died about 180 BC; numismatic evidence suggest the existence of several other kings shortly thereafter. It is probable that at this point that the Greco-Bactrian kingdom split into several semi-independent regions for some years; Euthydemus II (son of Demetrius?) seems to have ruled in Bactria, with Agathocles, Antimachus I and Pantaleon ruling in India. In around 171 BC the usurper Eucratides I swept to power in Bactria, removing whichever king(s) were actually ruling at that point. Similarly, in India, the general Apollodotus I seems to have assumed more-or-less complete power by around 170 BC, thereby marking the true start of the Indo-Greek kingdom (see below). Silver drachma of the Indo-Greek king Menander I (155-130 BC).Obv: Greek legend, ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΩΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ "[coin] of Saviour King Menander".Rev: Kharosthi legend: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA "Saviour King Menander". Athena advancing right, with thunderbolt and shield. Taxila mint mark. Eucratides may have been a member of the Seleucid royal family, who set out to (re)claim the Bactrian lands. Eucratides certainly had a vast and prestigious coinage, suggesting he was a ruler of considerable importance. He appears to have re-invigorated the Bactrian kingdom, although territory was lost the Parthia in the west. He fought with the Indo-Greeks, and appears to have occupied India up to the river Indus for a while. However, his murder in 145 BC triggered a civil war which fatally weakened the kingdom as his sons Eucratides II and Heliocles I fought each other. Heliocles was the last Greek to clearly rule Bactria, his power collapsing in the face of tribal invasions of Bactria, by about 130 BC. However, Greek urban civilisation seems to have continued in Bactria after the fall of the kingdom, having a hellenising effect on the tribes which had displaced Greek-rule. The Indo-Greek Kingdom The separation of the Indo-Greek kingdom from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom resulted in an even more isolated position from the west, and thus the details of the Indo-Greek kingdom are even more obscure than for Bactria. Many supposed kings in India are known only because of coins bearing their name. The numismatic evidence together with archaeological finds and the scant historical records suggest that the fusion of eastern and western cultures reached its peak in the Indo-Greek kingdom. As mentioned, Apollodotus made himself king of 'India' in around 170 BC. The exact fate of Apollodotus is unknown, but he seems to have extended the conquests east into Gandhara and western Punjab. In about 155 (or 165) BC he seems to have been succeeded by the most successful of the Indo-Greek kings, Menander I. Menander converted to Buddhism, and seems to have been a great patron of the religion; he is remembered in some Buddhist texts as 'Milinda'. He also expanded the kingdom further east into Punjab, though these conquests were rather ephemeral. After the death of Menander (c. 130 BC), the Kingdom appears to have fragmented, with several 'kings' attested contemporaneously in different regions. This inevitably weakened the Greek position, and territory seems to have been lost progressively. Around 70 BC, the western regions of Arachosia and Parapamisadae were lost to tribal invasions, presumably by those tribes responsible for the end of the Bactrian kingdom. The resulting Indo-Scythian kingdom seems to have gradually pushed the remaining Indo-Greek kingdom towards the east. The Indo-Greek kingdom appears to have lingered on in western Punjab until about 10 AD when finally ended by the Indo-Scythians. The rise of Rome Widespread Roman interference in the Greek World was probably inevitable given the general manner of the ascendency of the Roman Republic. This Roman-Greek interaction began as a consequence of the Greek city-states located along the coast of southern Italy. Rome had come to dominate the Italian peninsula, and desired the submission of the Greek cities to its rule. Although they initially resisted, allying themselves with Pyrrhus of Epirus, and defeating the Romans at several battles, the Greek cities were unable to maintain this position and were absorbed by the Roman republic. Shortly afterwards, Rome became involved in Sicily, fighting against the Carthaginans in the First Punic War. The end result was the complete conquest of Sicily, including its previously powerful Greek cities, by the Romans. The independent cities of Magna Graecia did not form part of the Hellenistic domains and had, by this time, been eclipsed in power by the Hellenistic kingdoms of the east. They also remained independent at a time when the Mediterranean was increasingly dominated by 'great powers'. This, and their proximity to Rome, had made them easy and obvious targets. Conversely, the major Hellenistic realms were not in the immediate Roman sphere of influence, and were powerful enough to deter Roman aggression. The events which, in retrospect, marked the beginning of the end for the Hellenistic kingdoms could have been avoided; even if it seems likely that a collision between them and Rome would have ultimately occurred. Roman entanglement in the Balkans began, as so often, with trade. Illyrian piratical raids on Roman merchants twice led to a Roman task force invading Illyria (the First and, Second Illyrian Wars). Tension between Macedon and Rome increased when the young king of Macedon, Philip V harboured one of the chief pirates, Demetrius of Pharos Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p 98-99. Green, P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 (a former client of Rome). As a result, in an attempt to reduce Roman influence in the Balkans, Philip allied himself with Carthage after Hannibal had dealt the Romans a massive defeat at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC) during the Second Punic War. Forcing the Romans to fight on another front when they were at a nadir of manpower gained Philip the lasting enmity of the Romans; the only real result from the somewhat insubstantial First Macedonian War (215–202 BC). Once the Second Punic War had been resolved, and the Romans had begun to regather their strength, they looked to re-assert their influence in the Balkans, and to curb the expansion of Philip. A pretext for war was provided by Philip's refusal to end his war with Attalid Pergamum, and Rhodes, both Roman allies Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p 102-103. Green, P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 . The Romans, also allied with the Aetolian League of Greek city-states (which resented Philip's power), thus declared war on Macedon in 200 BC, starting the Second Macedonian War. This ended with a decisive Roman victory at the Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC). Like most Roman peace treaties of the period, the resultant 'Peace of Flaminius' was designed to utterly crush the power of the defeated party; a massive indemnity was levied, Philip's fleet was surrendered to Rome, and Macedon was effectively returned to its ancient boundaries, losing influence over the city-states of southern Greece, and land in Thrace and Asia Minor. The result was the end of Macedon as a major power in the Mediterranean. As a result of the confusion in Greece at the end of the Second Macedonian War, the Seleucid Empire also became entangled with the Romans. The Seleucid Antiochus III had allied with Philip V of Macedon in 203 BC, agreeing that they should jointly conquer the lands of the boy-king of Egypt, Ptolemy V. After defeating Ptolemy in the Fifth Syrian War, Antiochus concentrated on occupying the Ptolemaic possessions in Asia Minor. However, this brought Antiochus into conflict with Rhodes and Pergamum, two important Roman allies, and began a 'cold-war' between Rome and Antiochus (not helped by the presence of Hannibal at the Seleucid court) Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 . Meanwhile, in mainland Greece, the Aetolian League, which had sided with Rome against Macedon, now grew to resent the Roman presence in Greece. This presented Antiochus III with a pretext to invade Greece and 'liberate' it from Roman influence, thus starting the Roman-Syrian War (192–188 BC). Another decisive Roman victory at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BC) saw the defeat of Antiochus. Another crippling treaty followed, with Seleucid possessions in Asia Minor removed and given to Rhodes and Pergamum, the size of the Seleucid navy reduced, and a massive war indemnity invoked. Thus, in less than twenty years, Rome had destroyed the power of one of the successor states, crippled another, and firmly entrenched its influence over Greece. This was primarily a result of the over-ambition of the Macedonian kings, and their unintended provocation of Rome; though Rome was quick to exploit the situation. In another twenty years, the Macedonian kingdom was no more. Seeking to re-assert Macedonian power and Greek independence, Philip V's son Perseus incurred the wrath of the Romans, resulting in the Third Macedonian War (171-168 BC). Victorious, the Romans abolished the Macedonian kingdom, replacing it with four puppet republics; these lasted a further twenty years before Macedon was formally annexed as a Roman province (146 BC). The Attalid dynasty of Pergamum lasted little longer; a Roman ally until the end, its final King Attalus III died in 133 BC without an heir, and taking the alliance to its natural conclusion, willed Pergamum to the Roman Republic Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic. Holland, T. ISBN 978-0-349-11563-4 . Contrarily, having so firmly intricated themselves into Greek affairs, the Romans now completely ignored the rapidly disintegrating Seleucid empire (perhaps because it posed no threat); and left the Ptolemaic kingdom to decline quietly, whilst acting as a protector of sorts, in as much as to stop other powers taking Egypt over (including the famous line-in-the-sand incident when the Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried to invade Egypt) Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9 . Eventually, instability in the near east resulting from the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Seleucid empire caused the Roman proconsul Pompey the Great to abolish the Seleucid rump state, absorbing much of Syria into the Roman republic Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic. Holland, T. ISBN 978-0-349-11563-4 . Famously, the end of Ptolemaic Egypt came as the final act in the republican civil war between the Roman triumvirs Mark Anthony and Augustus Caesar. After the defeat of Anthony and his lover, the last Ptolemaic monarch, Cleopatra VII at the Battle of Actium, Augustus invaded Egypt and took it as his own personal fiefdom Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic. Holland, T. ISBN 978-0-349-11563-4 . He thereby completed both the destruction of the Hellenistic kingdoms and the Roman republic, and ended (in hindsight) the Hellenistic era. See also Hellenization Hellenistic civilization Hellenistic Greece Alexander the Great Hellenistic art Hellenistic philosophy Hellenistic astronomy Hellenistic mathematics Hellenistic geography References Further reading Austin, Michel M., The Hellenistic world from Alexander to the Roman conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation, Cambridge University Press, 1981. ISBN 0521228298 Cary, Max, A History of the Greek World from 323 to 146 B. C.'', London : Methuen & Co. 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830 | Harmonic_mean | In mathematics, the harmonic mean (formerly sometimes called the subcontrary mean) is one of several kinds of average. Typically, it is appropriate for situations when the average of rates is desired. The harmonic mean H of the positive real numbers x1, x2, ..., xn is defined to be Equivalently, the harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals. Relationship with other means A geometric construction of the three Pythagorean means (of two numbers only). Harmonic mean denoted by H in purple color. The harmonic mean is one of the three Pythagorean means. For all data sets containing at least one pair of nonequal values, the harmonic mean is always the least of the three means, while the arithmetic mean is always the greatest of the three and the geometric mean is always in between. (If all values in a nonempty dataset are equal, the three means are always equal to one another; e.g. the harmonic, geometric, and arithmetic means of {2, 2, 2} are all 2.) It is the special case M−1 of the power mean. Since the harmonic mean of a list of numbers tends strongly toward the least elements of the list, it tends (compared to the arithmetic mean) to mitigate the impact of large outliers and aggravate the impact of small ones. The arithmetic mean is often mistakenly used in places calling for the harmonic mean. *Statistical Analysis, Ya-lun Chou, Holt International, 1969, ISBN 0030730953 In the speed example below for instance the arithmetic mean 50 is incorrect, and too big. Weighted harmonic mean If a set of weights , ..., is associated to the dataset , ..., , the weighted harmonic mean is defined by The harmonic mean is the special case where all of the weights are equal to 1. Examples In physics In certain situations, especially many situations involving rates and ratios, the harmonic mean provides the truest average. For instance, if a vehicle travels a certain distance at a speed x (e.g. 60 kilometres per hour) and then the same distance again at a speed y (e.g. 40 kilometres per hour), then its average speed is the harmonic mean of x and y (48 kilometres per hour), and its total travel time is the same as if it had traveled the whole distance at that average speed. However, if the vehicle travels for a certain amount of time at a speed x and then the same amount of time at a speed y, then its average speed is the arithmetic mean of x and y, which in the above example is 50 kilometres per hour. The same principle applies to more than two segments: given a series of sub-trips at different speeds, if each sub-trip covers the same distance, then the average speed is the harmonic mean of all the sub-trip speeds, and if each sub-trip takes the same amount of time, then the average speed is the arithmetic mean of all the sub-trip speeds. (If neither is the case, then a weighted harmonic mean or weighted arithmetic mean is needed.) Similarly, if one connects two electrical resistors in parallel, one having resistance x (e.g. 60Ω) and one having resistance y (e.g. 40Ω), then the effect is the same as if one had used two resistors with the same resistance, both equal to the harmonic mean of x and y (48Ω): the equivalent resistance in either case is 24Ω (one-half of the harmonic mean). However, if one connects the resistors in series, then the average resistance is the arithmetic mean of x and y (with total resistance equal to the sum of x and y). And, as with previous example, the same principle applies when more than two resistors are connected, provided that all are in parallel or all are in series. In other sciences In Information retrieval and some other fields, the harmonic mean of the precision and the recall is often used as an aggregated performance score: the F-score (or F-measure). An interesting consequence arises from basic algebra in problems of working together. As an example, if a gas-powered pump can drain a pool in 4 hours and a battery-powered pump can drain the same pool in 6 hours, then it will take both pumps 6 · 4/(6 + 4), which is equal to 2.4 hours, to drain the pool together. Interestingly, this is one-half of the harmonic mean of 6 and 4. In hydrology the harmonic mean is used to average hydraulic conductivity values for flow that is perpendicular to layers (e.g. geologic or soil). On the other hand, for flow parallel to layers the arithmetic mean is used. Harmonic mean of two numbers For the special case of just two numbers and , the harmonic mean can be written In this special case, the harmonic mean is related to the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean by So , which means the geometric mean, for two numbers, is the geometric mean of the arithmetic mean and the harmonic mean. See also Harmonic number Rate Generalized mean References External links Harmonic Mean at MathWorld Averages, Arithmetic and Harmonic Means at cut-the-knot | Harmonic_mean |@lemmatized mathematics:1 harmonic:28 mean:52 formerly:1 sometimes:1 call:2 subcontrary:1 one:12 several:1 kind:1 average:11 typically:1 appropriate:1 situation:3 rate:3 desire:1 h:2 positive:1 real:1 number:7 xn:1 define:2 equivalently:1 reciprocal:2 arithmetic:14 relationship:1 geometric:6 construction:1 three:5 pythagorean:2 two:8 denote:1 purple:1 color:1 data:1 set:2 contain:1 least:3 pair:1 nonequal:1 value:3 always:4 great:1 nonempty:1 dataset:2 equal:6 another:1 e:6 g:6 special:4 case:6 power:1 since:1 list:2 tends:1 strongly:1 toward:1 element:1 tend:1 compare:1 mitigate:1 impact:2 large:1 outlier:1 aggravate:1 small:1 often:2 mistakenly:1 use:5 place:1 statistical:1 analysis:1 ya:1 lun:1 chou:1 holt:1 international:1 isbn:1 speed:13 example:5 instance:2 incorrect:1 big:1 weighted:3 weight:3 associate:1 physic:1 certain:3 especially:1 many:1 involve:1 ratio:1 provide:2 true:1 vehicle:2 travel:4 distance:4 x:8 kilometre:4 per:4 hour:7 total:2 time:4 whole:1 however:2 amount:3 principle:2 applies:2 segment:1 give:1 series:3 sub:5 trip:5 different:1 cover:1 take:2 neither:1 need:1 similarly:1 connect:3 electrical:1 resistor:4 parallel:3 resistance:6 effect:1 equivalent:1 either:1 half:2 sum:1 previous:1 science:1 information:1 retrieval:1 field:1 precision:1 recall:1 aggregated:1 performance:1 score:2 f:2 measure:1 interesting:1 consequence:1 arises:1 basic:1 algebra:1 problem:1 work:1 together:2 gas:1 powered:2 pump:3 drain:3 pool:3 battery:1 interestingly:1 hydrology:1 hydraulic:1 conductivity:1 flow:2 perpendicular:1 layer:2 geologic:1 soil:1 hand:1 write:1 relate:1 see:1 also:1 generalize:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 mathworld:1 cut:1 knot:1 |@bigram information_retrieval:1 battery_powered:1 external_link:1 cut_knot:1 |
831 | Claude_Debussy | Claude Debussy, photo by Félix Nadar, ca. 1908. Achille-Claude Debussy () (August 22, 1862 – March 25, 1918) was a French composer. Along with Maurice Ravel, he is considered one of the most prominent figures working within the field of Impressionist music, though he himself intensely disliked the term when applied to his compositions. Debussy is not only among the most important of all French composers; he was also a central figure in European music at the turn of the twentieth century. His music is noted for its sensory component and how it is not often formed around one key or pitch. Often Debussy's work reflected the activities or turbulence in his own life. His music virtually defines the transition from late-Romantic music to twentieth century modernist music. In French literary circles, the style of this period was known as Symbolism, a movement that directly inspired Debussy both as a composer and as an active cultural participant. Biography Early life and studies Debussy at the Villa Médici in Rome, 1885, at centre in the white jacket Claude Debussy was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1862, the eldest of five children. His father Manuel-Achille Debussy owned a china shop and was a salesman and his mother Victorine Manoury Debussy was a seamstress. Debussy began piano lessons when he was four years old with an elderly Italian named Cerutti; his lessons were paid for by his aunt. In 1871, the young Debussy gained the attention of Marie Mauté de Fleurville, Léon Vallas: Claude Debussy - His Life and Works who claimed to have been a pupil of Frédéric Chopin, and Debussy always believed her, although there is no independent evidence that she was. Greene's Biographical Encyclopedia of Composers His talents soon became evident, and in 1872, at age ten, Debussy entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he spent eleven years. During his time there he studied composition with Ernest Guiraud, music history/theory with Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray, harmony with Émile Durand, piano with Antoine-François Marmontel, organ with César Franck, and solfège with Albert Lavignac, as well as other significant figures of the era. From the start, though clearly talented, Debussy was also argumentative and experimental, and he challenged the rigid teaching of the Academy, favoring instead dissonances and intervals which were frowned upon at the time. Like Georges Bizet, Debussy was a brilliant pianist and an outstanding sight reader, who could have had a professional career had he so wished. Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists, p. 343 The pieces he played in public at this time included sonata movements by Beethoven, Schumann and Weber; and Chopin - the Ballade No. 2, a movement from the Piano Concerto No. 1, and the Allegro de Concert, a relatively little-known piece that demands an even higher degree of virtuosity than either of the concertos. Concerts where Debussy appeared as a pianist From 1880 to 1882, he lived in Russia as music teacher to the children of Nadezhda von Meck, the patroness of Tchaikovsky. Despite von Meck's closeness with Tchaikovsky, the Russian master appears to have had little or no effect on Debussy. In September 1880 she sent Debussy's Danse bohémienne for Tchaikovsky's perusal. A month later Tchaikovsky wrote back to her, "It is a very pretty piece, but it is much too short. Not a single idea is expressed fully, the form is terribly shriveled, and it lacks unity". Debussy did not publish the piece; the manuscript remained in the von Meck family, and it was sold to B. Schott's Sohne in Mainz, and published by them in 1932. Alexander Poznansky, Tchaikovsky: The Quest for the Inner Man, p. 375 More influential was Debussy's close friendship with Madame Vasnier, a singer he met when he began working as an accompanist to earn some money. She gave Debussy emotional and professional support and influenced his first songs, settings of poems by Paul Verlaine, his former teacher Mme. Mauté de Fleurville's son-in-law. As the winner of the Prix de Rome with his composition L'Enfant prodigue, he received a scholarship to the Académie des Beaux-Arts, which included a four-year residence at the Villa Medici, the French Academy in Rome, to further his studies (1885-1887). According to letters to Madame Vasnier, perhaps in part designed to gain her sympathy, he found the artistic atmosphere stifling, the company boorish, the food bad, and the monastic quarters "abominable". Oscar Thompson, Debussy: Man and Artist, Tudor Publishing Company, 1940, p.70 Neither did he delight in the pleasures of the "Eternal City", finding the Italian opera of Donizetti and Verdi not to his taste. Debussy was often depressed and unable to compose, but he was inspired by Franz Liszt, whose command of the keyboard he found admirable. In June 1885, Debussy wrote of his desire to follow his own way: Debussy finally composed four pieces that were sent to the Academy: the symphonic ode Zuleima, based on a text by Heinrich Heine; the orchestral piece Printemps; the cantata La damoiselle élue (1887-1888), which was criticized by the Academy as "bizarre"; and the Fantaisie for piano and orchestra. The third piece was the first in which stylistic features of Debussy's later style emerged. The fourth piece was heavily based on César Franck's music and withdrawn by Debussy himself. Overall, the Academy chided him for "courting the unusual" and hoped for something better from the gifted student. Even though Debussy showed touches of Jules Massenet in his efforts, Massenet himself concluded, "He is an enigma." Oscar Thompson, Debussy: Man and Artist, Tudor Publishing Company, 1940, p.82 In his visits to Bayreuth in 1888-9, Debussy was exposed to Wagnerian opera, which had a lasting impact on his work. Richard Wagner had died in 1883 and the cult of Wagnerism was still in full swing. Debussy, like many young musicians of the time, responded positively to Wagner's sensuousness, mastery of form, and striking harmonies, but ultimately Wagner's extroverted emotionalism was not to be Debussy's way either. Wagner's influence is evident in La damoiselle élue and the 1889 piece Cinq poèmes de Baudelaire. Other songs of the period, notably the settings of Verlaine—Ariettes oubliées, Trois mélodies, and Fêtes galantes are all in a more capricious style. Around this time, Debussy met Erik Satie who proved a kindred spirit in his experimental approach to composition and to naming his pieces. During this period, both musicians were bohemians enjoying the same cafe society and struggling to stay afloat financially. During 1889, at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, Debussy heard Javanese gamelan music. Although direct citations of gamelan scales, melodies, rhythms, or ensemble textures have not been located in any of Debussy's own compositions, the equal-tempered pentatonic scale appears in his music of this time and afterward. Early works Debussy at the piano, in front of the composer Ernest Chausson, 1893 Beginning in the 1890s, Debussy developed his own musical language largely independent of Wagner's style, colored in part from the dreamy, sometimes morbid romanticism of the Symbolist Movement. Debussy became a frequent participant at Stéphane Mallarmé's Symbolist gatherings, where Wagnerism dominated the discussion. In contrast to the enormous works of Wagner and other late-romantic composers, however, around this time Debussy chose to write in smaller, more accessible forms. The Suite bergamasque (1890) recalls rococo decorousness with a modern cynicism and puzzlement. This suite contains one of Debussy's most popular pieces, Clair de Lune. Debussy's String Quartet in G minor (1893) paved the way for his later, more daring harmonic exploration. In this work he utilized the Phrygian mode as well as less standard scales, such as the whole-tone, which creates a sense of floating, ethereal harmony. Debussy was beginning to employ a single, continuous theme and break away from the traditional A-B-A form, with its restatements and amplifications, which had been a mainstay of classical music since Haydn. Influenced by Mallarmé, Debussy wrote one of his most famous works, the revolutionary Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, truly original in form and execution. In contrast to the large orchestras so favoured by late-romanticism, Debussy wrote this piece for a smaller ensemble, emphasizing instrumental colour and timbre. Despite Mallarmé himself, and colleague and friend Paul Dukas having been impressed by the piece, it was controversial at its premiere. Prélude subsequently placed Debussy into the spotlight as one of the leading composers of the era. Middle works The three Nocturnes (1899), include characteristic studies in veiled harmony and texture as demonstrated in Nuages; exuberance in Fêtes; and whole-tones in Sirènes. Contrasting sharply with Wagnerian opera, Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande premiered in 1902, after ten years of work. It would be his only complete opera. Based on the play by Maurice Maeterlinck, the opera proved to be an immediate success and immensely influential to younger French composers, including Maurice Ravel. These works brought a fluidity of rhythm and colour quite new to Western music. La Mer (1903-1905) essays a more symphonic form, with a finale that works themes from the first movement, although the middle movement, Jeux de vagues, proceeds much less directly and with more variety of colour. Again, the reviews were sharply divided. Some critics thought the treatment to be less subtle and less mysterious than his previous works and even a step backward. Pierre Lalo complained "I neither hear, nor see, nor feel the sea". Others extolled its "power and charm", its "extraordinary verve and brilliant fantasy", and its strong colors and definite lines. Oscar Thompson, Debussy: Man and Artist, Tudor Publishing Company, 1940, p.158-9 During this period Debussy wrote much for the piano. The set of pieces entitled Pour le piano (1901) utilises rich harmonies and textures which would later prove important in jazz music. His first volume of Images pour piano (1904–1905) combine harmonic innovation with poetic suggestion: Reflets dans l'eau is a musical description of rippling water; Hommage à Rameau, the second piece, is slow and yearningly nostalgic. It takes as its inspiration a melody of Jean-Philippe Rameau's, Castor et Pollux. The evocative Estampes for piano (1903) give impressions of exotic locations. Debussy came into contact with Javanese gamelan music during the 1889 Paris Exposition Universelle. Pagodes is the directly inspired result, aiming for an evocation of the pentatonic structures employed by the Javanese music. Debussy wrote his famous Children's Corner Suite (1908) for his beloved daughter, Claude-Emma, whom he nicknamed Chouchou. The suite recalls classicism—the opening piece Doctor Gradus ad Parnassum refers to Muzio Clementi's collection of instructional piano compositions Gradus ad Parnassum, as well as a new wave of American cakewalk music. In the popular final piece of the suite, Golliwog's Cakewalk, Debussy also pokes fun at Richard Wagner by mimicking the opening bars of Wagner's prelude to Tristan and Isolde. The first book of Preludes (1910), twelve in total, proved to be his most successful work for piano. The Preludes are frequently compared to those of Chopin. Debussy's preludes are replete with rich, unusual and daring harmonies. They include the popular La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin (The Girl with the Flaxen Hair) and La Cathédrale Engloutie (The Engulfed Cathedral). Debussy wanted people to respond intuitively to these pieces and so he placed the titles at the end of each one in the hope that listeners would not make stereotype images as they listened. Larger scaled works included his orchestral piece Iberia (1907), began as a work for two pianos, a triptych medley of Spanish allusions and fleeting impressions and also the music for Gabriele d'Annunzio's mystery play Le martyre de St. Sébastien (1911). A lush and dramatic work, written in only two months, it is remarkable in sustaining a late antique modal atmosphere that otherwise was touched only in relatively short piano pieces. During this period, as Debussy gained more popularity, he was engaged as a conductor throughout Europe, most often performing Pelléas, La Mer, and Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune. He was also an occasional music critic to supplement his conducting fees and piano lessons. Debussy avoided analytical dissection and attempts to force images from music, "Let us at all costs preserve this magic peculiar to music, since of all the arts it is most susceptible to magic." He could be caustic and witty, sometimes sloppy and ill-informed. Debussy was for the most part enthusiastic about Richard Strauss and Igor Stravinsky, worshipful of Chopin, Johann Sebastian Bach and Mozart, and found both Liszt and Beethoven geniuses who sometimes lacked "taste". Schubert and Mendelssohn fared much worse, the latter he described as a "facile and elegant notary". Oscar Thompson, Debussy: Man and Artist, Tudor Publishing Company, 1940, p.180-5 He also admired the works of Charles-Valentin Alkan. Late works Debussy's harmonies and chord progressions frequently exploit dissonances without any formal resolution. Unlike in his earlier work, he no longer hides discords in lush harmonies. The forms are far more irregular and fragmented. These chords that seemingly had no resolution were described by Debussy himself as "floating chords", and were used to set tone and mood in many of his works. The whole tone scale dominates much of Debussy's late music. His two last volumes of works for the piano, the Études (1915) interprets similar varieties of style and texture purely as pianistic exercises and includes pieces that develop irregular form to an extreme as well as others influenced by the young Igor Stravinsky (a presence too in the suite En blanc et noir for two pianos, 1915). The rarefaction of these works is a feature of the last set of songs, the Trois poèmes de Mallarmé (1913), and of the Sonata for flute, viola and harp (1915), though the sonata and its companions also recapture the inquisitive Verlainian classicism. With the sonatas of 1915–1917, there is a sudden shift in the style. These works recall Debussy's earlier music, in part, but also look forward, with leaner, simpler structures. Despite the thinner textures of the Violin Sonata (1917) there remains an undeniable richness in the chords themselves. This shift parallels the movement commonly known as neo-classicism which became popular after Debussy's death. Debussy planned a set of six sonatas, but this plan was cut short by his death in 1918 so that he only completed three (cello, flute-viola-harp and violin sonatas). The last orchestral work by Debussy, the ballet Jeux (1912) written for Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, contains some of his strangest harmonies and textures in a form that moves freely over its own field of motivic connection. At first Jeux was overshadowed by Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, composed in the same year as Jeux and premiered only two weeks later by the same ballet company. Decades later, composers such as Pierre Boulez and Jean Barraqué pointed out parallels to Anton Webern's serialism in this work. Other late stage works, including the ballets Khamma (1912) and La boîte à joujoux (1913) were left with the orchestration incomplete, and were later completed by Charles Koechlin and André Caplet, who also helped Debussy with the orchestration of Gigues (from Images pour orchestre) and Le martyre de St. Sébastien. The second set of Preludes for piano (1913) features Debussy at his most avant-garde, sometimes utilising dissonant harmonies to evoke moods and images, especially in the mysterious Canope; the title refers to a burial urn which stood on Debussy's working desk and evokes a distant past. The pianist Claudio Arrau considered the piece to be one of Debussy's greatest preludes: "It's miraculous that he created, in so few notes, this kind of depth." Although Pelléas was Debussy's only completed opera, he began several opera projects which remained unfinished, his fading concentration, increasing procrastination, and failing health perhaps the reasons. He had finished some partial musical sketches and some unpublished libretti for operas based on Poe's The Devil in the Belfry (Le diable dans le beffroi, 1902-?1912) and The Fall of the House of Usher (La chute de la maison Usher, 1908-1917) as well as considered projects for operas based on Shakespeare's As You Like It and Joseph Bedier's La Legende de Tristan. Further plans, such as an American tour, more ballet scores, and revisions of Chopin and Bach works for re-publication, were all cut short by the outbreak of World War I and the onset of colorectal cancer, which required morphine injections to relieve the pain. Debussy underwent one of the first colostomy operations ever performed in 1916, but this achieved only a temporary respite and occasioned him considerable frustration; he was to liken dressing in the morning to "all the labours of Hercules in one". Private life Debussy's private life was often turbulent. At the age of 18 he began an eight year affair with Madame Blanche Vasnier, wife of a wealthy Parisian lawyer. The relationship eventually faltered following his winning of the Prix de Rome and obligatory incarceration in the eponymous city. On his permanent return to Paris in 1889, he began a tempestuous nine-year relationship with Gabrielle ('Gaby') Dupont, a tailor's daughter from Lisieux, with whom he cohabited in Paris on the Rue Gustave Doré. During this time he also had an affair with the singer Thérèse Roger, to whom he was briefly engaged. He left Dupont for her friend Rosalie ('Lily') Texier, a fashion model whom he married. Although Texier was affectionate, practical, straightforward, and well-liked by Debussy's friends and associates, he became increasingly irritated by her intellectual limitations and lack of musical sensitivity. As a result he abandoned Texier in 1904 for Emma Bardac, the wife of a Parisian banker and the mother of one of his students. In contrast to Texier, Bardac was a sophisticate, a brilliant conversationalist, and an accomplished singer. The distraught Texier, like Dupont before her, attempted suicide, shooting herself in the chest while standing in the middle of the Place de la Concorde. She survived, although the bullet remained lodged in her vertebrae for the rest of her life. The scandal obliged Debussy and Bardac (already carrying his child) to flee to England, eventually settling in Eastbourne, where he completed his symphonic suite La Mer, until the hysteria subsided and the legal entanglements resolved. The couple were eventually married in 1908, their troubled union enduring until Debussy's death in 1918. Their child, a daughter (and the composer's only child), was named Claude-Emma, more affectionately known as Chouchou, the dedicatee of Debussy's Children's Corner suite. Claude-Emma outlived her father by scarcely a year, succumbing to the diphtheria epidemic of 1919. Death Debussy's grave at Cim. de Passy Claude Debussy died of cancer in Paris on March 25, 1918, in the midst of the aerial and artillery bombardment of the city during the Spring Offensive of World War I. At this time, the military situation in France was desperate, and circumstances did not permit his being paid the honour of a public funeral or ceremonious graveside orations. The funeral procession made its way through deserted streets to Père Lachaise cemetery as shells from the German guns ripped into his beloved city. It was just eight months before France would celebrate victory. His body was reinterred shortly afterwards in the small Cimetière de Passy sequestered behind the Trocadéro; his wife and daughter are buried with him. French culture has ever since celebrated Debussy as one of its most distinguished representatives. Musical style Rudolph Réti points out these features of Debussy's music, which "established a new concept of tonality in European music": Glittering passages and webs of figurations which distract from occasional absence of tonality; Frequent use of parallel chords which are "in essence not harmonies at all, but rather 'chordal melodies', enriched unisons"; Bitonality, or at least bitonal chords; Use of the whole-tone and pentatonic scale; Unprepared modulations, "without any harmonic bridge." He concludes that Debussy's achievement was the synthesis of monophonic based "melodic tonality" with harmonies, albeit different from those of "harmonic tonality". The application of the term "impressionist" to Debussy and the music he influenced is a matter of intense debate within academic circles. One side argues that the term is a misnomer, an inappropriate label which Debussy himself opposed. In a letter of 1908, he wrote "I am trying to do 'something different'--an effect of reality...what the imbeciles call 'impressionism', a term which is as poorly used as possible, particularly by the critics, since they do not hesitate to apply it to Turner, the finest creator of mysterious effects in all the world of art." Oscar Thompson, Debussy: Man and Artist, Tudor Publishing Company, 1940, p.161 The opposing side argues that Debussy may have been reacting to unfavorable criticism at the time, and the negativity that critics associated with impressionism. It can be argued that he would have been pleased with application of the current definition of impressionism to his music. Mathematical structuring Given that Debussy's music is apparently so concerned with mood and colour, it is somewhat unexpected to discover that, according to one author, many of his greatest works appear to have been structured around mathematical models even while using an apparent classical structure such as sonata form. Howat suggests that some of Debussy's pieces can be divided into sections that reflect the golden ratio, frequently by using the numbers of the standard Fibonacci sequence. Sometimes these divisions seem to follow the standard divisions of the overall structure. In other pieces they appear to mark out other significant features of the music. The 55 bar-long introduction to 'Dialogue du vent et la mer' in La Mer, for example, breaks down into 5 sections of 21, 8, 8, 5 and 13 bars in length. The golden mean point of bar 34 in this structure is signalled by the introduction of the trombones, with the use of the main motif from all three movements used in the central section around that point. The only evidence that Howat introduces to support his claim appears in changes Debussy made between finished manuscripts and the printed edition, with the changes invariably creating a Golden Mean proportion where previously none existed. Perhaps the starkest example of this comes with La cathédrale engloutie. Published editions lack the instruction to play bars 7-12 and 22-83 at twice the speed of the remainder, exactly as Debussy himself did on a piano-roll recording. When analysed with this alteration, the piece follows Golden Section proportions. At the same time, Howat admits that in many of Debussy's works, he has been unable to find evidence of the Golden Section (notably in the late works) and that no extant manuscripts or sketches contain any evidence of calculations related to it. Influence on later composers Claude Debussy is widely regarded as one of the most influential composers of the 20th century. His harmonies, considered radical in his day, were influential to almost every major composer of the 20th century, especially the music of Maurice Ravel, Igor Stravinsky, Olivier Messiaen, Béla Bartók, Pierre Boulez, Henri Dutilleux, and the minimalist music of Steve Reich and Philip Glass as well as the influential Japanese composer Toru Takemitsu. He also influenced many important figures in Jazz, most notably George Gershwin, Bill Evans, Thelonious Monk, Duke Ellington, Antonio Carlos Jobim, Jimmy Giuffre and Brad Mehldau. Furthermore, he had a massive impact on contemporary soundtrack composers such as John Williams because of his colorful, suggestive compositions and orchestrations that are very reminiscent of typical movie scores. List of works List of compositions by Claude Debussy by category. List of compositions by Claude Debussy by Lesure Numbers Eponym Asteroid 4492 Debussy, discovered in 1988, is named for Claude Debussy. Media References Sources Further reading Lücke, Hendrik (2005): Mallarmé - Debussy. Eine vergleichende Studie zur Kunstanschauung am Beispiel von „L'Après-midi d'un Faune“. (= Studien zur Musikwissenschaft, Bd. 4). Dr. Kovac, ISBN 3-8300-1685-9. External links Claude Debussy Catalogue chronologique Documentary film about Claude Debussy Recordings and MIDI files Performance of Arabesque at 1st piano Performance of Claire de Lune at 1st piano Performance of La fille aux cheveux de Lin at 1st piano Kunst der Fuge: Claude Debussy performances Performances of works by Claude Debussy in MIDI format at Logos Virtual Library Piano Rolls (The Reproducing Piano Roll Foundation) Music scores 1re arabesque pour piano (transcription for violon & piano by Gaston Choisnel) From Sibley Music Library Digital Scores Collection Clair de lune; extrait de la Suite bergamasque (transcription pour piano à quatre mains par H. 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832 | Judit_Polgár | Judit Polgár (born July 23, 1976) is a Hungarian chess grandmaster. She is by far the strongest female chessplayer in history. In 1991, she achieved the title of Grandmaster (GM) at the age of 15 years and 4 months. She was, at that time, the youngest person to do so. Polgár is ranked number 36 in the world on the January 2009 FIDE rating list with an Elo rating of 2693, the only woman on FIDE's Top 100 Players list, and has been ranked as high as number eight. Background Judit Polgár is Jewish, and from Budapest. Members of her family perished in the Holocaust. She and her two older sisters, Grandmaster Susan and International Master Zsófia, were part of an educational experiment carried out by their father László Polgár, in an attempt to prove that children could make exceptional achievements if trained in a specialist subject from a very early age. "Geniuses are made, not born," was László's thesis. He and his wife Klara educated their three daughters at home, with chess as the specialist subject. However, chess was not taught to the exclusion of everything else. Each of them has several diplomas and speaks four to eight languages. Their father also taught his three daughters the international language Esperanto. The rest of Judit's family eventually emigrated (Zsófia and her parents to Israel and later to Canada, Susan to New York), but she remained in Hungary and married Gusztáv Font, a veterinary surgeon from Budapest, whom she met through his caring for her dog. Career Judit Pogar Polgár has always preferred men's events, making it clear from the beginning that she wanted to become the true World Champion of Chess. Trained in her early years by her sister Susan (who ultimately became Women's World Champion herself) Polgár was a prodigy from an early age. She first defeated an International Master (Dolfi Drimer) at age 10, and a Grandmaster (Vladimir Kovacevic) at age 11. Judit Polgar qualified as a Grandmaster in December 1991, aged 15 years 4 months, at the time the youngest ever. In 1993 she confirmed her status as one of the world's leading players, narrowly failing to qualify for the Candidates Tournaments at the rival FIDE and PCA Interzonal tournaments. 1993 Biel FIDE Interzonal Tournament, Mark Weeks' Chess pages 1993 Groningen PCA Qualifying Tournament, Mark Weeks' Chess pages In 1994 she suffered a controversial defeat at the hands of then-world champion Garry Kasparov, the highest-rated chessplayer of all time. Kasparov changed his mind after making a losing move and then made another move instead. According to chess rules, once a player has released a piece s/he cannot make a different move, so Kasparov should have been made to play his original move. However, Polgár did not challenge this because she says there were no witnesses and an arbiter was not around. She was also unaware at the time that the re-move was caught on tape by a television crew. The tournament director was criticised for not forfeiting Kasparov when the videotape evidence was made available to him. However, she won a rapid chess game against Kasparov in 2002. On the January 1996 FIDE ratings list, Polgár's 2675 rating made her the number 10 ranked player in the world, FIDE Top 10 1970-1997 the first woman ever to enter the world's Top Ten. In 2003, Polgár scored one of her best results: an undefeated clear second place in the Category 19 Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee, Netherlands, just a half-point behind Indian star Viswanathan Anand, and a full point ahead of world champion Vladimir Kramnik. In 2004, Polgár took some time off from chess to give birth to her son, Olivér. She was consequently considered inactive and not listed on the January 2005 FIDE rating list. Her sister Susan reactivated her playing status during this period, and temporarily became ranked the world's number one woman player again. Why Judit Polgar was not on the ratings list January 14, 2005 Polgár returned to chess at the prestigious Corus chess tournament on January 15, 2005, scoring 7/13. She was therefore relisted in the April 2005 FIDE rating list, gaining a few rating points for her better-than-par performance at Corus. In May she also had a better-than-par performance at a strong tournament in Sofia, Bulgaria, finishing third. This brought her to her highest ever rating, 2735, in the July 2005 FIDE list and enabled her to retain her spot as the eighth ranked player in the world. In September 2005, Polgár became the first woman to play for a World Championship, at the FIDE World Chess Championship 2005. However, she had a rare disappointing performance, coming last out of the eight competitors. Nigel Short criticised her poor opening repertoire, and some speculated that taking a year off to have a baby may have left her rusty, despite her strong performances in two tournaments earlier in the year. She did not play at the 2006 Linares tournament because she was pregnant again. On July 6, 2006, she gave birth to a girl, Hanna. In October 2006, Polgár scored another excellent result: tied for first place in the Essent Chess Tournament, Hoogeveen, Holland. She scored 4.5 out of 6 in a double round robin tournament that included two wins against the world's top-rated player, Veselin Topalov. In May-June 2007 she played in the Candidates Tournament for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2007. She was eliminated in the first round, losing 3.5-2.5 to Evgeny Bareev. In January 2008 she competed in the Corus Wijk aan Zee tournament, scoring a respectable 6.0/13. In November 2008, Polgár played the number 2 board for the Hungarian open ("men's") team in the 38th Chess Olympiad in Dresden, finishing 3.5/8. Illustrative games Polgar-GM Ferenc Berkes, Budapest 2003 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Nf6 4.Bg5 dxe4 5.Nxe4 Be7 6.Bxf6 Bxf6 7.Nf3 O-O 8.Qd2 Nd7 9.O-O-O Be7 10.Bd3 b6 11.Neg5 h6 12.Bh7+ Kh8 13.Be4 hxg5 14.g4 Rb8 15.h4 g6 16.hxg5+ Kg7 17.Qf4 Bb7 18.Rh7+ Kxh7 19.Qh2+ Kg8 20.Rh1 Bxg5+ 21.Nxg5 Qxg5+ 22.f4 Qxf4+ 23.Qxf4 Bxe4 24.Qxe4 1-0 Polgar-Kasparov, Russia vs. The Rest of the World match, Moscow 2002 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3. Bb5 Nf6 4.O-O Nxe4 5.d4 Nd6 6.Bxc6 dxc6 7.dxe5 Nf5 8.Qxd8+ Kxd8 9.Nc3 h6 10.Rd1+ Ke8 11.h3 Be7 12.Ne2 Nh4 13.Nxh4 Bxh4 14.Be3 Bf5 15.Nd4 Bh7 16.g4 Be7 17.Kg2 h5 18.Nf5 Bf8 19.Kf3 Bg6 20.Rd2 hxg4+ 21.hxg4 Rh3+ 22.Kg2 Rh7 23.Kg3 f6 24.Bf4 Bxf5 25.gxf5 fxe5 26.Re1 Bd6 27.Bxe5 Kd7 28. c4 c5 29.Bxd6 cxd6 30.Re6 Rah8 31.Rexd6+ Kc8 32.R2d5 Rh3+ 33.Kg2 Rh2+ 34.Kf3 R2h3+ 35.Ke4 b6 36.Rc6+ Kb8 37.Rd7 Rh2 38.Ke3 Rf8 39.Rcc7 Rxf5 40.Rb7+ Kc8 41.Rdc7+ Kd8 42.Rxg7 Kc8 1-0 Literature (1992) Cathy Forbes: The Polgar Sisters: Training or Genius?. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0805024263. (2002) Hurst, Sarah: Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld. Russell Enterprises. ISBN 1888690151. (2004) Károlyi, Tibor: Judit Polgar, the Princess of Chess. Batsford. ISBN 0-7134-8890-5 (2005) Susan Polgar, Paul Truong: Breaking Through : How the Polgar Sisters Changed the Game of Chess. Everyman Chess. ISBN 1857443810. (2005) Jennifer Shahade, Chess Bitch: Women In The Ultimate Intellectual Sport. Siles Press. ISBN 189008509X. References External links Review of Judit Polgar The Princess of Chess | Judit_Polgár |@lemmatized judit:8 polgár:14 bear:2 july:3 hungarian:2 chess:22 grandmaster:5 far:1 strong:3 female:1 chessplayer:2 history:1 achieve:1 title:1 gm:2 age:6 year:5 month:2 time:5 young:2 person:1 rank:5 number:5 world:15 january:6 fide:11 rating:9 list:8 elo:1 woman:6 top:4 player:7 high:3 eight:3 background:1 jewish:1 budapest:3 member:1 family:2 perish:1 holocaust:1 two:3 old:1 sister:5 susan:5 international:3 master:2 zsófia:2 part:1 educational:1 experiment:1 carry:1 father:2 lászló:2 attempt:1 prove:1 child:1 could:1 make:9 exceptional:1 achievement:1 train:2 specialist:2 subject:2 early:3 genius:2 thesis:1 wife:1 klara:1 educate:1 three:2 daughter:1 home:1 however:4 teach:2 exclusion:1 everything:1 else:1 several:1 diploma:1 speak:1 four:1 language:2 also:3 daughters:1 esperanto:1 rest:2 eventually:1 emigrate:1 parent:1 israel:1 later:1 canada:1 new:1 york:1 remain:1 hungary:1 married:1 gusztáv:1 font:1 veterinary:1 surgeon:1 meet:1 caring:1 dog:1 career:1 pogar:1 always:1 prefer:1 men:2 event:1 clear:2 beginning:1 want:1 become:4 true:1 champion:4 ultimately:1 prodigy:1 first:5 defeat:2 dolfi:1 drimer:1 vladimir:2 kovacevic:1 polgar:9 qualify:3 december:1 ever:3 confirm:1 status:2 one:3 lead:1 narrowly:1 fail:1 candidate:2 tournament:14 rival:1 pca:2 interzonal:2 biel:1 mark:2 week:2 page:2 groningen:1 suffer:1 controversial:1 hand:1 garry:1 kasparov:6 rat:2 change:2 mind:1 losing:1 move:5 another:2 instead:1 accord:1 rule:1 release:1 piece:1 cannot:1 different:1 play:5 original:1 challenge:1 say:1 witness:1 arbiter:1 around:1 unaware:1 catch:1 tape:1 television:1 crew:1 director:1 criticise:2 forfeit:1 videotape:1 evidence:1 available:1 win:2 rapid:1 game:3 enter:1 ten:1 score:5 best:1 result:2 undefeated:1 second:1 place:2 category:1 corus:4 wijk:2 aan:2 zee:2 netherlands:1 half:1 point:3 behind:1 indian:1 star:1 viswanathan:1 anand:1 full:1 ahead:1 kramnik:1 take:2 give:2 birth:2 son:1 olivér:1 consequently:1 consider:1 inactive:1 reactivate:1 playing:1 period:1 temporarily:1 return:1 prestigious:1 therefore:1 relisted:1 april:1 gain:1 good:2 par:2 performance:4 may:3 sofia:1 bulgaria:1 finish:2 third:1 bring:1 enable:1 retain:1 spot:1 eighth:1 september:1 championship:3 rare:1 disappointing:1 come:1 last:1 competitor:1 nigel:1 short:1 poor:1 opening:1 repertoire:1 speculate:1 baby:1 leave:1 rusty:1 despite:1 earlier:1 linares:1 pregnant:1 girl:1 hanna:1 october:1 excellent:1 tie:1 essent:1 hoogeveen:1 holland:1 double:1 round:2 robin:1 include:1 veselin:1 topalov:1 june:1 eliminate:1 lose:1 evgeny:1 bareev:1 compete:1 respectable:1 november:1 board:1 open:1 team:1 olympiad:1 dresden:1 illustrative:1 ferenc:1 berkes:1 russia:1 v:1 match:1 moscow:1 literature:1 cathy:1 forbes:1 training:1 henry:1 holt:1 co:1 isbn:5 hurst:1 sarah:1 curse:1 kirsan:1 adventure:1 underworld:1 russell:1 enterprise:1 károlyi:1 tibor:1 princess:2 batsford:1 paul:1 truong:1 breaking:1 everyman:1 jennifer:1 shahade:1 bitch:1 ultimate:1 intellectual:1 sport:1 siles:1 press:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 review:1 |@bigram chess_grandmaster:1 fide_rating:4 elo_rating:1 everything_else:1 veterinary_surgeon:1 judit_polgar:4 interzonal_tournament:2 garry_kasparov:1 aan_zee:2 viswanathan_anand:1 vladimir_kramnik:1 sofia_bulgaria:1 veselin_topalov:1 chess_olympiad:1 everyman_chess:1 external_link:1 |
833 | Demographics_of_the_Dominican_Republic | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Dominican Republic, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. About half of Dominicans live in rural areas; many are small landholders. Spanish is the dominant language among the majority population. Haitians form the largest minority group, some 500,000 (or 6% of the population) according to Human Rights Watch Essay on the Dominican Republic . Some Haitians in the Dominican Republic are illegal immigrants, while others are Dominican-born citizens. All religions are tolerated; the state religion is Roman Catholicism, with a 95% majority. Minority religions include Baptist, Evangelist, Seventh-day Adventist, Mahayana Buddhism, Judaism and Bahá'í. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 9,365,818 (July 2007 est.) Life expectancy Female: 69.35 years Male: 65.98 years Average: 67.63 years Age structure 0-14 years:32.1% (Male 1,532,813; Female 1,477,033) 15-64 years:62.2% (Male 2,815,544; Female 2,703,012) 65 years and older:5.7% (Male 247,738; Female 285,407) (2007 est.) Population growth rate 1.5% (2007 est.) Birth rate 22.91 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) Death rate 7.35 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) Net migration rate 3.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.038 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.042 male(s)/female 65 years and older: 0.868 male(s)/female total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2007 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 32.38 deaths/1,000 live births male: 34.81 deaths/1,000 live births female: 29.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 71.44 years male: 69.94 years female: 73.03 years (2005 est.) Total fertility rate 2.86 children born/woman (2005 est.) Nationality noun: Dominican(s) adjective: Dominican Ethnic groups Mixed 73%, White 16%, Black 11%. Religions Roman Catholic 95%, other 5% Languages Spanish (official); French and Haitian Creole spoken by Haitians, English (mostly spoken by the upper class Dominican population, also by British, Americans and other English-speaking immigrants that live in the country). Literacy definition: age 7 and older can read and write total population: 87% male: 86.8% female: 87.2% (2007 est.) Demographics of the Dominican Republic References | Demographics_of_the_Dominican_Republic |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:14 dominican:9 republic:4 include:2 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 half:1 live:5 rural:1 area:1 many:1 small:1 landholder:1 spanish:2 dominant:1 language:2 among:1 majority:2 haitian:4 form:1 large:1 minority:2 group:2 accord:1 human:1 right:1 watch:1 essay:1 illegal:1 immigrant:2 others:1 born:1 citizen:1 religion:4 tolerate:1 state:1 roman:2 catholicism:1 baptist:1 evangelist:1 seventh:1 day:1 adventist:1 mahayana:1 buddhism:1 judaism:1 bahá:1 í:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 life:2 expectancy:2 female:12 year:12 male:12 average:1 age:2 structure:1 old:3 growth:1 rate:6 birth:7 death:5 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:5 infant:1 mortality:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 mix:1 white:1 black:1 catholic:1 official:1 french:1 creole:1 speak:2 english:2 mostly:1 upper:1 class:1 also:1 british:1 american:1 speaking:1 country:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram dominican_republic:4 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 illegal_immigrant:1 roman_catholicism:1 day_adventist:1 mahayana_buddhism:1 bahá_í:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 life_expectancy:2 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 haitian_creole:1 literacy_definition:1 |
834 | Flag | The oldest national flag design still in use is Denmark's 13th century Dannebrog. A flag is a piece of fabric, often flown from a pole or mast, generally used symbolically for signaling or identification. It is most commonly used to symbolize a country. The term flag is also used to refer to the graphic design employed by a flag, or to its depiction in another medium. The first flags were used to assist military coordination on battlefields, and flags have since evolved into a general tool for rudimentary signaling and identification, it was especially used in environments where communication is similarly challenging (such as the maritime environment where semaphore is used). National flags are potent patriotic symbols with varied wide-ranging interpretations, often including strong military associations due to their original and ongoing military uses. Flags are also used in messaging, advertising, or for other decorative purposes. The study of flags is known as vexillology, from the Latin vexillum meaning flag or banner. History The origin of modern flags lies in our remote prehistoric past. When people started to form large groups to live and hunt together, they appointed a leader to rule them and settle disputes. As a mark of office this leader would wear some sort of ceremonial head-dress and hold a long decorative staff, rod or spear, topped with an ornament or tribal emblem. The staff was also used as a visible sign to rally around, or to point out the direction of a march or attack. This prehistoric, or proto-flag, is known as a vexilloid. Later in Ancient China, a different tradition developed when silk was invented between 6000 and 3000 BC. This strong, light fabric was ideal for making banners, which were much easier to carry than the vexilloids that had been used earlier, and they were also easier to see from a distance. From Ancient China the use of fabric flags spread to Mongolia, Japan, India, Persia, Ancient Greece, and finally the Roman Empire and the rest of Europe. The usage of flags spread from India and China, where they were almost certainly invented, flag. (2008). Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. to neighboring Burma, Siam, and southeastern Asia. The Persians used Derafsh Kaviani as the flag, at the time of Achaemenian dynasty at 550–330 B.C. Afterwards it was used in different look by the late Sassanid era (224-651). It was also representative of the Sassanid state - Ērānshāhr, the "Kingdom of Iran" - and may so be considered to have been the first "national flag" of Iran. Originally, the standards of the Roman legions were not flags, but symbols such as the eagle of Augustus Caesar's Xth legion; this graphic of the eagle would be placed on a staff for the standard-bearer to hold up during battle. But a military unit from Dacia had for a standard a dragon with a flexible tail which would move in the wind; the legions copied this, and eventually all the legions had physically flexible standards–the modern-day flag. During the Middle Ages, flags were used for a variety of purposes including: identification of members of nobility, guilds, cities, religious worship, and for use during battles. In battle, flags were used by military companies for identification on the field and relaying of strategic instructions. Though not always, flags could identify individual leaders: in Europe, monarchs and knights; in Japan, the samurai; in China, the generals under the imperial army; and in Mexico, the Aztec alliances. From the era of sailing vessels onwards, it has been customary (and later a legal requirement) for ships to carry flags designating their nationality; Articles 90-94 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea these flags eventually evolved into the national flags and maritime flags of today. Flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; see, International maritime signal flags. As European knights were replaced by centralized armies, flags became the means to identify not just nationalities but also individual military units. Flags became objects to be captured or defended. Eventually these flags posed too much of a practical danger to those carrying them, and by World War I these were withdrawn from the battlefields, and have since been used only at ceremonial occasions. National flags The Dutch flag is the oldest tricolor The Flag of Iran. A map of Europe with national flags (March 2009) One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolize a nation or country. Some national flags have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include: The flag of Denmark is the oldest state flag still in use. This flag, called the Dannebrog, inspired the cross design of the other Nordic countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and regional flags for the Faroe Islands, Åland, Scania and Bornholm. The Union Flag (Union Jack) of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used. British colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history. Examples: Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Tuvalu, and also the Canadian provinces of Manitoba, Ontario and British Columbia, and the American state of Hawaii; see commons:Flags based on British ensigns. The Tricolour of The Netherlands is the oldest tricolor, first appearing in 1572 as the Prince's Flag in orange–white–blue. Soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing — it is however unknown why, though many stories are known. After 1630 the red–white–blue was the most commonly seen flag. The Dutch Tricolor has inspired many flags but most notably those of Russia, India, New York City, South Africa (the 1928-94 flag), and France, which spread the tricolor concept even further. The Flag of the Netherlands is also the only flag in the world that is adapted for some uses, when the occasion has a connection to the royal house of the Netherlands an orange ribbon is added. The national flag of France, the Tricolore was designed in 1794. As a forerunner of revolution, France's tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations. Examples: Italy, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ireland, Haiti, Romania, Mexico. The flag of the United States, also nicknamed The Stars and Stripes or Old Glory. In the same way that nations looked to France for inspiration, many countries were also inspired by the American Revolution, which they felt was symbolized in this flag. Examples: Liberia, Chile, Malaysia, Uruguay, and the French region of Brittany. The flag of Russia, the source for the Pan-Slavic colors adopted by many Slavic states and peoples as their symbols. Examples: Slovakia, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Bulgaria (with green replacing blue). The original tricolor Flag of Iran, the source for the Pan-Iranian colors Green, White and Red adopted by many Indo-Iranian or Aryan states and peoples as their symbols. Examples: Tajikistan, Kurdistan, Republic of Ararat, Talysh-Mughan. Some of Iran's non-Iranian neighboring countries also adopted these colors see Kuwait and Oman. Ethiopia was seen as a model by emerging African states of the 1950s and 1960s, as it was one of the oldest independent states in Africa. Accordingly, its flag became the source of the Pan-African colors. Examples: Togo, Senegal, Ghana, Mali. The flag of Turkey, which was the flag of the Ottoman Empire, has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations. During the time of the Ottomans the crescent began to be associated with Islam and this is reflected on the flags of Algeria, Azerbaijan, Comoros, Malaysia, Mauritania, Pakistan and of Tunisia. The Pan-Arab colors, green, white, red and black, are derived from the flag of the Great Arab Revolt as seen on the flags of Jordan, Kuwait, Sudan, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Egypt, Iraq, Yemen and Palestine. The Soviet flag, with its golden symbols of the hammer and sickle on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other communist states, such as East Germany, People's Republic of China, Vietnam, Angola, Afghanistan and Mozambique. The flag of Venezuela, created by Francisco de Miranda to represent the independence movement in Venezuela that later gave birth to the "Gran Colombia", inspired the individual flags of Colombia and Ecuador, both sharing three bands of color and three of them (Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela) sharing the yellow, blue and red. The flag of Argentina, created by Manuel Belgrano during the war of independence, was the inspiration for the United Provinces of Central America's flag, which in turn was the origin for the flags of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. National flag designs are often used to signify nationality in other forms, such as flag patches. Civil flags A civil flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. The use of civil flags was more common in the past, in order to denote buildings or ships that were not manned by the military. In some countries the civil flag is the same as the war flag or state flag, but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of Spain, and in others it's an alteration of the war flag. War flags Several countries (including the United Kingdom and the former Nazi Germany) have had unique flags flown by their armed forces, rather than the national flag. Other countries' armed forces (such as those of the United States or Switzerland) use their standard national flag. The Philippines' armed forces may use their standard national flag, but during times of war the flag is turned upside down - the only known case where an upside down national flag signifies a state of war (and not merely distress.) These are also considered war flags, though the terminology only applies to the flag's military usage. Large versions of the war flag flown on the warships of countries' navies are known as battle ensigns. In war waving a white flag indicates surrender. International flags Among international flags are the Flag of the United Nations, the Olympic flag and the World Flag. Flags at sea Flags are particularly important at sea, where they can mean the difference between life and death, and consequently where the rules and regulations for the flying of flags are strictly enforced. A national flag flown at sea is known as an ensign. A courteous, peaceable merchant ship or yacht customarily flies its ensign (in the usual ensign position), together with the flag of whatever nation it is currently visiting at the mast (known as a courtesy flag). To fly one's ensign alone in foreign waters, a foreign port or in the face of a foreign warship traditionally indicates a willingness to fight, with cannon, for the right to do so. As of 2009, this custom is still taken seriously by many naval and port authorities and is readily enforced in many parts of the world by boarding, confiscation and other civil penalties. In some countries yacht ensigns are different from merchant ensigns in order to signal that the yacht is not carrying cargo that requires a customs declaration. Carrying commercial cargo on a boat with a yacht ensign is deemed to be smuggling in many jurisdictions. There is a system of international maritime signal flags for numerals and letters of the alphabet. Each flag or pennant has a specific meaning when flown individually. As well, semaphore flags can be used to communicate on an ad hoc basis from ship to ship over short distances. Shape and design Flags are usually rectangular in shape (often in the ratio 2:3, 1:2, or 3:5), but may be of any shape or size that is practical for flying, including square, triangular, or swallow tailed. A more unusual flag shape is that of the flag of Nepal, which is in the shape of two stacked triangles. Many flags are dyed through and through to be inexpensive to manufacture, such that the reverse side is the mirror image of the obverse (front) side. This presents two possibilities: If the design is symmetrical in an axis parallel to the flag pole, obverse and reverse will be identical despite the mirror-reversal such as the Indian Flag or Canadian Flag If not, the obverse and reverse will present two variants of the same design, one with the hoist on the left (usually considered the obverse side, see flag illustrations), the other with the hoist on the right (usually considered the reverse side of the flag). This is very common and usually not disturbing if there is no text in the design. See also US reverse side flag. Some complex flag designs are not intended for through and through implementation, requiring separate obverse and reverse sides if made correctly. In these cases there is a design element (usually text) which is not symmetric and should be read in the same direction, regardless of whether the hoist is to the viewer's left or right. These cases can be divided into two types: The same (asymmetric) design may be duplicated on both sides. Such flags can be manufactured by creating two identical through and through flags and then sewing them back to back, though this can affect the resulting combination's responsiveness to the wind. Depictions of such flags may be marked with the symbol Image:IFIS Equal.svg, indicating the reverse is congruent to (rather than a mirror image of) the obverse. Rarely, the reverse design may differ, in whole or in part, from that of the obverse. Examples are the flag of Paraguay, the flag of Oregon, and the historical flag of the Soviet Union. Depictions of such flags may be marked with the symbol Image:IFIS Two-sided.svg. Common designs on flags include crosses, stripes, and divisions of the surface, or field, into bands or quarters — patterns and principles mainly derived from heraldry. A heraldic coat of arms may also be flown as a banner of arms, as is done on both the state flag of Maryland and the flag of Kiribati. The flag of Libya, which consists of a rectangular field of green, is the only national flag using a single color and no design or insignia. Color specification Colors are normally described with common names such as red, but in some cases (Canada for example) the colors are specified using the Pantone color matching system. Religious Flags Flags can play many different roles in religion. In Buddhism, prayer flags are used, usually in sets of five differently colored flags. Many national flags and other flags include religious symbols such as the cross, the crescent, or a reference to a patron saint. Flags are also adopted by religious groups and flags such as the Jain flag and the Christian flag are used to represent a whole religion. Linguistic flags As languages rarely have a flag designed to represent them Why you should not use a flag as a symbol of language , it is a common practice, though unofficial, to use national flags to identify them. Examples of this use include: representing language skills of an individual, like a staff member of a company displaying available languages on a multilingual website or software. Though this can be done in an uncontroversial manner in some cases, this can easily lead to some problems for certain languages: languages generating language dispute, such as Romanian and Moldavian which some consider two different languages; and languages spoken in more than one country, such as English, Arabic, French, German, Mandarin, Portuguese, Russian or Spanish. In this second case, common solutions include symbolising these languages by: the flag of the country where the language originated the flag of the country having the largest number of native speakers a mixed flag of the both (when this is not the same) the flag of the country most identified with that language in a specific region (e.g. Portuguese Language: Flag of Portugal in Europe and Flag of Brazil in South America) Thus, on the Internet, it is most common to see the English language associated to the flag of the United Kingdom, but sometimes to the flag of England, the flag of the United States or a US-UK mixed flag, usually divided diagonally. In sports Flags flown on a beach. Because of their ease of signaling and identification, flags are often used in sports. In Association football (soccer), linesmen carry small flags along the touch lines. They use the flags to indicate to the referee potential infringements of the laws, or who is entitled to possession of the ball that has gone out of the field of play, or, most famously, raising the flag to indicate an offside offence. Officials called touch judges use flags for similar purposes in both codes of rugby. In American and Canadian football, referees use flags to indicate that a foul has been committed in game play. The phrase used for such an indication is flag on the play. The flag itself is a small, weighted handkerchief, tossed on the field at the approximate point of the infraction; the intent is usually to sort out the details after the current play from scrimmage has concluded. In American football, the flag is usually yellow; in Canadian football, it is usually red. In yacht racing, flags are used to communicate information from the race committee boat to the racers. Different flags hoisted from the committee boat may communicate a false start, changes in the course, a canceled race, or other important information. Racing boats themselves may also use flags to symbolize a protest or distress. The flags are often part of the nautical alphabetic system of International maritime signal flags, in which 26 different flags designate the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet. In auto and motorcycle racing, racing flags are used to communicate with drivers. Most famously, a checkered flag of black and white squares indicates the end of the race, and victory for the leader. A yellow flag is used to indicate caution requiring slow speed and a red flag requires racers to stop immediately. A black flag is used to indicate penalties. In addition, fans of almost all sports wave flags in the stands to indicate their support for the participants. Many sports teams have their own flags, and, in individual sports, fans will indicate their support for a player by waving the flag of his or her home country. Capture the flag is a popular children's sport. In Gaelic football and Hurling a green flag is use to indicate a goal while a white flag is used to indicate a point In Australian rules football, the goal umpire will wave two flags to indicate a goal and a single flag to indicate a point. For safety, dive flags indicate the locations of underwater scuba divers. In water sports such as Wakeboarding and Water-Skiing, an orange flag is held in between runs to indicate someone is in the water. Swimming flags Open swimming area Closed swimming area In Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, and the United Kingdom a pair of red/yellow flags is used to mark the limits of the bathing area on a beach, usually guarded by surf lifesavers. If the beach is closed, the poles of the flags are crossed. The flags are colored with a red triangle and a yellow triangle making a rectangular flag, or a red rectangle over a yellow rectangle. On many Australian beaches there is a slight variation with beach condition signaling. A red flag signifies a closed beach (or, in the UK, some other danger), yellow signifies strong current or difficult swimming conditions, and green represents a beach safe for general swimming. In Ireland, a red and yellow flag indicates that it is safe to swim; a red flag that it is unsafe; and no flag indicates that there are no lifeguards on duty. Blue flags may also be used away from the yellow-red lifesaver area to designate a zone for surfboarding and other small, non-motorised watercraft. Reasons for closing the beach include: dangerous rip hurricane warning no lifeguards in attendance overpolluted water sharks tsunami waves too strong A surf flag exists, divided into four quadrants. The top left and bottom right quadrants are black, and the remaining area is white. Signal flag "India" (a black circle on a yellow square) is frequently used to denote a "blackball" zone where surfboards cannot be used but other water activities are permitted. Railway flags Railways use a number of colored flags. When used as wayside signals they usually use the following meanings (exact meanings are set by the individual railroad company): red = stop yellow = proceed with care green or white or blue = proceed. a flag of any color waved vigorously means stop a blue flag on the side of a locomotive means that it should not be moved because someone is working on it (or on the train attached to it). A blue flag on a track means that nothing on that track should be moved. The flag can only be removed by the person or group that placed it. At night, the flags are replaced with lanterns showing the same colors. Flags displayed on the front of a moving locomotive are an acceptable replacement for classification lights and usually have the following meanings (exact meanings are set by the individual railroad company): white = extra (not on the timetable) green = another section following red = last section Additionally, a railroad brakeman will typically carry a red flag to make his or her hand signals more visible to the engineer. Railway signals are a development of railway flags. In politics Social and political movements have adopted flags, to increase their visibility and as a unifying symbol. The socialist movement uses red flags to represent their cause. The anarchism movement has a variety of different flags, but the primary flag associated with them is the black flag. In the 1970s, the rainbow flag was adopted as a symbol of the LGBT social movements. Bisexual and transgender pride flags were later designed, in an attempt to emulate the rainbow flag's success. Some of these political flags have become national flags, such as the red flag of the Soviet Union and national socialist banners for Nazi Germany. Flagpoles The world's tallest flagpole (160 m (525 ft)), over Kijŏng-dong, near Panmunjeom, North Korea A flagpole, flagstaff, or staff can be a simple support made of wood or metal. If it is taller than can be easily reached to raise the flag, a cord is used, looping around a pulley at the top of the pole with the ends tied at the bottom. The flag is fixed to one lower end of the cord, and is then raised by pulling on the other end. The cord is then tightened and tied to the pole at the bottom. The pole is usually topped by a flat plate called a "truck" (originally meant to keep a wooden pole from splitting) or by a ball or a finial in a more complex shape. Very high flagpoles may require more complex support structures than a simple pole, such as guy wires, or need be built as a mast. The highest flagpole in the world, at 160 metres (525 ft), is that at Gijeong-dong in North Korea, the flag weighing about 270 kilograms (600 pounds) when dry. Since 2008 with 133m (436ft) the tallest free-standing flagpole in the world is the Ashgabat Flagpole in Turkmenistan, beating the formerly record holding Aqaba Flagpole in Jordan (size: 132 m; 433 ft). It will however be outrivaled by the National Flag Square in Azerbaijan, which is currently under construction and will reach a height of 162m (531ft). The Raghadan Flagpole in Amman is currently the third tallest free-standing flagpole in the world. It reaches a height of 126 meters (410 ft) and hoists a flag that measures 60 by 40 meters (200 by 130 feet); it is illuminated at night and can be seen from 25 km (16 miles) away. Design Flagpoles can be designed in one piece with a taper (typically a cone taper or a Greek entasis taper), or be made from multiple pieces to make them able to expand. In the United States, ANSI/NAAMM guide specification FP-1001-97 covers the engineering design of metal flagpoles to ensure safety. Flags and Communication Semaphore is a form of communication that utilizes flags. The signalling is performed by an individual using two flags (or lighted wands), the positions of the flags indicating a symbol. The person who holds the flags is known as the signalman. This form of communication is primarily used by naval signallers. This technique of signalling was adopted in the early 1800s and is still used in various forms today. References Australian Botany pages William G. Crampton; The World of Flags; Rand McNally; ISBN 0-528-83720-6 (hardcover, 1994). Samuel Finley Breese Morse Ultimate Pocket Flags of the World; Dorling Kindersley; ISBN 0-7894-2085-6; (1st American edition, hardcover, 1996). See also Lists and galleries of flags Gallery of flags by design Gallery of flags by similarity Gallery of sovereign state flags List of flag names List of flags List of flags by country Unofficial flags Yokui Flag Notable flag-related topics False flag Flag Day Flag desecration Flag etiquette Flag Patch Flag semaphore Flag terminology Flag throwing Pledge of Allegiance Standard-bearer (also enumerates various types of standards, both flag types and immobile ensigns) Vexillology Miscellaneous Petrosomatoglyph Symbols and prehistory Jolly Roger External links Flags Forum, discussion forum Flag Identifier, tool for identifying a given flag Flag news and views Flags of all countries fotw.net, Flags of the World, an outstanding source of vexillological information, contributed to by a group of international volunteers. 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835 | Gopher_(protocol) | For other uses, see Gopher. The Gopher protocol offers some features not natively supported by the Web and imposes a much stronger hierarchy on information stored on it. Its text menu interface is well-suited to computing environments that rely heavily on remote computer terminals, common in universities at the time of its creation in 1991 until 1993. Hello, welcome to my phlog (gopher link) Origins The original Gopher system was released in late spring of 1991 by Mark McCahill, Farhad Anklesaria, Paul Lindner, Daniel Torrey, Bob Alberti, and Terry Nickman of the University of Minnesota. Its central goals were: A file-like hierarchical arrangement that would be familiar to users A simple syntax A system that can be created quickly and inexpensively Extending the file system metaphor to include things like searches The source of the name "Gopher" is claimed to be threefold: Users instruct it to "go for" information It does so through a web of menu items analogous to gopher holes The sports teams of the University of Minnesota are the Golden Gophers Gopher combines document hierarchies with collections of services, including WAIS, the Archie and Veronica search engines, and gateways to other information systems such as ftp and Usenet. The general interest in Campus-Wide Information Systems (CWISs) Google Groups archive of bit.listserv.cwis-l discussion in higher education at the time, and the ease with which a Gopher server could be set up to create an instant CWIS with links to other sites' online directories and resources were the factors contributing to Gopher's rapid adoption. By 1992, the standard method of locating someone's e-mail address was to find their organization's CCSO nameserver entry in Gopher, and query the nameserver. Google Groups archive of comp.infosystems.gopher discussion The exponential scaling of utility in social networked systems (Reed's law) seen in Gopher, and then the Web, is a common feature of networked hypermedia systems with distributed authoring. In 1993–1994, Web pages commonly contained large numbers of links to Gopher-delivered resources, as the Web continued Gopher's embrace and extend tradition of providing gateways to other services. Stagnation The World Wide Web was in its infancy in 1991, and Gopher services quickly became established. By the late 1990s, Gopher had ceased expanding. Several factors contributed to Gopher's stagnation: In February 1993, the University of Minnesota announced that it would charge licensing fees for the use of its implementation of the Gopher server. http://www.funet.fi/pub/vms/networking/gopher/gopher-software-licensing-policy.ancient As a consequence of this some users suspected that a licensing fee would also be charged for independent implementations. Google Groups http://groups.google.com/[email protected] In contrast, no such limitation has yet been imposed on the World Wide Web. The University of Minnesota eventually re-licensed its Gopher software under the GNU GPL. gopher://www.michaeleshun.4t.com Gopher Client functionality was quickly duplicated by early Web browsers, such as Mosaic. Furthermore, the user friendliness of the World Wide Web, with its integration of text and graphics, made Gopher less appealing. Gopher has an inflexible structure when compared to the free-form HTML of the Web. With Gopher, every document has a defined format and type, and the typical user must navigate through a single server-defined menu system to get to a particular document. Availability of Gopher today As of 2008, there are approximately 125 gopher servers indexed by Veronica-2, gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/0/v2/vstat a slow growth from 2007 when there were fewer than 100. Many of them are owned by universities in various parts of the world. Most of them are neglected and rarely updated except for the ones run by enthusiasts of the protocol. A handful of new servers are set up every year by hobbyists — 30 have been set up and added to Floodgap's list since 1999 gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/1/new and possibly some more that haven't been added. Due to the simplicity of the Gopher protocol, setting up new servers or adding Gopher support to browsers is often done in a tongue-in-cheek way, principally on April Fools' Day http://www.omnigroup.com/applications/omniweb/releasenotes/ gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/1/new "Service note for 1 April 2009—This isn't a joke server, guys, we've been running for 10 years!" Some have suggested that the bandwidth-sparing simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for mobile phones and Personal digital assistants (PDAs), Wired News: Gopher: Underground Technology but so far, Wireless Markup Language (WML)/Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), DoCoMo i-mode, XHTML Basic or other adaptations of HTML and XML, have proved more popular. The PyGopherd server, however, provides a built-in WML front-end to Gopher sites served with it. Gopher support in Web browsers Mozilla Firefox 1.5 displaying the top-level menu of the Floodgap gopher server Browser Currently Supported Supported from Supported until Notes Internet Explorer 1 6.0 RTM Re-enable with registry patch . Always uses port 70. Internet Explorer for Mac 5.0 PowerPC-only Mozilla Firefox 0 Always uses port 70. (May however be dropped from Firefox from version 4.0 onwards due to security concerns. ) SeaMonkey 1.0 Camino 1.0 OmniWeb 5.9.2 Current First Webkit Browser to support Gopher Konqueror kio_gopher Lynx Complete support ELinks Build option Safari Opera Opera 9.0 includes a proxy capability Google Chrome Gopher support was disabled in Internet Explorer versions 5.* and 6 for Windows in June 2002 by a patch meant to fix a security vulnerability in the browser's Gopher protocol handler; however, it can be re-enabled by editing the Windows registry. In Internet Explorer 7, Gopher support was removed on the WinINET level. Other browsers, including Mozilla Application Suite (deprecated), still support the protocol, but incompletely—the most obvious deficiency is that they cannot display the informational text found on many Gopher menus. Gopher clients Gopher was at its height of popularity during a time when there were still many equally competing computer architectures and operating systems. As such, there are several Gopher Clients available for Acorn RISC OS, AmigaOS, Atari MiNT, CMS, DOS, MacOS 7x, MVS, NeXT, OS/2 Warp, most UNIX-like operating systems, VMS, Windows 3x, and Windows 9x. GopherVR was a client designed for 3D visualization, and there is even a Gopher Client MOO object. The majority of these clients are hard coded to work on Port 70. A copy of every known Gopher Client is permanently archived on the HAL3000 Gopher Server. The Clients may be freely downloaded from the HTTP link: http://hal3000.cx:70/Begin_Here/Clients Gopher to HTTP gateways Users of Web browsers that have incomplete or no support for Gopher To determine whether a Web browser supports Gopher, compare the display of this gopher menu with the same menu produced by a Gopher to HTML gateway in the browser. can access content on Gopher servers via a server gateway that converts Gopher menus into HTML. One such server is at Floodgap.com. By default any Squid cache proxy server will act as a Gopher to HTTP gateway. Some Gopher servers, such as GN and PyGopherd, also have built-in Gopher to HTTP interfaces. Gopher characteristics Gopher functions and appears much like a mountable read-only global network file system (and software, such as gopherfs, is available that can actually mount a Gopher server as a FUSE resource). At a minimum, whatever a person can do with data files on a CD-ROM, they can do on Gopher. A Gopher system consists of a series of hierarchical hyperlinkable menus. The choice of menu items and titles is controlled by the administrator of the server. The top level menu of a Gopher server. Selecting the "Fun and Games" menu item... ... takes the user to the "Fun and Games" menu. A Gopher menu listing other accessible servers. Gopher menu from a terminal client. Similar to a file on a Web server, a file on a Gopher server can be linked to as a menu item from any other Gopher server. Many servers take advantage of this inter-server linking to provide a directory of other servers that the user can access. Technical details Protocol The Gopher protocol was first described in INFORMATIONAL RFC 1436. IANA has assigned TCP port 70 to the Gopher protocol. The gopher protocol is extremely simple in its conception, making it possible to browse without using a client. A standard gopher Telnet session may therefore appear as follows: telnet quux.org 70 Trying 64.85.160.193... Connected to quux.org. Escape character is '^]'. /Reference 1CIA World Factbook /Archives/mirrors/textfiles.com/politics/CIA gopher.quux.org 70 0Jargon 4.2.0 /Reference/Jargon 4.2.0 gopher.quux.org 70 + 1Online Libraries /Reference/Online Libraries gopher.quux.org 70 + 1RFCs: Internet Standards /Computers/Standards and Specs/RFC gopher.quux.org 70 1U.S. Gazetteer /Reference/U.S. Gazetteer gopher.quux.org 70 + iThis file contains information on United States fake (NULL) 0 icities, counties, and geographical areas. It has fake (NULL) 0 ilatitude/longitude, population, land and water area, fake (NULL) 0 iand ZIP codes. fake (NULL) 0 i fake (NULL) 0 iTo search for a city, enter the city's name. To search fake (NULL) 0 ifor a county, use the name plus County -- for instance, fake (NULL) 0 iDallas County. fake (NULL) 0 Connection closed by foreign host. Here, the client has established a TCP connection with the server, on Port 70, the standard gopher port. The client then it sends "/Reference" followed by a carriage return followed by a line feed (a "CR + LF" sequence). This is the item selector, which identifies the document to be retrieved. If the item selector were an empty line, the default directory will be selected. The server then replies with the requested item and closes the connection. According to the protocol, before the connection is closed, the server should send a full-stop on a line by itself. However, as is the case here, not all servers conform to this part of the protocol and the server may close the connection without returning the final full-stop. In this example, the item sent back is a directory, consisting of a sequence of lines, each of which describes an item that can be retrieved. Most clients will display these as hypertext links, and so allow the user to navigate through the gopherspace by following the links. All lines in a directory listing are ended with "CR + LF" and consist of five fields: Type (see below), User_Name (i.e. the description text to display), Selector (i.e. a file-system pathname), Host (i.e. the domain name of the server on which the item resides), and Port (i.e. the port number used by that server). The Type and User_Name fields are joined without a space; while the other fields are separated by tabs. Gopher File-Types File-types are described in gopher menus by a single number or (case specific) letter. Every client must understand file-types 0 and 1. All known clients understand file-types 0 through 9, g, and s; while all but the very oldest also understand file-types h and i. 0 = plain text file 1 = directory menu listing 2 = CSO search query 3 = error message 4 = BinHex encoded text file 5 = binary archive file 6 = UUEncoded text file 7 = search engine query 8 = telnet session pointer 9 = binary file g = Graphics file format, primarily a GIF file h = HTML file i = informational message s = Audio file format, primarily a WAV file A list of additional file-type definitions has continued to evolve over time, with some clients supporting them and others not. As such, many servers assign the generic 9 to every binary file, hoping that the client's computer will be able to correctly process the file. URL links Historically, to create a link to a Web server, "GET /" was used as the file to simulate an HTTP client request. John Goerzen created an addition http://gopher.quux.org/Archives/Mailing%20Lists/gopher/gopher.2002-02|/MBOX-MESSAGE/34 to the Gopher protocol, commonly referred to as "URL links", that allows links to any protocol that supports URLs. For example, to create a link to http://gopher.quux.org, the item type is "h", the description is arbitrary, the item selector is "URL:http://gopher.quux.org", and the domain and port are that of the originating Gopher server. For clients that do not support URL links, the server creates an HTML redirection page. Related technology The master Gopherspace search engine is Veronica. Veronica offers a keyword search of all the public Internet Gopher server menu titles. A Veronica search produces a menu of Gopher items, each of which is a direct pointer to a Gopher data source. Currently, there is only one server hosting the Veronica-2 search engine. Example of the Veroinica Search Engine: gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/7/v2/vs Individual Gopher servers often use a localized Search Engine called Jughead (renamed Jugtail). GopherVR is a 3D virtual reality variant of the original Gopher system. Gopher server software A copy of every known Gopher Server is permanently archived on the HAL3000 Gopher Server. The Servers may be freely downloaded from the HTTP link http://hal3000.cx:70/Begin_Here/Servers Aftershock — written in Java. Bucktooth — modern gopher server written in Perl. Geomyidae — written in C. Public domain GN GoFish GOPHSERV — cross-platform, GPLv3, FreeBASIC. Gopher Cannon — Win32/Win64, freeware, written in .NET 3.5 Grumpy — Linux, GPLv3, written in FreeBASIC. mgod PyGopherd — modern gopher+ server written in Python. PyGS See also Veronica — the search engine system for the Gopher protocol, an acronym for "Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index to Computer Archives". Jugtail — an alternative search engine system for the Gopher protocol. Jugtail was formerly known as Jughead. Gopher+ — early proposed extensions to the Gopher protocol Super Dimension Fortress — a non-profit organization which provides free Gopher hosting Phlog — The gopher version of a weblog Wide area information server — a search engine whose popularity was contemporary with Gopher References and footnotes External links "Start Page" for persons new to the Gopher protocol List of all public Gopher servers An announcement of Gopher on the Usenet Oct 8 1991 Spencer Hunter's Homepage — Example of a Gopher emulation in HTML, online since 1995. Under the "About this gopher and myself" directory is the author's own Gopher manifesto, "Why gopher is superior to the Web." A community server for the Collier County, FL (Naples, FL) area whose fast web interface is inspired by Gopher. It is also an example of a Gopher emulation in HTML Standards Permanent Gopher Reference Material Repository IANA Port Number allocations RFC 1436 — The Internet Gopher Protocol (a distributed document search and retrieval protocol) RFC 1580 — Guide to Network Resource Tools RFC 1689 — Networked Information Retrieval: Tools and Groups RFC 1738 — Uniform Resource Locators (URL) RFC 1808 — Relative Uniform Resource Locators RFC 2396 — Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax RFC 4266 — The gopher URI Scheme | Gopher_(protocol) |@lemmatized us:1 see:4 gopher:124 protocol:20 offer:2 feature:2 natively:1 support:16 web:17 impose:2 much:2 strong:1 hierarchy:2 information:7 store:1 text:7 menu:20 interface:4 well:1 suit:1 compute:1 environment:1 rely:1 heavily:1 remote:1 computer:5 terminal:2 common:2 university:6 time:4 creation:1 hello:1 welcome:1 phlog:2 link:16 origins:1 original:2 system:16 release:1 late:2 spring:1 mark:1 mccahill:1 farhad:1 anklesaria:1 paul:1 lindner:1 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836 | Book_of_Hosea | The Book of Hosea is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and of the Christian Old Testament. It stands first in order among what are known as the twelve Minor Prophets. Author Hosea prophesied during a dark and melancholy era of Israel's history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the 8th century BC. The apostasy of the people was rampant, having turned away from God in order to serve the calves of Jeroboam (see 1 K 12.26-30; Ho 8.4-6) and Baal, a Canaanite god of fertility. The figures of marriage and adultery are common in the Hebrew Bible as representations of the relationship between God and the people of Israel. Here we see the apostasy of Israel and its punishment, with its future repentance, forgiveness, and restoration. First, Hosea was directed by God to marry a harlot, and he did so. Marriage here is symbolic of the covenantal relationship between God and Israel. However, Israel has been unfaithful to God by following other gods and breaking the commandments which are the terms of the covenant, hence Israel is symbolized by a harlot who violates the obligations of marriage to her husband. Second, Hosea and his wife, Gomer, have a son. God commands that the son be named Jezreel. This name refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel's history, especially by the kings of the Northern Kingdom. (See I Kings 21 and II Kings 9:21-35). The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the reigning house of the Northern Kingdom, that they would pay for that bloodshed. Jezreel's name means God Sows. Third, the couple have a daughter. God commands that she be named Lo-ruhamah; Unloved, or, Pity or Pitied On to show Israel that, although God will still have pity on the Southern Kingdom, God will no longer have pity on the Northern Kingdom; its destruction is imminent. Fourth, a son is born to Gomer. It is questionable whether this child was Hosea's, for God commands that his name be Lo-ammi; Not My People, or more simply, Not Mine. The child bore this name of shame to show that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God's People. Also God says that "I am not your I am"; in other words, God changes His own name in connection with his current relationship with Israel. Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, that God will indeed have pity on Israel. Chapter two describes a divorce. This divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between God and the Northern Kingdom. However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and used the occasion to preach the message of God's rejection of the Northern Kingdom. He ends this prophecy with the declaration that God will one day renew the covenant, and will take Israel back in love. In Chapter three, at God's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more. Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, because Hosea has to buy her back. He takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel will be without a king for many years, but that God will take Israel back, even at a cost to Himself. Chapters 4-14 spell out the allegory at length. Chapters 4-10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why God is rejecting the Northern Kingdom (what the grounds are for the divorce). Chapter 11 is God's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom God loves. God promises not to give them up entirely. Then, in Chapter 12, the prophet pleads for Israel's repentance. Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of the kingdom at the hands of Assyria, because there has been no repentance. In Chapter 14, the prophet urges Israel to seek forgiveness, and promises its restoration, while urging the utmost fidelity to God. Context During Hosea's lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people away from the Law of God, as given in the Pentateuch. Forsaking the worship of God, they worshipped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite fertility god. Other sins followed, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin. Hosea declares that unless they repent of these sins, God will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria (Ho 9.3; 11.5), the greatest nation of the time. In fact, Assyria did capture Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom, in 722 BCE. All the members of the upper classes and many of the ordinary people were taken captive and carried off to live as prisoners of war. Themes The primary theme of the Book of Hosea is that God loves Israel, just as a man loves his wife. This is shown by the extended metaphor of Hosea's own marriage. In conjunction with that theme are the twin themes of Israel's sin and the coming retribution. Although God loves Israel, Israel has not returned His love. This has been shown by the continued idolatry and acts of violence, oppression, and sexual sin among the people. Because Israel has not returned God's love, He will put them away from Him, just as Hosea did his wife, and send them into exile. This introduces the fourth theme, which is the restoration of Israel from exile. The country will be conquered; the people will be sent into exile; but some will return and build the land up once more. God will embrace them as His people, and they will be loyal to Him as their God. A call to repentance (turning away from sin and turning towards obedience to God) is also a prominent theme. Examples include: "...let her put away her whoredoms..." "...I will go and return to my first husband..." "...till they acknowledge their offence, and seek my face..." "And the pride of Israel testified to his face: and they did not return to the Lord their God, nor seek him for all this" "Sow to yourselves in righteousness, reap in mercy; break up your fallow ground: for it is time to seek the LORD, till he come and rain righteousness upon you". "O Israel, return unto the LORD thy God; for thou hast fallen by thine iniquity". Contribution Hosea is believed to be the first prophet to use marriage as a metaphor of the covenant between God and Israel, and he influenced latter prophets such as Jeremiah. He is among the first writing prophets, and the last chapter of Hosea has a format similar to wisdom literature. Jewish Perspective A Jewish interpretation regards the story of Hosea and his relations with his wife Gomer as historical. Hosea, however, was not aware of Gomer’s character before he married her. Emil G. Hirsch, Victor Ryssel , “Hosea, the prophet”, The Jewish Encyclopedia Feminist Perspective A Feminist interpretation regards the story of Hosea and his relations with his wife Gomer as a metaphor for the conflict between a Covenant Theology (Israel violating the covenant relationship with YHWH) and a Creation Theology (YHWH will undo the fertility of the earth in response to Israel following other fertility gods). Kirsten Abbott "Creation Motifs in Hosea", Sea Changes Journal, December 2005 Notes External links Jewish translations: Hoshea - Hosea (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org Hosea at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) Jewish Encyclopedia:Book of Hosea Isagogical Study of the Book of Hosea by: Paul R. Hanke Book of Hosea at WikiChristian | Book_of_Hosea |@lemmatized book:7 hosea:25 one:2 hebrew:2 bible:3 christian:2 old:1 testament:1 stand:2 first:5 order:3 among:3 know:2 twelve:1 minor:1 prophet:7 author:1 prophesy:1 dark:1 melancholy:1 era:1 israel:27 history:2 period:1 northern:11 kingdom:13 decline:1 fall:2 century:1 bc:1 apostasy:2 people:12 rampant:1 turn:2 away:5 god:42 serve:1 calf:1 jeroboam:1 see:3 k:1 ho:2 baal:2 canaanite:2 fertility:4 figure:1 marriage:5 adultery:1 common:1 representation:1 relationship:4 punishment:1 future:1 repentance:4 forgiveness:2 restoration:3 direct:1 marry:2 harlot:2 symbolic:2 covenantal:1 however:3 unfaithful:1 follow:4 break:2 commandment:1 term:1 covenant:6 hence:1 symbolize:2 violate:2 obligation:1 husband:2 second:1 wife:5 gomer:7 son:4 command:4 name:7 jezreel:2 refer:1 valley:1 much:1 blood:1 shed:1 especially:2 king:5 ii:1 naming:1 prophecy:3 reign:1 house:1 would:3 pay:1 bloodshed:1 mean:1 sow:2 third:1 couple:1 daughter:1 lo:2 ruhamah:1 unloved:1 pity:5 show:5 although:2 still:1 southern:1 longer:2 destruction:2 imminent:1 fourth:2 bear:1 questionable:1 whether:1 child:2 ammi:1 simply:1 mine:1 bore:1 shame:1 also:3 sham:1 say:1 word:1 change:3 connection:1 current:1 make:1 someday:1 indeed:1 chapter:9 two:1 describe:1 divorce:4 seem:1 end:2 probable:1 act:2 infidelity:1 use:2 occasion:1 preach:1 message:1 rejection:1 declaration:1 day:2 renew:1 take:5 back:3 love:7 three:1 seek:5 either:1 sell:1 slavery:1 debt:1 lover:1 demand:1 money:1 give:4 buy:1 home:1 refrain:1 sexual:3 intimacy:1 many:3 fact:2 without:1 year:1 even:1 cost:1 spell:1 allegory:1 length:1 contain:1 series:1 oracle:1 prophetic:1 sermon:1 exactly:1 reject:1 ground:2 lament:1 necessity:1 large:1 part:1 promise:2 entirely:1 pleads:1 foretell:1 hand:1 assyria:3 urge:2 utmost:1 fidelity:1 context:1 lifetime:1 aristocratic:1 supporter:1 priest:1 lead:1 law:1 pentateuch:1 forsake:1 worship:2 sin:6 include:2 homicide:1 perjury:1 theft:1 declare:1 unless:1 repent:1 allow:1 nation:2 destroy:1 captivity:1 great:2 time:2 capture:1 samaria:1 capital:1 bce:1 member:1 upper:1 class:1 ordinary:1 captive:1 carry:1 live:1 prisoner:1 war:1 theme:6 primary:1 man:1 extended:1 metaphor:3 conjunction:1 twin:1 come:2 retribution:1 return:6 continued:1 idolatry:1 violence:1 oppression:1 put:2 send:2 exile:3 introduce:1 country:1 conquer:1 build:1 land:1 embrace:1 loyal:1 call:1 turning:1 towards:1 obedience:1 prominent:1 example:1 let:1 whoredom:1 go:1 till:2 acknowledge:1 offence:1 face:2 pride:1 testify:1 lord:3 righteousness:2 reap:1 mercy:1 fallow:1 rain:1 upon:1 unto:1 thy:1 thou:1 hast:1 thine:1 iniquity:1 contribution:1 believe:1 influence:1 latter:1 jeremiah:1 writing:1 last:1 format:1 similar:1 wisdom:1 literature:1 jewish:5 perspective:2 interpretation:2 regard:2 story:2 relation:2 historical:1 aware:1 character:1 emil:1 g:1 hirsch:1 victor:1 ryssel:1 encyclopedia:2 feminist:2 conflict:1 theology:2 yhwh:2 creation:2 undo:1 earth:1 response:1 kirsten:1 abbott:1 motif:1 sea:1 journal:1 december:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 translation:3 hoshea:1 judaica:1 press:1 rashi:1 commentary:1 chabad:1 org:2 online:1 gospelhall:1 new:1 revise:1 standard:1 version:1 isagogical:1 study:1 paul:1 r:1 hanke:1 wikichristian:1 |@bigram hebrew_bible:2 extended_metaphor:1 thou_hast:1 prophet_jeremiah:1 external_link:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 |
837 | -ism | The suffix -ism denotes a distinctive system of beliefs, myth, doctrine or theory that guides a social movement, institution, class or group. For example, baptize (literally derived from "to dip") becomes "baptism," a distinctive system of cleansing in water to testify to the forgiveness of sins Bowker, John (ed.) The Oxford dictionary of world religions. New York: Oxford University Press. 1997 . It is taken from the Greek suffix -ismos, Latin -ismus, and Old French -isme, that forms nouns from verbal stems. Greek baptismos "immersion", for example, is derived from baptizein, a Greek verb meaning "to immerse". Its usage has since been extended to signify the ideology or philosophy surrounding the element to which the suffix is added. Concepts represented by "ism" The -ism suffix can be used to express the following concepts: religion or belief system (e.g. Buddhism, Mormonism, Judaism, Satanism) doctrine or philosophy (e.g. pacifism, olympism, nihilism) theory developed by an individual (e.g. Marxism, Maoism, see also List of ideologies named after people) political movement (e.g. feminism, egalitarianism) artistic movement (e.g. cubism) action, process or practice (e.g. voyeurism) characteristic, quality or origin (e.g. heroism) state or condition (e.g. pauperism) excess or disease (e.g. botulism) prejudice or bias (e.g. racism, sexism) characteristic speech patterns (e.g. Yogiism, Bushism) Many isms are defined as an act or practice by some, while also being defined as the doctrine or philosophy behind the act or practice by others. Examples include activism, ageism, altruism, despotism, elitism, optimism, racism, sexism, terrorism, truantism and weightism. History The first recorded usage of the suffix ism as a separate word in its own right was in 1680. By the nineteenth century it was being used by Thomas Carlyle to signify a pre-packaged ideology. It was later used in this sense by such writers as Julian Huxley and George Bernard Shaw. In the United States of the mid-nineteenth century, the phrase "the isms" was used as a collective derogatory term to lump together the radical social reform movements of the day (such as slavery abolitionism, feminism, alcohol prohibitionism, Fourierism, pacifism, early socialism, etc.) and various spiritual or religious movements considered non-mainstream by the standards of the time (such as Transcendentalism, spiritualism or "spirit rapping", Mormonism, the Oneida movement often accused of "free love", etc.). Southerners often prided themselves on the American South being free from all of these pernicious "Isms" (except for alcohol temperance campaigning, which was compatible with a traditional Protestant focus on strict individual morality). So on September 5 and 9 1856, the Examiner newspaper of Richmond, Virginia ran editorials on "Our Enemies, the Isms and their Purposes", while in 1858 "Parson" Brownlow called for a "Missionary Society of the South, for the Conversion of the Freedom Shriekers, Spiritualists, Free-lovers, Fourierites, and Infidel Reformers of the North" (see The Freedom-of-thought Struggle in the Old South by Clement Eaton). In the present day, it appears in the title of a standard survey of political thought, Today's ISMS by William Ebenstein, first published in the 1950s, and now in its 11th edition. See also Glossary of philosophical isms List of philosophical theories classical compound -ology Footnotes | -ism |@lemmatized suffix:5 ism:8 denote:1 distinctive:2 system:3 belief:2 myth:1 doctrine:3 theory:3 guide:1 social:2 movement:6 institution:1 class:1 group:1 example:3 baptize:1 literally:1 derive:2 dip:1 become:1 baptism:1 cleanse:1 water:1 testify:1 forgiveness:1 sin:1 bowker:1 john:1 ed:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 world:1 religion:2 new:1 york:1 university:1 press:1 take:1 greek:3 ismos:1 latin:1 ismus:1 old:2 french:1 isme:1 form:1 nouns:1 verbal:1 stem:1 baptismos:1 immersion:1 baptizein:1 verb:1 mean:1 immerse:1 usage:2 since:1 extend:1 signify:2 ideology:3 philosophy:3 surround:1 element:1 add:1 concept:2 represent:1 use:4 express:1 following:1 e:11 g:11 buddhism:1 mormonism:2 judaism:1 satanism:1 pacifism:2 olympism:1 nihilism:1 develop:1 individual:2 marxism:1 maoism:1 see:3 also:3 list:2 name:1 people:1 political:2 feminism:2 egalitarianism:1 artistic:1 cubism:1 action:1 process:1 practice:3 voyeurism:1 characteristic:2 quality:1 origin:1 heroism:1 state:2 condition:1 pauperism:1 excess:1 disease:1 botulism:1 prejudice:1 bias:1 racism:2 sexism:2 speech:1 pattern:1 yogiism:1 bushism:1 many:1 define:2 act:2 behind:1 others:1 include:1 activism:1 ageism:1 altruism:1 despotism:1 elitism:1 optimism:1 terrorism:1 truantism:1 weightism:1 history:1 first:2 record:1 separate:1 word:1 right:1 nineteenth:2 century:2 thomas:1 carlyle:1 pre:1 package:1 later:1 sense:1 writer:1 julian:1 huxley:1 george:1 bernard:1 shaw:1 united:1 mid:1 phrase:1 isms:2 collective:1 derogatory:1 term:1 lump:1 together:1 radical:1 reform:1 day:2 slavery:1 abolitionism:1 alcohol:2 prohibitionism:1 fourierism:1 early:1 socialism:1 etc:2 various:1 spiritual:1 religious:1 consider:1 non:1 mainstream:1 standard:2 time:1 transcendentalism:1 spiritualism:1 spirit:1 rap:1 oneida:1 often:2 accuse:1 free:3 love:1 southerner:1 pride:1 american:1 south:3 pernicious:1 except:1 temperance:1 campaigning:1 compatible:1 traditional:1 protestant:1 focus:1 strict:1 morality:1 september:1 examiner:1 newspaper:1 richmond:1 virginia:1 run:1 editorial:1 enemy:1 purpose:1 parson:1 brownlow:1 call:1 missionary:1 society:1 conversion:1 freedom:2 shriekers:1 spiritualist:1 lover:1 fourierites:1 infidel:1 reformer:1 north:1 thought:2 struggle:1 clement:1 eaton:1 present:1 appear:1 title:1 survey:1 today:1 william:1 ebenstein:1 publish:1 edition:1 glossary:1 philosophical:2 classical:1 compound:1 ology:1 footnote:1 |@bigram forgiveness_sin:1 racism_sexism:2 nineteenth_century:2 thomas_carlyle:1 julian_huxley:1 bernard_shaw:1 richmond_virginia:1 |
838 | Orkney | Orkney (also incorrectly known as The Orkney Islands or, The Orkneys) is an archipelago in northern Scotland, situated 10 miles (16 km) north of the coast of Caithness. Orkney comprises over 70 islands; around 20 are inhabited. The largest island, known as "Mainland," has an area of 202 sq mi (523 km²), making it the sixth-largest Scottish island and the tenth-largest island in the British Isles. The largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall. Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, a constituency of the Scottish Parliament, a lieutenancy area, and a former county. The local council is Orkney Islands Council, the only Council in Scotland in which all the elected members are independent. The local people can be called Orcadians. Orkney has been inhabited for at least 5,500 years. Originally inhabited by neolithic tribes and then by the Picts, Orkney was invaded and finally annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse. It was subsequently annexed to the Scottish Crown in 1472, following the failed payment of a dowry for James III's bride, Margaret of Denmark. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe, and the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney" is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site. Origin of the name The name of the islands is first recorded by the ancient geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus (AD 90-168), who called them Orcades. The old Gaelic name for the islands was Insi Orc which means the "Island of the Orcs" ("Arcaibh" in modern Scottish Gaelic). An orc is a young pig or boar. When Norwegian Vikings arrived on the islands they interpreted the word orc to be orkn which is Old Norse for pinnipeds or common seal. The suffix ey means island. Thus the name became Orkneyjar which was shortened to Orkney in English. History Ring of Brodgar Prehistory A charred hazelnut shell, recovered during the excavations at Longhowe in Tankerness in 2007, has been dated to 6820-6660 BC. Stone Pages Archaeo News: Hazelnut shell pushes back date of Orcadian site Apart from this, the earliest known settlement is at Knap of Howar, a Neolithic farmstead on the island of Papa Westray. It dates from 3500 BC. The village of Skara Brae, Europe's best-preserved Neolithic settlement, is believed to have been inhabited from around 3100 BC. Other remains from that era include the Standing Stones of Stenness, the Maeshowe passage grave, the Ring of Brodgar and other standing stones. Many of the Neolithic settlements were abandoned around 2500 BC due to changes in the climate. Iron Age The Iron Age inhabitants were Picts, evidence of whose occupation still exists in "weems" or underground houses, and "brochs" or round towers, such as the Broch of Gurness. During the Roman invasion of Britain the "King of Orkney" was one of 11 British leaders who submitted to the Emperor Claudius in AD 43 at Colchester. Moffat, Alistair (2005) Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History. London. Thames & Hudson. Pages 173-5. If, as seems likely, the Dalriadic Gaels established a footing in the islands towards the beginning of the 6th century, their success was short-lived, and the Picts regained power and kept it until dispossessed by the Norsemen in the 9th century. Celtic missionaries inspired by Saint Columba began to arrive about 565. Their efforts to convert the folk to Christianity seem to have impressed the popular imagination, for several islands bear the epithet "Papa" in commemoration of the preachers. Norwegian rule Harald Hårfagre took control of Orkney in 875. Orkney and Shetland saw a significant influx of Norwegian settlers towards the end of the 8th century and first half of the 9th century. This was due to the overpopulation of Norway in comparison to the resources and arable land available there at the time. History once held that the Norwegians largely replaced the original population on the islands, the Picts, though contemporary DNA studies refute this, suggesting instead a slight majority of aboriginal Pictish genes. The nature of the shift in population is the subject of differing theories as little hard evidence remains. These theories range from complete genocide to intermarriage and cultural domination through a gradual majority dominance. According to Dr. Jim Wilson, an Edinburgh scientist, archaeogenetic evidence suggests that "Vikings, who colonised Orkney, did so by eradicating nearly every male member of its Pictish population". The Observer (31 December 2006) London. Vikings having made the islands the headquarters of their buccaneering expeditions (also carried out against Norway and the other coasts and isles of Scotland), Harald Hårfagre ("Harald Fair Hair") subdued the rovers in 875 and annexed both Orkney and Shetland to Norway. Ragnvald, Earl of Møre received Orkney and Shetland as an earldom from the king as reparation for his son being killed in battle in Scotland. Ragnvald gave the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty. Eirik Bloodaxe followed his father on the throne, but when his half-brother Håkon the Good returned to Norway from England, Eirik's support disappeared and he fled the country. He was given Nordimbraland (Northumberland) as a fief by King Athelstan of England and settled in Jorvik (York), but was expelled by Athelstan's brother Edmund in 941 because of his raids in Ireland and Brittany. Eirik fled to Orkney and lived there until he was killed in the Battle of Stainmore in England in 954. His sons continued to live on Orkney and challenged Håkon the Good's rule of Norway several times under the leadership of Harald Greyhide. The sons of Eirik eventually gained control of Norway. Olav Tryggvason Christianized Orkney. Painting by Peter Nicolai Arbo. The islands were Christianized by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped in the islands on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned Sigurd jarl (Earl Sigurd) and ordered him to let himself be baptised in the Christian faith. Sigurd was unwilling, but gave in when the King threatened to kill his son Hvelp. The islands received their own bishop in the early 1000s. From 1153 to 1472 the Kirkjuvåg bishopric was subordinate to the archbishop of Nidaros (today's Trondheim). The martyrdom of Earl Magnus resulted in the building of St. Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall. The islands remained under the rule of Norse earls until 1231, when the line of the jarls became extinct. In that year, the Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus, second son of the Earl of Angus, whom the king of Norway apparently confirmed in the title. Recent studies from the field of population genetics reveal a significant percentage of Norse ethnic heritage — up to one third of the Y chromosomes on the islands are derived from western Norwegian sources, whereas in Shetland over half the male lineage is Norse. St Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall The Norse Kingdom of Mann and the Isles existed in the British Isles from 1079 till 1266. The Kingdom had two parts, Sodor (Old Norse: Suðr-eyjar), or the South Isles (the Hebrides and Mann), and Norðr (Old Norse: Norðr-eyjar), or the North Isles (Orkney and Shetland). The Kings of Mann and the Isles were vassals of the Kings of Norway. Evidence of the Viking presence is widespread, and includes the settlement at the Brough of Birsay, the vast majority of place names, and runic inscriptions at Maeshowe and other ancient sites. Scottish rule James III and Margaret, whose betrothal led to Orkney passing from Norway to Scotland. In 1468, Orkney and Shetland were pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as king of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. Acquisition of Orkney and Shetland 1468-9 Apparently without the knowledge of the Norwegian Riksråd (Council of the Realm) Christian entered into the contract on 8 September 1468 personally with the King of Scotland in which he pawned Orkney for 50,000 Rhenish guilders. On 28 May the next year he also pawned Shetland for 8,000 Rhenish guilders. University Library, University in Bergen: Article on Shetland He secured a clause in the contract which gave future kings of Norway the right to redeem the islands for a fixed sum of 210 kg of gold or 2,310 kg of silver. Several attempts were made during the 17th and 18th centuries to redeem the islands, without success. Universitas, Norsken som døde (Norwegian article on the history of the islands) In 1471, James bestowed the castle and lands of Ravenscraig, in Fife, to William, Earl of Orkney, in exchange for all his rights to the Earldom of Orkney, which, by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland, passed on 20 February 1472, was annexed to the Scottish Crown. In 1669 an Act of Annexation was passed by the Scottish Parliament establishing Orkney and Shetland as Crown Dependencies following a legal dispute with William, Earl of Morton, who then held the estates of both Orkney and Shetland. The Act made Orkney and Shetland exempt from any "dissolution of His Majesty’s lands". In 1742 a further Act of Parliament returned the estates to a later Earl of Morton, although the 1669 Act specifically proscribed this, stating that any such change is to be "considered null, void and of no effect". In the 17th century, Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north. Today, many of the Métis people of western Canada trace their history to Orkney. Modern Orkney Orkney was the site of a Royal Navy base at Scapa Flow, which played a major role in both World War I and II. After the Armistice in 1918, the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow while a decision was to be made on its future; however, the German sailors opened their sea-cocks and scuttled all the ships. Most ships were salvaged, but the remaining wrecks are now a favoured haunt of recreational divers. One month into World War II, the Royal Navy battleship HMS Royal Oak was sunk by a German U-boat in Scapa Flow. As a result barriers were built to close most of the access channels; these had the additional advantage of creating causeways whereby travellers can go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on boats. The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war, who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel. Islands The Mainland Stromness on Mainland is the second largest settlement on Orkney. The Mainland is the largest island of Orkney. Both of Orkney's burghs, Kirkwall and Stromness, are on this island, which is also the heart of Orkney's transportation system, with ferry and air connections to the other islands and to the outside world. The island is more densely populated (75% of Orkney's population) than the other islands and has much fertile farmland. The name Mainland is a corruption of the Old Norse Meginland. Kirkwall lies on a narrow strip of land between West Mainland (the major portion) and East Mainland. The island is mostly low-lying (especially East Mainland), but with coastal cliffs to the north and west and two sizeable lochs. The Mainland contains the remnants of numerous Neolithic, Pictish and Viking constructions. Four of the main Neolithic sites are included in the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site, inscribed in 1999. The group constitutes a major prehistoric cultural landscape which gives a graphic depiction of life in archipelago in the north of Scotland some 5,000 years ago. Skara Brae The other islands in the group are classified as north or south of the Mainland. Exceptions are the remote islets of Sule Skerry and Sule Stack, which lie west of the archipelago, but form part of Orkney for local government purposes. The North Isles The northern group of islands is the most extensive and consists of a large number of moderately sized islands, linked to the Mainland by ferries. Most of the islands described as "holms" are very small. Inhabited islands Auskerry is south of Stronsay and has a population of 5 (2001 census). It has been designated a Special Protection Area due to its importance as a nesting area for Arctic Tern and Storm Petrel. Eday extends to 11 square miles (28 km²); it is the 9th largest island. The centre is moorland and the island's main industries have been peat extraction and limestone quarrying. It is connected to the Mainland by ferry (Backaland to Kirkwall) and air. Egilsay lies east of Rousay. It is largely farmland and for the only surviving, but roofless, round-towered church in Orkney. It is connected indirectly with the Mainland by ferry via Wyre and Rousay. St Magnus is said to have been executed on Egilsay. Gairsay is inhabited by one family, who issue their own postage stamps (permitted due to the lack of a Royal Mail service). North Ronaldsay lies north of its nearest neighbour, Sanday. Its climate is changeable and frequently inclement, with the surrounding waters being stormy and treacherous. Of significance are a bird observatory, Britain's tallest land based lighthouse tower and an unusual dry stane dyke along the shoreline built to keep the seaweed eating North Ronaldsay sheep off of the arable land. It is connected to the Mainland by air and ferry. Papa Stronsay lies north east of Stronsay. A fertile island, it was once an important centre for herring curing, but was abandoned in the 1970s. It is has been home to a Transalpine Redemptorist monastery (called Golgotha monastery) since 1999. Papa Westray, also known as Papay, has a population of 70. Of significance are an RSPB nature reserve (terns and skuas), the Knap of Howar (probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe), a 12th century recently restored church (St Boniface Kirk) and other neolithic and Viking remains. It is connected to Westray and the Mainland by air and ferry. Rousay is the joint 3rd largest (19 sq mi / 49 km²) island about north of Orkney's Mainland. In the 2001 census, it had a population of 212. Farming, fishing, fish-farming, craft and tourism provide most of the income. There is one circular road round the island, about long, and most arable land lies in the few hundred yards between this and the coastline. Seals and otters can be found as can many remains of past occupation. Sanday is the largest of the North Isles, with a population of approximately 500. As with most other Orkney islands, farming, fishing and tourism are the main sources of income. Attractions include the 5,000-year-old Quoyness chambered cairn. Shapinsay is the 8th largest island at 12 square miles (31 km²). It is connected to the Mainland by ferry (Balfour to Kirkwall). Shapinsay is known for the Iron Age Broch of Burroughston C. Michael Hogan, Burroughston Broch, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham (2007) and the Dishan Tower, sea caves and cliffs, for birds including pintail, wigeon and shovelers, and Balfour Castle. Stronsay has a population of 343 and is the 7th largest island. Its main village is Whitehall. Westray has a population of 550 and is the 6th largest island. It is connected by ferry and air to Mainland and Papa Westray. Wyre lies south-east of Rousay and has a population of about 18. Cubbie Roo's castle (1150) is possibly the oldest castle in Scotland. Others Other small islands in the North Isles group include: Calf of Eday, Damsay, Eynhallow, Faray, Helliar Holm, Holm of Faray, Holm of Huip, Holm of Papa, Holm of Scockness, Kili Holm, Linga Holm, Muckle Green Holm, Rusk Holm and Sweyn Holm. The South Isles The southern group of islands surrounds Scapa Flow. Ward Hill on Hoy is the highest elevation in the Orkney Isles, while South Ronaldsay, Burray and Lamb Holm are linked to the Mainland by the Churchill Barriers. The Pentland Skerries lie further south, close to the Scottish mainland. Inhabited islands Hoy Lighthouse on Graemsay Burray lies to the east of Scapa Flow and is linked by causesway to Glimps Holm and South Ronaldsay. It is home to the Orkney Fossil Museum and has a population of 357 (2001 census). Flotta is known for its large oil terminal and is linked by ferry to Houton across the Scapa Flow on the Mainland, and to Lyness and Longhope on Hoy. During both World Wars the island was home to a naval base. Graemsay has a population of around 30. Birds include oystercatchers, ringed plovers, redshank and curlew. It is linked by ferry to Stromness on the Mainland and Moaness on Hoy. Hoy with an area of 55 square miles (142 km²) is the second largest island. Significant features are the highest vertical sea-cliffs in the UK, the Old Man of Hoy, the most northerly surviving natural woodland in the British Isles, the most northerly Martello Towers, the main naval base for Scapa Flow in both World Wars, an unusual rock-cut tomb and an RSPB reserve (skuas and red-throated divers) South Ronaldsay is linked by causeway to Burray. With an area of 19 square miles (49 km²) it is the joint third largest island. Of significance are the Boys' Ploughing Match and the Neolithic Tomb of the Eagles. It is connected by ferry to the Scottish mainland (Burwick to John o' Groats and St. Margaret's Hope to Gills Bay). South Walls has a population of 120 and is sometimes considered to be part of Hoy, to which it is linked by the Ayre. It forms the south side of Longhope harbour. Others Other South Islands include: Calf of Flotta, Cava, Copinsay, Corn Holm, Fara, Glims Holm, Hunda, Lamb Holm, Rysa Little, Switha and Swona. Politics Orkney is represented in the House of Commons as part of the Orkney and Shetland constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election. The current MP is Alistair Carmichael of the Liberal Democrats. In the Scottish Parliament the Orkney constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first past the post system. The current MSP is Liam McArthur of the Liberal Democrats. Before McArthur the MSP was Jim Wallace, who was previously Deputy First Minister. Orkney is within the Highlands and Islands electoral region. Orkney Islands Council consists of 21 members, all of whom are independent, that is they are not members of a political party. The Orkney Movement, a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland contested the 1987 UK general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement (a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland). The Scottish National Party chose not to contest the seat to give the movement a "free run". Their candidate, John Goodlad, came 4th with 3,095 votes, 14.5% of the those cast but the experiment has not been repeated. "Orkney and Shetland Movement" BookRags. Retrieved 11 January 2008 "Candidates and Constituency Assessments: Orkney (Highland Region)" alba.org.uk. Retrieved 11 January 2008 Geography Orkney Aerial photomap The Pentland Firth is a seaway which separates Orkney from the mainland of Scotland. The firth is wide between Brough Ness on the island of South Ronaldsay and Duncansby Head in Caithness. Orkney lies between 58°41′ and 59°24′ North, and 2°22′ and 3°26′ West, measuring from northeast to southwest and from east to west, and covers . Except for some sharply rising sandstone hills and rugged cliffs on the west of the larger ones, the islands are mainly lowlying. Other than Hoy, the only other islands containing heights of any importance are the Mainland, with (another) Ward Hill () and Wideford Hill; and Rousay. Nearly all of the islands have lochs (lakes): The Loch of Harray and the Loch of Stenness on the Mainland attain noteworthy proportions. The watercourses are merely streams draining the high land. Excepting on the west fronts of the Mainland, Hoy and Rousay, the coastline of the islands is deeply indented, and the islands themselves are divided from each other by straits generally called "sounds" or "firths". However, off the northeast of Hoy the designation "Bring Deeps" is used. South of the Mainland is Scapa Flow and to the southwest of Eday is found the Fall of Warness. The names of the islands indicate their nature: the terminal "a" or "ay" represents the Norse ey, meaning "island". The islets are usually styled "holms" and the isolated rocks "skerries". The tidal currents, or races, or "roosts" (as some of them are called locally, from the Norn) off many of the isles run with high velocity, and whirlpools are of frequent occurrence, occasionally strong enough to prove a source of danger to small craft. The islands are notable for the absence of trees, which is partly accounted for by the amount of wind. Deliberate deforestation is believed to have taken place at some stage prior to the Neolithic, the use of stone in settlements such as Skara Brae being evidence of the lack of availability of timber for building. Geology The Old Man of Hoy The superficial rock is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone. As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness, these rocks rest upon the metamorphic rocks of the eastern schists, as may be seen on Mainland, where a narrow strip is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and again in the small island of Graemsay; they are represented by grey gneiss and granite. The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is found only on Hoy, where it forms the Old Man of Hoy and neighbouring cliffs on the northwest coast. The Old Man of Hoy presents a characteristic section, for it exhibits a thick pile of massive, current-bedded red sandstones resting upon a thin bed of amygdaloidal porphyrite near the foot of the pinnacle. This, in its turn, lies unconformably upon steeply inclined flagstones. This bed of volcanic rock may be followed northward in the cliffs, and it may be noticed that it thickens considerably in that direction. The Lower Old Red Sandstone is represented by well-bedded flagstones over most of the islands; in the south of the Mainland these are faulted against an overlying series of massive red sandstones, but a gradual passage from the flagstones to the sandstones may be followed from Westray southeastwards into Eday. A strong synclinal fold traverses Eday and Shapinsay, the axis being North and South. Near Haco's Ness in Shapinsay there is a small exposure of amygdaloidal diabase, which is older than that on Hoy. Many indications of ice action are found on these islands; striated surfaces are to be seen on the cliffs in Eday and Westray, in Kirkwall Bay and on Stennie Hill in Eday; boulder clay, with marine shells, and with many boulders of rocks foreign to the islands (chalk, oolitic limestone, flint, etc), which must have been brought up from the region of Moray Firth, rests upon the old strata in many places. Local moraines are found in some of the valleys in Mainland and Hoy. Climate Orkney has a Maritime Subarctic climate. The climate is remarkably temperate and steady for such a northerly latitude. The average temperature for the year is 8 °C (46 °F), for winter 4 °C (39 °F) and for summer 12 °C (54 °F). The average annual rainfall varies from 850 mm (33 in) to 940 mm (37 in). Fogs occur during summer and early autumn, and furious gales may be expected four or five times in the year. To tourists, one of the fascinations of the islands is their nightless summers. On the longest day, the sun rises at 03:00 and sets at 21:29 GMT and darkness is unknown. It is possible to read at midnight and very few stars can be seen in the night sky. Winter, however, is long. On the shortest day the sun rises at 09:05 and sets at 15:16. "Sunrise and Sunsets" The Orcadian. Shows times for 2006. Retrieved 8 March 2008. Economy The soil generally is a sandy loam or a strong but friable clay, and very fertile. Large quantities of seaweed as well as lime and marl are available for manure. Most of the land is taken up by farms, and agriculture is by far the most important sector of the economy, with fishing also being a major occupation. The woollen trade once promised to reach considerable dimensions, but towards the end of the 18th century was superseded by the linen (for which flax came to be largely grown); and when this in turn collapsed before the products of the mills of Dundee, Dunfermline and Glasgow, straw-plaiting was taken up, though only to be killed in due time by the competition of the south. The kelp industry was formerly of at least minor importance. For several centuries the Dutch practically monopolised the herring fishery, but when their supremacy was destroyed by the salt duty, the Orcadians failed to seize the opportunity thus presented, and George Barry (died 1805) recorded that in his day the fisheries were almost totally neglected. The industry, however, revived, concentrating on herring, cod and ling, but also catching lobsters and crabs. Today, the traditional sectors of the economy export beef, cheese, whisky, beer, fish and seafood. In recent years there has been growth in other areas including tourism, food and beverage manufacture, jewellery, knitwear, and other crafts production, construction and oil transportation through the Flotta oil terminal. Public services also play a significant role. Orkney has significant wind, and marine energy resources and renewable energy has recently come into prominence. The European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) is a Scottish Government-backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday. At the official opening of the Eday project the site was described as "the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose-built performance testing facility.". Funding for the UK's first wave farm was announced by the Scottish Government in 2007. It will be the world's largest, with a capacity of 3 MW generated by four Pelamis machines at a cost of over £4 million. "Orkney to get 'biggest' wave farm" BBC News. Retrieved 25 February 2007. During 2007 Scottish and Southern Energy plc in conjunction with the University of Strathclyde began the implementation of a 'Regional Power Zone' in the Orkney archipelago. This ground-breaking scheme (that may be the first of its kind in the world) involves 'active network management' that will make better use of the existing infrastructure and allow a further 15MW of new 'non-firm generation' output from renewables onto the network. Registered Power Zone Annual Report for period 1 April 2006 to 31 March 2007 (pdf) Scottish Hydro Electric Power Distribution and Southern Electric Power Distribution. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Facilitate generation connections on Orkney by automatic distribution network management DTI. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Transport Air The main airport in Orkney is Kirkwall Airport, operated by Highland and Islands Airports. Loganair, a franchise of Flybe provides services to the Scottish Mainland (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness), as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland. Within Orkney, the council operates airfields on most of the larger islands including Stronsay, Eday, North Ronaldsay, Westray, Papa Westray, and Sanday. The shortest scheduled air service in the world, between the islands of Westray and Papa Westray, is scheduled at two minutes duration but can take less than one minute if the wind is in the right direction. Ferry Ferries serve both to link Orkney to the rest of Scotland, and also to link together the various islands of the Orkney archipelago. Ferry services operate between Orkney and the Scottish Mainland and Shetland on the following routes: Gills Bay to St Margaret's Hope (operated by Pentland Ferries) John o' Groats to Burwick on South Ronaldsay (seasonal passenger only service, operated by John o' Groats Ferries) Lerwick to Kirkwall (operated by Northlink Ferries) Aberdeen to Kirkwall (operated by Northlink Ferries) Scrabster Harbour, Thurso to Stromness (operated by Northlink Ferries) Inter-island ferry services connect all the inhabited islands to Orkney Mainland, and are operated by Orkney Ferries, a company owned by Orkney Islands Council. Road There are ideas being discussed to build the Orkney Tunnel, an undersea tunnel between Orkney and the Scottish Mainland, at a length of about 9-10 miles (15-16 km) or (more likely) one connecting Orkney Mainland to Shapinsay. Media Orkney is served by two weekly local newspapers, The Orcadian and Orkney Today, Orkney Today Retrieved 16 February 2008. both published every Thursday. A local BBC radio station, BBC Radio Orkney, the local opt-out of BBC Radio Scotland, broadcasts twice daily, with local news and entertainment. Orkney also has a commercial radio station, The Superstation Orkney which broadcasts to Kirkwall and parts of the mainland, although reception in Stromness and the North Isles is very poor. Moray Firth Radio broadcasts throughout Orkney on AM and from an FM transmitter just outside Thurso. The community radio station, Caithness FM also broadcasts to most parts of Orkney. Northsound 1 and Northsound 2 can also be heard on parts of the islands, with poor reception. Sport The Orkney Amateur Football Association runs leagues between late April and early September, and teams also compete in the Highland Amateur Cup. There are also several Hockey clubs. Orkney competes in the biannual Island Games. Orkney also has a rugby team, which compete in the Scottish Hydro Electric Division 1. Language At the beginning of recorded history the islands were inhabited by the Picts, whose language is unknown. Opinions on the nature of Pictish vary from its having been a Celtic language, to its not having been Indo-European at all. Katherine Forsyth claims that the Ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle-whorl is evidence for the pre-Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney. After the Norse occupation the toponymy of Orkney became almost wholly West Norse. Gregor Lamb, Testimony of the Orkneyingar: Place Names of Orkney, 1995, Byrgisey, ISBN 0-9513443-4-X The Norse language evolved into the local Norn, which lingered until the end of the 18th century, when it finally died out. Norn was replaced by the Orcadian dialect of Insular Scots. This dialect is at a low ebb due to the constant influences of television, education and the large number of incomers. However attempts are being made to revitalise its use by some writers and radio presenters. "The Orcadian Dialect" Orkneyjar. Retrieved 4 October 2008. However, the distinctive sing-song accent and many dialect words of Norse origin continue to be used. The Orcadian dialect lingers in the remoter parts of the archipelago. Studies made by Gregor Lamb and others demonstrate the Norse influence on the grammar of Orcadian. The Orcadian word most frequently encountered by visitors is "peedie" ("peerie" in Shetland), meaning "small", which may be derived from the French petit. Dr.Stephen Clackson, The Orcadian, 25 November 2004 Orcadians Main article: Orcadians An Orcadian pipe band at Finstown Gala Sanday Tartan An Orcadian is a native of Orkney, a term that reflects a strongly held identity with a tradition of understatement. Orkneyjar - The people of Orkney Although the annexation of the earldom by Scotland in 1472 took place over five centuries ago, most Orcadians regard themselves as Orcadians first and Scots second. The Heart of Neolithic Orkney in its Contemporary Contexts: A case study in heritage management and community values. Historic Scotland Research Paper (Readers of Scott's The Pirate will remember the frank contempt which Magnus Troil expressed for the Scots). When an Orcadian speaks of "Scotland", they are talking about the land to the immediate south of the Pentland Firth. When an Orcadian speaks of "the mainland", they mean Mainland, Orkney. Orkneyjar - Where is Orkney? They are emphatic that tartan, clans, bagpipes and the like are traditions from the Scottish Highlands and are not a part of the islands' indigenous culture. Orkneyjar FAQ However, at least two tartans with Orkney connections have been registered and a tartan has been designed for Sanday by one of the island's residents, Orkney tartan Scotsheraldry.com re Sanday Tartan Retrieved 2 June 2007. Clackson tartan and there are pipe bands in Orkney. Kirkwall City Pipe Band Stromness RBL Pipe Band Native Orcadians refer to the non-native residents of the islands as "ferry loupers", a term that has been in use for nearly two centuries at least. See: David Vedder, Orcadian Sketches, Edinburgh, William Tait, 1832 This designation is celebrated in the Orkney Trout Fishing Association's "Ferryloupers Trophy", suggesting that although it can be used in a derogatory manner, it is more often a light-hearted expression. Well-known Orcadians In family name alphabetical order: Jim Baikie British comics artist, who is best known for his work with Alan Moore on Skizz. William Balfour Baikie (1825-1864), traveller in Africa George Mackay Brown (1921-1996), poet, author, playwright Mary Brunton (1778-1818), author of Self-Control, Discipline and other novels J.Storer Clouston,author Stanley Cursiter (1887-1976), artist William Towrie Cutt (1898-1981), author Walter Traill Dennison (1826-1894), Orcadian folklorist Kris Drever, folk singer and guitarist Magnus Erlendsson (Saint Magnus) (c.1070-c.1117), Earl of Orkney c.1105-1117 Matthew Forster Heddle (1828-1897), mineralogist, author of The Mineralogy of Scotland Malcolm Laing (1762-1818), author of the History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms Samuel Laing (1780-1868), author of A Residence in Norway, and translator of the Heimskringla, the Icelandic chronicle of the kings of Norway Samuel Laing (1812-1897), chairman of the London, Brighton & South Coast railway, and introducer of the system of "parliamentary" trains with fares of one penny a mile. Kristin Linklater, born 1946, voice teacher, actor, director and author Magnus Linklater (b.1942), journalist, son of Eric Linklater John D Mackay (b.1909), headmaster and Orkney patriot Murdoch McKenzie (d.1797), hydrographer Edwin Muir (1887-1959), author and poet Dr. John Rae (1813-1893), Arctic explorer Rognvald Kali Kolsson (Saint Rognvald) (c.1103-1158), Earl of Orkney 1136-1158 Julyan Sinclair, television presenter Thomas Stewart Traill (1781-1862), professor of medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh University and editor of the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Cameron Stout (b.1971) winner of Big Brother in 2003, brother of Julyan Sinclair William Walls (1819-1893), lawyer and industrialist Wrigley twins Jennifer and Hazel, international folk duo People associated with Orkney Rev. Matthew Armour (1820-1903), Sanday's radical Free Kirk Minister "Centenary of a radical kirk minister" The Orcadian. Retrieved 4 October 2008. Sir Peter Maxwell Davies (b.1934), composer and Master of the Queen's Music Andrew Greig (b.1951), Scottish writer Jo Grimond (1913-1993), Liberal Party leader and MP for Orkney and Shetland 1950-1983 David Harvey (b.1948), footballer Eric Linklater (1899-1974), novelist, playwright, journalist, essayist and poet William Sichel (b.1951), ultra distance runner Luke Sutherland (b.1971), writer of novels Jelly Roll, Sweetmeat and Venus as a Boy Jim Wallace, Baron Wallace of Tankerness (b.1954), former MP for Orkney and Shetland (1983-2001), MSP for Orkney (1999-2007), Deputy First Minister of Scotland and leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats See also Bere (grain) Bishop of Orkney Churchill Barriers Earl of Orkney Italian Chapel List of Orkney islands List of places in Orkney Orkney College Orkney vole Orkneyinga saga The Orcadian, one of Orkney's two local newspapers The Superstation, Orkney's Local Radio Station Trow Udal Law References Further reading Fresson, Captain E. E. Air Road to the Isles. (2008) Kea Publishing. ISBN 9780951895894 Lo Bao, Phil and Hutchison, Iain (2002) BEAline to the Islands. Kea Publishing. ISBN 9780951895849 Warner, Guy (2005) Orkney by Air. Kea Publishing. ISBN 9780951895870 External links Orkney Islands Council official government website June 2006 photo travelogue on Orkney Orkney Today, one of Orkney's two local newspapers Orkneycommunities.co.uk- image library, local news and events, directories of community groups and business, websites of community groups Orkneyjar, an Orcadian History and Heritage Site The Orkney Folk Festival Virtual Orkney: A directory of Orkney Vision of Britain - Groome Gazetteer entry for Orkney | Orkney |@lemmatized orkney:123 also:17 incorrectly:1 know:8 islands:4 orkneys:1 archipelago:6 northern:3 scotland:23 situate:1 mile:7 km:2 north:18 coast:4 caithness:5 comprise:1 island:83 around:4 inhabit:6 large:21 mainland:41 area:8 sq:2 mi:2 make:9 sixth:1 scottish:23 tenth:1 british:5 isle:14 settlement:7 administrative:1 centre:4 kirkwall:13 one:16 council:9 constituency:4 parliament:7 lieutenancy:1 former:2 county:2 local:13 elect:3 member:6 independent:2 people:4 call:5 orcadians:9 least:4 year:8 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839 | Arctic_fox | The Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus or Vulpes lagopus), also known as the White Fox or Snow Fox, is a small fox native to cold Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and is common throughout the Arctic tundra biome. Although it is often assigned to its own genus Alopex, the definitive mammal taxonomy list, as well as genetic evidence places it in Vulpes with the majority of the other foxes. Adaptations The Arctic Fox has evolved to live in some of the most frigid extremes on the planet. Among its adaptations for cold survival are its deep, thick fur, Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Dogs a system of countercurrent heat exchange in the circulation of paws to retain core temperature, and a good supply of body fat. The fox has a low surface area to volume ratio, as evidenced by its generally rounded body shape, short muzzle and legs, and short, thick ears. Since less of its surface area is exposed to the Arctic cold, less heat escapes the body. Its furry paws allow it to walk on ice in search of food. The Arctic Fox has such keen hearing that it can precisely locate the position of prey under the snow. When it finds prey, it pounces and punches through the snow to catch its victim. Its fur changes color with the seasons: in the winter it is white to blend in with snow, while in the summer months it changes to brown. Arctic Fox Alopex lagopus Reproduction The Arctic Fox tends to be active in early September to early May. The gestation period is 53 days. Litters tend to average 5-8 pups but may be as many as 25, although it's a good chance that if has about 25 not all of them will survive. Both the mother and the father help to raise their young. The females leave the family and form their own groups and the males stay with the family. Foxes tend to form monogamous pairs in the breeding season. Litters of between 5 and 8 kits are born in the early summer. The parents raise the young in a large den. Dens can be complex underground networks, housing many generations of foxes. Young from a previous year's litter may stay with the parents to help rear younger siblings. Dewey, T. and C. Middlebrook. 2007. "Vulpes lagopus" (On-line). Accessed May 16, 2009 at Animal Diversity Web The cubs are initially brownish; as they become older they turn white. They can walk on ice without freezing because they have thick hair on their paws. Diet The Arctic Fox will generally eat any meat it can find, including lemmings, Arctic Hare, eggs, and carrion. Lemmings are the most common prey. A family of foxes can eat dozens of lemmings each day. During April and May the Arctic Fox also preys on Ringed Seal pups when the young animals are confined to a snow den and are relatively helpless. Fish beneath the ice are also part of its diet. If there is an overabundance of food hunted, the Arctic Fox will bury what the family cannot eat. When its normal prey is scarce, the Arctic Fox scavenges the leftovers of larger predators, such as the polar bear, even though the bears' prey includes the Arctic Fox itself. Size The average length is , with a range of , in the male and , with a range of , in the female. The tail is long in the male and long in the female. It is high at the shoulder. On average males weigh , with a range of , while females average , with a range of . "Alopex lagopus" at the Smithsonian Subspecies Besides the nominate, there are four subspecies of this fox: Bering Islands Arctic Fox, Vulpes lagopus beringensis Iceland Arctic Fox, Vulpes lagopus fuliginosus Pribilof Islands Arctic Fox, Vulpes lagopus pribilofensis Greenland Arctic Fox, Vulpes Lagopus foragorapusis Arctic fox at Svalbard, Norway. The Arctic fox's seasonal furs, summer (top) to winter (bottom) Population and distribution The Arctic Fox has a circumpolar range, meaning that it is found throughout the entire Arctic, including the outer edges of Greenland, Russia, Canada, Alaska, and Svalbard, as well as in Subarctic and alpine areas, such as Iceland and mainland alpine Scandinavia. The conservation status of the species is good, except for the Scandinavian mainland population. It is acutely endangered there, despite decades of legal protection from hunting and persecution. The total population estimate in all of Norway, Sweden and Finland is a mere 120 adult individuals. The Arctic Fox is the only native land mammal to Iceland. It came to the isolated North Atlantic island at the end of the last ice age, walking over the frozen sea. The abundance of the Arctic Fox species tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings. Because the fox reproduces very quickly and often dies young, population levels are not seriously impacted by trapping. The Arctic Fox has, nonetheless, been eradicated from many areas where humans are settled. The Arctic Fox is losing ground to the larger Red Fox. Historically, the Gray Wolf has kept Red Fox numbers down, but as the wolf has been hunted to near extinction in much of its former range, the Red Fox population has grown larger, and it has taken over the niche of top predator. In areas of northern Europe there are programs in place that allow hunting of the Red Fox in the Arctic Fox's previous range. As with many other game species, the best sources of historical and large scale population data are hunting bag records and questionnaires. There are several potential sources of error in such data collections. In addition, numbers vary widely between years due to the large population fluctuations. However, the total population of the Arctic Fox must be in the order of several hundred thousand animals. The world population is thus not endangered, but two Arctic Fox subpopulations are. One is on Medny Island (Commander Islands, Russia), which was reduced by some 85-90%, to around 90 animals, as a result of mange caused by an ear tick introduced by dogs in the 1970s. The population is currently under treatment with antiparasitic drugs, but the result is still uncertain. The other threatened population is the one in Fennoscandia (Norway, Sweden, Finland and Kola Peninsula). This population decreased drastically around the start of the 20th century as a result of extreme fur prices which caused severe hunting also during population lows. The population has remained at a low density for more than 90 years, with additional reductions during the last decade. The total population estimate for 1997 is around 60 adults in Sweden, 11 adults in Finland and 50 in Norway. From Kola, there are indications of a similar situation, suggesting a population of around 20 adults. The Fennoscandian population thus numbers a total of 140 breeding adults. Even after local lemming peaks, the Arctic Fox population tends to collapse back to levels dangerously close to non-viability. References Nowak, Ronald M. (2005). Walker's Carnivores of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 0-8018-8032-7 | Arctic_fox |@lemmatized arctic:30 fox:40 alopex:4 lagopus:9 vulpes:7 also:4 know:1 white:3 snow:5 small:1 native:2 cold:3 region:1 northern:2 hemisphere:1 common:2 throughout:2 tundra:1 biome:1 although:2 often:2 assign:1 genus:1 definitive:1 mammal:2 taxonomy:1 list:1 well:2 genetic:1 evidence:2 place:2 majority:1 adaptation:2 evolve:1 live:1 frigid:1 extreme:2 planet:1 among:1 survival:1 deep:1 thick:3 fur:4 canid:1 wolf:3 jackal:1 dog:2 system:1 countercurrent:1 heat:2 exchange:1 circulation:1 paw:2 retain:1 core:1 temperature:1 good:3 supply:1 body:3 fat:1 low:3 surface:2 area:5 volume:1 ratio:1 generally:2 round:1 shape:1 short:2 muzzle:1 leg:1 ear:2 since:1 less:2 expose:1 escape:1 furry:1 paws:1 allow:2 walk:3 ice:4 search:1 food:2 keen:1 hear:1 precisely:1 locate:1 position:1 prey:6 find:3 pounce:1 punch:1 catch:1 victim:1 change:2 color:1 season:2 winter:2 blend:1 summer:3 month:1 brown:1 reproduction:1 tend:5 active:1 early:3 september:1 may:5 gestation:1 period:1 day:2 litter:3 average:4 pup:2 many:4 chance:1 survive:1 mother:1 father:1 help:2 raise:2 young:6 female:4 leave:1 family:4 form:2 group:1 male:4 stay:2 monogamous:1 pair:1 breeding:2 kit:1 bear:3 parent:2 large:6 den:3 complex:1 underground:1 network:1 housing:1 generation:1 previous:2 year:3 rear:1 sibling:1 dewey:1 c:1 middlebrook:1 line:1 access:1 animal:4 diversity:1 web:1 cub:1 initially:1 brownish:1 become:1 older:1 turn:1 without:1 freeze:1 hair:1 diet:2 eat:3 meat:1 include:3 lemming:5 hare:1 egg:1 carrion:1 dozen:1 april:1 ringed:1 seal:1 confine:1 relatively:1 helpless:1 fish:1 beneath:1 part:1 overabundance:1 hunt:4 bury:1 cannot:1 normal:1 scarce:1 scavenge:1 leftover:1 predator:2 polar:1 even:2 though:1 size:1 length:1 range:7 tail:1 long:2 high:1 shoulder:1 weigh:1 smithsonian:1 subspecies:2 besides:1 nominate:1 four:1 bering:1 island:4 beringensis:1 iceland:3 fuliginosus:1 pribilof:1 islands:1 pribilofensis:1 greenland:2 foragorapusis:1 svalbard:2 norway:4 seasonal:1 top:2 bottom:1 population:19 distribution:1 circumpolar:1 mean:1 entire:1 outer:1 edge:1 russia:2 canada:1 alaska:1 subarctic:1 alpine:2 mainland:2 scandinavia:1 conservation:1 status:1 specie:3 except:1 scandinavian:1 acutely:1 endanger:2 despite:1 decade:2 legal:1 protection:1 persecution:1 total:4 estimate:2 sweden:3 finland:3 mere:1 adult:5 individual:1 land:1 come:1 isolated:1 north:1 atlantic:1 end:1 last:2 age:1 frozen:1 sea:1 abundance:1 fluctuate:1 cycle:1 along:1 reproduces:1 quickly:1 die:1 level:2 seriously:1 impact:1 trap:1 nonetheless:1 eradicate:1 human:1 settle:1 lose:1 ground:1 red:4 historically:1 gray:1 keep:1 number:3 near:1 extinction:1 much:1 former:1 grow:1 take:1 niche:1 europe:1 program:1 hunting:2 game:1 best:1 source:2 historical:1 scale:1 data:2 bag:1 record:1 questionnaire:1 several:2 potential:1 error:1 collection:1 addition:1 vary:1 widely:1 due:1 fluctuation:1 however:1 must:1 order:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 world:2 thus:2 two:1 subpopulation:1 one:2 medny:1 commander:1 reduce:1 around:4 result:3 mange:1 cause:2 tick:1 introduce:1 currently:1 treatment:1 antiparasitic:1 drug:1 still:1 uncertain:1 threatened:1 fennoscandia:1 kola:2 peninsula:1 decrease:1 drastically:1 start:1 century:1 price:1 severe:1 remain:1 density:1 additional:1 reduction:1 indication:1 similar:1 situation:1 suggest:1 fennoscandian:1 local:1 peak:1 collapse:1 back:1 dangerously:1 close:1 non:1 viability:1 reference:1 nowak:1 ronald:1 walker:1 carnivore:1 baltimore:1 john:1 hopkins:1 press:1 isbn:1 |@bigram arctic_fox:25 vulpes_lagopus:6 northern_hemisphere:1 arctic_tundra:1 monogamous_pair:1 fox_vulpes:4 hundred_thousand:1 kola_peninsula:1 |
840 | Foreign_relations_of_Denmark | Danish foreign policy is founded upon four cornerstones: the United Nations, NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the EU, and Nordic cooperation. Denmark also is a member of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund; the World Trade Organization (WTO); the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE); the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD); the Council of Europe; the Nordic Council; the Baltic Council; and the Barents Council. Denmark emphasizes its relations with developing nations and contributes 0.8% of GNP to development assistance. Ny Mål 8-rapport - 2015 Målene In the wake of the Cold War, Denmark has been active in international efforts to integrate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe into the West. It has played a leadership role in coordinating Western assistance to the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania). The country is a strong supporter of international peacekeeping. Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), with IFOR, and now SFOR. Denmark also strongly supported American operations in Afghanistan and has contributed both monetarily and materially to the ISAF. Following World War II, Denmark ended its two-hundred year long policy of neutrality. Denmark has been a member of NATO since its founding in 1949, and membership in NATO remains highly popular. There were several serious confrontations between the U.S. and Denmark on security policy in the so-called "footnote era" (1982-88), when a hostile parliamentary majority forced the government to adopt specific national positions on nuclear and arms control issues. With the end of the Cold War, however, Denmark has been supportive of U.S. policy objectives in the Alliance. Denmark is not a member of the Western European Union but does hold observer status. Danes have enjoyed a reputation as "reluctant" Europeans. When they rejected ratification of the Maastricht Treaty on June 2, 1992, they put the EC's plans for the European Union on hold. In December 1992, the rest of the EC agreed to exempt Denmark from certain aspects of the European Union, including a common defense, a common currency, EU citizenship, and certain aspects of legal cooperation. The Amsterdam Treaty was approved in the referendum of May 28, 1998. In the autumn of 2000, Danish citizens rejected membership of the Euro currency group in a referendum. Disputes - international Rockall. A continental shelf dispute involving Iceland, Ireland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area) Hans Island. An island located between Greenland and Canadian Arctic islands. Unresolved boundary disputed between Canada and Denmark (Denmark controls Greenland's foreign relations). This dispute flared up again in July 2005 following the visit of a Canadian minister to the disputed island. North Pole. Denmark is trying to prove that the North Pole is geographically connected to Greenland. If such proof is established, Denmark will claim the North Pole. Maritime border with Poland. Denmark and Poland have still not agreed on the location of the maritime border between the two countries. Denmark supports a border half-way between the two countries; Poland wants to be awarded an even greater share of the Baltic Sea. The Polish position is based on the argument that Poland owns a longer coast line than Danish island of Bornholm. References See also Denmark Scandinavian defense union List of diplomatic missions of Denmark List of diplomatic missions in Denmark External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark | Foreign_relations_of_Denmark |@lemmatized danish:4 foreign:3 policy:4 found:1 upon:1 four:1 cornerstone:1 united:1 nation:2 nato:3 north:4 atlantic:1 treaty:3 organisation:2 eu:2 nordic:2 cooperation:2 denmark:20 also:3 member:3 world:3 bank:1 international:4 monetary:1 fund:1 trade:1 organization:2 wto:1 security:2 co:2 operation:3 europe:3 osce:1 economic:1 development:2 oecd:1 council:4 baltic:3 barents:1 emphasize:1 relation:2 develop:1 contribute:2 gnp:1 assistance:2 ny:1 mål:1 rapport:1 målene:1 wake:1 cold:2 war:3 active:1 effort:1 integrate:1 country:4 central:1 eastern:1 west:1 play:1 leadership:1 role:1 coordinate:1 western:2 state:1 estonia:1 latvia:1 lithuania:1 strong:1 supporter:1 peacekeeping:1 force:3 heavily:1 engage:1 former:1 yugoslavia:1 un:1 protection:1 unprofor:1 ifor:1 sfor:1 strongly:1 supported:1 american:1 afghanistan:1 monetarily:1 materially:1 isaf:1 following:1 ii:1 end:2 two:3 hundred:1 year:1 long:1 neutrality:1 since:1 founding:1 membership:2 remain:1 highly:1 popular:1 several:1 serious:1 confrontation:1 u:2 call:1 footnote:1 era:1 hostile:1 parliamentary:1 majority:1 government:1 adopt:1 specific:1 national:1 position:2 nuclear:1 arm:1 control:2 issue:1 however:1 supportive:1 objective:1 alliance:1 european:4 union:4 hold:2 observer:1 status:1 dane:1 enjoy:1 reputation:1 reluctant:1 reject:2 ratification:1 maastricht:1 june:1 put:1 ec:2 plan:1 december:1 rest:1 agree:2 exempt:1 certain:2 aspect:2 include:1 common:2 defense:2 currency:2 citizenship:1 legal:1 amsterdam:1 approve:1 referendum:2 may:1 autumn:1 citizen:1 euro:1 group:1 dispute:5 rockall:2 continental:1 shelf:1 involve:1 iceland:1 ireland:2 uk:2 sign:1 boundary:2 agreement:1 area:1 hans:1 island:5 locate:1 greenland:3 canadian:2 arctic:1 unresolved:1 canada:1 flare:1 july:1 follow:1 visit:1 minister:1 pole:3 try:1 prove:1 geographically:1 connect:1 proof:1 establish:1 claim:1 maritime:2 border:3 poland:4 still:1 location:1 support:1 half:1 way:1 want:1 award:1 even:1 great:1 share:1 sea:1 polish:1 base:1 argument:1 longer:1 coast:1 line:1 bornholm:1 reference:1 see:1 scandinavian:1 list:2 diplomatic:2 mission:2 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 affair:1 |@bigram monetary_fund:1 estonia_latvia:1 latvia_lithuania:1 maastricht_treaty:1 continental_shelf:1 baltic_sea:1 diplomatic_mission:2 external_link:1 foreign_affair:1 |
841 | Almoravid_dynasty | The Almoravids were a Berber Glick, Thomas F. Islamic And Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. (2005) Brill Academic Publishers page 37 dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a great part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal to the north in Europe. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched 3,000 kilometres north to south (an all-time latitude spanner until Spanish America). “Almoravids” is a transcription of “Al-Murabitun”. The exact meaning of "Murabit" is a matter of controversy. Some have suggested that the word might be derived from the Arabic ribat meaning fortress (a term with which it shares the root r-b-t). Most historians, however, now believe that it refers to ribat meaning "ready for battle" (cf. jihad). Nehemia levtzion, "Abd Allah b. Yasin and the Almoravids", in: John Ralph Willis, Studies in West African Islamic History, p. 54 P.F. de Moraes Farias, "The Almoravids: Some Questions Concerning the Character of the Movement", Bulletin de l’IFAN, series B, 29:3-4 (794-878), 1967 Beginnings The most powerful of the tribes of the Sahara near the Sénégal River was the Lamtuna, whose culture of origin was 'Wadi Noun' (Nul Lemta). They later came together as the upper leger River culture, which founded the city of Aoudaghost. They converted to Islam in the 9th century. Influence of orthodox Islam About the year 1040 (or a little earlier) one of their chiefs, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, made the pilgrimage to Makkah. On his way home, he attended the teachers of the mosque at University of Al-Qayrawan, today's Kairouan in Tunisia; the first Arab-Muslim city in North Africa, who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the religion they were supposed to profess, and that though his will was good, his own ignorance was great. By the good offices of the theologians of Al Qayrawan, one of whom was from Fez, Yahya was provided with a missionary, Abdallah ibn Yasin, a zealous partisan of the Malikis, one of the four Madhhab, Sunni schools of Islam. His preaching was before-long rejected by the Lamtunas; so on the advice of Yahya, who accompanied him, he retired to Saharan regions from which his influence spread. His creed was mainly characterized by a rigid formalism and a strict adherence to the dictates of the Qur'an, and the Orthodox tradition. Military training Abd-Allah ibn Yasin imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purification, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach of the law; even on the chiefs. Under such directions, the Almoravids were brought into excellent order. Their first military leader, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, gave them a good military organization. Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front ranks and pikes behind, which formed into a phalanx; and was supported by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks. Military successes Almoravid Dynasty at its Greatest Extent From the year 1053, the Almoravids began to spread their religious way to the Berber areas of the Sahara, and to the regions south of the desert. They converted Takrur (a small state in modern Senegal) to Islam, and after winning over the Sanhaja Berber tribe, they quickly took control of the entire desert trade route, seizing Sijilmasa at the northern end in 1054, and Aoudaghost at the southern end in 1055. Yahya ibn Ibrahim was killed in a battle in 1056, but Abd-Allah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount; named his brother Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar as chief. Under him, the Almoravids soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected the tribes of the Atlas Mountains. They then came in contact with the Berghouata, a branch of the Zenata of central Morocco, who followed a "heresy" founded by Salih ibn Tarif, three centuries earlier. The Berghouata made a fierce resistance, and it was in battle with them that Abdullah ibn Yasin was killed. They were, however, completely conquered by Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar, who took the defeated chief's widow, Zainab, as a wife. In 1061, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin Yusuf ibn Tashfin, as viceroy; resigning to him also his favourite wife Zainab. For himself, he reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken out in the desert, but when he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded. He returned to the Sahara, where, in 1087, having been wounded with a poisoned arrow, he died. Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as Morocco, Western Sahara and Mauretania into complete subjection; and in 1062, had founded the city of Marrakech. In 1080, he conquered the kingdom of Tlemcen (in modern-day Algeria) and founded the present city of that name, his rule extending as far east as Oran. Ghana Empire There has been a belief by some that the Almoravids conquered the Ghana Empire sometime around 1075 AD. According to Arab tradition, the ensuing war pushed Ghana over the edge, ending the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by 1100, as it collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravids while others founded the Mali Empire. However, the Almoravid religious influence was gradual and not heavily involved in military strife, as Almoravids increased in power by marrying among the nation's nobility. Scholars such as Dierk Lange attribute the decline of ancient Ghana to numerous unrelated factors, only one of which can be likely attributable to internal dynastic struggles that were instigated by Almalvorid influence and Islamic pressures, but devoid of any military conversion and conquest. Lange, Dierk (1996). "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana", Der Islam 73, PP. 122-159 Iberian Peninsula Map of Iberia at the time of the Almoravid arrival In 1086 Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim princes in the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) to defend them against Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin crossed the straits to Algeciras, inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the az-Zallaqah. He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in Africa, which he had to settle in person. When he returned to Iberia in 1090, it was avowedly for the purpose of deposing the Muslim princes, and annexing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, who had been worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, al-Ghazali in Persia and al-Tartushi in Egypt, who was himself an Iberian by birth, from Tortosa), detested the native Muslim princes for their religious indifference, and gave Yusuf a fatwa -- or legal opinion—to the effect that he had good moral and religious right, to dethrone the rulers, whom he saw as heterodox and who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians, whose habits he claimed they had adopted. By 1094, he had removed them all, except for the one at Zaragoza; and though he regained little from the Christians except Valencia, he re-united the Muslim power, and gave a check to the reconquest of the country by the Christians. The Commander of the Muslims After friendly correspondence with the caliph at Baghdad, whom he acknowledged as Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful), Yusuf ibn Tashfin in 1097 assumed the title of Amir al Muslimin (Commander of the Muslims). He died in 1106, when he was reputed to have reached the age of 100. The Almoravid power was at its height at Yusuf's death, and the Moorish empire then included all North-West Africa as far as Algiers, and all of Iberia south of the Tagus, with the east coast as far as the mouth of the Ebro, and included the Balearic Islands. Decline Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, Ali ibn Yusuf, Sintra and Santarém were added, and Iberia was again invaded in 1119 and 1121, but the tide had turned; the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover Zaragoza. In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by Alfonso VII of León, and in the Battle of Ourique (1139), by Afonso I of Portugal, who thereby won his crown; and Lisbon was recovered by the Portuguese in 1147. Ali ibn Yusuf was a pious non-entity, who fasted and prayed while his empire fell to pieces under the combined action of his Christian foes in Iberia and the agitation of Almohads (the Muwahhids) in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in 1142, his son Tashfin ibn Ali lost ground rapidly before the Almohads, and in 1146 he was killed by a fall from a precipice while attempting to escape after a defeat near Oran. His two successors were Ibrahim ibn Tashfin and Is'haq ibn Ali, but their reigns were short. The conquest of the city of Marrakech by the Almohads in 1147 marked the fall of the dynasty, though fragments of the Almoravids (the Banu Ghaniya), continued to struggle in the Balearic Islands, and finally in Tunisia. Interestingly, family names such as Morabito, Murabito and Mirabito are common in western Sicily, the Aeolian Islands and southern Calabria in Italy. These names may have appeared in this region as early as the 11th century, when Robert Guiscard and the Normans defeated the Saracens (Muslims) in Sicily. In addition to southern Italy, there are also sizable populations of Mourabit (also spelled Morabit or Murabit or Morabet) in modern-day Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Mauritania. Rulers Abdallah ibn Yasin (1040-1059) Yusuf ibn Tashfin (1061–1106) Ali ibn Yusuf (1106–42) Tashfin ibn Ali (1142–46) Ibrahim ibn Tashfin (1146) Ishaq ibn Ali (1146–47) See also History of Morocco History of Islam History of Spain History of Portugal The modern Murabitun movement of Western converts Maravedís were coins of Almoravid origin, kept in Spain for centuries. History of Gibraltar External links Historical maps of Almoravid Dynasty Maps to be combined and compared Almoravids Dynasty Berber dynasty References General History of Africa, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, Ed. M. 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842 | Jorge_Luis_Borges | Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo () (24 August 1899 – 14 June 1986) was an Argentine writer and poet born in Buenos Aires. In 1914, his family moved to Switzerland where he attended school and traveled to Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and essays in Surrealist literary journals. He also worked as a librarian and public lecturer. Borges was bilingual, speaking both Spanish and English. He was a target of political persecution during the Peron regime. Due to a hereditary condition, Borges became blind in his late fifties. "His was a particular kind of blindness, grown on him gradually since the age of thirty and settled in for good after his fifty-eighth birthday." In Alberto Manguel, With Borges, London:Telegram Books (2006), p. 15-16. In 1955, he was appointed director of the National Public Library (Biblioteca Nacional) and professor of Literature at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1961, he came to international attention when he received the first International Publishers' Prize Prix Formentor. His work was translated and published widely in the United States and in Europe. He died in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1986. J. M. Coetzee said of Borges: "He, more than anyone, renovated the language of fiction and thus opened the way to a remarkable generation of Spanish American novelists." Coetzee, J.M., "Borges's Dark Mirror", New York Review of Books, Volume 45, Number 16 · October 22, 1998 Early life and education Jorge Luis Borges was born to an educated middle-class family. Borges's mother, Leonor Acevedo Suárez, came from a traditional Uruguayan family. His 1929 book Cuaderno San Martín included a poem "Isidoro Acevedo," commemorating his maternal grandfather, Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida, a soldier of the Buenos Aires Army who stood against dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas. A descendant of the Argentine lawyer and politician Francisco Narciso de Laprida, Acevedo fought in the battles of Cepeda in 1859, Pavón in 1861, and Los Corrales in 1880. Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida died of pulmonary congestion in the house where his grandson Jorge Luis Borges was born. Borges's father, Jorge Guillermo Borges Haslam, was a lawyer and psychology teacher with literary aspirations. ("...he tried to become a writer and failed in the attempt," Borges once said, "...[but] composed some very good sonnets"). His father was part Spanish, part Portuguese, and half English; his father's mother was English and maintained a strong spirit of English culture in Borges's home. In this home, both Spanish and English were spoken. From earliest childhood Borges was bilingual, reading Shakespeare in English at the age of 12. The family lived in a large house equipped with an extensive English library. They were in comfortable circumstances; but not being wealthy enough to live in downtown Buenos Aires, they resided in Palermo, then a poorer suburb of the city. His father was forced to give up practicing law due to the failing eyesight that would eventually afflict his son. In 1914, the family moved to Geneva, Switzerland. Borges senior was treated by a Geneva eye specialist, while his son and daughter Norah attended school, where Borges junior learned French and taught himself German. He received his baccalauréat from the Collège de Genève in 1918. The Borges family decided that, due to political unrest in Argentina, they would remain in Switzerland. This lasted until 1921 when, after World War I, the family spent three years living in various cities: Lugano (Switzerland), Barcelona, Majorca, Seville, and Madrid. At that time Borges discovered the writing of Arthur Schopenhauer and Gustav Meyrink's The Golem (1915) which were to become influential to his work. In Spain, Borges became a member of the avant-garde Ultraist literary movement (anti-Modernism, which ended in 1922 with the cessation of the journal Ultra). His first poem, "Hymn to the Sea", written in the style of Walt Whitman, was published in the magazine Grecia. While in Spain, he met noted Spanish writers, including Rafael Cansinos Assens and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. Early writing career In 1921, Borges returned with his family to Buenos Aires, where he imported the doctrine of Ultraism and launched his career, publishing surreal poems and essays in literary journals. In 1930, Nestor Ibarra called Borges the "Great Apostle of Criollismo." Borges Center - Page title - The University of Iowa His first published collection of poetry was Fervor de Buenos Aires (1923). He contributed to the avant-garde review Martín Fierro (whose "art for art's sake" approach contrasted to that of the more politically involved Boedo group). Borges co-founded the journals Prisma, a broadsheet distributed largely by pasting copies to walls in Buenos Aires, and Proa. Later in life Borges regretted some of these early publications, and attempted to purchase all known copies to ensure their destruction. Table of Contents and Excerpt, Borges, Other Inquisitions, University of Texas By the mid-1930s, he began to explore existential questions. He also worked in a style that Ana María Barrenechea has called "irreality." Borges was not alone in this task. Many other Latin American writers, such as Juan Rulfo, Juan José Arreola, and Alejo Carpentier, investigated these themes, influenced by the phenomenology of Husserl and Heidegger or the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre. Even though existentialism saw its apogee during the years of Borges's greatest artistic production, it can be argued that his choice of topics largely ignored existentialism's central tenets. To that point, critic Paul de Man wrote: "Whatever Borges's existential anxieties may be, they have little in common with Sartre's robustly prosaic view of literature, with the earnestness of Camus' moralism, or with the weighty profundity of German existential thought. Rather, they are the consistent expansion of a purely poetic consciousness to its furthest limits." de Man, Paul. "A Modern Master", Jorge Luis Borges, Ed. Harold Bloom, New York: Chelsea House Pub., 1986. p.22. From the first issue, Borges was a regular contributor to Sur, founded in 1931 by Victoria Ocampo. It was then Argentina's most important literary journal. http://www.villaocampo.org Ivonne Bordelois, "The Sur Magazine", Villa Ocampo Website Ocampo introduced Borges to Adolfo Bioy Casares, another well-known figure of Argentine literature, who was to become a frequent collaborator and dear friend. Together they wrote a number of works, some under the nom de plume H. Bustos Domecq, including a parody detective series and fantasy stories. During these years a family friend Macedonio Fernández became a major influence on Borges. The two would preside over discussions in cafés, country retreats, or Fernández' tiny apartment in the Balvanera district. In 1933 Borges gained an editorial appointment at the literary supplement of the newspaper Crítica, where he first published the pieces later collected as the Historia universal de la infamia (A Universal History of Infamy). This involved two types of pieces. The first lay somewhere between non-fictional essays and short stories, using fictional techniques to tell essentially true stories. The second consisted of literary forgeries, which Borges initially passed off as translations of passages from famous but seldom-read works. In the following years, he served as a literary adviser for the publishing house Emecé Editores and wrote weekly columns for El Hogar, which appeared from 1936 to 1939. In 1937, Borges found work as first assistant at the Miguel Cané branch of the Buenos Aires Municipal Library. His fellow employees forbade him from cataloguing more than 100 books per day, a task which took him about an hour. The rest of his time he spent in the basement of the library, writing articles and short stories. Borges's urbane character allowed him to free himself from the trap of local color. The varying genealogies of characters, settings, and themes in his stories, such as "La muerte y la brújula", used Argentine models without pandering to his readers. In his essay "El escritor argentino y la tradición", Borges notes that the very absence of camels in the Qu'ran was proof enough that it was an Arabian work. He suggested that only someone trying to write an "Arab" work would purposefully include a camel. He uses this example to illustrate how his dialogue with universal existential concerns was just as Argentine as writing about gauchos and tangos (subjects he himself used). Maturity Borges, unknown date Borges's father died in 1938, a tragedy for Borges: father and son were very devoted to each other. On Christmas Eve 1938, Borges suffered a severe head wound; during treatment, he nearly died of septicemia. While recovering from the accident, he began tinkering with a new style of writing, for which he would become famous. The first story penned after his accident was "Pierre Menard, Author of The Quixote" in May 1939. In this story, he examined the relationship between father and son and the nature of authorship. His first collection of short stories, El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan (The Garden of Forking Paths) appeared in 1941, composed mostly of works previously published in Sur. Though generally well received, El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan failed to garner for him the literary prizes many in his circle expected. Ocampo dedicated a large portion of the July 1941 issue of Sur to a "Reparation for Borges"; numerous leading writers and critics from Argentina and throughout the Spanish-speaking world contributed writings to the "reparation" project. When Juan Perón became President in 1946, Borges was dismissed from the library and "promoted" to the position of poultry inspector for the Buenos Aires municipal market. (He immediately resigned; he always referred to this post as "Poultry and Rabbit Inspector"). His offenses against the Peronistas up to that time consisted of little more than adding his signature to pro-democracy petitions. Shortly after his resignation, Borges addressed the Argentine Society of Letters saying, in his characteristic style, "Dictatorships foster oppression, dictatorships foster servitude, dictatorships foster cruelty; more abominable is the fact that they foster idiocy." Without a job, and his vision beginning to fade due to hereditary retinal detachment, and unable to support himself as a writer, Borges began a new career as a public lecturer. Woodall, J: The Man in Mirror of the Book, A Life of Luis Borges, pg xxx. Hodder and Stoughton 1996 Despite a certain degree of political persecution, he was reasonably successful. Borges became an increasingly public figure, obtaining appointments as President of the Argentine Society of Writers, and as Professor of English and American Literature at the Argentine Association of English Culture. His short story "Emma Zunz" was turned into a film (under the name of Días de odio (English title: Days of Hate), directed in 1954 by the Argentine director Leopoldo Torre Nilsson). Around this time, Borges also began writing screenplays. In 1955 after the initiative of Ocampo, the new anti-Peronist military government appointed Borges head of the National Library. Jorge Luis Borges, Galería de Directores, Biblioteca Nacional (Argentina). Accessed online 23 December 2006. By that time, he had become completely blind, like one of his best known predecessors, Paul Groussac, for whom Borges wrote an obituary. Neither coincidence nor the irony escaped Borges and he commented on them in his work: Nadie rebaje a lágrima o reproche esta declaración de la maestría de Dios, que con magnífica ironía me dio a la vez los libros y la noche. Let neither tear nor reproach besmirch this declaration of the mastery of God who, with magnificent irony, granted me both the gift of books and the night. The following year Borges was awarded the National Prize for Literature from the University of Cuyo, and the first of many honorary doctorates. From 1956 to 1970, Borges also held a position as a professor of literature at the University of Buenos Aires, while frequently holding temporary appointments at other universities. As his eyesight deteriorated, Borges relied increasingly on his mother's help. When he was not able to read and write anymore (he never learned to read Braille), his mother, to whom he had always been devoted, became his personal secretary. International renown One of Borges's stories was first translated into English in the August 1948 issue of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine; the story was "The Garden of Forking Paths", the translator Anthony Boucher. Anthony Boucher entry, online Index to Science Fiction Anthologies and Collections. Though several other Borges translations appeared in literary magazines and anthologies during the 1950s, Jorge Luis Borges, Collected Fictions, Viking Penguin 1998. Translation and notes by Andrew Hurley. Editorial note on page 517. his international fame dates from the early 1960s. In 1961, he received the first International Publishers' Prize Prix Formentor, which he shared with Samuel Beckett. While Beckett was well-known and respected in the English-speaking world, Borges was unknown and untranslated. English-speaking readers became curious about the other recipient of the prize. The Italian government named Borges 'Commendatore'; and the University of Texas at Austin appointed him for one year to the Tinker chair. This led to his first lecture tour in the United States. In 1962, two major anthologies of Borges's writings were published in English by New York presses: Ficciones and Labyrinths. In that year, Borges began lecture tours of Europe. In 1980 he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca; numerous other honors were to accumulate over the years, such as the French Legion of Honour in 1983, the Cervantes Prize, and even a Special Edgar Allan Poe Award from the Mystery Writers of America, "for distinguished contribution to the mystery genre". Mystery Writers of America. Edgar Award Database. Retrieved 24 September 2007. In 1967, Borges began a five-year period of collaboration with the American translator Norman Thomas di Giovanni, thanks to whom he became better known in the English-speaking world. He also continued to publish books, among them El libro de los seres imaginarios (The Book of Imaginary Beings, (1967, co-written with Margarita Guerrero), El informe de Brodie (Dr. Brodie's Report, 1970), and El libro de arena (The Book of Sand, 1975). He also lectured prolifically. Many of these lectures were anthologized in volumes such as Siete noches (Seven Nights) and Nueve ensayos dantescos (Nine Dantesque Essays). Criticism Borges's change in style from criollismo to a more cosmopolitan style brought him much criticism from journals such as Contorno, a left-of-center, Sartre-influenced publication founded by the Viñas brothers (Ismael & David), Noé Jitrik, Adolfo Prieto, and other intellectuals. Contorno "met with wide approval among the youth [...] for taking the older writers of the country to task on account of [their] presumed inauthenticity and their legacy of formal experimentation at the expense of responsibility and seriousness in the face of society's problems" (Katra:1988:56). Katra, William H. Contorno: Literary Engagement in Post-Perónist Argentina. Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson UP, 1988. Borges and Eduardo Mallea were criticized for being "doctors of technique"; their writing presumably "lacked substance due to their lack of interaction with the reality [...] that they inhabited", an existential critique of their refusal to embrace existence and reality in their artwork. Katra p. 57 Later personal life When Perón returned from exile and was re-elected president in 1973, Borges immediately resigned as director of the National Library. In 1967 Borges married the recently widowed Elsa Astete Millán. Friends believed that his mother, who was 90 and anticipating her own death, wanted to find someone to care for her blind son. The marriage lasted less than three years. After a legal separation, Borges moved back in with his mother, with whom he lived until her death at age 99. Norman Thomas Di Giovanni, The Lessons of the Master Thereafter, he lived alone in the small flat he had shared with her, cared for by Fanny, their housekeeper of many decades. "Fanny", El Señor Borges From 1975 until the time of his death, Borges traveled all over the world. He was often accompanied in these travels by his personal assistant María Kodama, an Argentine woman of Japanese and German ancestry. In April 1986, a few months before his death, he married her via an attorney in Paraguay. Jorge Luis Borges died of liver cancer in 1986 in Geneva. He was buried in the Cimetière des Rois (Plainpalais). After years of legal wrangling about the legality of the marriage, Kodama, as sole inheritor of a significant annual income, gained control over his works. Her administration of his estate has bothered some scholars; she has been denounced by the French publisher Gallimard, by Le Nouvel Observateur, and by intellectuals such as Beatriz Sarlo, as an obstacle to the serious reading of Borges's works. Octavi Martí, Kodama frente a Borges, El País (Madrid), Edición Impresa, 16 August 2006. Abstract online; full text accessible online by subscription only. Under Kodama, the Borges estate rescinded all publishing rights for existing collections of his work in English (including the translations by Norman Thomas di Giovanni, in which Borges himself cooperated -- and from which di Giovanni received fifty percent of the royalties) and commissioned new translations by Andrew Hurley. Richard Flanagan, "Writing with Borges", The Age (Australia), 12 July 2003. http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/07/12/1057783281684.html Nobel Prize omission Borges was never awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, something which continually distressed the writer. Tóibín, Colm. "Don’t abandon me", London Review of Books, 2006-05-11. Retrieved on 2009-04-19. He was one of several distinguished authors who never received the honor. Feldman, Burton The Nobel Prize: a History of Genius, Controversy and Prestige, p. 57, Arcade Publishing 2000 Some observers speculated that Borges did not receive the award because of his conservative political views, James M. Markham: Briton Wins the Nobel Literature Prize, The New York Times 7 October 1983 specifically accepting an honor from dictator Augusto Pinochet. Feldman p. 81 Works Quotation by Borges at Buenos Aires Madrid Metro station: "It smacks of fiction that Buenos Aires was ever founded. I judge her to be as eternal as the sea and the wind." (partial list) Anthologies Antología personal (1961) Labyrinths (1962, anthology, in English) Libro de sueños (1976) Nueva antología personal (1980) Essays and criticism Inquisiciones (1925) El tamaño de mi esperanza (1926) El idioma de los argentinos (1928) Evaristo Carriego (1930) Discusión (1932) Historia de la eternidad (1936) Otras inquisiciones (1952) Libro del cielo y del infierno (1960), with Bioy Casares Prólogos (1975) Siete Noches (1980) Nueve ensayos dantescos (1982) Atlas (1985) Poetry Fervor de Buenos Aires (1923) Luna de enfrente (1925) Cuaderno San Martin (1929) El otro, el mismo (1969) La rosa profunda (1975) La moneda de hierro (1976) Historia de la noche (1977) La Cifra (1981) Adrogue, con ilustraciones de Norah Borges (1977) Poetry and prose El hacedor (1960) Elogio de la sombra (1969) El oro de los tigres (1972) La moneda de hierro (1976) Los Conjurados (1985) El Instante Short stories El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan (The Garden of Forking Paths) (1941; published in Ficciones, 1944) Historia universal de la infamia (1935, short stories) Seis problemas para don Isidro Parodi (1942) Ficciones (1944) Dos fantasías memorables (1946, as H. Bustos Domecq) Un modelo para la muerte (1946) El Aleph (1949) La muerte y la brújula (1951) Crónicas de Bustos Domecq (1967, as H. Bustos Domecq) El informe de Brodie (1970) El libro de arena (1975) Nuevos cuentos de Bustos Domecq (1977), con Bioy Casares La memoria de Shakespeare (1983) El Encuentro (1997) Other works In addition to his short stories for which he is most famous, Borges also wrote poetry, essays, several screenplays, and a considerable volume of literary criticism, prologues, and reviews, edited numerous anthologies, and was a prominent translator of English-, French- and German-language literature into Spanish (and of Old English and Norse works as well). His blindness (which, like his father's, developed in adulthood) strongly influenced his later writing. Paramount among his intellectual interests are elements of mythology, mathematics, theology, and, as a personal integration of these, Borges's sense of literature as recreation—all of these disciplines are sometimes treated as a writer's playthings and at other times treated very seriously. Since Borges lived through most of the 20th century, he was rooted in the Modernist period of culture and literature, especially Symbolism. His fiction is profoundly learned, and always concise. Like his contemporary Vladimir Nabokov and the older James Joyce, he combined an interest in his native land with far broader perspectives. He also shared their multilingualism and their playfulness with language, but while Nabokov and Joyce tended—as their lives went on—toward progressively larger works, Borges remained a miniaturist. Also in contrast to Joyce and Nabokov, Borges's work progressed away from what he referred to as "the baroque," while theirs moved towards it: Borges's later writing style is far more transparent and naturalistic than his earlier works. Many of his most popular stories concern the nature of time, infinity, mirrors, labyrinths, reality, philosophy, and identity. A number of stories focus on fantastic themes, such as a library containing every possible 410-page text ("The Library of Babel"), a man who forgets nothing he experiences ("Funes, the Memorious"), an artifact through which the user can see everything in the universe ("The Aleph"), and a year of time standing still, given to a man standing before a firing squad ("The Secret Miracle"). The same Borges told more and less realistic stories of South American life, stories of folk heroes, streetfighters, soldiers, gauchos, detectives, historical figures. He mixed the real and the fantastic: fact with fiction. On several occasions, especially early in his career, these mixtures sometimes crossed the line into the realm of hoax or literary forgery. His imitations of Swedenborg and others were originally passed off as translations, in his literary column in Crítica. For example, "El Teólogo" was originally published with the note "Lo anterior...es obra de Manuel Swedenborg, eminente ingeniero y hombre de ciencia, que durante 27 años estuvo en comercio lúcido y familiar con el otro mundo." ("The preceding...is the work of Emanuel Swedenborg, eminent engineer and man of science, who during 27 years was in lucid and familiar commerce with the other world.") Bibliografía cronológica de la obra de Jorge Luis Borges ("Chronological bibliography of the work of Jorge Luis Borges"), Borges Center, University of Iowa. Accessed online 7 November 2006. Borges's abundant nonfiction includes astute film and book reviews, short biographies, and longer philosophical musings on topics such as the nature of dialogue, language, and thought, and the relationships between them. In this respect, and regarding Borges's personal pantheon, he considered the Mexican essayist of similar topics Alfonso Reyes "the best prose-writer in the Spanish language of any time." (In: Siete Noches, p. 156). His non-fiction also explores many of the themes found in his fiction. Essays such as "The History of the Tango" or his writings on the epic poem Martín Fierro explore specifically Argentine themes, such as the identity of the Argentine people and of various Argentine subcultures. His interest in fantasy, philosophy, and the art of translation are evident in articles such as "The Translators of The Thousand and One Nights", while The Book of Imaginary Beings is a thoroughly (and obscurely) researched bestiary of mythical creatures, in the preface of which Borges wrote, "There is a kind of lazy pleasure in useless and out-of-the-way erudition." Borges's interest in fantasy was shared by Adolfo Bioy Casares, with whom Borges coauthored several collections of tales between 1942 and 1967, sometimes under different pseudonyms including H. Bustos Domecq. Borges composed poetry throughout his life. As his eyesight waned (it came and went, with a struggle between advancing age and advances in eye surgery), he increasingly focused on writing poetry, since he could memorize an entire work in progress. His poems embrace the same wide range of interests as his fiction, along with issues that emerge in his critical works and translations, and from more personal musings. This breadth of interest can be found in his fiction, nonfiction, and poems. For example, his interest in philosophical idealism is reflected in the fictional world of Tlön in "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius", in his essay "A New Refutation of Time", "On Exactitude in Science", and in his poem "Things". Similarly, a common thread runs through his story "The Circular Ruins" and his poem "El Golem" ("The Golem"). As already mentioned, Borges was notable as a translator. He translated Oscar Wilde's story The Happy Prince into Spanish when he was nine, perhaps an early indication of his literary talent. At the end of his life he produced a Spanish-language version of the Prose Edda. He also translated (while simultaneously subtly transforming) the works of, among others, Edgar Allan Poe, Franz Kafka, Hermann Hesse, Rudyard Kipling, Herman Melville, André Gide, William Faulkner, Walt Whitman, Virginia Woolf, Sir Thomas Browne, and G. K. Chesterton. In a number of essays and lectures, Borges assessed the art of translation, and articulated his own view at the same time. He held the view that a translation may improve upon the original, may even be unfaithful to it, and that alternative and potentially contradictory renderings of the same work can be equally valid. Borges also employed two very unusual literary forms: the literary forgery and the review of an imaginary work. Both constitute a form of modern pseudo-epigrapha. Borges's best-known set of literary forgeries date from his early work as a translator and literary critic with a regular column in the Argentine magazine El Hogar. Along with publishing numerous legitimate translations, he also published original works after the style of the likes of Emanuel Swedenborg or The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, originally passing them off as translations of things he had come upon in his reading. Several of these are gathered in the Universal History of Infamy. He continued this pattern of literary forgery at several points in his career, for example sneaking three short, falsely attributed pieces into his otherwise legitimate and carefully researched anthology El matrero. At times, confronted with an idea for a work that bordered on the conceptual, rather than write a piece that fulfilled the concept, he wrote a review of a nonexistent work, as if it had already been created by some other person. The most famous example of this is "Pierre Menard, author of the Quixote", which imagines a twentieth-century Frenchman who tries to write Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote verbatim---not by having memorized Cervantes' work, but as an "original" narrative of his own invention. Initially he tries to immerse himself in sixteenth-century Spain, but dismisses the method as too easy, instead trying to reach Don Quixote through his own experiences. He finally manages to (re)create "the ninth and thirty-eighth chapters of the first part of Don Quixote and a fragment of chapter twenty-two." Borges's "review" of the work of the fictional Menard uses tongue-in-cheek comparisons to discuss the resonances that Don Quixote has picked up over the centuries since it was written, by way of overtly discussing how much "richer" Menard's work is than that of Cervantes, even though the actual words are exactly the same. While Borges was certainly the great popularizer of the review of an imaginary work, it was not his own invention. Borges was already familiar with the idea from Thomas Carlyle's Sartor Resartus, a book-length review of a non-existent German transcendentalist philosophical work, and the biography of its equally non-existent author. This Craft of Verse (p. 104) records Borges as saying that in 1916 in Geneva he "discovered -- and was overwhelmed by -- Thomas Carlyle. I read Sartor Resartus, and I can recall many of its pages; I know them by heart." In the introduction to his first published volume of fiction, The Garden of Forking Paths, Borges remarks, "It is a laborious madness and an impoverishing one, the madness of composing vast books -- setting out in five hundred pages an idea that can be perfectly related orally in five minutes. The better way to go about it is to pretend that those books already exist, and offer a summary, a commentary on them." He then cites both Sartor Resartus and Samuel Butler's The Fair Haven, remarking, however, that "those works suffer under the imperfection that they themselves are books, and not a whit less tautological than the others. A more reasonable, more inept, and more lazy man, I have chosen to write notes on imaginary books." [Collected Fictions, p.67] As Argentine and world citizen Special two-Argentine pesos coin featuring Borges, 1999 Borges's work maintained a universal perspective that reflected a multi-ethnic Argentina, exposure from an early age to his father's substantial collection of world literature, and lifelong travel experience. As a young man, he visited the frontier pampas where the boundaries of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil blurred, and lived and studied in Switzerland and Spain; in middle age he traveled through Argentina as a lecturer and, internationally, as a visiting professor; he continued to tour the world as he grew older, ending his life in Geneva where he had attended high school (he never went to university). Drawing on influences of many times and places, Borges's work belittled nationalism and racism. An Argentine, Borges set some of his historical fiction in Uruguay. He grew acquainted with the literature from Argentine, Spanish, North American, English, French, German, Italian, and Northern European/Icelandic sources, including those of Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse. He also read many translations of Near Eastern and Far Eastern works. The universalism that made him interested in world literature reflected an attitude that was not congruent with the Perón government's extreme nationalism. That government's meddling with Borges's job fueled his skepticism of government (he labeled himself a Spencerian anarchist in the blurb of Atlas). When extreme Argentine nationalists sympathetic to the Nazis asserted Borges was Jewish (the implication being that his Argentine identity was inadequate), Borges responded in "Yo Judío" ("I, a Jew"), where he said, while he would be proud to be a Jew, he presented his actual Christian genealogy, along with a backhanded reminder that any "pure" Castilian just might likely have a Jew in their ancestry, stemming from a millennium back. Multicultural influences on his writing Borges's Argentina is a multi-ethnic country, and Buenos Aires, the capital, a cosmopolitan city. At the time of Argentine independence in 1816, the population was predominantly criollo, which in Argentine usage generally means people of Spanish ancestry, although it can allow for a small admixture of other origins. The Argentine national identity diversified, forming over a period of decades after the Argentine Declaration of Independence. During that period substantial immigration came from Italy, Spain, France, Germany, Russia, Syria and Lebanon (then parts of the Ottoman Empire), the United Kingdom, Austria-Hungary, Portugal, Poland, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, North America, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, and China, with the Italians and Spanish forming the largest influx. Collaboration with Adolfo Bioy Casares The diversity of coexisting cultures characteristic of the Argentine lifestyles is especially pronounced in Six Problems for Don Isidoro Parodi, co-authored with Adolfo Bioy Casares, and in the unnamed multi-ethnic city that's the setting for "Death and the Compass", which may or may not be Buenos Aires. Religious influences Borges's writing is also steeped by influences and informed by scholarship of Christian, Buddhist, Islamic, and Jewish faiths, including mainline religious figures, heretics, and mystics. Specialist in the history, culture, and literature of Argentina and Uruguay If Borges often focused on universal themes, he no less composed a substantial body of literature on themes from Argentine folklore, history, and current concerns. Borges's first book, the poetry collection Fervor de Buenos Aires (Passion for Buenos Aires), appeared in 1923. Considering Borges's thorough attention to all things Argentine — ranging from Argentine culture ("History of the Tango"; "Inscriptions on Horse Wagons"), folklore ("Juan Muraña", "Night of the Gifts"), literature ("The Argentine Writer and Tradition", "Almafuerte"; "Evaristo Carriego") and current concerns ("Celebration of The Monster", "Hurry, Hurry", "The Mountebank", "Pedro Salvadores") — it is ironic indeed that ultra-nationalists would have questioned his Argentine identity. Borges's interest in Argentine themes reflects in part the inspiration of his family tree. Borges had an English paternal grandmother who, around 1870, married the criollo Francisco Borges, a man with a military command and a historic role in the civil wars in what is now Argentina and Uruguay. Spurred by pride in his family's heritage, Borges often used those civil wars as settings in fiction and quasi-fiction (for example, "The Life of Tadeo Isidoro Cruz," "The Dead Man," "Avelino Arredondo") as well as poetry ("General Quiroga Rides to His Death in a Carriage"). Borges's maternal great-grandfather, Manuel Isidoro Suárez , was another military hero, whom Borges immortalized in the poem "A Page to Commemorate Colonel Suárez, Victor at Junín." The city of Coronel Suárez in the south of Buenos Aires Province is named after him. Mathematics A book by Argentina mathematician and writer, Guillermo Martínez, was published in 2003, collecting the transcript of a series of talks given by him in the MALBA auditorium, concerning how Borges used concepts from mathematics in his work. Martínez believes that Borges had to the very least a superficial knowledge of set theory and several other topics, as he seems to handle them with great elegance in his stories; an example of this would be Borges's "The Book of Sand", which always has a page in between the others, thus making it infinite, and its pages infinitely thin; this being a very clear nod to Cantor's Set Theory. Martín Fierro and tradition Borges contributed to a few avant garde publications in the early 1920s, including one called Martín Fierro, named after the major work of 19th century Argentine literature, Martín Fierro, a gauchesque poem by José Hernández, published in two parts, in 1872 and 1880. Initially, along with other young writers of his generation, Borges rallied around the fictional Martín Fierro as the symbol of a characteristic Argentine sensibility, not tied to European values. As Borges matured, he came to a more nuanced attitude toward the poem. Hernández's central character, Martín Fierro, is a gaucho, a free, poor, pampas-dweller, who is illegally drafted to serve at a border fort to defend against the Indians; he ultimately deserts and becomes a gaucho matrero, the Argentine equivalent of a North American western outlaw. Borges's 1953 book of essays on the poem, El "Martín Fierro", separates his great admiration for the aesthetic virtues of the work from his rather mixed opinion of the moral virtues of its protagonist. He uses the occasion to tweak the noses of arch-nationalist interpreters of the poem, but disdains those (such as Eleuterio Tiscornia) whom he sees as failing to understand its specifically Argentine character. In "The Argentine Writer and Tradition", Borges celebrates how Hernández expresses that character in the crucial scene in which Martín Fierro and El Moreno compete by improvising songs about universal themes such as time, night, and the sea. The scene clearly reflects the real-world gaucho tradition of payadas, improvised musical dialogues on philosophical themes — as distinct from the type of slang that Hernández uses in the main body of Martín Fierro. Borges points out that therefore, Hernández evidently knew the difference between actual gaucho tradition of composing poetry on universal themes, versus the "gauchesque" fashion among Buenos Aires literati. Borges goes on to deny the possibility that Argentine literature could distinguish itself by making reference to "local color", nor does it need to remain true to the heritage of the literature of Spain, nor to define itself as a rejection of the literature of its colonial founders, nor follow in the footsteps of European literature. He asserts that Argentine writers need to be free to define Argentine literature anew, writing about Argentina and the world from the point of view of someone who has inherited the whole of world literature. Borges uses Martín Fierro and El Moreno's competition as a theme once again in "El Fin" ("The End"), a story that first appeared in his short story collection Artificios (1944). "El Fin" is a sort of mini-sequel or conclusion to Martín Fierro. In his prologue to Artificios, Borges says of "El Fin," "Everything in the story is implicit in a famous book [Martín Fierro] and I have been the first to decipher it, or at least, to declare it." Sexuality There has been discussion of Borges's attitudes towards sex and women. It is undeniable that, with a few notable exceptions, women are almost entirely absent from the majority of his fictional output. Herbert J. Brant's essay "The Queer Use of Communal Women in Borges's 'El muerto' and 'La intrusa'", has argued that Borges employed women as intermediaries of male affection, allowing men to engage each other romantically without resorting to direct, homosexual contact. Herbert J. Brant, The Queer Use of Communal Women in Borges's "El muerto" and "La intrusa", paper presented at XIX Latin American Studies Association (LASA) Congress held in Washington DC in September, 1995. For instance, the plot of La Intrusa was based on a true story of two friends, but Borges made their fictional counterparts brothers, excluding the possibility of a homosexual relationship. Borges dismissed these suggestions. There are, however, instances in Borges's writings of heterosexual love and attraction. The story "Ulrikke" from The Book of Sand tells a romantic tale of heterosexual desire, love, trust and sex. The protagonist of "El muerto" clearly relishes and lusts after the "splendid, contemptuous, red-haired woman" of Azevedo Bandeira. Andrew Hurley Jorge Luis Borges: Collected Fictions. New York: Penguin, 1998. 197. Later he "sleeps with the woman with shining hair". Hurley 200 "El muerto" ("The Dead Man") contains two separate examples of definitive gaucho heterosexual lust. Cultural reference The 1970 film "Performance," directed by Donald Cammell and starring Mick Jagger and James Fox, is replete with Borgesian references. A photograph of Borges is briefly displayed during a montage sequence, a mirror is destroyed when shot with a gun, and the character played by Mick Jagger mentions the magicians of Orbis Tertius and also reads aloud a short passage from the short story "El sur." Bibliography Bibliography of Jorge Luis Borges Filmography Harto de Borges, dir. Eduardo Montes-Bradley. Argentina, 2004. (documentary) Borges para millones, dir. Ricardo Willicher. Argentina (documentary) See also Borges and I References Further reading Labryinths"/published by New Directions., 1967 and reissued in 2007 Borges/ Adolfo Bioy Casares, 2007 Jorge Luis Borges (Critical Lives) / Jason Wilson., 2006 With Borges / Alberto Manguel., 2006 Borges and Dante : echoes of a literary friendship / Humberto Núñez-Faraco., 2006 Borges and translation : the irreverence of the periphery / Sergio Gabriel Waisman., 2005 Borges : a life / Edwin Williamson., 2005 You might be able to get there from here: reconsidering Borges and the postmodern / Frisch, Mark F., 2004 Jorge Luis Borges (Bloom's BioCritiques) / Bloom, Harold., 2004 Jorge Luis Borges as writer and social critic / Racz, Gregary Joseph., 2003 The lesson of the master: on Borges and his work / Di Giovanni, Norman Thomas., 2003 Borges, the passion of an endless quotation / Block de Behar, Lisa., 2003 Jorge Luis Borges (Bloom's Major Short Story Writers) / Bloom, Harold., 2002 Invisible work: Borges and translation / Kristal, Efraín., 2002 Borges and his fiction: a guide to his mind and art / Bell-Villada, Gene., 1999 Jorge Luis Borges: thought and knowledge in the XXth century / Toro, Alfonso de., 1999 The secret of Borges: a psychoanalytic inquiry into his work / Woscoboinik, Julio., 1998 Borges and Europe revisited / Fishburn, Evelyn., 1998 Nightglow: Borges' poetics of blindness / Yudin, Florence., 1997 The Borges tradition / Di Giovanni, Norman Thomas., 1995 Signs of Borges / Molloy, Sylvia., 1994 Cervantes and the modernists: the question of influence / Williamson, Edwin., 1994 Out of context: historical reference and the representation of reality in Borges / Balderston, Daniel., 1993 With Borges on an Ordinary Evening in Buenos Aires: A Memoir / Willis Barnstone., 1993 Jorge Luis Borges: a writer on the edge / Sarlo, Beatriz., 1993 Borges' Narrative Strategy / Shaw, Donald L., 1992 Borges revisited / Stabb, Martin S., 1991 The contemporary praxis of the fantastic: Borges and Cortázar / Rodríguez-Luis, Julio., 1991 Borges and his successors: the Borgesian impact on literature and the arts / Aizenberg, Edna., 1990 Jorge Luis Borges: a study of the short fiction / Lindstrom, Naomi., 1990 Borges and the Kabbalah: and other essays on his fiction and poetry / Alazraki, Jaime., 1988 The meaning of experience in the prose of Jorge Luis Borges / Agheana, Ion Tudro., 1988 Critical essays on Jorge Luis Borges / Alazraki, Jaime., 1987 Jorge Luis Borges (Modern Critical Views) / Bloom, Harold., 1986 Jorge Luis Borges, life, work, and criticism / Yates, Donald A., 1985 The prose of Jorge Luis Borges: existentialism and the dynamics of surprise / Agheana, Ion Tudro., 1984 The aleph weaver: biblical, kabbalistic and Judaic elements in Borges / Aizenberg, Edna., 1984 Borges at Eighty: Conversations / Willis Barnstone., 1982 Borges and his fiction: a guide to his mind and art / Bell-Villada, Gene H., 1981 Jorge Luis Borges / McMurray, George R., 1980 Jorge Luis Borges, A Literary Biography / Monegal, Emir Rodriguez, 1978 Paper tigers: the ideal fictions of Jorge Luis Borges / Sturrock, John., 1977 The Cardinal points of Borges / Dunham, Lowell., 1971 External links English translation of Dreamtigers (a.k.a. El Hacedor), now freely available online in its entirety. International Jose Guillermo Carrillo Foundation The Borgesian Cyclopaedia. "Being a Virtual Reference to the World of Jorge Luis Borges". Fundación San Telmo's Jorge Luis Borges Collection The Norton Lectures, delivered at Harvard University in the fall of 1967, by Jorge Luis Borges "El Tango" on audio MP3 (in Spanish) Hallucinating Spaces, or the Aleph An essay from Borgesland'' by Susana Medina Interview with Borges at the University of Buenos Aires from Habitus: A Diaspora Journal Borges Center, University of Pittsburgh: important internet resources including bibliographies, chronologies, full text articles and books, and information on the journal Variaciones Borges BBC Radio 4: In Our Time Archive page for edition about Borges in a series on the 'History of Ideas'. Includes link to streaming audio. The Modern Word: The Garden of Forking Paths. A comprehensive Web site dedicated to exploring Borges and his work, including pages that discuss writers that Borges influenced. The Friends of Jorge Luis Borges Worldwide Society & Associates A non-Governmental and not for profit organization with four distinctive entities that aim to promote artistic and intellectual talents along with civic virtues in new generations of mankind. Borges' works ("a writer of writers" for his extensive and insightful readings) are celebrated as a thread of Ariadne to walk the labyrinths of Philosophy and Literature and all fields of knowledge in quest of wisdom. Borges' Bad Politics Slate.com presents a revisionist essay by Clive James arguing that Borges could have done more to engage with Argentina's political situation Rend(er)ing L.C.: Susan Daitch Meets Borges & Borges, Delacroix, Marx, Derrida, Daumier, and Other Textualized Bodies William A. Nericcio (1993); pdf full-text Poem of Jorge Luis Borges in Buenos Aires, Argentina, about the 'soul' and the mythical foundation his beloved city Norman Thomas di Giovanni's website which includes unpublished Borges material and Borges in conversation with Osvaldo Ferrari | Jorge_Luis_Borges |@lemmatized jorge:32 francisco:3 isidoro:7 luis:33 borges:208 acevedo:6 august:3 june:1 argentine:39 writer:24 poet:1 bear:3 buenos:22 aire:20 family:11 move:4 switzerland:7 attend:3 school:3 travel:5 spain:7 return:3 argentina:18 begin:8 publish:17 poem:14 essay:16 surrealist:1 literary:22 journal:8 also:17 work:49 librarian:1 public:4 lecturer:3 bilingual:2 speak:3 spanish:14 english:22 target:1 political:5 persecution:2 peron:1 regime:1 due:5 hereditary:2 condition:1 become:14 blind:3 late:1 fifty:3 particular:1 kind:2 blindness:3 grow:3 gradually:1 since:4 age:7 thirty:2 settle:1 good:3 eighth:2 birthday:1 alberto:2 manguel:2 london:2 telegram:1 book:25 p:8 appoint:3 director:3 national:5 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843 | Double_negative_elimination | In propositional logic, the inference rules double negative elimination (also called double negation elimination, double negative introduction, double negation introduction, or simply double negation) allow deriving the double negative equivalent by adding (for double negative introduction) or removing (for double negative elimination) a pair of negation signs. This is based on the equivalence of, for example, It is false that it is not raining. and It is raining. Formally, the rule double negative elimination is: ¬¬A ∴ A Formally, the rule double negative introduction is: A ∴ ¬¬A The rule of double negative introduction states the converse, that double negatives can be added without changing the meaning of a proposition. These two rules — double negative elimination and introduction — can be restated as follows (in sequent notation): , . Applying the Deduction Theorem to each of these two inference rules produces the pair of valid conditional formulas , , which can be combined together into a single biconditional formula . Since biconditionality is an equivalence relation, any instance of ~~A in a well-formed formula can be replaced by A, leaving unchanged the truth-value of the wff. Double negative elimination is a theorem of classical logic, but not intuitionistic logic. Because of the constructive flavor of intuitionistic logic, a statement such as It's not the case that it's not raining is weaker than It's raining. The latter requires a proof of rain, whereas the former merely requires a proof that rain would not be contradictory. (This distinction also arises in natural language in the form of litotes.) Double negation introduction is a theorem of intuitionistic logic, as is . In set theory also we have the negation operation of the complement which obeys this property: a set A and a set (AC)C (where AC represents the complement of A) are the same. See also Negation | Double_negative_elimination |@lemmatized propositional:1 logic:5 inference:2 rule:6 double:15 negative:11 elimination:6 also:4 call:1 negation:7 introduction:7 simply:1 allow:1 derive:1 equivalent:1 add:2 remove:1 pair:2 sign:1 base:1 equivalence:2 example:1 false:1 rain:5 formally:2 state:1 converse:1 without:1 change:1 meaning:1 proposition:1 two:2 restate:1 follow:1 sequent:1 notation:1 apply:1 deduction:1 theorem:3 produce:1 valid:1 conditional:1 formula:3 combine:1 together:1 single:1 biconditional:1 since:1 biconditionality:1 relation:1 instance:1 well:1 form:2 replace:1 leave:1 unchanged:1 truth:1 value:1 wff:1 classical:1 intuitionistic:3 constructive:1 flavor:1 statement:1 case:1 weak:1 raining:1 latter:1 require:2 proof:2 whereas:1 former:1 merely:1 would:1 contradictory:1 distinction:1 arise:1 natural:1 language:1 litotes:1 set:3 theory:1 operation:1 complement:2 obey:1 property:1 ac:2 c:1 represent:1 see:1 |@bigram propositional_logic:1 equivalence_relation:1 logic_intuitionistic:1 intuitionistic_logic:3 |
844 | Lexicon | In linguistics, the lexicon (from the Greek: Λεξικόν Definition of lexicon from the Online Etymology Dictionary ) of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. More formally, it is a language's inventory of lexemes. The lexicon includes the lexemes used to actualize words. Lexemes are formed according to morpho-syntactic rules and express sememes. In this sense, a lexicon organizes the mental vocabulary in a speaker's mind: First, it organizes the vocabulary of a language according to certain principles (for instance, all verbs of motion may be linked in a lexical network) and second, it contains a generative device producing (new) simple and complex words according to certain lexical rules. For example, the suffix '-able' can be added to transitive verbs only, so that we get 'read-able' but not 'cry-able'. Usually a lexicon is a container for words belonging to the same language. Some exceptions may be encountered for languages that are variants, like for instance Brazilian Portuguese compared to the Portuguese language, where a lot of words are common and where the differences may be marked word by word. When linguists study the lexicon, they study such things as what words are, how the vocabulary in a language is structured, how people use and store words, how they learn words, the history and evolution of words (i.e. etymology), types of relationships between words as well as how words were created. An individual's mental lexicon, lexical knowledge, or lexical concept is that person's knowledge of vocabulary. The role the mental lexicon plays in speech perception and production, as well as questions of how words from the lexicon are accessed, is a major topic in the fields of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics, where models such as the cohort model have been proposed to explain how words in the lexicon are retrieved. Further reading Aitchison, Jean. Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2003. See also Glossary Lexeme Lexical markup framework Lexical word Morphology (linguistics) Vocabulary Idiolect References Nielsen, Sandro (2008) "The effect of lexicographical information costs on dictionary making and use", in Lexikos (AFRILEX-reeks/series 18), pp. 170-189. | Lexicon |@lemmatized linguistics:2 lexicon:11 greek:1 λεξικόν:1 definition:1 online:1 etymology:2 dictionary:2 language:7 vocabulary:6 include:2 word:17 expression:1 formally:1 inventory:1 lexeme:4 use:3 actualize:1 form:1 accord:3 morpho:1 syntactic:1 rule:2 express:1 sememes:1 sense:1 organize:2 mental:4 speaker:1 mind:2 first:1 certain:2 principle:1 instance:2 verb:2 motion:1 may:3 link:1 lexical:6 network:1 second:1 contain:1 generative:1 device:1 produce:1 new:1 simple:1 complex:1 example:1 suffix:1 able:3 add:1 transitive:1 get:1 read:2 cry:1 usually:1 container:1 belong:1 exception:1 encounter:1 variant:1 like:1 brazilian:1 portuguese:2 compare:1 lot:1 common:1 difference:1 mark:1 linguist:1 study:2 thing:1 structure:1 people:1 store:1 learn:1 history:1 evolution:1 e:1 type:1 relationship:1 well:2 create:1 individual:1 knowledge:2 concept:1 person:1 role:1 play:1 speech:1 perception:1 production:1 question:1 access:1 major:1 topic:1 field:1 psycholinguistics:1 neurolinguistics:1 model:2 cohort:1 propose:1 explain:1 retrieve:1 far:1 aitchison:1 jean:1 introduction:1 malden:1 mass:1 blackwell:1 see:1 also:1 glossary:1 markup:1 framework:1 morphology:1 idiolect:1 reference:1 nielsen:1 sandro:1 effect:1 lexicographical:1 information:1 cost:1 making:1 lexikos:1 afrilex:1 reek:1 series:1 pp:1 |@bigram transitive_verb:1 |
845 | Delphi | Delphi (Greek , [ðe̞lˈfi]) (pronounce The name Delphi is pronounced, in the English manner, as "Delf-eye" or in the Greek manner, as "Delfee" depending on regional accent. The Greek spelling transliterates as "Delphoi" (with "o" added). and dialectal forms Belphoi - Aeolian form, Dalphoi - Phocian form and other Greek dialectal varieties ) is both an archaeological site and a modern town in Greece on the south-western spur of Mount Parnassus in the valley of Phocis. Delphi was the site of the Delphic oracle, the most important oracle in the classical Greek world, when it was a major site for the worship of the god Apollo after he slew the Python, a deity who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth. His sacred precinct in Delphi was a panhellenic sanctuary, where every four years athletes from all over the Greek world competed in the Pythian Games, one of the four panhellenic (or stephanitic) games, precursors to the Modern Olympics. Delphi was revered throughout the Greek world as the site of the omphalos stone, the centre of the earth and the universe. In the inner hestia ("hearth") of the Temple of Apollo, an eternal flame burned. After the battle of Plataea, the Greek cities extinguished their fires and brought new fire from the hearth of Greece, at Delphi; in the foundation stories of several Greek colonies, the founding colonists were first dedicated at Delphi. Burkert 1985, pp. 61, 84. Location Delphi(left center) is north of the Gulf of Corinth in central Greece. Delphi site is located in lower central Greece, on multiple plateau/terraces along the slope of Mount Parnassus, and includes the Sanctuary of Apollo, the site of the ancient Oracle. This semicircular spur is known as Phaedriades, and overlooks the Pleistos Valley. Southwest of Delphi, about away, is the harbor-city of Kirrha on the Corinthian Gulf. Dedication to Apollo The name Delphois starts with the same four letters as δελφύς delphus, "womb" and may indicate archaic veneration of Gaia, Grandmother Earth, and the Earth Goddess at the site. Fontenrose, Joseph, The Delphic Oracle: Its Responses and Operations, with a Catalogue of Responses (1978). pp.3-4. "Such was its prestige that most Hellenes after 500 B.C. placed its foundation in the earliest days of the world: before Apollo took possession, they said, Ge (Earth) [Gaia] and her daughter Themis had spoken oracles at Pytho. Such has been the strength of the tradition that many historians and others have accepted as historical fact the ancient statement that Ge and Themis spoke oracles before it became Apollo's establishment. Yet nothing but the myth supports this statement. In the earliest account that we have of the Delphic Oracle's beginnings, the story found in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (281-374), there was no Oracle before Apollo came and killed the great she-dragon, Pytho's only inhabitant. This was apparently the Delphic myth of the sixth century". Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States, v.III, pp.8-10, onwards. "The earth is the abode of the dead, therefore the earth-deity has power over the ghostly world: the shapes of dreams, which often foreshadowed the future, were supposed to ascend from the world below, therefore the earth-deity might acquire an oracular function, especially through the process of incubation, in which the consultant slept in a holy shrine with his ear upon the ground. That such conceptions attached to Gaia is shown by the records of her cults at Delphi, Athens, and Aegae. A recently discovered inscription speaks of a temple of Ge [Gaia] at Delphi. ... As regards Gaia, we also can accept it. It is confirmed by certain features in the latter Delphic divination, and also by the story of the Python." Apollo is connected with the site by his epithet Δελφίνιος Delphinios, "the Delphinian." The epithet is connected with dolphins (Greek δελφίς,-ῖνος) in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (line 400), recounting the legend of how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying Cretan priests on his back. The Homeric name of the oracle is Pytho (Πυθώ). Odyssey, VIII, 80 Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at Tempe, a city in Thessaly to pick laurel, a plant sacred to him (generally known in English as the bay tree). In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the Pythian Games received a wreath of laurel (bay leaves) picked in the Temple. The Temple of Apollo, viewed from below the eastern end. View of the mountain-top stadium of the Delphi sanctuary, used for the Pythian Games. The stone steps/seats at right were added under the Romans. Delphi became the site of a major temple to Phoebus Apollo, as well as the Pythian Games and the famous prehistoric oracle. Even in Roman times, hundreds of votive statues remained, described by Pliny the Younger and seen by Pausanias. Supposedly carved into the temple were three phrases: (gnothi seauton = "know thyself") and (meden agan = "nothing in excess"), and (eggua para d'atē = "make a pledge and mischief is nigh"), Plato, Charmides 164d-165a. as well as a large letter E. Hodge, A. Trevor. "The Mystery of Apollo's E at Delphi," American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 85, No. 1. (Jan., 1981), pp. 83-84. Among other things epsilon signifies the number 5. Plutarch's essay on the meaning of the “E at Delphi" is the only literary source for the inscription. In ancient times, the origin of these phrases was attributed to one or more of the Seven Sages of Greece, Plato, Protagoras 343a-b. though ancient as well as modern scholars have doubted the legitimacy of such ascriptions. H. Parke and D. Wormell, The Delphic Oracle, (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, pp. 387-389. According to one pair of scholars, "The actual authorship of the three maxims set up on the Delphian temple may be left uncertain. Most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages." Parke & Wormell, p. 389. From a late myth that deviates from much older ones, when young, Apollo killed the chthonic serpent Python, named Pythia in older myths, but according to some later accounts his wife, Pythia, who lived beside the Castalian Spring, according to some because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis. The bodies of the pair were draped around his Rod, which, with the wings created the caduceus symbolic of the god. This spring flowed toward the temple but disappeared beneath, creating a cleft which emitted vapors that caused the Oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since she was a child of Gaia. The shrine dedicated to Apollo was originally dedicated to Gaia and then, possibly to Poseidon. The name Pythia remained as the title of the Delphic Oracle. As punishment for this murder Apollo was sent to serve in menial tasks for eight years. A festival, the Septeria, was performed annually portraying the slaying of the serpent, the flight, the atonement and the return of the God. The Pythian Games took place every four years to commemorate his victory. Cf. Seyffert, Dictionary of Classic Antiquities, article on "Delphic Oracle" Another regular Delphi festival was the "Theophania" (Θεοφάνεια), an annual festival in spring celebrating the return of Apollo from his winter quarters in Hyperborea. The culmination of the festival was a display of an image of the gods, usually hidden in the sanctuary, to worshippers. James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, pp 70-71, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0719539714 The "Theoxenia" was held each summer, centred on a feast for "gods and ambassadors from other states". Google books Stehle, Eva. Performance and gender in ancient Greece: nondramatic poetry in its setting, p. 138, Princeton University Press, 1996, ISBN 0691036179, 9780691036175 Erwin Rohde wrote that the Python was an earth spirit, who was conquered by Apollo, and buried under the Omphalos, and that it is a case of one deity setting up a temple on the grave of another. Rodhe, E (1925), "Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality among the Greeks", trans. from the 8th edn. by W. B. Hillis (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1925; reprinted by Routledge, 2000). p.97. Another view holds that Apollo was a fairly recent addition to the Greek pantheon coming originally from Lydia. The Etruscans coming from northern Anatolia also worshiped Apollo, and it may be that he was originally identical with Mesopotamian Aplu, an Akkadian title meaning "son", originally given to the plague God Nergal, son of Enlil. Apollo Smintheus (Greek ), the mouse killer Entry: σμινθεύς at Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon eliminates mice, a primary cause of disease, hence he promotes preventive medicine. Oracle Delphi is perhaps best-known for the oracle at the sanctuary that became dedicated to Apollo during the classical period. According to Aeschylus in the prologue of the Eumenides, it had origins in prehistoric times and the worship of Gaia. In the last quarter of the 8th century BC there is a steady increase of artifacts found at the settlement site in Delphi. Pottery and bronze work as well as tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, in comparison to Olympia. Neither the range of objects nor the presence of prestigious dedications proves that Delphi was a focus of attention for worshipers of a wide range, but the strong representation of high value goods, found in no other mainland sanctuary, certainly encourages that view. The priestess of the oracle at Delphi was known as the Pythia. Apollo spoke through his oracle, who had to be an older woman of blameless life chosen from among the peasants of the area. The sibyl or prophetess took the name Pythia and sat on a tripod seat over an opening in the earth. When Apollo slew Python, its body fell into this fissure, according to legend, and fumes arose from its decomposing body. Intoxicated by the vapors, the sibyl would fall into a trance, allowing Apollo to possess her spirit. In this state she prophesied. It has been postulated that a gas high in ethylene came out of this opening that is known to produce violent trances, though this theory remains debatable. See Spiller, Hale, and de Boer (2000). Retrieved on March 8, 2007 While in a trance the Pythia "raved" - probably a form of ecstatic speech - and her ravings were "translated" by the priests of the temple into elegant hexameters. People consulted the Delphic oracle on everything from important matters of public policy to personal affairs. H.W. Parke writes that the foundation of Delphi and its oracle took place before the times of recorded history and its origins are obscure, but dating to the worship of the Great Goddess, Gaia. Herbert William Parke, The Delphic Oracle, v.1, p.3. "The foundation of Delphi and its oracle took place before the times of recorded history. It would be foolish to look for a clear statement of origin from any ancient authority, but one might hope for a plain account of the primitive traditions. Actually this is not what we find. The foundation of the oracle is described by three early writers: the author of the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, Aeschylus in the prologue to the Eumenides, and Euripides in a chorus in the Iphigeneia in Tauris. All three versions, instead of being simple and traditional, are already selective and tendentious. They disagree with each other basically, but have been superficially combined in the conventional version of late classical times." Parke goes on to say, "This version [Euripides] evidently reproduces in a sophisticated form the primitive tradition which Aeschylus for his own purposes had been at pains to contradict: the belief that Apollo came to Delphi as an invader and appropriated for himself a previously existing oracle of Earth. The slaying of the serpent is the act of conquest which secures his possession; not as in the Homeric Hymn, a merely secondary work of improvement on the site. Another difference is also noticeable. The Homeric Hymn, as we saw, implied that the method of prophecy used there was similar to that of Dodona: both Aeschylus and Euripides, writing in the fifth century, attribute to primeval times the same methods as used at Delphi in their own day. So much is implied by their allusions to tripods and prophetic seats." Continuing on p.6, "Another very archaic feature at Delphi also confirms the ancient associations of the place with the Earth goddess. This was the Omphalos, an egg-shaped stone which was situated in the innermost sanctuary of the temple in historic times. Classical legend asserted that it marked the 'navel' (Omphalos) or centre of the Earth and explained that this spot was determined by Zeus who had released two eagles to fly from opposite sides of the earth and that they had met exactly over this place". On p.7 he writes further, "So Delphi was originally devoted to the worship of the Earth goddess whom the Greeks called Ge, or Gaia (mythology). Themis, who is associated with her in tradition as her daughter and partner or successor, is really another manifestation of the same deity: an identity which Aeschylus himself recognized in another context. The worship of these two, as one or distinguished, was displaced by the introduction of Apollo. His origin has been the subject of much learned controversy: it is sufficient for our purpose to take him as the Homeric Hymn represents him – a northern intruder – and his arrival must have occurred in the dark interval between Mycenaean and Hellenic times. His conflict with Ge for the possession of the cult site was represented under the legend of his slaying the serpent." The Oracle exerted considerable influence throughout the Greek world, and she was consulted before all major undertakings: wars, the founding of colonies, and so forth. She also was respected by the semi-Hellenic countries around the Greek world, such as Lydia, Caria, and even Egypt. For a list of some of the most noted oracular pronouncements of the Pythia, go to Famous Oracular Statements from Delphi. The Oracle benefited by the Macedonian Kings. Later it was placed under the protection of the Aetolians. After a brief period the Romans started to emerge, who even protected it from a dangerous barbarian invasion in 109 B.C. and 105 B.C. A major reorganization was initiated which was interrupted by the wars of Mithridatic Wars and Sulla who took many rich offerings from the Oracle. Barbarian invasions were the direct cause of harm, burning the Temple, which was damaged severely by the earthquake in 83 B.C. Ever since the Oracle fell in decay and the whole area in great poverty. The small population led to difficulties in finding the right people to fill the posts required. Its credibility waned due to doubtful predictions. When Nero came to Greece in 66 AD, he took away over 500 of the best statues from Delphi to Rome. Subsequent Roman emperors from the Flavian dynasty contributed significantly towards its restoration. Hadrian offered complete autonomy. Also Plutarch was a significant factor by his presence as a chief priest. However, barbarian raids during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and removal of statues and other riches (practically looting) by Constantine the Great caused it to decay. The short reign of Julian the Apostate was not capable to improve its situation. Despite this, the Oracle existed until it was ordered to close by emperor Theodosius I in 395 AD. The site was abandoned for almost 100 years, until Christians started to settle permanently in the area and established a small town about 600 AD by the name Kastri. The "Delphic Sibyl" The Delphic Sibyl was a legendary prophetic figure who was said to have given prophecies at Delphi shortly after the Trojan War. The prophecies attributed to her circulated in written collections of prophetic sayings, along with the oracles of figures such as Bakis. The Sibyl had no connection to the oracle of Apollo, and should not be confused with the Pythia. Buildings and structures Site plan of the Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi Occupation of the site at Delphi can be traced back to the Neolithic period with extensive occupation and use beginning in the Mycenaean period (1600-1100 B.C.). Most of the ruins that survive today date from the most intense period of activity at the site in the 6th century BC. Delphi Archaeological Site, Ancient-Greece.org Temple of Apollo The ruins of the Temple of Delphi visible today date from the 4th century BC are of a peripteral Doric building. It was erected on the remains of an earlier temple, dated to the 6th century BC which itself was erected on the site of a 7th century BC construction attributed to the architects Trophonios and Agamedes. Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Ancient-Greece.org Temple of Apollo at Delphi The 6th century BC temple was named the "Temple of Alcmeonidae" in tribute to the Athenian family which funded its construction. It was a Doric hexastyle temple of 6 by 15 columns. The temple was destroyed in 373 BC by an earthquake with the third temple completed on the site by 330 BC. The third temple is attributed to Corinthian architects Spintharos, Xenodoros, and Agathon. The pediment sculptures are a tribute to Praxias and Androsthenes of Athens. Of a similar proportion to the second temple it retained the 6 by 15 column pattern around the stylobate. Inside was the adyton, the centre of the Delphic oracle and seat of Pythia. The monument was partly restored during 1938-1941. Treasuries The Treasury of Athens, built to commemorate their victory at the Battle of Marathon From the entrance of the site, continuing up the slope almost to the temple itself, are a large number of votive statues, and numerous treasuries. These were built by the various Greek city states — those overseas as well as those on the mainland — to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for her advice, which was thought to have contributed to those victories. They are called "treasuries" because they held the offerings made to Apollo; these were frequently a "tithe" or tenth of the spoils of a battle. The most impressive is the now-restored Athenian Treasury, built to commemorate the Athenians' victory at the Battle of Salamis. According to Pausanias, the Athenians had previously been given the advice by the oracle to put their faith in their "wooden walls" — taking this advice to mean their navy, they won a famous battle at Salamis. Several of the treasuries can be identified, among them the Siphnian Treasury, dedicated by the city of Siphnos whose citizens gave a tithe of the yield from their gold mines until the mines came to an abrupt end when the sea flooded the workings. Other identifiable treasuries are those of the Sikyonians, the Boetians and the Thebans. One of the largest of the treasuries was that of Argos. Built in the late Doric period, the Argives took great pride in establishing their place amongst the other city states. Completed in the year 380, the treasury draws inspiration mostly from the Temple of Hera located in the Argolis, the acropolis of the city. However, recent analysis of the Archaic elements of the treasury suggest that its founding preceded this. As a result of these treasuries, through the protection of the Amphictyonic League, Delphi came to function as the de-facto Central Bank of Ancient Greece. It was the abuse of these treasuries by Philip of Macedon and the later sacking of the Treasuries, first by the Celts, and later by Sulla, the Roman Dictator, that led to the eclipse of Greek civilization and the eventual growth of Rome. Altar of the Chians Located in front of the Temple of Apollo, the main altar of the sanctuary was paid for and built by the people of Chios. It is dated to the 5th century BC by the inscription on its cornice. Made entirely of black marble, except for the base and cornice, the altar would have made a striking impression. It was restored in 1920. Delphi, Hellenic Ministry of Culture. Stoa of the Athenians The stoa leads off north-east from the main sanctuary. It was built in the Ionic order and consists of seven fluted columns, unusually carved from single pieces of stone (most columns were constructed from a series of discs joined together). The inscription on the stylobate indicates that it was built by the Athenians after their naval victory over the Persians in 478 BC, to house their war trophies. The rear wall of the stoa contains nearly a thousand inscriptions; supposedly any slave manumitted in Athens was obliged to record a short biography here, explaining why he had deserved his freedom. Polygonal wall The retaining wall was built to support the terrace housing the construction of the second temple of Apollo in 548 BC. Its name is taken from the polygonal masonry of which it is constructed. Gymnasium The gymnasium, which is half a mile away from the main sanctuary, was a series of buildings used by the youth of Delphi. The building consisted of two levels: a stoa on the upper level providing open space, and a palaestra, pool and baths on lower floor. These pools and baths were said to have magical powers, and imparted the ability to communicate to Apollo himself. Castalian spring The mountain-top stadium at Delphi, far above the temples/theater below. The theatre at Delphi (as viewed near the top seats). The Tholos at base of Mount Parnassus: 3 of 20 Doric columns. The sacred spring of Delphi lies in the ravine of the Phaedriades. The preserved remains of two monumental fountains that received the water from the spring date to the Archaic period and the Roman, with the later cut into the rock. Stadium The stadium is located further up the hill, beyond the via sacra and the theatre. It was originally built in the 5th century BC but was altered in later centuries. The last major remodeling took place in the 2nd century AD under the patronage of Herodus Atticus when the stone seating was built and (arched) entrance. It could seat 6500 spectators and the track was 177 metres long and 25.5 metres wide. Delphi Stadium at Ancient-Greece.org. Theatre The ancient theatre at Delphi was built further up the hill from the Temple of Apollo giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the valley below. It was originally built in the 4th century BC but was remodeled on several occasions since. Its 35 rows can seat 5,000 spectators. Delphi Theater at Ancient-Greece.org. Tholos The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 BC. It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diameter of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior. The Tholos is located approximately a half-mile (800 m) from the main ruins at Delphi. Three of the Doric columns have been restored, making it the most popular site at Delphi for tourists to take photographs. Vitruvius (vii, introduction) notes Theodorus the Phocian as the architect of the Round Building which is at Delphi. Sibyl rock The Sibyl rock is a pulpit-like outcrop of rock between the Athenian Treasury and the stoa of the Athenians upon the sacred way which leads up to the temple of Apollo in the archaeological area of Delphi. It is claimed to be where the Sibyl sat to deliver her prophecies. Excavations The site had been occupied by the village of Kastri since medieval times and this had to be relocated before a systematic excavation of the site could be undertaken, a relocation resisted by the residents. The opportunity to relocate the village was presented when it was substantially damaged by an earthquake, with villagers offered a completely new village in exchange for the old site. In 1893 the French Archaeological School removed vast quantities of soil from numerous landslides to reveal both the major buildings and structures of the sanctuary of Apollo and of Athena Proaea along with thousands of objects, inscriptions and sculptures. Architecture The complex architecture of the sanctuary and the temple were part of Doric and Corinthian order, which was passed down from generations by Spintharus, who was notable for rebuilding the temple of Apollo in 373BC. Four areas of the site have been reconstructed to greater of lesser extents. The Treasury of the Athenians was fully reconstructed from its original materials by the original French excavation team under the sponsorship of the Mayor of Athens. The Altar of the Chians was reconstructed in 1959 by the Greek Archaeological Services. The Tholos and Temple of Apollo have been subject to limited reconstructions. Modern Delphi Delphi Museum Modern Delphi is situated immediately west of the archaeological site and hence is a popular tourist destination. It is on a major highway linking Amfissa along with Itea and Arachova. There are many hotels and guest houses in the town, and many taverns and bars. The main streets are narrow, and often one-way. Delphi also has a school, a lyceum, a church and a square (plateia). The Trans European Footpath E4 passes through the east end of the town. In addition to the archaeological interest, Delphi attracts tourists visiting the Parnassus Ski Center and the popular coastal towns of the region. The town has a population of 2,373 people while the population of the municipality of Delphi, including Chrisso (ancient Krissa), is 3,511. In medieval times Delphi was also called Kastri and was built on the archaeological site. The residents had used the marble columns and structures as support beams and roofs for their improvised houses, a usual way of rebuilding towns which were partially or totally destroyed, especially after the earthquake in 1580 which demolished several towns in Phocis. In 1893 archaeologists from the École française d'Athènes finally located the actual site (see link) of ancient Delphi and the village was moved to a new location, west of the site of the temples. The Delphi Archaeological Museum is at the foot of the main archaeological complex, on the east side of the village, and on the north side of the main road. The museum houses an impressive collection associated with ancient Delphi, including the earliest known notation of a melody, the famous Charioteer, golden treasures discovered beneath the Sacred Way, and fragments of reliefs from the Siphnian Treasury. Immediately adjacent to the exit (and overlooked by most tour guides) is the inscription which mentions the Roman proconsul Gallio. Entries to the museum and to the main complex are separate and chargeable, and a reduced rate ticket gets entry to both. There is a small cafe, and a post office by the museum. Slightly further east, on the south side of the main road, is the Gymnasium and the Tholos. Entry to these is free. Media A short movie showing Delphi's main sights See also Greek art List of traditional Greek place names Aristoclea - Delphic priestess of the 6th Century B.C., said to have been tutor to Pythagoras Delphi Archaeological Museum Notes References Broad, William J. The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind its Lost Secrets, 2006. ISBN 1-59-420081-5. Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion 1985. Connelly, Joan Breton, Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece, Princeton University Press, 2007. ISBN 0691127468 Dempsey, T., Reverend, The Delphic oracle, its early history, influence and fall, Oxford: B.H. Blackwell, 1918. Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States, in five volumes, Clarendon Press, 1896-1909. (Cf. especially, volume III and volume IV on the Pythoness and Delphi). Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, The Delphic oracle, its responses and operations, with a catalogue of responses, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978. ISBN 0520033604 Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Python; a study of Delphic myth and its origins, New York, Biblio & Tannen, 1974. ISBN 081960285X Goodrich, Norma Lorre, Priestesses, New York: F. Watts, 1989. ISBN 0531151131 Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, The Greeks and their Gods, 1955. Hall, Manly Palmer, The Secret Teachings of All Ages, 1928. Ch. 14 cf. Greek Oracles,www, PRS Herodotus, The HistoriesHomeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo Manas, John Helen, Divination, ancient and modern, New York, Pythagorean Society, 1947. Parke, Herbert William, History of the Delphic Oracle, 1939. Plutarch "Lives" Rohde, Erwin, Psyche, 1925. Seyffert, Oskar, "Dictionary of Classical Antiquities", London: W. Glaisher, 1895. Spiller, Henry A., John R. Hale, and Jelle Z. de Boer. "The Delphic Oracle: A Multidisciplinary Defense of the Gaseous Vent Theory." Clinical Toxicology 40.2 (2000) 189-196. West, Martin Litchfield, The Orphic Poems, 1983. ISBN 0-19-814854-2. Further reading Morgan, Catherine, Athletes and Oracles: The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC'', Cambridge [England] ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521374510 External links General Official website of the archaeological site Official website of the Museum History of the Ecole française d'Athènes in Delphi Homepage of the modern municipality Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Delphi Delphi C. Osborne, "A Short detour to Delphi and the Sibyls" Livius Picture Archive: Delphi Eloise Hart, "The Delphic oracle" III JUNIOR DELPHIC GAMES 2007 Baguio City, Philippines - November 10 to 15 International Delphic Council ASHES2ART Digital Delphi Geology of Delphi John R. Hale, et al., "Questioning the Delphic Oracle: When science meets religion at this ancient Greek site, the two turn out to be on better terms than scholars had originally thought", in Scientific American August 2003 John Roach, "Delphic Oracle's Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors" in National Geographic news, August 2001 Geology of Delphi The New York Times, March 19, 2002: "Fumes and Visions Were Not a Myth for Oracle at Delphi" A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean by Michael and Reynold Higgins, Cornell University Press, 1996 | Delphi |@lemmatized delphi:76 greek:28 ðe:1 lˈfi:1 pronounce:2 name:10 english:3 manner:2 delf:1 eye:1 delfee:1 depend:1 regional:1 accent:1 spelling:1 transliterates:1 delphoi:1 added:1 dialectal:2 form:5 belphoi:1 aeolian:1 dalphoi:1 phocian:2 variety:1 archaeological:12 site:31 modern:7 town:8 greece:14 south:2 western:1 spur:2 mount:3 parnassus:4 valley:3 phocis:2 delphic:24 oracle:45 important:2 classical:5 world:8 major:7 worship:6 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846 | Fred_Hoyle | Sir Fred Hoyle FRS (24 June, 1915 – 20 August, 2001) was an English astronomer primarily remembered today for his contribution to the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis and his often controversial stance on other cosmological and scientific matters, in particular his rejection of the Big Bang theory. In addition to his work as an astronomer, Hoyle was a writer of science fiction, including a number of books co-authored with his son Geoffrey Hoyle. Hoyle spent most of his working life at the Institute of Astronomy at Cambridge and served as its director for a number of years. He died in Bournemouth, England, after a series of strokes. Early life Hoyle was born in Gilstead, West Yorkshire, England "Sir Fred Hoyle" , near Bradford, where his father, George Hoyle, worked in the wool trade. His mother, Mabel Pickard, had studied music at the Royal College of Music in London. Hoyle was educated at Bingley Grammar School and read mathematics at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Contribution to cosmology An early paper of Hoyle's made an interesting use of the anthropic principle. In trying to work out the routes of stellar nucleosynthesis, he observed that one particular nuclear reaction, the triple-alpha process, which generated carbon, would require the carbon nucleus to have a very specific energy for it to work. The large amount of carbon in the universe, which makes it possible for carbon-based life-forms (e.g. humans) to exist, demonstrated that this nuclear reaction must work. Based on this notion, he made a prediction of the energy levels in the carbon nucleus that was later borne out by experiment. However, those energy levels, while needed in order to produce carbon in large quantities, were statistically very unlikely. Hoyle later wrote: Would you not say to yourself, "Some super-calculating intellect must have designed the properties of the carbon atom, otherwise the chance of my finding such an atom through the blind forces of nature would be utterly minuscule." Of course you would . . . A common sense interpretation of the facts suggests that a superintellect has monkeyed with physics, as well as with chemistry and biology, and that there are no blind forces worth speaking about in nature. The numbers one calculates from the facts seem to me so overwhelming as to put this conclusion almost beyond question. Fred Hoyle, "The Universe: Past and Present Reflections." Engineering and Science, November, 1981. p 8-12 Hoyle, an atheist until that time, said that this suggestion of a guiding hand left him "greatly shaken." Consequently, he began to believe in a god and panspermia. Gregg Easterbrook. Was Life Begun by Chance? Not a Chance. Beliefnet.com Accessed Sept. 22, 2006 Those who advocate the intelligent design hypothesis sometimes cite Hoyle's work in this area to support the claim that the universe was fine tuned in order to allow intelligent life to be possible. His co-worker William Alfred Fowler eventually won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983 (with Subramanyan Chandrasekhar), but for some reason Hoyle’s original contribution was overlooked, and many were surprised that such a notable astronomer missed out. Fowler himself in an autobiographical sketch affirmed Hoyle’s pioneering efforts: The concept of nucleosynthesis in stars was first established by Hoyle in 1946. This provided a way to explain the existence of elements heavier than helium in the universe, basically by showing that critical elements such as carbon could be generated in stars and then incorporated in other stars and planets when that star "dies". The new stars formed now start off with these heavier elements and even heavier elements are formed from them. Hoyle theorized that other rarer elements could be explained by supernovas, the giant explosions which occasionally occur throughout the universe, whose temperatures and pressures would be required to create such elements. Rejection of the Big Bang While having no argument with the Lemaître theory, (later confirmed by Edwin Hubble's observations) that the universe was expanding, Hoyle disagreed on its interpretation. He found the idea that the universe had a beginning to be philosophically troubling, as many argued that a beginning implies a cause, and thus a creator (see Kalam cosmological argument). Quentin Smith, A Big Bang Cosmological Argument For God's Nonexistence. Faith and Philosophy. April 1992 (Volume 9, No. 2, pp. 217-237 Instead, Hoyle, along with Thomas Gold and Hermann Bondi (with whom he had worked on radar in World War II), argued for the universe as being in a "steady state". The theory tried to explain how the universe could be eternal and essentially unchanging while still having the galaxies we observe moving away from each other. The theory hinged on the creation of matter between galaxies over time, so that even though galaxies get further apart, new ones that develop between them fill the space they leave. The resulting universe is in a "steady state" in the same manner that a flowing river is - the individual water molecules are moving away but the overall river remains the same. The theory was the only serious alternative to the Big Bang which agreed with key observations of the day, namely Hubble's red shift observations, and Hoyle was a strong critic of the Big Bang. Ironically, he is responsible for coining the term "Big Bang" on a BBC radio program, The Nature of Things broadcast at 1830 GMT on 28 March 1949. It is popularly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative, but the script from which he read aloud clearly shows that he intended the expression to help his listeners.<ref>Mitton, Simon, Fred Hoyle a life in science", p 127, Aurum Press, 2005.</ref> In addition, Hoyle explicitly denied that he was being insulting and said it was just a striking image meant to emphasize the difference between the two theories for radio listeners. Croswell, Ken, The Alchemy of the Heavens, chapter 9, Anchor Books, 1995. Hoyle, unlike Gold and Bondi, offered an explanation for the appearance of new matter by postulating the existence of what he dubbed the "creation field", or just the "C-field", which had negative pressure in order to be consistent with the conservation of energy and drive the expansion of the universe. These features of the C-field anticipated the later development of cosmic inflation. They jointly argued that continuous creation was no more inexplicable than the appearance of the entire universe from nothing, although it had to be done on a regular basis. In the end, mounting observational evidence convinced most cosmologists that the steady state model was incorrect and that the Big Bang was the theory that agreed best with observations, although Hoyle clung to his theory, mostly through criticizing the interpretation of astronomers' observations. In 1993, in an attempt to explain some of the evidence against the steady state theory, he presented a modified version called "quasi-steady state cosmology" (QSS), but the theory is not widely accepted. The evidence that resulted in the Big Bang's victory over the steady state model, at least in the minds of most cosmologists, included the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in the 1960s, the distribution of "young galaxies" and quasars throughout the Universe in the 1980s, a more consistent age estimate of the universe and most recently the observations of the COBE satellite in the 1990s and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe launched in 2001, which showed unevenness in the microwave background in the early universe, which corresponds to currently observed distributions of galaxies. Media appearances and scientific honours Hoyle appeared in a series of radio talks on astronomy for the BBC in the 1950s; these were collected in the book The Nature of the Universe, and he went on to write a number of other popular science books. In 1957 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and he was knighted in 1972. He was jointly awarded the Crafoord Prize by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Science fiction Hoyle also wrote science fiction. In his first novel, The Black Cloud, most intelligent life in the universe takes the form of interstellar gas clouds; they are surprised to learn that intelligent life can also form on planets. He wrote a television series, A for Andromeda, which was also published as a novel. His play Rockets in Ursa Major had a professional production at the Mermaid Theatre in 1962. Rejection of chemical evolution In his later years, Hoyle became a staunch critic of theories of chemical evolution used to explain the naturalistic origin of life. With Chandra Wickramasinghe, Hoyle promoted the theory that life evolved in space, spreading through the universe via panspermia, and that evolution on earth is driven by a steady influx of viruses arriving via comets. In 1982, Hoyle presented Evolution from Space for the Royal Institution's Omni Lecture. After considering the very remote probability of evolution he concluded: Published in his 1982/1984 books Evolution from Space (co-authored with Chandra Wickramasinghe), Hoyle calculated that the chance of obtaining the required set of enzymes for even the simplest living cell was one in 1040,000. Since the number of atoms in the known universe is infinitesimally tiny by comparison (1080), he argued that even a whole universe full of primordial soup would grant little chance to evolutionary processes. He claimed: The notion that not only the biopolymer but the operating program of a living cell could be arrived at by chance in a primordial organic soup here on the Earth is evidently nonsense of a high order. Hoyle compared the random emergence of even the simplest cell to the likelihood that "a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein." Hoyle also compared the chance of obtaining even a single functioning protein by chance combination of amino acids to a solar system full of blind men solving Rubik's Cube simultaneously. Genetic Algorithms and Evolutionary Computation at the talkorigins Archive (see also Watchmaker analogy for a similar reasoning). Ian Musgrave Ian Musgrave. Lies, Damned Lies, Statistics, and Probability of Abiogenesis Calculations. talkorigins Archive Accessed Sept. 25, 2007 argues that Hoyle's line of reasoning in this case incorporates a number of clear logical mistakes and omissions, such as assuming that the spontaneous creation of life must occur simultaneously, that the life thus created would be as complex as modern life (as opposed to one of its more primitive ancestors), and that the unlikeliness of a single instance of spontaneously-appearing life is not overcome by the large number of simultaneous trials occurring throughout the (very large) universe over its entire existence. As a result, this line of reasoning (which comes up frequently in discussions of Intelligent design vs. Evolution) is often referred to as Hoyle's Fallacy. Sir Fred Hoyle reached the conclusion that the universe is governed by a greater intelligence. In 1978, Hoyle described Charles Darwin's theory of evolution as wrong and claimed that the belief that the first living cell was created in the "sea of life" was just as erroneous. In his book "Evolution from Space" (1982), he distanced himself completely from Darwinism. He stated that "natural selection" could not explain evolution. In his book "The Intelligent Universe" (1983): "Life as we know it is, among other things, dependent on at least 2000 different enzymes. How could the blind forces of the primal sea manage to put together the correct chemical elements to build enzymes?" According to his calculations, the likelihood of this happening is only one in 10 to the 40 000 power (1 followed by 40 000 zeros). That is about the same chance as throwing 50 000 sixes in a row with a die. Or as Hoyle describes it: "The chance that higher life forms might have emerged in this way is comparable with the chance that a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein... I am at a loss to understand biologists' widespread compulsion to deny what seems to me to be obvious." ("Hoyle on Evolution", Nature, Vol. 294, 12 November 1981, p. 105) Hoyle remarked that: "scientific challenges to evolution have “never had a fair hearing” because “the developing system of popular education [from Darwin’s day to the present] provided an ideal opportunity...for awkward arguments not to be discussed and for discrepant facts to be suppressed.” Layout 1 Other controversies Further occasions on which Hoyle aroused controversy included his questioning the authenticity of fossil Archaeopteryx and his condemnation of the failure to include Jocelyn Bell in the Nobel Prize award recognizing the development of radio interferometry and its role in the discovery of pulsars. The most important of Hoyle's contributions was probably his work on nucleosynthesis: the idea that the chemical elements were synthesized from primordial hydrogen and helium in stars. Many thought it unfair that a Nobel prize was awarded to his collaborator William A Fowler, but Hoyle himself was excluded from the prize. Hoyle had a famously heated argument with Martin Ryle of the Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group about Hoyle's steady state theory, which somewhat restricted collaboration between the Cavendish group and the Cambridge Institute of Astronomy during the 1960s. Honours Awards Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1968) Bruce Medal (1970) Henry Norris Russell Lectureship (1971) Royal Medal (1974) Klumpke-Roberts Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1977) Crafoord Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, with Edwin Salpeter (1997) Named after him Asteroid 8077 Hoyle Janibacter hoylei, species of bacteria discovered by ISRO scientists Discovery of New Microorganisms in the Stratosphere. 16 March 2009. ISRO. Fiction works The Black Cloud, 1957 Ossian's Ride, 1959 A for Andromeda, 1962 (co-authored with John Elliott) Fifth Planet, 1963 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) The Andromeda Breakthrough, 1965 (co-authored with John Elliott) October the First Is Too Late, 1966 Element 79, 1967 Rockets in Ursa Major, 1969 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) Seven Steps to the Sun, 1970 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) The Inferno, 10/1973 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) The Molecule Men and the Monster of Loch Ness, 1973 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) Into Deepest Space, 1974 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) The Incandescent Ones, 1977 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) The Westminster Disaster, 10/1978 (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle) Comet Halley, 11/1985 Most of these are independent of each other. Andromeda Breakthrough is a sequel to A for Andromeda and Into Deepest Space is a sequel to Rockets in Ursa MajorNon-fiction works Frontiers of Astronomy, Heinemann Education Books Limited, London, 1955. - The Internet Archive. HarperCollins, ISBN 0060027606 ISBN 978-0060027605 Burbidge, E.M., Burbidge, G.R., Fowler, W.A. and Hoyle, F., Synthesis of the Elements in Stars, Revs. Mod. Physics 29:547–650, 1957, the famous B²FH paper after their initials, for which Hoyle is most famous among professional cosmologists.Astronomy, A history of man's investigation of the universe, Crescent Books, Inc., London 1962 LC 62-14108Nicolaus Copernicus, Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London, p. 78, 1973Astronomy and Cosmology: A Modern Course, 1975, ISBN 0-7167-0351-3 Energy or Extinction? The case for nuclear energy, 1977, Heinemann Educational Books Limited, ISBN 0-435-54430-6. In this provocative book Hoyle establishes the dependence of Western civilization on energy consumption and predicts that nuclear fission as a source of energy is essential for its survival.Lifecloud - The Origin of Life in the Universe, Hoyle, F. and Wickramasinghe N.C., J.M. Dent and Sons, 1978. ISBN 0-460-04335-8Commonsense in Nuclear Energy, Fred Hoyle and Geoffrey Hoyle, 1980, Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., ISBN 0-435-54432-2 The big bang in astronomy, New Scientist 92(1280):527, November 19, 1981.Ice, the Ultimate Human Catastrophe,1981, ISBN 0826400647 Snippet view from Google BooksThe Intelligent Universe, 1983Evolution from space (the Omni lecture) and other papers on the origin of life 1982, ISBN 0894900838Evolution from Space: A Theory of Cosmic Creationism, 1984, ISBN 0-671-49263-2 With Narlikar, J.V. and Wickramasinghe, N.C., The extragalactic universe: an alternative view, Nature 346:807–812, August 30, 1990.The Origin of the Universe and the Origin of Religion,1993, ISBN 1559210834 Home Is Where the Wind Blows: Chapters from a Cosmologist's Life (autobiography) Oxford University Press 1994, ISBN 0-19-850060-2Mathematics of Evolution, (1987) University College Cardiff Press, (1999) Acorn Enterprises LLC., ISBN 0-9669934-0-3 Further reading Alan P. Lightman and Roberta Brawer, Origins: The Lives and Worlds of Modern Cosmologists, Harvard University Press, 1990. A collection of interviews, mostly with the generation (or two) of cosmologists after Hoyle, but also including an interview with Hoyle himself. Several interviewees testify to Hoyle's influence in popularizing astronomy and cosmology. Dennis Overbye, Lonely Hearts of the Cosmos: The Scientific Quest for the Secret of the Universe, HarperCollins, 1991. Second edition (with new afterword), Back Bay, 1999. Gives a biographical account of modern cosmology in a novel-like fashion. Complementary to Origins.Simon Mitton, Conflict in the Cosmos: Fred Hoyle's Life in Science, Joseph Henry Press, 2005. ISBN 0-309-09313-9 or, Fred Hoyle: A Life in Science, Aurum Press, 2005. ISBN 1-85410-961-8 Douglas Gough, editor, The Scientific Legacy of Fred Hoyle, Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-82448-6 Chandra Wickramasinghe, A Journey with Fred Hoyle: The Search for Cosmic Life, World Scientific Publishing, 2005. ISBN 981-238-912-1 Jane Gregory, Fred Hoyle's Universe'', Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-850791-7 References Ferguson, Kitty (1991). Stephen Hawking: Quest For A Theory of Everything. Franklin Watts. ISBN 0-553-29895-X. External links Obituary by Sir Martin Rees in Physics Today Obituary in The Guardian | Fred_Hoyle |@lemmatized sir:4 fred:11 hoyle:68 fr:1 june:1 august:2 english:1 astronomer:4 primarily:1 remember:1 today:2 contribution:4 theory:17 stellar:2 nucleosynthesis:4 often:2 controversial:1 stance:1 cosmological:3 scientific:6 matter:3 particular:2 rejection:3 big:9 bang:9 addition:2 work:11 writer:1 science:10 fiction:5 include:5 number:7 book:13 co:13 author:12 son:2 geoffrey:10 spend:1 life:24 institute:2 astronomy:8 cambridge:4 serve:1 director:1 year:2 die:3 bournemouth:1 england:2 series:3 stroke:1 early:3 bear:2 gilstead:1 west:1 yorkshire:1 near:1 bradford:1 father:1 george:1 wool:1 trade:1 mother:1 mabel:1 pickard:1 study:1 music:2 royal:7 college:3 london:4 educate:1 bingley:1 grammar:1 school:1 read:2 mathematics:1 emmanuel:1 cosmology:5 paper:3 make:3 interesting:1 use:2 anthropic:1 principle:1 try:2 route:1 observe:2 one:7 nuclear:5 reaction:2 triple:1 alpha:1 process:2 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nuclear_fission:1 stephen_hawking:1 external_link:1 |
847 | Gardener | REDIRECT Gardening#Gardeners | Gardener |@lemmatized redirect:1 gardening:1 gardener:1 |@bigram |
848 | Dardanelles | The Dardanelles, a long narrow strait dividing the Balkans (Europe) along the Gallipoli peninsula from Asia Minor. A map depicting the location of the Dardanelles (yellow) relative to the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara. Location of the Dardanelles is boxed in red. The Dardanelles (, ), formerly known as the Hellespont (Greek: Ελλήσποντος, Hellespontos), is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with its counterpart the Bosporus. It is located at approximately . The strait is 61 kilometers (38 mi) long but only 1.2 to 6 kilometers (0.75 to 4 mi) wide, averaging 55 meters (180 ft) deep with a maximum depth of 82 meters (300 ft). Water flows in both directions along the strait, from the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean via a surface current and in the opposite direction via an undercurrent. Like the Bosporus, it separates Europe (in this case the Gallipoli peninsula) and the mainland of Asia. The strait is an International waterway, and together with the Bosporus, Dardanelles connects the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The Turkish name Çanakkale Boğazı is derived from the major city adjoining the strait, Çanakkale (which takes its name from its famous castles; kale means "castle"). The name Dardanelles derives from Dardania, an ancient land on the Asian shore of the strait. History The Dardanelles as seen from space. The strait has long had a strategic role in history. The ancient city of Troy was located near the western entrance of the strait and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War. It was also the scene of the legendary Greek story of Hero and Leander. The Persian army of Xerxes I and later the Greek army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively. The Dardanelles were vital to the defense of Constantinople during the Byzantine period, and since the 14th century they have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks. Historic map of Dardanelles by Piri Reis. Gaining control or special access to the strait became a key foreign policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century. During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia—supported by Great Britain in the Dardanelles Operation—blockaded the straits in 1807. Following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829, in 1833 Russia pressured Turkey to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—which required the straits to be closed to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. That treaty alarmed the losers, who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the regions. At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to attack Crimea during the Crimean War in 1853—but this was done as allies of the Ottoman Empire. That convention was formally reaffirmed by the Congress of Paris in 1856, following the Russian defeat in the Crimean War. It remained technically in force into the 20th and 21st centuries. Dardanelles' view from a ship. In 1915, the western Allies sent a massive invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, and New Zealander troops to attempt to open up the strait. At the battle of Gallipoli, Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the beaches of the Gallipoli peninsula. The Battle of Gallipoli did damage the career of Sir Winston Churchill, then the First Lord of the Admiralty, who eagerly promoted the use of Royal Navy sea power to force open the straits. The straits were mined by the Turks to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them, but in minor actions, two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British one sunk an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul. Sir Ian Hamilton's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force was unsuccessful in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and its withdrawal was ordered in January 1916, after 10 months fighting and more than 200,000 casualties. Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations. This was amended under the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne which restored the straits to Turkey but allowed all foreign warships to traverse the straits freely. Turkey rejected the terms of this treaty and subsequently remilitarized the area. The reversion to this old regime was formalized under the Montreux Convention of July 1936. The convention, which is still technically in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane, but Turkey retains the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea nations (like Greece, a traditional enemy, or Algeria). During World War II, through February 1945, when Turkey was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces in that war. Trivia The Australian indie rock band Dardanelles is named after the region. The University of Washington fight song Bow Down to Washington includes the lyrics "It's harder to push them over the line than pass the Dardanelles." The Dardanelles is mentioned in the opening song of the musical Sweeney Todd, the Demon Barber of Fleet Street, and in the 2007 film adaptation. In the song "No Place Like London", the character Anthony Hope sings, I have sailed the world, beheld its wondersFrom the Dardanelles to the mountains of Peru. The strait was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknote of 1938-1942. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 2. Emission Group - One Hundred Turkish Lira - I. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. See also Dardanelles Commission Battle of the Dardanelles Action of 26 June 1656 List of maritime incidents in the Turkish Straits Bosphorus References External links Pictures of the city of Çanakkale Pictures of Çanakkale - Dardanelles Photos Of Dardanelles Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University | Dardanelles |@lemmatized dardanelles:22 long:3 narrow:2 strait:24 divide:1 balkan:1 europe:2 along:3 gallipoli:6 peninsula:4 asia:2 minor:2 map:2 depict:2 location:2 yellow:1 relative:1 bosporus:4 sea:11 marmara:3 box:1 red:1 formerly:1 know:1 hellespont:1 greek:3 ελλήσποντος:1 hellespontos:1 northwestern:1 turkey:8 connect:2 aegean:2 one:5 turkish:9 counterpart:1 locate:2 approximately:1 kilometer:2 mi:2 wide:1 average:1 meter:2 ft:2 deep:1 maximum:1 depth:1 water:1 flow:1 direction:3 via:2 surface:1 current:1 opposite:2 undercurrent:1 like:3 separate:1 case:1 mainland:1 international:3 waterway:1 together:1 black:5 mediterranean:3 name:4 çanakkale:4 boğazı:1 derive:1 major:1 city:3 adjoin:1 take:1 famous:1 castle:2 kale:1 mean:1 derives:1 dardania:1 ancient:2 land:2 asian:1 shore:2 history:2 see:2 space:1 strategic:1 role:1 troy:1 near:1 western:2 entrance:1 asiatic:1 focus:1 trojan:1 war:9 also:2 scene:1 legendary:1 story:1 hero:1 leander:1 persian:1 army:2 xerxes:1 later:1 alexander:1 great:2 cross:1 invade:1 bc:2 respectively:1 vital:1 defense:1 constantinople:1 byzantine:1 period:1 since:1 century:3 almost:1 continuously:1 control:3 turk:2 historic:1 piri:1 real:1 gain:1 special:1 access:1 become:1 key:1 foreign:2 policy:1 goal:1 russian:3 empire:3 napoleonic:1 russia:5 support:1 britain:1 operation:1 blockade:1 follow:3 ottoman:2 defeat:2 russo:1 pressure:2 sign:1 treaty:5 hunkiar:1 iskelesi:1 require:1 close:2 warship:3 non:2 power:2 request:1 would:1 effectively:1 give:1 free:1 hand:1 alarm:1 loser:1 concern:1 consequence:1 potential:1 expansionism:1 region:3 could:2 conflict:2 possession:1 economic:1 interest:1 london:2 straits:1 convention:4 july:2 united:2 kingdom:2 france:2 austria:1 prussia:1 agree:1 traverse:2 peacetime:1 subsequently:2 send:2 fleet:2 attack:1 crimea:1 crimean:2 ally:3 formally:1 reaffirm:1 congress:1 paris:1 remain:1 technically:2 force:6 view:1 ship:3 massive:1 invasion:1 british:3 indian:1 australian:3 new:1 zealander:1 troop:2 attempt:2 open:2 battle:3 trap:1 beach:1 damage:1 career:1 sir:2 winston:1 churchill:1 first:1 lord:1 admiralty:1 eagerly:1 promote:1 use:1 royal:1 navy:1 mine:1 prevent:1 allied:1 penetrate:2 action:2 two:1 submarine:1 succeed:1 minefield:1 sunk:1 obsolete:1 pre:1 dreadnought:1 battleship:1 golden:1 horn:1 istanbul:1 ian:1 hamilton:1 expeditionary:1 unsuccessful:1 capture:1 withdrawal:1 order:1 january:1 month:1 fight:2 casualty:1 sèvres:1 demilitarize:1 make:1 territory:1 league:1 nation:3 amend:1 lausanne:1 restore:1 allow:1 freely:1 reject:1 term:1 remilitarize:1 area:1 reversion:1 old:1 regime:1 formalize:1 montreux:1 still:1 today:1 treat:1 shipping:1 lane:1 retain:1 right:1 restrict:1 naval:1 traffic:1 greece:1 traditional:1 enemy:1 algeria:1 world:2 ii:1 february:2 neutral:1 length:1 belligerent:1 declare:1 germany:1 employ:1 offensive:1 trivia:1 indie:1 rock:1 band:1 university:2 washington:2 song:3 bow:1 include:1 lyric:1 harder:1 push:1 line:1 pas:1 mention:1 opening:1 musical:1 sweeney:1 todd:1 demon:1 barber:1 street:1 film:1 adaptation:1 place:1 character:1 anthony:1 hope:1 sings:1 sail:1 behold:1 wondersfrom:1 mountain:1 peru:1 reverse:1 lira:2 banknote:2 central:1 bank:1 republic:1 museum:1 emission:1 group:1 hundred:1 series:1 retrieve:1 april:1 commission:1 june:1 list:1 maritime:1 incident:1 bosphorus:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 picture:2 photo:1 canakkale:1 onsekiz:1 mart:1 |@bigram gallipoli_peninsula:4 sea_marmara:3 aegean_sea:1 meter_ft:2 piri_real:1 ottoman_empire:2 russo_turkish:1 winston_churchill:1 lord_admiralty:1 pre_dreadnought:1 dreadnought_battleship:1 treaty_lausanne:1 montreux_convention:1 shipping_lane:1 sweeney_todd:1 turkish_lira:2 lira_banknote:1 turkey_banknote:1 external_link:1 |
849 | Marrakesh | Marrakech or Marrakesh (Amazigh: Murakush, Arabic مراكش Murrākush), known as the "Red City", is an important and former imperial city in Morocco. It has a population of 1,070,838 (as of 2004), and is the capital of the mid-southwestern economic region of Marrakech-Tensift-Al Haouz, near the foothills of the snow-capped Atlas Mountains. Like many North African and Middle Eastern cities, Marrakech comprises both an old fortified city (the médina) and an adjacent modern city (called Gueliz). It is served by Ménara International Airport (RAK is the code for the airport) and a rail link to Casablanca and the north. Marrakech is the third largest city in Morocco after Casablanca and Rabat. Marrakech has the largest traditional market (souk) in Morocco and also has one of the busiest squares in Africa and the world, Djemaa el Fna. Ready for the masses? - Daily Telegraph The square bustles with acrobats, story-tellers, water sellers, dancers, and musicians. By night, the square turns into food stalls, becoming a huge open-air restaurant with busy life. Name The probable origin of its name is from the Amazigh (Berber) words mur (n) akush, which means "Land of God". (The root "mur" is used now in the Berber languages mostly in the feminine form "tamurt"). The same word "mur" appears in the country Mauritania, but this interpretation is still unproven to this day. Until a few decades ago, Morocco was known as Kingdom of Marrakech by Arabs, Persians and Europeans. The European names of Morocco, Marruecos, Maroc, Marokko are directly derived from the Berber word Murakush. The city is spelled "Marrakech" in French, "Marrakech" or "Marrakesh" in English, "Marrakesch" in German and "Marakeş" in Turkish. History The Koutoubia Mosque, built in the 12th century CE Prior to the advent of the Almoravids in the 11th century, the area was ruled from the city of Aghmat. The Almoravid leader, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar decided Aghmat was becoming overcrowded and chose to build a new capital. He decided to build it in the plains near the Tansift river. He chose the site of Marrakech, because it was in neutral territory between two tribes who were vying for the honor of hosting the new capital. Work started in May 1070, but Abu-Bakr was recalled to the Sahara to put down a rebellion in January 1071 and the city was completed by his deputy and eventual successor Yusuf ibn Tashfin. Ibn Idhari, Al-bayan al-mughrib Part III, annotated Spanish translation by A. Huici Miranda, Valencia, 1963 The city experienced its greatest period under the leadership of Yacoub el Mansour, the third Almohad sultan. A number of poets and scholars entered the city during his reign and he began the construction of the Koutoubia Mosque and a new kasbah. Prior to the reign of Moulay Ismail, Marrakech was the capital of Morocco. After his reign, his grandson moved the capital back to Marrakech from Meknès. For centuries Marrakech has been known for its 'seven saints.' When sufism was at the height of its popularity, during the reign of Moulay Ismail, the festival of the 'seven saints' was founded by Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi at the request of the sultan. The tombs of several renowned figures were moved to Marrakech to attract pilgrims in the same way Essaouira did at that time with its Regrega festivals. The 'seven saints' (sebaatou rizjel) is now a firmly established institution, attracting visitors from everywhere. The seven saints include Sidi Bel Abbas (the patron saint of the city), Sidi Muhammad al-Jazuli, Sidi Abu al-Qasim Al-Suhayli, Cadi Ayyad ben Moussa, Abdelaziz al-Tebaa and Abdallah al-Ghazwani. Marrakech was dominated in the first half of the 20th century by T'hami El Glaoui, Lord of the Atlas and Pasha of Marrakech. The poet of the city was Mohammed Ben Brahim, his favorite place was café Al-Masraf. The poems and songs of Ben Brahim are still known by heart by many Marrakshi. Demographics Marrakech had an official number of population of 1,070,838 in 2004. There is a very large international community consisting mainly of Europeans estimated at 10,700 people, mostly retired. Main sights in Marrakech Many tourists take a trip from Marrakech to visit the valley of the Ourika River in the Atlas Mountains or the valley of the Draa River in the south near the Sahara desert, but also to Middle Atlas Mountains: Waterfalls of Beni Mellal, and to Essaouira on the Atlantic ocean. Transport Menara International Airport serves as the main airport for the city and receives flights from Europe and neighboring Arab countries. A toll-paying motorway connects Marrakech with Casablanca. CTM coaches (intercity buses) and various private lines run services to most notable Moroccan towns as well as a number of European cities, from the Gare Routière on Rue Bab Doukkala in downtown Marrakech. Marrakech is the southern terminus of the ONCF, the Moroccan railway network, and Marrakech is well served by trains heading to Tangier, Rabat, Casablanca, and Fes. The train station is located on Avenue Hassan II. The ONCF owned "Supratours" bus company serves towns not served by the train. The bus timetable coordinates with the train timetable and the bus terminal is right beside the station. References in popular culture "Marrakesh Express" is a song by Crosby, Stills and Nash. Alfred Hitchcock filmed the opening scenes of The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) on location in Marrakech with Doris Day and James Stewart. The book Hideous Kinky, as well as its movie adaptation, are for a large part situated in Marrakech in the early 70's. "Marrakech" is a title of a chapter, as well as the chapter's main setting, in James Michener's The Drifters In an episode of the Simpsons Montgomery Burnes and Mr.Smithers visit Marrakech, after Homer usurps control of the power plant, in order to find opium. Upon asking a street salesmen if he know's where to get drugs the salesmen responds by demonstrating that the bananas, monkeys, and the entire market is made of drugs. Sister cities - Granada, Spain - Timbuktu, Mali Climate Photo Gallery References and notes External links photographs of Marrakech by Antony Marsh | Marrakesh |@lemmatized marrakech:27 marrakesh:3 amazigh:2 murakush:2 arabic:1 مراكش:1 murrākush:1 know:6 red:1 city:16 important:1 former:1 imperial:1 morocco:6 population:2 capital:5 mid:1 southwestern:1 economic:1 region:1 tensift:1 al:11 haouz:1 near:3 foothill:1 snow:1 cap:1 atlas:4 mountain:2 like:1 many:3 north:2 african:1 middle:2 eastern:1 comprises:1 old:1 fortified:1 médina:1 adjacent:1 modern:1 call:1 gueliz:1 serve:4 ménara:1 international:3 airport:4 rak:1 code:1 rail:1 link:2 casablanca:4 third:2 large:4 rabat:2 traditional:1 market:2 souk:1 also:2 one:1 busy:2 square:3 africa:1 world:1 djemaa:1 el:3 fna:1 ready:1 mass:1 daily:1 telegraph:1 bustle:1 acrobat:1 story:1 teller:1 water:1 seller:1 dancer:1 musician:1 night:1 turn:1 food:1 stall:1 become:2 huge:1 open:1 air:1 restaurant:1 life:1 name:3 probable:1 origin:1 berber:3 word:3 mur:3 n:1 akush:1 mean:1 land:1 god:1 root:1 use:1 languages:1 mostly:2 feminine:1 form:1 tamurt:1 appear:1 country:2 mauritania:1 interpretation:1 still:3 unproven:1 day:2 decade:1 ago:1 kingdom:1 arab:2 persian:1 european:4 marruecos:1 maroc:1 marokko:1 directly:1 derive:1 spell:1 french:1 english:1 marrakesch:1 german:1 marakeş:1 turkish:1 history:1 koutoubia:2 mosque:2 build:3 century:4 ce:1 prior:2 advent:1 almoravid:2 area:1 rule:1 aghmat:2 leader:1 abu:4 bakr:2 ibn:3 umar:1 decide:2 overcrowd:1 choose:2 new:3 plain:1 tansift:1 river:3 site:1 neutral:1 territory:1 two:1 tribe:1 vie:1 honor:1 host:1 work:1 start:1 may:1 recall:1 sahara:2 put:1 rebellion:1 january:1 complete:1 deputy:1 eventual:1 successor:1 yusuf:1 tashfin:1 idhari:1 bayan:1 mughrib:1 part:2 iii:1 annotate:1 spanish:1 translation:1 huici:1 miranda:1 valencia:1 experience:1 great:1 period:1 leadership:1 yacoub:1 mansour:1 almohad:1 sultan:2 number:3 poet:2 scholar:1 enter:1 reign:4 begin:1 construction:1 kasbah:1 moulay:2 ismail:2 grandson:1 move:2 back:1 meknès:1 seven:4 saint:5 sufism:1 height:1 popularity:1 festival:2 found:1 ali:1 hassan:2 yusi:1 request:1 tomb:1 several:1 renowned:1 figure:1 attract:2 pilgrim:1 way:1 essaouira:2 time:1 regrega:1 sebaatou:1 rizjel:1 firmly:1 establish:1 institution:1 visitor:1 everywhere:1 include:1 sidi:3 bel:1 abbas:1 patron:1 muhammad:1 jazuli:1 qasim:1 suhayli:1 cadi:1 ayyad:1 ben:3 moussa:1 abdelaziz:1 tebaa:1 abdallah:1 ghazwani:1 dominate:1 first:1 half:1 hami:1 glaoui:1 lord:1 pasha:1 mohammed:1 brahim:2 favorite:1 place:1 café:1 masraf:1 poem:1 song:2 heart:1 marrakshi:1 demographic:1 official:1 community:1 consist:1 mainly:1 estimate:1 people:1 retire:1 main:3 sight:1 tourist:1 take:1 trip:1 visit:2 valley:2 ourika:1 mountains:1 draa:1 south:1 desert:1 waterfall:1 beni:1 mellal:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 transport:1 menara:1 serf:1 receive:1 flight:1 europe:1 neighboring:1 toll:1 pay:1 motorway:1 connects:1 ctm:1 coach:1 intercity:1 bus:4 various:1 private:1 line:1 run:1 service:1 notable:1 moroccan:2 town:2 well:4 gare:1 routière:1 rue:1 bab:1 doukkala:1 downtown:1 southern:1 terminus:1 oncf:2 railway:1 network:1 train:4 head:1 tangier:1 fe:1 station:2 locate:1 avenue:1 ii:1 supratours:1 company:1 timetable:2 coordinate:1 terminal:1 right:1 beside:1 reference:2 popular:1 culture:1 express:1 crosby:1 nash:1 alfred:1 hitchcock:1 film:1 opening:1 scene:1 man:1 much:1 location:1 doris:1 james:2 stewart:1 book:1 hideous:1 kinky:1 movie:1 adaptation:1 situate:1 early:1 title:1 chapter:2 setting:1 michener:1 drifter:1 episode:1 simpson:1 montgomery:1 burnes:1 mr:1 smithers:1 homer:1 usurps:1 control:1 power:1 plant:1 order:1 find:1 opium:1 upon:1 ask:1 street:1 salesman:2 get:1 drug:2 responds:1 demonstrate:1 banana:1 monkey:1 entire:1 make:1 sister:1 granada:1 spain:1 timbuktu:1 mali:1 climate:1 photo:1 gallery:1 note:1 external:1 photograph:1 antony:1 marsh:1 |@bigram daily_telegraph:1 abu_bakr:2 yusuf_ibn:1 ibn_tashfin:1 moulay_ismail:2 patron_saint:1 al_qasim:1 qasim_al:1 atlas_mountains:1 sahara_desert:1 atlantic_ocean:1 intercity_bus:1 alfred_hitchcock:1 photo_gallery:1 external_link:1 |
850 | AWK | AWK is a programming language that is designed for processing text-based data, either in files or data streams, and was created at Bell Labs in the 1970s The A-Z of Programming Languages: AWK . The name AWK is derived from the family names of its authors — Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and Brian Kernighan; however, it is not commonly pronounced as a string of separate letters but rather to sound the same as the name of the bird, auk (which acts as an emblem of the language such as on The AWK Programming Language book cover). awk, when written in all lowercase letters, refers to the Unix or Plan 9 program that runs other programs written in the AWK programming language. "AWK is a language for processing files of text. A file is treated as a sequence of records, and by default each line is a record. Each line is broken up into a sequence of fields, so we can think of the first word in a line as the first field, the second word as the second field, and so on. An AWK program is of a sequence of pattern-action statements. AWK reads the input a line at a time. A line is scanned for each pattern in the program, and for each pattern that matches, the associated action is executed." - Alfred V. Aho http://www.computerworld.com.au/index.php/id;1726534212;pp;2 The A-Z of Programming Languages: AWK AWK is an example of a programming language that extensively uses the string datatype, associative arrays (that is, arrays indexed by key strings), and regular expressions. The power, terseness, and limitations of early AWK programs inspired Larry Wall to write Perl just as a new, more powerful POSIX AWK and gawk (GNU AWK) were being defined. Although AWK and SED were designed to support one-liner programs, even the early Bell Labs users of AWK often wrote well-structured large AWK programs. AWK is one of the early tools to appear in Version 7 Unix and gained popularity as a way to add computational features to a Unix pipeline. A version of the AWK language is a standard feature of nearly every modern Unix-like operating system available today. AWK is mentioned in the Single UNIX Specification as one of the mandatory utilities of a Unix operating system. Besides the Bourne shell, AWK is the only other scripting language available in a standard Unix environment The Single UNIX Specification, Version 3, Utilities Interface Table . Implementations of AWK exist as installed software for almost all other operating systems. Structure of AWK programs An AWK program is a series of pattern action pairs, written as: pattern { action } where pattern is typically an expression and action is a series of commands. Each line of input is tested against all the patterns in turn and the action is executed for each expression that is true. Either the pattern or the action may be omitted. The pattern defaults to matching every line of input. The default action is to print the line of input. In addition to a simple AWK expression, the pattern can be BEGIN or END causing the action to be executed before or after all lines of input have been read, or pattern1, pattern2 which matches the range of lines of input starting with a line that matches pattern1 up to and including the line that matches pattern2 before again trying to match against pattern1 on future lines. In addition to normal arithmetic and logical operators, AWK expressions include the tilde operator, ~, which matches a regular expression against a string. As handy syntactic sugar, /regexp/ without using the tilde operator matches against the current line of input. AWK commands AWK commands are the statement that is substituted for action in the examples above. AWK commands can include function calls, variable assignments, calculations, or any combination thereof. AWK contains built-in support for many functions; many more are provided by the various flavors of AWK. Also, some flavors support the inclusion of dynamically linked libraries, which can also provide more functions. For brevity, the enclosing curly braces ( { } ) will be omitted from these examples. The print command The print command is used to output text. The output text is always terminated with a predefined string called the output record separator (ORS) whose default value is a newline. The simplest form of this command is: print This displays the contents of the current line. In AWK, lines are broken down into fields, and these can be displayed separately: print $1 Displays the first field of the current line print $1, $3 Displays the first and third fields of the current line, separated by a predefined string called the output field separator (OFS) whose default value is a single space character Although these fields ($X) may bear resemblance to variables (the $ symbol indicates variables in perl), they actually refer to the fields of the current line. A special case, $0, refers to the entire line. In fact, the commands "print" and "print $0" are identical in functionality. The print command can also display the results of calculations and/or function calls: print 3+2 print foobar(3) print foobar(variable) print sin(3-2) Output may be sent to a file: print "expression" > "file name" or through a pipe: print "expression" | "command" Variables and syntax Variable names can use any of the characters [A-Za-z0-9_], with the exception of language keywords. The operators + - * / represent addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. For string concatenation, simply place two variables (or string constants) next to each other. It is optional to use a space in between if string constants are involved. But you can't place two variable names adjacent to each other without having a space in between. String constants are delimited by double quotes. Statements need not end with semicolons. Finally, comments can be added to programs by using # as the first character on a line. User-defined functions In a format similar to C, function definitions consist of the keyword function, the function name, argument names and the function body. Here is an example of a function. function add_three (number, temp) { temp = number + 3 return temp } This statement can be invoked as follows: print add_three(36) # Outputs 39 Functions can have variables that are in the local scope. The names of these are added to the end of the argument list, though values for these should be omitted when calling the function. It is convention to add some whitespace in the argument list before the local variables, in order to indicate where the parameters end and the local variables begin. One or more space may exist between the function name and the open parenthesis in the function definition, but no space at all is allowed in the function call. Sample applications Hello World Here is the ubiquitous "Hello world program" program written in AWK: BEGIN { print "Hello, world!" } Note that you do not need an explicit exit statement here; since the only pattern is BEGIN, no command-line arguments are processed. Print lines longer than 80 characters Print all lines longer than 80 characters. Note that the default action is to print the current line. length($0) > 80 Print a count of words Count words in the input, and print lines, words, and characters (like wc) { w += NF c += length + 1 } END { print NR, w, c } As there is no pattern for the first line of the program, every line of input matches by default so the increment actions are executed for every line. Note that w += NF is shorthand for w = w + NF. Sum last word { s += $NF } END { print s + 0 } s is incremented by the numeric value of $NF which is the last word on the line as defined by AWK's field separator, by default white-space. NF is the number of fields in the current line, e.g. 4. Since $4 is the value of the fourth field, $NF is the value of the last field in the line regardless of how many fields this line has, or whether it has more or fewer fields than surrounding lines. $ is actually a unary operator with the highest operator precedence. (If the line has no fields then NF is 0, $0 is the whole line, which in this case is empty apart from possible white-space, and so has the numeric value 0.) At the end of the input the END pattern matches so s is printed. However, since there may have been no lines of input at all, in which case no value has ever been assigned to s, it will by default be an empty string. Adding zero to a variable is an AWK idiom for coercing it from a string to a numeric value. (Concatenating an empty string is to coerce from a number to a string, e.g. s "". Note, there's no operator to concatenate strings, they're just placed adjacently.) With the coercion the program prints 0 on an empty input, without it an empty line is printed. Match a range of input lines $ yes Wikipedia | awk 'NR % 4 == 1, NR % 4 == 3 { printf "%6d %s\n", NR, $0 }' | sed 7q 1 Wikipedia 2 Wikipedia 3 Wikipedia 5 Wikipedia 6 Wikipedia 7 Wikipedia 9 Wikipedia $ The yes command repeatedly prints its argument (by default the letter "y") on a line. In this case, we tell the command to print the word "Wikipedia". The action statement prints each line numbered. The printf function emulates the standard C printf, and works similarly to the print command described above. The pattern to match, however, works as follows: NR is the number of records, typically lines of input, AWK has so far read, i.e. the current line number, starting at 1 for the first line of input. % is the modulo operator. NR % 4 == 1 is true for the first, fifth, ninth, etc., lines of input. Likewise, NR % 4 == 3 is true for the third, seventh, eleventh, etc., lines of input. The range pattern is false until the first part matches, on line 1, and then remains true up to and including when the second part matches, on line 3. It then stays false until the first part matches again on line 5. The sed command is used to print the first 7 lines, to prevent yes running forever. It is equivalent to head -7 if the head command is available. The first part of a range pattern being constantly true, e.g. 1, can be used to start the range at the beginning of input. Similarly, if the second part is constantly false, e.g. 0, the range continues until the end of input: /^--cut here--$/, 0 prints lines of input from the first line matching the regular expression ^--cut here--$, that is, a line containing only the phrase "--cut here--", to the end. Calculate word frequencies Word frequency, uses associative arrays: BEGIN { FS="[^a-zA-Z]+" } { for (i=1; i<=NF; i++) words[tolower($i)]++ } END { for (i in words) print i, words[i] } The BEGIN block sets the field separator to any sequence of non-alphabetic characters. Note that separators can be regular expressions. After that, we get to a bare action, which performs the action on every input line. In this case, for every field on the line, we add one to the number of times that word, first converted to lowercase, appears. Finally, in the END block, we print the words with their frequencies. The line for (i in words) creates a loop that goes through the array words, setting i to each subscript of the array. This is different from most languages, where such a loop goes through each value in the array. This means that you print the word with each count in a simple way. tolower was an addition to the One True awk (see below) made after the book was published. Match pattern from command line This program can be represented in several ways. The first one uses the Bourne shell to make a shell script that does everything. It is the shortest of these methods: $ cat grepinawk pattern=$1 shift awk '/'$pattern'/ { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' $* $ The $pattern in the awk command is not protected by quotes. A pattern by itself in the usual way checks to see if the whole line ($0) matches. FILENAME contains the current filename. awk has no explicit concatenation operator; two adjacent strings concatenate them. $0 expands to the original unchanged input line. There are alternate ways of writing this. This shell script accesses the environment directly from within awk: $ cat grepinawk pattern=$1 shift awk '$0 ~ ENVIRON["pattern"] { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' $* $ This is a shell script that uses ENVIRON, an array introduced in a newer version of the One True awk after the book was published. The subscript of ENVIRON is the name of an environment variable; its result is the variable's value. This is like the getenv function in various standard libraries and POSIX. The shell script makes an environment variable pattern containing the first argument, then drops that argument and has awk look for the pattern in each file. ~ checks to see if its left operand matches its right operand; !~ is its inverse. Note that a regular expression is just a string and can be stored in variables. The next way uses command-line variable assignment, in which an argument to awk can be seen as an assignment to a variable: $ cat grepinawk pattern=$1 shift awk '$0 ~ pattern { print FILENAME ":" $0 }' "pattern=$pattern" $* $ Finally, this is written in pure awk, without help from a shell or without the need to know too much about the implementation of the awk script (as the variable assignment on command line one does), but is a bit lengthy: BEGIN { pattern = ARGV[1] for (i = 1; i < ARGC; i++) # remove first argument ARGV[i] = ARGV[i + 1] ARGC-- if (ARGC == 1) { # the pattern was the only thing, so force read from standard input (used by book) ARGC = 2 ARGV[1] = "-" } } $0 ~ pattern { print FILENAME ":" $0 } The BEGIN is necessary not only to extract the first argument, but also to prevent it from being interpreted as a filename after the BEGIN block ends. ARGC, the number of arguments, is always guaranteed to be ≥1, as ARGV[0] is the name of the command that executed the script, most often the string "awk". Also note that ARGV[ARGC] is the empty string, "". # initiates a comment that expands to the end of the line. Note the if block. awk only checks to see if it should read from standard input before it runs the command. This means that awk 'prog' only works because the fact that there are no filenames is only checked before prog is run! If you explicitly set ARGC to 1 so that there are no arguments, awk will simply quit because it feels there are no more input files. Therefore, you need to explicitly say to read from standard input with the special filename -. Self-contained AWK scripts As with many other programming languages, self-contained AWK script can be constructed using the so-called "shebang" syntax. For example, a UNIX command called hello.awk that prints the string "Hello, world!" may be built by creating a file named hello.awk containing the following lines: #!/usr/bin/awk -f BEGIN { print "Hello, world!" } The -f tells awk that the argument that follows is the file to read the awk program from, which is placed there by the shell when running. AWK versions and implementations AWK was originally written in 1977, and distributed with Version 7 Unix. In 1985 its authors started expanding the language, most significantly by adding user-defined functions. The language is described in the book The AWK Programming Language, published 1988, and its implementation was made available in releases of UNIX System V. To avoid confusion with the incompatible older version, this version was sometimes known as "new awk" or nawk. This implementation was released under a free software license in 1996, and is still maintained by Brian Kernighan. (see external links below) BWK awk refers to the version by Brian W. Kernighan. It has been dubbed the "One True AWK" because of the use of the term in association with the book The AWK Programming Language, ISBN 0-201-07981-X. that originally described the language, and the fact that Kernighan was one of the original authors of AWK. FreeBSD refers to this version as one-true-awk FreeBSD's work log for importing BWK awk into FreeBSD's core, dated 2005-05-16, downloaded 2006-09-20 . This version also has features not in the book, such as tolower and ENVIRON that are explained above; see the FIXES file in the source archive for details. gawk (GNU awk) is another free software implementation and the only implementation that made serious attempts at implementing Internationalization and localization. It also allows the user to extend the functionality of the program via user-written shared libraries. It was written before the original implementation became freely available, and is still widely used. Many Linux distributions come with a recent version of gawk and gawk is widely recognized as the de-facto standard implementation in the Linux world; gawk version 3.0 was included as awk in FreeBSD prior to version 5.0. Subsequent versions of FreeBSD use BWK awk in order to avoid FreeBSD's view of GPL Advantages and Disadvantages the GPL, a more restrictive (in the sense that GPL licensed code cannot be modified to become proprietary software) license than the BSD license. FreeBSD 5.0 release notes with notice of BWK awk in the base distribution xgawk is a SourceForge project xgawk at SourceForge based on gawk. It extends gawk with dynamically loadable libraries. mawk is a very fast AWK implementation by Mike Brennan based on a byte code interpreter. Old versions of Unix, such as UNIX/32V, included awkcc, which converted AWK to C. Kernighan wrote a program to turn awk into C++; its state is not known. An AWK to C++ Translator awka (whose front end is written on top of the mawk program) is another translator of AWK scripts into C code. When compiled, statically including the author's libawka.a, the resulting executables are considerably sped up and, according to the author's tests, compare very well with other versions of AWK, Perl, or Tcl. Small scripts will turn into programs of 160-170 kB. Downloads and further information about these versions are available from the sites listed below. Thompson AWK or TAWK is an AWK compiler for Solaris (operating system), DOS, OS/2, and Windows, previously sold by Thompson Automation Software (which has ceased its activities). Jawk is a SourceForge project Jawk at SourceForge to implement AWK in Java. Extensions to the language are added to provide access to Java features within AWK scripts (i.e., Java threads, sockets, Collections, etc). BusyBox includes a sparsely documented AWK implementation that appears to be complete, written by Dmitry Zakharov. This is a very small implementation suitable for embedded systems. Books The book's webpage includes downloads of the current implementation of Awk and links to others. Arnold Robbins maintained the GNU Awk implementation of AWK for more than 10 years. The free GNU Awk manual was also published by O'Reilly in May 2001. Free download of this manual is possible through the following book references. See also sed List of Unix programs References Further reading Interview with Alfred V. Aho on AWK AWK Become an expert in 60 minutes gnulamp awk tutorial External links awk.info the awk community portal The AWK Programming Language home page The new home of the One True AWK, maintained by Brian Kernighan, now at Princeton University after technical difficulties with the above link comp.lang.awk is a USENET newsgroup dedicated to AWK aaa - the Amazing Awk Assembler by Henry Spencer A legendary AWK program GAWK (GNU awk) webpage DJGPP port of GAWK 3.11b as a downloadable 768KB zipfile Open source implementation of AWK in Java with extensions AWK wrapper implementing modules and other powerful extensions Open source AWK to C Conversion Tool TAWK Compiler Top 'awk' commands - Usage examples | AWK |@lemmatized awk:105 programming:5 language:20 design:2 process:3 text:4 base:4 data:2 either:2 file:10 stream:1 create:3 bell:2 lab:1 z:3 program:27 name:13 derive:1 family:1 author:5 alfred:3 aho:3 peter:1 weinberger:1 brian:4 kernighan:6 however:3 commonly:1 pronounce:1 string:20 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851 | Galla_Placidia | Galla Placidia on a coin struck by her son Valentinian III. On the reverse, a cross (typical of all the coinage referring to Galla Placidia) stands for her Christian faith. Aelia Galla Placidia (392 – November 27, 450) was the Empress consort of Constantius III, Western Roman Emperor. Family Placidia was the daughter of Roman Emperor Theodosius I and his second wife Galla. Her profile in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley Her older brother Gratian died young. Her mother died in childbirth in 394, giving birth to John, who died with their mother. David Woods, "Theodosius I (379-395 A.D.)" Placidia was a younger, paternal half-sister of Emperors Arcadius and Honorius. Her older half-sister Pulcheria predeceased her parents as mentioned in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa, placing the death of Pulcheria prior to the death of Aelia Flaccilla, first wife of Theodosius I, in 385. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Her paternal grandparents were Count Theodosius and his wife Thermantia, as mentioned in the "Historia Romana" by Paul the Deacon. Her maternal grandparents were Valentinian I and his second wife Justina, as mentioned by Jordanes. Profile of Theodosius I in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley Early life Placidia was granted her own household by her father in the early 390s and was thus financially independent while underage. She was summoned to the court of her father in Mediolanum during 394. She was present at Theodosius' death on January 17, 395. She was granted the title of "Nobilissima Puella" ("Most Noble Girl") during her childhood. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Galla Placidia" Placidia spent most of her early years in the household of Stilicho the Vandal and his wife Serena. She is presumed to have learned weaving and embroidery. She might have also been given a classical education though no details are known. Serena was a first cousin of Arcadius, Honorius and Placidia. The poem "In Praise of Serena" by Claudian and the "Historia Nova" by Zosimus clarify that Serena's father was an elder Honorius, a brother to Theodosius I. Claudian, "In Praise of Serena", Loeb Classical Library, edition 1922 Zosimus, "Historia Nova, Book five, 1814 translation by Green and Chaplin According to "De Consulatu Stilichonis" by Claudian, Placidia was betrothed to Eucherius, only known son of Stilicho and Serena. Her scheduled marriage is mentioned in the text as the third union between Stilicho's family and the Theodosian dynasty, following those of Stilicho to Serena and Maria, their daughter, to Honorius. Claudian, "On the Consulship of Stilicho", Loeb Classical Library, edition 1922 Stilicho was the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire. He was the only known person to hold the rank of "magister militum in praesenti" from 394 to 408 in both the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire. He was also titled "magister equitum et peditum" ("Master of the Horse and of Foot"), placing him in charge of both the cavalry and infantry forces of the Western Roman Empire. Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, vol. 1 , p. 1114 In 408, Arcadius died and was succeeded by his son Theodosius II, only seven years old. Stilicho planned to proceed to Constantinople and "undertake the management of the affairs of Theodosius", convincing Honorius not to travel to the East himself. Shortly after, Olympius, "an officer of rank in the court-guards" attempted to convince Honorius that Stilicho was in fact conspiring to depose Theodosius II, to replace him with Eucherius. Olympius proceeded to lead a military coup d'état which left him in control of Honorius and his court. Stilicho was arrested and executed on August 22, 408. Eucherius sought refuge in Rome but was arrested there by Arsacius and Tarentius, two eunuchs following imperial command. They executed him not long after. Honorius appointed Tarentius imperial chamberlain, and gave the next post under him to Arsacius. Zosimus, "Historia Nova, Book five, 1814 translation by Green and Chaplin Their deaths left Placidia effectively unattached. First marriage In the disturbances that followed the fall of Stilicho, throughout the Italian Peninsula the wives and children of the foederati were slain. The foederati were considered loyalists of Stilicho and treated accordingly. The natural consequence of all this was that these men, to the number of 30,000, flocked to the camp of Alaric I, King of the Visigoths, clamouring to be led against their cowardly enemies. Alaric accordingly led them across the Julian Alps and, in September 408, stood before the Aurelian Walls and began a strict blockade. Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition Rome was under siege , with minor interruptions, from 408 to August 24, 410. Zosimus records that Placidia was within the city during the siege. When Serena was accused of conspiring with Alaric, "the whole senate therefore, with Placidia, uterine sister to the emperor, thought it proper that she should suffer death". Zosimus, "Historia Nova, Book five, 1814 translation by Green and Chaplin Her reasons for concurring to the execution of her cousin are not stated in the account. Prior to the fall of Rome, Placidia was captured by Alaric. Her captivity was recorded by both Jordanes and Marcellinus Comes, though the exact circumstances are not mentioned. She followed the Visigoths in their move from the Italian Peninsula to Gaul in 412. Their ruler Ataulf, having succeeded Alaric, entered an alliance with Honorius against Jovinus and Sebastianus, rival Western Roman emperors located in Gaul. He managed to defeat and execute both Gallo-Roman emperors in 413. Hugh Elton, "Western Roman Emperors of the First Quarter of the Fifth Century" After the heads of Sebastianus and Jovinus arrived at Honorius' court in Ravenna in late August, to be forwarded for display among other usurpers on the walls of Carthage, relations between Ataulf and Honorius improved sufficiently for Ataulf to cement them by marrying Galla Placidia at Narbonne on January 1, 414. The nuptials were celebrated with high Roman festivities and magnificent gifts from the Gothic booty. Priscus Attalus gave the wedding speech, a classical epithalamium. The marriage was recorded by Hydatius. The historian Jordanes states that they married earlier, in 411 at Forum Livii (Forlì). Jordanes's date may actually be when she and the Gothic king first became more than captor and captive. Placidia and Ataulf had a single known son, Theodosius. He was born in Barcelona by the end of 414. Theodosius died early in the following year, thus eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line. Profile of Ataulf in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley Years later the corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in St. Peter's Basilica, Rome. In Hispania, Ataulf imprudently accepted into his service a man identified as "Dubius" or "Eberwolf", a former follower of Sarus. Sarus was a Germanic chieftain who was killed while fighting under Jovinus and Sebastianus. His follower harbored a secret desire to avenge the death of his beloved patron. And so, in the palace at Barcelona, the man brought Ataulf's reign to a sudden end by killing him while he bathed in August/September, 415. Profile of Ataulf in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley The Amali faction proceeded to proclaim Sigeric, a brother of Sarus, as the next king of the Visigoths. According to the The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, the first act of Sigeric's reign "was the inhuman murder" of Ataulf's six children from a former marriage "whom he tore, without pity, from the feeble arms of a venerable bishop." (the later being Sigesar, Bishop of the Goths Profile of Ataulf in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley ). As for Galla Placidia, as Ataulf's widow, she was "treated with cruel and wanton insult" by being forced to walk more than twelve miles on foot among the crowd of captives driven ahead of the mounted Sigeric. Seeing the noble widow's sufferings, however, became one of the factors that roused indignant opponents of the usurper, who quickly assassinated Sigeric and replaced him with Wallia, Ataulf's relative. Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 31 Second marriage Interior of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna According to the Chronicon Albeldense, included in the Roda Codex, Wallia was in desperate need of food supplies. He surrendered to Constantius III, at the time magister militum of Honorius, negotiating terms giving foederati status for the Visigoths. Placidia was returned to Honorius as part of the peace treaty. Profile of Wallia in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to Constantius III on January 1, 417. Their daughter Justa Grata Honoria was probably born in 417 or 418. The history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first when mentioning the children of the marriage, suggesting she was the eldest. Their son Valentinian III was born on July 2, 419. Profile of Constantius III in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley Placidia intervened in the succession crisis following the death of Pope Zosimus on December 26, 418. Two factions of the Roman clergy had proceeded to elect their own Popes, the first electing Eulalius (27 December) and the other one electing Boniface I (28 December). They acted as rival Popes while situated in the same city, Rome. Said city was thrown into tumult as both factions clashed. Symmachus, Prefect of Rome, sent his report to the imperial court at Ravenna, requesting an imperial decision on the matter. Catholic Encyclopedia, "Pope St. Boniface I" Placidia and, presumably, Constantius petitioned the emperor in favor of Eulalius. This was arguably the first intervention by an Emperor in the Papal election. Honorius initially confirmed Eulalius as the legitimate Pope. As this failed to put an end to the controversy, Honorius called a Synod of Italian bishops at Ravenna to decide on the matter. The Synod convened from February to March 419 but failed to reach a conclusion. Honorius decided to call a second Synod in May, this time calling Gaulish and African bishops to participate. In the mean time, the two rival Popes were ordered to leave Rome. However, as Easter approached, Eulalius returned to the city and attempted to seize the Basilica of St. John Lateran in order to "preside at the paschal ceremonies". Imperial troops managed to repel him and on Easter (March 30, 419) the ceremonies were presided by Achilleus, Bishop of Spoleto. The conflict cost Eulalius' imperial favor and Boniface was proclaimed the legitimate Pope as of April 3, 419, returning to Rome a week later. Placidia had personally written to the African bishops, summoning them to the second synod. Three of her letters are known to have survived. On February 8, 421, Constantius was proclaimed an Augustus, becoming a co-ruler with the childless Honorius. Placidia was proclaimed an Augusta. She was the only Empress in the West, since Honorius had divorced Thermantia, his second wife, in 408 and never remarried. Both titles were not recognised by Theodosius II, Eastern Roman Emperor. Constantius reportedly complained about the loss of personal freedom and privacy that came with the imperial office. He died of an illness on September 2, 421. Hugh Elton, "Western Roman Emperors of the First Quarter of the Fifth Century" Widow Galla herself, the former Augusta, was however forced from the Western Empire. Whatever the politics or motivations, the public issue was increasingly scandalous public sexual caresses from her own brother Honorius. This at least was the interpretation given by Olympiodorus of Thebes, a historian used as a source by Zosimus, Sozomen and probably Philostorgius, as J.F. Matthews has demonstrated. J. F. Matthews, "Olympiodorus of Thebes and the History of the West (A.D. 407-425)" The Journal of Roman Studies; 60 (1970:79-97) Gibbon had a different opinion. "The power of Placidia; and the indecent familiarity of her brother, which might be no more than the symptoms of a childish affection, were universally attributed to incestuous love." Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 33 According to Gibbon, "On a sudden, by some base intrigues of a steward and a nurse, this excessive fondness was converted into an irreconcilable quarrel: the debates of the emperor and his sister were not long confined within the walls of the palace; and as the Gothic soldiers adhered to their queen, the city of Ravenna was agitated with bloody and dangerous tumults, which could only be appeased by the forced or voluntary retreat of Placidia and her children. The royal exiles landed at Constantinople, soon after the marriage of Theodosius, during the festival of the Persian victories. They were treated with kindness and magnificence; but as the statues of the emperor Constantius had been rejected by the Eastern court, the title of Augusta could not decently be allowed to his widow". Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 33 The passage places the arrival of Placidia and her children as following the marriage of Theodosius II to Aelia Eudocia, known to have occurred on June 7, 421. Profile of Arcadius and his children in "Medieval Lands" by Charles Cawley The "Persian victories" mentioned were probably victory celebrations over a brief Roman-Persian War, under the respective leaderships of Theodosius II and Bahram V of the Sassanid Empire. The conflict took place from c. 420 to 422. "The general Ardaburius operated in Arzanene and gained a victory, autumn 421, which forced the Persians to retreat to Nisibis, which Ardaburius then besieged. He raised the siege on the arrival of an army under Varahran, who proceeded to attack Resaina. Meanwhile the Saracens of Hira, under Al‑Mundhir, were sent to invade Syria, and were defeated by Vitianus. During the peace negotiations the Persians attacked the Romans and were defeated by Procopius, son-in‑law of Anthemius (Socrates, VII.18, 20). The Empress Eudocia celebrated the war in a poem in heroic metre (ib. 21)." J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian", vol. 2, chapter 14 The "Saracens of Hira" were the Lakhmids of Al-Hirah. On August 15, 423, Honorius died of dropsy, perhaps pulmonary edema. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Honorius (395-423 A.D.)" With no member of the Theodosian dynasty present at Ravenna to claim the throne, Theodosius II was expected to nominate a Western co-emperor. However, Theodosius hesitated and the decision was delayed. Taking advantage of the power vacuum, Castinus the Patrician proceeded to become a kingmaker. He declared Joannes, the primicerius notariorum ("chief notary", head of the civil service), to be the new Western Roman Emperor. Among their supporters was Flavius Aetius. Aetius was a son of Flavius Gaudentius, magister militum, and Aurelia. Joannes' rule was accepted in the provinces of Italia, Gaul, Hispania, but not in Africa Province. Theodosius II reacted by starting to prepare Valentinian III for eventual promotion to the imperial office. Within 423/424, Valentinian was named nobilissimus. In 424, Valentinian was betrothed to Licinia Eudoxia, his first cousin, once removed. She was a daughter of Theodosius II and Aelia Eudocia. The year of their betrothal was recorded by Marcellinus Comes. At the time of their betrothal, Valentinian was approximately four-years-old, Licinia only two. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Valentinian III (425-455 A.D.)" http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/BYZANTIUM.htm#Eudoxiadiedafter462 Profile of Licinia Eudoxia Gibbon attributes the betrothal to "the agreement of the three females who governed the Roman world", meaning Placidia and her nieces Eudocia and Pulcheria. Within the same year, Valentinian was proclaimed a Caesar in the Eastern court. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Valentinian III (425-455 A.D.)" The campaign against Joannes also started within the same year. Forces of the Byzantine army gathered at Thessaloniki, there placed under the general command of Ardaburus, the victorious general of the Roman-Persian War. The invasion force was to cross the Adriatic Sea through two different trails. Aspar, son of Ardaburius, was entrusted to lead the cavalry through land, following the sea-coast of the Adriatic from the Western Balkans to Northern Italy. Placidia and Valentinian joined Aspar's force. Ardaburius and the infantry boarded ships of the Byzantine navy in an attempt to reach Ravenna by sea. Aspar marched his forces to Aquileia, taking the city by surprise and with virtual no resistance. On the other hand, the fleet was dispersed by a storm. Ardaburius and two of his galleys were captured by forces loyal to Joannes, held prisoners in Ravenna. Ardaburius was treated well by Joannes, who probably intended to negotiate with Theodosius for an end to the hostilities. The prisoner was allowed the "courteous freedom" of walking the court and streets of Ravenna while his captivity lasted. He took advantage of this privilege to come into contact with the forces of Joannes, convince some of them to defect to Theodosius' side. The conspirators contacted Aspar and beckoned him to Ravenna. Aspar had a shepherd lead his cavalry force through the marshes of Po River to the gates of Ravenna. With the besiegers outside the walls and the defectors within, the city was captured with little further struggle. Joannes was captured with his capital, his right hand cut off. He was then mounted to a donkey, paraded through the streets. He was finally executed by decapitation in the Hippodrome of Aquileia. With Joannes dead, Valentinian was officially proclaimed the new Augustus of the Western Roman Empire on October 23, 425. His proclamation took place in the presence of the Roman Senate. Three days following Joannes' death, Aetius brought reinforcements for his army, a reported number of sixty thousand Huns from across the Danube. After some skirmishing, Placidia and Aëtius came to an agreement that established the political landscape of the Western Roman Empire for the next thirty years. The Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum per Gallias (commander-in-chief of the Roman army in Gaul). Regent Galla was the regent of the Western Roman Empire from 425 to 437, her regency ending when Valentinian reached his eighteenth birthday on July 2, 437. Among her early supporters was Bonifacius, governor of the Diocese of Africa. Ralph W. Mathisen, "Valentinian III (425-455 A.D.)" Aetius was arguably his rival for influence, managing to secure Arles against Theodoric I of the Visigoths. Prosper, Epitoma chronicon 1290, in: MGH Auctores antiquissimi (AA) 9, p. 471; Chronica Gallica of 452, 102, in: MGH AA 9, p. 658; Sidonius Apollinaris, letters 7. 12. 3 The Visigoths concluded a treaty and were given Gallic noblemen as hostages. The later Emperor Avitus visited Theodoric, lived at his court and taught his sons. Sidonius Apollinaris, carmen 7. 215sqq.; 7. 495sqq. Conflict between Bonifacius and Aetius Conflict between Placidia and Bonifacius started in 429. According to "History of the Wars" by Procopius:"There were two Roman generals, Aetius and Boniface, especially valiant men and in experience of many wars inferior to none of that time at least. These two came to be at variance in regard to matters of state, but they attained to such a degree of highmindedness and excellence in every respect that if one should call either of them "the last of the Romans" he would not err, so true was it that all the excellent qualities of the Romans were summed up in these two men. One of these, Boniface, was appointed by Placidia general of all Libya. Now this was not in accord with the wishes of Aetius, but he by no means disclosed the fact that it did not please him. For their hostility had not as yet come to light, but was concealed behind the countenance of each. But when Boniface had got out of the way, Aetius slandered him to Placidia, saying that he was setting up a tyranny and had robbed her and the emperor of all Libya, and he said that it was very easy for her to find out the truth; for if she should summon Boniface to Rome, he would never come. And when the woman heard this, Aetius seemed to her to speak well and she acted accordingly. Procopius, "History of the Wars", Book 3, chapter 3 "But Aetius, anticipating her, wrote to Boniface secretly that the mother of the emperor was plotting against him and wished to put him out of the way. And he predicted to him that there would be convincing proof of the plot; for he would be summoned very shortly for no reason at all. Such was the announcement of the letter. And Boniface did not disregard the message, for as soon as those arrived who were summoning him to the emperor, he refused to give heed to the emperor and his mother, disclosing to no one the warning of Aetius. So when Placidia heard this, she thought that Aetius was exceedingly well-disposed towards the emperor's cause and took under consideration the question of Boniface." "But Boniface, since it did not seem to him that he was able to array himself against the emperor, and since if he returned to Rome there was clearly no safety for him, began to lay plans so that, if possible, he might have a defensive alliance with the Vandals, who, as previously stated, had established themselves in Spain, not far from Libya. There Godigisclus had died and the royal power had fallen to his sons, Gontharis, who was born to him from his wedded wife, and Gizeric,of illegitimate birth. But the former was still a child and not of very energetic temper, while Gizeric had been excellently trained in warfare, and was the cleverest of all men. Boniface accordingly sent to Spain those who were his own most intimate friends and gained the adherence of each of the sons of Godigisclus on terms of complete equality, it being agreed that each one of the three, holding a third part of Libya, should rule over his own subjects; but if a foe should come against any one of them to make war, that they should in common ward off the aggressors." "On the basis of this agreement the Vandals crossed the strait at Gadira and came into Libya, and the Visigoths in later times settled in Spain. But in Rome the friends of Boniface, remembering the character of the man and considering how strange his action was, were greatly astonished to think that Boniface was setting up a tyranny, and some of them at the order of Placidia went to Carthage. There they met Boniface, and saw the letter of Aetius, and after hearing the whole story they returned to Rome as quickly as they could and reported to Placidia how Boniface stood in relation to her. And though the woman was dumbfounded, she did nothing unpleasant to Aetius nor did she upbraid him for what he had done to the emperor's house, for he himself wielded great power and the affairs of the empire were already in an evil plight; but she disclosed to the friends of Boniface the advice Aetius had given, and, offering oaths and pledges of safety, entreated them to persuade the man, if they could, to return to his fatherland and not to permit the empire of the Romans to lie under the hand of barbarians. "And when Boniface heard this, he repented of his act and of his agreement with the barbarians, and he besought them incessantly, promising them everything, to remove from Libya. But since they did not receive his words with favour, but considered that they were being insulted, he was compelled to fight with them, and being defeated in the battle, he retired to Hippo Regius, a strong city in the portion of Numidia that is on the sea. There the Vandals made camp under the leadership of Gizeric and began a siege; for Gontharis had already died. And they say that he perished at the hand of his brother. The Vandals, however, do not agree with those who make this statement, but say that Gontharis' was captured in battle by Germans in Spain and impaled, and that Gizeric was already sole ruler when he led the Vandals into Libya. This, indeed, I have heard from the Vandals, stated in this way. But after much time had passed by, since they were unable to secure Hippo Regius either by force or by surrender, and since at the same time they were being pressed by hunger, they raised the siege. And a little later Boniface and the Romans in Libya, since a numerous army had come from both Rome and Byzantium and Aspar with them as general, decided to renew the struggle, and a fierce battle was fought in which they were badly beaten by the enemy, and they made haste to flee as each one could. And Aspar betook himself homeward, and Boniface, coming before Placidia, acquitted himself of the suspicion, showing that it had arisen against him for no true cause. Bonifacius and Aetius initiated direct conflict against each other in 432. According to Gibbon: "Boniface accepted with gratitude the rank of patrician, and the dignity of master-general of the Roman armies; but he must have blushed at the sight of those medals, in which he was represented with the name and attributes of victory. The discovery of his fraud, the displeasure of the empress, and the distinguished favor of his rival, exasperated the haughty and perfidious soul of Aetius. He hastily returned from Gaul to Italy, with a retinue, or rather with an army, of Barbarian followers; and such was the weakness of the government, that the two generals decided their private quarrel in a bloody battle. Boniface was successful; but he received in the conflict a mortal wound from the spear of his adversary, of which he expired within a few days, in such Christian and charitable sentiments, that he exhorted his wife, a rich heiress of Spain, to accept Aetius for her second husband. But Aetius could not derive any immediate advantage from the generosity of his dying enemy: he was proclaimed a rebel by the justice of Placidia; and though he attempted to defend some strong fortresses, erected on his patrimonial estate, the Imperial power soon compelled him to retire into Pannonia, to the tents of his faithful Huns. The republic was deprived, by their mutual discord, of the service of her two most illustrious champions." Rise of Aetius With the generals loyal to her having either died or defected to Aëtius, Placidia apparently succumbed to the inevitable. Aetius was recalled from exile in 433, given the titles of "magister militum" and "Patrician". The appointments effectively left Aetius in control of the entire Western Roman Army and with considerable influence over imperial policy. She continued to act as regent until 437, though her direct influence over decisions had diminished. She would continue to exercise political influence to her death in 450, no longer however being the only power at court. Aetius, was later pivotal to the defense of the Western Empire against Attila the Hun. Attila was diverted from his focus on Constantinople towards Italy as his target due to a letter from Placidia's own daughter Justa Grata Honoria in the spring of 450, asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a Roman senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force on her. Honoria had also sent her engagement ring with the letter. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of Placidia convinced him to exile, rather than kill, Honoria. He also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Honoria was married to Flavius Bassus Herculanus, though this did not prevent Attila to still press his claim Ralph W. Mathisen, "Justa Grata Honoria" Placidia died shortly afterwards at Rome in November 450, and did not live to see Attila ravage Italy in 451 – 453 in a much more brutal campaign than the Goths had waged, using Justa's letter as their sole "legitimate" excuse. Public works Placidia was a fervent Chalcedonian Christian. She was involved in the building and restoration of various churches throughout her period of influence. She restored and somewhat expanded the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. She built San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna, the later in thanks for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing the Adriatic Sea. The dedicatory inscription reads "Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea." Her Mausoleum in Ravenna was one of the UNESCO World Heritage Site inscribed in 1996. However there is some doubt whether the building served as her tomb. The building was initially erected as a chapel dedicated to Lawrence of Rome. Whether the sarcophagi contained within contained the corpses of the Theodosian dynasty or not, the time of their entry in the building is unknown. Notes References Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 33 A good, modern study of Placidia and the times she lived in can be found in Stewart Irwin Oost, Galla Placidia Augusta, A Biographical Essay (1967). External links Pictures of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia Entry of Aelia Flaccilla in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Zosimus, New History. London: Green and Chaplin (1814). 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852 | Iota | Iota (uppercase Ι, lowercase ι; Yota) is the ninth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 10. It was derived from the Phoenician letter Yodh (). Letters that arose from Iota include the Roman I and J and the Cyrillic І (І, і), Yi (Ї, ї), Je (Ј, ј), and iotified letters (e.g. Yu (Ю, ю)). Iota represents . In ancient Greek it occurred in both long and short versions, but this distinction has been lost in Modern Greek. Iota participated as the second element in falling diphthongs, with both long and short vowels as the first element. Where the first element was long, the iota was lost in pronunciation at an early date, and was written in polytonic orthography as iota subscript in other words as a very small ι under the main vowel, for instance Common English phrase The word is used in a common English phrase, 'not one iota of difference', to signify a meaningless distinction (lit. "not even a small difference"). The phrase derives from the introduction to the Antithesis of the Law in the Gospel of Matthew (a jot or a tittle), and became common in the theological debate which caused the convening of the First Council of Nicaea, regarding the nature of the Holy Trinity. The argument centered on which of two alternative Greek words, differing only in a single 'iota' letter, should be used in describing Jesus' relationship to the Holy Trinity. One word, 'homoousios', would mean that Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father, and the other 'homoiousios', would mean that Jesus was of similar substance. This distinction separated the Arians, who believed the latter, from the main body of Christianity, and led to their ultimate condemnation as heretics. Symbol The Iota symbol is used to generate a vector of consecutive integers in the APL programming language. The lowercase Iota symbol is sometimes used to write the imaginary unit but more often Roman i or j are used. In logic, the lowercase iota denotes the definite descriptor. In mathematics and statistics, a unit vector is often denoted by a lowercase Iota letter with a superscribed caret: . | Iota |@lemmatized iota:12 uppercase:1 ι:3 lowercase:4 yota:1 ninth:1 letter:6 greek:5 alphabet:1 system:1 numeral:1 value:1 derive:2 phoenician:1 yodh:1 arise:1 include:1 roman:2 j:2 cyrillic:1 і:3 yi:1 ї:2 je:1 ј:2 iotified:1 e:1 g:1 yu:1 ю:2 represent:1 ancient:1 occur:1 long:3 short:2 version:1 distinction:3 lose:2 modern:1 participate:1 second:1 element:3 fall:1 diphthong:1 vowel:2 first:3 pronunciation:1 early:1 date:1 write:2 polytonic:1 orthography:1 subscript:1 word:4 small:2 main:2 instance:1 common:3 english:2 phrase:3 use:5 one:2 difference:2 signify:1 meaningless:1 lit:1 even:1 introduction:1 antithesis:1 law:1 gospel:1 matthew:1 jot:1 tittle:1 become:1 theological:1 debate:1 cause:1 convening:1 council:1 nicaea:1 regard:1 nature:1 holy:2 trinity:2 argument:1 center:1 two:1 alternative:1 differ:1 single:1 describe:1 jesus:3 relationship:1 homoousios:1 would:2 mean:2 substance:2 god:1 father:1 homoiousios:1 similar:1 separate:1 arians:1 believe:1 latter:1 body:1 christianity:1 lead:1 ultimate:1 condemnation:1 heretic:1 symbol:3 generate:1 vector:2 consecutive:1 integer:1 apl:1 programming:1 language:1 sometimes:1 imaginary:1 unit:2 often:2 logic:1 denote:2 definite:1 descriptor:1 mathematics:1 statistic:1 superscribed:1 caret:1 |@bigram gospel_matthew:1 council_nicaea:1 |
853 | Clown | Jennifer Miller's Circus Amok Clowns are comical performers, stereotypically characterized by their grotesque appearance: colored wigs, stylistic makeup, outlandish costumes, unusually large footwear, etc., who entertain spectators by acting in a hilarious fashion. The types of their acts varies greatly. They can be very scary sometimes but they entertain or scare many people, especially young kids. Peter Berger writes that "It seems plausible that folly and fools, like religion and magic, meet some deeply rooted needs in human society." For this reason, clowning is often considered an important part of training as a physical performance discipline, partly because tricky subject matter can be dealt with, but also because it requires a high level of risk and play in the performer . This has included the training offered by Jacques Lecoq. An example can be found in the Native American clown societies. History of Western Clowns Clowning has developed from a broad tradition and it is difficult to say that it has developed in as a singular tradition or a few different ones. Examples of historical clown types have been the pantomimus in ancient Greece, the Lazzi of Commedia dell'Arte, Bouffons, Court Jesters, the French Mime tradition. On top of this there are many non-European clowning traditions (including clown-like figures in Japanese Kabuki theatre) to consider which may or may not have influenced what we now think of when we think of a clown.[Suji Pula] Clown types Whiteface It is important to note that a whiteface character does not always wear the classic whiteface makeup. Additionally, a character can wear traditional whiteface makeup and be an auguste. Classic appearance Traditionally, the whiteface clown uses "clown white" makeup to cover his or her entire face and neck with none of the underlying flesh color showing. In the European whiteface makeup, the ears are painted red. Features, in red and black, are delicate. He or she is traditionally costumed far more extravagantly than the other two clown types, sometimes wearing the ruffled collar and pointed hat which typify the stereotypical "clown suit". Character The whiteface character-type is often serious, all-knowing (even if not particularly smart), bossy and cocky. He is the ultimate authority figure. He serves the role of "straight-man" and sets up situations that can be turned funny. Some circus examples include Pipo Sossman, François Fratellini (the Fratellini family), Felix Adler, Paul Jung, Harry Dann, Chuck Burnes, Albert White, Ernie Burch, Bobby Kaye, Jack and Jackie LeClaire, Joe and Chester Sherman, Keith Crary, Charlie Bell, Tim Tegge, Kenny Dodd, Frankie Saluto, Tammy Parish, David Konyot (Circus Barum and The Toni Alexis trio), Jay Stewart and Prince Paul Albert. Auguste Character The auguste character-type is often an anarchist, a joker, or a fool. He is clever and has much lower status than the whiteface. Classically the whiteface character instructs the auguste character to perform his bidding. The auguste has a hard time performing the task given which leads to funny situations. Sometimes the auguste plays the role of an anarchist and purposefully has trouble following the whiteface's directions. Sometimes the auguste is confused or is foolish and is screwing up less deliberately. The contra-auguste The contra-auguste plays the role of the mediator between the whiteface character and the auguste character. He has a lower status than the whiteface but a higher status than the auguste. He aspires to be more like the whiteface and often mimics everything the whiteface does to try to gain approval. If there is a contra-auguste character, he often is instructed by the whiteface to correct the auguste when he is doing something wrong. "Character clown" The character clown adopts an eccentric character of some type, such as a butcher, a baker, a policeman, a housewife or hobo. Prime examples of this type of clown are the circus tramps Otto Griebling and Emmett Kelly. Red Skelton, Harold Lloyd, Buster Keaton, and Charlie Chaplin would all fit the definition of a character clown. The character clown makeup is a comic slant on the standard human face. Their makeup starts with a flesh tone base and may make use of anything from glasses, mustaches and beards to freckles, warts, big ears or strange haircuts. "Egg Register" When a clown joins Clowns International in England, which claims to be the oldest clown society in the world, he can register his individual make-up. An eggshell is decorated as a miniature version of the clown's head and added to the "Egg Gallery" which then acts as sort of clown copyright. American character clown types The most prevalent character clown in the American circus is the hobo, tramp or bum clown. There are subtle differences in the American character clown types. According to American circus expert Hovey Burgess, they are (in order of class): The Hobo Migratory and finds work where he travels. The Tramp Migratory and does not work where he travels. The Bum Non-migratory and non-working. Emmett Kelly was the preeminent clown of this type. Others include Barry Lubin, Tom Dougherty, Bill Irwin, David Shiner, Geoff Hoyle, John Gilkey, Peter Shub, Poodles Hanneford, Bluch Landolf, Larry Pisoni, John Lepiarz, Bobo Barnett, Happy Kellams, Fumagalli, Charlie Cairoli, Bebe, Jojo Lewis, Abe Goldstein, Rhum, David Larible, Scott Linker, Kenny Raskin, Oleg Popov, Rik Gern and Bello Nock. Joey, the Auguste and the ringmaster In clown duos, Clowns often rely on the Joey & Auguste framework, or Manipulator/Victim. The Joey & Auguste Framework is often used widely in such comic works as Looney Tunes. Simply put, the two clowns, who for whatever reason are competing for survival, desperately rely on each other; without each other, they live a meaningless, and perhaps even more perilous adventure. For example, when Sylvester finally catches Tweety Bird (or thinks he does) he becomes so ridden with guilt that he nearly commits suicide. The Ringmaster relationship is the addition of an ur-manipulator, or ur-victim to this chemistry. This often takes the form of a mutual enemy or nemesis. An example of this situation might be as follows: A husband comes home late, he's drunk, and has a collar covered in lipstick. His wife wants to know where he's been, and a manipulator-victim relationship occurs. Suddenly their child enters the scene, and the dynamic changes in an attempt to avoid traumatizing him/her. The child wants to know why there's a strange man in their bedroom, and the manipulator-victim dymnamic shifts during the next argument. Then it turns out that the child has constructed this elaborate ruse in order to steal cookies and watch late-night TV without notice, giving him ur-manipulator status. This is an example of a ringmaster situation. Clowns in the ringmaster position are often character clowns, where Joey and Auguste duos are typically made up of a Whiteface Clown and an Auguste. Other types Native American clowning Many Native Tribes have a history of Clowning. The Canadian Clowning method developed by Richard Pochinko and furthered by his former apprentice, Sue Morrison, combines European and Native American clowning techniques. In this tradition, masks are made of clay while the creator's eyes are closed. A mask is made for each direction of the medicine wheel. During this process, the clown creates a personal mythology which explores his or her personal Experiences and Innocenses. Rodeo A rodeo clown is a cowboy, or animal wrangler, dressed in wild costumes — almost always oversized and consisting of loose fitting layers of clothing to protect them from, and to distract, rodeo bulls, broncos, etc. The looseness of the layers allows a rodeo clown to shed portions of their attire in the event of its being snagged -- as on an enraged bull's horn. Commedia dell'Arte There are two distinct types of clown characters, which originated in Commedia dell'Arte but which still hold some favor today, Pierrot and Arlecchino. Pierrot/Pirouette The Pierrot, or "French clown", derived from the commedia dell'arte character Pedrolino – the youngest actor of the troupe, deadpan and downtrodden. Although Pedrolino appeared without mask, Pierrot usually appears in whiteface, typically with very little other color on the face. Like Arlecchino, Pedrolino's character changed enormously with the rising popularity of pantomime in the late 19th century, becoming Pierrot. This clown character prefers black and white or other a simple primary color in his or her costume. (le Pierrot is often female, and has also been called "Pirouette" or "Pierrette". When Bernard Delfont was made a life peer, he chose "Pierrot and Pierrette" as the heraldic supporters of his coat of arms.). The tragic Robert Hunter song "Reuben and Cerise" mentions Pirouette twice, in symbolic colors:...Cerise was dressing as Pirouette in whitewhen a fatal vision gripped her tightCerise beware tonight...Cerise is Reuben's "true love", but Ruby Claire was a temptress:...Sweet Ruby Claire at Reuben staredAt Reuben staredShe was dressed as Pirouette in redand her hair hung gently down...Both women have names which translate as "red", but Reuben's true love is dressed in pure white. The other, to whom he played his fateful song, is the "lady in red." This symbolism might imply that Reuben was Pierrot's companion, Arlecchino: Arlecchino/Harlequin Harlequin, or Arlecchino, a character originally from the Commedia dell'Arte, is a "motley" clown. In the Commedia, Arlecchino always carries a cane with which to strike the other performers, although this cane is normally taken from him by the other performers and used against him. This is believed to be the origin of the slapstick form of comedy. A slapstick (battacio in Italian), is a prop with two flat flexible wooden pieces mounted in parallel so that the two sticks slap together when the implement is struck, causing a slapping sound, exaggerating the effect of a comedic blow. Despite the slapstick, Arlecchino is not malicious, but mischievous, the slapstick being a classic example of carnivalesque phallic imagery (see also the commedia masks' noses). Like a cross between the characters of Puck and Nick Bottom in A Midsummer Night's Dream, Arlecchino is nimble and adept at the same time as being clumsy and dim, and is normally the 'messenger' character in a comedy — the catalyst for mayhem. Arlecchino has a female counterpart, Arlecchina, or Rosetta, but more often he is in love with the character of Columbina, a straightforward and intelligent maid, who is usually given the prologue and epilogue. Arlecchino has other derivatives with slightly different features: Traccagnino, Bagattino, Tabarrino, Tortellino, Naccherino, Gradelino, Mezzettino, Polpettino, Nespolino, Bertoldino, Fagiuolino, Trappolino, Zaccagnino, Trivellino, Passerino, Bagolino, Temellino, Fagottino, Fritellino, Tabacchino, whose names could all be considered funny-sounding names, even to an Italian. Arlecchino's name is probably derived from "hellech" plus the diminutive suffix "-ino", meaning little devil. In the same way, "Trufflino" is "Little Truffler", Trivellino is (Arlecchino's) "Little Brother", and so on. The Harlequin often loses much of Arlecchino's character in pantomime, as he becomes more of a ballet character, to a large extent stripped of dialogue and subversive content. Skills In the circus, a clown might perform another circus role: Walk a tightrope, a highwire, a slack rope or a piece of rope on the ground, though in the last case, the predictably unpredictable clown might be just as likely to wrestle around on the ground with it, as if it were a boa constrictor. Ride a horse, a zebra, a donkey, an elephant or even an ostrich. Substitute himself in the role of "lion tamer". Act as "emcee", from M.C. or Master of Ceremonies, the preferred term for a clown taking on the role of "Ringmaster". "Sit in" with the orchestra, perhaps in a "pin spot" in the center ring, or from a seat in the audience. Anything any other circus performer might do. It is not uncommon for an acrobat, a horse-back rider or a lion tamer to secretly stand in for the clown, the "switch" taking place in a brief moment offstage. Clowning frameworks Frameworks are the general outline of an act that clowns use to help them build out an act. Frameworks can be loose, including only a general beginning and ending to the act, leaving it up to the clown's creativity to fill in the rest, or at the other extreme a fully developed script that allows very little room for creativity. Shows are the overall production that a clown is a part of, it may or may not include elements other than clowning, such as in a circus show. In a circus context, clown shows are typically made up of some combination of Entrées, Side dishes, Clown Stops, Track Gags, Gags and bits. Gags, bits and business "Business" is the individual motions the clown uses, often used to express the clown's character. A "gag" is a very short piece of clown comedy which when repeated within a bit or routine may become a "running gag". Gags may be loosely defined as "the jokes clowns play on each other". Bits are the clown's sketches or routines made up of one or more gags either worked out and timed before going on stage or impromptu bits composed of familiar improvisational material. A gag may have a beginning, a middle and an end to them, or they may not. Gags can also refer to the prop stunts/tricks or the stunts that clowns use, such as a squirting flower. Menu Entrées are feature clowning acts lasting 5-10 minutes. They are typically made up of various gags and bits, and usually use a clowning framework. Entrées almost always end with a blow-off. (The blow-off is the comedic ending of a show segment, bit, gag, stunt or routine.) Side dishes are shorter feature acts. Side dishes are essentially shorter versions of the Entrée, typically lasting 1 - 3 minutes. Side dishes are typically made up of various gags and bits, and usually use a clowning framework. Side dishes almost always end with a blow-off. Interludes Clown Stops or interludes are the brief appearance of clowns while the props and rigging are changed. These are typically made up of a few gags or several bits. Clown Stops almost always end with a blow-off. Clown stops will always have a beginning, a middle and an end to them. These are also called reprises or run-ins by many and in today's circus they are an art form in themselves, originally they were bits of "business" usually parodying the act that had preceded it. If for instance there had been a wire walker the reprise would involve two chairs with a piece of rope between and the clown trying to imitate the artiste by trying to walk between them with the resulting falls and cascades bringing laughter from the audience. Today they are far more complex and in many modern shows the clowning is a thread that links the whole show together. Prop stunts Among the more well-known clown stunts are: squirting flower; the "too-many-clowns-coming-out-of-a-tiny-car" stunt; doing just about anything with a rubber chicken, tripping over ones own feet (or an air pocket or imaginary blemish in the floor), or riding any number of ridiculous vehicles or "clown bikes". Individual prop stunts are generally considered to be individual bits. Amateur clowning An amateur clown There are lots of amateurs practicing clowning skills and appearance. Improvisation and imitations of famous clowns are common for amateur clowns. A piece of artistic sense can sometimes be found even in children animators. It is not too expensive for an amateur clown to lease a costume, and even home makeup (except for the white color) will create an attractive effect for the spectators. Private costume parties usually have at least one amateur clown present at the event and, even with a few cheap clown tricks, there are always plenty of joyful receptions for the character. Being a clown In slang, this is in regards to "clowning" things, such as messing things up or blowing an opportunity. Being a "clown" can be considered a negative thing. Fear of clowns Clown in diner Many people find clowns disturbing rather than amusing. It is common for children to be afraid of disguised, exaggerated, or costumed figures — even Santa Claus. Ute myths feature a cannibalistic clown monster called the Siats. Clown costumes tend to exaggerate the facial features and some body parts, such as hands and feet and noses. This can be read as monstrous or deformed as easily as it can be read as comical. The fear of clowns is known as coulrophobia. Some have suggested that a fear of clowns may stem from early childhood experience, when infants begin to process and make sense of facial features. The significant aberrations in a clown's face may frighten a child so much that they carry this phobia throughout their adult life. Don't send in the clowns - Reuters Oddly Enough It can also be said one's response to a clown might depend on where it is seen. At a circus or a party, a clown is normal and may easily be funny. The same clown knocking on one's front door at sunset or sitting in a diner (see picture) is more likely to generate fear or distress than laughter or amusement. This effect is summed up in a quote often attributed to actor Lon Chaney, Sr.: "There is nothing funny about a clown in the moonlight." In the Space To Care'' study aimed at improving hospital design for children, researchers from the University of Sheffield polled 250 children regarding their opinions on clowns; all 250 children in the study, whose ages ranged between four and sixteen, reported that they found clowns frightening and disliked clowns as part of hospital decor. Clowns 'Too Scary' For Children's Wards In Hospitals - Sky News The British arts and music festival Bestival cancelled its planned clown theme in 2006 after many adult ticketholders contacted the organizers expressing a fear of clowns. References See also Bouffon Circus clown Clown car Clown society Evil clown Jester Mime artist Rodeo clown | Clown |@lemmatized jennifer:1 miller:1 circus:14 amok:1 clown:101 comical:2 performer:5 stereotypically:1 characterize:1 grotesque:1 appearance:4 colored:1 wig:1 stylistic:1 makeup:8 outlandish:1 costume:8 unusually:1 large:2 footwear:1 etc:2 entertain:2 spectator:2 act:10 hilarious:1 fashion:1 type:13 varies:1 greatly:1 scary:2 sometimes:5 scare:1 many:8 people:2 especially:1 young:2 kid:1 peter:2 berger:1 write:1 seem:1 plausible:1 folly:1 fool:2 like:5 religion:1 magic:1 meet:1 deeply:1 root:1 need:1 human:2 society:4 reason:2 clowning:7 often:14 consider:5 important:2 part:4 training:2 physical:1 performance:1 discipline:1 partly:1 tricky:1 subject:1 matter:1 deal:1 also:7 require:1 high:2 level:1 risk:1 play:5 include:6 offer:1 jacques:1 lecoq:1 example:8 find:5 native:4 american:7 history:2 western:1 develop:3 broad:1 tradition:5 difficult:1 say:2 singular:1 different:2 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854 | Jean_Cocteau | Jean Maurice Eugène Clément Cocteau (5 July 1889 – 11 October 1963) was a French poet, novelist, dramatist, designer, boxing manager, playwright, artist and filmmaker. Along with other Surrealists of his generation (Jean Anouilh and René Char for example) Cocteau grappled with the "algebra" of verbal codes old and new, mise en scène language and technologies of modernism to create a paradox: a classical avant-garde. His circle of associates, friends and lovers included Pablo Picasso, Jean Marais, Henri Bernstein, Édith Piaf, whom he cast in one of his one act plays entitled Le Bel Indifferent in 1940, and Raymond Radiguet. His work was played out in the theatrical world of the Grands Theatres, the Boulevards and beyond during the Parisian epoque he both lived through and helped define and create. His versatile, unconventional approach and enormous output brought him international acclaim. Biography Cocteau was born in Maisons-Laffitte, a small village near Paris to Georges Cocteau and his wife Eugénie Lecomte, a prominent Parisian family. His father was a lawyer and amateur painter, who committed suicide when Cocteau was nine. At the age of fifteen, Cocteau left home. Despite his achievements in virtually all literary and artistic fields, Cocteau insisted that he was primarily a poet and that all his work was poetry. He published his first volume of poems, Aladdin's Lamp, at nineteen. Soon Cocteau became known in the Bohemian artistic circles as 'The Frivolous Prince'—the title of a volume he published at twenty-two. Edith Wharton described him as a man "to whom every great line of poetry was a sunrise, every sunset the foundation of the Heavenly City..." In his early twenties, Cocteau became associated with the writers Marcel Proust, André Gide, and Maurice Barrès. During the Great war Cocteau served in the Red Cross as an ambulance driver. This was the period in which he met the poet Guillaume Apollinaire, Pablo Picasso, artist Amedeo Modigliani and numerous other writers and artists with whom he later collaborated. The Russian ballet-master Sergei Diaghilev challenged Cocteau to write a scenario for the ballet - "Astonish me," he urged. This resulted in Parade which was produced by Diaghilev, designed by Pablo Picasso, and composed by Erik Satie in 1917. An important exponent of Surrealism, he had great influence on the work of others, including the group of composer friends in Montparnasse known as Les Six. The word Surrealism was coined, in fact, by Guillaume Apollinaire in the prologue to Les mamelles de Tirésias , a work begun in 1903 and completed in 1917 less than a year before he died. Surreal Lives "If it had not been for Apollinaire in uniform," wrote Cocteau, "with his skull shaved, the scar on his temple and the bandage around his head, women would have gouged our eyes out with hairpins." Cocteau denied being a Surrealist or being in any way attached to the movement. Friendship with Raymond Radiguet In 1918 he met the French poet Raymond Radiguet. They collaborated extensively, socialized, and undertook many journeys and vacations together. Cocteau also got Radiguet exempted from military service. In admiration of Radiguet's great literary talent, Cocteau promoted his friend's works in his artistic circle and also arranged for the publication by Grasset of Le Diable au corps (a largely autobiographical story of an adulterous relationship between a married woman and a younger man), exerting his influence to garner the "Nouveau Monde" literary prize for the novel. Some contemporaries and later commentators thought there might have been a romantic component to their friendship. Cocteau himself was aware of this perception, and worked earnestly to dispel the notion that their relationship was sexual in nature. There is disagreement over Cocteau's reaction to Radiguet's sudden death in 1923, with some claiming that it left him stunned, despondent and prey to opium addiction. Opponents of that interpretation point out that he did not attend the funeral (he generally did not attend funerals) and immediately left Paris with Diaghilev for a performance of Les Noces (The Wedding) by the Ballets Russes at Monte Carlo. Cocteau himself much later characterised his reaction as one of "stupor and disgust." His opium addiction at the time, Jean Cocteau Biography - Jean Cocteau Website Cocteau said, was only coincidental, due to a chance meeting with Louis Laloy, the administrator of the Monte Carlo Opera. Cocteau's opium use and his efforts to stop profoundly changed his literary style. His most notable book, Les Enfants Terribles, was written in a week during a strenuous opium weaning. In Opium, Diary of an Addict, he recounts the experience of his recovery from opium addiction in 1929. His account, which includes vivid pen-and-ink illustrations, alternates between his moment to moment experiences of drug withdrawal and his current thoughts about people and events in his world. The Human Voice Cocteau's experiments with the human voice peaked with his play La Voix Humaine. The story involves one woman on stage speaking on the telephone with her (invisible and inaudible) departing lover, who is leaving her to marry another woman. The telephone proved to be the perfect prop for Cocteau to explore his ideas, feelings, and "algebra" concerning human needs and realities in communication. Cocteau acknowledged in the introduction to the script that the play was motivated, in part, by complaints from his actresses that his works were too writer/director-dominated and gave the players little opportunity to show off their full range of talents. La Voix Humaine was written, in effect, as an extravagant aria for Madame Berthe Bovy. Before came Orphée, later turned into one of his more successful films; after came La Machine Infernale, arguably his most fully realized work of art. La Voix Humaine is deceptively simple -- a woman alone on stage for almost one hour of non-stop theatre speaking on the telephone with her departing lover. It is, in fact, full of theatrical codes harking back to the Dadaists' Vox Humana experiments after World War One, Alphonse de Lamartine's "La Voix Humaine", part of his larger work Harmonies Poetiques et Religieuses and the effect of the creation of the Vox Humana (Voix Humaine), an organ stop of the Regal Class by Church organ masters (late 1500s) that attempted to imitate the human voice but never succeeded in doing better than the sound of a male chorus at a distance. Reviews varied at the time and since but whatever the critique, the play, in a nutshell, represents Cocteau's state of mind and feelings towards his actors at the time: on the one hand, he desired to spoil and please them; on the other, he was fed up by their diva antics and was ready for revenge. It is also true that none of Cocteau's works has inspired as much imitation: Francis Poulenc's opera of the same name, Gian Carlo Menotti's "opera bouffa" The Telephone and Roberto Rosselini's film version in Italian with Anna Magnani L'Amore (1948). There has also been a long line of interpreters including Simone Signoret, Ingrid Bergman and Liv Ullmann (in the play) and Julia Migenes (in the opera). According to one theory about how Cocteau was inspired to write La Voix Humaine, he was experimenting with an idea by fellow French playwright Henri Bernstein. Brown, Frederick,An Impersonation of Angels: A Biography of Jean Cocteau, The Viking Press, New York, p.170 "When, in 1930, the Comedie-Française produced his La Voix Humaine...Cocteau disavowed both literary right and literary left, as if to say, "I'm standing as far right as Bernstein, in his very place, but it is an optical illusion: the avant-garde is spheroid and I've gone farther left than anyone else." Maturity In the 1930s, Cocteau had an affair with Princess Natalie Paley, the beautiful daughter of a Romanov grand duke and herself a sometimes actress, model, and former wife of couturier Lucien Lelong. She became pregnant. To Cocteau's distress and Paley's life-long regret, the infant was aborted. Cocteau's longest-lasting relationships were with the French actors Jean Marais and Edouard Dermit, whom Cocteau formally adopted. Cocteau cast Marais in The Eternal Return (1943), Beauty and the Beast (1946), Ruy Blas (1947), and Orpheus (1949). In 1940, Le Bel Indifférent, Cocteau's play written for and starring Édith Piaf, was enormously successful. He also worked with Pablo Picasso on several projects and was friends with most of the European art community. Some have believed that Cocteau was homosexual, however, as mentioned above regarding his friendship with Radiguet, though some contemporaries perceived their friendship was more than platonic, Cocteau himself specifically denied any such element in their relationship. Furthermore, his multiple romantic and conjugal relationships with women, including the aforementioned Paley (some also say with Piaf), for whom he also created works, would clearly put the burden of proof on those who have, perhaps willfully, made such assertions. Cocteau's films, most of which he both wrote and directed, were particularly important in introducing Surrealism into French cinema and influenced to a certain degree the upcoming French New Wave genre. Cocteau is best known for his novel Les enfants terribles (1929), and the films Les parents terribles (1948), Beauty and the Beast (1946), and Orpheus (1949). Cocteau died of a heart attack at his chateau in Milly-la-Foret, France, on 11 October 1963 at the age of 74, only hours after hearing of the death of his friend, the French singer Édith Piaf. He is buried beneath the floor of the Chapelle Saint Blaise Des Simples in Milly La Foret, Essonne, France. The epitaph on his gravestone set in the floor of the chapel reads: "I stay among you" ("Je reste avec vous"). Honours and awards In 1955 Cocteau was made a member of the Académie française and The Royal Academy of Belgium. During his life Cocteau was commander of the Legion of Honor, Member of the Mallarmé Academy, German Academy (Berlin), American Academy, Mark Twain (U.S.A) Academy, Honorary President of the Cannes film festival, Honorary President of the France-Hungary Association and President of the jazz Academy and of the Academy of the Disc. Filmography Le sang d'un poète (The Blood of a Poet) (1930) L'Eternel Retour (The Eternal Return) (1943) La belle et la bête (Beauty and the Beast) (1946) L'aigle à deux têtes (The Eagle Has Two Heads) (1947) Les parents terribles (The Storm Within) (1948) Coriolan (1950) never released Orphée (Orpheus) (1950) La villa Santo-Sospir (1952) 8 X 8: A Chess Sonata in 8 Movements (1957) co-director, experimental film Le testament d'Orphée (The Testament of Orpheus) (1960) Works Literature Poetry 1909 La Lampe d'Aladin 1910 Le Prince frivole 1912 La Danse de Sophocle 1919 Ode à Picasso - Le Cap de Bonne-Espérance 1920 Escale. Poésies (1917-1920) 1922 Vocabulaire 1923 La Rose de François - Plain-Chant 1925 Cri écrit 1926 L'Ange Heurtebise 1927 Opéra 1934 Mythologie 1939 Énigmes 1941 Allégories 1945 Léone 1946 La Crucifixion 1948 Poèmes 1952 Le Chiffre sept - La Nappe du Catalan (en collaboration avec Georges Hugnet) 1953 Dentelles d'éternité - Appoggiatures 1954 Clair-obscur 1958 Paraprosodies 1961 Cérémonial espagnol du Phénix - La Partie d'échecs 1962 Le Requiem 1968 Faire-Part (posthume) Novels 1919 Le Potomak (definitive edition: 1924) 1923 Le Grand écart - Thomas l'imposteur 1928 Le Livre blanc 1929 Les Enfants terribles 1940 La Fin du Potomak Theater 1917 Parade, ballet (music by Erik Satie, choreography by Léonide Massine) 1921 Les Mariés de la tour Eiffel (music by Georges Auric, Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc and Germaine Tailleferre) 1922 Antigone 1924 Roméo et Juliette 1930 La Voix humaine 1934 La Machine infernale1936 L'École des veuves1937 Œdipe-roi. Les Chevaliers de la Table ronde1938 Les Parents terribles1940 Les Monstres sacrés1941 La Machine à écrire1943 Renaud et Armide. L'Épouse injustement soupçonnée1944 L'Aigle à deux têtes1946 Le Jeune Homme et la Mort, ballet by Roland Petit 1948 Théâtre I and II 1951 Bacchus1960 Nouveau théâtre de poche 1962 L'Impromptu du Palais-Royal1971 Le Gendarme incompris (posthumous, in collaboration with Raymond Radiguet) Poetry and Criticism 1918 Le Coq et l'Arlequin1920 Carte blanche1922 Le Secret professionnel1926 Le Rappel à l'ordre - Lettre à Jacques Maritain1930 Opium1932 Essai de critique indirecte1935 Portraits-Souvenir1937 Mon Premier voyage (Around the World in 80 Days) 1943 Le Greco1947 Le Foyer des artistes - La Difficulté d'être1949 Lettres aux Américains - Reines de la France1951 Jean Marais - A Discussion about Cinematography (with André Fraigneau) 1952 Gide vivant1953 Journal d'un inconnu. Démarche d'un poète1955 Colette (Discourse on the reception at the Royal Academy of Belgium) - Discourse on the reception at the Académie française 1956 Discours d'Oxford 1957 Entretiens sur le musée de Dresde (with Louis Aragon) - La Corrida du 1 mai1959 Poésie critique I 1960 Poésie critique II 1962 Le Cordon ombilical1963 La Comtesse de Noailles, oui et non1964 Portrait souvenir (posthumous ; A discussion with Roger Stéphane) 1965 Entretiens avec André Fraigneau (posthumous) 1973 Jean Cocteau par Jean Cocteau (posthumous ; A discussion with William Fielfield) 1973 Du cinématographe (posthumous). Entretiens sur le cinématographe (posthumous) Journalistic Poetry 1935-1938 (posthumous) Film Director 1925 : Jean Cocteau fait du cinéma 1930 : Le Sang d'un poète 1946 : La Belle et la Bête 1948 : L'Aigle à deux têtes 1948 : Les Parents terribles 1950 : Orphée 1950 : Coriolan 1952 : La Villa Santo-Sospir 1955 : L'Amour sous l'électrode 1957 : 8 X 8: A Chess Sonata in 8 Movements 1960 : Le Testament d'OrphéeScriptwriter 1943 : L'Éternel Retour directed byJean Delannoy 1948 : Ruy Blas directed by Pierre Billon 1950 : Les Enfants terribles directed by Jean-Pierre Melville, script by Jean Cocteau based on his novel : La Princesse de Clèves directed by Jean Delannoy : Thomas l'imposteur directed by Georges Franju, script by Jean Cocteau based on his novel Dialogue Writer 1943 : Le Baron fantôme (+ acteur) directed bySerge de Poligny : La Princesse de Clèves directed by Jean Delannoy : Thomas l'imposteur directed by Georges Franju Director of Photography 1950 : Un chant d'amour réalisé par Jean Genet Poetry Illustrator 1924 : Dessins 1925 : Le Mystère de Jean l'oiseleur1926 : Maison de santé1929 : 25 dessins d'un dormeur1935 : 60 designs for Les Enfants Terribles1941 : Drawings in the margins of Chevaliers de la Table ronde1948 : Drôle de ménage1957 : La Chapelle Saint-Pierre, Villefranche-sur-Mer 1958 : La Salle des mariages, City Hall of Menton - La Chapelle Saint-Pierre (lithographies) 1959 : Gondol des morts1960 : Chapelle Saint-Blaise-des-Simples, Milly-la-Forêt Années 1960 : Windows of the Église Saint-Maximin de Metz Recordings Colette par Jean Cocteau, discours de réception à l'Académie Royale de Belgique, Ducretet-Thomson 300 V 078 St. Les Mariés de la Tour Eiffel and Portraits-Souvenir, La Voix de l'Auteur LVA 13 Plain-chant by Jean Marais, extracts from the piece Orphée by Jean-Pierre Aumont, Michel Bouquet, Monique Mélinand, Les parents terribles by Yvonne de Bray and Jean Marais, L'aigle à deux têtes par Edwige Feuillère and Jean Marais, L'Encyclopédie Sonore 320 E 874, 1971 Collection of three vinyl recordings of Jean Cocteau including La voix humaine by Simone Signoret, 18 songs composed by Louis Bessières, Bee Michelin and Renaud Marx, on double-piano Paul Castanier, Le discours de réception à l'Académie Française, Jacques Canetti JC1, 1984 Derniers propos à bâtons rompus avec Jean Cocteau, 16/09/1963 à Milly-la-Forêt, Bel Air 311035 Les Enfants Terribles, radio version with Jean Marais, Josette Day, Sylvia Montfort and Jean Cocteau, CD Phonurgia Nova ISBN 2-908325-07-1, 1992 Anthology, 4 CD containing numerous poems and texts read by the author, Anna la bonne, La dame de Monte-Carlo and Mes sœurs, n'aimez pas les marins by Marianne Oswald, Le bel indifférent by Edith Piaf, La voix humaine by Berthe Bovy, Les mariés de la Tour Eiffel with Jean Le Poulain, Jacques Charon and Jean Cocteau, discourse on the reception at the Académie Française, with extracts from Les parents terribles, La machine infernale, pieces from Parade on piano with two hands by Georges Auric and Francis Poulenc, Frémeaux & Associés FA 064, 1997 Poems by Jean Cocteau read by the author, CD EMI 8551082, 1997 Hommage à Jean Cocteau, mélodies d'Henri Sauguet, Arthur Honegger, Louis Durey, Darius Milhaud, Erik Satie, Jean Wiener, Max Jacob, Francis Poulenc, Maurice Delage, Georges Auric, Guy Sacre, by Jean-François Gardeil (baryton) and Billy Eidi (piano), CD Adda 581177, 1989 Le testament d'Orphée, journal sonore, by Roger Pillaudin, 2 CD INA / Radio France 211788, 1998 Journals 1946 La Belle et la Bête (film journal) 1949 Maalesh (journal of a stage production) 1983 Le Passé défini (posthumous) 1989 Journal, 1942-1945 Stamps Marianne de Cocteau, 1960 Bibliography Cocteau, Jean, Le coq et l'arlequin: Notes autour de la musique - avec un portrait de l'Auteur et deux monogrammes par P. Picasso, Paris, Éditions de la Sirène, 1918 Cocteau, Jean, Le Grand écart, 1923, his first novel Cocteau, Jean, Le Numéro Barbette, an influential essay on the nature of art inspired by the performer Barbette, 1926 Cocteau, Jean, The Human Voice, translated by Carl Wildman, Vision Press Ltd., Great Britain, 1947 Cocteau, Jean, The Eagle Has Two Heads, adapted by Ronald Duncan, Vision Press Ltd., Great Britain, 1947 Cocteau, Jean, "Bacchus." Paris: Gallimard, 1952. Cocteau, Jean, The Holy Terrors (Les Enfants Terribles), translated by Rosamond Lehmann, New Directions. New York, 1957 Cocteau, Jean, Opium: The Diary of a Cure, translated by Margaret Crosland and Sinclair Road, Grove Press Inc., New York, 1958 Cocteau, Jean, The Infernal Machine And Other Plays, translated by W.A. Auden, E.E. Cummings, Dudley Fitts, Albert Bermel, Mary C. Hoeck, and John K. Savacool, New Directions Books, New York, 1963 Cocteau, Jean, Toros Muertos, along with Lucien Clergue and Jean Petit, Brussel & Brussel,1966 Cocteau, Jean, The Art of Cinema, edited by André Bernard and Claude Gauteur, translated by Robin Buss, Marion Boyars, London, 1988 Cocteau, Jean, Diary of an Unknown, translated by Jesse Browner, Paragon House Publishers, New York, 1988 Cocteau, Jean, The White Book (Le livre blanc), sometimes translated as The White Paper, translated by Margaret Crosland, City Lights Books, San Francisco, 1989 Cocteau, Jean, Les parents terribles, new translation by Jeremy Sams, Nick Hern Books, London, 1994 References Breton, André (1953). La clé des champs, p.77. Paris: Éditions du Sagittaire. Steegmuller, Francis, Cocteau: A Biography, Atlantic-Little, Brown, Boston, 1970. Crucifixion translated in Bengali by Malay Roy Choudhury In Kara no Kyoukai ~The Garden of Sinners~, second movie, "Murder Speculation (Part 1)", Shiki Ryougi answers Mikiya saying his full name (Kokutou Mikiya) and that it sounded like a french poet, referring to Jean Cocteau (Kokutou is pronounced in Japanese, the same way Cocteau is pronounced in French) External links Original Edition of Ceramics by Jean Cocteau Jean Cocteau website Cocteau/cinema Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) Find-A-Grave profile for Jean Cocteau Cocteau CMEF Cap d'Ail Cocteau et La chapelle Saint-Blaise-des-Simples Biography: http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/cocteau.htm http://www.studiocleo.com/librarie/cocteau/cocteau.html Poetry and music : http://www.ltmpub.freeserve.co.uk/lessixcat.html introduces work by Les Six on audio CD Cocteau, Satie and Les Six http://www.ltmpub.freeserve.co.uk/surrrev.html reads La Toison d'Or and Les voleurs d'enfants in 1929 with Dan Parrish Jazz Orchestra on the audio CD Surrealism 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855 | Dynamic_HTML | Dynamic HTML, or DHTML, is a collection of technologies used together to create interactive and animated web sites by using a combination of a static markup language (such as HTML), a client-side scripting language (such as JavaScript), a presentation definition language (such as CSS), and the Document Object Model. DHTML allows scripting languages to change variables in a web page's definition language, which in turn affects the look and function of otherwise "static" HTML page content, after the page has been fully loaded and during the viewing process. Thus the dynamic characteristic of DHTML is the way it functions while a page is viewed, not in its ability to generate a unique page with each page load. By contrast, a dynamic web page is a broader concept — any web page generated differently for each user, load occurrence, or specific variable values. This includes pages created by client-side scripting, and ones created by server-side scripting (such as PHP or Perl) where the web server generates content before sending it to the client. Uses DHTML is often used to make rollover buttons or drop-down menus on a web page and interactive web pages. A less common use is to create browser-based action games. During the late 1990s and early 2000s, a number of games were created using DHTML, such as Kingdom of Loathing, but differences between browsers made this difficult: many techniques had to be implemented in code to enable the games to work on multiple platforms. Recently browsers have been converging towards the web standards, which has made the design of DHTML games more viable. Those games can be played on all major browsers and they can also be ported to Widgets for Mac OS X and Gadgets for Windows Vista, which are based on DHTML code. The term has fallen out of use in recent years, as DHTML scripts often tended to not work well between various web browsers. Newer techniques, such as unobtrusive JavaScript coding (DOM Scripting), allow similar effects, but in an accessible, standards-compliant way through Progressive Enhancement. Some disadvantages of DHTML are that it is difficult to develop and debug due to varying degrees of support among web browsers of the technologies involved, and that the variety of screen sizes means the end look can only be fine-tuned on a limited number of browser and screen-size combinations. Development for relatively recent browsers, such as Internet Explorer 5.0+, Mozilla Firefox 2.0+, and Opera 7.0+, is aided by a shared Document Object Model. Basic DHTML support was introduced with Internet Explorer 4.0, although there was a basic dynamic system with Netscape Navigator 4.0. Structure of a web page Typically a web page using DHTML is set up the following way: <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <title>DHTML example</title> <script type="text/javascript"> function init() { myObj = document.getElementById("navigation"); // .... more code]] } window.onload=init; </script> </head> <body> <div id="navigation"></div> <pre> Often the code is stored in an external file; this is done by linking the file that contains the JavaScript. This is helpful when several pages use the same script: </pre> <script type="text/javascript" src="myjavascript.js"></script> </body> </html> In the above code, the blue code represents the DOCUMENT TYPE declaration, which specifies which version of markup code is used to create the website. The red code shows browser detection Javascript, which enables web pages to adjust to browser application standards and requirements. Example: displaying an additional block of text The following code illustrates an often-used function. An additional part of a web page will only be displayed if the user requests it. In e-learning, such a function could be used to display additional hints or an answer the student initially should not see. <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>Test</title> <style type="text/css"> h2 {background-color: lightblue; width: 100%} a {font-size: larger; background-color: goldenrod} a:hover {background-color: gold} #example1 {display: none; margin: 3%; padding: 4%; background-color: limegreen} </style> <script type="text/javascript"> function changeDisplayState (id) { d=document.getElementById("showhide"); e=document.getElementById(id); if (e.style.display == 'none' || e.style.display == "") { e.style.display = 'block'; d.innerHTML = 'Hide example..............'; } else { e.style.display = 'none'; d.innerHTML = 'Show example'; } } </script> </head> <body> <h2>How to use a DOM function</h2> <div><a id="showhide" href="javascript:changeDisplayState('example1')">Show example</a></div> <div id="example1"> This is the example. (Additional information, which is only displayed on request)... </div> <div>The general text continues...</div> </body> </html> External links QuirksMode, a comprehensive site with test examples and instructions on how to write DHTML code which runs on several browsers. Introductory DHTML Tutorial for those taking their first steps in DHTML. HTML & DHTML Reference on MSDN | Dynamic_HTML |@lemmatized dynamic:4 html:10 dhtml:16 collection:1 technology:2 use:12 together:1 create:6 interactive:2 animated:1 web:14 site:2 combination:2 static:2 markup:2 language:5 client:3 side:3 script:12 javascript:8 presentation:1 definition:2 cs:2 document:6 object:2 model:2 allow:2 change:1 variable:2 page:16 turn:1 affect:1 look:2 function:7 otherwise:1 content:2 fully:1 load:3 view:2 process:1 thus:1 characteristic:1 way:3 ability:1 generate:3 unique:1 contrast:1 broad:1 concept:1 differently:1 user:2 occurrence:1 specific:1 value:1 include:1 scripting:1 one:1 server:2 php:1 perl:1 send:1 us:1 often:4 make:3 rollover:1 button:1 drop:1 menu:1 less:1 common:1 browser:11 base:2 action:1 game:5 late:1 early:1 number:2 kingdom:1 loathing:1 difference:1 difficult:2 many:1 technique:2 implement:1 code:10 enable:2 work:2 multiple:1 platform:1 recently:1 converge:1 towards:1 standard:3 design:1 viable:1 play:1 major:1 also:1 port:1 widget:1 mac:1 x:1 gadget:1 window:2 vista:1 term:1 fall:1 recent:2 year:1 tend:1 well:1 various:1 new:1 unobtrusive:1 coding:1 dom:2 similar:1 effect:1 accessible:1 compliant:1 progressive:1 enhancement:1 disadvantage:1 develop:1 debug:1 due:1 vary:1 degree:1 support:2 among:1 involve:1 variety:1 screen:2 size:3 mean:1 end:1 fine:1 tune:1 limited:1 development:1 relatively:1 internet:2 explorer:2 mozilla:1 firefox:1 opera:1 aid:1 share:1 basic:2 introduce:1 although:1 system:1 netscape:1 navigator:1 structure:1 typically:1 set:1 following:2 doctype:2 public:2 dtd:6 xhtml:4 en:3 http:4 www:4 org:4 tr:2 xmlns:2 head:4 title:4 example:7 type:5 text:6 init:2 myobj:1 getelementbyid:3 navigation:2 onload:1 body:4 div:8 id:5 pre:2 store:1 external:2 file:2 link:2 contain:1 helpful:1 several:2 src:1 myjavascript:1 j:1 blue:1 represent:1 declaration:1 specify:1 version:1 website:1 red:1 show:3 detection:1 adjust:1 application:1 requirement:1 display:9 additional:4 block:2 illustrate:1 part:1 request:2 e:6 learning:1 could:1 hint:1 answer:1 student:1 initially:1 see:1 strict:2 xml:1 lang:1 test:2 style:6 background:4 color:4 lightblue:1 width:1 font:1 large:1 goldenrod:1 hover:1 gold:1 none:3 margin:1 padding:1 limegreen:1 changedisplaystate:2 showhide:2 innerhtml:2 hide:1 else:1 href:1 information:1 general:1 continue:1 quirksmode:1 comprehensive:1 instruction:1 write:1 run:1 introductory:1 tutorial:1 take:1 first:1 step:1 reference:1 msdn:1 |@bigram window_vista:1 web_browser:2 internet_explorer:2 mozilla_firefox:1 firefox_opera:1 netscape_navigator:1 doctype_html:2 http_www:4 dtd_html:2 strict_dtd:1 xhtml_xml:1 external_link:1 |
856 | Erasmus_Reinhold | Erasmus Reinhold (October 22, 1511 – February 19, 1553) was a German astronomer and mathematician, considered to be the most influential astronomical pedagogue of his generation. Owen Gingerich: The Role of Erasmus Reinhold and the Prutenic Tables in the Dissemination of the Copernican Theory, 1973, Studia Copernicana, Poland He was born and died in Saalfeld, Thuringia, Germany. He was educated at the University of Wittenberg, where he was first elected dean and later became rector. In 1536 he was appointed professor of higher mathematics by Philipp Melanchthon. In contrast to the limited modern definition, "mathematics" at the time also included applied mathematics, especially astronomy. His colleague, Georg Joachim Rheticus, also studied at Wittenberg and was appointed professor of lower mathematics in 1536. Reinhold catalogued a large number of stars. His publications on astronomy include a commentary (1542, 1553) on Georg Purbach's Theoricae novae planetarum. Duke Albert of Brandenburg Prussia supported Reinhold and financed the printing of Reinhold's Prutenicae Tabulae or Prussian Tables. These astronomical tables helped to disseminate calculation methods of Copernicus throughout the Empire. Both Reinholds's Prutenic Tables and Copernicus' studies were the foundation for the Calendar Reform by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. However, Reinhold (like other astronomers before Kepler and Galileo) translated Copernicus' mathematical methods back into a geocentric system, rejecting heliocentric cosmology on physical and theological grounds. Hanne Andersen, Peter Barker, and Xiang Chen. The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp 138-148 Notes and references | Erasmus_Reinhold |@lemmatized erasmus:2 reinhold:6 october:1 february:1 german:1 astronomer:2 mathematician:1 consider:1 influential:1 astronomical:2 pedagogue:1 generation:1 owen:1 gingerich:1 role:1 prutenic:2 table:4 dissemination:1 copernican:1 theory:1 studia:1 copernicana:1 poland:1 bear:1 die:1 saalfeld:1 thuringia:1 germany:1 educate:1 university:2 wittenberg:2 first:1 elect:1 dean:1 later:1 become:1 rector:1 appoint:2 professor:2 high:1 mathematics:4 philipp:1 melanchthon:1 contrast:1 limited:1 modern:1 definition:1 time:1 also:2 include:2 applied:1 especially:1 astronomy:2 colleague:1 georg:2 joachim:1 rheticus:1 study:2 low:1 catalogue:1 large:1 number:1 star:1 publication:1 commentary:1 purbach:1 theoricae:1 nova:1 planetarum:1 duke:1 albert:1 brandenburg:1 prussia:1 support:1 finance:1 printing:1 prutenicae:1 tabulae:1 prussian:1 help:1 disseminate:1 calculation:1 method:2 copernicus:3 throughout:1 empire:1 reinholds:1 foundation:1 calendar:1 reform:1 pope:1 gregory:1 xiii:1 however:1 like:1 kepler:1 galileo:1 translate:1 mathematical:1 back:1 geocentric:1 system:1 reject:1 heliocentric:1 cosmology:1 physical:1 theological:1 ground:1 hanne:1 andersen:1 peter:1 barker:1 xiang:1 chen:1 cognitive:1 structure:1 scientific:1 revolution:1 new:1 york:1 cambridge:1 press:1 pp:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram owen_gingerich:1 philipp_melanchthon:1 applied_mathematics:1 brandenburg_prussia:1 pope_gregory:1 gregory_xiii:1 |
857 | Cesare_Borgia | Alleged portrait of Cesare Borgia, by Altobello Melone. Bergamo, Accademia Carrara. Cesare Borgia (September 13, 1475 – March 12, 1507), Duke of Valentinois His other titles included: Duke of Romagna, Prince of Andria and Venafro, Count of Dyois, Lord of Piombino, Camerino and Urbino, Gonfalonier and Captain General of the Church. was a Spanish-Italian condottiero, lord and cardinal. He was the son of Pope Alexander VI and his long-term mistress Vannozza dei Cattanei, sibling to Lucrezia Borgia, Gioffre Borgia (Jofré in Valentian), Prince of Squillace, and Giovanni Borgia, duke of Gandia, and half-brother to Don Pedro Luis de Borja and Girolama de Borja, children of unknown mothers. Early life Like nearly all aspects of Cesare Borgia's life, the date of his birth is a subject of dispute. However, it is accepted that he was born in Rome in either 1475 or 1476 to Cardinal Rodrigo de Lanzol y Borja, soon to become Pope Alexander VI, and his mistress Vannozza de' Cattanei, of whom documents are sparse. The Borgia family originally came from Spain and rose to prominence during the mid 15th century, when Cesare's great uncle Alonso Borgia (1378-1458), bishop of Valencia, was elected Pope Callixtus III in 1455. Herfried Münkler and Marina Münkler, Lexikon der Renaissance, Munich: Beck, 2000, p. 43ff. Cesare's father, Pope Alexander VI, was the first pope who openly recognised to have children with a lover. Stefano Infessura writes that Cardinal Borgia falsely claimed Cesare to be the legitimate son of another man, the nominal husband of Vannozza de' Cattanei. More likely, Pope Alexander VI granted Cesare a release from the necessity of proving his birth in a papal bull. With brown eyes and black hair, Cesare was acknowledged as a beautiful child and grew to be a fleet-footed, tall, handsome man of unlimited ambition, much like his father. Career Church office Cesare was initially groomed for a career in the church. He was made Bishop of Pamplona at the age of 15. Following school in Perugia and Pisa where Cesare studied law, along with his father's elevation to Pope, Cesare was made Cardinal at the age of 18. Alexander VI staked the hopes of the Borgia family in Cesare's brother Giovanni, who was made captain general of the military forces of the papacy. Giovanni was assassinated in 1497 in mysterious circumstances: with several contemporaries suggesting that Cesare might be his killer, Spinosa, La saga dei Borgia as Giovanni's disappearing could finally open him a long-awaited military career; as well as jealousy over Sancha of Aragon, wife of Cesare's other brother Jofré, and mistress of both Cesare and Giovanni. Rendina, I capitani di ventura Cesare's role in the act, however, has never been clear. On August 17, 1498, Cesare became the first person in history to resign the cardinalate. On the same day the French King Louis XII named Cesare Duke of Valentinois, and this title, along with his former position as Cardinal of Valencia, explains the nickname "Valentino". Military Cesare's career was founded upon his father's ability to distribute patronage, along with his alliance with France (reinforced by his marriage with Charlotte d'Albret, sister of John III of Navarre), in the course of the Italian Wars. Louis XII invaded Italy in 1499: after Gian Giacomo Trivulzio had ousted its duke Ludovico Sforza, Cesare accompanied the king in his entrance in Milan. At this point Alexander decided to profit from the favourable situation and carve out for Cesare a state of his own in northern Italy. To this end, he declared that all his vicars in Romagna and Marche were deposed. Though in theory subject directly to the pope, these rulers had been practically independent or dependent on other states for generations. Cesare was appointed commander of the papal armies with a number of Italian mercenaries, supported by 300 cavalry and 4,000 Swiss infantry sent by the King of France. His first victim was Caterina Sforza (mother of the Medici condottiero Giovanni dalle Bande Nere), ruler of Imola and Forlì. Despite being deprived of his French troops after the conquest of those two cities, Borgia returned to Rome to celebrate a triumph and to receive the title of Papal Gonfaloniere from his father. In 1500 the creation of twelve new cardinals granted Alexander enough money for Cesare to hire the condottieri Vitellozzo Vitelli, Gian Paolo Baglioni, Giulio and Paolo Orsini, and Oliverotto da Fermo, who resumed his campaign in Romagna. Giovanni Sforza, first husband of Cesare's sister Lucrezia, was soon ousted from Pesaro; Pandolfo Malatesta lost Rimini; Faenza surrendered, its young lord Astorre III Manfredi being later drowned in the Tiber river by Cesare's order. In May 1501 the latter was created duke of Romagna. Hired by Florence, Cesare subsequently added the lordship of Piombino to his new lands. While his condottieri took over the siege of Piombino (which ended in 1502), Cesare commanded the French troops in the sieges of Naples and Capua, defended by Prospero and Fabrizio Colonna. On june 24 1501 his troops stormed the latter, causing the collapse of Aragonese power in southern Italy. In June 1502 he set out for Marche, where he was able to capture Urbino and Camerino by treason. The next step would be Bologna, but his condottieri, fearing Cesare's cruelty, set up a plot against him. Guidobaldo da Montefeltro and Giovanni Maria da Varano returned in Urbino and Camerino and Fossombrone revolted. Cesare called for a reconciliation, but treacherously imprisoned his condottieri in Senigallia, a feat described as a "Wonderful deceiving" by Paolo Giovio, Rendina, p. 250. and had them executed. Later years Though an immensely capable general and statesman, Cesare could do nothing without continued papal patronage. The news of his father's death (1503) arrived when Cesare, though gravely ill, was planning the conquest of Tuscany. While he was convalescing in Castel Sant'Angelo, his troops controlled the conclave. The new pope, Pius III, supported him, but his reign was short: the accession of the Borgias' deadly enemy Julius II caused his sudden ruin. While moving to Romagna to quench a revolt, he was seized and imprisoned by Gian Paolo Baglioni near Perugia. All his lands were acquired by the Papal States. Exiled to Spain, in 1504, he was imprisoned in the Castle of La Mota, Medina del Campo, from where he escaped and joined his brother-in-law, King John III of Navarre. In his service, Cesare died at the siege of Viana in 1507, at the age of thirty-one. Remains He was originally buried in a marble tomb beneath the altar of the Church of Santa Maria in the town with an inscription "Here lies in little earth one who was feared by all, who held peace and war in his hand." In 1537, the Bishop of Calahorra visited the church and was horrified for such a sinner being buried in the holy place. Hence, the tomb was destroyed and the remains were transferred to an unconsecrated site outside the church so that his body would be "trampled on by men and beasts", as the bishop ordered. His remains stayed there until 1945, when his remains were accidentally exhumed by some workmen. A group of local politicians pleaded with the Catholic Church to give him a proper burial. However, the local bishop turned down the requests. His body then was placed under a marble plaque outside the church grounds. In 2007, Fernando Sebastian Aguilar, the Archbishop of Pamplona, finally granted the petitions and allowed the remains to be moved back inside the church on the day before the 500th anniversary of his death. The local church was not against the decision. "Whatever he may have done in life, he deserves to be forgiven now," said the local church. Evaluation Cesare Borgia was greatly admired by Niccolò Machiavelli, who met the Duke on a diplomatic mission in his function as Secretary of the Florentine Chancellery. Machiavelli was at Borgia's court from October 7, 1502 through January 18, 1503. During this time he wrote regular dispatches to his superiors in Florence, many of which have survived and are published in Machiavelli's Collected Works. Machiavelli used many of Borgia's exploits and tactics as examples in The Prince and advised politicians to imitate Borgia. Two episodes were particularly impressive to Machiavelli: the method by which Borgia pacified the Romagna, which Machiavelli describes in chapter VII of The Prince, and Borgia's assassination of his captains on New Year's Eve of 1503 in Senigallia. Niccolò Machiavelli, "A Description of the Method Used by Duke Valentino in Killing Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, and Others",The Chief Works and Others, trans. Allan Gilbert, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1989, 3 vols., 163–169 Machiavelli's praise for Borgia is subject to controversy. Some scholars see in Machiavelli's Borgia the precursor of state crimes in the 20th Century. Ernst Cassirer, The Myth of the State, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946 Others, including Macaulay and Lord Acton have historicized Machiavelli's Borgia, explaining the admiration for such violence as an effect of the general criminality and corruption of the time. Harvey C. Mansfield, Machiavelli's Virtue, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. In Volume One of Celebrated Crimes, Alexandre Dumas, père states that some pictures of Jesus Christ produced around Borgia's lifetime were based on Cesare Borgia, and that this in turn has influenced images of Jesus produced since that time. Cesare Borgia briefly employed Leonardo da Vinci as military architect and engineer between 1502 and 1503. Cesare and Leonardo became intimate instantaneously - Cesare provided Leonardo with an unlimited pass to inspect and direct all planned and undergoing construction in his domain. Before meeting Cesare, Leonardo had worked at the Milanese court of Ludovico Sforza for many years, until Charles VIII of France drove Sforza out of Italy. After Cesare, Leonardo was unsuccessful in finding another patron and eventually moved to France, where he died. He wanted to take over Mantua while Isabella d'Este was ruling. Personal life On May 10, 1499, Cesare married Charlotte of Albret (1480 - March 11, 1514). She was a sister of John III of Navarre. They were parents to a daughter, Louise Borgia, (1500 - 1553) who first married Louis II de La Tremouille, Governor of Burgundy, and secondly Philippe de Bourbon (1499-1557), Seigneur de Busset. Cesare was also father to at least 11 illegitimate children, among them Girolamo Borgia, who married Isabella Contessa di Carpi, and Lucrezia Borgia, who, after Cesare's death, was moved to Ferrara to the court of her aunt, Lucrezia Borgia. Popular culture Movies Lucrezia Borgia (Richard Oswald, 1926), a silent movie Lucrèce Borgia (Abel Gance, 1935) The Black Duke (1961) Bride of Vengeance (1948) Prince of Foxes (1949) Los Borgia (2006) Poisons, or the World History of Poisoning (2001) Literature Caesar Borgia (acted 1680) by Nathaniel Lee. The Family by Mario Puzo The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, père mentions many conspiracy theories based around Borgia. The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli Madonna of the Seven Hills by Jean Plaidy (Victoria Holt) Light on Lucrezia by Jean Plaidy (Victoria Holt) Cantarella, a manga by You Higuri Mirror Mirror by Gregory Maguire Prince of Foxes by Samuel Shellabarger The Banner of the Bull by Rafael Sabatini (fiction) The Borgia Bride by Jeanne Kalogridis Kakan no Madonna by Chiho Saito (manga) The Borgias by Alexandre Dumas, père The Borgia Testament by Nigel Balchin Lusts of The Borgias by Marcus Van Heller City of God, A Novel of the Borgias by Cecelia Holland Then and Now by W. Somerset Maugham The Antichrist (1895) by Friedrich Nietzsche Af. #61 Beyond Good and Evil (1886) by Friedrich Nietzsche Af. #197 The Dwarf (1944) by Pär Lagerkvist features an unscrupulous prince likely modeled on Borgia Milo Manara, an Italian comic book creator, drew a comic book divided in three parts depicting the story of the Borgia family. The texts were written by Alejandro Jodorowsky. Cesare by Fuyumi Soryo (manga) ''Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia by Robert Lalonde at http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%22Robert%20Lalonde%22 Music Cesare Borgia is mentioned in the song "B.I.B.L.E.", performed by Killah Priest, which appears on GZA's 1995 album Liquid Swords, as well as Killah Priest's debut album Heavy Mental. The relevant line is "the white image, of Christ, is really Cesare Borgia... the second son of Pope Alexander, the Sixth of Rome". Notes References External links The Life of Cesare Borgia by Raphael Sabatini in "btm" format | Cesare_Borgia |@lemmatized allege:1 portrait:1 cesare:47 borgia:45 altobello:1 melone:1 bergamo:1 accademia:1 carrara:1 september:1 march:2 duke:10 valentinois:2 title:3 include:2 romagna:6 prince:8 andria:1 venafro:1 count:2 dyois:1 lord:4 piombino:3 camerino:3 urbino:3 gonfalonier:1 captain:3 general:4 church:11 spanish:1 italian:4 condottiero:2 cardinal:6 son:3 pope:10 alexander:8 vi:5 long:2 term:1 mistress:3 vannozza:3 dei:2 cattanei:3 sibling:1 lucrezia:7 gioffre:1 jofré:2 valentian:1 squillace:1 giovanni:8 gandia:1 half:1 brother:4 pedro:1 luis:1 de:8 borja:3 girolama:1 child:4 unknown:1 mother:2 early:1 life:5 like:2 nearly:1 aspect:1 date:1 birth:2 subject:3 dispute:1 however:3 accept:1 bear:1 rome:3 either:1 rodrigo:1 lanzol:1 soon:2 become:3 document:1 sparse:1 family:4 originally:2 come:1 spain:2 rise:1 prominence:1 mid:1 century:2 great:1 uncle:1 alonso:1 bishop:5 valencia:2 elect:1 callixtus:1 iii:6 herfried:1 münkler:2 marina:1 lexikon:1 der:1 renaissance:1 munich:1 beck:1 p:2 father:7 first:5 openly:1 recognise:1 lover:1 stefano:1 infessura:1 write:3 falsely:1 claim:1 legitimate:1 another:2 man:2 nominal:1 husband:2 likely:2 grant:3 release:1 necessity:1 prove:1 papal:5 bull:2 brown:1 eye:1 black:2 hair:1 acknowledge:1 beautiful:1 grow:1 fleet:1 foot:1 tall:1 handsome:1 unlimited:2 ambition:1 much:1 career:4 office:1 initially:1 groom:1 make:3 pamplona:2 age:3 follow:1 school:1 perugia:2 pisa:1 study:1 law:2 along:3 elevation:1 stake:1 hope:1 military:4 force:1 papacy:1 assassinate:1 mysterious:1 circumstance:1 several:1 contemporary:1 suggest:1 might:1 killer:1 spinosa:1 la:3 saga:1 disappearing:1 could:2 finally:2 open:1 awaited:1 well:2 jealousy:1 sancha:1 aragon:1 wife:1 rendina:2 capitani:1 di:2 ventura:1 role:1 act:1 never:1 clear:1 august:1 person:1 history:2 resign:1 cardinalate:1 day:2 french:3 king:4 louis:3 xii:2 name:1 former:1 position:1 explain:2 nickname:1 valentino:2 found:1 upon:1 ability:1 distribute:1 patronage:2 alliance:1 france:4 reinforce:1 marriage:1 charlotte:2 albret:2 sister:3 john:3 navarre:3 course:1 war:2 invade:1 italy:4 gian:3 giacomo:1 trivulzio:1 oust:2 ludovico:2 sforza:5 accompany:1 entrance:1 milan:1 point:1 decide:1 profit:1 favourable:1 situation:1 carve:1 state:6 northern:1 end:2 declare:1 vicar:1 marche:2 depose:1 though:3 theory:2 directly:1 ruler:2 practically:1 independent:1 dependent:1 generation:1 appoint:1 commander:1 army:1 number:1 mercenary:1 support:2 cavalry:1 swiss:1 infantry:1 send:1 victim:1 caterina:1 medici:1 dalle:1 bande:1 nere:1 imola:1 forlì:1 despite:1 deprive:1 troop:4 conquest:2 two:2 city:2 return:2 celebrate:2 triumph:1 receive:1 gonfaloniere:1 creation:1 twelve:1 new:5 enough:1 money:1 hire:2 condottieri:4 vitellozzo:2 vitellus:2 paolo:4 baglioni:2 giulio:1 orsini:1 oliverotto:2 da:5 fermo:2 resume:1 campaign:1 pesaro:1 pandolfo:1 malatesta:1 lose:1 rimini:1 faenza:1 surrender:1 young:1 astorre:1 manfredi:1 later:1 drown:1 tiber:1 river:1 order:2 may:3 latter:2 create:1 florence:2 subsequently:1 add:1 lordship:1 land:2 take:2 siege:3 command:1 naples:1 capua:1 defend:1 prospero:1 fabrizio:1 colonna:1 june:2 storm:1 cause:2 collapse:1 aragonese:1 power:1 southern:1 set:2 able:1 capture:1 treason:1 next:1 step:1 would:2 bologna:1 fear:2 cruelty:1 plot:1 guidobaldo:1 montefeltro:1 maria:2 varano:1 fossombrone:1 revolt:2 call:1 reconciliation:1 treacherously:1 imprison:3 senigallia:2 feat:1 describe:1 wonderful:1 deceive:1 giovio:1 execute:1 late:1 year:3 immensely:1 capable:1 statesman:1 nothing:1 without:1 continue:1 news:1 death:3 arrive:1 gravely:1 ill:1 plan:2 tuscany:1 convalesce:1 castel:1 sant:1 angelo:1 control:1 conclave:1 pius:1 reign:1 short:1 accession:1 deadly:1 enemy:1 julius:1 ii:2 sudden:1 ruin:1 move:4 quench:1 seize:1 near:1 acquire:1 exile:1 castle:1 mota:1 medina:1 del:1 campo:1 escape:1 join:1 service:1 die:2 viana:1 thirty:1 one:3 remain:2 bury:2 marble:2 tomb:2 beneath:1 altar:1 santa:1 town:1 inscription:1 lie:1 little:1 earth:1 hold:1 peace:1 hand:1 calahorra:1 visit:1 horrify:1 sinner:1 holy:1 place:2 hence:1 destroy:1 remains:3 transfer:1 unconsecrated:1 site:1 outside:2 body:2 trample:1 men:1 beast:1 stayed:1 accidentally:1 exhume:1 workman:1 group:1 local:4 politician:2 plead:1 catholic:1 give:1 proper:1 burial:1 turn:2 request:1 plaque:1 ground:1 fernando:1 sebastian:1 aguilar:1 archbishop:1 petition:1 allow:1 back:1 inside:1 anniversary:1 decision:1 whatever:1 deserve:1 forgive:1 say:1 evaluation:1 greatly:1 admire:1 niccolò:3 machiavelli:12 meet:2 diplomatic:1 mission:1 function:1 secretary:1 florentine:1 chancellery:1 court:3 october:1 january:1 time:3 regular:1 dispatch:1 superior:1 many:4 survive:1 publish:1 collect:1 work:3 use:2 exploit:1 tactic:1 example:1 advise:1 imitate:1 episode:1 particularly:1 impressive:1 method:2 pacify:1 describes:1 chapter:1 vii:1 assassination:1 eve:1 description:1 kill:1 others:3 chief:1 trans:1 allan:1 gilbert:1 durham:1 london:1 university:3 press:3 vols:1 praise:1 controversy:1 scholar:1 see:1 precursor:1 crime:2 ernst:1 cassirer:1 myth:1 yale:1 macaulay:1 acton:1 historicized:1 admiration:1 violence:1 effect:1 criminality:1 corruption:1 harvey:1 c:1 mansfield:1 virtue:1 chicago:2 volume:1 alexandre:3 duma:3 père:3 picture:1 jesus:2 christ:2 produce:2 around:2 lifetime:1 base:2 influence:1 image:2 since:1 briefly:1 employ:1 leonardo:5 vinci:1 architect:1 engineer:1 intimate:1 instantaneously:1 provide:1 pas:1 inspect:1 direct:1 undergoing:1 construction:1 domain:1 milanese:1 charles:1 viii:1 drove:1 unsuccessful:1 find:1 patron:1 eventually:1 want:1 mantua:1 isabella:2 este:1 rule:1 personal:1 marry:3 parent:1 daughter:1 louise:1 tremouille:1 governor:1 burgundy:1 secondly:1 philippe:1 bourbon:1 seigneur:1 busset:1 also:1 least:1 illegitimate:1 among:1 girolamo:1 contessa:1 carpus:1 ferrara:1 aunt:1 popular:1 culture:1 movie:2 richard:1 oswald:1 silent:1 lucrèce:1 abel:1 gance:1 bride:2 vengeance:1 fox:2 los:1 poison:1 world:1 poisoning:1 literature:1 caesar:1 acted:1 nathaniel:1 lee:1 mario:1 puzo:1 monte:1 cristo:1 mention:2 conspiracy:1 madonna:2 seven:1 hill:1 jean:2 plaidy:2 victoria:2 holt:2 light:1 cantarella:1 manga:3 higuri:1 mirror:2 gregory:1 maguire:1 samuel:1 shellabarger:1 banner:1 rafael:1 sabatini:2 fiction:1 jeanne:1 kalogridis:1 kakan:1 chiho:1 saito:1 testament:1 nigel:1 balchin:1 lust:1 marcus:1 van:1 heller:1 god:1 novel:1 cecelia:1 holland:1 w:1 somerset:1 maugham:1 antichrist:1 friedrich:2 nietzsche:2 af:2 beyond:1 good:1 evil:1 dwarf:1 pär:1 lagerkvist:1 feature:1 unscrupulous:1 model:1 milo:1 manara:1 comic:2 book:2 creator:2 draw:1 divide:1 three:1 part:1 depict:1 story:1 text:1 alejandro:1 jodorowsky:1 fuyumi:1 soryo:1 robert:1 lalonde:1 http:1 www:1 archive:1 org:1 search:1 php:1 query:1 music:1 song:1 b:2 l:1 e:1 perform:1 killah:2 priest:2 appear:1 gza:1 album:2 liquid:1 sword:1 debut:1 heavy:1 mental:1 relevant:1 line:1 white:1 really:1 second:1 sixth:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 raphael:1 btm:1 format:1 |@bigram cesare_borgia:9 lucrezia_borgia:5 giovanni_borgia:1 pope_callixtus:1 callixtus_iii:1 lexikon_der:1 papal_bull:1 tall_handsome:1 long_awaited:1 giovanni_sforza:1 gravely_ill:1 castel_sant:1 sant_angelo:1 pope_pius:1 del_campo:1 beneath_altar:1 santa_maria:1 niccolò_machiavelli:3 diplomatic_mission:1 lord_acton:1 alexandre_duma:3 duma_père:3 jesus_christ:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 isabella_este:1 abel_gance:1 mario_puzo:1 monte_cristo:1 jean_plaidy:2 somerset_maugham:1 friedrich_nietzsche:2 http_www:1 external_link:1 btm_format:1 |
858 | Descriptive_statistics | Descriptive statistics are used to describe the main features of a collection of data in quantitative terms. Descriptive statistics are distinguished from inductive statistics in that they aim to quantitatively summarize a data set, rather than being used to support statements about the population that the data are thought to represent. Even when a data analysis draws its main conclusions using inductive statistical analysis, descriptive statistics are generally presented along with more formal analyses, to give the audience an overall sense of the data being analyzed. Common uses A common example of the use of descriptive statistics occurs in medical research studies. In a paper reporting on a study involving human subjects, there typically appears a table giving the overall sample size, sample sizes in important subgroups (e.g. for each treatment or exposure group), and demographic or clinical characteristics such as the average age, the proportion of subjects with each gender, and the proportion of subjects with related comorbidities. Examples of descriptive statistics Most statistics can be used either as a descriptive statistic, or in an inductive analysis. For example, we can report the average reading test score for the students in each classroom in a school, to give a descriptive sense of the typical scores and their variation. If we perform a formal hypothesis test on the scores, we are doing inductive rather than descriptive analysis. Some statistical summaries are especially common in descriptive analyses. Some examples follow. Measures of central tendency Measures of dispersion Measures of association Cross-tab, contingency table Histogram Quantile, Q-Q plot Scatterplot Box plot See also Summary statistics Exploratory data analysis Statistical inference Data mining External links Descriptive Statistics Lecture: University of Pittsburgh Supercourse: http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/lecture/lec0421/index.htm http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.php | Descriptive_statistics |@lemmatized descriptive:10 statistic:10 use:6 describe:1 main:2 feature:1 collection:1 data:7 quantitative:1 term:1 distinguish:1 inductive:4 aim:1 quantitatively:1 summarize:1 set:1 rather:2 support:1 statement:1 population:1 think:1 represent:1 even:1 analysis:7 draw:1 conclusion:1 statistical:3 generally:1 present:1 along:1 formal:2 give:3 audience:1 overall:2 sense:2 analyze:1 common:3 example:4 occur:1 medical:1 research:1 study:2 paper:1 reporting:1 involve:1 human:1 subject:3 typically:1 appear:1 table:2 sample:2 size:2 important:1 subgroup:1 e:1 g:1 treatment:1 exposure:1 group:1 demographic:1 clinical:1 characteristic:1 average:2 age:1 proportion:2 gender:1 related:1 comorbidities:1 either:1 report:1 reading:1 test:2 score:3 student:1 classroom:1 school:1 typical:1 variation:1 perform:1 hypothesis:1 summary:2 especially:1 follow:1 measure:3 central:1 tendency:1 dispersion:1 association:1 cross:1 tab:1 contingency:1 histogram:1 quantile:1 q:2 plot:2 scatterplot:1 box:1 see:1 also:1 exploratory:1 inference:1 mining:1 external:1 link:1 lecture:2 university:1 pittsburgh:1 supercourse:1 http:2 www:2 pitt:1 edu:1 index:1 htm:1 socialresearchmethods:1 net:1 kb:1 statdesc:1 php:1 |@bigram statistical_inference:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
859 | Contraction_mapping | In mathematics, a contraction mapping, or contraction, on a metric space (M,d) is a function f from M to itself, with the property that there is some real number such that, for all x and y in M, The smallest such value of k is called the Lipschitz constant of f. Contractive maps are sometimes called Lipschitzian maps. If the above condition is satisfied for , then the mapping is said to be non-expansive. More generally, the idea of a contractive mapping can be defined for maps between metric spaces. Thus, if (M,d) and (N,d') are two metric spaces, and , then one looks for the constant k such that for all x and y in M. Every contraction mapping is Lipschitz continuous and hence uniformly continuous. A contraction mapping has at most one fixed point. Moreover, the Banach fixed point theorem states that every contraction mapping on a nonempty complete metric space has a unique fixed point, and that for any x in M the iterated function sequence x, f (x), f (f (x)), f (f (f (x))), ... converges to the fixed point. This concept is very useful for iterated function systems where contraction mappings are often used. Banach's fixed point theorem is also applied in proving the existence of solutions of ordinary differential equations, and is used in one proof of the inverse function theorem. Theodore Shifrin, Multivariable Mathematics, Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0-471-52638-X, pp. 244–260. See also Short map Contraction (operator theory) Note References Vasile I. Istratescu, Fixed Point Theory, An Introduction, D.Reidel, Holland (1981). ISBN 90-277-1224-7 provides an undergraduate level introduction. Andrzej Granas and James Dugundji, Fixed Point Theory (2003) Springer-Verlag, New York, ISBN 0-387-00173-5 William A. Kirk and Brailey Sims, Handbook of Metric Fixed Point Theory (2001), Kluwer Academic, London ISBN 0-7923-7073-2 | Contraction_mapping |@lemmatized mathematics:2 contraction:7 mapping:7 metric:5 space:4 function:4 f:8 property:1 real:1 number:1 x:8 small:1 value:1 k:2 call:2 lipschitz:2 constant:2 contractive:2 map:4 sometimes:1 lipschitzian:1 condition:1 satisfied:1 say:1 non:1 expansive:1 generally:1 idea:1 define:1 thus:1 n:1 two:1 one:3 look:1 every:2 continuous:2 hence:1 uniformly:1 fix:7 point:8 moreover:1 banach:2 theorem:3 state:1 nonempty:1 complete:1 unique:1 fixed:1 iterated:2 sequence:1 converge:1 concept:1 useful:1 system:1 often:1 use:2 also:2 apply:1 prove:1 existence:1 solution:1 ordinary:1 differential:1 equation:1 proof:1 inverse:1 theodore:1 shifrin:1 multivariable:1 wiley:1 isbn:4 pp:1 see:1 short:1 operator:1 theory:4 note:1 reference:1 vasile:1 istratescu:1 introduction:2 reidel:1 holland:1 provide:1 undergraduate:1 level:1 andrzej:1 granas:1 james:1 dugundji:1 springer:1 verlag:1 new:1 york:1 william:1 kirk:1 brailey:1 sims:1 handbook:1 kluwer:1 academic:1 london:1 |@bigram contraction_mapping:5 lipschitz_continuous:1 uniformly_continuous:1 ordinary_differential:1 differential_equation:1 springer_verlag:1 kluwer_academic:1 |
860 | Integrated_circuit | Integrated circuit of Atmel Diopsis 740 System on Chip showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the peripheryMicrochips (EPROM memory) with a transparent window, showing the integrated circuit inside. Note the fine silver-colored wires that connect the integrated circuit to the pins of the package. The window allows the memory contents of the chip to be erased, by exposure to strong ultraviolet light in an eraser device. In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board. This article is about monolithic integrated circuits. Introduction Synthetic detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and substrate (green). Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts), because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square mm to around 350 mm², with up to 1 million transistors per mm². Invention Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit The integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer (1909-2002), working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence, and published at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on May 7 1952. "The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer", (n.d.), (HTML), Electronic Product News, accessed July 8, 2008. He gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. The integrated circuit can be credited as being invented by both Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments The Chip that Jack Built, (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, accessed May 29, 2008. and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Robert_Noyce Robert Noyce, (n.d.), (online), IEEE Global History Network, accessed December 15, 2008. working independently of each other. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958 and successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on September 12, 1958. Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part of the invention of the integrated circuit. Nobel Web AB, (October 10, 2000),(The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000, Retrieved on May 29, 2008 Robert Noyce also came up with his own idea of integrated circuit, half a year later than Kilby. Noyce's chip had solved many practical problems that the microchip developed by Kilby had not. Noyce's chip, made at Fairchild, was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium. Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG) filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device showing five transistors on a common substrate arranged in a 2-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi discloses small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. A commercial use of his patent has not been reported. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares (wafers), each one containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which looked very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Tinkertoy). George Rostky, (n. d.),"Micromodules: the ultimate package", (HTML), EE Times, accessed July 8, 2008. However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC. The aforementioned Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p-n junction isolation caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC. Kurt Lehovec's patent on the isolation p-n junction: granted on April 10 1962, filed April 22 1959. Robert Noyce credits Lehovec in his article – "Microelectronics", Scientific American, September 1977, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 63–9. See: Other variations of vacuum tubes for precursor concepts such as the Loewe 3NF. Generations SSI, MSI and LSI The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration" (SSI), digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens provided a few logic gates for example, while early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems; the Apollo guidance computer led and motivated the integrated-circuit technology, while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production. These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to get the production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars). They began to appear in consumer products at the turn of the decade, a typical application being FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers. The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI). They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages. Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale Integration" (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip. Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors. VLSI Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die. The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was "very large-scale integration" (VLSI). The development started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as of 2007. There was no single breakthrough that allowed this increase in complexity, though many factors helped. Manufacturing moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, allowing them to produce chips with more transistors with adequate yield, as summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by Mead and Conway helped schools educate more designers, among other factors. In 1986 the first one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor mark in 1989 and the billion transistor mark in 2005 Peter Clarke, EE Times: Intel enters billion-transistor processor era, 14 November 2005 . The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors Antone Gonsalves, EE Times, Samsung begins production of 16-Gb flash, 30 April 2007 . ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "Ultra-Large Scale Integration" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors. Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed. System-on-a-Chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements. However, these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging, above). Three Dimensional Integrated Circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation. Advances in integrated circuits The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip. Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", which control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital memory chips and ASICs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society. While the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds. ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality—see Moore's law which, in its modern interpretation, states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devices are not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see subthreshold leakage for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction of high-k dielectrics. Since these speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Popularity of ICs Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern computing, communications, manufacturing and transport systems, including the Internet, all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many scholars believe that the digital revolution—brought about by the microchip revolution—was one of the most significant occurrences in the history of humankind. Classification A CMOS 4000 IC in a DIP Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip). Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals. Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch. ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference. Manufacture Fabrication Rendering of a small standard cell with three metal layers (dielectric has been removed). The sand-colored structures are metal interconnect, with the vertical pillars being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are polysilicon gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk. The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a solid state vacuum tube by researchers like William Shockley at Bell Laboratories starting in the 1930s. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon monocrystals are the main substrate used for integrated circuits (ICs) although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the semiconducting material. Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps: Imaging Deposition Etching The main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning. Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for special applications, silicon on sapphire or gallium arsenide wafers) are used as the substrate. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminum) tracks deposited on them. Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers. In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer. Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs. Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip resistors, though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance. More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators. Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less current than bipolar devices. A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate – with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process. Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package using aluminum (or gold) bond wires which are welded to pads, usually found around the edge of the die. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low yielding, larger, and/or higher cost devices. As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor lab) costs over a billion US Dollars to construct For example, Intel Fab 28 cost 3.5 billion USD, while its neighboring Fab 18 cost 1.5 billion USD http://www.theinquirer.net/default.aspx?article=29958 , because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques: The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate). Use of 65 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. Intel, IBM, NEC, and AMD are using 45 nanometers for their CPU chips. IBM and AMD are in development of a 45 nm process using immersion lithography. Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminum for interconnects. Low-K dielectric insulators. Silicon on insulator (SOI) Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as strained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI) Packaging Early USSR made integrated circuit The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit -- a carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has "gull wing" leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches. In the late 1990s, PQFP and TSOP packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array (LGA) packages. Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the printed circuit board have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself. When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. Legal protection of semiconductor chip layouts Prior to 1984, it was not necessarily illegal to produce a competing chip with an identical layout. As the legislative history for the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, or SCPA, explained, patent and copyright protection for chip layouts, or topographies, were largely unavailable. This led to considerable complaint by U.S. chip manufacturers--notably, Intel, which took the lead in seeking legislation, along with the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA)--against what they termed "chip piracy." A 1984 addition to US law, the SCPA, made all so-called mask works (i.e., chip topographies) protectable if registered with the U.S. Copyright Office. Similar rules apply in most other countries that manufacture ICs. (This is a simplified explanation - see SCPA for legal details.) Other developments In the 1980s programmable integrated circuits were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as logic gates, adders and registers. Current devices named FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 550 MHz. The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as MEMS. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example commercial applications include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy automobile airbags. In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or Atheros's 802.11 card. Future developments seem to follow the multi-microprocessor paradigm, already used by the Intel and AMD dual-core processors. Intel recently unveiled a prototype, "not for commercial sale" chip that bears a staggering 80 microprocessors. Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others. This is in response to the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached using existing transistor technology. This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. X10 is the new open-source programming language designed to assist with this task. Biever, C. "Chip revolution poses problems for programmers", New Scientist (Vol 193, Number 2594) Silicon graffiti Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as Chip Art, Silicon Art, Silicon Graffiti or Silicon Doodling. Key industrial and academic data Notable ICs The 555 common multivibrator sub-circuit (common in electronic timing circuits) The 741 operational amplifier 7400 series TTL logic building blocks 4000 series, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00 series) Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor, which led to the famous 8080 CPU and then the IBM PC's 8088, 80286, 486 etc. The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers of the early 1980s The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series (used in some Apple computers). Manufacturers VLSI conferences ICM – IEEE International Conference on Microelectronics ISSCC – IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference CICC – IEEE Custom Integrated Circuit Conference ISCAS – IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems VLSI – IEEE International Conference on VLSI Design DAC – Design Automation Conference ICCAD – International Conference on Computer-Aided Design ESSCIRC – European Solid-State Circuits Conference ISLPED – International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design ISPD – International Symposium on Physical Design ISQED – International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design DATE – Design Automation and Test in Europe ICCD – International Conference on Computer Design IEDM – IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting GLSVLSI – IEEE Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI ASP-DAC – Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference MWSCAS – IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems ICSVLSI – IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI IEEE Symposia on VLSI Circuits and Technology VLSI journals ED – IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices EDL – IEEE Electron Device Letters CAD – IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, IEEE web site for this journal JSSC – IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits VLSI – IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems CAS II – IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing SM – IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing SSE – Solid-State Electronics SST – Solid-State Technology TCAD – Journal of Technology Computer-Aided Design Branch pages Clean room Current mirror Ion implantation See also General topics Computer engineering Electrical engineering Related devices and terms MMIC Hybrid integrated circuit Printed circuit board Integrated circuit vacuum tube Photonic integrated circuit IC device technologies Integrated injection logic Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) Bipolar junction transistor Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) MOSFET NMOS CMOS BiCMOS BCDMOS GaAs SiGe Mixed-signal integrated circuit RC delay Other Chip art Memristor Microcontroller Moore's law Semiconductor manufacturing Simulation Sound chip SPICE, HDL, Automatic test pattern generation ZIF DatasheetArchive Three-dimensional integrated circuit References Academic Mead, C. and Conway, L. (1980). Introduction to VLSI Systems. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-04358-0. Hodges, D.A., Jackson H.G. and Saleh, R. (2003). Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-228365-3. Jan M. Rabaey, Anantha Chandrakasan, and Borivoje Nikolic (1996 - first edition). Digital Integrated Circuits, 2nd Edition ISBN 0-13-090996-3 Intel 65-Nanometer Technology Marsh, S.P. Practical MMIC Design published by Artech House ISBN 1-59693-036-5 http://CMOSedu.com/ Precursors and patents External links General Krazit, Tom "- AMD's new 65-nanometer chips sip energy but trail Intel," C-net, 2006-12-21. Retrieved on January 8, 2007 a large chart listing ICs by generic number and A larger one listing by mfr. number, both including access to most of the datasheets for the parts. Practical MMIC Design'' published by Artech House ISBN 1-59693-036-5 Author S.P. Marsh Patents – Miniaturized electronic circuit – J. S. Kilby – Integrated semiconductor circuit device – J. S. Kilby – Method of making miniaturized electronic circuits – J. S. Kilby – Capacitor for miniaturized electronic circuits or the like – J. S. 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861 | Book_of_Ezra | The Book of Ezra is a book of the Bible in the Old Testament and Hebrew Tanakh. It is the record of events occurring at the close of the Babylonian captivity. At one time, it included the Book of Nehemiah, and the Jews regarded them as one volume. The two are still distinguished in the Vulgate version as I and II Esdras. The book is divided into two principal parts: The history of the first return of exiles, in the first year of Cyrus the Great (536 B.C.), till the completion and dedication of the new Temple in Jerusalem, in the sixth year of Darius (515 B.C.). From the close of the sixth to the opening of the seventh chapter there is a period of about sixty years. The history of the second return under Ezra, in the seventh year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, and of the events that took place at Jerusalem after Ezra's arrival there. The book thus contains memorabilia connected with the Jews, from the decree of Cyrus to the reformation by Ezra (456 B.C.), extending over a period of about eighty years. Synopsis Cyrus, inspired by God, permits the Israelites to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem and returns to them the golden vessels which had been carried off by Nebuchadnezzar. The number of the captives that returned from Babylon to Jerusalem and Judah with Zerubbabel is stated as 42,360, besides 7,337 men servants and women servants and 200 singing men and women. Joshua the High Priest and Zerubbabel build the altar and celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles. In the second year the foundations of the Temple are laid, and the dedication takes place with great rejoicing. The adversaries of the Jews, especially the Samaritans, make efforts to hinder the Jews from building the Temple. A letter is written by the Samaritans to Cambyses II to procure a prohibition of the construction of the Temple, and the work is interrupted till the second year of Darius. Through the exhortations of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, Zerubbabel and Jeshua ben Jozadak recommence the building of the Temple. Tatnai, the governor "on this side the river," sends to the king a report of their action. Darius finds the decree of Cyrus in the archives of Achmetha (Hamadan), and directs Tatnai not to disturb the Jews in their work. He also exempts them from tribute and supplies everything necessary for the offerings. The Temple is finished in the month of Adar, in the sixth year of Darius, and is dedicated with great solemnity. Artaxerxes gives Ezra a commission to bring with him to Jerusalem all the captives that remain in Babylon. Ezra institutes a fast while on his way to Jerusalem. The princes of Israel inform Ezra that many have not repudiated their foreign wives. Those who have taken foreign wives are compelled to send them away and to bring each a sin offering. Origin, structure, and authorship The canonical Book of Ezra commences where the Chronicles leave off, and indeed with slight variation repeats the last two verses of II Chronicles. What follows consists of three portions: an account of the return of the exiles and a brief survey of the fortunes of the Jewish community down to the reign of Xerxes; extracts from a collection of historical documents in Aramaic, illustrating the fortunes of the community in the reigns of Artaxerxes I and Darius, with a short appendix in Hebrew; a record of the enterprise of the author of the book, including a copy of the decree granted to him by Artaxerxes II., with an account of the author's work at Jerusalem. The first section includes a document also transcribed in Nehemiah, called by Nehemiah a genealogical table of the first return. A third copy is found in the apocryphal I Esdras. Character of composition The documents embodied in the second section are described as "written in Aramaic and 'targumed' in Nehemiah Aramaic" (iv. 7). Since a work can not be translated into the same language as it is composed, the expression "targumed" must mean "described," a sense which corresponds closely to the sense of the Arabic word "tarjamah," which, used of a tradition, signifies the heading in which its contents are described. This phrase, then, implies that the contents of this section were transcribed from a collection of documents and accompanied with a commentary, probably made for the benefit of the Eastern community. In these extracts there is evidently a chronological transposition; for the correspondence with Artaxerxes I. (ch. iv.) is placed before the correspondence with Darius (ch. v., vi.), who is certainly Darius I. This may be a confusion on the author's part between Darius I. and Darius II.; but it is surprising, since in iv. 5-7 he shows himself well acquainted with the order of the Persian kings. Thus the period covered by the commentary on the documents in ch. v. and vi. is earlier than that covered by the documents in ch. iv. Authenticity The authenticity of the documents is a matter on which there is difference of opinion, with critics being disposed to regard all of them as inauthentic, whereas before the time of Heinrich Graetz they were generally thought to be genuine. The custom in use among ancient historians of illustrating their histories by speeches and letters of their own composition makes the treatment of such questions difficult. The edict of Cyrus, said to have been found at Achmetha (vi. 3-5), is the boldest of these fabrications, if they be such; but the mention of that ancient capital implies some very remarkable knowledge on the part of the author here excerpted. Some other reasons for believing these documents genuine are alleged by Levi Herzfeld. Herzfeld, Levi. "Geschichte des Volkes Israel," i. 125 The character of the Aramaic in which they are couched agrees fairly well, both in vocabulary and in grammar, with that of early inscriptions and papyri; and there would be nothing surprising in successive compilers having assimilated the language somewhat to the dialect with which they were most familiar. It is also possible that these Aramaic texts are translations of documents in Old Persian, and were accommodated to the taste of those whom they were intended to reach. The third part of the book appears to be a personal memoir; and the decree there given (vii. 11-26), coming from an Artaxerxes whom the author distinguishes by spelling from Artaxerxes I., cannot be regarded as spurious without seriously shaking the writer's credit. The narrative which he proceeds to give of his journey, however, contains little which might have been invented for the purpose of edification, though it might be open to any one to regard viii. 22 as written by one who had Nehemiah ii. 7 before him. The narrative of Ezra's doings at Jerusalem is also not marked by exaggeration. Chapter ix. records a lengthy prayer offered by him on receipt of the intelligence of the mixed marriages, and chapter x. the measures taken by him to separate the erring couples, with a list of the persons affected. The objection urged by some critics that so severe a measure would not have been obeyed, seems insufficient to justify the condemnation of this part of the narrative as unhistorical; since the author may well have supposed it would be more effective than it turned out to be. Nor indeed does the recurrence to the subject in Nehemiah x. 31 and xiii. 23 render it improbable that severe measures were taken years before in the same direction. Chronological placement The date of Ezra's arrival in Judaea depends on the identification of the Persian King Artaxerxes. Identifying the king with Artaxerxes I would place the event in 457 B.C., whereas an identification with Artaxerxes II would place it 397 B.C.. References External links Jewish translations Ezra (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations Online Bible at GospelHall.org Ezra at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) |- | Book_of_Ezra |@lemmatized book:9 ezra:12 bible:2 old:2 testament:1 hebrew:2 tanakh:1 record:3 event:3 occur:1 close:2 babylonian:1 captivity:1 one:4 time:2 include:3 nehemiah:6 jew:5 regard:4 volume:1 two:3 still:1 distinguish:1 vulgate:1 version:2 ii:7 esdras:2 divide:1 principal:1 part:5 history:3 first:4 return:6 exile:2 year:9 cyrus:5 great:4 b:5 c:5 till:2 completion:1 dedication:2 new:2 temple:7 jerusalem:8 sixth:3 darius:9 opening:1 seventh:2 chapter:3 period:3 sixty:1 second:4 artaxerxes:10 longimanus:1 take:5 place:5 arrival:2 thus:2 contain:2 memorabilia:1 connect:1 decree:4 reformation:1 extend:1 eighty:1 synopsis:1 inspire:1 god:1 permit:1 israelite:1 rebuild:1 golden:1 vessel:1 carry:1 nebuchadnezzar:1 number:1 captive:2 babylon:2 judah:1 zerubbabel:3 state:1 besides:1 men:2 servant:2 woman:2 sing:1 joshua:1 high:1 priest:1 build:2 altar:1 celebrate:1 feast:1 tabernacle:1 foundation:1 lay:1 rejoicing:1 adversary:1 especially:1 samaritan:2 make:3 effort:1 hinder:1 letter:2 write:3 cambyses:1 procure:1 prohibition:1 construction:1 work:4 interrupt:1 exhortation:1 prophet:1 haggai:1 zechariah:1 jeshua:1 ben:1 jozadak:1 recommence:1 building:1 tatnai:2 governor:1 side:1 river:1 send:2 king:4 report:1 action:1 find:3 archive:1 achmetha:2 hamadan:1 directs:1 disturb:1 also:4 exempt:1 tribute:1 supply:1 everything:1 necessary:1 offering:2 finish:1 month:1 adar:1 dedicate:1 solemnity:1 give:3 commission:1 bring:2 remain:1 institute:1 fast:1 way:1 prince:1 israel:2 inform:1 many:1 repudiate:1 foreign:2 wife:2 compel:1 away:1 sin:1 origin:1 structure:1 authorship:1 canonical:1 commences:1 chronicle:2 leave:1 indeed:2 slight:1 variation:1 repeat:1 last:1 verse:1 follow:1 consists:1 three:1 portion:1 account:2 brief:1 survey:1 fortune:2 jewish:2 community:3 reign:2 xerxes:1 extract:2 collection:2 historical:1 document:9 aramaic:5 illustrate:2 short:1 appendix:1 enterprise:1 author:6 copy:2 grant:1 section:3 transcribe:2 call:1 genealogical:1 table:1 third:2 apocryphal:1 character:2 composition:2 embody:1 describe:3 targumed:2 iv:4 since:3 translate:1 language:2 compose:1 expression:1 must:1 mean:1 sense:2 correspond:1 closely:1 arabic:1 word:1 tarjamah:1 use:2 tradition:1 signify:1 heading:1 content:2 phrase:1 implies:2 accompany:1 commentary:3 probably:1 benefit:1 eastern:1 evidently:1 chronological:2 transposition:1 correspondence:2 ch:4 v:2 vi:3 certainly:1 may:2 confusion:1 surprising:2 show:1 well:3 acquaint:1 order:1 persian:3 cover:2 early:2 authenticity:2 matter:1 difference:1 opinion:1 critic:2 dispose:1 inauthentic:1 whereas:2 heinrich:1 graetz:1 generally:1 think:1 genuine:2 custom:1 among:1 ancient:2 historian:1 speech:1 treatment:1 question:1 difficult:1 edict:1 say:1 bold:1 fabrication:1 mention:1 capital:1 remarkable:1 knowledge:1 excerpt:1 reason:1 believe:1 allege:1 levi:2 herzfeld:2 geschichte:1 de:1 volkes:1 couch:1 agrees:1 fairly:1 vocabulary:1 grammar:1 inscription:1 papyrus:1 would:5 nothing:1 successive:1 compiler:1 assimilate:1 somewhat:1 dialect:1 familiar:1 possible:1 text:1 translation:4 accommodate:1 taste:1 intend:1 reach:1 appear:1 personal:1 memoir:1 vii:1 come:1 distinguishes:1 spell:1 cannot:1 spurious:1 without:1 seriously:1 shake:1 writer:1 credit:1 narrative:3 proceed:1 journey:1 however:1 little:1 might:2 invent:1 purpose:1 edification:1 though:1 open:1 viii:1 doings:1 mark:1 exaggeration:1 ix:1 lengthy:1 prayer:1 offer:1 receipt:1 intelligence:1 mixed:1 marriage:1 x:2 measure:3 separate:1 erring:1 couple:1 list:1 person:1 affect:1 objection:1 urge:1 severe:2 obey:1 seem:1 insufficient:1 justify:1 condemnation:1 unhistorical:1 suppose:1 effective:1 turn:1 recurrence:1 subject:1 xiii:1 render:1 improbable:1 direction:1 placement:1 date:1 judaea:1 depends:1 identification:2 identify:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 judaica:1 press:1 rashi:1 chabad:1 org:2 christian:1 online:1 gospelhall:1 revise:1 standard:1 |@bigram babylonian_captivity:1 haggai_zechariah:1 external_link:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 |
862 | DOS | The FreeDOS startup sequence. DOS, short for "Disk Operating System", is a shorthand term for several closely related operating systems that dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995, or until about 2000 if one includes the partially DOS-based Microsoft Windows versions Windows 95, 98, and Me. Related systems include MS-DOS, PC DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS, PTS-DOS, ROM-DOS, JM-OS, and several others. In spite of the common usage, none of these systems were named simply "DOS" (a name given only to an unrelated IBM mainframe operating system in the 1960s). A number of unrelated, non-x86 microcomputer disk operating systems had "DOS" in their name, and are often referred to simply as "DOS" when discussing machines that use them (e.g. AmigaDOS, AMSDOS, ANDOS, Apple DOS, Atari DOS, Commodore DOS, CSI-DOS, ProDOS, and TRS-DOS). These were incompatible with DOS executables and the MS-DOS API. Design All DOS-type operating systems run on machines with the Intel x86 or compatible CPUs, mainly the IBM PC and compatibles. Initially, DOS was not restricted to these, and machine-dependent versions of DOS and similar operating systems were produced for many non-IBM-compatible x86-based machines. See MS-DOS In particular, DOS-C's predecessor DOS/NT ran on Motorola 68000 processors. DOS is a single-user, single-task operating system with basic kernel functions that are non-reentrant: only one program at a time can use them. There is an exception with Terminate and Stay Resident (TSR) programs, and some TSRs can allow multitasking. However, there is still a problem with the non-reentrant kernel: once a process calls a service inside of operating system kernel (system call), it must not be interrupted with another process calling system call, until the first call is finished. The DOS kernel provides various functions for programs, like displaying characters on-screen, reading a character from the keyboard, accessing disk files and more. Scripting DOS by default provides a primitive ability for shell scripting, via batch files (with the filename extension .BAT). These are text files that can be created in any DOS text editor, such as the MS-DOS Editor. They are executed in the same fashion as compiled programs, and run each line of the batch file as a command. Batch files can also make use of several internal commands, such as goto and conditional statements. gosub and simple arithmetic is supported in some third-party shells but can also be faked via strange workarounds; however, no real form of programming is usually enabled. Hardware access The operating system offers a hardware abstraction layer that allows development of character-based applications, but not for accessing most of the hardware, such as graphics cards, printers, or mice. This required programmers to access the hardware directly, usually resulting in each application having its own set of device drivers for each hardware peripheral. Hardware manufacturers would release specifications to ensure device drivers for popular applications were available. Reserved device names There are reserved device names in DOS that cannot be used as filenames regardless of extension; these are used to send application output to hardware peripherals. These restrictions also affect several Windows versions, in some cases causing crashes and security vulnerabilities. A partial list of these reserved names is: NUL:, COM1: or AUX:, COM2:, COM3:, COM4:, CON:, LPT1: or PRN:, LPT2:, LPT3:, and CLOCK$. Drive naming scheme In DOS, drives are referred to by identifying letters. Standard practice is to reserve "A" and "B" for floppy drives. On systems with only one floppy drive DOS permits the use of both letters for one drive, and DOS will ask to swap disks. This permits copying from floppy to floppy or having a program run from one floppy while having its data on another. Hard drives were originally assigned the letters "C" and "D". DOS could only support one active partition per drive. As support for more hard drives became available, this developed into assigning the active primary partition on each drive letters first, then making a second pass over the drives to allocate letters to logical drives in the extended partition, then making a third, which gives the other non-active primary partitions their names. (Always assumed, they exist and contain a DOS-readable file system.) Lastly, DOS allocate letters for optical disc drives, RAM disks, and other hardware. Letter assignments usually occur in the order of the drivers loaded, but the drivers can instruct DOS to assign a different letter. An example is network drives, for which the driver will assign letters nearer the end of the alphabets. Because DOS applications use these drive letters directly (unlike the /dev directory in Unix-like systems), they can be disrupted by adding new hardware that needs a drive letter. An example is the addition of a new hard drive with a primary partition to an original hard drive that contains logical drives in extended partitions. As primary partitions have higher priority than the logical drives, it will change drive letters in the configuration. Moreover, attempts to add a new hard drive with only logical drives in an extended partition would still disrupt the letters of RAM disks and optical drives. This problem persisted through the 9x versions of Windows until NT, which preserves the letters of existing drives until the user changes it. Boot sequence The boot sector for PC-compatible computers is located at track zero. In DOS, this code will read the DOS BIOS into memory and execute it. The BIOS is located in IBMBIO.COM on DR DOS and PC DOS, and IO.SYS on MS DOS. The BIOS will then load the DOS kernel, located in IBMDOS.COM (PC DOS or DR DOS) or MSDOS.SYS (MS DOS). In the Windows DOS versions (MS DOS 7 and 8), the BIOS and kernel are combined in IO.SYS, and MSDOS.SYS is a text configuration file. The kernel then executes the CONFIG.SYS file. In CONFIG.SYS, the SHELL command specifies the location of the shell (typically COMMAND.COM). The shell will then launch, and open a startup batch file (typically AUTOEXEC.BAT). Origins IBM PC-DOS (and the separately sold MS-DOS, which was licensed therefrom), and its predecessor, 86-DOS, were loosely inspired by CP/M (Control Program / (for) Microcomputers) from Digital Research, which was the dominant disk operating system for 8-bit Intel 8080 and Zilog Z80 based microcomputers. However, PC-DOS never ran on less than an 8088 (16-bit). When IBM introduced their first microcomputer in 1980, built with the Intel 8088 microprocessor, they needed an operating system. Seeking an 8088-compatible build of CP/M, IBM initially approached Microsoft CEO Bill Gates (possibly believing that Microsoft owned CP/M due to the Microsoft Z-80 SoftCard, which allowed CP/M to run on an Apple II ). IBM was sent to Digital Research, and a meeting was set up. However, the initial negotiations for the use of CP/M broke down—Digital Research wished to sell CP/M on a royalty basis, while IBM sought a single license, and to change the name to "PC DOS". DR founder Gary Kildall refused, and IBM withdrew. IBM again approached Bill Gates. Gates in turn approached Seattle Computer Products. There, programmer Tim Paterson had developed a variant of CP/M-80, intended as an internal product for testing SCP's new 16-bit Intel 8086 CPU card for the S-100 bus. The system was initially named "QDOS" (Quick and Dirty Operating System), before being made commercially available as 86-DOS. Microsoft purchased 86-DOS, allegedly for $50,000. This became Microsoft Disk Operating System, MS-DOS, introduced in 1981. Microsoft also licensed their system to multiple computer companies, who supplied MS-DOS for their own hardware, sometimes under their own names. Microsoft later required the use of the MS-DOS name, with the exception of the IBM variant. IBM continued to develop their version, PC DOS, for the IBM PC. Digital Research became aware that an operating system similar to CP/M was being sold by IBM (under the same name that IBM insisted upon for CP/M), and threatened legal action. IBM responded by offering an agreement: they would give PC consumers a choice of PC DOS or CP/M-86, Kildall's 8086 version. Side-by-side, CP/M cost almost $200 more than PC DOS, and sales were low. CP/M faded, with MS-DOS and PC DOS becoming the marketed operating system for PCs and PC compatibles. Digital Research attempted to regain the market lost from CP/M-86; initially with DOS Plus, and later with DR-DOS (both compatible with both MS-DOS and CP/M-86 software). Digital Research was bought by Novell, and DR DOS became Novell DOS 7; later, it was part of Caldera Systems (under the names OpenDOS and DR DOS 7), Lineo, and DeviceLogics. Microsoft and IBM later had a series of disagreements over two successor operating systems to DOS- Microsoft's Windows and IBM's OS/2. They split development of their DOS systems as a result. MS-DOS was partially transformed into Windows; the last version of PC DOS was PC DOS 2000, released in 1998. The FreeDOS project began June 26, 1994, when Microsoft announced it would no longer sell or support MS-DOS. Jim Hall then posted a manifesto proposing the development of an open-source replacement. Within a few weeks, other programmers including Pat Villani and Tim Norman joined the project. A kernel, the command.com command line interpreter (shell) and core utilities were created by pooling code they had written or found available. There were several official pre-release distributions of FreeDOS before the FreeDOS 1.0 distribution was released on September 3, 2006. Thanks to the GPL, FreeDOS does not require license fees or royalties. Decline Early versions of Microsoft Windows were an application that ran on top of a separate version of DOS. By the early 1990s, Windows saw heavy use on new DOS systems. With Windows for Workgroups 3.11, DOS was almost reduced to the role of a boot loader for the Windows kernel; in 1995, Windows 95 was bundled as a standalone operating system that did not require a separate DOS license. With Windows 95 (and Windows 98 and Me, that followed it), the MS-DOS kernel remains, but with Windows as the system's graphical shell. With Windows 95 and 98, but not ME, the MS-DOS component could be run without starting Windows. With Windows now separated and DOS compatibility getting worse with each upgrade, DOS fell into disuse as the majority of computer users migrated to the more popular programming platform. Modern versions of Windows, such as XP, allowed DOS-native software to operate (though such software often ran at a reduced capacity due to Windows resource requirements and memory usage); Windows Vista, however, has removed DOS compatibility entirely, requiring the use of DOS extenders or emulators to run any DOS-native program. Continued use Currently available DOS systems are FreeDOS, DR-DOS (and Enhanced DR-DOS), ROM-DOS, the Russian PTS-DOS, NX-DOS, Multiuser DOS (based on Digital Research's Concurrent DOS), and others. Some computer manufacturers, including Dell and HP, sell computers with FreeDOS as the OEM operating system. NX-DOS, is currently under development. It is 16-bit, real-time, networkable, bootable from a floppy, and has an incomplete USB driver. It dates back to 1992 as a personal project, and was released as GPL in 2005. Embedding DOS' structure of accessing hardware directly makes it ideal for use in embedded devices. The final versions of DR-DOS are still aimed at this market. ROM-DOS was used as the embedded system on the Canon PowerShot Pro 70. Emulation DOSBox running in Linux Under Linux it is also possible to run copies of DOS and many of its clones under DOSEMU, a Linux-native virtual machine for running DOS programs at near native speed. There are a number of other emulators for running DOS under various versions of UNIX, even on non-x86 platforms, such as DOSBox. DOS emulators are gaining popularity among Windows XP and Vista users, due to these systems being very incompatible with pure DOS. They can be used to run games or other DOS software. One of the most well-known is DOSBox, designed for legacy gaming (e.g. King's Quest, Doom) on modern operating systems. It is possible to run DOS applications under Microsoft Virtual PC, allowing better compatibility than DOS emulators. A legitimate version of MS-DOS can be installed which should allow all but the most stubborn applications to run. With Microsoft Windows cmd.exe, the DOS-styled command prompt used in NT-based Windows. True 32-bit versions of Windows, starting with NT and including 2000, XP, and Vista, are not based upon DOS. These include the NT Virtual DOS Machine (NTVDM), which runs a modified version of MS-DOS 5 in a virtual machine. While DOS-based versions used the traditional COMMAND.COM for a command line interface, Windows NT and its derivatives use cmd.exe, which utilizes many DOS commands (although COMMAND.COM is still called and used upon each DOS .EXE run). Versions See Comparison of x86 DOS operating systems and Timeline of x86 DOS operating systems. Software Arachne web browser See also:DOS software While DOS was the primary PC-compatible platform, several notable programs were written for it. These included: Lotus 1-2-3; a protected mode spreadsheet program that saw heavy use in corporate markets and has been credited with the success of the IBM PC WordPerfect; a word processor that is currently produced for the Windows platform dBase; one of the earliest database programs Telix; a modem communication program Arachne; a 16-bit graphical DOS web browser DJGPP, the 32-bit DPMI DOS port of gcc 4DOS, a much improved replacement shell Borland's integrated development environment, which included Turbo Pascal, Turbo BASIC, Turbo C, and Turbo Assembler BBS hosting software PCBoard, RemoteAccess, Spitfire, Maximus, McBBS, and TAG BASIC-language utilities BASICA and GW-BASIC Numerous first-person shooter games: Wolfenstein 3D, a joint venture between id Software and Apogee Software (later 3D Realms); id Software's Doom and Quake; and 3D Realms' Duke Nukem 3D, Shadow Warrior, and Rise of the Triad. The first two 3D Realms' titles were built with the DOS-based Build engine, written by Ken Silverman and used for numerous DOS FPS games. R.O.T.T. (among others) was based upon a heavily-modified Wolfenstein 3D. Ease of use User interface DOS systems utilize a command line interface. Programs are started by entering their filename at the command prompt. DOS systems include several programs as system utilities, and provides additional commands that don't correspond to programs (internal commands). In an attempt to provide a more user-friendly environment, numerous software manufacturers wrote file management programs that provided users with menu- and/or icon-based interfaces. Microsoft Windows is a notable example, eventually becoming a self-contained operating system, and replacing DOS as the most-used PC-compatible operating system. Text user interface programs included Norton Commander, Dos Navigator, Volkov Commander, Quarterdesk DESQview, and SideKick. Graphical user interface programs included Digital Research's Graphical Environment Manager (originally written for CP/M) and GEOS. Eventually, the manufacturers of major DOS systems began to include their own environment managers. MS-DOS/IBM DOS 4 included DOS Shell; DR-DOS 5, released the next year, included ViewMAX, based upon GEM. Multitasking By its original design, DOS was a single task operating system. MS and PC DOS would introduce task switching with DOSShell, and DR-DOS would include it with DR-DOS 6, via the TaskMAX command. MS and PC DOS never had a multitasking capability; DR-DOS had the capability with DR-DOS 7 (assuming DR-DOS was running with DPMI enabled). Others such as VMIX (shareware) or DesqView (commercial) could multitask even on an 8088. Limitations Several limitations plague the DOS architecture. The original 8088 microprocessor could only address 1 megabyte of physical RAM. With additional hardware devices being mapped into this range, the highest amount of available memory was 640 kilobytes, known as conventional memory. Due to DOS' structure, this was assumed to be the maximum, and DOS could not address more than this. An early workaround was expanded memory; later, extended memory was developed with the 80286. While these provided usable memory to applications, they still had to start in conventional memory, thereby using part of the existing 640 KB. With the 80386 microprocessor's redesigned protected mode, DOS extenders and the DOS Protected Mode Interface were able to provide additional memory to applications, as well as multitasking. DOS also has an upper limit to the size of hard disk partitions. This has two causes. First, many DOS-type systems never had support for any file system newer than FAT16, which, by design, does not allow partitions larger than 2.1 gigabytes. Additionally, DOS accesses the hard disk by calling Interrupt 13, which utilizes the cylinder-head-sector system of mapping the disk. Under this system, only 8 gigabytes are visible to the operating system. Newer operating systems accomplished disk access via software means, e.g. 32-bit disk access. Using FAT16 (and FAT12 for floppy disks) required use of the 8.3 filename. Filenames in DOS can not be longer than eight characters, and the filename extension cannot be longer than three. Win95's patented VFAT hack worked around this in a unique way. See also COMMAND.COM, the command line interpreter for DOS and Windows 9x MS-DOS API MS-DOS PC DOS DR-DOS FreeDOS References External links MS-DOS Reference — MS-DOS commands; many also apply to other DOSes on the PC platform. 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863 | Arithmetic | Arithmetic tables for children, Lausanne, 1835Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number) is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics, used by almost everyone, for tasks ranging from simple day-to-day counting to advanced science and business calculations. In common usage, the word refers to a branch of (or the forerunner of) mathematics which records elementary properties of certain operations on numbers. Professional mathematicians sometimes use the term (higher) arithmetic Davenport, Harold, The Higher Arithmetic: An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (7th ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1999, ISBN 0-521-63446-6 when referring to number theory, but this should not be confused with elementary arithmetic. History The prehistory of arithmetic is limited to a very small number of small artifacts indicating a clear conception of addition and subtraction, the best-known being the Ishango bone from central Africa, dating from somewhere between 20,000 and 18,000 BC. It is clear that the Babylonians had solid knowledge of almost all aspects of elementary arithmetic by 1800 BC, although historians can only guess at the methods utilized to generate the arithmetical results - as shown, for instance, in the clay tablet Plimpton 322, which appears to be a list of Pythagorean triples, but with no workings to show how the list was originally produced. Likewise, the Egyptian Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (dating from c. 1650 BC, though evidently a copy of an older text from c. 1850 BC) shows evidence of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division being used within a unit fraction system. Nicomachus (c. AD 60 - c. AD 120) summarised the philosophical Pythagorean approach to numbers, and their relationships to each other, in his Introduction to Arithmetic. At this time, basic arithmetical operations were highly complicated affairs; it was the method known as the "Method of the Indians" (Latin Modus Indorum) that became the arithmetic that we know today. Indian arithmetic was much simpler than Greek arithmetic due to the simplicity of the Indian number system, which had a zero and place-value notation. The 7th century Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht mentioned this method with admiration, stating however that the Method of the Indians was beyond description. The Arabs learned this new method and called it hesab. Fibonacci (also known as Leonardo of Pisa) introduced the "Method of the Indians" to Europe in 1202. In his book Liber Abaci, Fibonacci says that, compared with this new method, all other methods had been mistakes. In the Middle Ages, arithmetic was one of the seven liberal arts taught in universities. Modern algorithms for arithmetic (both for hand and electronic computation) were made possible by the introduction of Arabic numerals and decimal place notation for numbers. Arabic numeral based arithmetic was developed by the great Indian mathematicians Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta and Bhāskara I. Aryabhatta tried different place value notations and Brahmagupta added zero to the Indian number system. Brahmagupta developed modern multiplication, division, addition and subtraction based on Arabic numerals. Although it is now considered elementary, its simplicity is the culmination of thousands of years of mathematical development. By contrast, the ancient mathematician Archimedes devoted an entire work, The Sand Reckoner, to devising a notation for a certain large integer. The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world and in Renaissance Europe was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation. Decimal arithmetic Decimal notation constructs all real numbers from the basic digits, the first ten non-negative integers 0,1,2,...,9. A decimal numeral consists of a sequence of these basic digits, with the "denomination" of each digit depending on its position with respect to the decimal point: for example, 507.36 denotes 5 hundreds (102), plus 0 tens (101), plus 7 units (100), plus 3 tenths (10-1) plus 6 hundredths (10-2). An essential part of this notation (and a major stumbling block in achieving it) was conceiving of zero as a number comparable to the other basic digits. Algorism comprises all of the rules of performing arithmetic computations using a decimal system for representing numbers in which numbers written using ten symbols having the values 0 through 9 are combined using a place-value system (positional notation), where each symbol has ten times the weight of the one to its right. This notation allows the addition of arbitrary numbers by adding the digits in each place, which is accomplished with a 10 x 10 addition table. (A sum of digits which exceeds 9 must have its 10-digit carried to the next place leftward.) One can make a similar algorithm for multiplying arbitrary numbers because the set of denominations {...,10²,10,1,10-1,...} is closed under multiplication. Subtraction and division are achieved by similar, though more complicated algorithms. Arithmetic operations The traditional arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, although more advanced operations (such as manipulations of percentages, square root, exponentiation, and logarithmic functions) are also sometimes included in this subject. Arithmetic is performed according to an order of operations. Any set of objects upon which all four operations of arithmetic can be performed (except division by zero), and wherein these four operations obey the usual laws, is called a field. Addition (+) Addition is the basic operation of arithmetic. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers, the addends or terms, into a single number, the sum of the numbers. Adding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition; this procedure is known as summation and includes ways to add infinitely many numbers in an infinite series; repeated addition of the number one is the most basic form of counting. Addition is commutative and associative so the order in which the terms are added does not matter. The identity element of addition (the additive identity) is 0, that is, adding zero to any number will yield that same number. Also, the inverse element of addition (the additive inverse) is the opposite of any number, that is, adding the opposite of any number to the number itself will yield the additive identity, 0. For example, the opposite of 7 is -7, so 7 + (-7) = 0. Addition can be given geometrically as follows: If a and b are the lengths of two sticks, then if we place the sticks one after the other, the length of the stick thus formed will be a + b. Subtraction (−) Subtraction is essentially the opposite of addition. Subtraction finds the difference between two numbers, the minuend minus the subtrahend. If the minuend is larger than the subtrahend, the difference will be positive; if the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, the difference will be negative; and if they are equal, the difference will be zero. Subtraction is neither commutative nor associative. For that reason, it is often helpful to look at subtraction as addition of the minuend and the opposite of the subtrahend, that is a − b = a + (−b). When written as a sum, all the properties of addition hold. Multiplication (×, ·, or *) Multiplication is the second basic operation of arithmetic. Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product. The two original numbers are called the multiplier and the multiplicand, sometimes both simply called factors. Multiplication is best viewed as a scaling operation. If the real numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number, say , greater than 1 is the same as stretching everything away from zero uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where was. Similarly, multiplying by a number less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards zero. (Again, in such a way that 1 goes to the multiplicand.) Multiplication is commutative and associative; further it is distributive over addition and subtraction. The multiplicative identity is 1, that is, multiplying any number by 1 will yield that same number. Also, the multiplicative inverse is the reciprocal of any number, that is, multiplying the reciprocal of any number by the number itself will yield the multiplicative identity. Division (÷ or /) Division is essentially the opposite of multiplication. Division finds the quotient of two numbers, the dividend divided by the divisor. Any dividend divided by zero is undefined. For positive numbers, if the dividend is larger than the divisor, the quotient will be greater than one, otherwise it will be less than one (a similar rule applies for negative numbers). The quotient multiplied by the divisor always yields the dividend. Division is neither commutative nor associative. As it is helpful to look at subtraction as addition, it is helpful to look at division as multiplication of the dividend times the reciprocal of the divisor, that is a ÷ b = a × 1⁄b. When written as a product, it will obey all the properties of multiplication. Examples Multiplication table ×12345678910111213141516171819202122232425112345678910111213141516171819202122232425224681012141618202224262830323436384042444648503369121518212427303336394245485154576063666972754481216202428323640444852566064687276808488929610055101520253035404550556065707580859095100105110115120125661218243036424854606672788490961021081141201261321381441507714212835424956637077849198105112119126133140147154161168175881624324048566472808896104112120128136144152160168176184192200991827364554637281909910811712613514415316217118018919820721622510102030405060708090100110120130140150160170180190200210220230240250111122334455667788991101211321431541651761871982092202312422532642751212243648607284961081201321441561681801922042162282402522642762883001313263952657891104117130143156169182195208221234247260273286299312325141428425670849811212614015416818219621022423825226628029430832233635015153045607590105120135150165180195210225240255270285300315330345360375161632486480961121281441601761922082242402562722883043203363523683844001717345168851021191361531701872042212382552722893063233403573743914084251818365472901081261441621801982162342522702883063243423603783964144324501919385776951141331521711902092282472662853043233423613803994184374564752020406080100120140160180200220240260280300320340360380400420440460480500212142638410512614716818921023125227329431533635737839942044146248350452522224466881101321541761982202422642863083303523743964184404624845065285502323466992115138161184207230253276299322345368391414437460483506529552575242448729612014416819221624026428831233636038440843245648050452855257660025255075100125150175200225250275300325350375400425450475500525550575600625 Number theory The term arithmetic is also used to refer to number theory. This includes the properties of integers related to primality, divisibility, and the solution of equations by integers, as well as modern research which is an outgrowth of this study. It is in this context that one runs across the fundamental theorem of arithmetic and arithmetic functions. A Course in Arithmetic by Jean-Pierre Serre reflects this usage, as do such phrases as first order arithmetic or arithmetical algebraic geometry. Number theory is also referred to as the higher arithmetic, as in the title of Harold Davenport's book on the subject. Arithmetic in education Primary education in mathematics often places a strong focus on algorithms for the arithmetic of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers (vulgar fractions), and real numbers (using the decimal place-value system). This study is sometimes known as algorism. The difficulty and unmotivated appearance of these algorithms has long led educators to question this curriculum, advocating the early teaching of more central and intuitive mathematical ideas. One notable movement in this direction was the New Math of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to teach arithmetic in the spirit of axiomatic development from set theory, an echo of the prevailing trend in higher mathematics. Mathematically Correct: Glossary of Terms Since the introduction of the electronic calculator, which can perform the algorithms far more efficiently than humans, an influential school of educators has argued that mechanical mastery of the standard arithmetic algorithms is no longer necessary. In their view, the first years of school mathematics could be more profitably spent on understanding higher-level ideas about what numbers are used for and relationships among number, quantity, measurement, and so on. However, most research mathematicians still consider mastery of the manual algorithms to be a necessary foundation for the study of algebra and computer science. This controversy was central to the "math wars" over California's primary school curriculum in the 1990s, and continues today. Education World - Curriculum: MATH WARS! Many mathematics texts for K–12 instruction were developed, funded by grants from the United States National Science Foundation based on standards created by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics and given high ratings by United States Department of Education, though condemned by many mathematicians. Some widely adopted texts such as Investigations in Number, Data, and Space, developed by the education research organization TERC, were based on the spirit of research papers which found that instruction of basic arithmetic was harmful to mathematical understanding. Rather than teaching any traditional method of arithmetic, teachers are instructed instead to guide students to invent their own (some critics claim inefficient) methods, using for example such techniques as skip counting, and the heavy use of manipulatives, scissors and paste, and even singing, rather than multiplication tables or long division. Although such texts were designed to be complete curricula, in the face of intense protest and criticism, many school districts have chosen to circumvent the intent of such radical approaches by supplementing with traditional texts. Other districts have since adopted traditional mathematics texts, and discarded such reform-based approaches as misguided failures. See also Lists Lists of mathematics topics Topic outline of arithmetic Related topics Addition of natural numbers Additive inverse Arithmetic coding Arithmetic mean Arithmetic progression Associativity Commutativity Distributivity Elementary arithmetic Finite field arithmetic List of important publications in mathematics Number line Footnotes References Cunnington, Susan, The Story of Arithmetic: A Short History of Its Origin and Development, Swan Sonnenschein, London, 1904 Dickson, Leonard Eugene, History of the Theory of Numbers (3 volumes), reprints: Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, 1932; Chelsea, New York, 1952, 1966 Euler, Leonhard, Elements of Algebra, Tarquin Press, 2007 Fine, Henry Burchard (1858–1928), The Number System of Algebra Treated Theoretically and Historically, Leach, Shewell & Sanborn, Boston, 1891 Karpinski, Louis Charles (1878–1956), The History of Arithmetic, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1925; reprint: Russell & Russell, New York, 1965 Ore, Øystein, Number Theory and Its History, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1948 Weil, André, Number Theory: An Approach through History, Birkhauser, Boston, 1984; reviewed: Mathematical Reviews 85c:01004 External links What is arithmetic? MathWorld article about arithmetic Interactive Arithmetic Lessons and Practice Talking Math Game for kids The New Student's Reference Work/Arithmetic (historical) Arithmetic Game Math Games for kids and adults The Great Calculation According to the Indians, of Maximus Planudes - an early Western work on arithmetic at Convergence be-x-old:Арытмэтыка | Arithmetic |@lemmatized arithmetic:48 table:4 child:1 lausanne:1 greek:2 word:2 αριθμός:1 number:57 old:3 elementary:6 branch:2 mathematics:10 use:11 almost:2 everyone:1 task:1 range:1 simple:3 day:2 count:1 advance:1 science:3 business:1 calculation:2 common:1 usage:2 refer:4 forerunner:1 record:1 property:4 certain:2 operation:11 professional:1 mathematician:5 sometimes:4 term:5 high:6 davenport:2 harold:2 introduction:4 theory:9 ed:1 cambridge:2 university:2 press:2 uk:1 isbn:1 confuse:1 history:6 prehistory:1 limit:1 small:3 artifact:1 indicate:1 clear:2 conception:1 addition:21 subtraction:12 best:2 know:6 ishango:1 bone:1 central:3 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864 | Arizona | The State of Arizona () is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. The capital and largest city is Phoenix. The second largest city is Tucson, followed in size by the four Phoenix metropolitan area cities of Mesa, Glendale, Chandler, and Scottsdale. Arizona was the 48th and last of the contiguous states admitted to the Union on February 14, 1912, the 50th anniversary of Arizona's recognition as a territory of the United States. Arizona Arizona is noted for its desert climate, exceptionally hot summers, and mild winters, but the high country in the north features pine forests and mountain ranges with cooler weather than the lower deserts. Population figures for the year ending July 1, 2006 indicate that Arizona was at that time the fastest growing state in the United States, exceeding the growth of the previous leader, Nevada, and is currently the second. Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It borders New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, touches Colorado, and has a international border with the states of Sonora and Baja California in Mexico. In addition to the Grand Canyon, many other national forests, parks, monuments, and Indian reservations are located in the state. Geography Littlefield located outside the Virgin River Gorge is an isolated community in the Mojave Desert. See also lists of counties, rivers, lakes, state parks, National Parks and National Forests. Arizona is located in the western United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state in area, after New Mexico and before Nevada. Of the state's , approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, recreation areas and Native American reservations. Arizona is best known for its desert landscape, which is rich in xerophyte plants such as the cactus. It is also known for its climate, which presents exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. Less well known is the pine-covered high country of the Colorado Plateau in the north-central portion of the state, which contrasts with the desert Basin and Range region in the southern portions of the state. View from Mogollon Rim Like other states of the Southwest, Arizona has an abundance of topographical characteristics in addition to its desert climate. Mountains and plateaus are found in more than half of the state. The largest stand in the world of Ponderosa pine trees is contained in Arizona. Prescott Overview The Mogollon Rim, a escarpment, cuts across the central section of the state and marks the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau, where the state experienced its worst forest fire ever in 2002. Arizona belongs firmly within the Basin and Range region of North America. The region was shaped by prehistoric volcanism, followed by a cooling-off and related subsidence. The entire region is slowly sinking. The Grand Canyon is a colorful, steep-sided gorge, carved by the Colorado River, in northern Arizona. The canyon is one of the seven natural wonders of the world and is largely contained in the Grand Canyon National Park—one of the first national parks in the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of designating the Grand Canyon area, visiting on numerous occasions to hunt mountain lion and enjoy the scenery. The canyon was created by the Colorado River cutting a channel over millions of years, and is about long, ranges in width from and attains a depth of more than . Nearly 2 billion years of the Earth's history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of sediment as the Colorado Plateaus have uplifted. Meteor Crater Arizona is home to one of the most well-preserved meteorite impact sites in the world. The Barringer Meteorite Crater (better known simply as "Meteor Crater") is a gigantic hole in the middle of the high plains of the Colorado Plateau, about west of Winslow. A rim of smashed and jumbled boulders, some of them the size of small houses, rises above the level of the surrounding plain. The crater itself is nearly a mile wide, and deep. Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time, except in the Navajo Nation, located in the northeastern region of the state. Climate Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of localized climate conditions. In the lower elevations, the climate is primarily desert, with mild winters and hot summers. Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of . November through February are the coldest months with temperatures typically ranging from 40–75 °F (4–24 °C), although occasional frosts are not uncommon. About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise again with warm days, and cool breezy nights. The summer months of June through September bring a dry heat ranging from 90–120 °F (32–49 °C), with occasional high temperatures exceeding having been observed in the desert area. Due to the primarily dry climate, large temperature swings often occur between day and night in less developed areas of the desert. The swings can be as large as () in the summer months. In the state's urban centers, the effects of local warming result in much higher measured nighttime lows than in the recent past. Arizona has an average annual rainfall of , which comes during two rainy seasons, with cold fronts coming from the Pacific Ocean during the winter and a monsoon in the summer. The monsoon season occurs towards the end of summer. In July or August, the dewpoint rises dramatically for a brief period. During this time, the air contains large amounts of water vapor. Dewpoints as high as 81°F (27 °C) url=http://www.wunderground.com/history/airport/KPHX/2006/7/1/CustomHistory.html?dayend=31&monthend=8&yearend=2006&req_city=NA&req_state=NA&req_statename=NA have been recorded during the Phoenix monsoon season. This hot moisture brings lightning, thunderstorms, wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. It is rare for tornadoes and hurricanes to occur in Arizona, but there are records of both occurring. However, the northern third of Arizona is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers. Extreme cold temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and Canada occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below to the Northern parts of the state. Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over (Phoenix), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with nearly the most days with a low temperature below freezing (Flagstaff). Mean number of Days with Minimum Temperature Below 32F National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Retrieved March 24, 2007 City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Flagstaff 43 / 16 46 / 19 50 / 23 58 / 27 68 / 34 79 / 41 82 / 50 80 / 49 74 / 42 63 / 31 51 / 22 44 / 17 Phoenix 67 / 45 71 / 48 76 / 51 85 / 58 94 / 67 104 / 75 107 / 81 105 / 80 99 / 75 88 / 63 75 / 50 70 / 44 Tucson 66 / 42 70 / 45 75 / 49 82 / 54 91 / 63 100 / 72 101 / 77 99 / 75 95 / 71 85 / 60 74 / 48 66 / 42 Winslow 47 / 21 54 / 26 62 / 31 70 / 37 79 / 45 90 / 54 93 / 62 90 / 61 84 / 53 72 / 40 58 / 29 47 / 21 Yuma 69 / 46 75 / 48 80 / 52 87 / 58 94 / 65 104 / 73 107 / 80 106 / 80 101 / 75 90 / 64 77 / 52 69 / 45Source: National Weather Service History The North Rim of the Grand Canyon There is some disagreement over the proper etymology of the name "Arizona." Possible origins supported by historians are the Basque phrase aritz ona, "good oak," and the O'odham phrase , "small spring". Bright, William (2004). Native American Place Names of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg. 47 The Basque etymology is the one preferred by Arizona state historian Marshall Trimble, among other specialists. The name Arizonac was initially applied to the silver mining camp, and later (shortened to Arizona) to the entire territory. Marcos de Niza, a Spanish Franciscan, explored the area in 1539 and met its original native inhabitants, probably the Sobaipuri. The expedition of Spanish explorer Coronado entered the area in 1540–42 during its search for Cíbola. Society of Jesus Father Kino developed a chain of missions and taught the Indians Christianity in Pimería Alta (now southern Arizona and northern Sonora) in the 1690s and early 1700s. Spain founded presidios (fortified towns) at Tubac in 1752 and Tucson in 1775. When Mexico achieved its independence from Spain in 1821, what is now Arizona became part of the Mexican Territory Nueva California, also known as Alta California. Timothy Anna et al., Historia de México. Barcelona: Critica, 2001, p. 10. In the Mexican–American War (1847), the U.S. occupied Mexico City and forced the newly founded Mexican Republic to give up its northern territories, including what later became Arizona. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) specified that the sum of $15 million US dollars in compensation (an extraordinarily large sum at the time) be paid to the newly formed Republic of Mexico. Mexican-American War as accessed on March 16, 2007 at 7:33 MST AM The purchase of the area formerly ruled by Spain, then briefly Mexico, almost bankrupted the United States. As a result, the land was offered back to the Mexican Republic. In 1853 the land below the Gila River was acquired from Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase. Arizona was administered as part of the Territory of New Mexico until southern New Mexico seceded Arizona Ordinance of secession presented by the Col. Sherod Hunter Camp 1525, SCV, Phoenix, Arizona from the Union as the Confederate Territory of Arizona on March 16, 1861. Arizona was recognized as a Confederate Territory by presidential proclamation of Jefferson Davis on February 12, 1862. This is the first official use of the name. A new Arizona Territory, consisting of the western half of New Mexico Territory was declared in Washington, D.C. on February 24, 1863. The new boundaries would later form the basis of the state. Other names including "Gadsonia", "Pimeria", "Montezuma", "Arizuma", and "Arizonia" had been considered for the territory, http://www.pima.gov/cmo/sdcp/Archives/reports/Cult.html however when President Lincoln signed the final bill, it read "Arizona", and the name became permanent. (Montezuma was not the Aztec Emperor, but the sacred name of a divine hero to the Pueblo people of the Gila valley, and was probably considered — and rejected — for its sentimental value before the name "Arizona" was settled upon.) Brigham Young sent Mormons to Arizona in the mid-to-late 19th century. They founded Mesa, Snowflake, Heber, Safford and other towns. They also settled in the Phoenix Valley (or "Valley of the Sun"), Tempe, Prescott, among other areas. The Mormons settled what became known as Northern Arizona and northern New Mexico, but these areas were located in a part of the former New Mexico Territory. The largest ancestry of these settlers is German. At the beginning of the Spanish/American war of 1898, Americans from mostly Arizona and New Mexico, as well as some other Southwestern States, became soldiers in Colonel Roosevelt's Rough Riders. Arizonans fought primarily in the Cuban Campaign, the largest and deadliest phase of the war, alongside Teddy Roosevelt, a future American President. Other famous people to enlist in the Arizona Volunteer Cavalry was Tom Horn, a notorious gunslinger who was involved in a number of Arizona wars, the Apache Wars and the Pleasant Valley Range War. During the Mexican Revolution from 1910-1920, a few battles were fought in the Mexican towns just across the border from Arizona border settlements. Throughout the revolution, Arizonans were enlisting in one of the several armies fighting in Mexico. The Battle of Ambos Nogales in 1918, other than Pancho Villa's 1916 Columbus Raid in New Mexico, was the only significant engagement on US soil between United States and Mexican forces. The battle resulted in an American victory. After US soldiers were fired on by Mexican Federal troops, the American garrison then launched an assault into Nogales Mexico. The Mexicans eventually surrendered after both sides sustained heavy casualties. A few months earlier, just west of Nogales, an Indian War battle occurred, thus being the last engagement in the American Indian Wars which lasted from 1775 to 1918. The participants in the fight were US soldiers stationed on the border and Yaqui Indians who were using Arizona as a base to raid the nearby Mexican settlements, as part of their wars against Mexico. As World War 1 raged in Europe, Frank Luke became America's 2nd best ace. Frank was born in Phoenix Arizona and was killed in combat over France in 1918. Arizona became a U.S. state on February 14, 1912. The major result being the end to the territorial colonization of Continental America. Arizona was the 48th state admitted into the U.S. and the last of the contiguous states to be admitted. The admission, originally scheduled to coincide with that of New Mexico, was delayed by Democrats in the territorial legislature to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Arizona becoming a Confederate territory in 1862. Paul Besceglia - U.S. Civil War - Confederate Occupation A sunset in the Arizona desert near Scottsdale. The climate and imagery are two factors behind Arizona's tourism industry. Cotton farming and copper mining, two of Arizona's most important statewide industries, suffered heavily during the Great Depression, but it was during the 1920s and 1930s that tourism began to be the important Arizona industry it is today. Dude ranches such as the K L Bar and Remuda in Wickenburg, along with the Flying V and Tanque Verde in Tucson, gave tourists the chance to experience the flavor and life of the "old West." Several upscale hotels and resorts opened during this period, some of which are still top tourist draws to this day; they include the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in central Phoenix (opened 1929) and the Wigwam Resort on the west side of the Phoenix area (opened 1936). Arizona was the site of German and Italian POW camps during World War II and Japanese US-resident internment camps. The camps were abolished after World War II. The Phoenix area site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family (of major home appliance fame), and is currently utilized as the Phoenix Zoo. A Japanese American internment camp was located on Mount Lemmon, just outside of the state's southeastern city of Tucson. Another POW camp was located near the Gila River in eastern Yuma County. Because of California's proximity to Japan, a line was drawn somewhat parallel to the California border, and all Japanese residents west of that line were required to reside in the war camps. Grand Avenue, a major thoroughfare in the Phoenix area and part of U.S. 60, (perhaps because it mirrored the California border) was chosen as part of that boundary. This resulted in many extended Japanese families becoming separated; some were interned, some free—and some free families, in an odd bid for family unity, requested to be interned in order to be with their families at a camp built by the original Del Webb Co., a modern manufacturer of large housing developments. Arizona was also home to the Phoenix Indian School, one of several federal institutions designed to assimilate native children into mainstream culture. Children were often enrolled into these schools against the wishes of their parents and families. Attempts to suppress native identities included forcing the children to cut their hair and take on western names. Archaeology of the Phoenix Indian School Arizona's population grew tremendously after World War II, in part because of the development of air conditioning, which made the intense summers more comfortable. According to the Arizona Blue Book (published by the Secretary of State's office each year), the state population in 1910 was 294,353. By 1970, it was 1,752,122. The percentage growth each decade averaged about 20% in the earlier decades and about 60% each decade thereafter. The 1960s saw the establishment of retirement communities, special age-restricted subdivisions catering exclusively to the needs of senior citizens who wanted to escape the harsh winters of the Midwest and the Northeast. Sun City, established by developer Del Webb and opened in 1960, was one of the first such communities. Green Valley, south of Tucson, was another such community and was designed to be a retirement subdivision for Arizona's teachers. (Many senior citizens arrive in Arizona each winter and stay only during the winter months; they are referred to as snowbirds.) In March of 2000, Arizona was the site of the first legally binding election to nominate a candidate for public office ever held over the internet. In the 2000 Arizona Democratic Primary, under worldwide attention, Al Gore defeated Bill Bradly, and voter turnout increased more than 500% over the 1996 primary. Three ships named USS Arizona have been christened in honor of the state, although only USS Arizona (BB-39) was so named after statehood was achieved. Demographics Economy The 2006 total gross state product was $232 billion. If Arizona (and each of the other US states) were an independent country along with all existing countries (2005), it would have the 61st largest economy in the world (CIA - The World Factbook). This figure gives Arizona a larger economy than such countries as Ireland, Finland, and New Zealand. Arizona currently has the 21st largest economy among states in the United States. As a percentage of its overall budget, Arizona's projected 1.7 billion deficit for '09 is one of the largest in the country, behind such states as California, Michigan, and Florida, to name a few. Arizona budget deficit labeled country's worst, The Business Journal of Phoenix The state's per capita income is $27,232, 39th in the U.S. Arizona had a median household income of $46,693 making it 27th in the country and just shy of the US national median. Early in its history, Arizona's economy relied on the "Five C's": copper (see Copper mining in Arizona), cotton, cattle, citrus, and climate (tourism). At one point Arizona was the largest producer of cotton in the country. Copper is still extensively mined from many expansive open-pit and underground mines, accounting for two-thirds of the nation's output. Employment The state government is Arizona's largest employer, while Wal-Mart is the state's largest private employer, with 17,343 employees (2008). Taxation Arizona collects personal income taxes in five brackets: 2.87%, 3.20%, 3.74%, 4.72% and 5.04%. The 'sales tax' is generally around 6.3%. The state rate on transient lodging (hotel/motel) is 7.27%. The state of Arizona does not levy a state tax on food for home consumption or on drugs prescribed by a licensed physician or dentist. However, some cities in Arizona do levy a tax on food for home consumption. All fifteen Arizona counties levy a tax. Incorporated municipalities also levy transaction privilege taxes which, with the exception of their hotel/motel tax, are generally in the range of 1-to-3%. These added assessments could push the combined sales tax rate to as high as 10.7%. Single Tax Rate Joint Tax Rate0 - $10,0002.870%0 - $20,0002.870%$10,000 - $25,0003.200%$20,001 - $50,0003.200%$25,000 - $50,0003.740%$50,001 - $100,0003.740%$50,000 - $150,0014.720%$100,000 - $300,0014.720%$150,001 +5.040%$300,001 +5.040% Transportation Entering Arizona on I-10 from New Mexico Entering Arizona from Nevada on US-93 Highways Interstate Highways Interstate 8 | Interstate 10 | Interstate 15 | Interstate 17 | Interstate 19 | Interstate 40 U.S. Routes U.S. Route 60 | U.S. Route 64 | U.S. Route 70 | U.S. Route 89 | U.S. Route 66 U.S. Route 91 | U.S. Route 93 | U.S. Route 95 | U.S. Route 160 | U.S. Route 163 U.S. Route 180 | U.S. Route 191 | U.S. Route 466 | U.S. Route 491 Main interstate routes include Interstate 17, and Interstate 19 running north-south, Interstate 40, Interstate 8, and Interstate 10 running east-west, and a short stretch of Interstate 15 running northeast/southwest through the extreme northwestern corner of the state. In addition, the various urban areas are served by complex networks of state routes and highways, such as the Loop 101, which is part of Phoenix's vast freeway system. Public transportation and intercity bus The Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas are served by public bus transit systems. Yuma and Flagstaff also have public bus systems. Greyhound Lines serves Phoenix, Tucson, Flagstaff, Yuma, and several smaller communities statewide. A light rail system called Valley Metro Rail has recently been completed in Phoenix; it connects Central Phoenix with the nearby cities of Mesa and Tempe. The system officially opened for service in December 2008. In May 2006, voters in Tucson approved a Regional Transportation Plan (a comprehensive bus transit/streetcar/roadway improvement program), and its funding via a new half-cent sales tax increment. The centerpiece of the plan is a light rail streetcar system (possibly similar to the Portland Streetcar in Oregon) that will travel through the downtown area, connecting the main University of Arizona campus with the Rio Nuevo master plan area on the western edge of downtown. Tucson: Streetcar Plan Wins With 60% of Vote Aviation Airports with regularly scheduled commercial flights include: Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport (IATA: PHX, ICAO: KPHX) in Phoenix (the largest airport and the major international airport in the state); Tucson International Airport (IATA: TUS, ICAO: KTUS) in Tucson; Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport (IATA: AZA, ICAO: KIWA) in Mesa; Yuma International Airport (IATA: NYL, ICAO: KNYL) in Yuma; Prescott Municipal Airport (PRC) in Prescott; Flagstaff Pulliam Airport (IATA: FLG, ICAO: KFLG) in Flagstaff, and Grand Canyon National Park Airport (IATA: GCN, ICAO: KGCN, FAA: GCN), a small, but busy, single-runway facility providing tourist flights, mostly from Las Vegas. Phoenix Sky Harbor is currently 7th busiest airport in the world in terms of aircraft movements, and 17th for passenger traffic. World's busiest airports by traffic movements World's busiest airports by passenger traffic Other significant airports without regularly scheduled commercial flights include Scottsdale Municipal Airport (IATA: SCF, ICAO: KSDL) in Scottsdale, and Deer Valley Airport (IATA: DVT, ICAO: KDVT, FAA: DVT) home to two flight training academies and the Nation's busiest general aviation airport. Deer Valley Airport Law and government Arizona State Capitol, Phoenix Capitol complex The state capital of Arizona is Phoenix. The original Capitol building, with its distinctive copper dome, was dedicated in 1901 (construction was completed for $136,000 in 1900), when the area was still a territory. Phoenix became the official state capital with Arizona's admission to the union in 1912. The House of Representatives and Senate buildings were dedicated in 1960, and an Executive Office Building was dedicated in 1974 (the ninth floor of this building is where the Office of the Governor is located). The original Capitol building was converted into a museum. The Capitol complex is fronted and highlighted by the richly landscaped Wesley Bolin Memorial Plaza, named after Wesley Bolin, a governor who died in office in the 1970s. Numerous monuments and memorials are on the site, including the anchor and signal mast from the USS Arizona (one of the U.S. Navy ships sunk in Pearl Harbor), a granite version of the Ten Commandments, and the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum. State legislative branch The Arizona Legislature is bicameral (like the legislature of every other state except Nebraska) and consists of a thirty-member Senate and a 60-member House of Representatives. Each of the thirty legislative districts has one senator and two representatives. Legislators are elected for two-year terms. Each Legislature covers a two-year period. The first session following the general election is known as the first regular session, and the session convening in the second year is known as the second regular session. Each regular session begins on the second Monday in January and adjourns sine die (terminates for the year) no later than Saturday of the week in which the 100th day from the beginning of the regular session falls. The President of the Senate and Speaker of the House, by rule, may extend the session up to seven additional days. Thereafter, the session can only be extended by a majority vote of members present of each house. The current majority party is the Republican Party, which has held power in both houses since 1993. Arizona state senators and representatives are elected for two year terms and are limited to four consecutive terms in a chamber, though there is no limit on the total number of terms. When a lawmaker is term-limited from office, it is not uncommon for him or her to run for election in the other chamber. The fiscal year 2006-07 general fund budget, approved by the Arizona Legislature in June 2006, is slightly less than $10 billion. Besides the money spent on state agencies, it also includes more than $500 million in income- and property tax cuts, pay raises for government employees, and additional funding for the K–12 education system. State executive branch Arizona’s executive branch is headed by a governor, who is elected to a four-year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, though no more than two in a row. Arizona is one of the few states that does not maintain a governor’s mansion. During office the governors reside within their private residence, and all executive offices are housed in the executive tower at the state capitol. The current governor of Arizona is Jan Brewer (R). She assumed office after Janet Napolitano had her nomination by Barack Obama for Secretary of Homeland Security confirmed by the United States Senate. Arizona has had four female governors including the current Governor Jan Brewer more than any other state. Other elected executive officials include the Secretary of State, State Treasurer, State Attorney General, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Mine Inspector and a five member Corporation Commission. All elected officials hold a term of four years, and are limited to two consecutive terms (except the office of the state mine inspector, which is exempt from term limits). Arizona is one of eight states that does not have a specified lieutenant governor. The secretary of state is the first in line to succeed the governor in the event of death, disability, resignation, or removal from office. The line of succession also includes the attorney general, state treasurer and superintendent of public instruction. Since 1977, four secretaries of state and one attorney general have risen to Arizona's governorship though these means. Current elected officials Governor of Arizona: Jan Brewer (R) (succeeded to office)Secretary of State: Ken Bennett (R) (appointed to office)Attorney General: Terry Goddard (D) State Treasurer: Dean Martin (R) Superintendent of Public Instruction: Tom Horne (R) State Mine Inspector: Joe Hart (R) Corporation Commissioners: Gary Pierce (R), Kristin Mayes (R), Bob Stump (R), Sandra Kennedy (D), and Paul Newman. (D) State judicial branch The Arizona Supreme Court is the highest court in Arizona. The court currently consists of one chief justice, a vice chief justice, and three associate justices. Justices are appointed by the governor from a list recommended by a bi-partisian commission, and are re-elected after the initial two years following their appointment. Subsequent re-elections occur every six years. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction in death penalty cases, but almost all other appellate cases go through the Arizona Court of Appeals beforehand. The court has original jurisdiction in a few other circumstances, as outlined in the state constitution. The court may also declare laws unconstitutional, but only while seated en banc. The court meets in the Arizona Supreme Court Building at the capitol complex (at the southern end of Wesley Bolin Plaza). The Arizona Court of Appeals, further divided into two divisions, is the intermediate court in the state. Division One is based in Phoenix, consists of sixteen judges, and has jurisdiction in the Western and Northern regions of the state, along with the greater Phoenix area. Division Two is based in Tucson, consists of six judges, and has jurisdiction over the Southern regions of the state, including the Tucson area. Judges are selected in a method similar to the one used for state supreme court justices. Each county of Arizona has a superior court, the size and organization of which are varied and generally depend on the size of the particular county. Counties Arizona is divided into political jurisdictions designated as counties. As of 1983 there were 15 counties in the state, ranging in size from 1,238 to 18,661 square miles. ARIZONA COUNTIESCounty nameCounty seatYear founded2000 populationPercent of totalArea (sq. mi.)Percent of totalApacheSt. Johns187969,4231.17 %11,2189.84 %CochiseBisbee1881117,7551.98 %6,2195.46 %CoconinoFlagstaff1891116,3201.96 %18,66116.37 %GilaGlobe188151,3350.86 %4,7964.21 %GrahamSafford188133,4890.56 %4,6414.07 %GreenleeClifton19098,5470.14 %1,8481.62 %La PazParker198319,7150.33 %4,5133.96 %MaricopaPhoenix18713,880,18165.34 %9,2248.09 %MohaveKingman1864155,0322.61 %13,47011.82 %NavajoHolbrook189597,4701.64 %9,9598.74 %PimaTucson1864843,74614.21 %9,1898.06 %PinalFlorence1875179,7273.03 %5,3744.71 %Santa CruzNogales189936,3810.65 %1,2381.09 %YavapaiPrescott1865167,5172.82 %8,1287.13 %YumaYuma1864160,0262.69 %5,5194.84 %Totals: 15 5,938,664 113,997 Federal representation Arizona's two United States Senators are John McCain (R), the 2008 Republican Presidential Nominee, and Jon Kyl (R). Arizona's representatives in the United States House of Representatives are Ann Kirkpatrick (D-1), Trent Franks (R-2), John Shadegg (R-3), Ed Pastor (D-4), Harry Mitchell (D-5), Jeff Flake (R-6), Raul Grijalva (D-7), and Gabrielle Giffords (D-8). Jim Kolbe announced his retirement from Congress in 2006, creating one of the few open seats in the nation in Arizona's Congressional District 8. Arizona gained two seats in the House of Representatives due to redistricting based on Census 2000. Political culture {| align="right" border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 81%;" |+ Presidential elections results |- bgcolor=lightgrey ! Year ! Republican ! Democratic |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|2008 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|53.60% 1,230,111 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|45.12% 1,034,707 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|2004 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|54.87% 1,104,294 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|44.40% 893,524 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|2000 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|50.95% 781,652 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|44.67% 685,341 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1996 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|44.29% 622,073 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|46.52% 653,288 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1992 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|38.47% 572,086 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|36.52% 543,050 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1988 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|59.95% 702,541 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|38.74% 454,029 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1984 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|66.42% 681,416 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|32.54% 333,854 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1980 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|60.61% 529,688 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|28.24% 246,843 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1976 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|56.37% 418,642 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|39.80% 295,602 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1972 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|61.64% 402,812 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|30.38% 198,540 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1968 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|54.78% 266,721 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|35.02% 170,514 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1964 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|50.45% 242,535 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|49.45% 237,753 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1960 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|55.52% 221,241 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|44.36% 176,781 |} From statehood through the late 1940s, Arizona was primarily dominated by the Democratic Party. During this time period, the Democratic candidate for the presidency carried the state each election, with the only exceptions being the elections of 1920, 1924 and 1928—all three of which were national Republican landslides. Since the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952, however, the state has voted consistently Republican in national politics, with the Republican candidate carrying the state every time with the sole exception of Bill Clinton in United States presidential election, 1996. In recent years, the Republican Party has also dominated Arizona politics in general. The fast-growing Phoenix and Tucson suburbs became increasingly friendly to Republicans from the 1950s onward. During this time, many "Pinto Democrats," or conservative Democrats from rural areas, became increasingly willing to support Republicans at the state and national level. However, the previous Governor of Arizona, Janet Napolitano is a Democrat; she was handily reelected in 2006. On March 4, 2008, John McCain effectively clinched the Republican nomination for 2008, becoming the first presidential nominee from the state since Barry Goldwater in 1964. Arizona politics are dominated by a longstanding rivalry between its two largest counties, Maricopa County and Pima County--home to Phoenix and Tucson. The two counties have almost 70 percent of the state's population and cast almost three-fourths of the state's vote. They also elect a substantial majority of the state legislature. Maricopa County is home to almost 60 percent of the state's population, and most of the state's elected officials live there. It has voted Republican in every presidential election since 1948. This includes the 1964 run of native son Barry Goldwater; he wouldn't have even carried his own state had it not been for a 20,000-vote margin in Maricopa County. Similarly, while McCain won Arizona by eight percentage points in 2008, the margin would have likely been far closer if not for a 130,000-vote margin in Maricopa County. In contrast, Pima County, home to Tucson, and most of southern Arizona has historically been more Democratic. While Tucson's suburbs lean Republican, they hold to a somewhat more moderate brand of Republicanism than is common in the Phoenix area. Arizona rejected an anti-gay marriage amendment in the 2006 midterm elections. Arizona was the first state in the nation to do so. Same-sex marriage was already illegal in Arizona, but this amendment would have denied any legal or financial benefits to unmarried homosexual or heterosexual couples. Arizona stands alone against marriage ban - Queer Lesbian Gay News - Gay.com In 2008, Arizona passed an amendment to the state constitution to define marriage as a union of one man and one woman. Ban on gay unions solidly supported in most of Arizona See also: United States presidential election, 2004, in Arizona Important cities and towns Downtown Phoenix Tucson Yuma Flagstaff Phoenix, located in Maricopa County, is the largest city in Arizona and also the state capital. Other prominent cities in the Phoenix metro area include Mesa (the third largest city in Arizona and the most populous suburban city in the United States), Glendale, Peoria, Chandler, Sun City, Sun City West, Fountain Hills, Surprise, Gilbert, El Mirage, Avondale, Tempe, Tolleson and Scottsdale, with a total metropolitan population of just over 4 million. Tucson is the state's second largest city, and is located in Pima County, approximately southeast of the Phoenix metropolitan area. The Tucson metropolitan area crossed the one-million-resident threshold in early 2007. It is home to the University of Arizona, which is a Public Ivy and, along with Arizona State University in Tempe, are considered the state's flagship universities. The Prescott metropolitan area includes the cities of Prescott, Sedona, Cottonwood, Camp Verde and numerous other towns spread out over the Yavapai County area. With 212,635 residents, this cluster of towns form the third largest metropolitan area in the state. The city of Prescott (population 41,528) lies approximately northwest of the Phoenix metropolitan area. Situated in pine tree forests at an elevation of about , Prescott enjoys a much cooler climate than Phoenix, with average summer highs in the upper 80s Fahrenheit and winter temperatures averaging 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Yuma is center of the fourth largest metropolitan area in Arizona. It is located near the borders of California and Mexico. It is one of the hottest cities in the United States with the average July high of . (The same month's average in Death Valley is .) The city also features sunny days about 90% of the year. The Yuma Metropolitan Statistical Area has a population of 160,000. Yuma also attracts many winter visitors from all over the United States. Flagstaff is the largest city in northern Arizona, and is situated at an elevation of nearly . With its large Ponderosa Pine forests, snowy winter weather and picturesque mountains, it is a stark contrast to the desert regions typically associated with Arizona. It sits at the base of the San Francisco Peaks the highest mountain range in the state of Arizona, with Humphreys Peak, the highest point in Arizona at . Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector, due to its proximity to numerous tourist attractions including:Grand Canyon National Park, Sedona, and Oak Creek Canyon. Historic U.S. Route 66 is the main east-west street in the town. Flagstaff is home to 57,391 residents and the main campus of Northern Arizona University. Education Elementary and secondary education Public schools in Arizona are separated into about 220 local school districts which operate independently, but are governed in most cases by elected county school superintendents; these are in turn overseen by the Arizona State Board of Education (a division of the Arizona Department of Education) and the state Superintendent of Public Instruction (elected in partisan elections every even-numbered year when there is not a presidential election, for a four-year term). In 2005, a School District Redistricting Commission was established with the goal of combining and consolidating many of these districts. Higher education University of Arizona located in Tucson, AZ Arizona State University located in Tempe, AZ Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University located in Prescott, AZ University of Phoenix located in Phoenix, AZ Despite a state population of over 6.5 million residents, Arizona is served by three public universities: The University of Arizona, Arizona State University, and Northern Arizona University. These schools are governed by the Arizona Board of Regents. Private higher education in Arizona is dominated by a large number of for-profit and "chain" (multi-site) universities. College Navigator - Arizona National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education Only one traditional (single-site, non-profit, four-year) private college exists in Arizona College Navigator - Four-Year Schools in Arizona National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education (Prescott College). Arizona also has a wide network of two-year vocational and community colleges. These colleges were governed historically by a separate statewide Board of Directors, but in 2002, the state legislature transferred almost all oversight authority to individual community college districts. 2002 Legislature - HB 2710, which later became ARS 15-1444 The Maricopa County Community College District includes 11 community colleges throughout Maricopa County and is one of the largest in the nation. Public universities in Arizona Arizona State University, (Sun Devils) Tempe/Phoenix/Mesa Northern Arizona University, (Lumberjacks) Flagstaff/Yuma University of Arizona, (Wildcats) Tucson/Sierra Vista and UA Agricultural Center in Yuma Private colleges and universities in Arizona American Indian College Art Center College of Design Art Institute of Tucson Art Institute of Phoenix A.T. Still University Collins College Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Grand Canyon University International Baptist College Lamson CollegeMidwestern University Northcentral University Ottawa University University of Phoenix Prescott College Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine Southwestern College Thunderbird School of Global Management University of Advancing Technology Western Governors University Western International University Community colleges Arizona Western College Central Arizona College Cochise College Coconino Community College Diné College Eastern Arizona College Chandler-Gilbert Community College Estrella Mountain Community College GateWay Community College Glendale Community CollegeMaricopa County Community College District Mesa Community College Paradise Valley Community College Phoenix College Rio Salado Community College Scottsdale Community College South Mountain Community College Mohave Community College Northland Pioneer College Pima Community College Yavapai College Professional sports teams ClubSportLeagueChampionshipsArizona CardinalsFootballNational Football League2 (1925, 1947)Arizona DiamondbacksBaseballMajor League Baseball1 (2001)Arizona Heat*SoftballNational Pro Fastpitch0Arizona RattlersArena FootballArena Football League2 (1994, 1997)Arizona SundogsIce HockeyCentral Hockey League1 (2007-08)Phoenix CoyotesIce HockeyNational Hockey League0Phoenix MercuryBasketballWomen's National Basketball Association1 (2007)Phoenix RoadrunnersIce HockeyECHL0Phoenix SunsBasketballNational Basketball Association0Tucson SidewindersBaseballMinor League Baseball1 (2006)Yuma ScorpionsBaseballGolden Baseball League1 (2007) Due to its numerous golf courses, Arizona is home to several stops on the PGA Tour, most notably at the FBR Open, more commonly known as the Phoenix Open. With three state universities and several community colleges, college sports are also prevalent in Arizona. The intense rivalry between Arizona State University and the University of Arizona predates Arizona's statehood, and is the oldest rivalry in the NCAA. The thus aptly named Territorial Cup, first awarded in 1889 and certified as the oldest trophy in college football, is awarded to the winner of the “Duel in the Desert,” the annual football game between the two schools. Arizona also hosts several bowl games in the Bowl Championship Series. The Fiesta Bowl, originally held at Sun Devil Stadium, will now be held at the University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale. The University of Phoenix Stadium was also home to the 2007 BCS National Championship Game and hosted Super Bowl XLII on February 3, 2008. The Insight Bowl is also held at Sun Devil Stadium. Besides being home to spring training, Arizona is also home to two other baseball leagues, Arizona Fall League and Arizona Winter League. The Fall League was founded in 1992 and is a minor league baseball league designed for players to refine their skills and perform in game settings in front of major and minor league baseball scouts and team executives, who are in attendance at almost every game. The league got exposure when Michael Jordan started his time in baseball with the Scottsdale Scorpions. The Arizona Winter League, founded in 2007, is a professional baseball league of four teams for the independent Golden Baseball League. The games are played in Yuma at the Desert Sun Stadium, but added two new teams in the California desert, and one more in Sonora for the 2008 season. Note: The Arizona Heat is currently suspended from the NPF, with a possible return for the 2008 season. Spring training A spring training game between the two Chicago teams, the Cubs and the White Sox, at HoHoKam Park in Mesa Arizona is a popular location for Major League Baseball spring training, as it is the site of the Cactus League. The only other location for spring training is in Florida with the Grapefruit League. The Los Angeles Dodgers will have a new spring training facility in Glendale in 2009, which makes them the 14th team in Arizona. Spring training has been somewhat of a tradition in Arizona since 1947 (i.e. the Cleveland Indians in Tucson until 1991, and the San Diego Padres in Yuma until 1992) despite the fact that the state did not have its own major league team until the state was awarded the Diamondbacks in Phoenix as an expansion team. The state hosts the following teams: Arizona Diamondbacks in Tucson Electric Park, but also held games and practiced in Casa Grande. Chicago Cubs in HoHoKam Park of Mesa. Chicago White Sox in Tucson Electric Park. Cleveland Indians in Goodyear Ballpark. Colorado Rockies in Hi Corbett Field of Tucson. Kansas City Royals in Surprise Stadium, but also in Sun Cities Park near Youngtown. Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in Tempe Diablo Stadium Milwaukee Brewers in Maryvale Baseball Park of Phoenix. Oakland Athletics in Phoenix Municipal Stadium, but also in Indian School Park in Scottsdale. San Diego Padres in Peoria Sports Complex. San Francisco Giants in Scottsdale Stadium, but also in Papago Park of Phoenix. Seattle Mariners in Peoria Sports Complex, but also in Chandler. Texas Rangers in Surprise Stadium. Miscellaneous topics Art and pop culture Arizona has featured a continuous string of dancing and performing groups of many ethnicities. The state is a recognized center of Native American art, with a number of galleries such as the Heard Museum showcasing historical and contemporary works. Sedona, Jerome, and Tubac are known as budding artist colonies, and small arts scenes exist in the larger cities and near the state universities. Monument Valley in the northeastern part of the state is famous for its scenery and Hollywood Western films. Many tourist souvenirs produced in Arizona or by its residents display characteristic images, such as sunsets, coyotes, and desert plants. Several major Hollywood films, such as Billy Jack, U-Turn, Waiting to Exhale, Just One of the Guys, Can't Buy Me Love, Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure, The Scorpion King, The Banger Sisters, Used Cars, and Raising Arizona have been made there (as indeed have many Westerns). The 1993 science fiction movie Fire in the Sky, which was actually based on a reported alien abduction in Arizona, was set and filmed in the town of Snowflake. The climax of the 1977 Clint Eastwood film The Gauntlet takes place in downtown Phoenix. The final segments of the 1984 film Starman take place at Meteor Crater outside Winslow. The Jeff Foxworthy comedy documentary movie Blue Collar Comedy Tour was filmed almost entirely at the Dodge Theatre. Arguably one of the most famous examples could be Alfred Hitchcock's classic film Psycho. Not only was some of the film shot in Phoenix, but the main character is from there as well. Some of the television shows filmed or set in Arizona include The New Dick Van Dyke Show, Medium, Alice, The First 48, Insomniac with Dave Attell, COPS, and America's Most Wanted. The 1974 film Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore, for which Ellen Burstyn won the Academy Award for Best Actress, and also starred Kris Kristofferson, was set in Tucson, as was the TV sitcom Alice, which was based on the movie. See also: List of films shot in ArizonaArizona is prominently featured in the lyrics of many Country and Western songs, such as Jamie O'Neal's hit ballad "There Is No Arizona". George Strait's "Oceanfront Property" uses the offer of "ocean front property in Arizona" as a metaphor for a sucker proposition that is obviously false. The line "see you down in Arizona Bay" is used in a Tool song in reference to a Bill Hicks quote. The line refers to the hope that L.A. will one day fall into the ocean due to a major earthquake. "Arizona" was the title of a popular song recorded by Mark Lindsay (formerly of Paul Revere and the Raiders) that was a hit during the winter of 1969-1970. Arizona's budding music scene is helped by emerging bands, as well as some well-known artists. The Gin Blossoms, Chronic Future, Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers, Jimmy Eat World and others began their careers in Arizona. Also, a number of punk bands got their start in Arizona, including JFA, The Feederz, Sun City Girls, The Meat Puppets, and more recently Authority Zero. There is also an indie rock scene with artists such as blessthefall,Scary Kids Scaring Kids, The Bled, Fine China, Greeley Estates, The Stiletto Formal, The Format. Arizona also has its share of singers and other musicians. Singer, songwriter and guitarist Michelle Branch is from Sedona. Chester Bennington, the lead vocalist of Linkin Park, and mash-up artist DJ Z-Trip are both from Phoenix. One of Arizona's more infamous musicians would be shock rocker Alice Cooper, who helped define the genre. Other notable singers include country singer Marty Robbins, folk singer Katie Lee, Fleetwood Mac's Stevie Nicks, CeCe Peniston, Rex Allen, 2007 American Idol winner Jordin Sparks, and Linda Ronstadt. See also Music of ArizonaNotable people Some famous Arizonans involved in politics and government are: Former United States Secretary of Transportation Mary Peters Former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor Former Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist Former U.S. Senator Dennis DeConcini Maricopa County Sheriff Joe Arpaio Junior Republican Senator Jon Kyl, current chairman of the Senate Minority Whip, and the No.2 Republican in the Senate. Presidential candidate (2000), (2008) and Senior Republican Senator John McCain Presidential candidate (1964) and former U.S. Senator Barry Goldwater Former Governor, Secretary of the Interior, and Presidential candidate (1988) Bruce Babbitt Presidential candidate (1976) and former Arizona congressman Mo Udall and his brother Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall Former U.S. Senator Carl Hayden Former United States Solicitor General Rex E. Lee. Former Governor and Secretary of Homeland Security in the Obama Administration Janet Napolitano Arizona notables in culture and the arts include: Musicians Curt Kirkwood and Cris Kirkwood of alternative rock band Meat Puppets author Zane Grey architect Frank Lloyd Wright musicians Chester Bennington of Linkin Park, Alice Cooper and Stevie Nicks of Fleetwood Mac, of Phoenix Linda Ronstadt of Tucson, Michelle Branch of Sedona, Authority Zero of Mesa, Gin Blossoms and Psychostick of Tempe, Chronic Future of Scottsdale band Jimmy Eat World (Members - Jim Adkins, Tom Linton, Rick Burch and Zach Lind) poet Jim Simmerman of Flagstaff film director Steven Spielberg grew up in Scottsdale, as did David Spade and Wonder Woman star Lynda Carter. labor leader and civil rights pioneer Cesar Estrada Chavez was from San Luis, near Yuma Frederick Sommer an artist/photographer moved to Tucson in 1931 and lived in Prescott from 1935-1999 For a complete list, see List of people from Arizona. State symbols Arizona state amphibian: Arizona Treefrog (Hyla eximia) Arizona state bird: Cactus Wren (Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus) Arizona state butterfly: Two-tailed Swallowtail (Papilio multicaudata) Arizona state colors: federal blue and old gold Arizona state fish: Arizona Trout (Oncorhynchus gilae apache) Arizona state flag: Flag of the State of Arizona Arizona state flower: Saguaro blossom (Carnegiea gigantea) Arizona state fossil: Petrified wood Arizona state gemstone: Turquoise Arizona state mammal: Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) Arizona state motto: Ditat Deus (Latin God enriches) Arizona state neckwear: Bola tie Arizona state reptile: Arizona Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake (Crotalus willardi) Arizona state seal: Great Seal of the State of Arizona Arizona state slogan: Grand Canyon State Arizona state songs: Arizona March Song and Arizona Arizona state tree: Blue Palo Verde (Parkinsonia florida) See also Index of Arizona-related articles References Further reading Bayless, Betsy, 1998, Arizona Blue Book, 1997-1998. Phoenix, Arizona. McIntyre, Allan J., 2008, The Tohono O'odham and Pimeria Alta. Arcadia Publishing, Charleston, South Carolina. (ISBN 978-0738556338). Miller, Tom (editor), 1986, Arizona: The Land and the People. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. (ISBN 0-8165-1004-0). Officer, James E., 1987, Hispanic Arizona, 1536-1856. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. (ISBN 0-8165-0981-6). Thomas, David M. (editor), 2003, Arizona Legislative Manual. In Arizona Phoenix, Arizona, Arizona Legislative Council. Google Print. Retrieved January 16, 2006. Trimble, Marshall, 1998, Arizona, A Cavalcade of History.'' Treasure Chest Publications, Tucson, Arizona. (ISBN 0-918080-43-6). Woosley, Anne I., 2008, Early Tucson. Arcadia Publishing, Charleston, South Carolina. (ISBN 0738556467). External links Official State Government website Official Website of the State of Arizona Other references Arizona State Guide, from the Library of Congress Arizona Regional Accounts Data Arizona Demographic Data from FedStats Community profiles from Arizona Department of Commerce Energy Data & Statistics for Arizona Arizona State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Arizona state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Records USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Arizona Arizona State Facts Arizona Republic -- daily newspaper serving the state Tourism information Official Arizona Office of Tourism Arizona Game & Fish Department (Hunting, Boating & Fishing) Arizona State Parks American Southwest, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary be-x-old:Арызона | Arizona |@lemmatized state:161 arizona:237 locate:16 southwestern:4 region:9 united:19 capital:4 large:31 city:26 phoenix:60 second:6 tucson:35 follow:4 size:6 four:12 metropolitan:12 area:36 mesa:11 glendale:5 chandler:4 scottsdale:11 last:4 contiguous:2 admit:3 union:5 february:7 anniversary:2 recognition:1 territory:13 note:2 desert:16 climate:12 exceptionally:2 hot:5 summer:10 mild:5 winter:14 high:15 country:11 north:5 feature:4 pine:5 forest:7 mountain:7 range:10 cooler:3 weather:4 low:6 population:9 figure:2 year:22 end:4 july:3 indicate:1 time:9 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865 | Dublin_Core | The Dublin Core metadata element set is a standard for cross-domain information resource description. It provides a simple and standardised set of conventions for describing things online in ways that make them easier to find. Dublin Core is widely used to describe digital materials such as video, sound, image, text, and composite media like web pages. Implementations of Dublin Core typically make use of XML and are Resource Description Framework based. Dublin Core is defined by ISO in ISO Standard 15836, and NISO Standard Z39.85-2007. Background The "Dublin" in the name refers to Dublin, Ohio, U.S., where the work originated from an invitational workshop (the "OCLC/NCSA Metadata Workshop") hosted in 1995 by OCLC, a library consortium that is based there. (NCSA is the National Center for Supercomputing Applications.) The "Core" refers to the fact that the metadata element set is a basic but expandable "core" list. "... Dublin Core aims to include the core elements of metadata only. Additional elements may be recorded according to the local context". Harvey & Hider 2004, page 32 The semantics of Dublin Core were established and are maintained by an international, cross-disciplinary group of professionals from librarianship, computer science, text encoding, museums, and other related fields of scholarship and practice. The Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI) is an organization providing an open forum for the development of interoperable online metadata standards that support a broad range of purposes and business models. DCMI's activities include consensus-driven working groups, global conferences and workshops, standards liaison, and educational efforts to promote widespread acceptance of metadata standards and practices. Levels of the standard The Dublin Core standard includes two levels: Simple and Qualified. Simple Dublin Core comprises fifteen elements; Qualified Dublin Core includes three additional elements (Audience, Provenance and RightsHolder), as well as a group of element refinements (also called qualifiers) that refine the semantics of the elements in ways that may be useful in resource discovery. Simple Dublin Core The Simple Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) consists of 15 metadata elements: Title Creator Subject Description Publisher Contributor Date Type Format Identifier Source Language Relation Coverage Rights Each Dublin Core element is optional and may be repeated. The DCMI has established standard ways to refine elements and encourage the use of encoding and vocabulary schemes. There is no prescribed order in Dublin Core for presenting or using the elements. Full information on element definitions and term relationships can be found in the Dublin Core Metadata Registry. Dublin Core Metadata Registry Qualified Dublin Core Subsequent to the specification of the original 15 elements, an ongoing process to develop exemplary terms extending or refining the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set (DCMES) was begun. The additional terms were identified, generally in working groups of the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative, and judged by the DCMI Usage Board to be in conformance with principles of good practice for the qualification of Dublin Core metadata elements. Elements refinements make the meaning of an element narrower or more specific. A refined element shares the meaning of the unqualified element, but with a more restricted scope. The guiding principle for the qualification of Dublin Core elements, colloquially known as the Dumb-Down Principle, states that an application that does not understand a specific element refinement term should be able to ignore the qualifier and treat the metadata value as if it were an unqualified (broader) element. While this may result in some loss of specificity, the remaining element value (without the qualifier) should continue to be generally correct and useful for discovery. In addition to element refinements, Qualified Dublin Core includes a set of recommended encoding schemes, designed to aid in the interpretation of an element value. These schemes include controlled vocabularies and formal notations or parsing rules. A value expressed using an encoding scheme may thus be a token selected from a controlled vocabulary (e.g., a term from a classification system or set of subject headings) or a string formatted in accordance with a formal notation (e.g., "2000-12-31" as the standard expression of a date). If an encoding scheme is not understood by an application, the value may still be useful to a human reader. DCMI also maintains a small, general vocabulary recommended for use within the element Type. This vocabulary currently consists of 12 terms: Syntaxes Syntax choices for DC metadata depend on a number of variables, and "one size fits all" prescriptions rarely apply. When considering an appropriate syntax, it is important to note that Dublin Core concepts and semantics are designed to be syntax independent, are equally applicable in a variety of contexts, as long as the metadata is in a form suitable for interpretation both by machines and by human beings. The Dublin Core Abstract Model Dublin Core Abstract Model provides a reference model against which particular DC encoding guidelines can be compared, independent of any particular encoding syntax. Such a reference model allows implementors to gain a better understanding of the kinds of descriptions they are trying to encode and facilitates the development of better mappings and translations between different syntaxes. Some applications One Document Type Definition based on Dublin Core is the Open Source Metadata Framework (OMF) specification. OMF is in turn used by ScrollKeeper, which is used by the GNOME desktop and KDE help browsers and the ScrollServer documentation server. PBCore is also based on Dublin Core. The Zope CMF's Metadata products, used by the Plone, ERP5, the Nuxeo CPS Content management systems, and FedoraCommons also implement Dublin Core. DCMI also maintains a list of projects using Dublin Core on its website. See also Metadata registry Metadata Object Description Schema Semantic Web Ontology (computer science) Open Archives Initiative Controlled vocabulary Interoperability METS, a metadata standard maintained by the Library of Congress for the Digital Library Federation Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies (PREMIS) Notes References Ross Harvey & Philip Hider, "Organising Knowledge in a Global Society". Wagga Wagga NSW : Charles Sturt University, 2004. ISBN 1 876938 66 8 External links “Using Dublin Core” –the official usage guide Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Publishes DCMI Abstract Model (Cover Pages, March 2005) Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS) "Lecture slides about Dublin Core", by Professor Luca Dini, lecturer at the Free University of Bolzano. | Dublin_Core |@lemmatized dublin:35 core:36 metadata:26 element:28 set:7 standard:11 cross:2 domain:1 information:2 resource:3 description:6 provide:3 simple:5 standardised:1 convention:1 describe:2 thing:1 online:2 way:3 make:3 easy:1 find:2 widely:1 use:11 digital:2 material:1 video:1 sound:1 image:1 text:2 composite:1 medium:1 like:1 web:2 page:3 implementation:2 typically:1 xml:1 framework:2 base:4 define:1 iso:2 niso:1 background:1 name:1 refers:2 ohio:1 u:1 work:3 originate:1 invitational:1 workshop:3 oclc:2 ncsa:2 host:1 library:3 consortium:1 national:1 center:1 supercomputing:1 application:4 fact:1 basic:1 expandable:1 list:2 aim:1 include:6 additional:3 may:6 record:1 accord:1 local:1 context:2 harvey:2 hider:2 semantics:3 establish:2 maintain:4 international:1 disciplinary:1 group:4 professional:1 librarianship:1 computer:2 science:2 encoding:3 museum:1 related:1 field:1 scholarship:1 practice:3 initiative:5 dcmi:7 organization:1 open:3 forum:1 development:2 interoperable:1 support:1 broad:2 range:1 purpose:1 business:1 model:6 activity:1 consensus:1 driven:1 global:2 conference:1 liaison:1 educational:1 effort:1 promote:1 widespread:1 acceptance:1 level:2 two:1 qualify:4 comprise:1 fifteen:1 three:1 audience:1 provenance:1 rightsholder:1 well:1 refinement:4 also:6 call:1 qualifier:3 refine:3 useful:3 discovery:2 dcmes:2 consist:2 title:1 creator:1 subject:2 publisher:1 contributor:1 date:2 type:3 format:2 identifier:1 source:2 language:1 relation:1 coverage:1 right:1 optional:1 repeat:1 encourage:1 encode:5 vocabulary:6 scheme:5 prescribed:1 order:1 present:1 full:1 definition:2 term:6 relationship:1 registry:3 subsequent:1 specification:2 original:1 ongoing:1 process:1 develop:1 exemplary:1 extend:1 begin:1 identify:1 generally:2 judge:1 usage:2 board:1 conformance:1 principle:3 good:3 qualification:2 meaning:2 narrower:1 specific:2 refined:1 share:1 unqualified:2 restricted:1 scope:1 guide:2 colloquially:1 know:1 dumb:1 state:1 understand:2 able:1 ignore:1 treat:1 value:5 result:1 loss:1 specificity:1 remain:1 without:1 continue:1 correct:1 addition:1 recommended:1 design:2 aid:1 interpretation:2 control:3 formal:2 notation:2 parse:1 rule:1 express:1 thus:1 token:1 select:1 e:2 g:2 classification:1 system:2 heading:1 string:1 accordance:1 expression:1 still:1 human:2 reader:1 small:1 general:1 recommend:1 within:1 currently:1 syntax:6 choice:1 dc:2 depend:1 number:1 variable:1 one:2 size:1 fit:1 prescription:1 rarely:1 apply:1 consider:1 appropriate:1 important:1 note:2 concept:1 independent:2 equally:1 applicable:1 variety:1 long:1 form:1 suitable:1 machine:1 abstract:3 reference:3 particular:2 guideline:1 compare:1 allow:1 implementors:1 gain:1 understanding:1 kind:1 try:1 facilitate:1 mapping:1 translation:1 different:1 document:1 omf:2 turn:1 scrollkeeper:1 gnome:1 desktop:1 kde:1 help:1 browser:1 scrollserver:1 documentation:1 server:1 pbcore:1 zope:1 cmf:1 product:1 plone:1 nuxeo:1 cps:1 content:1 management:1 fedoracommons:1 implement:1 project:1 website:1 see:1 object:2 schema:2 semantic:1 ontology:1 archive:1 interoperability:1 mets:1 congress:1 federation:1 preservation:1 strategy:1 premis:1 ross:1 philip:1 organise:1 knowledge:1 society:1 wagga:2 nsw:1 charles:1 sturt:1 university:2 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 publishes:1 cover:1 march:1 mod:1 lecture:1 slide:1 professor:1 luca:1 dini:1 lecturer:1 free:1 bolzano:1 |@bigram core_metadata:10 iso_iso:1 center_supercomputing:1 supercomputing_application:1 equally_applicable:1 gnome_desktop:1 wagga_wagga:1 charles_sturt:1 external_link:1 |
866 | Bill_Atkinson | Bill Atkinson (born 1951) is an American computer engineer and photographer. Atkinson worked at Apple Computer from 1978 to 1990. He received his undergraduate degree from the University of California, San Diego, where Apple Macintosh developer Jef Raskin was one of his professors. Atkinson continued his studies as a graduate student at the University of Washington. Atkinson was part of the Apple Macintosh development team and was the creator of the ground-breaking MacPaint application, among others. He also designed and implemented QuickDraw, the fundamental toolbox that the Macintosh used for graphics. QuickDraw's performance was essential for the success of the Macintosh's graphical user interface. Atkinson also designed and implemented HyperCard, the first popular hypermedia system. Around 1990, General Magic's founding, with Bill Atkinson as one of the three co-founders, met the following press: The obstacles to General Magic's success may appear daunting, but General Magic is not your typical start-up company. Its partners include some of the biggest players in the worlds of computing, communications, and consumer electronics, and it's loaded with top-notch engineers who have been given a clean slate to reinvent traditional approaches to ubiquitous worldwide communications. (-Byte Magazine) As of 1996, he was involved full-time in fine-art digital nature photography. Bill Atkinson, an early adopter of digital photography, has pioneered techniques and workflow used today in fine-art digital printing of photographs. In 2007 Atkinson began working as an outside developer with Numenta, a startup working on computer intelligence. On his work there Atkinson said, "what Numenta is doing is more fundamentally important to society than the personal computer and the rise of the Internet." Some of Atkinson's noteworthy contributions to the field of computing include: Macintosh QuickDraw and Lisa LisaGraf Marching ants Menu bar The Selection lasso FatBits MacPaint HyperCard External links Bill Atkinson Photography About Bill Atkinson Folklore.org anecdotes about Bill Atkinson References | Bill_Atkinson |@lemmatized bill:6 atkinson:13 born:1 american:1 computer:4 engineer:2 photographer:1 work:4 apple:3 receive:1 undergraduate:1 degree:1 university:2 california:1 san:1 diego:1 macintosh:5 developer:2 jef:1 raskin:1 one:2 professor:1 continue:1 study:1 graduate:1 student:1 washington:1 part:1 development:1 team:1 creator:1 ground:1 breaking:1 macpaint:2 application:1 among:1 others:1 also:2 design:2 implement:2 quickdraw:3 fundamental:1 toolbox:1 use:2 graphic:1 performance:1 essential:1 success:2 graphical:1 user:1 interface:1 hypercard:2 first:1 popular:1 hypermedia:1 system:1 around:1 general:3 magic:3 founding:1 three:1 co:1 founder:1 meet:1 following:1 press:1 obstacle:1 may:1 appear:1 daunting:1 typical:1 start:1 company:1 partner:1 include:2 big:1 player:1 world:1 computing:1 communication:2 consumer:1 electronics:1 load:1 top:1 notch:1 give:1 clean:1 slate:1 reinvent:1 traditional:1 approach:1 ubiquitous:1 worldwide:1 byte:1 magazine:1 involve:1 full:1 time:1 fine:2 art:2 digital:3 nature:1 photography:3 early:1 adopter:1 pioneer:1 technique:1 workflow:1 today:1 printing:1 photograph:1 begin:1 outside:1 numenta:2 startup:1 intelligence:1 say:1 fundamentally:1 important:1 society:1 personal:1 rise:1 internet:1 noteworthy:1 contribution:1 field:1 compute:1 lisa:1 lisagraf:1 march:1 ant:1 menu:1 bar:1 selection:1 lasso:1 fatbits:1 external:1 link:1 folklore:1 org:1 anecdote:1 reference:1 |@bigram san_diego:1 apple_macintosh:2 jef_raskin:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 consumer_electronics:1 clean_slate:1 external_link:1 |
867 | CeBIT | CeBIT (Centrum der Büro- und Informationstechnik; German for "Centre of Office and Information technology") is the world's largest computer expo. Since 1986 it is held each spring on the exhibition ground in Hannover, Germany, and is often regarded as a barometer of the state of the art in information technology. With an exhibition area of roughly 450,000 m² (5 million ft²), over 6,111 exhibitors and more than 755,000 visitors in 1995, it was larger than COMPUTEX and the no-longer held COMDEX. In recent years both the number of visitors as well as exhibitors dropped significantly; by 2008, the CeBIT expo attendance was at 495,000 heise.de: Messe zieht Bilanz: "CeBIT-Konzept ist voll aufgegangen" (German) . In 2009 it took place from 3 March to 8 March 2009. The CeBIT is organized by Deutsche Messe AG. History A crowded exhibition hall during CeBIT. CeBIT is the world's largest trade fair showcasing digital IT and telecommunications solutions for home and work environments. The key target groups are users from industry, the wholesale/retail sector, skilled trades, banks, the services sector, government agencies, science and all users passionate about technology. CeBIT offers an international platform for comparing notes on current industry trends, networking, and product presentations. Deutsche Messe AG has organized CeBIT in Hannover each spring since 1986. About 6,000 exhibitors from around 77 countries and some 495,000 visitors from all over the world attended the last CeBIT in 2008. Throughout the past 20 years, thousands of suppliers and users from all over the world have come together every year in the early spring at CeBIT in Hannover, Germany. Looking back, the birth of CeBIT on 12 March 1986 was the outcome of a long and complicated decision-making process. The computer industry had become a key feature of the HANNOVER FAIR and had contributed to its unique status as the world's biggest trade show for capital goods. However, the computer exhibitors were having to contend with an increasing number of non-specialists at their stands. At the peak of its success at 1995, the CeBIT housed 6,111 exhibitors and had more than 755,000 visitors. At the same time it had become less attractive to professionals, as one third of the total attendance (218,000 visitors) were non-professionals. Trying to "reprofessionalized" the fair, Deutsche Messe AG decided to organize a spin-off, the ultimately short-lived CeBIT HOME. Growth from 1950 to 1984 By the late 1950s the "office equipment industry" (as it was then called) already ranked as the third largest exhibitor group at the HANNOVER FAIR. The Fair reflected the "electronics boom" in the 1960s and provided the launching pad for numerous technological highlights. In 1965, for example, Heinz Nixdorf (who was later to become one of Germany's best known entrepreneurs) presented his legendary 820 universal computer. In 1970 Deutsche Messe AG underscored the importance of office equipment at the HANNOVER FAIR when it opened the new Hall 1 adjacent to the northern entrance of the exhibition site. This massive building complex consisted of three levels: an underground garage with parking space for 2,000 exhibitors, a ground-floor exhibition hall covering a total area of 70,300 square meters, and a roof level with 750 prefabricated business suites. In 1984 Hall 1 found its way into the Guinness Book of Records as the "world's largest single-storey exhibition hall". Finding a name The inauguration of the new hall coincided with the search for a new name for this exhibit category. One suggestion was "CeBOT" – from the German acronym for "Centrum für Büro und Organisationstechnik" "Literally Center for Office and Organization". Ultimately, however, the Exhibitors' Advisory Committee decided in favour of "CeBIT" from "Centrum für Büro und Informationstechnik" (Center for Office and Information Technology). The second syllable's apparent allusion to "BIT" (as the smallest unit information processed by Computers) was not at all intended, but ultimately turned out to be a very fortunate coincidence, especially in view of the upwind experienced by electronic data processing in the Seventies, and even more so in the Eighties, when the ranks of the HANNOVER FAIR's exhibitors swelled with huge numbers of PC manufactures. Nevertheless, in 1970 no one could have foreseen the extent to which the data processing market would divide into more and more segments and grow at a breathtaking rate. The gigantic capacities in Hall 1 were soon exhausted. At the end of the 1970s Deutsche Messe AG decided to allocate Halls 2 and 18 to CeBIT. At the beginning of the 1980s CeBIT expanded once again – this time into Hall 3. However, this was just a drop in the ocean. More and more data processing and software companies – not to mention the growing group of PC manufacturers – wanted to use CeBIT as a presentation platform. The original "Center for Office and Information Technology" had now become the "World Center for Office, Information and Communications Technology". CeBIT as a separate event in its own right Nevertheless, numerous potential exhibitors were still excluded from CeBIT for the simple reason that Deutsche Messe AG was unable to offer them stand space. In 1980 the product category "information and communications technology" at the HANNOVER FAIR was outranked only by electrical engineering in terms of the number of exhibitors. In spite of the allocation of additional halls it was not possible to reduce the long waiting lists. Likewise it was impossible to meet the demand for additional stand space on the part of established exhibitors. A split between CeBIT and the HANNOVER FAIR appeared inevitable. In November 1984 Deutsche Messe AG finally announced that, with effect from 1986, the trade show HANNOVER FAIR CeBIT would take place as a separate event in March, followed one month later by HANNOVER FAIR Industry. This was not an easy decision. It was preceded by months of discussion with the chief executives of the major exhibiting companies and their industrial associations. The debate centered on the way the market was likely to develop and the potential risks involved. The most important question was: "What happens if we do nothing?" Controversial discussion of the split In 1985 the last "amalgamated" HANNOVER FAIR underlined the urgent necessity of regrouping CeBIT as a separate entity. Compared with 1970 the number of IT exhibitors had increased two-fold to 1,300 – and a further 870 companies were on the waiting list. The rented stand space had grown two and a half times to 130,600 square meters, while the number of visitors had risen almost fivefold – to 293,000. With almost 7,000 exhibitors and over 800,000 visitors, the 1985 HANNOVER FAIR had reached its absolute capacity limits. The decision to create a separate trade show for exhibitors of office, information and communications technology was far from being an uncontroversial one. At the 1985 HANNOVER FAIR the separation of CeBIT was the number-one topic of discussion. The pros and cons were still being hotly debated in the immediate run-up to the CeBIT premiere in 1986. The advocates of the split pointed to the extended exhibition space and improved infrastructure. The opponents argued that an independent CeBIT devoid of an industrial background would lose some of its appeal. The debut of CeBIT in 1986 Exhibitors, visitors and Deutsche Messe AG thus looked forward to the CeBIT premiere with a mixture of suspense and trepidation. The moment of truth came on 12 March 1986, when 2,142 exhibitors presented their products, systems and services on a net display area in excess of 200,000 square meters. In 1986 the display category "Telecommunications" was included in the CeBIT line-up for the first time – with a "modest" 190 exhibitors. With 334,400 visitors the first independent CeBIT got off to a very good start. Nevertheless, the debate about the split continued for a number of years. After all, it was the most momentous decision ever taken by Deutsche Messe AG and one of the biggest operations ever carried out in the international trade fair industry. CeBIT soon carved out a stronger and stronger position in the trade fair market, due in no small part to continuous refinements to the concept by Deutsche Messe AG. The major display categories became ever more clearly defined, and exhibitors took advantage of the increased space capacity to present their products at larger stands and in more than one hall. The CeBIT success story CeBIT rapidly developed into the largest and most important IT event of the year. The number of exhibitors and visitors increased continuously despite freak weather conditions on two occasions. Two days before CeBIT '87 opened its gates, a sudden blizzard swept over the city of Hannover, leaving one meter of snow in its wake. The show nonetheless got off to a punctual start thanks to the tireless efforts of countless helpers. "SnowBIT", as the fair came to be called, attracted 406,474 visitors. By the beginning of the 1990s CeBIT had achieved the ultimate international breakthrough. Although the IT industry was weathering a heavy recession and several established universal suppliers were forced to carry out far-reaching internal restructuring measures, this did not have a negative impact on CeBIT attendance figures. Data processing strategies such as client- server computing, outsourcing and data warehousing came to the fore. Thousands of visitors flocked to Hannover to find out about the latest developments in these areas, as well as in the field of network computing, multimedia and the Internet. Now completely devoted to CeBIT, the Hannover Exhibition Center was still becoming more and more cramped, even though Deutsche Messe AG had begun to replace some old exhibition halls with new buildings. The waiting list of companies wanting to take part in CeBIT continued to grow longer, and the halls were full to overflowing. As a setting conducive to in-depth discussion among IT professionals, the show was becoming less and less effective. With over 6,111 exhibitors and more than 755,000 visitors (including over 100,000 from abroad) CeBIT '95 seamed its reputation as a "mega-event". But in view of its growing appeal to the interested public, as well, CeBIT ran the risk of losing its professional character. By 1995 the number of attending non-professionals had risen to 218,000 – 29 percent of total attendance. The "reprofessionalization" of CeBIT If CeBIT was to retain its business character it would have to be "reprofessionalized" and attendance by non-professionals reduced. As a first move, admission prices were raised significantly. Secondly, the duration of CeBIT was reduced to seven days in line with exhibitor wishes. In addition, Deutsche Messe AG announced the creation of a new show targeted at distributors, SOHO (small office, home office) customers and private users of PCs, multimedia and the Internet. Called "CeBIT HOME, the World of Home and Consumer Electronics", this offshoot was scheduled to take place every two years as of August, 1996. The premiere of CeBIT HOME in 1996 attracted 632 exhibitors, who occupied 52,248 square meters of display space. 215,000 visitors attended the event. In 1998, CeBIT HOME brought together 586 exhibitors on a display area of 48,370 square meters. Visitor attendance stood at 175,000. CeBIT HOME 2000 was scheduled to take place in Leipzig in order to make way for the World Exposition EXPO 2000 in Hannover. However, the event was ultimately not staged due to a lack of sufficient exhibitor response. CeBIT attendance by non-professionals has declined steadily since 1996, today amounting to just under 12 percent. Accordingly, industry professionals account for over 88 percent of the show's visitors. For many years now, CeBIT has been the unrivalled international showcase for IT, telecommunications, software and services. With 5,845 exhibitors occupying a total rented space of about 308,000 square meters, CeBIT 2008 once again underscored its standing as the largest trade show of any kind, anywhere in the world. CeBIT can also lay claim to attracting more exhibitors from abroad than any other trade show for the ICT industry namely about 6,000 exhibitors from 77 different countries. Exhibition Program Identifying trends, responding to challenges — for a number of years now CeBIT has been focusing not just on technologies and products, but also on complete solutions for concrete applications. An approach that has proved extremely popular with visitors and exhibitors alike. Such a vast array of exhibits needs to be structured and organized into clearly defined — and clearly marked — display categories. New additions to CeBIT as from 2009 will include the fast-growing segment Internet & Mobile Solutions. Hall 2 Hall 3 Hall 4 Hall 5 Hall 6 Server TechnologiesBusiness StorageVirtualisationIT Services Document Management SolutionsProfessional Output / Office SolutionsMailing SolutionsProjection Equipment & Systems Business Process Management - BPMService Oriented Architecture - SOACustomer Relationship Management - CRMBusiness Intelligence - BIEnterprise Resource Planning - ERPThin Client ComputingIT Services / IT Consulting Enterprise Resource Planning - ERPSupply Chain Management - SCMVertical Market Solutions Human Resource ManagementWorkforce ManagementAccess ControlLearning & Knowledge SolutionsRecruitmentSystem Software & ManagementOpen Source SolutionsCentral California PavilionNEW: Internet & Mobile SolutionsDigital Media SolutionsEnterprise MobilityWeb based SolutionsWeb Content ManagementOnline Marketing </div> Hall 7 Hall 8 Hall 9 Hall 11 Auto ID/RFIDProduct Lifecycle Management - PLMEmbedded Software & Systems PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE Public Sector ParcICT Solutions for the Public SectoreGovernment solutions (municipal, state, federal and European Union)IT solutions for Municipal Public Utility Undertakings, Municipal Establishments and Service ProvidersGeoinformation SystemsHomeland SecurityTeleHealth / eHealthfuture parcResearch and New Technologies:<ul>Basic ResearchApplied ResearchAmbient / Artificial IntelligenceLiving 2020Semantical WorldHumane-Machine-Interaction| CeBIT Security World<li>Anti spam & Anti virus solutionsSecurity tools & servicesBiometricsCard technologySecurity software & hardwareSecurity & availability in data centersNetwork securityVideo surveillanceData center Halls 12-13 Halls 14-16 Hall 17 Halls 18-21, 26 Unified CommunicationsFixed Line & Network Solutions, InfrastructureWireless TechnologiesIP CommunicationEnterprise SolutionsCall Center TechnologiesData Center Telematics & NavigationAutomotive SolutionsTransport & LogisticsBroadcast, radio equipment, satellite communicationsSatNavMobile Devices & Communication Banking & Finance:Financial SolutionsInsurance SolutionsEquipment & SystemsFuture BankingPoint of SalesKiosk Systems & TechnologiesDigital Signage Personal Mobile PlayerMobile & Personal StoragePeripheralsComponentsPCs & NotebooksNetbooksDisplay TechnologiesOffice SolutionsGraphic & SoundDigital Home Solutionsdigital imaging:Digital PhotographyPrinting SolutionsHardware, Software, Accessories, Consumables Halls 22, 23 Hall 24 Hall 25 Hall 26, Pavilions 32-35, Open-air site Hall 2, Convention Center (CC) Interactive EntertainmentGaming Hardware, Software, Accessories Cases & Coolers Planet ResellerPCs & Notebooks, Industry PCsDisplay TechnologiesOffice SolutionsPeripheralsAccessories Carrier & ProviderMobile Devices & CommunicationDisplay TechnologiesOffice Solutions Keynotes & Conferences Visitor Information CeBIT, the world's leading information and communications technology (ICT) event, exerts tremendous influence on future technology developments. All companies that wish to remain competitive exhibit at CeBIT, compare competing products, meet with potential business partners, and discover the latest trends. One highlight, CeBIT Global Conferences, features well-known academic and business personalities who put forth their ideas and visions. Divided into main two sections—CeBIT Keynotes and CeBIT Executive Labs—the program delivers visionary networking and debate about such key trends as Green IT, social networking, and Web 2.0. CeBIT's exhibit program covers the complete range of digital solutions. California as "Partner State 2009" In 2009, the U.S. state of California will be the official Partner State of Germany's IT and telecommunications industry association, BITKOM, and of CeBIT. The focus will be on environmentally-friendly technologies—a topic that played a key role at CeBIT 2008, where Green IT was specially featured. The star attraction of the Partner State program will be the flanking German-Californian ICT Summit. The two countries will both be keen on using this opportunity to step up collaboration and stimulate more bilateral business. Prof. Dr. August-Wilhelm Scheer, President of BITKOM: "The USA is not only an important trading partner. California's Silicon Valley is also a textbook example of successful business development driven by inward investment. We are hoping to learn from the Americans and get some useful input into our own strategy planning." The Partner State California program addresses topics ranging from Document Management, InfoSecurity, Open Source, and Telematics & Navigation, to eHealth & TeleHealth, Public Sector applications and IP issues. The Internet & Mobile Solutions/Digital New Media Solutions Forum, a 5-day, 18 session program adjacent to the main California Pavilion, will showcase the best of California's offerings in Web-based digital media, social networks and virtual worlds; mobile and multi-channel content distribution strategies and applications; advanced multimedia technologies; and a forward-looking prognosis for these sectors for entertainment and enterprise. A true blend of Hollywood and Silicon Valley. </div> 2009 Focus Internet & Mobile Solutions Information technology, telecommunications and consumer electronics have converged to create new platforms, new alliances, new providers, new products, and new solutions. Digitalization and mobility are: Revolutionizing content generation and use Changing the way we use media Generating new business models and markets Enabling us to conduct business on the move Creating new customer relationships CeBIT is embracing this latest megatrend with the new Internet & Mobile Solutions program, which will paint a current picture of the content economy in three main display categories: Digital Media Solutions, Enterprise Mobility, and Web-Based Solutions. eHealth Exchange The medical and healthcare sectors are becoming increasingly deregulated around the world. With market liberalization and harmonization of standards come new business opportunities for international vendors and solutions providers. At the same time demographic change and the need to streamline costs are posing new challenges for the healthcare market. A 38% increase in attendees to this segment of CeBIT is testimony to the importance of IT in medicine and will make it one of the headline topics at the show in 2009. TeleHealth is Europe's leading event for professionals and key decision-makers in the medical and healthcare field. In addition to the Expo, the Conference + Networking event will take place on 5 and 6 March, when telemedicine and eHealth professionals will meet to compare notes and share knowledge. The conference will feature a well-balanced program of distinguished experts who will present their latest research findings and best practice case studies. Enterprise Storage and ILM Solutions Pavilion Data storage requirements are doubling every 18 months and the appetite for faster, bigger storage arrays and improved information lifecycle management tools is increasingly growing to keep up with business needs. Digitalization of content, data protection, disaster recovery and increased use of graphics and video are straining the existing storage infrastructure of many enterprises. AutoID and RFID AutoID/RFID is central to the Internet of the future, which promises to create the transparency necessary for cross-industry logistics chains. Right now, major corporations are conducting successful pilot projects with small and medium-sized enterprises supplying the underlying technologies. Indeed, AutoID/RFID is poised for mass deployment in business and logistics processes; retailing and wholesaling; production and transportation; and product tracking. Main display categories: Bar-Coding, 2D-Coding Distributors Embedded Software and Systems International Concerns and SMEs Manufacturers Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) RFID (Transponders), Sensors, etc. Systems Consultants Systems Integrators IPCentral / WIRELESSWorld @ CeBIT Digital Communication plays an increasingly important role in today's world of work and leisure. Millions of users communicate and send data—anytime and anywhere. WIRELESSWorld and IPCentral are sectors where the latest trends are highlighted and new business opportunities are created. Green IT world at CeBIT 2009 The overwhelming interest and the resulting market potential has been the motivation and incentive to increase CeBIT's commitment to Green IT substantially in 2009. CeBIT is presenting a "green IT World". The most important companies will display their most innovative Green-IT-solutions on a special area of around 2500sqm: from energy saving notebooks for everyone across energy efficient data centres to high-end-videoconferencing in HD-quality and sustainable visions for the future. CeBIT Worldwide CeBIT Bilisim Eurasia 07 - 12 October 2008 Tüyap Exhibition and Congress Center Beylikdüzü-Istanbul, Turkey Logistics & ICT Asia 28 - 29 October 2008 Renaissance Shanghai Pudong Hotel Pudong / Shanghai, PR China CeBIT Broadcast Cable & Satellite Eurasia 20 - 23 November 2008 New World Trade Center Istanbul, Turkey CeBIT Australia 12 - 14 May 2009 Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre Sydney, Australia ISCe - International Satellite & Communications exchange 2 - 4 June 2009 San Diego Marriott Hotel and Marina San Diego, California References External links General: CeBIT official website: "The leading business event for the digital world" The history of CeBIT CeBIT - Hannover Fairs USA, Inc. Official Website Overview of worldwide CeBIT events Hellotrade Media: CeBIT 2009 - Photo report CeBIT 2008 - Photo report CeBIT-Channel on YouTube CeBIT 2005 video coverage CeBIT 2006 video coverage – In HDTV format | CeBIT |@lemmatized cebit:80 centrum:3 der:1 büro:3 und:3 informationstechnik:2 german:4 centre:3 office:11 information:12 technology:16 world:19 large:8 computer:5 expo:4 since:3 hold:2 spring:3 exhibition:12 ground:2 hannover:19 germany:4 often:1 regard:1 barometer:1 state:7 art:1 area:6 roughly:1 million:2 exhibitor:29 visitor:18 computex:1 longer:1 comdex:1 recent:1 year:8 number:11 well:5 drop:2 significantly:2 attendance:7 heise:1 de:1 messe:13 zieht:1 bilanz:1 konzept:1 ist:1 voll:1 aufgegangen:1 take:8 place:5 march:6 organize:4 deutsche:12 ag:12 history:2 crowd:1 hall:30 trade:10 fair:18 showcasing:1 digital:8 telecommunication:5 solution:19 home:9 work:2 environment:1 key:5 target:2 group:3 user:5 industry:12 wholesale:1 retail:1 sector:7 skilled:1 bank:1 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868 | Kurtosis | In probability theory and statistics, kurtosis (from the Greek word κυρτός, kyrtos or kurtos, meaning bulging) is a measure of the "peakedness" of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable. Higher kurtosis means more of the variance is due to infrequent extreme deviations, as opposed to frequent modestly-sized deviations. The far red light has no effect on the average speed of the gravitropic reaction in wheat coleoptiles, but it changes kurtosis from platykurtic to leptokurtic (-0.194 → 0.055) Definition of kurtosis The fourth standardized moment is defined as where μ4 is the fourth moment about the mean and σ is the standard deviation. This is sometimes used as the definition of kurtosis in older works, but is not the definition used here. Kurtosis is more commonly defined as the fourth cumulant divided by the square of the second cumulant, which is equal to the fourth moment around the mean divided by the square of the variance of the probability distribution minus 3, which is also known as excess kurtosis. The "minus 3" at the end of this formula is often explained as a correction to make the kurtosis of the normal distribution equal to zero. Another reason can be seen by looking at the formula for the kurtosis of the sum of random variables. Because of the use of the cumulant, if Y is the sum of n independent random variables, all with the same distribution as X, then Kurt[Y] = Kurt[X] / n, while the formula would be more complicated if kurtosis were defined as μ4 / σ4. More generally, if X1, ..., Xn are independent random variables all having the same variance, then whereas this identity would not hold if the definition did not include the subtraction of 3. The fourth standardized moment must be at least 1, so the excess kurtosis must be −2 or more (the lower bound is realized by the Bernoulli distribution with p = ½, or "coin toss"); there is no upper limit and it may be infinite. Terminology and examples A high kurtosis distribution has a sharper peak and longer, fatter tails, while a low kurtosis distribution has a more rounded peak and shorter thinner tails. Distributions with zero excess kurtosis are called mesokurtic, or mesokurtotic. The most prominent example of a mesokurtic distribution is the normal distribution family, regardless of the values of its parameters. A few other well-known distributions can be mesokurtic, depending on parameter values: for example the binomial distribution is mesokurtic for . A distribution with positive excess kurtosis is called leptokurtic, or leptokurtotic. In terms of shape, a leptokurtic distribution has a more acute peak around the mean (that is, a higher probability than a normally distributed variable of values near the mean) and fatter tails (that is, a higher probability than a normally distributed variable of extreme values). Examples of leptokurtic distributions include the Laplace distribution and the logistic distribution. Such distributions are sometimes termed super Gaussian. A distribution with negative excess kurtosis is called platykurtic, or platykurtotic. In terms of shape, a platykurtic distribution has a lower, wider peak around the mean (that is, a lower probability than a normally distributed variable of values near the mean) and thinner tails (if viewed as the height of the probability density - that is, a lower probability than a normally distributed variable of extreme values). Examples of platykurtic distributions include the continuous or discrete uniform distributions, and the raised cosine distribution. The most platykurtic distribution of all is the Bernoulli distribution with p = ½ (for example the number of times one obtains "heads" when flipping a coin once, a coin toss), for which the kurtosis is −2. Such distributions are sometimes termed sub Gaussian. Graphical examples The Pearson type VII family pdf for the Pearson type VII distribution with kurtosis of infinity (red); 2 (blue); and 0 (black) log-pdf for the Pearson type VII distribution with kurtosis of infinity (red); 2 (blue); 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, and 1/16 (gray); and 0 (black) We illustrate the effects of kurtosis using a parametric family of distributions whose kurtosis can be adjusted while their lower-order moments and cumulants remain constant. Consider the Pearson type VII family, which is a special case of the Pearson type IV family restricted to symmetric densities. The probability density function is given by where a is a scale parameter and m is a shape parameter. All densities in this family are symmetric. The kth moment exists provided . For the kurtosis to exist, we require . Then the mean and skewness exist and are both identically zero. Setting makes the variance equal to unity. Then the only free parameter is m, which controls the fourth moment (and cumulant) and hence the kurtosis. One can reparameterize with , where is the kurtosis as defined above. This yields a one-parameter leptokurtic family with zero mean, unit variance, zero skewness, and arbitrary positive kurtosis. The reparameterized density is In the limit as one obtains the density which is shown as the red curve in the images on the right. In the other direction as one obtains the standard normal density as the limiting distribution, shown as the black curve. In the images on the right, the blue curve represents the density with kurtosis of 2. The top image shows that leptokurtic densities in this family have a higher peak than the mesokurtic normal density. The comparatively fatter tails of the leptokurtic densities are illustrated in the second image, which plots the natural logarithm of the Pearson type VII densities: the black curve is the logarithm of the standard normal density, which is a parabola. One can see that the normal density allocates little probability mass to the regions far from the mean ("has thin tails"), compared with the blue curve of the leptokurtic Pearson type VII density with kurtosis of 2. Between the blue curve and the black are other Pearson type VII densities with γ2 = 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, and 1/16. The red curve again shows the upper limit of the Pearson type VII family, with (which, strictly speaking, means that the fourth moment does not exist). The red curve decreases the slowest as one moves outward from the origin ("has fat tails"). Kurtosis of well-known distributions In this example we compare several well-known distributions from different parametric families. All densities considered here are unimodal and symmetric. Each has a mean and skewness of zero. Parameters were chosen to result in a variance of unity in each case. The images on the right show curves for the following seven densities, on a linear scale and logarithmic scale: D: Laplace distribution, a.k.a. double exponential distribution, red curve (two straight lines in the log-scale plot), excess kurtosis = 3 S: hyperbolic secant distribution, orange curve, excess kurtosis = 2 L: logistic distribution, green curve, excess kurtosis = 1.2 N: normal distribution, black curve (inverted parabola in the log-scale plot), excess kurtosis = 0 C: raised cosine distribution, cyan curve, excess kurtosis = −0.593762… W: Wigner semicircle distribution, blue curve, excess kurtosis = −1 U: uniform distribution, magenta curve (shown for clarity as a rectangle in both images), excess kurtosis = −1.2. Note that in these cases the platykurtic densities have bounded support, whereas the densities with positive or zero excess kurtosis are supported on the whole real line. There exist platykurtic densities with infinite support, for example exponential power distributions with sufficiently large shape parameter b, and there exist leptokurtic densities with finite support, for example a distribution that is uniform between -3 and -0.3, between -0.3 and 0.3, and between 0.3 and 3, with the same density in the (-3, -0.3) and (0.3, 3) intervals, but with 20 times more density in the (-0.3, 0.3) interval. Sample kurtosis For a sample of n values the sample kurtosis is where m4 is the fourth sample moment about the mean, m2 is the second sample moment about the mean (that is, the sample variance), xi is the ith value, and is the sample mean. The formula , is also used, where n - the sample size, D - the pre-computed variance, xi - the value of the x'th measurement and - the pre-computed arithmetic mean. Estimators of population kurtosis Given a sub-set of samples from a population, the sample kurtosis above is a biased estimator of the population kurtosis. The usual estimator of the population kurtosis (used in DAP/SAS, Minitab, PSPP/SPSS, and Excel but not by BMDP) is G2, defined as follows: where k4 is the unique symmetric unbiased estimator of the fourth cumulant, k2 is the unbiased estimator of the population variance, m4 is the fourth sample moment about the mean, m2 is the sample variance, xi is the ith value, and is the sample mean. Unfortunately, is itself generally biased. For the normal distribution it is unbiased because its expected value is then zero. Applications D'Agostino's K-squared test is a goodness-of-fit normality test based on sample skewness and sample kurtosis, as does the Jarque-Bera test for normality. See also Skewness Skewness risk Kurtosis risk Algorithms for calculating higher-order statistics D'Agostino's K-squared test References Joanes, D. N. & Gill, C. A. (1998) Comparing measures of sample skewness and kurtosis. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (Series D): The Statistician 47 (1), 183–189. doi:10.1111/1467-9884.00122 External links Free Online Software (Calculator) computes various types of skewness and kurtosis statistics for any dataset (includes small and large sample tests).. Kurtosis on the Earliest known uses of some of the words of mathematics Celebrating 100 years of Kurtosis a history of the topic, with different measures of kurtosis. | Kurtosis |@lemmatized probability:10 theory:1 statistic:3 kurtosis:49 greek:1 word:2 κυρτός:1 kyrtos:1 kurtos:1 mean:19 bulge:1 measure:3 peakedness:1 distribution:43 real:2 value:12 random:4 variable:8 high:6 variance:10 due:1 infrequent:1 extreme:3 deviation:3 oppose:1 frequent:1 modestly:1 sized:1 far:2 red:7 light:1 effect:2 average:1 speed:1 gravitropic:1 reaction:1 wheat:1 coleoptiles:1 change:1 platykurtic:7 leptokurtic:9 definition:4 fourth:10 standardized:2 moment:11 define:5 σ:1 standard:3 sometimes:3 use:6 old:1 work:1 commonly:1 cumulant:5 divide:2 square:3 second:3 equal:3 around:3 minus:2 also:3 know:4 excess:13 end:1 formula:4 often:1 explain:1 correction:1 make:2 normal:8 zero:8 another:1 reason:1 see:3 look:1 sum:2 n:6 independent:2 x:3 kurt:2 would:2 complicated:1 generally:2 xn:1 whereas:2 identity:1 hold:1 include:4 subtraction:1 must:2 least:1 low:6 bound:2 realize:1 bernoulli:2 p:2 coin:3 toss:2 upper:2 limit:4 may:1 infinite:2 terminology:1 examples:2 sharp:1 peak:5 long:1 fatter:2 tail:7 rounded:1 short:1 thinner:2 call:3 mesokurtic:5 mesokurtotic:1 prominent:1 example:8 family:10 regardless:1 parameter:8 well:3 depend:1 binomial:1 positive:3 leptokurtotic:1 term:2 shape:4 acute:1 normally:4 distribute:4 near:2 laplace:2 logistic:2 termed:2 super:1 gaussian:2 negative:1 platykurtotic:1 wide:1 view:1 height:1 density:24 continuous:1 discrete:1 uniform:3 raise:2 cosine:2 number:1 time:2 one:7 obtain:3 head:1 flip:1 sub:2 graphical:1 pearson:9 type:10 vii:8 pdf:2 infinity:2 blue:6 black:6 log:3 gray:1 illustrate:2 parametric:2 whose:1 adjust:1 order:2 cumulants:1 remain:1 constant:1 consider:2 special:1 case:3 iv:1 restrict:1 symmetric:4 function:1 give:2 scale:5 kth:1 exists:1 provide:1 exist:5 require:1 skewness:8 identically:1 set:2 unity:2 free:2 control:1 hence:1 reparameterize:1 yield:1 unit:1 arbitrary:1 reparameterized:1 show:6 curve:16 image:6 right:3 direction:1 represent:1 top:1 comparatively:1 fat:2 plot:3 natural:1 logarithm:2 parabola:2 allocate:1 little:1 mass:1 region:1 thin:1 compare:3 strictly:1 speak:1 decrease:1 slowest:1 move:1 outward:1 origin:1 several:1 different:2 unimodal:1 choose:1 result:1 following:1 seven:1 linear:1 logarithmic:1 k:3 double:1 exponential:2 two:1 straight:1 line:2 hyperbolic:1 secant:1 orange:1 l:1 green:1 inverted:1 c:2 cyan:1 w:1 wigner:1 semicircle:1 u:1 magenta:1 clarity:1 rectangle:1 note:1 support:4 whole:1 power:1 sufficiently:1 large:2 b:1 finite:1 interval:2 sample:17 xi:3 ith:2 size:1 pre:2 compute:3 th:1 measurement:1 arithmetic:1 estimator:5 population:5 biased:1 usual:1 dap:1 sa:1 minitab:1 pspp:1 spss:1 excel:1 bmdp:1 follow:1 unique:1 unbiased:3 unfortunately:1 bias:1 expected:1 application:1 agostino:2 squared:1 test:5 goodness:1 fit:1 normality:2 base:1 jarque:1 bera:1 risk:2 algorithm:1 calculate:1 reference:1 joanes:1 gill:1 journal:1 royal:1 statistical:1 society:1 series:1 statistician:1 doi:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 software:1 calculator:1 various:1 dataset:1 small:1 early:1 known:1 us:1 mathematics:1 celebrate:1 year:1 history:1 topic:1 |@bigram probability_distribution:2 random_variable:4 excess_kurtosis:13 coin_toss:2 binomial_distribution:1 identically_zero:1 logarithmic_scale:1 biased_estimator:1 unbiased_estimator:2 expected_value:1 skewness_kurtosis:2 external_link:1 |
869 | Max_and_Moritz | Max and Moritz. For the rockets launched in 1934 by Wernher von Braun, see Aggregate_series#A2 Max and Moritz (A Story of Seven Boyish Pranks) is a German language illustrated story in verse. This highly inventive, blackly humorous tale, told entirely in rhymed couplets, was written and illustrated by Wilhelm Busch and published in 1865. Many familiar with comic strip history consider it to have been the direct inspiration for the Katzenjammer Kids. Cultural significance Busch's classic tale of the terrible duo (now in the public domain) has since become a proud part of the culture in German-speaking countries. Even today, parents usually read these tales to their not-yet-literate children. To this day in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, a certain familiarity with the story and its rhymes is still presumed, as it is often referenced in mass communication. The two leering, cretinous faces are synonymous with mischief, and appear almost logo-like in advertising and even graffiti. Max and Moritz is the first published original foreign children’s book in Japan which was translated into rōmaji by Shinjirō Shibutani and Kaname Oyaizu in 1887 as ("Naughty stories"). The pranks The widow's house (second trick). Sawing through the bridge planks (third trick). The teacher's pipe detonates (fourth trick). May bugs on a tree (fifth trick). Max and Moritz covered in dough (sixth trick). The fate of Max and Moritz (final trick). It is not necessary to reprint the entire story here, as it is both long and freely available on the internet. A summary of the pranks (and sample from the preface) should provide the essential flavor. There have been several English translations of the original German verses over the years, but all have maintained the original trochaic tetrameter: Preface Ah, how oft we read or hear of Boys we almost stand in fear of! For example, take these stories Of two youths, named Max and Moritz, Who, instead of early turning Their young minds to useful learning, Often leered with horrid features At their lessons and their teachers. Look now at the empty head: he Is for mischief always ready. Teasing creatures - climbing fences, Stealing apples, pears, and quinces, Is, of course, a deal more pleasant, And far easier for the present, Than to sit in schools or churches, Fixed like roosters on their perches But O dear, O dear, O deary, When the end comes sad and dreary! 'Tis a dreadful thing to tell That on Max and Moritz fell! All they did this book rehearses, Both in pictures and in verses. First Trick: The Widow The boys tie several crusts of bread together with thread, and lay this trap in an old widow's chicken yard, causing all the chickens to become fatally entangled. Inspiration This prank is remakably similar to the eighth history of the classic german prankster tales of Till Eulenspiegel . Second Trick: The Widow II As the widow cooks her chickens, the boys sneak onto her roof. When she leaves her kitchen momentarily, the boys steal the chickens using a fishing pole down the chimney. The widow hears her dog barking and hurries upstairs, finds the hearth empty and beats the dog. Third Trick: The Tailor The boys torment a well-liked tailor who has a fast stream flowing in front of his house. They saw through the planks of his wooden bridge, making a precarious gap, then taunt him by making goat noises, until he runs outside. The bridge breaks; the tailor is swept away and nearly drowns (but for two geese, which he grabs a hold of and fly high to safety). Inspiration Although Till removes the planks of the bridge instead of sawing them through there are some similarities to Till Eulenspiegel (32nd History). Fourth Trick: The Teacher While their devout teacher is busy at church, the boys invade his home and fill his favorite pipe with gunpowder. When he lights the pipe, the blast knocks him unconscious, blackens his skin and burns away all his hair. Fifth Trick: The Uncle The boys collect bags full of May beetles, which they promptly deposit in their Uncle's (Fritz) bed. Uncle is nearly asleep when he feels the bugs walking on his nose. Horrified, he goes into a bug-killing frenzy with a shoe. Sixth Trick: The Baker The boys invade a bakery which they believe is closed. Attempting to steal pretzels, they fall into a vat of dough. The baker returns, catches the breaded pair, and bakes them. But they survive, and escape by gnawing through their crusts. Final Trick: The Farmer Hiding out in a farmer's grain storage area, the boys slit some grain sacks. A farmer arrives and immediately notices the problem. He puts the boys in the sack instead, then takes it to the mill. The boys are ground to bits and devoured by ducks. Later, no one expresses regret! (The mill really exists in Ebergötzen, Germany, and can be visited) External links Max and Moritz at Virginia Commonwealth University for a single work | Max_and_Moritz |@lemmatized max:8 moritz:8 rocket:1 launch:1 wernher:1 von:1 braun:1 see:1 story:6 seven:1 boyish:1 prank:4 german:4 language:1 illustrate:2 verse:3 highly:1 inventive:1 blackly:1 humorous:1 tale:4 tell:2 entirely:1 rhymed:1 couplet:1 write:1 wilhelm:1 busch:2 publish:2 many:1 familiar:1 comic:1 strip:1 history:3 consider:1 direct:1 inspiration:3 katzenjammer:1 kid:1 cultural:1 significance:1 classic:2 terrible:1 duo:1 public:1 domain:1 since:1 become:2 proud:1 part:1 culture:1 speaking:1 country:1 even:2 today:1 parent:1 usually:1 read:2 yet:1 literate:1 child:2 day:1 germany:2 austria:1 switzerland:1 certain:1 familiarity:1 rhyme:1 still:1 presume:1 often:2 reference:1 mass:1 communication:1 two:3 leering:1 cretinous:1 face:1 synonymous:1 mischief:2 appear:1 almost:2 logo:1 like:3 advertising:1 graffiti:1 first:2 original:3 foreign:1 book:2 japan:1 translate:1 rōmaji:1 shinjirō:1 shibutani:1 kaname:1 oyaizu:1 naughty:1 widow:6 house:2 second:2 trick:13 saw:3 bridge:4 plank:3 third:2 teacher:4 pipe:3 detonates:1 fourth:2 may:2 bug:3 tree:1 fifth:2 cover:1 dough:2 sixth:2 fate:1 final:2 necessary:1 reprint:1 entire:1 long:1 freely:1 available:1 internet:1 summary:1 sample:1 preface:2 provide:1 essential:1 flavor:1 several:2 english:1 translation:1 year:1 maintain:1 trochaic:1 tetrameter:1 ah:1 oft:1 hear:2 boy:11 stand:1 fear:1 example:1 take:2 youth:1 name:1 instead:3 early:1 turn:1 young:1 mind:1 useful:1 learning:1 leer:1 horrid:1 feature:1 lesson:1 look:1 empty:2 head:1 always:1 ready:1 tease:1 creature:1 climb:1 fence:1 steal:3 apple:1 pear:1 quince:1 course:1 deal:1 pleasant:1 far:1 easy:1 present:1 sit:1 school:1 church:2 fix:1 rooster:1 perch:1 dear:2 deary:1 end:1 come:1 sad:1 dreary:1 tis:1 dreadful:1 thing:1 fell:1 rehearse:1 picture:1 tie:1 crust:2 bread:1 together:1 thread:1 lay:1 trap:1 old:1 chicken:4 yard:1 cause:1 fatally:1 entangled:1 remakably:1 similar:1 eighth:1 prankster:1 till:3 eulenspiegel:2 ii:1 cook:1 sneak:1 onto:1 roof:1 leave:1 kitchen:1 momentarily:1 use:1 fishing:1 pole:1 chimney:1 dog:2 barking:1 hurry:1 upstairs:1 find:1 hearth:1 beat:1 tailor:3 torment:1 well:1 fast:1 stream:1 flow:1 front:1 wooden:1 make:2 precarious:1 gap:1 taunt:1 goat:1 noise:1 run:1 outside:1 break:1 sweep:1 away:2 nearly:2 drowns:1 goose:1 grab:1 hold:1 fly:1 high:1 safety:1 although:1 remove:1 similarity:1 devout:1 busy:1 invade:2 home:1 fill:1 favorite:1 gunpowder:1 light:1 blast:1 knock:1 unconscious:1 blacken:1 skin:1 burn:1 hair:1 uncle:3 collect:1 bags:1 full:1 beetle:1 promptly:1 deposit:1 fritz:1 bed:1 asleep:1 feel:1 walk:1 nose:1 horrify:1 go:1 kill:1 frenzy:1 shoe:1 baker:2 bakery:1 believe:1 close:1 attempt:1 pretzel:1 fall:1 vat:1 return:1 catch:1 breaded:1 pair:1 bake:1 survive:1 escape:1 gnaw:1 farmer:3 hide:1 grain:2 storage:1 area:1 slit:1 sack:2 arrive:1 immediately:1 notice:1 problem:1 put:1 mill:2 ground:1 bit:1 devour:1 duck:1 later:1 one:1 express:1 regret:1 really:1 exist:1 ebergötzen:1 visit:1 external:1 link:1 virginia:1 commonwealth:1 university:1 single:1 work:1 |@bigram max_moritz:8 wernher_von:1 von_braun:1 wilhelm_busch:1 comic_strip:1 katzenjammer_kid:1 apple_pear:1 till_eulenspiegel:2 sneak_onto:1 knock_unconscious:1 external_link:1 |
870 | Francisco_Franco | Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde, Salgado y Pardo de Andrade (4 December 1892 in Ferrol – 20 November 1975 in Madrid), commonly known as Francisco Franco () or Francisco Franco y Bahamonde' was the authoritarian dictator and Head of State of Spain from October 1936, and de facto regent of the nominally restored Kingdom of Spain from 1947 until his death in 1975. His ideological focus was on Spanish nationalism, right wing and traditional values. Franco initially led a notable military career and reached the rank of General. He fought in Morocco and suppressed a strike in 1934 to defend the stability of the Republican government. In February 1936, the left-wing Popular Front won the general election and formed a government. A period of severe instability and disarray followed the election, with escalating violence and distrust between left and right wing supporters. Anti-clerical violence against the Church by leftist militants raised tensions, while the government distrusted both its extreme supporters on the left and sections of the military. After the assassination of a major opposition figure, José Calvo Sotelo, by a commando unit of the Assault Guards in July 1936, Franco participated in a coup d'etat against the elected Popular Front government. The coup failed and devolved into the Spanish Civil War during which he emerged as the leader of the Nationalists against the Popular Front government. After winning the civil war with much assistance from Benito Mussolini's Italy and Adolf Hitler's Germany, he dissolved the Spanish Parliament. He then established a right wing authoritarian regime that lasted until 1978, when a new constitution was drafted. During the Second World War, Franco officially maintained a policy of non-belligerency and later of neutrality. However, he encouraged volunteers, known as the Blue Division, to aid Nazi Germany in the fight against the Soviet Union. After the end of World War II, Franco maintained his control in Spain through the implementation of repressive and authoritarian measures: the systematic suppression of dissident views through censorship and coercion, Sinova, J. La censura de prensa durante el franquismo/ The Media Censorship During Franco Regime. Random House Mondadori. ISBN: 848346134X. Lázaro, A. James Joyce's encounters with Spanish censorship, 1939-1966. Joyce Studies Annual, 1 Jan, 2001. the institutionalization of torture, casanova, J. "Setenta años de la victoria de Franco" http://www.elpais.com/articulo/opinion/Setenta/anos/victoria/Franco/elpepuopi/20090329elpepiopi_5/Tes the imprisonment of ideological enemies in concentration camps throughout the country (such as Los Merinales in Seville, San Marcos in León, Castuera in Extremadura, and Miranda de Ebro) Rodrigo, J. "Cautivos: Campos de concentración en la España franquista, 1936-1947", Editorial Crítica. , the implementation of forced labor in prisons Gastón Aguas, J. M. & Mendiola Gonzalo, F. (eds.) "Los trabajos forzados en la dictadura franquista: Bortxazko lanak diktadura frankistan." ISBN: 978-84-611-8354-8 and the use of death penalty and heavy prison sentences as deterrents for his ideological enemies Duva, J. "Octavio Alberola, jefe de los libertarios ajusticiados en 1963, regresa a España para defender su inocencia" Diario El País, 9 November 1998 . During the Cold War, the United States established a diplomatic alliance with Spain, due to Franco's strong anti-Communist policy. American President Richard Nixon toasted Franco, John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters, Toasts of the President and General Francisco Franco of Spain at a State Dinner in Madrid, The American Presidency Project. Santa Barbara, California: University of California (hosted), Gerhard Peters (database). Accessed online 24 May 2008. and, after Franco's death, stated: "General Franco was a loyal friend and ally of the United States New York Times. "Nixon Asserts Franco Won Respect for Spain." November 21, 1975, Friday, page 16. ." After his death Spain gradually began its transition to democracy. Today, pre-constitutional symbols from the Franco regime (such as the national flag with the Imperial Eagle) are banned by law in Spain. Early life Franco was born in Ferrol, A Coruña, on 4 December 1892, the son of Nicolás Franco y Salgado-Araújo (22 November 1855 - 22 February 1942), who was a Navy paymaster, and wife (m. 1890), María del Pilar Bahamonde y Pardo de Andrade (1865 - 28 February 1934). Franco's mother, through the VII Conde de Lemos and his wife the 3rd Condessa de Villalva, was twice a descendant of Portuguese royalty and thus from other Portuguese kings. Francisco Franco y Bahamonde, GeneAll.net. Accessed online 24 May 2008. Franco, Paul Theroff's Royal Genealogy Site, Prodigy.net. Accessed online 24 May 2008. Current Living relatives, the Franco family consisting of his grandson,Jose Luis, and his new born baby he had with his wife Christian Franco(1994). Franco had two brothers, Nicolás (Ferrol, 1891 - 1977), Spanish Navy Officer and Diplomat married to María Isabel Pascual del Pobil y Ravello, and Ramón, a pioneering Aviator, and two sisters María del Pilar (Ferrol, 1894 - Madrid, 1989) and María de la Paz (Ferrol, 1899 - Ferrol, 1900), with whom he spent much of his childhood. His brother's son was Nicolás Franco y Pascual del Pobil, married to Margarita Cerame y ..., parents of Nicolás Franco y Cerame, Ramón Franco y Cerame and Margarita Franco y Cerame, who married Ramón Ros y Bigeriego, son of Joaquín Ros y López and wife Casilda Bigeriego y de Juan, and had a son Ramón Ros y Franco, born in Madrid in October 2008. Francisco was to follow his father into the Navy but as a result of the Spanish-American War the country had lost much of its navy as well as most of its colonies. Not needing more officers, entry into the Naval Academy was closed from 1906 to 1913. To his father's chagrin, he decided to join the Spanish Army. In 1907, he entered the Infantry Academy in Toledo, from which he graduated in 1910. He was commissioned as a lieutenant. Two years later, he obtained a commission to Morocco. Spanish efforts to physically occupy their new African protectorate provoked the protracted Rif War (from 1909 to 1927) with native Moroccans. Tactics at the time resulted in heavy losses among Spanish military officers, but also gave the chance of earning promotion through merit. It was said that officers would get either la caja o la faja (a coffin or a general's sash). Franco soon gained a reputation as a good officer. He joined the newly formed regulares, colonial native troops with Spanish officers, who acted as shock troops. In 1916, at the age of 23 and already a captain, he was badly wounded in a skirmish at El Biutz and possibly lost a testicle. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8055329.stm His survival marked him permanently in the eyes of the native troops as a man of baraka (good luck). He was also recommended unsuccessfully for Spain's highest honor for gallantry, the coveted Cruz Laureada de San Fernando. Instead, he was promoted to major (comandante), becoming the youngest field grade officer in the Spanish Army. From 1917 to 1920, he was posted on the Spanish mainland. That last year, Lieutenant Colonel José Millán Astray, a histrionic but charismatic officer, founded the Spanish Foreign Legion, along similar lines to the French Foreign Legion. Franco became the Legion's second-in-command and returned to Africa. On 24 July 1921, the poorly commanded and overextended Spanish Army suffered a crushing defeat at Annual at the hands of the Rif tribes led by the Abd el-Krim brothers. The Legion symbolically, if not materially, saved the Spanish enclave of Melilla after a gruelling three-day forced march led by Franco. In 1923, already a lieutenant colonel, he was made commander of the Legion. The same year, he married María del Carmen Polo y Martínez-Valdès; they had one child, a daughter, María del Carmen, born in 1926. Carmen Franco y Polo, 1st Duquesa de Franco on thePeerage.com. Accessed 8 August 2006. As a special mark of honor, his best man (padrino) at the wedding was King Alfonso XIII, a fact that would mark him during the Republic as a monarchical officer. Promoted to colonel, Franco led the first wave of troops ashore at Al Hoceima in 1925. This landing in the heartland of Abd el-Krim's tribe, combined with the French invasion from the south, spelled the beginning of the end for the short-lived Republic of the Rif. Becoming the youngest general in Spain in 1926, Franco was appointed in 1928 director of the newly created the General Military Academy of Zaragoza, a new college for all Army cadets, replacing the former separate institutions for young men seeking to become officers in infantry, cavalry, artillery, and other branches of the army. During the Second Spanish Republic With the fall of the monarchy in 1931, in keeping with his long-standing apolitical record, Franco did not take any notable stand. But the closing of the Academy, in June, by War Minister Manuel Azaña, provoked his first clash with the Republic. Azaña found Franco's farewell speech to the cadets insulting. For six months, Franco was without a post and under surveillance. On 5 February 1932, he was given a command in La Coruña. Franco avoided involvement in José Sanjurjo's attempted coup that year, and even wrote a hostile letter to Sanjurjo expressing his anger over the attempt. As a side result of Azaña's military reform, in January 1933, Franco was relegated from the first to the 24th in the list of Brigadiers; conversely, the same year (17 February), he was given the military command of the Balearic Islands: a post above his rank. New elections held in October 1933 resulted in a center-right majority. In opposition to this government, a revolutionary movement broke out 5 October 1934. This uprising was rapidly quelled in most of the country, but gained a stronghold in Asturias, with the support of the miners' unions. Franco, already general of a Division and aide to the war minister, Diego Hidalgo, was put in command of the operations directed to suppress the insurgency. The forces of the Army in Africa were to carry the brunt of this, with General Eduardo López Ochoa as commander in the field. After two weeks of heavy fighting (and a death toll estimated between 1,200 and 2,000), the rebellion was suppressed. The insurgency in Asturias sharpened the antagonism between Left and Right. Franco and López Ochoa—who, prior to the campaign in Asturias, was seen as a left-leaning officer—were marked by the left as enemies. At the start of the Civil War, López Ochoa was assassinated. Some time after these events, Franco was briefly commander-in-chief of the Army of Africa (from 15 February onwards), and from 19 May 1935 on, Chief of the General Staff. 1936 general election After the ruling centre-right coalition collapsed amid the Straperlo corruption scandal, new elections were scheduled. Two wide coalitions formed: the Popular Front on the left, ranging from Republican Union Party to Communists, and the Frente Nacional on the right, ranging from the center radicals to the conservative Carlists. On February 16, 1936, the left won by a narrow margin. "Riots Sweep Spain on Left's Victory; Jails Are Stormed", The New York Times, February 18, 1936. Growing political bitterness surfaced again. The government and its supporters, the Popular Front, had launched a campaign against the Opposition whom they accused of plotting against the Republic. The Opposition parties, on the other hand, had reacted with increasing vigour. The latter claimed that the Popular Front had illegally obtained two hundred seats in a Parliament of 473 members. After the loss of 200 seats, the Opposition Parties claimed the government represented only a small minority, adding claims that the Popular Front's parliamentary majority was the result of large-scale electoral fraud, of Government-sponsored mob terror and intimidation, of the arbitrary annulment of all election certificates in many Right-wing constituencies, and of the expulsion, the arrest, or even the assassination, of many legally elected deputies of the Right. According to the Opposition, the real enemies of the Republic were not on the Right but on the Left; Spain was in imminent danger of falling under a Communist dictatorship, and therefore by fighting the Popular Front they, the Opposition, were merely doing their duty in defence of law and order and of the freedom and the fundamental rights of the Spanish people. Muggeridge, Malcolm, editor, Ciano's Diplomatic Papers, Odhams, London, 1948: 17-18 The days after the election were marked by near-chaotic circumstances. Franco lobbied unsuccessfully to have a state of emergency declared, with the stated purpose of quelling the disturbances and allowing an orderly vote recount. Instead, on 23 February, Franco was sent to the distant Canary Islands to serve as the islands' military commander, a position in which he had few troops under his command. Meanwhile, a conspiracy led by Emilio Mola was taking shape. In June, Franco was contacted and a secret meeting was held in Tenerife's La Esperanza Forest to discuss a military coup. (A commemorative obelisk commemorating this historic meeting can be found in a clearing at Las Raíces.) Outwardly, Franco maintained an ambiguous attitude almost up until July. On June 23, 1936, he wrote to the head of the government, Casares Quiroga, offering to quell the discontent in the army, but was not answered. The other rebels were determined to go ahead, con Paquito o sin Paquito (with Franco or without him), as it was put by José Sanjurjo, the honorary leader of the military uprising. After various postponements, July 18 was fixed as the date of the uprising. The situation reached a point of no return and, as presented to Franco by Mola, the coup was unavoidable and he had to choose a side. He decided to join the rebels and was given the task of commanding the Army of Africa. A privately owned DH 89 De Havilland Dragon Rapide, was chartered in England July 11 to take Franco to Africa. The assassination of the right-wing opposition leader José Calvo Sotelo by government police troops, possibly acting on their own in retaliation for the murder of José Castillo, precipitated the uprising. On July 17, one day earlier than planned, the African Army rebelled, detaining their commanders. On July 18, Franco published a manifesto and left for Africa, where he arrived the next day to take command. A week later, the rebels, who soon called themselves the Nationalists, controlled only a third of Spain, and most navy units remained under control of the Republican loyalist forces, which left Franco isolated. The coup had failed, but the Spanish Civil War had begun. From the Spanish Civil War to World War II The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936 and officially ended with Franco's victory in April 1939, leaving 190,000 Santos Juliá, coord. Víctimas de la guerra civil, Madrid, 1999, ISBN 84-8460-333-4 to 500,000 Spanish Civil War dead. Despite the Non-Intervention Agreement of August 1936, the war was marked by foreign intervention on behalf of both sides, leading to international repercussions. The nationalist side was supported by Fascist Italy, which sent the Corpo Truppe Volontarie and later Nazi Germany, which assisted with the Condor Legion infamous for their bombing of Guernica in April 1937. Britain and France strictly adhered to the arms embargo, provoking dissensions within the French Popular Front coalition led by Léon Blum, but the Republican side was nonetheless supported by volunteers fighting in the International Brigades and the Soviet Union. (See for example Ken Loach's Land and Freedom.) Because Hitler and Stalin used the war as a testing ground for modern warfare, some historians, such as Ernst Nolte, have considered the Spanish Civil War, along with the Second World War, part of a "European Civil War" lasting from 1936 to 1945 and characterized mainly as a Left/Right ideological conflict. However, this interpretation has not found acceptance among most historians, who consider the Second World War and the Spanish Civil War two distinct conflicts. Among other things, they point to the political heterogeneity on both sides (See Spanish Civil War: Other Factions in the War) and criticize a monolithic interpretation which overlooks the local nuances of Spanish history. It has to be considered, nevertheless, that the politics that allowed Mussolini and Hitler to establish themselves in Europe and the territorial claims for power and resources for which WWII was triggered worked for Franco as well, regardless of the different origins of the militant Spanish sides. One might as well underline that the fate of Austria and Czechoslovakia was bargained alongside the end of the Spanish Republic on the same negotiation table with Hitler, and the end of the Spanish Civil War (Spring 1939) coincided with the war planning of the two dictators. To that extent the two wars are strongly linked although the Spanish political situation had developed on a different basis. The first months Despite Franco having no money, while the state treasury was in Madrid with the government, there was an organized economic lobby in London looking after his financial needs with Lisbon as their operational base. Eventually, he was to receive important help from his economic and diplomatic boosters abroad. Following the 18 July 1936, pronunciamento, Franco assumed the leadership of the 30,000 soldiers of the Spanish Army of Africa. The first days of the insurgency were marked with a serious need to secure control over the Spanish Moroccan Protectorate. On one side, Franco managed to win the support of the natives and their (nominal) authorities, and, on the other, to ensure his control over the army. This led to the summary execution of some 200 senior officers loyal to the Republic (one of them his own first cousin). Also his loyal bodyguard was shot by a man known as Manuel Blanco. Franco's first problem was how to move his troops to the Iberian Peninsula, since most units of the Navy had remained in control of the Republic and were blocking the Strait of Gibraltar. He requested help from Mussolini, who responded with an unconditional offer of arms and planes; Wilhelm Canaris, the head of the Abwehr military intelligence, persuaded Hitler, as well, to support the Nationalists. From July 20 onward he was able, with a small group of 22 mainly German Junkers Ju 52 airplanes, to initiate an air bridge to Seville, where his troops helped to ensure the rebel control of the city. Through representatives, Franco started to negotiate with the United Kingdom, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy for more military support, and above all for more airplanes. Negotiations were successful with the last two on July 25, and airplanes began to arrive in Tetouan on August 2. On August 5, Franco was able to break the blockade with the newly arrived air support, successfully deploying a ship convoy with some 2,000 soldiers. In early August, the situation in western Andalusia was stable enough to allow him to organize a column (some 15,000 men at its height), under the command of then Lieutenant-Colonel Juan Yagüe, which would march through Extremadura towards Madrid. On August 11, Mérida was taken, and on August 15 Badajoz, thus joining both nationalist-controlled areas. Additionally, Mussolini ordered a voluntary army, the Corpo Truppe Volontarie (CTV) of some 12,000 Italians of fully motorized units to Seville and Hitler added to them a professional squadron from the Luftwaffe (2JG/88) with about 24 planes. All these planes had the Nationalist Spanish insignia painted on them, but were flown by Italian and German troops. The backbone of Franco's aviation in those days were the Italian SM.79 and SM.81 bombers, the biplane Fiat CR.32 fighter and the German Junkers Ju 52 cargo-bomber and the Heinkel He 51 biplane fighter. On 21 September, with the head of the column at the town of Maqueda (some 80 km away from Madrid), Franco ordered a detour to free the besieged garrison at the Alcázar of Toledo, which was achieved September 27. This controversial decision gave the Popular Front time to strengthen its defenses in Madrid and hold the city that year but was an important morale and propaganda success. Rise to power The designated leader of the uprising, Gen. José Sanjurjo died on July 20 1936 in an air crash. Therefore, in the nationalist zone, "Political life ceased." Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, revised and enlarged edition (1977), New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-014278-2. p. 258 Initially, only military command mattered; this was divided into regional commands (Emilio Mola in the North, Gonzalo Queipo de Llano in Seville commanding Andalusia, Franco with an independent command and Miguel Cabanellas in Zaragoza commanding Aragon). The Spanish Army of Morocco itself was split into two columns, one commanded by General Juan Yagüe and the other commanded by Colonel José Varela. From 24 July, a coordinating junta was established, based at Burgos. Nominally led by Cabanellas, as the most senior general, Thomas writes, "to pacify, rather than to dignify, him." op. cit., p. 282. it initially included Mola, three other generals, and two colonels; Franco was added in early August. Thomas, op. cit., p. 282. On September 21, it was decided that Franco was to be commander-in-chief (this unified command was opposed only by Cabanellas), Thomas, op. cit., p. 421. and, after some discussion, with no more than a lukewarm agreement from Queipo de Llano and from Mola, also head of government. Thomas, op. cit., pp 423–424. He was doubtless helped to this primacy by the fact that, in late July, Hitler had decided that all of Germany's aid to the nationalists would go to Franco. Thomas, op. cit., p. 356. Mola considered Franco as unfit and not part of the initial rebel group. But Mola himself had been somewhat discredited as the main planner of the attempted coup that had now degenerated into a civil war, and was strongly identified with the Carlists monarchists and not at all with the Falange, a party with Fascist leanings and connections, nor did he have good relations with Germans; Queipo de Llano and Cabanellas had both previously rebelled against the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera and were therefore discredited in some nationalist circles; and Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera was in prison in Madrid (he would be executed a few months later) and the desire to keep a place open for him prevented any other falangist leader from emerging as a possible head of state. Franco's previous aloofness from politics meant that he had few active enemies in any of the factions that needed to be placated, and had cooperated in recent months with both Germany and Italy. Thomas, op. cit., pp 420–422. On 1 October 1936, in Burgos, Franco was publicly proclaimed as Generalísimo of the National army and Jefe del Estado (Head of State). Thomas, op. cit., p. 424. Mola was furious and Cabanellas intervened to calm the spirits down. When Mola was killed in another air accident a year later (which some believe was an assassination) (June 2, 1937), no military leader was left from those who organized the conspiracy against the Republic between 1933 and 1935. Thomas, op. cit., pp 689–690. Military command From that time until the end of the war, Franco personally guided military operations. After the failed assault on Madrid in November 1936, Franco settled to a piecemeal approach to winning the war, rather than bold maneuvering. As with his decision to relieve the garrison at Toledo, this approach has been subject of some debate; some of his decisions, such as, in June 1938, when he preferred to head for Valencia instead of Catalonia, remain particularly controversial from a military viewpoint. Franco's army was supported by Nazi Germany in the form of the Condor Legion, infamous for the bombing of Guernica on April 26, 1937. These German forces also provided maintenance personnel and trainers, and some 22,000 Germans and 91,000 Italians served over the entire war period in Spain. Principal assistance was received from Fascist Italy (Corpo Truppe Volontarie), but the degree of influence of both powers on Franco's direction of the war seems to have been very limited. Nevertheless, the Italian troops, despite not being always effective, were present in most of the large operations in big numbers, while the CTV helped the Nationalist airforce dominate the skies for most of the war. António de Oliveira Salazar's Portugal also openly assisted the Nationalists from the start, contributing some 20,000 troops. It is said that Franco's direction of the Nazi and Fascist forces was limited, particularly in the direction of the Condor Legion, however, he was officially, by default, their supreme commander and they rarely made decisions on their own. For reasons of prestige, it was decided to continue assisting Franco until the end of the war, and Italian and German troops paraded on the day of the final victory in Madrid. The Spanish Republic and the civil war 1931-39, by Gabriel Jackson, New Jersey, 1967 Political command In April 1937, Franco managed to fuse the ideologically incompatible national-syndicalist Falange ("phalanx", a far-right Spanish political party founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera) and the Carlist monarchist parties under a single-party under his rule, dubbed Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista (FET y de las JONS), which became the only legal party in 1939. The Falangists' hymn, Cara al Sol, became the semi-national anthem of Franco's not yet established regime. This new political formation appeased the pro-Nazi Falangists while tempering them with the anti-German Carlists. Franco's brother-in-law Ramón Serrano Súñer, who was his main political advisor, was able to turn the various parties under Franco against each other to absorb a series of political confrontations against Franco himself. At a certain moment he even expelled the original leading members of both the Carlists (Manuel Fal Conde) and the Falangists (Manuel Hedilla) to secure Franco's political future. Franco also appeased the Carlists by exploiting the Republicans' anti-clericalism in his propaganda, in particular concerning the "Martyrs of the war". While the loyalist forces presented the war as a struggle to defend the Republic against Fascism, Franco depicted himself as the defender of "Christian Europe" against "atheist Communism." From early 1937, every death sentence had to be signed (or acknowledged) by Franco. From the beginning of the revolt, all the Junta generals ordered massive public and summary executions to spread fear and reduce resistance among the civilians. During World War II, the head of the Abwehr, Wilhelm Canaris, had regular meetings with Franco and informed Franco of Hitler's attitude and plans for Spain. This information prompted Franco to surreptitiously reposition his best and most experienced troops to camps near the Pyrenees and to prepare the terrain so as to deter unfriendly tanks and other military vehicles . The end of the Civil War Before the fall of Catalonia in February 1939, the Prime Minister of Spain Juan Negrín unsuccessfully proposed, in the meeting of the Cortes in Figueres, capitulation with the sole condition of respecting the lives of the vanquished. Negrín was ultimately deposed by Colonel Segismundo Casado, later joined by José Miaja. Thereafter, only Madrid (see History of Madrid) and a few other areas remained under control of the government forces. On February 27, Chamberlain and Daladier's governments recognized the Franco regime, before the official end of the war. The PCE attempted a mutiny in Madrid with the aim of re-establishing Negrín's leadership, but José Miaja retained control. Finally, on March 28, 1939, with the help of pro-Franco forces inside the city (the "fifth column" General Mola had mentioned in propaganda broadcasts in 1936), Madrid fell to the Nationalists. The next day, Valencia, which had held out under the guns of the Nationalists for close to two years, also surrendered. Victory was proclaimed on April 1, 1939, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered. On this very date, Franco placed his sword upon the altar in a church and in a vow, promised that he would never again take up his sword unless Spain itself was threatened with invasion. At least 50,000 people were executed during the civil war. Spain torn on tribute to victims of Franco Spanish Civil War: Casualties Franco's victory was followed by thousands of summary executions (from 15,000 to 25,000 people Recent searches conducted with parallel excavations of mass graves in Spain (in particular by the Association for the Recovery of Historical Memory, ARMH) estimate that the total of people executed after the war may arrive at a number between 15,000 to 35,000. See for example Fosas Comunes - Los desaparecidos de Franco. La Guerra Civil no ha terminado, El Mundo, 7 July 2002 ) and imprisonments, while many were put to forced labour, building railways, drying out swamps, digging canals (La Corchuela, the Canal of the Bajo Guadalquivir), construction of the Valle de los Caídos monument, etc. The 1940 shooting of the president of the Catalan government, Lluís Companys, was one of the most notable cases of this early suppression of opponents and dissenters. Although leftists suffered from an important death-toll, the Spanish intelligentsia, atheists and military and government figures who had remained loyal to the Madrid government during the war were also targeted for oppression. In his recent, updated history of the Spanish Civil War, Antony Beevor "reckons Franco's ensuing 'white terror' claimed 200,000 lives. The 'red terror' had already killed 38,000." "Men of La Mancha". Rev. of Antony Beevor, The Battle for Spain. The Economist (June 22, 2006). Julius Ruiz concludes that "although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including 50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain." Julius Ruiz, "Defending the Republic: The García Atadell Brigade in Madrid, 1936". Journal of Contemporary History 42.1 (2007):97. In Checas de Madrid, César Vidal comes to a nationwide total of 110,965 victims of Republican violence; 11,705 people being killed in Madrid alone. International justice begins at home by Carlos Alberto Montaner, Miami Herald, August 4, 2003 Despite the official end of the war, guerrilla resistance to Franco (known as "the maquis") was widespread in many mountainous regions, and continued well into the 1950s. In 1944, a group of republican veterans, which also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invaded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but they were quickly defeated. The end of the war led to hundreds of thousands of exilees, mostly to France (but also Mexico, Chile, Cuba, the USA and so on.). Spanish Civil War fighters look back On the other side of the Pyrenees, refugees were confined in internment camps of the French Third Republic, such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet, where 12,000 Republicans were housed in squalid conditions (mostly soldiers from the Durruti Division Camp Vernet Website ). The 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs were divided into four categories (Brigadists, pilots, Gudaris and ordinary 'Spaniards'). The Gudaris (Basques) and the pilots easily found local backers and jobs, and were allowed to quit the camp, but the farmers and ordinary people, who could not find relations in France, were encouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the Francoist government, to return to Spain. The great majority did so and were turned over to the Francoist authorities in Irún. From there they were transferred to the Miranda de Ebro camp for "purification" according to the Law of Political Responsibilities. After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Pétain of the Vichy France regime, the refugees became political prisoners, and the French police attempted to round-up those who had been liberated from the camp. Along with other "undesirables", they were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported to Nazi Germany. 5,000 Spaniards thus died in Mauthausen concentration camp Film documentary on the website of the Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration . The Chilean poet Pablo Neruda, who had been named by the Chilean President Pedro Aguirre Cerda special consul for immigration in Paris, was given responsibility for what he called "the noblest mission I have ever undertaken": shipping more than 2,000 Spanish refugees, who had been housed by the French in squalid camps, to Chile on an old cargo ship, the Winnipeg. World War II Hitler and Franco In September 1939, World War II broke out in Europe, and although Hitler met Franco once in Hendaye, France (October 23, 1940), to discuss Spanish entry on the side of the Axis, Franco's demands (food, military equipment, Gibraltar, French North Africa, Portugal, etc.) proved too much and no agreement was reached. (An oft-cited remark attributed to Hitler is that the German leader would rather have some teeth extracted than to have to deal further with Franco.) Franco's tactics received important support from Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini during the civil war. He remained emphatically neutral in the Second World War, but nonetheless offered various kinds of support to Italy and Germany. He allowed Spanish soldiers to volunteer to fight in the German Army against Joseph Stalin (the Blue Division), but forbade Spaniards to fight in the West against the democracies. Franco's common ground with Hitler was particularly weakened by Hitler's propagation of a pseudo-pagan mysticism and his attempts to manipulate Christianity, which went against Franco's deep commitment to defending Christianity and Catholicism. Contributing to the disagreement was an ongoing dispute over German mining rights in Spain. Some historians argue that Franco made demands that he knew Hitler would not accede to in order to stay out of the war. Other historians argue that he, as leader of a destroyed country in chaos, simply had nothing to offer the Germans and their military. Yet, after the collapse of France in June 1940, Spain did adopt a pro-Axis non-belligerency stance (for example, he offered Spanish naval facilities to German ships) until returning to complete neutrality in 1943 when the tide of the war had turned decisively against Germany and its allies. Some volunteer Spanish troops (the División Azul, or "Blue Division")—not given official state sanction by Franco—went to fight on the Eastern Front under German command from 1941–1943. Some historians have argued that not all of the Blue Division were true volunteers and that Franco expended relatively small but significant resources to aid the Axis powers' battle against the Soviet Union. During the entire war, especially after 1942, the Spanish borders were more or less kept open for Jewish refugees from Vichy France and Nazi-occupied territories in Europe. Franco's diplomats extended their diplomatic protection over Sephardic Jews in Hungary, Slovakia and the Balkans. Spain was a safe haven for all Jewish refugees and antisemitism was not official policy under the Franco regime. On June 14, 1940, the Spanish forces in Morocco occupied Tangier (a city under the rule of the League of Nations) and did not leave it until 1945. Spain under Franco Francisco Franco and US President Dwight D. Eisenhower in Madrid in 1959 Franco was recognized as the Spanish head of state by Britain and France in February 1939, two months before the war officially ended. Already proclaimed Generalísimo of the Nationalists and Jefe del Estado (Head of State) in October 1936 , he thereafter assumed the official title of "Su Excelencia el Jefe de Estado" ("His Excellency the Head of State"). However, he was also referred to in state and official documents as "Caudillo de España" ("the Leader of Spain"), and sometimes called "el Caudillo de la Última Cruzada y de la Hispanidad" ("the Leader of the Last Crusade and of the Hispanic World") and "el Caudillo de la Guerra de Liberación contra el Comunismo y sus Cómplices" ("the Leader of the War of Liberation Against Communism and Its Accomplices"). In 1947, Franco proclaimed Spain a monarchy, but did not designate a monarch. This gesture was largely done to appease the Movimiento Nacional (Carlists and Alfonsists). Although a self-proclaimed monarchist himself, Franco had no particular desire for a King yet, and as such, he left the throne vacant, with himself as de facto Regent. He wore the uniform of a Captain General (a rank traditionally reserved for the King) and resided in the El Pardo Palace. In addition, he appropriated the royal privilege of walking beneath a canopy, and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. He also added "by the grace of God," a phrase usually part of the styles of monarchs, to his style. Franco initially sought support from various groups. He initially garnered support from the fascist elements of the Falange, but distanced himself from fascist ideology after the defeat of the Axis in World War II. Franco's administration marginalized fascist ideologues in favor of technocrats, many of whom were linked with Opus Dei, who promoted the economic modernization under Franco and afterward the liberalization of politics and government "The Franco Years: Policies, Programs, and Growing Popular Unrest." A Country Study: Spain <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html#es0034> . Although Franco and Spain under his rule adopted some trappings of fascism, he, and Spain under his rule, are not generally considered to be fascist; among the distinctions, fascism entails a revolutionary aim to transform society, where Franco and Franco's Spain did not seek to do so, and, to the contrary, although authoritarian, were conservative and traditional. Laqueur, Walter Fascism: Past, Present, Future p. 13 1996 Oxford University Press] De Menses, Filipe Ribeiro Franco and the Spanish Civil War, p. 87, Routledge Gilmour, David, The Transformation of Spain: From Franco to the Constitutional Monarchy, p. 7 1985 Quartet Books Payne, Stanley Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977, p. 476 1999 University of Wisconsin Press Payne, Stanley Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977, p. 347, 476 1999 Univ. of Wisconsin Press Stanley Payne, the preeminent conservative scholar on fascism and Spain notes: "scarcely any of the serious historians and analysts of Franco consider the generalissimo to be a core fascist". Laqueur, Walter Fascism: Past, Present, Future, p. 13, 1997 Oxford University Press US The consistent points in Franco's long rule included above all authoritarianism, nationalism, the defense of Catholicism and the family, anti-Freemasonry, and anti-Communism. The aftermath of the Civil War was socially bleak: many of those who had supported the Republic fled into exile. Spain lost thousands of doctors, nurses, teachers, lawyers, judges, professors, businessmen, artists,etc. Many of those who had to stay lost their jobs or lost their rank. Sometimes those jobs were given to unskilled and even untrained personnel. This deprived the country of many of its brightest minds, and also of a very capable workforce. . However, this was done to keep Spain's citizens consistent with the ideals sought by the Nationalists and Franco. With the end of World War II, Spain suffered from the economic consequences of its isolation from the international community. This situation ended in part when, due to Spain's strategic location in light of Cold War tensions, the United States entered into a trade and military alliance with Spain. This historic alliance commenced with United States President Eisenhower's visit in 1953 which resulted in the Pact of Madrid. Spain was then admitted to the United Nations in 1955. Political Oppression During Franco's rule, non-government trade unions and all political opponents across the political spectrum, from communist and anarchist organizations to liberal democrats and Catalan or Basque separatists, were either suppressed or tightly controlled by all means, up to and including violent police repression. The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) trade-unions were outlawed, and replaced in 1940 by the corporatist Sindicato Vertical. The PSOE Socialist party and the Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) were banned in 1939, while the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) went underground. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) went into exile, and in 1959, the ETA armed group was created to wage a low-intensity war against Franco. Franco's Spanish nationalism promoted a unitary national identity by repressing Spain's cultural diversity. Bullfighting and flamenco Roman, Mar. "Spain frets over future of flamenco." 27 October, 2007. Associated Press. were promoted as national traditions while those traditions not considered "Spanish" were suppressed. Franco's view of Spanish tradition was somewhat artificial and arbitrary: while some regional traditions were suppressed, Flamenco, an Andalusian tradition, was considered part of a larger, national identity. All cultural activities were subject to censorship, and many were plainly forbidden (often in an erratic manner). This cultural policy relaxed with time, most notably in the late 1960s and early 1970s. * Personal Standard Franco as Head of State.* Coat of arms of Franco as Head of State.* The Victor, other emblem used by Franco. Franco also used language politics in an attempt to establish national homogeneity. He promoted the use of Spanish and suppressed other languages such as Catalan, Galician, and Basque. The legal usage of languages other than Spanish was forbidden. All government, notarial, legal and commercial documents were to be drawn up exclusively in Spanish and any written in other languages were deemed null and void. The usage of any other language was forbidden in schools, in advertising, and on road and shop signs. Publications in other languages were generally forbidden. Citizens continued to speak these languages in private. This was the situation throughout the forties and, to a lesser extent, during the fifties, but after 1960 the non-Castilian Spanish languages were freely spoken and written and reached bookshops and stages, although they never received official status. On the other hand, Catholicism in its most conservative variant was made official religion of the Spanish State. Civil servants had to be Catholic, and some official jobs even required a "good behavior" statement by a priest. Civil marriages which had taken place under Republican Spain were declared null and void and had to be reconfirmed by the Catholic Church of Spain. Civil marriages were only possible after the couple made a public renunciation to the Catholic Church. Divorce was forbidden, and also contraceptives and abortion. Franquism professed a devotion to the traditional role of women in society, that is: loving child to her parents and brothers, faithful to her husband, residing with her family. Official propaganda confined her role to family care and motherhood. Immediately after the war the situation of women suddenly became adverse, because most progressive laws passed by the Republic were made void, correspondingly. Women could not become judges, or testify in trial. They could not become university professors. Their affairs and economy had to be managed by their father or by their husbands. Until the 1970s a woman could not have a bank account without a co-sign by her father or husband. In the 1960s and 1970s the situation was somewhat relieved, but it was not until Franco's death that a true equality with men became law. The enforcement by public authorities of Roman Catholic social mores was a stated intent of the regime, mainly by using a law (the Ley de Vagos y Maleantes, Vagrancy Act) enacted by Azaña http://search.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/tifs.php?coleccion=gazeta&anyo=1933&nbo=217&lim=A&pub=BOE&pco=874&pfi=877 . The remaining nomads of Spain (Gitanos and Mercheros like El Lute) were especially affected. In 1954, homosexuality, pedophilia, and prostitution were, through this law, made criminal offenses http://search.boe.es/datos/imagenes/BOE/1954/198/A04862.tif , although its application was seldom consistent. Most country towns, and rural areas, were patrolled by pairs of Guardia Civil, a military police for civilians, which functioned as his chief means of social control. Larger cities, and capitals, were mostly under the Policia Armada, or "grises" as they were called. Franco, like others at the time, evidenced a concern about a possible Masonic conspiracy against his regime. Some non-Spanish authors have described it as being an "obsession". Student revolts, at universities in the late '60s and early '70s, were violently repressed by the heavily-armed Policía Armada (Armed Police). Franco continued to personally sign all death warrants until just months before he died, despite international campaigns requesting him to desist. Spanish colonial empire and decolonization Spain attempted to retain control of its colonial empire throughout Franco's rule. During the Algerian War (1954-62), Madrid became the base of the Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS) right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria. Despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. Henceforth, when French Morocco became independent in 1956, he surrendered Spanish Morocco to Mohammed V, retaining only a few enclaves (the Plazas de soberanía). The year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War (known as the "Forgotten War" in Spain). Only in 1975, with the Green March, did Morocco take control of all of the former Spanish territories in the Sahara. In 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spain's colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence, and the next year, ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco. Under Franco, Spain also pursued a campaign to gain sovereignty of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar, and closed its border with Gibraltar in 1969. The border would not be fully reopened until 1985. Economic policySee also: Economic history of Spain: Economy under Franco1963 Spanish peseta coin with the image of Franco saying: Francisco Franco, Leader of Spain, by the grace of God The Civil War had ravaged the Spanish economy. Infrastructure had been damaged, workers killed, and daily business severely hampered. For more than a decade after Franco's victory, the economy improved little. Franco initially pursued a policy of autarky, cutting off almost all international trade. The policy had devastating effects, and the economy stagnated. Only black marketeers could enjoy an evident affluence. On one occasion, a Czech engineer and con-man managed to convince the general that with the waters of the River Jarama, certain herbs and secret powders, Spain could get all the petroleum it needed. On another, he was convinced of a plan to solve the country’s terrible hunger of the 1940s by feeding the population of 30 million with dolphin sandwiches. (La Memoria Insumisa, Nicolás Sartorius y Javier Alfaya, 1999). Indeed in the background of these economic policies some 200,000 people died of hunger in the early years of Francoism, a period known as Los Años de Hambre. On the brink of bankruptcy, a combination of pressure from the USA, the IMF and technocrats from Opus Dei managed to “convince” the regime to adopt a free market economy in 1959 in what amounted to a mini coup d’etat which removed the old guard in charge of the economy, despite the opposition of Franco. This economic liberalisation was not, however, accompanied by political reforms and repression continued unabated, though these very reforms would lead to socio-economic changes in Spanish society which would make the regime’s continuation 16 years later untenable. Economic growth picked up after 1959 after Franco took authority away from these ideologues and gave more power to the apolitical technocrats. The country implemented several development policies and growth took off creating the "Spanish Miracle". Concurrent with the absence of social reforms, and the economic power shift, a tide of mass emigration commenced: to European countries, and to lesser extent, to South America. Emigration helped the Régime in two ways: the country got rid of surplus population, and the emigrants supplied the country with much needed monetary remittances. During the 1960s, the wealthy classes of Francoist Spain's population experienced further increases in wealth, particularly those who remained politically faithful. International firms established their factories in Spain: salaries were low, taxes nearly non existent, strikes were forbidden, labour health or real state regulations were unheard of, and Spain was virtually a virgin market. Spain became the second-fastest growing economy in the world (the fastest being Japan). At the time of Franco's death, Spain still lagged behind most of Western Europe, but the gap between its GDP per capita and that of Western Europe had narrowed. After periods of rapid growth during the late 1980s and late 1990s, Spain now only lags slightly behind the economies of Britain, Ireland, France and Germany, and has now overtaken Italy in some respects. Regions Franco was reluctant to enact any form of administrative and legislative decentralisation and kept a fully centralised form of government with a similar administrative structure to that established by the House of Bourbon and General Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja. Such structures were both based in the model of the French centralised State. The main drawback of this kind of management is that government attention and initiatives were irregular, and often depended on the goodwill of regional Government representatives than on regional needs. Thus, inqualities in schooling, health care or transport facilities among regions were patent: classically affluent regions like Madrid, Catalonia, or the Basque Country fared much better than Extremadura, Galicia or Andalusia. Some regions, like Extremadura or La Mancha didn't have a university. Franco's legacy is still particularly poorly perceived in Catalonia and the Basque Country. The Basque Country and Catalonia were among the regions that offered the strongest resistance to Franco in the Civil War, but one of the strongest to his support during this regime. Franco dissolved the autonomy granted by the Spanish Republic to these two regions and to Galicia. Franco abolished the centuries-old fiscal privileges and autonomy (the fueros) in two of the three Basque provinces: Guipuzcoa and Biscay, but kept them for Alava. Among Franco's greatest area of support during the civil war was Navarre, also a Basque speaking region in its north half. Navarre remained a separated region from the Basque Country and Franco decided to preserve its also centuries' old fiscal privileges and autonomy, the so-called Fueros of Navarre. Franco abolished the official statute and recognition for the Basque, Galician, and Catalan languages that the Spanish Republic had granted for the first time in the history of Spain. He returned to Spanish as the only official language of the State and education. The Franco era corresponded with the popularisation of the compulsory national educational system and the development of modern mass media, both controlled by the State and in Spanish language, and heavily reduced the number of speakers of Basque, Catalan and Galician, as happened during the second half of the twentieth century with other European minority languages which were not officially protected like Scottish Gaelic or French Breton. By the 1970s the majority of the population in the urban areas could not speak in the minority language or, as in some Catalan towns, their use had been abandoned. The most endangered case was the Basque language. By the 1970s Basque had reached the point where any further reduction in the number of Basque speakers would have not guaranteed the necessary generational renewal and it is now recognised that the language would have disappeared in only a few more decades. This was the main reason that drove the franquist provincial government of Alava to create a network of Basque medium schools (Ikastola) in 1973 which were State financed. Franco's death and funerals Franco is entombed in the monument of Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos. In 1969, he designated Prince Juan Carlos de Borbón, with the new title of King of Spain, as his successor. This designation came as a surprise for the Carlist pretender to the throne, as well as for Juan Carlos's father, Don Juan, the Count of Barcelona, who technically had a superior right to the throne. By 1973, Franco had surrendered the function of prime minister (Presidente del Gobierno), remaining only as head of state and commander in chief of the military. As his final years progressed, tension within the various factions of the Movimiento would consume Spanish political life, as varying groups jockeyed for position to control the country's future. In 1974 Franco fell ill, and Juan Carlos took over as Head of State. Franco soon recovered, but one year later fell ill once again and after a long illness (Parkinson's Disease), Franco died on 20 November 1975, at the age of 82, the same day of the year as the death of José Antonio Primo de Rivera, founder of the Falange. Some suspect that the doctors were ordered to keep him barely alive by artificial means until this symbolic date of the far-right, afterwards life supporting mechanism was disconnected just after midnight. After Franco's death, the interim government decided to bury him at Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos, a colossal memorial officially dedicated to all casualties during Spanish Civil War. The monument, conceived personally by Franco, however has a distinctly nationalist tone. Franco's legacy In Spain and abroad, the legacy of Franco remains controversial. The length of his rule, the extermination of any opposition movement, and the effective propaganda sustained through the years has made a detached evaluation impossible. For 40 years, Spaniards, and particularly children at school were told that the Divine Providence had sent him to save Spain from chaos and poverty. With time, the regime had evolved somewhat, and the ferocious repression of the early 40's was decreased to some degree in later years. The relative economic success of this period created a considerable group of grateful citizens, who found the increase in everyday standard of living more significant than any human rights abuses. Symbols of the Franco regime (such as the national flag with the Imperial Eagle) are now banned by the Socialist government, while the national anthem of Spain, the Marcha Real, is no longer accompanied by the lyrics introduced by Franco. In Germany, a squadron named after Werner Mölders has been renamed because as a pilot he led the escorting units of the bombing of Guernica. In 2006, the BBC reported that Maciej Giertych, a MEP of the far-right League of Polish Families, had expressed admiration for Franco, stating that he "guaranteed the maintenance of traditional values in Europe". Europe diary: Franco and Finland, BBC News, 6 July 2006 Many Spaniards, particularly those who suffered under the Franco's rule, have sought to remove official recognition of his regime. Several statues of Franco and other public Francoist symbols have been removed, with the last statue in Madrid having been removed in 2005. Madrid removes last Franco statue, BBC News, 17 March 2005 . In 2002, José Maria Aznar's conservative government had voted against proposals to remove street names, statues and other symbols of the Franco era. In March 2006, the Permanent Commission of the European Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution "firmly" condemning the "multiple and serious violations" of human rights committed in Spain under the Francoist regime from 1939 to 1975 Primera condena al régimen de Franco en un recinto internacional, EFE, El Mundo, 17 March 2006 Von Martyna Czarnowska, Almunia, Joaquin: EU-Kommission (4): Ein halbes Jahr Vorsprung, Weiner Zeitung, 17 February 2005 (article in German language). Accessed 26 August 2006. . The resolution was at the initiative of the MEP Leo Brincat and of the historian Luis María de Puig, and is the first international official condemnation of the repression enacted by Franco's regime . The resolution also urged to provide public access to historians (professional and amateurs) to the various archives of the Francoist regime, including those of the private Fundación Francisco Franco which, as well as other Francoist archives, remain as of 2006 inaccessible to the public . The Fundación Francisco Franco received various archives from the El Pardo Palace, and is alleged to have sold some of them to private individuals. Furthermore, it urged the Spanish authorities to set up an underground exhibition in the Valle de los Caidos monument, in order to explain the "terrible" conditions in which it was built. Finally, it proposes the construction of monuments to commemorate Franco's victims in Madrid and other important cities. In Spain, a Commission to repair the dignity and restore the memory of the victims of Francoism (Comisión para reparar la dignidad y restituir la memoria de las víctimas del franquismo) was approved in the summer of 2004, and is directed by the socialist vice-president María Teresa Fernández de la Vega. Recently the Association for the Recovery of Historical Memory (ARHM) initiated a systematic search for mass graves of people executed during Franco's regime, which has been supported since the PSOE's victory during the 2004 elections by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero's government. A Ley de la memoria histórica de España (Law on the Historical Memory of Spain) was approved on 28 July 2006 by the Council of Ministers, Spain OKs Reparations to Civil War Victims, Associated Press, 28 July 2006 but it took until 31 October 2007 for the Congress of Deputies to approve an amended version as "The Bill to recognise and extend rights and to establish measures in favour of those who suffered persecution or violence during the Civil War and the Dictatorship" (in common parlance still known as Law of Historical Memory). Politics As Usual? The Trials and Tribulations of The Law of Historical Memory in Spain, Georgina Blakeley (The Open University), 7 September 2008 The Senate approved the bill on 10 December 2007. Proyecto de Ley por la que se reconocen y amplían derechos y se establecen medidas en favor de quienes padecieron persecución o violencia durante la Guerra Civil y la Dictadura Among other things, the law is supposed to enforce an official recognition of the crimes committed against civilians during the Francoist rule and organize under state supervision the search for mass graves. The accumulated wealth of Franco's family (including much real estate inherited from Franco, including the Pazo de Meirás, the Canto del Pico in Torrelodones or the Cornide Palace in the Coruña ) has also been discussed. Estimates of the family's wealth have ranged from 350 million to 600 million euros . When Franco was sick, the Cortes voted a pension for his wife, Carmen Polo. At her death in 1988, Carmen Polo received more than 12.5 million pesetas (four million more than Felipe González, then head of the government) Luis Gomez and Mabel Galaz, La cosecha del dictador, El Pais, 9 September 2007 . Due to Franco's human rights record, in 2007, the Spanish government banned all public references to the Franco regime and removed any statues, street names, memorials and symbols associated with the regime. The Socialist government is also considering cutting off state aid to churches which retain plaques commemorating Franco and the victims of his republican opponents. Rallies banned at Franco's mausoleum | World news | guardian.co.uk Ancestors Ancestors of Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde Franco in popular media Serious and documentary portrayals Raza or Espíritu de una Raza (Spirit of a Race) (1941), based on a script by "Jaime de Andrade" (Franco himself), is the semi-autobiographical story of a military officer played by Alfredo Mayo.Franco, ese hombre (That man, Franco) (1964) is a pro-Franco documentary film directed by José Luis Sáenz de Heredia The film version of Evita (1996) includes archive footage of Franco. José Soriano played Franco in Espérame en el cielo (Wait for Me in Heaven) (1988). Ramon Fontserè played him in ¡Buen Viaje, Excelencia! (Bon Voyage, Your Excellency!) (2003). See also History of Spain Spain under Franco Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead Ramón Serrano Súñer Luis Carrero Blanco Emilio Mola Spanish Legion Language politics in Francoist Spain Movimiento Nacional Frente Revolucionario Antifascista y Patriótico Literature Paul Preston: Franco: A Biography, Harper Collins, London, 1993, ISBN 0-00-215863-9. Updated with later editions. Jane Boyar: Hitler Stopped By Franco, Marbella House, 2001. References Wikisource has original text related to this article: Condecoraciones otorgadas por Francisco Franco a Benito Mussolini y a Adolf Hitler External links Ducal House of Franco Death of dictator, Landmark Law Condemns Dictatorship: Spain Confronts Past under Franco National Foundation Francisco Franco. Biographical page in Spanish about "Francisco Franco" . He wrote the script for Raza under the name "Jaime de Andrade". Franco Biography From Spartacus Educational. 1939–1952: Armed resistance to Franco - a history of the marxist guerrilla resistance movement to his regime Francisco Franco's Gravesite Franco Statue The last remaining Franco statue in Spain, located in Melilla. Video Documentary 52': When Franco died we were 30 Audio Interview: Sid Low on the Juventud de Accion Popular and the Outbreak of Civil War in Spain be-x-old:Франсіска Франка ''' | Francisco_Franco |@lemmatized francisco:16 paulino:2 hermenegildo:2 teódulo:2 franco:211 bahamonde:5 salgado:2 pardo:4 de:67 andrade:4 december:3 ferrol:6 november:6 madrid:27 commonly:1 know:8 authoritarian:4 dictator:3 head:17 state:30 spain:77 october:9 facto:2 regent:2 nominally:2 restored:1 kingdom:2 death:15 ideological:4 focus:1 spanish:77 nationalism:3 right:23 wing:7 traditional:4 value:2 initially:6 lead:13 notable:3 military:24 career:1 reach:5 rank:4 general:20 fight:8 morocco:8 suppress:7 strike:2 defend:4 stability:1 republican:12 government:33 february:13 left:9 popular:13 front:11 win:5 election:8 form:6 period:5 severe:1 instability:1 disarray:1 follow:4 escalate:1 violence:4 distrust:2 leave:8 supporter:3 anti:6 clerical:1 church:5 leftist:2 militant:2 raise:1 tension:3 extreme:1 section:1 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871 | Hydrogen_peroxide | Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a very pale blue liquid, slightly more viscous than water, which appears colorless in dilute solution. It is a weak acid, has strong oxidizing properties, and is a powerful bleaching agent. It is used as a disinfectant, antiseptic, oxidizer, and in rocketry as a propellant. The oxidizing capacity of hydrogen peroxide is so strong that it is considered a highly reactive oxygen species. In organisms, hydrogen peroxide is naturally produced as a byproduct of oxygen metabolism; virtually all possess enzymes known as peroxidases, which harmlessly and catalytically decompose low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Structure and properties Structure of hydrogen peroxide As with all molecules, the physical properties of hydrogen peroxide are the result of its molecular mass, structure and distribution of atoms within the molecule. Molecular structure The preferred molecular structure of any molecule is the configuration which has the lowest internal stress. For hydrogen peroxide, there are two basic structural forms (conformers) available for the molecule. While flat shape of the anti conformer would minimize steric repulsions, the 90° torsion angle of the syn conformer would optimize mixing between the filled p-type orbital of the oxygen (one of the lone pairs) and the LUMO of the vicinal O-H bond. The resulting anticlinal "skewed" shape is a compromise between the two conformers. Despite the fact that the O-O bond is a single bond, the molecule has a remarkably high barrier to complete rotation of 29.45 kJ/mol (compared with 12.5 kJ/mol for the rotational barrier of ethane). The increased barrier is attributed to repulsion between one lone pair and other lone pairs. The bond angles are affected by hydrogen bonding, which is relevant to the structural difference between gaseous and crystalline forms; indeed a wide range of values is seen in crystals containing molecular H2O2. Comparison with analogues Analogues of hydrogen peroxide include the chemically identical deuterium peroxide and malodorous hydrogen disulfide. Landolt-Börnstein Substance - Property Index Hydrogen disulfide has a boiling point of only 70.7°C despite having a higher molecular weight, indicating that hydrogen bonding increases the boiling point of hydrogen peroxide. Google books CRC handbook of Chemistry and Physics, David R Lilde Physical properties of hydrogen peroxide solutions Aqueous hydrogen peroxide solutions have specific properties that are different from those of the pure chemical due to hydrogen bonding between water and hydrogen peroxide molecules. Specifically, hydrogen peroxide and water form a eutectic mixture, exhibiting freezing-point depression. While pure water melts and freezes at approximately 273K, and pure hydrogen peroxide just 0.4K below that, a 50% (by volume) solution melts and freezes at 221 K. 60% hydrogen peroxide msds 50% H2O2 MSDS Manufacture Formerly inorganic processes were used, employing the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid or acidic ammonium bisulfate (NH4HSO4), followed by hydrolysis of the peroxodisulfate ((SO4)2)2− which is formed. However, today hydrogen peroxide is manufactured almost exclusively by the autoxidation of a 2-alkyl anthrahydroquinone (or 2-alkyl-9,10-dihydroxyanthracene) to the corresponding 2-alkyl anthraquinone. Major producers commonly use either the 2-ethyl or the 2-amyl derivative. The cyclic reaction depicted below, shows the 2-ethyl derivative, where 2-ethyl-9,10-dihydroxyanthracene (C16H14O2), is oxidized to the corresponding 2-ethylanthraquinone (C16H12O2) and hydrogen peroxide. Most commercial processes achieve this by bubbling compressed air through a solution of the anthracene, whereby the oxygen present in the air reacts with the labile hydrogen atoms (of the hydroxy group) giving hydrogen peroxide and regenerating the anthraquinone. Hydrogen peroxide is then extracted out and the anthraquinone derivative reduced back to the dihydroxy (anthracene) compound using hydrogen gas in the presence of a metal catalyst. The cycle then repeats itself. H. Riedl and G. Pfleiderer, U.S. Patent 2,158,525 (October 2, 1936 in USA, and October 10, 1935 in Germany) to I. G. Farbenindustrie, Germany Hydrogen peroxide production with the Riedl-Pfleiderer process process This process is known as the Riedl-Pfleiderer process, having been first discovered by them in 1936. The overall equation for the process is deceptively simple: H2 + O2 → H2O2 It is important to point out that the economics of the process depend heavily on effective recycling of the quinone (which is very expensive) and extraction solvents, and of the hydrogenation catalyst. In 1994, world production of H2O2 was around 1.9 million tonnes and grew to 2.2 million in 2006, most of which was at a concentration of 70% or less. In that year bulk 30% H2O2 sold for around US $0.54 per kg, equivalent to US $1.50 per kg (US $0.68 per lb) on a "100% basis". New Developments A new, so called "high productivity/high yield" process, based on an optimized distribution of isomers of 2-amyl anthraquinone has been developed by Solvay. In July 2008, this process allowed the construction of a "mega" scale single-train plant in Zandvliet (Belgium). The plant has an annual production capacity more than two times that of the world's next largest single train plant. An even larger plant is scheduled to come onstream at Map Ta Phut (Thailand) in 2011. It can be imagined that this leads to reduction in the cost of production due to economies of scale. Hydrogen Peroxide 07/08-03 Report, ChemSystems, May 2009. A process to produce hydrogen peroxide directly from the elements has been of interest to producers for many years. The problem with the direct synthesis process is that thermodynamically, the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen favors production of water. It had been recognized for some time that a finely dispersed catalyst was beneficial in promoting selectivity to hydrogen peroxide but while selectivity was improved it was still not sufficiently high to permit commercial development of the process. However, an apparent breakthough was made in the mid to late 2000s by researchers at Headwaters Technology (a self-described energy, environmental control and nanotechnology innovation company). The breakthrough revolves around development of a minute (nanometer sized) phase-controlled noble metal crystal particles on carbon support. This apparently led, in a joint venture with Evonik Industries, to the construction of a pilot plant in Germany in late 2005. The pilot plant trials to test the commercial feasibility of the process are presumably ongoing since little has been revealed about the results or progress of the operation. It is claimed that there are reductions in investment cost because the process is simpler and involves less equipment, however, the process is also more corrosive and unproven. It should be noted that this process results in low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (about 5-10 wt% versus about 40 wt% through the anthraquione process), and is therfore only suitable for "over the fence" applications. In 2009, another catalyst development was announced by workers at Cardiff University G.J. Hutchings et al, Science, 2009, 323, 1037]])}} . This development also relates to the direct synthesis, but in this case, specifcally using gold-palladium nanoparticles. Normally the direct synthesis must be carried out in an acid medium to prevent immediate decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide once it is formed. While hydrogen peroxide has a tendency to decompose on its own (which is why, even after production, it is often necessary to add stabilisers to the commercial product when it is to be transported or stored for long periods), the nature of the catalyst can cause this decomposition to accelerate rapidly. It is claimed that the use of this gold-palladium catalyst reduces this decomposition and consequently little to no acid is required. The prcoess is in a very early stage of development and currently results in very low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide being formed (less than about 1-2 wt%). Nonetheless, it is envisaged by the inventors that the process will lead to an inexpensive, efficient, and environmentally friendly process. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090219141507.htm G.J. Hutchings et al, Science, 2009, 323, 1037]])}} A novel electrochemical process for the production of alkaline hydrogen peroxide has been developed by Dow. The process employs a monopolar cell to achieve an electrolytic reduction of oxygen in a dilute sodium hydroxide solution. Reactions Decomposition Hydrogen peroxide always decomposes (disproportionates) exothermically into water and oxygen gas spontaneously: 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2 This process is very favorable thermodynamically. It has a ΔHo of −98.2 kJ·mol−1 and a ΔGo of −119.2 kJ·mol−1 and a ΔS of 70.5 J·mol−1·K−1. The rate of decomposition is dependent on the temperature and concentration of the peroxide, as well as the pH and the presence of impurities and stabilizers. Hydrogen peroxide is incompatible with many substances that catalyse its decomposition, including most of the transition metals and their compounds. Common catalysts include manganese dioxide, and silver. The same reaction is catalysed by the enzyme catalase, found in the liver, whose main function in the body is the removal of toxic byproducts of metabolism and the reduction of oxidative stress. The decomposition occurs more rapidly in alkali, so acid is often added as a stabilizer. The liberation of oxygen and energy in the decomposition has dangerous side effects. Spilling high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide on a flammable substance can cause an immediate fire, which is further fueled by the oxygen released by the decomposing hydrogen peroxide. High-strength peroxide (also called high-test peroxide, or HTP) must be stored in a suitable, vented container to prevent the buildup of oxygen gas, which would otherwise lead to the eventual rupture of the container. In the presence of certain catalysts, such as Fe2+ or Ti3+, the decomposition may take a different path, with free radicals such as HO· (hydroxyl) and HOO· being formed. A combination of H2O2 and Fe2+ is known as Fenton's reagent. A common concentration for hydrogen peroxide is "20 volume", which means that when 1 volume of hydrogen peroxide is decomposed, it produces 20 volumes of oxygen. A 20 "volume" concentration of hydrogen peroxide is equivalent to 1.667 mol/dm3 (Molar solution) or about 6%. Hydrogen peroxide available at drug stores is three percent solution. In such small concentrations, it is less stable, and decomposes faster. It is usually stabilized with acetanilide, a substance which has toxic side effects in significant amounts. Redox reactions H2O2 is one of the most powerful oxidizers known—stronger than chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and potassium permanganate. Also, through catalysis, H2O2 can be converted into hydroxyl radicals (.OH) with reactivity second only to fluorine. Oxidant Oxidation potential, V Fluorine 3.0 Hydroxyl radical 2.8 Ozone 2.1 Hydrogen peroxide 1.8 Potassium permanganate 1.7 Chlorine dioxide 1.5 Chlorine 1.4 In aqueous solution, hydrogen peroxide can oxidize or reduce a variety of inorganic ions. When it acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced. In acidic solutions Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+, 2 Fe2+(aq) + H2O2 + 2 H+(aq) → 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2H2O(l) and sulfite (SO32−) is oxidized to sulfate (SO42−). However, potassium permanganate is reduced to Mn2+ by acidic H2O2. Under alkaline conditions, however, some of these reactions reverse; for example, Mn2+ is oxidized to Mn4+ (as MnO2). Another example of hydrogen peroxide acting as a reducing agent is the reaction with sodium hypochlorite, which is a convenient method for preparing oxygen in the laboratory. NaOCl + H2O2 → O2 + NaCl + H2O Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an oxidizing agent in organic chemistry. One application is for the oxidation of thioethers to sulfoxides. For example, methyl phenyl sulfide was oxidised to methyl phenyl sulfoxide in 99% yield in methanol in 18 hours (or 20 minutes using a TiCl3 catalyst): Ph-S-CH3 + H2O2 → Ph-S(O)-CH3 + H2O Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for epoxidation of electron-deficient alkenes such as acrylic acids, and also for oxidation of alkylboranes to alcohols, the second step of hydroboration-oxidation. Formation of peroxide compounds Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, and it can form hydroperoxide or peroxide salts or derivatives of many metals. For example, on addition to an aqueous solution of chromic acid (CrO3) or acidic solutions of dichromate salts, it will form an unstable blue peroxide CrO(O2)2. In aqueous solution it rapidly decomposes to form oxygen gas and chromium salts. It can also produce peroxoanions by reaction with anions; for example, reaction with borax leads to sodium perborate, a bleach used in laundry detergents: Na2B4O7 + 4 H2O2 + 2 NaOH → 2 Na2B2O4(OH)4 + H2O H2O2 converts carboxylic acids (RCOOH) into peroxy acids (RCOOOH), which are themselves used as oxidizing agents. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with acetone to form acetone peroxide, and it interacts with ozone to form hydrogen trioxide, also known as trioxidane. Reaction with urea produces carbamide peroxide, used for whitening teeth. An acid-base adduct with triphenylphosphine oxide is a useful "carrier" for H2O2 in some reactions. Alkalinity Hydrogen peroxide is a much weaker base than water, but it can still form adducts with very strong acids. The superacid HF/SbF5 forms unstable compounds containing the [H3O2]+ ion. Uses Industrial applications About 50% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide in 1994 was used for pulp- and paper-bleaching. Other bleaching applications are becoming more important as hydrogen peroxide is seen as an environmentally benign alternative to chlorine-based bleaches. It is highly corrosive to metal. Other major industrial applications for hydrogen peroxide include the manufacture of sodium percarbonate and sodium perborate, used as mild bleaches in laundry detergents. It is used in the production of certain organic peroxides such as dibenzoyl peroxide, used in polymerisations and other chemical processes. Hydrogen peroxide is also used in the production of epoxides such as propylene oxide. Reaction with carboxylic acids produces a corresponding peroxy acid. Peracetic acid and meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (commonly abbreviated mCPBA) are prepared from acetic acid and meta-chlorobenzoic acid, respectively. The latter is commonly reacted with alkenes to give the corresponding epoxide. In the PCB manufacturing process, hydrogen peroxide mixed with sulfuric acid was used as the microetch chemical for copper surface roughening preparation. A combination of a powdered precious metal-based catalyst, hydrogen peroxide, methanol and water can produce superheated steam in one to two seconds, releasing only CO2 and high temperature steam for a variety of purposes. Instant steam puts heat on MRSA, Society Of Chemical Industry . Recently, there has been increased use of vaporized hydrogen peroxide in the validation and bio-decontamination of half suit and glove port isolators in pharmaceutical production. Nuclear Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) use hydrogen peroxide during the plant shutdown to force the oxidation and dissolution of activated corrosion products deposited on the fuel. The corrosion products are then removed with the cleanup systems before the reactor is disassembled. Hydrogen Peroxide is also used in the Oil and Gas exploration industry to oxidise rock matrix in preparation for micro-fossil analysis. Chemical applications A method of producing propylene oxide from hydrogen peroxide has been developed. The process is claimed to be environmentally friendly since the only significant byproduct is water. It is also claimed the process has significantly lower investment and operating costs. Two of these "HPPO" (hydrogen peroxide to propylene oxide) plants came onstream in 2008: One of them located in Belgium is a Solvay, Dow-BASF joint venture, and the other in Korea, is a EvonikHeadwaters, SK Chemicals joint venture. A caprolactam application for hydrogen peroxide has been commercialized. Potential routes to phenol and epichlorohydrin utilizing hydrogen peroxide have been postulated. Domestic uses Diluted H2O2 (between 3% and 12%) is used to bleach human hair when mixed with ammonia, hence the phrase "peroxide blonde". It is absorbed by skin upon contact and creates a local skin capillary embolism which appears as a temporary whitening of the skin. It is used to whiten bones that are to be put on display. The strength of a solution may be described as a percentage or volume, where 1% hydrogen peroxide releases 3.3 volumes of oxygen during decomposition. Thus, a 3% solution is equivalent to 10 volume and a 6% solution to 20 volume, etc. 3% H2O2 is used medically for cleaning wounds, removing dead tissue, and as an oral debriding agent. Peroxide stops slow (small vessel) wound bleeding/oozing, as well. Most over-the-counter peroxide solutions are not suitable for ingestion. 3% H2O2 is effective at treating fresh (red) blood-stains in clothing and on other items. It must be applied to clothing before blood stains can be accidentally "set" with heated water. Cold water and soap are then used to remove the peroxide treated blood. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has classified hydrogen peroxide as a Low Regulatory Priority (LRP) drug for use in controlling fungus on fish and fish eggs. (See ectoparasite.) Some horticulturalists and users of hydroponics advocate the use of weak hydrogen peroxide solution ("Spanish water") in watering solutions. Its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plant's root development and helps to treat root rot (cellular root death due to lack of oxygen) and a variety of other pests. Ways to use hydrogen peroxide in the garden There is some peer-reviewed academic research to back up some of the claims. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/ Oxygation Unlocks Yield Potentials of Crops in Oxygen-Limited Soil Environments Advances in Agronomy, Volume 88, 2005, Pages 313-377 Surya P. Bhattarai, Ninghu Su, David J. Midmore] Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists in recent years have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide can be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish. Great-lakes.org fws.gov Hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as manganese dioxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizer effective in controlling sulfide and organic related odors in wastewater collection and treatment systems. It is typically applied to a wastewater system where there is a retention time of 30 minutes to 5 hours before hydrogen sulfide is released. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes the hydrogen sulfide and promotes bio-oxidation of organic odors. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to oxygen and water, adding dissolved oxygen to the system thereby negating some Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Mixed with baking soda and a small amount of hand soap, hydrogen peroxide is effective at removing skunk odor. Chemist Paul Krebaum claims to have originated the formula for use on skunked pets at Skunk Remedy If a dog has swallowed a harmful substance (e.g. rat poison, chocolate), small amounts of hydrogen peroxide can be given to induce vomiting. How to Induce Vomiting (Emesis) in Dogs Hydrogen peroxide is used with phenyl oxalate ester and an appropriate dye in glow sticks as an oxidizing agent. It reacts with the ester to form an unstable CO2 dimer which excites the dye to an excited state; the dye emits a photon (light) when it spontaneously relaxes back to the ground state. Use as propellant H2O2 can be used either as a monopropellant (not mixed with fuel) or as the oxidizer component of a bipropellant rocket. Use as a monopropellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70–98+% concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen. The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber where a catalyst, usually a silver or platinum screen, triggers decomposition, producing steam at over 600 °C which is expelled through a nozzle, generating thrust. H2O2 monopropellant produces a maximum specific impulse (Isp) of 161 s (1.6 kN·s/kg), which makes it a low-performance monopropellant. Peroxide generates much less thrust than hydrazine, but is not toxic. The Bell Rocket Belt used hydrogen peroxide monopropellant. As a bipropellant H2O2 is decomposed to burn a fuel as an oxidizer. Specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5 kN·s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel. Peroxide used as an oxidizer gives a somewhat lower Isp than liquid oxygen, but is dense, storable, noncryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures using an efficient closed cycle. It can also be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines. Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer in World-War-II German rockets (e.g. T-Stoff for the Me-163), and for the low-cost British Black Knight and Black Arrow launchers. In the 1940s and 1950s the Walter turbine used hydrogen peroxide for use in submarines while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and require too much maintenance compared to diesel-electric power systems. Some torpedoes used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant, but this was dangerous and has been discontinued by most navies. Hydrogen peroxide leaks were blamed for the sinkings of HMS Sidon and the Russian submarine Kursk. It was discovered, for example, by the Japanese Navy in torpedo trials, that the concentration of H2O2 in right-angle bends in HTP pipework can often lead to explosions in submarines and torpedoes. SAAB Underwater Systems is manufacturing the Torpedo 2000. This torpedo, used by the Swedish navy, is powered by a piston engine propelled by HTP as an oxidizer and kerosene as a fuel in a bipropellant system . While rarely used now as a monopropellant for large engines, small hydrogen peroxide attitude control thrusters are still in use on some satellites. They are easy to throttle, and safer to fuel and handle before launch than hydrazine thrusters. However, hydrazine is more often used in spacecraft because of its higher specific impulse and lower rate of decomposition. Recently H2O2/propylene has been proposed as an approach to inexpensive Single Stage To Orbit: a fuel tank containing propylene has a bladder floating in it containing H2O2. This combination offers 15% superior Isp to O2/RP4 (a kerosene used as rocket propellant), does not need turbines or cryogenic storage or hardware, and greatly reduces the cost of the booster. The potential of this and other alternative systems is discussed in some detail at Dunn Engineering. Therapeutic use Hydrogen peroxide is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) as an antimicrobial agent, an oxidizing agent and for other purposes by the FDA. Hydrogen peroxide has been used as an antiseptic and anti-bacterial agent for many years due to its oxidizing effect. While its use has decreased in recent years with the popularity of readily-available over the counter products, it is still used by many hospitals, doctors and dentists. Like many oxidative antiseptics, hydrogen peroxide causes mild damage to tissue in open wounds, but it also is effective at rapidly stopping capillary bleeding (slow blood oozing from small vessels in abrasions), and is sometimes used sparingly for this purpose, as well as cleaning. Hydrogen peroxide can be used as a toothpaste when mixed with correct quantities of baking soda and salt. Hydrogen peroxide and benzoyl peroxide are sometimes used to treat acne. Hydrogen peroxide is used as an emetic in veterinary practice. Alternative uses The American Cancer Society states that "there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective or useful cancer treatment", and advises cancer patients to "remain in the care of qualified doctors who use proven methods of treatment and approved clinical trials of promising new treatments." Another controversial alternative medical procedure is inhalation of hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of about 1%. Internal use of high concentration hydrogen peroxide has a history of causing fatal blood disorders, and its recent use as a therapeutic treatment has been linked to several deaths. See also Liquid Oxygen (supplement) Safety Regulations vary, but low concentrations, such as 3%, are widely available and legal to buy for medical use. Higher concentrations may be considered hazardous and are typically accompanied by a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). In high concentrations, hydrogen peroxide is an aggressive oxidizer and will corrode many materials, including human skin. In the presence of a reducing agent, high concentrations of H2O2 will react violently. Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances. Hydrogen Peroxide MSDS It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable). Ozonelab Peroxide compatibility Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that filter out light. Hydrogen peroxide, either in pure or diluted form, can pose several risks: Above roughly 70% concentrations, hydrogen peroxide can give off vapor that can detonate above 70 °C (158 °F) at normal atmospheric pressure. This can then cause a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) of the remaining liquid. Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is thus highly dangerous. Hydrogen peroxide vapors can form sensitive contact explosives with hydrocarbons such as greases. Hazardous reactions ranging from ignition to explosion have been reported with alcohols, ketones, carboxylic acids (particularly acetic acid), amines and phosphorus. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, if spilled on clothing (or other flammable materials), will preferentially evaporate water until the concentration reaches sufficient strength, at which point the material may spontaneously ignite. NTSB - Hazardous Materials Incident Brief Armadilloaerospace material tests with HTP Concentrated hydrogen peroxide (>50%) is corrosive, and even domestic-strength solutions can cause irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes and skin. For example, see an MSDS for a 3% peroxide solution. Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (10 times the volume of a 3% solution) leading to internal bleeding. Inhaling over 10% can cause severe pulmonary irritation. Low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide, on the order of 3% or less, will chemically bleach many types of clothing to a pinkish hue. Caution should be exercised when using common products that may contain hydrogen peroxide, such as facial cleaner or contact lens solution, which easily splatter upon other surfaces. Large oral doses of hydrogen peroxide at a 3% concentration may cause "irritation and blistering to the mouth, (which is known as Black Hairy Tongue) throat, and abdomen", as well as "abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea". Hydrogen Peroxide, 3%. 3. Hazards Identification Southeast Fisheries Science Center, daughter agency of NOAA. Hydrogen peroxide has a significant vapor pressure (1.2 kPa at 50 oC[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 76th Ed, 1995-1996]) and exposure to the vapor is potentially hazardous. Hydrogen peroxide vapor is a primary irritant, primarily affecting the eyes and respiratory system and the NIOSH Immediately dangerous to life and health limit (IDLH) is only 75 ppm. Documentation for Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH): NIOSH [http://www.cdc.gov/NIOSH/National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health] Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3/1/95). Long term exposure to low ppm concentrations is also hazardous and can result in permanent lung damage and OSHAOccupational Safety and Health Administration has established a permissible exposure limit of 1.0 ppm calculated as an eight hour time weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1) and hydrogen peroxide has also been classified by the ACGIH American Conference of Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as a "known animal carcinogen, with unknown relevance on humans.[2008 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents & Biological Exposure Indices, ACGIH] In applications where high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide are used, suitable personal protective equipment should be worn and it is prudent in situations where the vapor is likely to be generated, such as hydrogen peroxide gas or vapor sterilization, to ensure that there is adequate ventilation and the vapor concentration monitored with a continuous gas monitor for hydrogen peroxide. Continuous gas monitors for hydrogen peroxide are available from several suppliers. Further information on the hazards of hydrogen peroxide is available from OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Hydrogen Peroxide and from the ATSDR. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Vitiligo is an acquired skin disorder with the loss of native skin pigment, which affects about 0.5-1% of the world population. Recent studies have discovered increased H2O2 levels in the epidermis and in blood are one of many hallmarks of this disease. Historical incidents Several people received minor injuries after a hydrogen peroxide spill on board Northwest Airlines flight 957 from Orlando to Memphis on October 28, 1998 and subsequent fire on Northwest Airlines flight 7. Hazardous Materials Incident Brief DCA-99-MZ-001, "Spill of undeclared shipment of hazardous materials in cargo compartment of aircraft". pub: National Transportation Safety Board. October 28, 1998; adopted May 17, 2000. During the Second World War, Doctors in Nazi concentration camps experimented with the use of hydrogen peroxide injections in the killing of human subjects. Hydrogen peroxide was said to be one of the ingredients in the bombs which failed to explode in the 21 July 2005 London bombings. Four Men Found Guilty in Plot to Blow Up London’s Transit System, "FOXNews.com". (July 9, 2007) The Russian submarine K-141 Kursk sailed out to sea to perform an exercise of firing dummy torpedoes at the Pyotr Velikiy, a Kirov class battlecruiser. On August 12, 2000 at 11:28 local time (07:28 UTC), there was an explosion while preparing to fire the torpedoes. The only credible report to date is that this was due to the failure and explosion of one of the Kursk's hydrogen peroxide-fuelled torpedoes. It is believed that HTP, a form of highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide used as propellant for the torpedo, seeped through rust in the torpedo casing. A similar incident was responsible for the loss of HMS Sidon in 1955. History Hydrogen peroxide was first isolated in 1818 by Louis Jacques Thénard by reacting barium peroxide with nitric acid. An improved version of this process used hydrochloric acid, followed by sulfuric acid to precipitate the barium sulfate byproduct. Thénard's process was used from the end of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century. C. W. Jones, J. H. Clark. Applications of Hydrogen Peroxide and Deriatives. Royal Society of Chemistry, 1999. Modern production methods are discussed below. For a long time it was believed that pure hydrogen peroxide was unstable, because attempts to separate the hydrogen peroxide from the water, which is present during synthesis, failed. This was because traces of solids and heavy metal ions led to a catalytic decomposition or explosions of the hydrogen peroxide. 100% pure hydrogen peroxide was first obtained through vacuum distillation by Richard Wolffenstein in 1894. At the end of 19th century, Petre Melikishvili and his pupil L. Pizarjevski showed that of the many proposed formulas of hydrogen peroxide, the correct one was H-O-O-H. References J. Drabowicz et al., in The Syntheses of Sulphones, Sulphoxides and Cyclic Sulphides, p112-116, G. Capozzi et al., eds., John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 1994. ISBN 0-471-93970-6. N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 1997. A great description of properties & chemistry of H2O2. J. March, Advanced Organic Chemistry, 4th ed., p. 723, Wiley, New York, 1992. W. T. Hess, Hydrogen Peroxide, in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th edition, Wiley, New York, Vol. 13, 961-995 (1995). External links Hydrogen Peroxide Distillation for rocket fuel Material Safety Data Sheet ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry FAQ Food Grade Hydrogen Peroxide Information Experimental Rocket Propulsion Society Computational Chemistry Wiki International Chemical Safety Card 0164 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards IARC Monograph "Hydrogen Peroxide" General Kinetics Inc. Hydrogen Peroxide Rocket Engines and Gas Generators Oxygenation Therapy:Unproven Treatments for Cancer and AIDS Explosion of a lorry carrying hydrogen peroxide closes M25 motorway. Hydrogen Peroxide in the Human Body Information on many common uses for hydrogen peroxide, especially household uses. 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872 | Eastern_Orthodox_Church | Pentecost: The spread of Christianity begins. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian communion in the world, estimated to number between 225-300 million total members. http://www.adherents.com/adh_rb.html It is considered by its adherents to be the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ and his Apostles nearly 2000 years ago. The Church is composed of numerous self-governing ecclesial bodies, each geographically and nationally distinct but theologically unified. Each self-governing (or autocephalous) body is shepherded by a Synod of independent bishops whose duty is, among other things, to preserve and teach the Apostolic and patristic traditions and related Church practices. All Eastern Orthodox bishops trace their lineage back to one of the twelve Apostles through the process of Apostolic Succession. Today’s Eastern Orthodox Church traces its development back through Slavic, Greek, and Middle Eastern traditions, among others; back through Byzantine and Roman empires; back to the earliest church established by St. Paul and the Apostles. It clings tenaciously to its ancient traditions and practices believing in growth without change (see below) Orthodox Christians believe that the ultimate goal of every Christian is to become like God, to love perfectly, to become “Jesus Christs” within Jesus Christ. This process is called theosis or deification. "Deification." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 The Biblical text used by the Orthodox includes the Greek Septuagint and the New Testament. It includes the Deuterocanonical Books, which are generally rejected by Protestants, and a few texts that are not in the Western canon. Eastern Orthodox Christians utilize icons as focal points in their daily worship while rejecting 3-dimentional statuary. Nomenclature Members of the Eastern Orthodox Church usually refer to themselves as simply Orthodox. Eastern is a term often applied in the Western World for the sake of clarity. Almost from the very beginning Christians referred to the Church as the "One, Holy, Catholic [from the Greek καθολική, or universal] and Apostolic Church". Today, in addition to the Eastern Orthodox Church, a number of other Christian churches lay claim to this title (The Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and others); however, the Eastern Orthodox Church sees these other churches as break-away groups, with the Assyrians and Orientals breaking away from the church after the first few centuries and the Roman Catholics in the 11th century (see: East-West Schism). The Eastern Orthodox Church is also called the "Orthodox Catholic Church", Google Book Search but this is not in widespread international use due to possible confusion with the Roman Catholic Church. The term “Orthodox” translates from the Greek to mean “Correctly Believing” or "Correctly Glorifying God" (from the adjective orthos = correct, right & the verb dokeo,-o = I see, I believe or the noun doxa = glory) and was adopted by the Church in 1054 in order to distinguish itself from what was becoming a larger and larger body of non-orthodox Christian denominations. Lace, William W. Christianity. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, Inc., 2005 Several other ancient Churches in Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa also use the term Orthodox, but are distinct from the Eastern Orthodox Church as described in this article. Typica What unites the Eastern Orthodox is theology, although there are variations in style depending on country of origin and/or local custom. These local customs are referred to as differences in “Typica” and are accepted by church leaders since they are not perceived to conflict theologically with basic Eastern Orthodox teachings. Thus it is that many Eastern Orthodox Churches adopt a national title (e.g. Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, etc.) and this title serves to distinguish which language, which bishops, and which of the typica is followed by that particular congregation. Members of the Church are free to associate with any Eastern Orthodox congregation regardless of typical differences though most members tend to gravitate to whichever group makes them feel most comfortable. Differences in praxis tend to be slight; they involve such things as the order in which a particular set of hymns are sung or what time a particular service is performed. In general, an Eastern Orthodox Christian could travel the globe and feel familiar with the services performed on Sunday even if he did not know the language. Organization and leadership The Eastern Orthodox Church considers Jesus Christ to be the head of the Church and the Church to be His body. Thus, despite widely held popular belief outside the Eastern Orthodox cultures, there is no one bishop at the head of the Eastern Orthodox Church; references to the Patriarch of Constantinople, as a leader equivalent or comparable to a pope in the Roman Catholic Church are mistaken. It is believed that authority and the grace of God is directly passed down to Eastern Orthodox bishops and clergy through the laying on of hands—a practice started by the apostles, and that this unbroken historical and physical link is an essential element of the true church (Acts 8:17, 1 Tim 4:14, Heb 6:2). Each bishop has a territory (see) over which he governs. His main duty is to make sure the traditions and practices of the Church are preserved. Bishops are equal in authority and cannot interfere in the jurisdiction of another bishop. Administratively, these bishops and their territories are organized into various autocephalous groups or synods of bishops who gather together at least twice a year to discuss the state of affairs within their respective sees. While bishops and their autocephalous synods have the ability to administer guidance in individual cases, their actions do not usually set precedents that affect the entire Church. Bishops are almost always chosen from the monastic ranks and must remain unmarried. There have been a number of times when alternative theological ideas arose to challenge the Orthodox faith. At such times the Church deemed it necessary to convene a general or "Great" council of all available bishops throughout the world. The Church considers the first seven ecumenical councils (held between the 4th and the 8th century) to be the most important; however, there have been more, specifically the Synods of Constantinople, 879–880, 1341, 1347, 1351, 1583, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of Iaşi (Jassy), 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, 1672, all of which helped to define the Eastern Orthodox position. The ecumenical councils followed a democratic form; with each bishop having one vote. Though present and allowed to speak before the council, members of the Imperial Roman/Byzantine court, abbots, priests, monks and laymen were not allowed to vote. The primary goal of these Great Synods was to verify and confirm the fundamental beliefs of the Church as truth, and to remove as heresy any false teachings that would threaten the Church. The Pope of Rome, at that time, held the position within this council of “First Among Equals”, that is to say, he sat as administrative president of the council but still had only one vote. And while he was not present at all of the councils he continued to hold this title until the East-West Schism of 1054 AD. One of the decisions made by the First Council of Constantinople (the second ecumenical council, meeting in 381) and supported by later such councils was that the Patriarch of Constantinople should be given the honor of second in rank, since Constantinople was considered to be the "New Rome". And so, after the split with Rome, the honor of presiding over general councils was transferred to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The Patriarch, like the Pope before him, now enjoys the title of “First among Equal”. This is not, however, meant to imply that he is the leader of the Orthodox Church. Number of adherents Based on the numbers of adherents, Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest Christian communion in the world after the Roman Catholic Church. Major Branches of Religions The most common estimates of the number of Eastern Orthodox Christians worldwide is approximately 225-300 million individuals. Adherents.com about.com Eastern Orthodoxy is the largest single religious faith in Belarus (88%), Bulgaria (83%), Republic of Macedonia (65%), Republic of Cyprus (80%), Georgia (89%), Greece (98%), Moldova (98%), Montenegro (74%), Zavod za statistiku Crne Gore (in Montenegrin) Romania (87%), Serbia (84%), REPUBLICKI ZAVOD ZA STATISTIKU - Republike Srbije , Russia (80%), and Ukraine (80%). CIA - The World Factbook - Field Listing - Religions The number of Eastern Orthodox adherents represents about 36% of the population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Albania the adherents number around 25% out of a 40% Christian population, the other being Catholic. As the dominant religion in northern Kazakhstan, it represents 40% of Kazakhstan, and 4% of Lithuania, 9% of Latvia , and 13% of the Estonian population. Large Eastern Orthodox Christian communities exist in the Mediterranean countries of Syria (80% of Christian pop), Lebanon (35% of Christian pop) and 10% of the whole Lebanese population, Jordan (80% of Christian pop), Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza, with some families able to trace their ancestry to the earliest Christians of the Holy Land. In addition, there are also significant Eastern Orthodox communities in Western Europe (solely the transplanted Macedonian, Romanian, Serbian, Albanian, Greek and Russian communities), Africa, Asia, Australia, North America, and South America through the pattern of immigration from Eastern Europe and the Middle East in the last 400 or some years. The numerous Protestant groups in the world, if taken all together, outnumber the Eastern Orthodox, Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. World Religions and Democracy. 2005, page 119.(also in PDF file, p49), saying "Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world’s population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America." but they differ theologically and do not form a single communion. Major Branches of Religions Beliefs Trinity Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in a God who is both three and one (triune). The Father is the cause or origin of the Godhead, from whom the Son is begotten eternally and also from whom the Holy Ghost proceeds eternally. The Holy Trinity is three, distinct, divine persons (hypostases), without overlap or modality among them, who share one divine essence (ousia)—uncreated, immaterial and eternal. Ware, pp. 208–211 Eastern Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Nicene Creed (Symbol of Faith). Ware p. 202 In discussing God's relationship to His creation, Eastern Orthodoxy used the concept of a distinction between God's eternal essence which is totally transcendent and His uncreated energies which is how He reaches us. It is also necessary to understand that this is an artificial distinction rather than a real one. The God who is transcendent and the God who touches us are one and the same (i.e. His energies are not some sort of thing that comes out of God or that he produces, but rather they are God himself inseparable from his being). Ware pp. 67-69 Sin, salvation and the incarnation Human nature, before the fall of man, was pure and innocent. Eastern Orthodox theologians believe that Adam and Eve began to choose separation from God when they decided to act upon the counsel of the serpent and their own whims, rather than in trust in the wisdom and guidance of their loving Creator. Through this disobedience they introduced a new element into the world (i.e. sin and corruption) which tainted all of Creation. The expulsion from the Garden of Eden was not so much a legal consequence, as an attempt to prevent humanity from eternalising its iniquities and corruptions. One important difference between the Eastern Orthodox tradition and that found within Roman Catholicism is that the Eastern Orthodox, while believing in a particular form and explanation of original sin, do not believe in the Augustinian explanation of the doctrine, which speaks of a moral/spiritual stain upon the soul and even an inheriting of guilt. The Eastern Orthodox doctrine of original sin rather speaks of a severance of communion from God, a loss of sanctifying grace, an inheritance of a spiritual and physical death, the introduction of decay and disease, a subjugation to Satan, and finally a weakening of will and thus an inclination to sin. Succumbing to sin and temptation prevented humanity from participation in the Kingdom of Heaven; thus, all people from the beginning until Christ were prevented from entering into Heaven. When God became incarnate on Earth, He changed human nature by uniting the human and the Divine; for this Christ is often called "The New Adam." By His human life, death, and resurrection (because he was both God and Man) Christ bridges human nature to the divine; to the Eastern Orthodox this is salvation, coined in the term "theosis" and was the true state for which all humanity was created. It applies to all, both living and dead, as stated in Eastern Orthodox hymnography: "Christ has risen from the dead, trampling upon death by death, and upon those in the tomb bestowing life." Troparion of Pascha Christ’s salvific act worked retroactively to the beginning of time thus saving the righteous from the bonds of sin and death. By participating in the life of the Church (in its Faith, works, and sacraments), each person's human nature is healed and it becomes easier to follow God's will. As Christians partake of the Eucharist and eat and drink the Body and Blood of Christ, they return to dependence on God and experience a gradual healing of the relationship between God and humanity. The ultimate goal is theosis - an even closer union with God and closer likeness to God than existed in the Garden of Eden. Resurrection 16th century Russian Orthodox icon of the ResurrectionThe Resurrection of Christ is the central event in the liturgical year of the Eastern Orthodox Church and is understood in literal terms as a real historical event. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was crucified and died, descended into Hell (Hades in Greek), rescued all the souls held there through sin; and then, because Hell could not restrain the infinite God, rose from the dead, thus saving the human race. Through these events, Christ released us from the bonds of Hell and then came back to the living as both man and God. According to Eastern Orthodox tradition, each human being may partake of this immortality, which would have been impossible without the Resurrection; it is the main promise held out by God in the New Testament. Every holy day of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical year relates to the Resurrection directly or indirectly. Every Sunday is dedicated to celebrating the Resurrection and the triune God. In the liturgical commemorations of the Passion of Christ during Holy Week there are frequent allusions to the ultimate victory at its completion. Bible, holy tradition, and the patristic consensus The Eastern Orthodox Church considers itself to be the historical and organic continuation of the original Church founded by Christ and His apostles. Ware, p. 8 The faith taught by Jesus to the apostles, given life by the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, and passed down to future generations uncorrupted, is known as Holy Tradition. Ware, pp. 195–196 The primary and authoritative witness to Holy Tradition is the Bible, texts written by the apostles or those in the Early Church, and approved by Church leaders under the guidance of the Holy Spirit NCE article: Canon of the New Testament The Bible reveals God's will, the relationship between the Israelites and God, the wonders of Christ and the early history of the Church. As the Bible has an inspired origin it central to the life of the Church. Scriptures are understood to contain historical fact, poetry, idiom, metaphor, simile, moral fable, parable, prophecy, and wisdom literature. Thus, the Scriptures are never used for personal interpretation, but always seen within the context of Holy Tradition, which gave birth to the Scripture. Eastern Orthodoxy maintains that belief in a doctrine of sola scriptura would most lead to error since the truth of Scripture cannot be separated from the traditions from which it arose. Eastern Orthodox Christians therefore believe that the only way to correctly understand the Bible is within the Church. Ware, pp. 199–200 Other witnesses to Holy Tradition include the Liturgy of the Church, its iconography, the rulings of the Ecumenical councils, and the writings of the Church Fathers. From the consensus of the Fathers (consensus patrum) one may enter more deeply and understand more fully the Church's life. Individual Fathers are not looked upon as infallible, but rather their whole consensus will give one a proper understanding of the Bible and Christian doctrine. Ware, pp. 202–207 Territorial Expansion and Doctrinal Integrity From the moment Christ commissioned the generations of apostles the Church (εκκλησία - ekklesia) began to grow. The organic model for the growth of this community stems from the title of 'the chosen' as being those Hebrews who were chosen by God to leave Egypt with Moses the patriarch and enter into the land of promise. During the course of the early church, there were numerous followers who attached themselves to the Christ and His mission here on Earth, as well as followers who retained the distinct duty of being commissioned with preserving the quality of life and lessons revealed through the experience of Jesus living, dying, resurrecting and ascending among them. As a matter of practical distinction and logistics, people of varying gifts were accorded stations within the community structure - ranging from the host of agape meals to prophecy (the reading of Scripture) to preaching, to interpretation, to serving meals and giving aid to the sick and the poor. Sometime after Pentecost the Church grew to a point where it was no longer possible for the Apostles alone to minister. Overseers (bishops) Acts 14:23 NAB and assistants (deacons and deaconesses) were appointed Acts 6:1-6 NAB to further the mission of the Church. The ecclesia recognized the gathering of these early church communities as being greatest in areas of the known world that were famous for their significance on the world stage - either as hotbeds of intellectual discourse, high volumes of trade, or proximity to the original sacred sites. These locations were targeted by the early apostles, who recognized the need for humanitarian efforts in these large urban centers and sought to bring as many people as possible into the ecclesia - such a life was seen as a form of deliverance from the decadent lifestyles promoted throughout the eastern and western Roman empire. As the Church increased in size through the centuries, the logistic dynamics of operating such large entities shifted: patriarchs, metropolitans, archimandrites, abbots and abbesses, all rose up to cover certain points of administration. As a result of heightened exposure and popularity of the philosophical schools (haereseis) of Greco-Roman society and education, Synods and Councils were forced to engage such schools that sought to co-opt the language and pretext of the Christian faith in order gain power and popularity for their own political and cultural expansion. As a result, ecumenical councils were held to attempt to rebuild solidarity by using the strength of distant orthodox witnesses to dampen the intense local effects of particular philosophical schools within a given area. While originally intended to serve as an internal check and balance for the defense of faulty local doctrine against the doctrine developed and spread by the apostles to the various sees, at times the church found its own bishops and emperors falling prey to local conventions - at these crucial moments in the history of the church, it found itself able to rebuild on the basis of the faith as it was kept and maintained by monastic communities who subsisted without reliance on the community of the state or popular culture and were generally unaffected by the materialism and rhetoric that often dominated and threatened the integrity and stability of the urban churches. In this sense, the aim of the councils was never to expand or fuel a popular need for a clearer or relevant picture of the original apostolic teaching. Rather, the theologians spoke to address the issues of external schools of thought who wished to distort the simplicity and neutrality of the apostolic teaching for personal or political gain. That being said, the consistency of the Eastern Orthodox faith is entirely dependent on the Holy Tradition of the accepted corpus of belief - the decisions ratified by the fathers of the seven ecumenical councils, and this is only done at the beginning of a consecutive council so that the effects of the decisions of the prior council can be audited and verified as being both conceptual sound and pragmatically feasible and beneficial for the church as a whole. This process is not one of universal doctrinal evolution but of localized contextual protection. Thus the Eastern Orthodox claim that the gospel as they have received it is the same gospel that the apostles shared, that which the fathers had taught, and the which the councils confirmed - not what any particular individual has said. The Theotokos and the saints The Theotokos of Vladimir, one of the most venerated of Eastern Orthodox Christian icons of the Virgin Mary. The Eastern Orthodox Church believes death and the separation of body and soul to be unnatural; a result of the Fall of Man. They also hold that the congregation of the Church comprises both the living and the dead. All persons currently in heaven are considered to be saints, whether their names are known or not. There are, however, those saints of distinction whom God has revealed as particularly good examples for us. When a saint is revealed and ultimately recognized by a large portion of the Church a service of official recognition (glorification) is celebrated. This does not 'make' the person a saint, it merely recognizes the fact and announces it to the rest of the Church. A day is prescribed for the saint’s celebration, hymns composed and icons are created. Numerous saints are celebrated on each day of the year. They are venerated (shown great respect and love) but not worshiped, for worship is due to God alone. In showing the saints this love and requesting their prayers, it is believed by the Eastern Orthodox that they thus assist in the process of salvation for others. Ware, pp. 255–256 Pre-eminent among the saints is the Virgin Mary, the Theotokos ("birthgiver of God"). In Eastern Orthodox theology, the Theotokos is the fulfillment of the Old Testament archetype revealed in the Ark of the Covenant, because she carried the New Covenant in the person of Christ; thus, the Eastern Orthodox consider her the Ark of the New Covenant, and give her the respect and reverence as such. The Theotokos was chosen by God and freely co-operated in that choice to be the Mother of Jesus Christ, the God-man. The Eastern Orthodox believe that the Christ Child from the moment of conception was both fully God and fully Man. She is thus called 'Theotokos' as an affirmation of the divinity of the One to whom she gave birth. It is also believed that her virginity was not compromised in conceiving God-incarnate, that she was not harmed and that she remained forever a virgin; scriptural references to "brothers" of Christ are interpreted as kin, given that the word 'brother' was used in multiple ways, just as the term "father". Due to her unique place in salvation history, Mary is honored above all other saints and especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through her. Ware, pp. 257–258 Because of the holiness of the lives of the saints, their bodies and physical items connected with them are regarded by the Church as also holy. Many miracles have been reported throughout history connected with the saint's relics, often including healing from disease and injury. The veneration and miraculous nature of relics continues from Biblical times. Ware, p. 234 Eschatology Last Judgment. 12th-century Byzantine mosaic from Torcello Cathedral. Eastern Orthodox Christians believe that when a person dies the soul is temporarily separated from the body. Though it may linger for a short period on Earth, it is ultimately escorted either to paradise (Abraham's bosom) or the darkness of Hades, following the Temporary Judgment; Eastern Orthodox do not accept the doctrine of Purgatory which is held by Roman Catholicism. The soul’s experience of either of these states is only a “foretaste” -being experienced only by the soul - until the Final Judgment, when the soul and body will be reunited. The Longer Catechism of The Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church, an Eastern Orthodox catechism from 1830, by Metropolitan Philaret. Start with item 366 or 372. The Eastern Orthodox believe that the state of the soul in Hades can be affected by the love and prayers of the righteous up until the Last Judgment. The Longer Catechism, Item 377. For this reason the Church offers special prayer for the dead on the third day, ninth day, fortieth day, and the one-year anniversary after the death of an Eastern Orthodox Christian. There are also several days throughout the year that are set aside for general commemoration of the departed, sometimes including nonbelievers. These days usually fall on a Saturday, since it was on a Saturday that Christ lay in the Tomb. While the Eastern Orthodox consider the text of the Apocalypse (Book of Revelation) to be a part of Scripture, it is also regarded to be a mystery. Speculation on the contents of Revelation are minimal and it is never read as part of the regular order of services. Those theologians who have delved into its pages tend to be amillennialist in their eschatology, believing that the "thousand years" spoken of in biblical prophecy refers to the present time: from the Crucifixion of Christ until the Second Coming. Whilst it is not usually taught in church it is often used as a reminder of God’s promise to those who love Him, and the benefits of avoiding sinful passions. Iconographic depictions of the Final Judgment are often portrayed on the back wall of the church building to remind the departing faithful to be vigilant in their struggle against sin. Likewise it is often painted on the walls of the Trapeza (refectory) in a monastery where monks may be inspired to sobriety and dis-attachment from worldly things while they eat. The Eastern Orthodox believe that after the Final Judgment: all souls will be reunited with their resurrected bodies that all souls will fully experience their spiritual state that having been perfected, the human race will forever progress towards a deeper and fuller love of God, which equates with eternal happiness that hell, though often described in metaphor as punishment inflicted by God, is in reality the soul's rejection of God's infinite love which is offered freely and abundantly to everyone. Traditions Art and architecture Church buildings An illustration of the traditional interior of an Eastern Orthodox church The church building has many symbolic meanings; perhaps the oldest and most prominent is the concept that the Church is the Ark (as in Noah's) in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations; therefore, most Eastern Orthodox Churches are rectangular in design. Another popular configuration, especially for churches with large choirs is cruciform or cross-shaped. Architectural patterns vary in shape and complexity, with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars; but in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same. Temple of Saint Sava (Belgrade, Serbia), the largest Eastern Orthodox church in the world. The Church building is divided into three main parts: the narthex (vestibule), the nave and the sanctuary (also called the altar or holy place). The narthex is where catechumens and non-Orthodox visitors were traditionally asked to stand during services. It is separated from the nave by “The Royal Gate”. On each side of this gate are candle stands (menalia) representing the pillars of fire that went before the Hebrew people escaping from Egypt. The nave is where most of the congregation stand during services. Traditionally, men stand on the right and women on the left. This is for a number of reasons: (1) Considering the family unit of past centuries the husband was dominant; thus, standing the same distance from the altar, equality is emphasised. (2) The idea of separating the sexes was inherited from the Jewish tradition of doing so within synagogues (3) Separation of sexes also followed the practice of choirs in which different levels of voice are placed in groups to facilitate harmony. In general, men and women dress respectfully, typically wearing their "Sunday best" to enter the church. Children are considered full members of the Church and stand attentive and quiet during services. There is often a choir area at the side or in a loft in back. In addition to the Choir, a Chanter is always present at the front of the church to chant responses and hymns that are part of the Divine Liturgy offered by the Priest. There is usually a dome in the ceiling with an icon of Christ depicted as Ruler of the Universe (Pantocrator). Everything in the Eastern Orthodox Church has a purpose and a meaning revealing God's revelation to man. At the front, or Eastern end of the church, is a raised dais with an icon-covered screen or wall (iconostasis or templon) separating the nave from the sanctuary. In the center of this wall is the entrance to the altar known as the “Beautiful Gate” through which only the clergy may pass. There are also a right and left side door on the front of the iconostasis, one depicting the archangel, Michael and the other Gabriel. The priest and altar boys enter and exit through these doors during appropriate parts of the Divine Liturgy. Immediately to the right of the main gate you will always find icon of Jesus Christ. Other icons depicted on the iconostatis are the Mother of God, John the Baptist and the Saint after which the church is named. In front of the iconostasis is the Bishop's Chair, where a visiting Bishop or Metropolitan will often sit as a place of honor during the Divine Liturgy. Eastern Orthodox priests, when standing at the altar face toward the altar (facing East) so that both the Priest and congregation are praying to God in Heaven together. The sanctuary contains the Holy Altar, representing the place where Christ was laid in the tomb and on the third day, rose. A cross stands behind the altar. On the altar are the items used to sanctify the bread and wine for communion, including a gold chalice and communion spoon. Also found on the altar table is the Antimins, the Book of the Gospel containing the Words spoken by the Lord, and not the additional components of the Bible. The antimins is a silk cloth used during the sanctification of the Divine Gifts. The antimins may contain the relics of a Saint. When a church is consecrated buy a Bishop, there is a formal service or prayers and sanctification in the name of the Saint that the church is named after. The Bishop will also often present a small relic of a Saint to place in or on the altar as part of the consecration of a new church. The Divine Liturgy may only be performed once a day on any particular Antimins. Thus a second Liturgy on the same Altar Table that same day would require the use of a second Antimins, typically from another Eastern Orthodox church. Icons Our Lady of St. Theodore, the protector of Kostroma, following the same Byzantine "Tender Mercy" type. The term 'icon' comes from the Greek word eikona, which simply means image. The Eastern Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary were painted by Luke the Evangelist. Icons are filled with symbolism designed to convey information about the person or event depicted. For this reason, icons tend to be formulaic, following a prescribed methodology for how a particular person should be depicted, including hair style, body position, clothing, and background details. Icon painting, in general, is not an opportunity for artistic expression, though each iconographer brings a vision to the piece. It is far more common for an icon to be copied from an older model, though with the recognition of a new saint in the church, a new icon must be created and approved. The personal and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Eastern Orthodox iconography before the 17th century, when Russian iconography began to be strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Roman Catholic Europe. Greek iconography also began to take on a strong western influence for a period and the difference between some Eastern Orthodox icons and western religious art began to vanish. More recently there has been a trend of returning to the more traditional and symbolic representations. A fairly elaborate Eastern Orthodox Christian icon corner as would be found in a private home. Free-standing statues (three dimensional depictions) are almost non-existent within the Eastern Orthodox Church. This is partly due to the rejection of the previous pagan Greek age of idol worship and partly because icons are meant to show the spiritual nature of man, not the sensual earthly body. Bas reliefs, however, became common during the Byzantine period and led to a tradition of covering a painted icon in a silver or gold 'riza' in order to preserve the icon. Such bas relief coverings usually leave the faces and hands of the saints exposed for veneration. The Inside of an Eastern Orthodox church Icons are not considered by the Eastern Orthodox to be idols or objects of worship. The parameters of their usage was clearly spelled out by the 7th ecumenical council. Justification for their usage utilises the following logic: before God took human form in Christ, no material depiction was possible and therefore blasphemous even to contemplate. Once God became incarnate, depiction was possible. As Christ is God, it is justified to hold in one's mind the image of God-incarnate. Likewise, when one venerates an icon, it is not the wood or paint that are venerated but rather the individual shown, just as it is not the paper one loves when one might kiss the photograph of a loved one. As Saint Basil famously proclaimed, honour or veneration of the icon always passes to its archetype. Following this reasoning, the veneration of the glorified human saint made in God's image, is always a veneration of the divine image, and hence God as foundational archetype. Icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely. Ware p. 271 Most Eastern Orthodox homes have an area set aside for family prayer, usually an eastern facing wall, where are hung many icons. Icons are often illuminated by a candle or oil lamp. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for lamps are preferred because they are natural and burn cleanly.) Besides the practical purpose of making icons visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps symbolise the Light of the World, who is Christ. Tales of miraculous icons are not uncommon, though it has always been considered that the message of such an event was for the immediate faithful involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds. Some miraculous icons whose reputations span long periods of time nevertheless become objects of pilgrimage along with the places where they are kept. As several Eastern Orthodox theologians and saints have explored in the past, the icon's miraculous nature is found not in the material, but in the glory of the saint who is depicted. The icon is a window, in the words of St Paul Florensky, that actually participates in the glory of what it represents. See also Eastern Orthodox icons. Iconostasis Iconostasis in the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Moscow Kremlin. An iconostasis, also called the templon, is a wall of icons and religious paintings, separating the nave from the sanctuary in a church. Iconostasis also refers to a portable icon stand that can be placed anywhere within a church. The modern iconostasis evolved from the Byzantine templon in the eleventh century. The evolution of the iconostasis probably owes a great deal to 14th-century Hesychast mysticism and the wood-carving genius of the Russian Orthodox Church. The first ceiling-high, five-leveled Russian iconostasis was designed by Andrey Rublyov in the cathedral of the Dormition in Vladimir in 1408. The separation between sanctuary and nave accomplished by the iconostasis is not mandatory, albeit it is common practice. Depending on circumstance, the role of the iconostasis can be played by masonry, carved panels, screens, curtains, railings, a cord or rope, plain icons on stands, steps, or nothing at all. The Cross The Three-Bar Orthodox Cross. Depictions of the Cross within the Eastern Orthodox Church are numerous and often highly ornamented. Some carry special significance. The Tri-Bar Cross, as seen to the right, has three bars instead of the single bar normally attached. The small top crossbar represents the sign that Pontius Pilate nailed above Christ's head. It often is inscribed with an acronym meaning “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews”; however, It is often replaced or amplified by the phrase "The King of Glory" in order to answer Pilate's statement with Christ's affirmation, "My Kingdom is not of this world". There is also a bottom slanting bar. This appears for a number of reasons. Evidence indicates that there was a small wooden platform for the crucified to stand on in order to support his weight; in Jesus' case his feet were nailed side by side to this platform with one nail each in order to prolong the torture of the cross. Evidence for this comes mainly from two sources within Holy Tradition, the Bible (in order to cause the victim to die faster their legs were broken so they could not support their weight and would suffocate) and iconography (all early depictions of the crucifixion show this arrangement, not the later with feet on top with single nail). It has also been pointed out by some experts that the nailed hands of a body crucified in the manner often shown in modern secular art would not support the weight of the body and would tear through. A platform for the feet would relieve this problem. The bottom bar is slanted for two reasons, to represent the very real agony which Christ experienced on the cross (a refutation of Docetism) and to signify that the thief on Christ's right chose the right path while the thief on the left did not. Other crosses associated with the Eastern Orthodox Church are the more traditional single-bar crosses, budded designs, the Jerusalem cross (cross pattée), Celtic crosses, and others. Services The services of the church are properly conducted each day following a rigid, but constantly changing annual schedule (i.e., parts of the service remain the same while others change depending on the day of the year). Services are conducted in the church and involve both the clergy and faithful. Services cannot properly be conducted by a single person, but must have at least one other person present (i.e. a Priest cannot celebrate alone, but must have at least a Chanter present and participating). Usually, all of the services are conducted on a daily basis only in monasteries and cathedrals, while parish churches might only do the services on the weekend and major feast days. On certain Great Feasts (and, according to some traditions, every Sunday) a special All-Night Vigil (Agrypnia) will be celebrated from late at night on the eve of the feast until early the next morning. Because of its festal nature it is usually followed by a breakfast feast shared together by the congregation. Services, especially the Divine Liturgy, can only be performed once a day on a single altar (some churches have multiple altars in order to accommodate large congregations). Each priest may only celebrate the Divine Liturgy once a day. From its Jewish roots, the liturgical day begins at sundown. The traditional daily cycle of services is as follows: Vespers – (Greek Hesperinos) Sundown, the beginning of the liturgical day. Compline (Greek Apodeipnon, lit. "After-supper") – After the evening meal prior to bedtime. Midnight Office – Usually served only in monasteries. Matins (Greek Orthros) – First service of the morning. Usually starts before sunrise. Divine Liturgy – The Eucharist service (see below) Hours – First, Third, Sixth, and Ninth – Sung either at their appropriate times, or in aggregate at other customary times of convenience. If the latter, The First Hour is sung immediately following Orthros, the Third and Sixth prior to the Divine Liturgy, and the Ninth prior to Vespers. The Divine Liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist. Although it is usually celebrated between the Sixth and Ninth Hours, it is not considered to be part of the daily cycle of services, as it occurs outside the normal time of the world. The Divine Liturgy is not celebrated on weekdays during the preparatory season of Great Lent and in some places during the lesser fasting seasons either. Reserve communion is prepared on Sundays and is distributed during the week at the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts. This daily cycle services are conceived of as both the sanctification of time (chronos, the specific times during which they are celebrated), and entry into eternity (kairos). They consist to a large degree of litanies asking for God's mercy on the living and the dead, readings from the Psalter with introductory prayers, troparia, and other prayers and hymns surrounding them. The Psalms are so arranged that when all the services are celebrated the entire Psalter is read through in their course once a week, and twice a week during Great Lent when the services are celebrated in an extended form. Chanting Eastern Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety. Services consist in part of a dialogue between the clergy and the people (often represented by the choir or the Psaltis Cantor (church)). In each case the prayers are sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing is read in a normal speaking voice, with the exception of the homily if one is given. Because the human voice is seen as the most perfect instrument of praise, musical instruments (organs, guitars, etc.) are not generally used to accompany the choir. The church has developed eight Modes or Tones, (see Octoechos) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast days, or other considerations of the Typikon. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures. Ware, p. 238 It is common, especially in the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian, etc. It should also be noted that in the Russian tradition there have been some very famous composers of Church music such as Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff; and many Church tones can likewise be seen influencing their music. Incense As part of the legacy handed down from its Judaic roots, incense is used during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church as an offering of worship to God as it was done in the Jewish First and Second Temples in Jerusalem (Exodus chapter 30). Traditionally, the base of the incense used is the resin of Boswellia thurifera, also known as frankincense, but the resin of fir trees has been used as well. It is usually mixed with various floral essential oils giving it a sweet smell. Incense represents the sweetness of the prayers of the saints rising up to God (, , ). The incense is burned in an ornate golden censer that hangs at the end of four chains representing the Trinity.Two chains represent the human and Godly natureof the Son, one chain for the Father and one chain for the Holy Spirit.The lower cup represents the earth and the upper cup the heaven. In the Greek and Syrian traditions there are 12 bells hung along these chains representing the 12 apostles (usually no bells in Slavic tradition).There are also 72 links representing 72 evangelists.The charcoal represents the sinners.Fire signifies the Holy Spirit and frankincensethe good deeds.The insence also represents the grace of the Holy Trinity. The censer is used (swung back and forth) by the priest/deacon to venerate all four sides of the altar, the holy gifts, the clergy, the icons, the congregation, and the church structure itself. Mysteries According to Eastern Orthodox theology, the purpose of the Christian life is to attain theosis, the mystical union of man with God. This union is understood as both collective and individual. St. Athanasius of Alexandria, wrote concerning the Incarnation that, "He (Jesus) was made man that we might be made god (θεοποιηθῶμεν)". Athanasius of Alexandria, On the Incarnation of the Word, §54. See , , . The entire life of the church is oriented towards making this possible and facilitating it. In the Eastern Orthodox Church the terms “Mystery” or “The Mysteries” refer to the process of theosis. While it is understood that God theoretically can do anything instantly and invisibly, it is also understood that he generally chooses to use material substance as a medium in order to reach people. The limitations are those of mankind, not God. Matter is not considered to be evil by the Eastern Orthodox. Water, oil, bread, wine, etc., all are means by which God reaches out to allow people to draw closer to him. How this process works is a “Mystery”, and cannot be defined in human terms. These Mysteries are surrounded by prayer and symbolism so that their true meaning will not be forgotten. Those things which in the West are often termed Sacraments or sacramentals are known among the Eastern Orthodox as the Sacred Mysteries. While the Roman Catholic Church numbers seven Sacraments, and many Protestant groups list two (Baptism and the Eucharist) or even none, the Eastern Orthodox do not limit the number. However, for the sake of convenience, catechisms will often speak of the seven Great Mysteries. Among these are Holy Communion (the most direct connection), Baptism, Chrismation, Confession, Unction, Matrimony, and Ordination. But the term also properly applies to other sacred actions such as monastic Tonsure or the blessing of holy water, and involves fasting, almsgiving, or an act as simple as lighting a candle, burning incense, praying or asking God's blessing on food. Ware pp. 274–277 Baptism Baptism is the mystery which transforms the old sinful man into the new, pure man; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given. Through baptism one is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church. During the service water is blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times in the name of the Holy Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection. Ware pp. 277–278 Properly a new name is given, which becomes the person's name. Children of Eastern Orthodox families are normally baptized shortly after birth. Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy (even converts from other Christian denominations) are usually formally baptized into the Eastern Orthodox Church though exceptions are sometimes made. Those who have left Eastern Orthodoxy and adopted a new religion, if they return to their Eastern Orthodox roots are usually received back into the church through the mystery of Chrismation. Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, in emergencies any Eastern Orthodox Christian can baptize. Ware p. 278 In such cases, should the person survive the emergency, it is likely that the person will be properly baptized by a priest at some later date. This is not considered to be a second baptism, nor is it imagined that the person is not already Eastern Orthodox, but rather it is a fulfillment of the proper form. The service of baptism used in Eastern Orthodox churches has remained largely unchanged for over 1500 years. This fact is witnessed to by St. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), who, in his Discourse on the Sacrament of Baptism, describes the service in much the same way as is currently in use. Chrismation Chrismation (sometimes called confirmation) is the mystery by which a baptized person is granted the gift of the Holy Spirit through anointing with Holy Chrism. Ware pp. 278–9 It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Harakas pp. 56–7 As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so Chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. Ware p. 279 A baptized and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christian is a full member of the Church, and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age. The creation of Chrism may be accomplished by any bishop at any time, but usually is done only once a year, often when a synod of bishops convenes for its annual meeting. (Some autocephalous churches get their chrism from others.) Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament, even when an instrument such as a brush is used. Harakas p. 57 Fasting See also: Fasting: Eastern Orthodoxy & Eastern Catholicism. The number of fast days varies from year to year, but in general the Eastern Orthodox Christian can expect to spend a little over half the year fasting at some level of strictness. There are spiritual, symbolic, and even practical reasons for fasting. In the Fall from Paradise mankind became possessed by a carnal nature; that is to say, he became inclined towards the passions. Through fasting, Eastern Orthodox Christians attempt to return to the relationship of love and obedience to God enjoyed by Adam and Eve in Paradise in their own lives, by refraining from carnal practices, by bridling the tongue (), confession of sins, prayer and almsgiving. Fasting is seen as purification and the regaining of innocence. Through obedience to the Church and its ascetic practices the Eastern Orthodox Christian seeks to rid himself or herself of the passions (The desires of our fallen carnal nature). All Eastern Orthodox Christians are expected to fast following a prescribed set of guidelines. They do not view fasting as a hardship, but rather as a privilege and joy. The teaching of the Church fixes both the times and the amount of fasting that is expected as a minimum for every member. For greater ascesis, some may choose to go without food entirely for a short period of time. A complete three-day fast at the beginning and end of a fasting period is not unusual, and some fast for even longer periods, though this is usually practiced only in monasteries. In general, fasting means abstaining from meat and meat products, dairy (eggs and cheese) and dairy products, fish, olive oil, and wine. Wine and oil — and, less frequently, fish — are allowed on certain feast days when they happen to fall on a day of fasting; but animal products and dairy are forbidden on fast days, with the exception of "Cheese Fare" week which precedes Great Lent, during which dairy products are allowed. Wine and oil are usually also allowed on Saturdays and Sundays during periods of fast. In some Eastern Orthodox traditions, caviar is permitted on Lazarus Saturday, the Saturday before Palm Sunday, although the day is otherwise a fast day. Married couples also abstain from sexual relations on fast days, that they may devote themselves to prayer (). While it may seem that fasting in the manner set forth by the Church is a strict rule, there are circumstances where a person's spiritual guide may allow a dispensation because of some physical necessity (e.g. those who are pregnant or infirm, the very young and the elderly, or those who have no control over their diet, such as prisoners or soldiers). The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Eastern Orthodox Christians; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesiastical calendar, and the method of fasting is set by the Holy Canons and Sacred Tradition. There are four major fasting periods during the year: The Nativity Fast (Advent or "Winter Lent") which is the 40 days preceding the Nativity of Christ (Christmas), beginning on November 15 and running through December 24. This fast becomes more severe after December 20, and Christmas Eve is observed a strict fast day. Great Lent which consists of the 6 weeks (40 Days) preceding Palm Sunday, and Great Week (Holy Week) which precedes Pascha (Easter). The Apostles' Fast which varies in length from 8 days to 6 weeks. It begins on the Monday following All Saints Sunday (the first Sunday after Pentecost) and extends to the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul on June 29. Since the date of Pentecost depends on that of Pascha, and Pascha is determined on the lunar calendar, this fast can disappear completely under New Calendar observance (This is one of the objections raised by opponents to the New Calendar). The Dormition Fast, a two-week long Fast preceding the Dormition of the Theotokos (repose of The Virgin Mary), lasting from August 1 through August 15. In addition to these fasting seasons, Eastern Orthodox Christians fast on every Wednesday (in commemoration of Christ's betrayal by Judas Iscariot), and Friday (in commemoration of Christ's Crucifixion) throughout the year. Monastics often fast on Mondays (in imitation of the Angels, who are commemorated on that day in the weekly cycle, since monastics are striving to lead an angelic life on earth, and angels neither eat nor drink). Eastern Orthodox Christians who are preparing to receive the Eucharist do not eat or drink at all from midnight until after taking Holy Communion. A similar total fast is expected to be kept on the Eve of Nativity, the Eve of Theophany (Epiphany), Great Friday and Holy Saturday for those who can do so. There are other individual days observed as fasts (though not as days of total fasting) no matter what day of the week they fall on, such as the Beheading of St. John the Baptist on August 29 and the Exaltation of the Holy Cross on September 14. Strict fasting is canonically forbidden on Saturdays and Sundays due to the festal character of the Sabbath and the Resurrection, respectively. On those days wine and oil are permitted even if abstention from them would be otherwise called for. Holy Saturday is the only Saturday of the year where a strict fast is kept. There are also four periods in the liturgical year during which no fasting is permitted, even on Wednesday and Friday. These fast-free periods are: The week following Pascha (Easter), also known as Bright Week The week following Pentecost The period from the Nativity of Christ up to (but not including) the Eve of Theophany (Epiphany). The day of Theophany itself is always fast-free, even if it falls on a Wednesday or Friday. The week following the Sunday of the Publican and the Pharisee (one of the preparatory Sundays before Great Lent). This is fast-free to remind the faithful not to boast like the Pharisee that he fasts for two days out of the week ). The congregation lighting their candles from the new flame in Adelaide, at St. George Greek Orthodox Church, just as the priest has retrieved it from the altar - note that the picture is flash-illuminated; all electric lighting is off, and only the oil lamps in front of the Iconostasis remain lit. When certain feast days fall on fast days, the fasting laws are lessened to a certain extent, to allow some consolation in the trapeza (refectory) for the longer services, and to provide an element of sober celebration to accompany the spiritual joy of the feast. It is considered a greater sin to advertise one's fasting than not to participate in the fast. Fasting is a purely personal communication between the Eastern Orthodox Christian and God. If one has health concerns, or responsibilities that cannot be fulfilled because of fasting, then it is perfectly permissible not to fast. An individual's observance of the fasting laws is not to be judged by the community (), but is a private matter between him and his Spiritual Father or Confessor. Almsgiving "Almsgiving" refers to any charitable giving of material resources to those in need. Along with prayer and fasting, it is considered a pillar of the personal spiritual practices of the Eastern Orthodox Christian tradition. Almsgiving is particularly important during periods of fasting, when the Eastern Orthodox believer is expected to share the monetary savings from his or her decreased consumption with those in need. As with fasting, bragging about the amounts given for charity is considered anywhere from extremely rude to sinful. Holy Communion The Eucharist is at the center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is the partaking of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ in the midst of the Divine Liturgy with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to become the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ Jesus through the operation of the Holy Spirit. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic Church has in the West. The doctrine of transubstantiation was formulated after the Great Schism took place, and the Eastern Orthodox Churches have never formally affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is a "Mystery". Ware pp. 283–285 Communion is given only to baptized and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession. The priest will administer the Gifts with a spoon, called a "cochlear", directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice. Ware p. 287 From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy Communion. Because of the Eastern Orthodox understanding of man’s fallen nature in general those who wish to commune prepare themselves in a way that reflects man in paradise. First, the individual prepares by having his confession heard and the prayer of repentance read over him by a priest. The person fasts from animal products for a number of days prior (usually from Wednesday on) in order to live like Adam in the garden eating only fruits and vegetables. He refrains from sexual relations with his spouse since Adam and Eve did not have sex before the fall. Likewise he will refrain from communion should he have a nocturnal emission or, if it is a woman, she is menstruating since both of these are signs of our fallen nature. The person will increase their prayer rule adding the prescribed prayers in preparation for communing. Finally, the person will fast completely from food and drink from the evening of the previous day (usually sunset on Saturday if communing on Sunday). Repentance Eastern Orthodox Christians who have committed sins but repent of them, and who wish to reconcile themselves to God and renew the purity of their original baptisms, confess their sins to God before a spiritual guide who offers advice and direction to assist the individual in overcoming their sin. Parish priests commonly function as spiritual guides, but such guides can be any person, male or female, who has been given a blessing to hear confessions. Spiritual guides are chosen very carefully as it is a mandate that once chosen, they must be obeyed. Having confessed, the penitent then has his or her parish priest read the prayer of repentance over them. Sin is not viewed by the Eastern Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, or a legal transgression that must be set right by a punitive sentence, but rather as a mistake made by the individual with the opportunity for spiritual growth and development. An act of Penance (epitemia), if the spiritual guide requires it, is never formulaic, but rather is directed toward the individual and their particular problem, as a means of establishing a deeper understanding of the mistake made, and how to effect its cure. Though it sounds harsh, temporary excommunication is fairly common (The Eastern Orthodox require a fairly high level of purity in order to commune, therefore certain sins make it necessary for the individual to refrain from communing for a period). Confession and repentance are required in order to raise the individual to a level capable of communing (though no one is truly worthy). Because full participatory membership is granted to infants, it is not unusual for even small children to confess; though the scope of their culpability is far less than an older child, still their opportunity for spiritual growth remains the same. Marriage Marriage in the Eastern Orthodox Church is the joining of one man and one woman into one flesh. In order to fully understand the Eastern Orthodox mystery of Marriage one has to understand the Eastern Orthodox view on man’s true and fallen state and his ultimate state at world’s end. Man was originally created to commune with God but because of his fall from grace man was cut off. Man’s curse was that life itself would be hard on him. As a consolation God allowed man to have temporary companionship here on earth. When Christ was asked the hypothetical question about a woman who married a series of seven brothers – each after her preceding husband had died – whose wife she would be in the resurrection, Christ responded that in the resurrection people are no longer married but their relationship is with God (Matthew 22:24-30, Mark 12:19-25, Luke 20:28-36). And so, first and foremost this joining is seen as a dispensation allowed by God for the mutual comfort and support of the individuals involved. While procreation and the perpetuation of the species is seen as important, what is more important is the bond of love between the husband and wife as this is a reflection of our ultimate union with God. Virginity, however, is seen as a higher state since one participates in the immediate relationship with God and is not distracted by having to serve a wife or husband (1 Corith:7 esp.32-33) The Church does recognize that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces. For the Eastern Orthodox, the marriage is indissoluble as in it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulted from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the Church towards sinful man. In the U.S., according to 2001 statistics, 14% of Eastern Orthodox marriages ended in an ecclesiastical divorce; a figure that, since it took no account of how many of the couples who entered such marriages took out a civil divorce, is not comparable with the figure of 43% given at that time for the proportion of all marriages that ended in a civil divorce, but which has been argued as indicating a probable total of only 15% of marriages celebrated in an Eastern Orthodox church led to any form of divorce. quote|One cannot arrive at a divorce rate [for Orthodox faithful] from the Archdiocesan published statistics because they ... do not track the number of civil divorces. Divorced individuals are usually allowed to remarry though there is usually imposed on them a fairly severe penance by their bishop and the services for a second marriage in this case are more penitential than joyful. Widows are permitted to remarry without repercussion and their second marriage is considered just as valid as the first. One exception to this rule is the clergy and their wives. Should a married priest die it is expected that his wife will retire to a monastery as soon as their children are out of the house. Widowed priests are not allowed to remarry and also frequently end up in monasteries. The service of Marriage in the Eastern Orthodox Church has two distinct parts: The Betrothal and The Crowning. The Betrothal includes: The exchange of the rings, the procession, the declaration of intent, and the lighting of candles. The Crowning includes: The readings from the epistle and gospel, the Blessing of the Common Cup, and the Dance of Isaiah (the bride and groom are led around the table 3 times), and then the Removal of the Crowns. There is no exchange of vows. There is a set expectation of the obligations incumbent on a married couple, and whatever promises they may have privately to each other are their responsibility to keep. The ceremony ends with the reading of Benedictions to and the Greeting of the Couple. The church understands marriage only as the union of one man and one woman, and certain Eastern Orthodox leaders have spoken out strongly in opposition to the civil institution of Same-Sex Marriage Statement of Eastern Orthodox Christian Bishops http://saintandrew.net/documents/FINALOrthodoxBishopsProp8Statement.pdf OCA Reaffirms SCOBA Statement in Wake of Massachusetts Same-Sex Marriage Ruling http://www.oca.org/news/590 Monasticism Saint Catherine's Monastery All Eastern Orthodox Christians are expected to participate in at least some ascetic works, in response to the commandment of Christ to "come, take up the cross, and follow me." (Mark 10:21 and elsewhere) They are therefore all called to imitate, in one way or another, Christ himself who denied himself to the extent of literally taking up the cross on the way to his voluntary self-sacrifice. However, laypeople are not expected to live in extreme asceticism since this is close to impossible while undertaking the normal responsibilities of worldly life. Those who wish to do this therefore separate themselves from the world and live as monastics: monks and nuns. As ascetics par excellence, using the allegorical weapons of prayer and fasting in spiritual warfare against their passions, monastics hold a very special and important place in the Church. This kind of life is often seen as incompatible with any kind of worldly activity including that which is normally regarded as virtuous. Social work, school teaching, and other such work is therefore usually left to laypeople. Right|The Schema worn by Eastern Orthodox Monks. There are three main types of monastics. Those who live in monasteries under a common rule are coenobitic. Each monastery may formulate its own rule, and although there are no religious orders in Eastern Orthodoxy some respected monastic centers such as Mount Athos are highly influential. Eremitic monks, or hermits, are those who live solitary lives. It is the yearning of many who enter the monastic life to eventually become solitary hermits. This most austere life is only granted to the most advanced monastics and only when their superiors feel they are ready for it. Hermits are usually associated with a larger monastery but live in seclusion some distance from the main compound. Their local monastery will see to their physical needs, supplying them with simple foods while disturbing them as little as possible. In between are those in semi-eremitic communities, or sketes, where one or two monks share each of a group of nearby dwellings under their own rules and only gather together in the central chapel, or kyriakon, for liturgical observances. The spiritual insight gained from their ascetic struggles make monastics preferred for missionary activity. Bishops are almost always chosen from among monks, and those who are not generally receive the monastic tonsure before their consecrations. Many (but not all) Eastern Orthodox seminaries are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for ordination with participation in the community's life of prayer. Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called hieromonk (priest-monk); monks who have been ordained to the diaconate are called hierodeacon (deacon-monk). Not all monks live in monasteries, some hieromonks serve as priests in parish churches thus practicing "monasticism in the world". Cultural practices differ slightly but in general, Father is the correct form of address for monks who have been tonsured, while Novices are addressed as Brother. Similarly, Mother is the correct form of address for nuns who have been tonsured, while Novices are addressed as Sister. Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called monachoi (monastics) or the feminine plural form in Greek, monachai, and their common living space is called a monastery. Holy Orders Eastern Orthodox clergy at All Saints Antiochian Orthodox Church, Raleigh, United States (L to R): priest, two deacons, bishop Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the leaders of the Church in each place came to be known as episkopoi (overseers, plural of episkopos, overseer — Gr. ), which became "bishop" in English. The other ordained roles are presbyter (Gr. , elder), which became "prester" and then "priest" in English, and diakonos (Gr. , servant), which became "deacon" in English (see also subdeacon). There are numerous administrative positions in the clergy that carry additional titles. In the Greek tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient See are called Metropolitan, while the lead bishop in Greece is the Archbishop. (In the Russian tradition, however, the usage of the terms "Metropolitan" and "Archbishop" is reversed.) Priests can be archpriests, archimandrites, or protopresbyters. Deacons can be archdeacons or protodeacons, as well. The position of deacon is often occupied for life. The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop. With the exception of Bishops, who remain celibate, the Eastern Orthodox Church has always allowed priests and deacons to be married, provided the marriage takes place before ordination. In general it is preferable for parish priests to be married as they often act as council to married couples and thus can draw on their own experience. Unmarried priests usually are monks and live in monasteries, though there are occasions when, because of a lack of married priests, a monk-priest is temporarily assigned to a parish. Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry, and it is common for such a member of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see clerical celibacy). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who do not remarry and become nuns when their children are grown. There is serious discussion about reviving the order of (deaconess), which fell into disuse in the first millennium; the deaconesses had both liturgical and pastoral functions within the church. Although it has fallen out of practice (the last deaconess was ordained in the 19th century) there is no reason why deaconesses could not be ordained today. Unction Anointing with oil, or Holy Unction, is one of the mysteries administered by the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church it is not reserved only for the dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily healing. In Greece, during the Ottoman occupation, it became the custom to administer this Mystery annually on Great Wednesday to all believers; in recent decades, this custom has spread to many other locations. It is often distributed on major feast days, or any time the clergy feel it necessary for the spiritual welfare of its congregation. According to Eastern Orthodox teaching Holy Unction is based on the Epistle of James: Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven. — History Early Church Svetitskhoveli Cathedral one of the oldest Eastern Orthodox churches in Georgia. The Early Church, Henry Chadwick, p. 34 Christianity spread rapidly throughout the Roman Empire. Some have attributed this in part because Greek was the lingua franca. Paul and the Apostles traveled extensively throughout the Empire, including Asia Minor, establishing Churches in major communities, with the first Churches appearing in Jerusalem and the Holy Land, then in Antioch, Ethiopia, Egypt, Rome, Alexandria, Athens, Thessalonica, and Byzantium, which, centuries later would become prominent as the New Rome. The Orthodox Church. Ware, Timothy. Penguin Books, 1997. (ISBN 0-14-014656-3) Christianity in the Roman Empire was met with some resistance as its adherents would refuse to comply with the Roman state (even at the threat of death) in offering sacrifice to the pagan gods. Despite being under persecution, the Church spread. The persecution dissipated upon the conversion of Emperor Constantine I in 324 AD. The Orthodox Church. Ware, Timothy. Penguin Books, 1997. (ISBN 0-14-014656-3) By the 4th century Christianity had spread in numerous countries. A number of influential schools of thought had arisen, particularly the Alexandrian and Antiochian philosophical approaches. Other groups, such as the Arians, had also managed to gain influence however their positions caused theological conflicts within the Church, thus prompting The Emperor Constantine to call for a great ecumenical synod in order to define the Church's position against the growing, often widely diverging, philosophical and theological interpretations of Christianity. He made it possible for this council to meet not only by providing a location, but by offering to pay for the transportation of all the existing bishops of the Church. This synod is commonly referred to as the First Council of Nicaea or more generally as First Ecumenical Council The Orthodox Church. Ware, Timothy. Penguin Books, 1997. (ISBN 0-14-014656-3) The Spirituallity of the Christian East: A systematic handbook by Thomas Spidlik, Cistercian Publications Inc Kalamazoo Michigan 1986 ISBN 0-87907-879-0 and is considered of major importance by most modern Christian Churches. Ecumenical councils Several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards led to the calling of Ecumenical councils. There are eight councils authoritatively recognized as Ecumenical: The First Ecumenical Council was convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325 and presided over by the Patriarch Alexander of Alexandria, with over 300 bishops condemning the view of Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father. http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8062 The Second Ecumenical Council was held at Constantinople in 381, presided over by the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, with 150 bishops, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity. http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8065 The Third Ecumenical Council is that of Ephesus in 431, presided over by the Patriarch of Alexandria, with 250 bishops, which affirmed that Mary is truly "Birthgiver" or "Mother" of God (Theotokos), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius. http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8066 The Fourth Ecumenical Council is that of Chalcedon in 451, Patriarch of Constantinople presiding, 500 bishops, affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching. http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8067 The Fifth Ecumenical Council is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship of the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc. http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8068 The Sixth Ecumenical Council is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites. http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8069 The Seventh Ecumenical Council was called under the Empress Regent Irene of Athens in 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports the veneration of icons while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy" http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8071 The Eighth Ecumenical Council was called in 879. It restored St. Photius to his See in Constantinople and condemned any alteration of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381. Some Eastern Orthodox consider the following council to be ecumenical, although this is not agreed upon: The Fifth Council of Constantinople was actually a series of councils held between 1341 and 1351. It affirmed the hesychastic theology of St. Gregory Palamas and condemned the philosopher Barlaam of Calabria. In addition to these councils there have been a number of significant councils meant to further define the Eastern Orthodox position. They are the Synods of Constantinople, 1484, 1583, 1755, 1819, and 1872, the Synod of Iaşi (Jassy), 1642, and the Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, 1672. Roman/Byzantine Empire Eastern Orthodox Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of Byzantine Empire and continued to flourish in Russia, after the fall of Constantinople. Numerous autocephalous churches were established in Eastern Europe and Slavic areas. In the 530s the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) was built in Constantinople under emperor Justinian I. http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2966 Early schisms The Church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the Council of Chalcedon (451), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of Jesus. Eventually this led to each group anathematizing the other. Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs (those who accepted the Council of Chalcedon) were called "Melkites" (the king's men, because Constantinople was the city of the emperors) [not to be confused with the Melkite Catholics of Antioch]. Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon are today known as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, currently led by Pope Shenouda III. There was a similar split in Syria (Patriarchate of Antioch) resulting in the Syriac Orthodox Church. Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called "Oriental Orthodox" to distinguish them from the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as "non-Chalcedonians", or "anti-Chalcedonians". The Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term "miaphysite", to denote the "joined" nature of Jesus (two natures joined into one). Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church and the other fallen into heresy, although over the last several decades there has been some reconciliation. Both Churches agree there to have been a misunderstanding between the two in 451, that is to say that each side's terminology basically meant the same thing. As well, there are the "Nestorian" churches, which are Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople. "Nestorian" is an outsider's term for a tradition that predated the influence of Nestorius. Thus, "Persian Church" is a more neutral term. Conversion of East and South Slavs Eastern Orthodox churches in Vologda, Russia In the ninth and tenth centuries, Eastern Orthodoxy made great inroads into Eastern Europe, including Kievan Rus'. This work was made possible by the work of the Byzantine saints Cyril and Methodius. When Rastislav, the king of Moravia, asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III chose these two brothers. Cyril and Methodius translated the Bible and many of the prayer books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language Old Church Slavonic was created. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of Great Moravia, Cyril and Methodius were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese. Their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD 886. A. Avenarius. Christianity in 9th-century Rus. // Beitruge zur byzantinischen Geschichte im 9.-11. Jahrhundert. Prague: V. Vavrinek, 1978. Pp. 301-315. Some of the disciples, namely Saint Clement of Ohrid, Saint Naum who were of noble Bulgarian descent and St. Angelarius, returned to Bulgaria where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian Tsar Boris I who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Byzantine influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the Glagolitic alphabet and the biblical texts and in AD 893, Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the Slavonic language as the official language of the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of East Slavic peoples, most notably the Rus', predecessors of Belarusians, Russians, and Ukrainians. The work of the Thessaloniki brothers Cyril and Methodius and their disciples had a major impact to Serbs as well. Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05, s.v. "Cyril and Methodius, Saints"; Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica Incorporated, Warren E. Preece - 1972, p.846, s.v., "Cyril and Methodius, Saints" and "Eastern Orthodoxy, Missions ancient and modern"; Encyclopedia of World Cultures, David H. Levinson, 1991, p.239, s.v., "Social Science"; Eric M. Meyers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, p.151, 1997; Lunt, Slavic Review, June, 1964, p. 216; Roman Jakobson, Crucial problems of Cyrillo-Methodian Studies; Leonid Ivan Strakhovsky, A Handbook of Slavic Studies, p.98; V. Bogdanovich, History of the ancient Serbian literature, Belgrade, 1980, p.119 However, they accepted Eastern Orthodoxy collectively by families and by tribes (in the process between the 7th and the 9th century). In commemoration of their baptisms, each Serbian family or tribe began to celebrate an exclusively Serbian custom called Slava in a special way to honor the Saint on whose day they received the sacrament of Holy Baptism. It is the most solemn day of the year for all Serbs of the Eastern Orthodox faith and has played a role of vital importance in the history of the Serbian people. Slava is actually the celebration of the spiritual birthday of the Serbian people which the Church blessed and proclaimed it a Church institution. Michael B. Petrovich; Joel Halpern (1980). "Serbs". in Stephan Thernstrom, Ann Orlov, and Oscar Handlin. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (2nd ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 925. ISBN 9780674375123. The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than Greek, the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire or Latin as the Roman priests did. Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05, s.v. "Cyril and Methodius, Saints" Today the Russian Orthodox Church is the largest of the Eastern Orthodox Churches followed by the Romanian Orthodox Church. Great Schism In the 11th century what was recognised as the Great Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople, which led to separation from the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Eastern Byzantine Churches, now the Eastern Orthodox. There were doctrinal issues like the filioque clause and the authority of the Roman Pope involved in the split, but these were greatly exacerbated by political factors of both Church and state, and by cultural and linguistic differences between Latins and Greeks. Prior to 1054, the Eastern and Western halves of the Church had frequently been in conflict, particularly during the periods of Eastern iconoclasm and the Photian schism. http://www.orthodox.org.ph/content/view/211/50/ The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204; the final break with Rome occurred circa 1450. The sacking of Church of Holy Wisdom and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, which was importantly also strongly condemned by the Pope at the time (Innocent III, see reference at end of paragraph); the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. Many things that were stolen during this time —holy relics, riches, and many other items—were not returned and are still held in various Western European cities, particularly Venice. Pope Innocent III, Letters, 126 (given July 12, 1205, and addressed to the papal legate, who had absolved the crusaders from their pilgrimage vows). Text taken from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook by Paul Halsall. Modified. Original translation by J. Brundage. 1979 The Horses of San Marco Thames and Hudson an English translation of a 1977 Venetian city government publication p191 Reunion was attempted twice, at the 1274 Second Council of Lyon and the 1439 Council of Florence. The Council of Florence did briefly reestablish communion between East and West, which lasted until after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. In each case, however, the councils were rejected by the Eastern Orthodox people as a whole, and the union of Florence also became very politically difficult after Constantinople came under Ottoman rule, so in both cases came to fail. Some local Eastern Churches have however renewed union with Rome in time since (see Eastern Catholic Churches). Recent decades have seen a renewal of ecumenical spirit and dialogue between the Churches http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles4/CarlsonUnity.php "Continuing the dialogue of Love: Orthodox-Catholic relations in 2004" Age of captivity In 1453, the Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Empire. By this time Egypt had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Eastern Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia which had recently acquired an autocephalous status; and thus Moscow called itself the Third Rome, as the cultural heir of Constantinople. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church acquired substantial power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical patriarch was the religious and administrative ruler of the entire "Greek Orthodox nation" (Ottoman administrative unit), which encompassed all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire. Stavronikita monastery, Mount Athos, Greece (South-East view) As a result of the Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and the Fall of Constantinople, the entire Eastern Orthodox communion of the Balkans and the Near East became suddenly isolated from the West. For the next four hundred years, it would be confined within Islamic world, with which it had little in common religiously or culturally. The Russian Orthodox Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches from Wallachia and Moldavia were the only part of the Eastern Orthodox communion which remained outside the control of the Ottoman Empire. It is, in part, due to this geographical and intellectual confinement that the voice of Eastern Orthodoxy was not heard during the Reformation in sixteenth century Europe. It should not be surprising that this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox; after all, they never took part in it and thus neither Reformation nor Counter-Reformation is part of their theological framework. Russian Orthodox Church under Tsarist rule The Moscow Kremlin, as seen from South-West Up until 1666, when Patriarch Nikon was deposed by the tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church had been independent of the State. "RUSSIAN DESTINIES", by Fr. Andrew Phillips, "Orthodox England", 4/17 July 2005 In 1721 the first Emperor Peter I abolished completely the patriarchate and so the Church effectively became a department of the government, ruled by a Most Holy Synod composed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the Emperor himself. Since 1721 until the October Revolution of 1917, the Russian Orthodox Church was essentially transformed into a governmental agency, a tool used to various degrees by the tsars in the imperial campaigns of Russification. The Church was allowed by the State to levy taxes off on the peasants. Therefore, the Church, along with the imperial regime,to which it belonged, came to be perceived as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and the other Russian revolutionaries, mostly atheists. The revolution brought, however, a brief period of liberation for the Church: an independent patriarchate was reestablished briefly in 1917, until Lenin quashed the Church a few years later, imprisoning or killing many of the clergy and of the faithful. Part of the clergy escaped the Soviet persecutions by fleeing abroad, where they founded an independent church in exile, reunified with the Russian one in 2007. Russian Orthodox Church under Communist rule The Eastern Orthodox Church clergy in Russia were seen as sympathetic with the cause of the White Army in the Civil War (see White movement) after the October Revolution, and occasionally collaborated with it; Patriarch Tikhon's declared position was harshly anti-Bolshevik in 1918. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church. Before and after the October Revolution of November 7, 1917 (October 25 Old Calendar) there was a movement within the Soviet Union to unite all of the people of the world under Communist rule (see Communist International). This included the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan States. Since some of these Slavic states tied their ethnic heritage to their ethnic churches, both the peoples and their church were targeted by the Soviet. President of Lithuania: Prisoner of the Gulag a Biography of Aleksandras Stulginskis by Afonsas Eidintas Genocide and Research Center of Lithuania ISBN 998675741X / 9789986757412 / 9986–757–41-X pg 23 "As early as August 1920 Lenin wrote to E. M. Skliansky, President of the Revolutionary War Soviet: "We are surrounded by the greens (we pack it to them), we will move only about 10–20 versty and we will choke by hand the bourgeoisie, the clergy and the landowners. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each one hanged." He was speaking about the future actions in the countries neighboring Russia. Christ Is Calling You: A Course in Catacomb Pastorship by Father George Calciu Published by Saint Hermans Press April 1997 ISBN 978–1887904520 The Soviets' official interpretation of freedom of conscience was one of "guaranteeing the right to profess any religion, or profess none, to practice religious cults, or conduct atheist propaganda", Article 52 of the 1977 Constitution of the USSR though in effect atheism was sponsored by state and was taught in all educational establishments. Timothy Ware. The Orthodox Church. Penguin Books, 1993, page 147 Public criticism of atheism was unofficially forbidden and sometimes led to imprisonment. Sermons to young people by Father George Calciu-Dumitreasa. Given at the Chapel of the Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary, The Word online. Bucharest http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/resources/sermons/calciu_christ_calling.htm The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organized religions were never outlawed. Some actions against Eastern Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals. Father Arseny 1893-1973 Priest, Prisoner, Spiritual Father. Introduction pg. vi - 1. St Vladimir's Seminary Press ISBN 0-88141-180-9 Sullivan, Patricia. Anti-Communist Priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa, The Washington Post, November 26, 2006. Page C09. Accessed May 9, 2008. The result of this militant atheism was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed. Ostling, Richard. "Cross meets Kremlin", TIME Magazine, June 24, 2001. Accessed April 7, 2008. The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful. Nearly all of its clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. In the period between 1917 and 1940, the number of Eastern Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 59,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1935, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. Of these, 95,000 were put to death, executed by firing squad. After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. It is estimated that 50,000 clergy had been executed between the revolution and the end of the Khrushchev era. Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closing and destruction of churches, the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. As with all private property, Church owned property was confiscated into public use. The few places of worship left to the Church were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church was not permitted to carry on educational, instructional activity of any kind. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it could not instruct or evangelise to the faithful or its youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications were all illegal and or banned. This persecution continued, even after the death of Stalin until the Fall of Communism in 1991. This caused many religious tracts to be circulated as illegal literature or samizdat. Among the most damaging aspects of Soviet rule, along with these physical abuses, the Soviet Union frequently manipulated the recruitment and appointment of priests, sometimes planting agents of the KGB within the church to monitor religious persons who were viewed – simply for not being atheists – as suspicious and potential threats to Soviet communism. The recovery of religious beliefs in Russia after the fall of communism, part of a significant religious revival, has been made more challenging as a result of those leaders forced involuntarily upon the church by the KGB during Soviet times. Other Eastern Orthodox Churches under communist rule Enei Church, central Bucharest, Romania, being purposely demolished by Communist authorities on 10 March 1977, 6 days after the 1977 Bucharest earthquake, despite having suffered no structural damage. Albania was the first state to have declared itself officially fully atheist. Van Christo. Albania and the Albanians. In some other communist states such as Romania, the Eastern Orthodox Church as an organisation enjoyed relative freedom and even prospered, albeit under strict secret police control. That, however, did not rule out demolishing churches and monasteries as part of broader systematization (urban planning), state persecution of individual believers, and Romania stands out as a country which ran a specialised institution where many Eastern Orthodox (along with peoples of other faiths) were subjected to psychological punishment or torture and mind control experimentation in order to force them give up their religious convictions (see Piteşti prison). http://litek.ws/k0nsl/detox/anti-humans.htm Dumitru Bacu, The Anti-Humans. Student Re-Education in Romanian Prisons], Soldiers of the Cross, Englewood, Colorado, 1971. Originally written in Romanian as Piteşti, Centru de Reeducare Studenţească, Madrid, 1963 Adrian Cioroianu, Pe umerii lui Marx. O introducere în istoria comunismului românesc ("On the Shoulders of Marx. An Incursion into the History of Romanian Communism"), Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2005 Diaspora emigration to the West One of the most striking developments in modern historical Eastern Orthodoxy is the dispersion of Eastern Orthodox Christians to the West. Emigration from Greece and the Near East in the last hundred years has created a sizable Eastern Orthodox diaspora in Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia. In addition, the Bolshevik Revolution forced thousands of Russian exiles westward. As a result, Eastern Orthodoxy's traditional frontiers have been profoundly modified. Millions of Eastern Orthodox are no longer geographically "eastern" since they live permanently in their newly adopted countries in the West. Nonetheless, they remain Eastern Orthodox in their faith and practice. Virtually all the Eastern Orthodox nationalities – Greek, Georgian, Arab, Russian, Serbian, Macedonian, Albanian, Ukrainian, Armenian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Assyrian – are represented in the United States. There are also many converts to Eastern Orthodoxy of all conceivable ethnic backgrounds. In fact nearly half of the clergy of the Orthodox Church in America and Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America are of a convert background. Eastern Orthodox missions are alive and well in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Relations with other Christians Eastern Orthodoxy represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. Like Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox trace their bishops back to the apostles through apostolic succession, venerate saints, especially Mary the Mother of God as the Theotokos, pray for the dead, and continue the ancient Christian practice of monasticism. Some, if not all, of these practices are rejected by the majority of Protestant groups, although they are partly retained in some of the earliest liturgical Protestant movements, such as the original German form of Lutheranism. They are also retained by many within the Anglican tradition as Anglicanism is generally considered to be a via media (middle way) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions. Eastern Orthodoxy does not openly promote statuary, although it is not expressly condemned, instead limiting itself primarily to two-dimensional iconography. The Western theological concepts of original sin, predestination, purgatory, and particular judgment have had far less influence in Eastern Orthodoxy and are generally rejected by traditional Eastern Orthodox theologians. The Eastern Orthodox understand themselves to be the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church; the true Church established by Jesus Christ and placed into the care of the apostles. As almost all other Christian groups are in indirect schism with the Eastern Orthodox Church, mostly as a result of the Great Schism with the Roman Catholic Church at the turn of the second Christian millennium (prior to the additional schisms of the Protestant Reformation), these other groups are viewed as being Christian, but who in varying degrees lack full theological orthodoxy and orthopraxy. As such, all groups outside of the Eastern Orthodox Church are not seen as being members of the Church proper, but rather separated brethren who have failed to retain the fullness of the Christian faith as was given to the apostles by Jesus Christ. These deviations from orthodoxy have traditionally been called heresy, but due to the term's immediately pejorative connotations, some prefer the more technical designation of the term heterodoxy. The Church today Distribution of Eastern Orthodoxy in the world by country The various autocephalous and autonomous synods of the Eastern Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in full communion with one another. The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR) has recently united with the Moscow Patriarchate (MP), two branches of the Russian Orthodox Church which separated from each other in the 1920s, due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile Soviet regime. (see Act of Canonical Communion) Tensions exist in the philosophical differences between those who use the Revised Julian Calendar ("New Calendarists") for calculating the feasts of the ecclesiastical year and those who continue to use the traditional Julian Calendar ("Old Calendarists"). The calendar question reflects the dispute between those who wish to synchronize with the modern Gregorian calendar which its opponents consider unnecessary and damaging to continuity, and those who wish to maintain the traditional ecclesiastical calendar (which happens to be based on the Julian calendar), emphasizing that such a major change in the tradition of the Church may only occur through the convening of an Ecumenical council. The dispute has led to much acrimony, and sometimes even to violence. Following canonical precepts, some adherents to the Old Calendar have chosen to abstain from clerical intercommunion with those synods which have embraced the New Calendar until such a time that the conflict is resolved. The monastic communities on Mount Athos have provided the strongest opposition to the New Calendar, and to modernism in general, while still maintaining communion with their mother church. Some latent discontent between different national churches exists also in part due to different approach towards ecumenism. While the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, the Eastern Orthodox bishops in North America gathered into the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas (SCOBA), Romanian bishops, and others are fairly open to dialog with the Roman Catholic Church, both conservative and moderate Old Calendarists, many of the monks of Mount Athos, several bishops of Russian, Serbian, and some of Greek and Bulgarian churches regard ecumenism as compromising essential doctrinal stands in order to accommodate other Christians, and object to the emphasis on dialogue leading to inter-communion; believing instead that Orthodox must speak the truth with love, in the hope of leading to the eventual conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy of heterodox Christians. Proponents of ecumenism are currently engaged in discussing key theological differences such as the Filioque, Papal primacy, and a possible agreement on rapprochement and eventually full communion with the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches. Eastern Orthodox churches in communion The Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of 14 autocephalous (that is, administratively completely independent) local churches plus the Orthodox Church in America which is recognized as autocephalous only by the Russian, Bulgarian, Georgian, Polish, and Czech-Slovak Churches. Each has defined geographical boundaries of its jurisdiction and is ruled by its Council of Bishops or Synod presided by a senior bishop - its Primate (or, First Hierarch). The Primate may carry the honorary title of Patriarch, Metropolitan (in the Slavic tradition) or Archbishop (in the Greek tradition). Each local church consists of constituent eparchies (or, dioceses) ruled by a bishop. Some churches have given an eparchy or group of eparchies varying degrees of autonomy (self-government). Such autonomous churches maintain varying levels of dependence on their mother church, usually defined in a Tomos or other document of autonomy. Below is a list of the 14 (15) autocephalous churches in their order of precedence (seniority) with constituent autonomous churches and exarchates. The Liturgical title of the Primate is listed in italics. <li> Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Archbishop of Constantinople-New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch) Autonomous Orthodox Church of Finland (Archbishop of Karelia and All Finland) Autonomous Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (Metropolitan of Tallinn and All Estonia) [Autonomy not recognized by the Church of Russia] Self-governing Orthodox Church of Crete (Archbishop of Crete) Self-governing Monastic Community of Mount Athos Exarchate of Patmos (Patriarchal Exarch of Patmos) Exarchate of Parishes of the Russian Tradition in Western Europe (Archbishop of Komana) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain (Archbishop of Thyateira and Great Britain) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta (Orthodox Archbishop of Italy and Malta and Exarch of Southern Europe) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America (Archbishop of America) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia (Archbishop of Australia) <li> Orthodox Church of Alexandria (Pope and Patriarch of the great city of Alexandria, Libya, Pentapolis, Ethiopia, all Egypt, and all Africa) <li> Orthodox Church of Antioch (Patriarch of Antioch and all the East) Self-governing Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America (Archbishop of New York and Metropolitan of All North America) <li> Orthodox Church of Jerusalem (Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Palestine, and of Syria, Arabia, beyond the Jordan River, Cana of Galilee, and Sacred Zion) Autonomous Church of Mount Sinai (Archbishop of Choreb, Sinai, and Raitha) <li> Orthodox Church of Russia (Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia) Autonomous Orthodox Church of Japan (Archbishop of Tokyo and Metropolitan of All Japan) Autonomous Orthodox Church of China (defunct) Autonomous Orthodox Church of Ukraine (Metropolitan of Kiev and all Ukraine) Self-governing Orthodox Church of Moldova (Metropolitan of Chisinau and all Moldova) Self-governing Orthodox Church of Latvia (Metropolitan of Riga and all Latvia) Self-governing Estonian Orthodox Church (Metropolitan of Tallinn and all Estonia) [Autonomy not recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate] Self-governing Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (Metropolitan of Eastern America and New York, First Hierarch of the Russian church abroad) Exarchate of Belarus (Metropolitan of Minsk and Slutsk, Patriarchal Exarch of All Belarus) <li> Orthodox Church of Serbia (Archbishop of Pec, Metropolitan of Belgrade and Karlovci, Patriarch of the Serbs) Autonomous Archdiocese of Ohrid (Archbishop of Ohrid and Metropolitan of Skopje) <li> Orthodox Church of Romania (Archbishop of Bucharest, Metropolitan of Ungro-Valachia, and Patriarch of All Romania) Self-governing Metropolis of Bessarabia (autonomy not recognized by the Church of Russia) <li> Orthodox Church of Bulgaria (Metropolitan of Sofia and Patriarch of All Bulgaria) <li> Orthodox Church of Georgia (Archbishop of Tbilisi and Mshketi, Patriarch and Catholicos of all Georgia) <li> Orthodox Church of Cyprus (Archbishop of New Justiniana and all Cyprus) <li> Orthodox Church of Greece (Archbishop of Athens and all Greece) <li> Orthodox Church of Poland (Metropolitan of Warsaw and all Poland) <li> Orthodox Church of Albania (Archbishop of Tirana and all Albania) <li> Orthodox Church of the Czech lands and Slovakia (Archbishop of Prague, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia or the Archbishop of Presov, the Metropolitan of Czech lands and Slovakia) Some Orthodox do not acknowledge the following Church: <li> Orthodox Church in America (Archbishop of Washington and New York, Metropolitan of all America and Canada) [Autonomy not recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate] Note, that the Russian Church recognized a different order of seniority, in which the Georgian church comes after the Church of Russia and the Albanian Church - after the Church of Greece. Eastern Orthodox Churches and communities not in communion with others The following is list of some of the organizations that use the term "Orthodox" in their name but do not maintain communion with any of the 14 (15) autocephalous churches and thus are not typically considered part of the Eastern Orthodox Christian communion. Old Calendarists are groups that do not maintain communion with the 14 (15) autocephalous churches as a result of the use of the Revised Julian Calendar. Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece, so-called "Matthewites" Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece, so-called "Florinites" Orthodox Church of Greece (Holy Synod in Resistance), so-called "Cyprianites" Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church Old Calendar Bulgarian Orthodox Church Old Believers are groups that do not accept liturgical reforms carried out in the Russian Orthodox Church by Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century. Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy) Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church (Belokrinitskaya Hierarchy) Russian Old-Orthodox Church (Novozybkovskaya Hierarchy) Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church (Pomortsy) Episcopi vagantes are entities that have carried out episcopal consecrations outside of the norms of canon law or whose bishops have been excommunicated by one of the 14 (15) autocephalous churches. Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church Bulgarian Alternative Synod Holy Orthodox Church in North America Macedonian Orthodox Church Montenegrin Orthodox Church Orthodox Church in Italy Russian Orthodox Church in America Russian True Orthodox Church Turkish Orthodox Church Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Kiev Patriarchate) Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church Canonical Defunct churches Croatian Orthodox Church Chinese Orthodox Church See also List of Orthodox Churches Caesaropapism Catholic–Orthodox theological differences Eastern Catholic Churches List of Autocephalous and Autonomous Orthodox Churches Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar Emanation: Eastern Orthodox Christianity Greek Orthodox Church History of Christianity History of the Eastern Orthodox Church History of Europe History of the Balkans History of the Middle East Oriental Orthodoxy Poustinia Western Rite Orthodoxy Notes References The Orthodox Church. Ware, Timothy. Penguin Books, 1997. (ISBN 0-14-014656-3) The Orthodox Church; 455 Questions and Answers. Harakas, Stanley H. Light and Life Publishing Company, 1988. (ISBN 0-937032-56-5) External links The Orthodox Study Bible An Online Orthodox Catechism published by the Russian Orthodox Church OrthodoxWiki Comprehensive list of seminaries at OrthodoxWiki Timeline of Church History Holy Cross Hellenic College Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology Church today be-x-old:Праваслаўе | Eastern_Orthodox_Church |@lemmatized pentecost:7 spread:8 christianity:11 begin:11 eastern:207 orthodox:291 church:330 second:16 large:16 single:8 christian:61 communion:29 world:23 estimate:3 number:19 million:4 total:4 member:13 http:15 www:12 adherent:9 com:3 html:1 consider:24 one:59 holy:56 catholic:25 apostolic:9 establish:6 jesus:20 christ:53 apostle:17 nearly:4 year:26 ago:1 compose:3 numerous:9 self:12 govern:10 ecclesial:1 body:17 geographically:2 nationally:1 distinct:6 theologically:3 unified:1 governing:1 autocephalous:17 shepherd:1 synod:20 independent:5 bishop:47 whose:5 duty:3 among:12 thing:7 preserve:4 teach:5 patristic:2 tradition:34 relate:2 practice:18 trace:4 lineage:1 back:10 twelve:1 apostles:1 process:7 succession:2 today:7 development:3 slavic:8 greek:33 middle:4 others:8 byzantine:16 roman:29 empire:15 early:14 st:11 paul:6 cling:1 tenaciously:1 ancient:6 believe:22 growth:4 without:7 change:5 see:38 ultimate:5 goal:3 every:6 become:25 like:6 god:71 love:12 perfectly:2 within:20 call:29 theosis:5 deification:2 cross:21 f:2 l:2 ed:2 oxford:3 dictionary:1 new:29 york:4 university:2 press:4 biblical:4 text:5 use:30 include:15 septuagint:1 testament:5 deuterocanonical:1 book:11 generally:9 reject:5 protestant:9 western:14 canon:4 utilize:1 icon:38 focal:1 point:5 daily:5 worship:8 dimentional:1 statuary:2 nomenclature:1 usually:28 refer:8 simply:4 term:18 often:30 apply:2 sake:2 clarity:1 almost:6 καθολική:1 universal:3 addition:7 lay:5 claim:2 title:9 anglican:3 assyrian:3 oriental:7 however:18 break:5 away:2 group:19 first:29 century:21 east:15 west:12 schism:9 also:48 google:1 search:1 widespread:1 international:2 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873 | The_Return_of_Godzilla | The Return of Godzilla, released as in Japan and edited into Godzilla 1985 in America, is a 1984 daikaiju film. The sixteenth film in Toho's Godzilla series, it was produced by Tomoyuki Tanaka and directed by Koji Hashimoto with special effects by Teruyoshi Nakano. This was the first in the Heisei Series of Godzilla films. It was Tanaka's intent to restore the darker themes and mood of the early films in the series. The Return of Godzilla is a reboot to all Godzilla films except 1954's Godzilla, to which it is a direct sequel. Plot This film picks up in 1984, 30 years after the original Godzilla was killed. A fishing vessel caught in a terrible storm encounters a new Godzilla, much larger than his predecessor from the 1950s. Days later, reporter Goro Maki is sailing in the oceans and discovers the wrecked fishing vessel. He investigates and finds only one survivor, Hiroshi Okumura. The other crew members were killed by a giant sea louse, a parasite which had been mutated due to contact with Godzilla. Japanese Prime Minister Mitamura, confronted with this information, decides to keep it a secret to avoid nationwide panic and orders a media blackout. Unfortunately, Godzilla destroys a Soviet submarine carrying nuclear missiles. Faced with an escalating situation between the Soviets, who believe their sub was sunk by the Americans, and the Americans, who fear an unwarranted counter strike from the Soviets, the Japanese Government is forced to go public with the news of Godzilla. Meanwhile, Godzilla attacks a nuclear power plant. During the attack, it is discovered that Godzilla uses a homing signal similar to that of birds who fly south for winter. Goro and his friends decide to use this to their advantage and develope a method to lure Godzilla away from major cities utilizing a high frequency homing signal. Godzilla then proceeds to Tokyo. He destroys a missile control system on a Soviet freighter in Tokyo Bay and continues walking through the city, causing massive destruction. In another scene shortly afterwards, the last dying crewmember of the Soviet freighter docked in Tokyo Bay tries to abort the failsafe launch of a nuclear missile from a satellite in space in order to kill Godzilla. However, the crewmember is killed in the process. The SDF launches their newest weapon the Super X to combat Godzilla. During the initial confrontation, Godzilla has an allergic reaction to the cadmium shells and is poisoned. Godzilla then begins to die from the reaction. Meanwhile, the Japanese government finds out about the Soviet nuclear missile and asks the Americans to shoot it down. The Americans agree and are successful but the missile collision in the stratosphere causes a massive EMP, and then a radioactive lighting storm that revives Godzilla. Godzilla has a final battle with the Super X and manages to destroy it by knocking it to the ground and toppling a building down on it. Scientists at Mt. Mihara manage to get their lure working, which calls out to Godzilla from across the Japan sea. Attracted by magnetic waves transmitted from their satellite dish on Mt. Mihara on Oshima Island, Godzilla walks to it. Godzilla falls into Mt. Mihara as he investigates the satellite dish. The SDF detonates a number of powerful bombs, causing an artificial eruption. Falling debris traps Godzilla in the mountain with no way out. Box office The Return of Godzilla was a reasonable success in Japan, with attendance figures at approximately 3,200,000 and the box office gross being approximately $11 million (the film's budget was $6.25 million). In terms of total attendance, it was the most popular Godzilla film since 1966's Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster. Production The screenplay was first written in 1980, but as an entirely different film. Godzilla was to fight a shape-shifting kaiju named Bagan, and the Super X played a much smaller role. Among the SDF weapons in this script that made it to the big screen were the Water Beetle (an underwater mech) and the Giant Basu (which is equipped with a giant arm to capture submarines). Producer Tomoyuki Tanaka offered Ishiro Honda a chance to direct this film, but he strongly rejected the offer, because of what came of Godzilla in the 1970s, and his belief that Godzilla should have been permanently laid to rest after Eiji Tsuburaya's death. Also at around the same time, he was busy helping his friend Akira Kurosawa on some of the films he was directing such as Kagemusha and Ran. Veteran Godzilla actor Akihiko Hirata, who appeared in several past Godzilla films (best known of his role of Professor Serizawa from Godzilla) was slated to play Professor Hayashida, but he had died from throat cancer before production began. Yosuke Natsuki, another veteran, took the role instead. Stuntman Kenpachiro Satsuma (who previously played Hedorah and Gigan in the original Godzilla films) played Godzilla for the first time, as a replacement for another stuntman who backed out at the last minute. Aside from being heavy, the suit was very dangerous (it was not only built from the outside in, but not made to fit him), and Satsuma lost a lot of weight during filming. This mildly mirrored what Haruo Nakajima went through when he played Godzilla in the original 1954 film. Subsequent Godzilla suits worn by Satsuma were much safer and more comfortable, as they were custom made to fit him (even though the suits still had some dangers of their own). The life-like animatronic Godzilla prop used in close-up shots is the 20-foot "Cybot Godzilla." It was heavily touted in the publicity department at the time, even though it was not used in the film as extensively as promoted. A full-size replica of Godzilla's foot was also built, but all of the scenes in which it is used were removed from the American version (the sole exception being a shot of the foot crushing a row of parked cars during the attack on the nuclear power plant). U.S. Version After acquiring The Return of Godzilla for distribution in North America, New World Pictures changed the title to Godzilla 1985 and radically re-edited the film. Originally, New World reportedly planned to re-write the dialogue in order to turn the film into a tongue-in-cheek comedy (a la What's Up, Tiger Lily?), but this plan was reportedly scrapped because Raymond Burr expressed displeasure at the idea, taking the idea of Godzilla as a nuclear metaphor seriously. The only dialogue left over from that script was "That's quite an urban renewal program they've got going on over there", said by Major McDonahue. New World's biggest change was in adding around ten minutes of new footage, most of it at the Pentagon, with Raymond Burr reprising his role as Steve Martin from Godzilla, King of the Monsters!. The poster image was the same as for the Japanese version, but a green tinting was added to Godzilla's charcoal gray skin. New World's changes were not limited to these scenes. Much of the original version was deleted or altered. A partial list of the changes: Gojira (1984) - Alternate versions Internet Movie Database Shortened and altered: Godzilla roars and the crew fell whereas the audience sees Steve Martin after Godzilla roars. Shortened: Goro's fight with the giant sea louse; the louse's voice was also changed. Deleted: Goro calling his editor from an island. Deleted: Professor Hayashida showing Okumura photographs of Godzilla's 1954 attack and later discussing the mutant sea louse with an aide at the police hospital. Shortened: The scene where Naoko learns her brother is alive; Goro snaps pictures of them reunited, which angers Naoko because she realizes he only helped her in order to get the scoop. Shortened: The meeting between the Japanese prime minister and the Russian and American ambassadors. Also deleted was a scene after the meeting in which the prime minister explains to his aides how he was able to reach a consensus with both sides. Furthermore, this scene appears before Godzilla's attack on the nuclear power plant in the American version, whereas in the Japanese version it appears afterwards. Deleted: Hayashada and Naoko making a wave generator. Altered: Godzilla's first attack on the nuclear power plant. Added: Part of Christopher Young's score from Def Con 4 in several scenes (including Godzilla's attack on the Soviet submarine, the scene where the SDF armored division arrives in Tokyo Bay, and Okumura's near-death experience during the helicopter extraction in Tokyo). Deleted: A shot of an American nuclear missile satellite in space (probably done in order to make America appear less aggressive). Altered: The scene in which the vagabond helps himself to the food in a deserted restaraunt (due to Godzilla's arrival in Tokyo) was edited. In this scene, the distant sound of Godzilla's footsteps was added to the US version. Altered: Almost all of Godzilla's rampage through Tokyo. Scenes of a crowd fleeing Godzilla that appeared later in the Japanese print were moved to an earlier point in the movie (and corresponding footage of them gathering around Godzilla after he is knocked out by the Super X was removed), the Super X fight was re-arranged (in the Japanese version, Godzilla fires his atomic ray at the Super X after being hit with cadmium missiles, not before), and various other scenes of destruction were either placed in a different order or deleted completely. Some fans were particularly upset by the removal of a shot showing Godzilla reflected in the windows of the Yurakucho Mullion Building during the scene in which he attacks the Bullet Train. Deleted: All shots which employed a life-size replica of Godzilla's foot (mostly seen near the end); only one shot of the big foot crushing parked cars during the nuclear power plant scene was kept. The most controversial change was the scene where the Russian submarine officer Colonel Kashirin valiantly attempts to stop the launch of a nuclear weapon. New World edited the scene (and added a brief shot of Kashirin pressing the launch button) so that now Kashirin deliberately launches the nuclear weapon. This change is widely believed to be for propaganda purposes. In addition, the theatrical release (and most home video versions) was accompanied by Marv Newland's short cartoon, Bambi Meets Godzilla. The American version, with the added Raymond Burr footage, runs 87 minutes, 16 minutes shorter than the Japanese print. Apart from the end credits (where he is listed as Steven Martin), Raymond Burr's character is never referred to by his full name, only as "Mr. Martin" or simply "Martin", for the entirety of the U.S. version. This was to avoid association with comedian Steve Martin. The closing narration (spoken by Raymond Burr) is as follows: Nature has a way sometimes of reminding man of just how small he is. She occasionally throws up the terrible offspring of our pride and carelessness to remind us of how puny we really are in the face of a tornado, an earthquake or a Godzilla. The reckless ambitions of man are often dwarfed by their dangerous consequences. For now, Godzilla, that strangely innocent and tragic monster, has gone to earth. Whether he returns or not or is never again seen by human eyes, the things he has taught us remain. Critical Reception The New World version of the film was almost universally criticized by North American critics. Roger Ebert, who gave the film a mere one star in the Chicago Sun-Times, wrote:"The filmmakers must have known that the original Godzilla (1956) had many loyal fans all over the world who treasured the absurd dialogue, the bad lip-synching, the unbelievable special effects, the phony profundity. So they have deliberately gone after the same inept feeling in Godzilla 1985. Examples: Dialogue: Is so consistently bad that the entire screenplay could be submitted as an example. My favorite moment occurs when the hero and heroine are clutching each other on a top floor of a skyscraper being torn apart by Godzilla and the professor leaps into the shot, says "What has happened here?" and leaps out again without waiting for an answer. Lip-synching: Especially in the opening shots, there seems to be a subtle effort to exaggerate the bad coordination between what we see and what we hear. All lip-synch is a little off, of course, but this movie seems to be going for condescending laughs from knowledgable filmgoers. Special effects: When Godzilla marches on Tokyo, the buildings are the usual fake miniature models, made out of paint and cardboard. The tipoff is when he rips a wall off a high-rise, and nothing falls out. That's because there is nothing inside." Review Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times, September 20, 1985 Ebert kept a copy of the poster in his office for many years and it was clearly visible in the opening of his television program. Vincent Canby of the New York Times (who had given a positive review to Godzilla vs. Megalon nine years earlier, a film that was critically hated) was similarly unimpressed:"Though special-effects experts in Japan and around the world have vastly improved their craft in the last 30 years, you wouldn't know it from this film. Godzilla, who is supposed to be about 240 feet tall, still looks like a wind-up toy, one that moves like an arthritic toddler with a fondness for walking through teeny-tiny skyscrapers instead of mud puddles. Godzilla 1985 was shot in color but its sensibility is that of the black-and-white Godzilla films of the 1950s. What small story there is contains a chaste romance and lots of references to the lessons to be learned from "this strangely innocent but tragic creature." The point seems to be that Godzilla, being a "living nuclear bomb", something that cannot be destroyed, must rise up from time to time to remind us of the precariousness of our existence. One can learn the same lesson almost any day on almost any New York street corner." Review Vincent Canby, New York Times One of the few positive reviews came from Joel Siegel of Good Morning America, who is quoted on New World's newspaper ads as saying, "Hysterical fun...the best Godzilla in thirty years!" Among kaiju-related websites, critical reaction has been more positive. Ed Godziszewski of Monster Zero said, "All in all, Godzilla 1985 is a welcome if somewhat uneven return for the King of the Monsters." Review Ed Godziszewski, Monster Zero, June 10, 2002 Miles Imhoff of Toho Kingdom called the film "an excellent classic that holds up even today" and "one of the crowning achievements of the Godzilla series." Review Miles Imhoff, Toho Kingdom, July 28, 2005 Mike Bogue of American Kaiju said the film is "entertaining if flawed" and "worth any giant monster fan's time." Review Mike Bogue, American Kaiju Box Office and business Godzilla 1985 was not a box office success. Opening on August 23, 1985, in 235 North American theaters, the film grossed $509,502 USD ($2,168 per screen) in its opening weekend, on its way to a lackluster $4,116,395 total gross. Godzilla 1985 Box Office Mojo New World's budget breakdown for Godzilla 1985 is as follows: $500,000 to lease the film from Toho, $200,000 for filming the new scenes and other revisions, and $2,500,000 for prints and advertising, adding up to a grand total of approximately $3,200,000. The Return of Godzilla - Box Office Report Toho Kingdom Over time, Godzilla 1985, though not a hit, was partially profitable for New World only with the addition of home video and television syndication (the film debuted on television on May 16, 1986). Godzilla 1985 was the last Godzilla film produced by Toho to receive any major release in American theaters until Godzilla 2000 fifteen years later. Home Video and DVD Releases Godzilla 1985 has been released on home video several times, but later home video releases don't include Bambi Meets Godzilla after New World Video's home video release. The TV rights are held by Lakeshore Entertainment. Rights for Godzilla 1985 are currently held by Anchor Bay. As of now, all releases of Godzilla 1985 outside of Japan are from the American version. This film is able to be purchased on DVD but only in Japanese from Japan. It is recorded in Japanese dialogue but has English subtitles if needed. This also applies to Godzilla vs. Biollante. In 2006, Universe Laser & Video Co. released a Region 3 DVD release of the film, titled The Return Of Godzilla. It was the original Japanese release, with Japanese audio and selectable English/Chinese subtitles. The DVD features a main menu, scene selections, and a featured trailer of Godzilla vs. Biollante in Chinese. Even though The Return of Godzilla has never been released in the United States on DVD, internet sellers have been able to burn both versions of The Return of Godzilla (Japanese and U.S. versions) on region free DVD's and sell them to anybody on the internet for $9.99. References External links Barry's Temple of Godzilla Kaijuphile: Monster Site. Monster Obsession. 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874 | Politics_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia | Politics of the Republic of Macedonia occurs within the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Political System The political system of the Republic of Macedonia consists of three branches: Legislative, Executive and Judicial. The Constitution is the highest law of the country. The political institutions are constituted by the will of its citizens by secret ballot at direct and general elections. Its political system of parliamentary democracy was established with the Constitution of 1991, which stipulates the basic principles of democracy and guarantees democratic civil freedom. The Elections for Representatives in the Assembly of the Republic of Macedonia is held in October. The Assembly is composed of 120 Representatives, who are elected for a period of four years. Out of this number, 85 are elected according to the majority principle in 85 constituencies and 35 according to the proportional principle (the territory of the Republic of Macedonia representing one constituency). There are approximately 1.5 million voters registered in the General Electoral Roll for the election of Representatives in the Assembly of the Republic of Macedonia, assigned in 85 constituencies, in 2.973 polling stations. The voting for the Representatives according to the majority principle can be conducted in two electoral rounds, whereas the voting according to the proportional principle ends in the first round. Macedonian Political System Majority principle 85 Representatives - 85 Constituencies Out of 40 registered political parties, 28 have nominated candidates. 635 candidates have been proposed from 28 political parties, eight coalitions and eight private members. In the first round, the candidate who wins the majority of votes (50% of the total number of votes cast) will be elected, providing that the number of votes won is not less than 1/3 of the total number of registered voters in the constituency. Second round: If no candidate has won the required number of votes in the first round, the voting will be repeated in 14 days (1 of November, 1998). The first two candidates in a constituency, who have won the largest number of votes in the first round shall participate in the second round.The candidate who has won the largest number of votes from the votes cast in the second round shall be elected Representative. --68.125.21.60 (talk) 01:27, 27 May 2009 the papolotebut yet their very dangerous Proportional Principle 35 representatives - 1 Constituency 17 lists of candidates have been submitted from 22 political parties, out of which independently from 12 political parties, from four coalitions and from one group of voters, and the total number of nominated candidates is 595. The D’Hondt formula shall be applied for establishing the results of the vote. Only candidates’ lists, which have won at least 5% of the votes cast, may be represented in the Assembly. Presidents Kiro Gligorov (1991–1999) Boris Trajkovski (1999–2004) Branko Crvenkovski (2004–2009) Gjorge Ivanov (2009–present) Executive branch |President |Gjorge Ivanov |VMRO-DPMNE |12 May 2009 |- |Prime Minister |Nikola Gruevski |VMRO-DPMNE |27 August 2006 |} The role of the President of the Republic is mostly ceremonial, with the real power resting in the hands of the President of the Government. The President is the commander-in-chief of the state armed forces and a president of the state Security Council. The President of the Republic is elected every five years and he or she can be elected twice at most. The current President is Branko Crvenkovski. The President is obliged to entrust the mandate for constituting the Government to a candidate from the party or parties which has/have a majority in the Assembly. The Government is elected by the majority vote of all the deputies in the Assembly. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The power of the President of the Republic is mostly limited, with the real power resting in the hands of the President of the Government of Macedonia. The last election was last held October 2004: Branko Crvenkovski was elected president in a two-round ballot with 60.6%, defeating Sasko Kedev with 39.4%. The current government is a coalition of VMRO-DPMNE, the Democratic Union for Integration, the Socialist Party of Macedonia, and the Party for the Movement of Turks in Macedonia. Legislative branch The Assembly (Sobranie) has 120 members, elected for a four year term, by proportional representation. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Judiciary power is exercised by courts, with the court system being headed by the Judicial Supreme Court, Constitutional Court and the Republican Judicial Council. The assembly appoints the judges. Administrative divisions With the passage of a new law and elections held in 2005, local government functions are divided between 78 municipalities (; singular: . The capital, Skopje, is governed as a group of ten municipalities collectively referred to as "the City of Skopje". Municipalities in the Republic of Macedonia are units of local self-government. Neighbouring municipalities may establish cooperative arrangements. Ethnic diversity The country's main political divergence is between the largely ethnically-based political parties representing the country's Macedonian majority and Albanian minority. The issue of the power balance between the two communities led to a brief war in 2001, following which a power-sharing agreement was reached. In August 2004, the Republic's parliament passed legislation redrawing local boundaries and giving greater local autonomy to ethnic Albanians in areas where they predominate. Foreign relations The Republic is member of the ACCT, BIS, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer) References | Politics_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia |@lemmatized politics:1 republic:12 macedonia:9 occurs:1 within:1 framework:1 parliamentary:2 representative:8 democratic:3 whereby:1 prime:2 minister:2 head:2 government:10 multi:1 party:11 system:6 executive:4 power:8 exercise:2 legislative:3 vest:1 parliament:2 judiciary:2 independent:1 legislature:1 political:12 consists:1 three:1 branch:4 judicial:4 constitution:2 high:1 law:2 country:3 institution:1 constitute:2 citizen:1 secret:1 ballot:2 direct:1 general:2 election:6 democracy:2 establish:3 stipulate:1 basic:1 principle:7 guarantee:1 civil:1 freedom:1 assembly:8 hold:2 october:2 compose:1 elect:10 period:1 four:3 year:4 number:8 accord:4 majority:7 constituency:7 proportional:4 territory:1 represent:3 one:2 approximately:1 million:1 voter:3 register:1 electoral:2 roll:1 assign:1 polling:1 station:1 voting:2 conduct:1 two:4 round:9 whereas:1 vote:12 end:1 first:5 macedonian:2 registered:2 nominate:1 candidate:10 propose:1 eight:2 coalition:3 private:1 member:3 win:6 total:3 cast:3 provide:1 less:1 second:3 required:1 repeat:1 day:1 november:1 large:2 shall:3 participate:1 talk:1 may:4 papolotebut:1 yet:1 dangerous:1 list:2 submit:1 independently:1 group:2 nominated:1 hondt:1 formula:1 apply:1 result:1 least:1 president:13 kiro:1 gligorov:1 boris:1 trajkovski:1 branko:3 crvenkovski:3 gjorge:2 ivanov:2 present:1 vmro:3 dpmne:3 nikola:1 gruevski:1 august:2 role:1 mostly:2 ceremonial:1 real:2 resting:2 hand:2 commander:1 chief:1 state:2 arm:1 force:1 security:1 council:2 every:1 five:2 twice:1 current:2 oblige:1 entrust:1 mandate:1 deputy:1 popular:1 term:2 limited:1 last:2 held:1 defeat:1 sasko:1 kedev:1 union:1 integration:1 socialist:1 movement:1 turk:1 sobranie:1 representation:1 court:4 supreme:1 constitutional:1 republican:1 appoint:1 judge:1 administrative:1 division:1 passage:1 new:1 local:4 function:1 divide:1 municipality:4 singular:1 capital:1 skopje:2 govern:1 ten:1 collectively:1 refer:1 city:1 unit:1 self:1 neighbour:1 cooperative:1 arrangement:1 ethnic:2 diversity:1 main:1 divergence:1 largely:1 ethnically:1 base:1 albanian:2 minority:1 issue:1 balance:1 community:1 lead:1 brief:1 war:1 follow:1 sharing:1 agreement:1 reach:1 pass:1 legislation:1 redrawing:1 boundary:1 give:1 great:1 autonomy:1 area:1 predominate:1 foreign:1 relation:1 acct:1 bi:1 ce:1 cei:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 fao:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 observer:2 iso:1 itu:1 opcw:1 osce:1 pca:1 pfp:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wco:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 reference:1 |@bigram republic_macedonia:6 prime_minister:2 judiciary_independent:1 parliamentary_democracy:1 registered_voter:1 commander_chief:1 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 ce_cei:1 eapc_ebrd:1 ebrd_ece:1 fao_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_observer:1 iso_itu:1 itu_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 osce_pca:1 pca_pfp:1 pfp_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wcl:1 wco_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 |
875 | David_Deutsch | David Deutsch speaking at TED in 2005. David Elieser Deutsch FRS (born 1953 in Haifa, Israel) is a physicist at the University of Oxford. He is a non-stipendiary Visiting Professor in the Department of Atomic and Laser Physics at the Centre for Quantum Computation, Clarendon Laboratory. He pioneered the field of quantum computers by being the first person to formulate a specifically quantum computational algorithm Also available here. Abstract available here. , and is a proponent of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. The Fabric of Reality In his 1997 book The Fabric of Reality, this interpretation, or what he calls the multiverse hypothesis, is one strand of a four-strand theory of everything. The four strands are: Hugh Everett's many-worlds interpretation theory quantum physics, "the first and most important of the four strands". Karl Popper's epistemology, especially its anti-inductivism and its requiring a realist (non-instrumental) interpretation of scientific theories, and its emphasis on taking seriously those bold conjectures that resist falsification. Alan Turing's theory of computation especially as developed in Deutsch's "Turing principle", Turing's universal Turing machine being replaced by Deutsch's universal quantum computer. ("The theory of computation is now the quantum theory of computation.") Richard Dawkins's refinement of Darwinian evolutionary theory and the modern evolutionary synthesis, especially the ideas of replicator and meme as they integrate with Popperian problem-solving (the epistemological strand). His theory of everything is (weakly) emergentist rather than reductive. It aims not at the reduction of everything to particle physics, but rather mutual support among multiverse, computational, epistemological, and evolutionary principles. Views Politically, Deutsch is known to be sympathetic to libertarianism, and was a founder, along with Sarah Fitz-Claridge of the Taking Children Seriously movement. He is also an atheist. Awards He was awarded the Dirac Prize of the Institute of Physics in 1998 Dirac prize award , and the Edge of Computation Science Prize in 2005 Edge of Computation Science Prize . The Fabric of Reality was shortlisted for the Rhone-Poulenc science book award in 1998 Rhone-Poulenc 1998 shortlist . The Fabric of Reality, ISBN 0-14-014690-3 Forthcoming publications Deutsch is currently working on a book entitled The Beginning of Infinity, which he hopes to finish in 2009. The book should be printed by Penguin Books Ltd. Amazon.com is reporting it as already printed as of January 29th but not yet available to the public.Such a possibility seems to be a mistake from either the publisher or Amazon.com. See also Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm Notes/References External links Deutsch's official homepage at Qubit.Org David Deutsch, extracts from Chapter 14: "The Ends of the Universe" of The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes—and Its Implications (London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1997), ISBN 0713990619; with additional comments by Frank J. Tipler. Also available here and here. Profile page at Edge.org "It's much bigger than it looks" a talk at Edge.org New Scientist interview TED Talks: David Deutsch on our place in the cosmos at TED Global in 2005 Wired News: Interview Computer mini-article Quantum Cryptography: Interview with David Deutsch | David_Deutsch |@lemmatized david:5 deutsch:11 speaking:1 ted:3 elieser:1 fr:1 born:1 haifa:1 israel:1 physicist:1 university:1 oxford:1 non:2 stipendiary:1 visiting:1 professor:1 department:1 atomic:1 laser:1 physic:4 centre:1 quantum:8 computation:6 clarendon:1 laboratory:1 pioneer:1 field:1 computer:3 first:2 person:1 formulate:1 specifically:1 computational:2 algorithm:2 also:4 available:4 abstract:1 proponent:1 many:2 world:2 interpretation:4 mechanic:1 fabric:5 reality:5 book:5 call:1 multiverse:2 hypothesis:1 one:1 strand:5 four:3 theory:8 everything:3 hugh:1 everett:1 important:1 karl:1 popper:1 epistemology:1 especially:3 anti:1 inductivism:1 require:1 realist:1 instrumental:1 scientific:1 emphasis:1 take:2 seriously:2 bold:1 conjecture:1 resist:1 falsification:1 alan:1 turing:4 develop:1 principle:2 universal:2 machine:1 replace:1 richard:1 dawkins:1 refinement:1 darwinian:1 evolutionary:3 modern:1 synthesis:1 idea:1 replicator:1 meme:1 integrate:1 popperian:1 problem:1 solving:1 epistemological:2 weakly:1 emergentist:1 rather:2 reductive:1 aim:1 reduction:1 particle:1 mutual:1 support:1 among:1 view:1 politically:1 know:1 sympathetic:1 libertarianism:1 founder:1 along:1 sarah:1 fitz:1 claridge:1 child:1 movement:1 atheist:1 award:4 dirac:2 prize:4 institute:1 edge:4 science:4 shortlist:2 rhone:2 poulenc:2 isbn:2 forthcoming:1 publication:1 currently:1 work:1 entitle:1 beginning:1 infinity:1 hop:1 finish:1 print:2 penguin:2 ltd:1 amazon:2 com:2 report:1 already:1 january:1 yet:1 public:1 possibility:1 seem:1 mistake:1 either:1 publisher:1 see:1 jozsa:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 homepage:1 qubit:1 org:3 extract:1 chapter:1 end:1 universe:2 parallel:1 implication:1 london:1 allen:1 lane:1 press:1 additional:1 comment:1 frank:1 j:1 tipler:1 profile:1 page:1 much:1 big:1 look:1 talk:2 new:1 scientist:1 interview:3 place:1 cosmos:1 global:1 wired:1 news:1 mini:1 article:1 cryptography:1 |@bigram david_deutsch:4 haifa_israel:1 visiting_professor:1 quantum_mechanic:1 multiverse_hypothesis:1 hugh_everett:1 karl_popper:1 alan_turing:1 turing_machine:1 richard_dawkins:1 problem_solving:1 external_link:1 |
876 | Neil_Gaiman | Neil Richard Gaiman () Author Name Pronunciation Guide - Neil Gaiman (born 10 November 1960 Comics Buyers Guide #1636 (December 2007); Page 135 ) is an English author of science fiction and fantasy short stories and novels, graphic novels, comics, and films. His notable works include The Sandman comic series, Stardust, American Gods and Coraline. Gaiman's writing has won numerous awards, including the Hugo, Nebula, and Bram Stoker awards, as well as the 2009 Newbery Medal. The extreme enthusiasm of his fans has led some to call him a "rock star" of the literary world. Author Neil Gaiman Inspires Starstruck Fans, Columbia Daily Spectator, Oct. 1, 2008 He lives near Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, in an "Addams Family house". "I thought," says Gaiman, "you know, if I'm going to leave England and go to America, I want one of those things that only America can provide and one of those things is Addams Family houses." He has three children: Michael, Holly, and Madeleine and is divorced from his former wife, Mary McGrath. http://journal.neilgaiman.com/2009/04/all-questions-all-time.html Biography Early life Gaiman's family is of Polish Jewish origins; his great-grandfather emigrated from Antwerp before 1914 Gaiman, Neil. "journeys end", Neil Gaiman's Journal, 16 January 2009 and his grandfather eventually settled in the Hampshire city of Portsmouth and established a chain of grocery stores. His father, David Bernard Gaiman, David Gaiman quote: "It's not me you should be interviewing. It's my son. Neil Gaiman. He's in the New York Times Bestsellers list. Fantasy. He's flavour of the month, very famous." "Head Bars Son Of Cult Man.", The Times, London, 13 August 1968, p.2 col. c. (convenience link), Alternate.A headmaster has refused the son of a scientologist entry to a preparatory school until, he says, the cult "clears its name". The boy, Neil Gaiman, aged 7, (...) Mr. David Gaiman, the father, aged 35, former South Coast businessman, has become in recent weeks a prominent spokesman in Britain for scientology, which has its headquarters at East Grinstead. worked in the same chain of stores; his mother, Sheila Gaiman (née Goldman), was a pharmacist. He has two younger sisters. After living for a period in the nearby town of Portchester, where Neil was born in 1960, the family settled in 1965 in the West Sussex town of East Grinstead. Gaiman lived there for many years, from 1965-1980 and again from 1984-1987. "East Grinstead Hall of Fame - Neil Gaiman", East Grinstead Community Web Site. Gaiman was educated at several Church of England schools, including Fonthill School (East Grinstead), Ardingly College (1970-74), and Whitgift School (Croydon) (1974-77). "Neil Gaiman". Exclusive Books. Journalism, early writings, and literary influences As a child and a teenager, Gaiman grew up reading the works of C.S. Lewis, J.R.R. Tolkien, Michael Moorcock, Ursula K. Le Guin, Lord Dunsany and G. K. Chesterton. He later became a fan of science fiction, reading the works of authors as diverse as Samuel R. Delany, Roger Zelazny, Robert A. Heinlein, Harlan Ellison, H. P. Lovecraft, Thorne Smith, and Gene Wolfe. In the early 1980s, Gaiman pursued journalism, conducting interviews and writing book reviews, as a means to learn about the world and to make connections that he hoped would later assist him in getting published. He wrote and reviewed extensively for the British Fantasy Society. Neil Gaiman - About Neil His first professional short story publication was "Featherquest", a fantasy story, in Imagine Magazine in May 1984, when he was 23. Neil Gaiman - About Neil In 1984, he wrote his first book, a biography of the band Duran Duran, as well as Ghastly Beyond Belief, a book of quotations, with Kim Newman. He also wrote interviews and articles for many British magazines, including Knave. As he was writing for different magazines, some of them competing, and "wrote too many articles", he sometimes went by a number of pseudonyms: Gerry Musgrave, Richard Grey, "along with a couple of house names". Neil Gaiman - Rumour control In the late 1980s, he wrote Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion in what he calls a "classic English humour" style. Following on from that he wrote the opening of what would become his collaboration with Terry Pratchett on the comic novel Good Omens, about the impending apocalypse. Science Fiction Weekly Interview Comics After forming a friendship with comic book writer Alan Moore, Gaiman started writing comics, picking up Miracleman after Moore finished his run on the series. Gaiman and artist Mark Buckingham collaborated on several issues of the series before its publisher, Eclipse Comics, collapsed, leaving the series unfinished. His first published comic strips were four short Future Shocks for 2000 AD in 1986-7. He wrote three graphic novels with his favorite collaborator and long-time friend Dave McKean: Violent Cases, Signal to Noise, and The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Mr. Punch. In between, he landed a job with DC Comics, his first work being the limited series Black Orchid. Gaiman has written numerous comics for several publishers. His award-winning series The Sandman tells the tale of Morpheus, the anthropomorphic personification of Dream. The series began in 1989 and concluded in 1996: the 75 issues of the regular series, along with an illustrated prose text and a special containing seven short stories, have been collected into 11 volumes that remain in print. In 1989, Gaiman published The Books of Magic (collected in 1991), a four-part mini-series that provided a tour of the mythological and magical parts of the DC Universe through a frame story about an English teenager who discovers that he is destined to be the world's greatest wizard. The miniseries was popular, and sired an ongoing series written by John Ney Rieber. In the mid-90s, he also created a number of new characters and a setting that was to be featured in a title published by Tekno Comix. The concepts were then altered and split between three titles set in the same continuity: Lady Justice, Mr. Hero the Newmatic Man, and Teknophage. Teknophage-neilgaiman.info They were later featured in Phage: Shadow Death and Wheel of Worlds. Although Neil Gaiman's name appeared prominently on all titles, he was not involved in writing of any of the above-mentioned books (though he helped plot the zero issue of Wheel of Worlds). Gaiman wrote a semi-autobiographical story about a boy's fascination with Michael Moorcock's anti-hero Elric for Ed Kramer's anthology Tales of the White Wolf. In 1996, Gaiman and Ed Kramer co-edited The Sandman: Book of Dreams. Nominated for the British Fantasy Award, the original fiction anthology featured stories and contributions by Tori Amos, Clive Barker, Gene Wolfe, Tad Williams, and others. Asked why he likes comics more than other forms of storytelling Gaiman said “One of the joys of comics has always been the knowledge that it was, in many ways, untouched ground. It was virgin territory. When I was working on Sandman, I felt a lot of the time that I was actually picking up a machete and heading out into the jungle. I got to write in places and do things that nobody had ever done before. When I’m writing novels I’m painfully aware that I’m working in a medium that people have been writing absolutely jaw-droppingly brilliant things for, you know, three-four thousand years now. You know, you can go back. We have things like The Golden Ass. And you go, well, I don’t know that I’m as good as that and that’s two and a half thousand years old. But with comics I felt like — I can do stuff nobody has ever done. I can do stuff nobody has ever thought of. And I could and it was enormously fun.” Ogline, Tim E.; "Myth, Magic and the Mind of Neil Gaiman", Wild River Review, 20 November 2007. In 2009, Gaiman wrote a two-part Batman story for DC Comics to follow Batman R.I.P. It will be called "Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader?" a play off of the classic Superman story "Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?" by Alan Moore. CCI: DC One Weekend Later - Gaiman on "Batman", Comic Book Resources, 27 July 2008 SDCC '08 - More on Gaiman-Batman with Dan DiDio, Newsarama, 27 July 2008 DC at Comic-Con ’08 Mike Marts, Newsarama Video, 27 July 2008 He will also be contributing a twelve-page Metamorpho story for a project Mike Allred is putting together. Gaiman & Allred on Metamorpho, Comic Book Resources, 30 January 2009 Novels In a collaboration with author Terry Pratchett (best known for his series of Discworld novels), Neil Gaiman's first novel Good Omens was published in 1990. In recent years Pratchett has said that while the entire novel was a collaborative effort and most of the ideas could be credited to both of them, Pratchett did a larger portion of writing and editing if for no other reason than Gaiman's scheduled involvement with Sandman. "L Space - Words from the Master" The 1996 novelization of Neil Gaiman's teleplay for the BBC mini-series Neverwhere was his first solo novel. The novel was released in tandem with the television series though it presents some notable differences from the television series. In 1999 first printings of his fantasy novel Stardust were released. The novel has been released both as a standard novel and in an illustrated text edition. American Gods became one of Gaiman's best-selling and multi-award winning novels upon its release in 2001. American Gods wins a Hugo! In 2005, his novel Anansi Boys was released worldwide. The book deals with Anansi ('Mr. Nancy'), a supporting character in American Gods. Specifically it traces the relationship of his two sons, one semi-divine and the other an unaware Englishman of American origin, as they explore their common heritage. It hit the New York Times bestseller list at number one. "There's a first time for everything", Neil Gaiman's journal, 28 September 2005 In late 2008, Gaiman released a new children's book, The Graveyard Book. It follows the adventures of a boy named Bod after his family is murdered and he is left to be brought up by a graveyard. It is heavily influenced by Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book. As of late January 2009, it has been on the New York Times Bestseller children's list for fifteen weeks. "Beyond Tea", Neil Gaiman's journal, 19 November 2008 As of 2008, Gaiman has several books planned. After a tour of China, he decided to write a non-fiction book about his travels and the general mythos of China. Following that, will be a new 'adult' novel (his first since 2005's Anansi Boys). After that, another 'all-ages' book (in the same vein as Coraline and The Graveyard Book). Following that, Gaiman says that he will release another non-fiction book called, The Dream Catchers. "From Las Vegas", Neil Gaiman's journal, 6 November 2008 Film and screenwriting Gaiman wrote the 1996 BBC dark fantasy television series Neverwhere. He cowrote the screenplay for the movie MirrorMask with his old friend Dave McKean for McKean to direct. In addition, he wrote the localized English language script to the anime movie Princess Mononoke, based on a translation of the Japanese script. He cowrote the script for Robert Zemeckis's Beowulf with Roger Avary, a collaboration that has proved productive for both writers. Neil Gaiman and Roger Avary: Shaping Beowulf's story, video interview with stv.tv Gaiman has expressed interest in collaborating on a film adaptation of the Epic of Gilgamesh. He was the only person other than J. Michael Straczynski to write a Babylon 5 script in the last three seasons, contributing the season five episode "Day of the Dead". Gaiman has also written at least three drafts of a screenplay adaptation of Nicholson Baker's novel The Fermata for director Robert Zemeckis, although the project was stalled while Zemeckis made The Polar Express and the Gaiman-Roger Avary written Beowulf film. Several of Gaiman's original works have been optioned or greenlighted for film adaptation, most notably Stardust, which premiered in August 2007 and stars Robert De Niro, Michelle Pfeiffer and Claire Danes, directed by Matthew Vaughn. A stop-motion version of Coraline was released on 6 February 2009, with Henry Selick directing and Dakota Fanning and Teri Hatcher in the leading voice-actor roles. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0327597/ In 2007 Gaiman announced that after ten years in development the feature film of Death: The High Cost of Living would finally begin production with a screenplay by Gaiman that he would direct for Warner Independent. Don Murphy and Susan Montford are the producers, and Guillermo del Toro is the film's executive producer. Seeing Ear Theatre performed an audio play of "Snow, Glass, Apples," Gaiman's retelling of Snow White, which was published in the collection Smoke and Mirrors in 1998. Neil's 2009 Newbery-Medal winning book 'The Graveyard Book' will be made into a movie, with Neil Jordan being announced as the director during Gaiman's appearance on The Today Show, 27 January 2009. Blog In February 2001, when Gaiman had completed writing American Gods, his publishers set up a promotional web site featuring a weblog in which Gaiman described the day-to-day process of revising, publishing, and promoting the novel. After the novel was published, the web site evolved into a more general Official Neil Gaiman Website. Official Neil Gaiman Website Gaiman generally posts to the blog several times a week, describing the day-to-day process of being Neil Gaiman and writing, revising, publishing, or promoting whatever the current project is. He also posts reader emails and answers questions, which gives him unusually direct and immediate interaction with fans. One of his answers on why he writes the blog is "because writing is, like death, a lonely business." Neil Gaiman's journal, 2/11/2008 The original American Gods blog was extracted for publication in the NESFA Press collection of Gaiman miscellany, Adventures in the Dream Trade. To celebrate the 7th anniversary of the blog, the novel American Gods was provided free of charge online for a month. Friendships Gaiman maintains friendships with several celebrities outside the comic book and science fiction fields, including: comedic fantasy author Terry Pratchett, with whom he collaborated on the novel Good Omens (it is not uncommon to see Terry Pratchett in the acknowledgements in Gaiman's books, and Gaiman in Pratchett's). singer/songwriter/performer Stephin Merritt, who has written music and lyrics for a stage musical of Coraline and with whom he is collaborating on a "mystery project". singer/songwriter/performer Amanda Palmer, with whom he is collaborating on an art book to be released as a companion piece to her debut solo album, Who Killed Amanda Palmer. singer/songwriter Jonathan Coulton, whom he has joined in performances on stage on several occasions. singer Thea Gilmore. actor/comedian Lenny Henry, a fan of Black Orchid who pitched the idea that eventually became Neverwhere to Gaiman "Gaiman Interrupted: An Interview with Neil Gaiman (Part 2)" conducted by Lawrence Person, Nova Express, Volume 5, Number 4, Fall/Winter 2000, page 2. . Jonathan Ross and his wife Jane Goldman, who appear as 'themselves' in Gaiman's short story "The Facts In The Case Of The Departure Of Miss Finch" which was included in his Fragile Things collection, having initially appeared in the English/UK edition of Smoke and Mirrors. Ross plays himself in Gaiman's short film A Short Film About John Bolton, and Gaiman appears in Ross's documentary In Search of Steve Ditko. illusionist Penn Jillette of Penn & Teller, who has mentioned Gaiman on his Free FM radio show, and appeared in the Gaiman-written "Day of the Dead" episode of Babylon 5. director Terry Gilliam, whom Pratchett and Gaiman teased by agreeing to sell him a film option for Good Omens for one groat. writer and director Roger Avary, whom has worked with Neil on both Beowulf and Black Hole. The two met while Avary was developing the Sandman film at Warner Brothers. http://browseinside.harpercollins.com/index.aspx?isbn13=9780061350160 author Kim Newman, helping develop the outline for (and originally planning to coauthor) his Anno Dracula series. Gaiman was also thanked in the back of the first novel in the series. Anno Dracula: The Background author Diana Wynne Jones, whom he met at a conference. They have been friends and fans of each others' work since then. Wynne Jones dedicated her YA sci-fi/fantasy novel Hexwood to Gaiman. Gaiman has acknowledged that the premise of American Gods was inspired in part by Wynne Jones's children's book Eight Days of Luke. Gaiman was a great admirer of the now-deceased author Douglas Adams, whose book The Ultimate Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy's introduction was written by Gaiman. Science-Fiction writer Michael Swanwick, with whom he traveled to China. "Neil Gaiman - Journal" Friendship with Tori Amos One of Gaiman's most commented-upon friendships is his friendship with the musician Tori Amos, a Sandman fan who became fast friends with Gaiman after making reference to "Neil and the Dream King" on her 1991 demo tape, and whom he included as a character (a talking tree) in Stardust. Tori Amos, "Tear in Your Hand," Little Earthquakes Amos also mentions Gaiman in her songs, "Tear in Your Hand" ("If you need me, me and Neil'll be hangin' out with the dream king. Neil says hi by the way") http://everythingtori.com/go/galleries/view/312/2/31/albums , "Space Dog" ("Where's Neil when you need him?") http://everythingtori.com/go/galleries/view/378/3/28/albums , "Horses" ("But will you find me if Neil makes me a tree?") http://everythingtori.com/go/galleries/view/234/1/26/albums , and "Carbon" ("Get me Neil on the line, no I can't hold. Have him read, 'Snow, Glass, Apples' where nothing is what it seems") http://everythingtori.com/go/galleries/view/220/1/30/albums . He also wrote stories for the tour book of Boys for Pele and Scarlet's Walk, a letter for the tour book of American Doll Posse, and the stories behind each girl in her album Strange Little Girls. Amos penned the introduction for his novel Death: the High Cost of Living, and posed for the cover. She also wrote a song called "Sister Named Desire" based on his Sandman character, which was included on his anthology, Where's Neil When You Need Him?. Neil Gaiman is godfather to Tori Amos's daughter Tash, http://journal.neilgaiman.com/2004/11/listening-to-unresolving.asp and wrote a poem called Blueberry Girl for Tori and Tash. http://journal.neilgaiman.com/2007/07/blueberry-girls.html The poem has been turned into a book by the illustrator Charles Vess. http://greenmanpress.com/news/archives/185 He read the poem aloud to an audience in San Francisco on 5 October 2008 during his book reading tour for The Graveyard Book. http://journal.neilgaiman.com/2008/10/chapter-six-in-san-francisco-yesterday.html It will be published in March 2009 with the title, Blueberry Girl. S. Alexander Reed has written about the intertextual relationships between Gaiman's and Amos's respective work. Reed does close readings of several of Gaiman's allusions to Amos, arguing that the reference to Amos happens as the texts expand and broaden their focus, and that Amos serves to disrupt the linear flow of the narrative. He reads this disruption in terms of psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan's idea of the mirror stage, arguing that the mutual referentiality serves to create an ideal vision of the reader-as-fan that the actual reader encounters and misrecognizes as themselves, thus drawing the reader into the role of the devoted (and paying) fan. The essay also contains a fairly thorough list of known references in both Gaiman's and Amos's work. Reed, S. Alexander. "Through Every Mirror in the World: Lacan's Mirror Stage as Mutual Reference in the Works of Neil Gaiman and Tori Amos." ImageTexT 4.1. Litigations In 1993, Gaiman was contracted by Todd McFarlane to write a single issue of Spawn, a popular title at the newly created Image Comics company. McFarlane was promoting his new title by having guest authors Gaiman, Alan Moore, Frank Miller, and Dave Sim each write a single issue. In issue #9 of the series, Gaiman introduced the characters Angela, Cogliostro, and Medieval Spawn. Prior to this issue, Spawn was an assassin who worked for the government and came back as a reluctant agent of Hell but had no direction. In Angela, a cruel and malicious angel, Gaiman introduced a character who threatened Spawn's existence, as well as providing a moral opposite. Cogliostro was introduced as a mentor character for exposition and instruction, providing guidance. Medieval Spawn introduced a history and precedent that not all Spawns were self-serving or evil, giving additional character development to Malebolgia, the demon that creates Hellspawn. As intended (and legally allowed) See Judge Shabaz's ruling for the legal reasoning: "As a co-owner, McFarlane was not violating the Copyright Act by unilaterally publishing the jointly owned work, but, as in any other case of conversion or misappropriation, he would have to account to the other joint owner for the latter's share of the profits." , all three characters were used repeatedly throughout the next decade by Todd McFarlane within the wider Spawn universe. In papers filed by Neil Gaiman in early 2002, however, he claimed that the characters were jointly owned by their scripter (himself) and artist (McFarlane), not merely by McFarlane in his role as the creator of the series. Listen to the "Oral Argument," List of Documents in case: 03-1331 : Gaiman, Neil v. McFarlane, Todd. Accessed 22 September 2008 See also the official decision by Judge John Shabaz in The United States Court of Appeals For the Seventh Circuit Nos. 03-1331, 03-1461. Accessed 22 September 2008 Ironically, disagreement over who owned the rights to a character was the primary motivation for McFarlane and other artists to form Image Comics (although that argument related more towards disagreements between writers and artists as character creators). See Khoury, George, Image Comics: The Road To Independence (TwoMorrows Publications, 2007), ISBN 1-893905-71-3 As McFarlane used the characters without Gaiman's permission or royalty payments, Gaiman believed his copyrighted work was being infringed upon, which violated their original, oral, agreement. McFarlane initially agreed that Gaiman had not signed away any rights to the characters, and negotiated with Gaiman to effectively 'swap' McFarlane's interest in the character Miracleman See Judge Shabaz's ruling: "A tentative agreement was reached that... Gaiman would exchange his rights in Medieval Spawn and Cogliostro for McFarlane's rights in another comic book character, Miracleman." (McFarlane believes he purchased interest in the character when Eclipse Comics was liquidated; Gaiman is interested in being able to continue his aborted run on that title) but later claimed that Gaiman's work had been work-for-hire and that McFarlane owned all of Gaiman's creations entirely. The presiding Judge, however, ruled against their agreement being work for hire, based in large part on the legal ruling that "copyright assignments must be in writing." Judge Shabaz, Official ruling, as per "Schiller & Schmidt, Inc. v. Nordisco Corp., 969 F.2d 410, 413 (7th Cir. 1992)" The 24 February 2004 ruling ultimately upheld a district court ruling in October 2002 "Gaiman in Stunning Victory over McFarlane in Spawn Case: Jury Finds for Gaiman on All Counts," by Beau Yarbrough, 3 October 2002. Accessed 22 September 2008 granting joint ownership of the characters to Gaiman and McFarlane. On the specific issue of Cogliostro, presiding Judge John Shabaz proclaimed "The expressive work that is the comic-book character Count Nicholas Cogliostro was the joint work of Gaiman and McFarlane—their contributions strike us as quite equal—and both are entitled to ownership of the copyright". See Judge Shabaz's ruling for similar statements on Angela and Medieval Spawn. This legal battle was brought by Gaiman and the specifically-formed Marvels and Miracles, LLC, which Gaiman created in order to help sort out the legal rights surrounding Miracleman (see the ownership of Miracleman sub-section of the Miracleman article). Gaiman wrote Marvel 1602 in 2003 to help fund this project. "Marvel's "1602" Press Conference," by Jonah Weiland, 27 June 2003. Accessed 22 September 2008 All of Marvel Comics' profits for the original issues of the series went to Marvels and Miracles. Gaiman is a major supporter and board member of the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund. "Neil Gaiman Talks Sandman, CBLDF on NPR," 19 September 2003. Accessed 22 September 2008 Awards Neil Gaiman in 2004. Gaiman received a World Fantasy Award for short fiction in 1991 for the Sandman issue, "A Midsummer Night's Dream" (see Dream Country). (Due to a subsequent rules change disqualifying comics for that category, Gaiman is the only writer to win that award for a comics script.) He has won the Comics Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer for the years 1991-1993, and received nominations from 1997-2000. His work on The Sandman was awarded the Favourite Comic Book Story for 1991 and 1994. Gaiman was awarded the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund Defender of Liberty award in 1997. The illustrated version of Stardust won the Mythopoeic Fantasy Award for Adult Literature 1999. In 2000, The Sandman: The Dream Hunters was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Related Book http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/Hugo2000.html and won the Bram Stoker Award for Best Illustrated Narrative. http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/Stoker2000.html American Gods won the Hugo Award for Best Novel 2002, the Nebula Award for Best Novel 2002, the Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel 2002 and the Bram Stoker Award for Best Novel 2001. It is among the most-honored works of fiction in recent history. Coraline won the Hugo Award for Best Novella 2003, the Nebula Award for Best Novella 2003, the Locus Award for Best Young Adult Book 2003 and the Bram Stoker Award for Best Work for Young Readers 2003. http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/Stoker2003.html In 2004, his short story "A Study in Emerald" won another Hugo (in a ceremony the author presided over himself, having volunteered for the job before his story was nominated). Also in 2004, The Sandman: Endless Nights won the Bram Stoker Award for Best Illustrated Narrative and The Sandman: Season of Mists won the Angoulême International Comics Festival Prize for Scenario. In 2005, Marvel 1602 won the Quill Book Award for Graphic Novels. Anansi Boys won him a second Mythopoeic Fantasy Award for Adult Literature in 2006. The book was also nominated for a Hugo Award, but Gaiman asked for it to be withdrawn from the list of nominations, stating that he wanted to give other writers a chance, and it was really more fantasy than science fiction. Gaiman has won 19 Eisner Awards for his comics work. From the comics fans in the rec.arts.comics* newsgroups, Gaiman won the Squiddy Award for Best Writer five years in a row from 1990 to 1994. He was also named Best Writer of the 1990s in the Squiddy Awards for the decade. In 2007 he was awarded the Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award. The Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award In 2007 Gaiman was presented with the Comic-Con Icon award at the Scream Awards. In January 2009, Gaiman's The Graveyard Book was awarded the Newbery Medal. Gaiman's blog, 26 January 2009 In March 2009, it was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Novel. [http://www.thehugoawards.org/ References in popular culture In SimCity 2000, if the player queries a library and click "Ruminate" an article about cities' personalities appears which was written by Gaiman. The article is also available on the official Gaiman website. In the science-fiction television series Babylon 5, one of the races (The Gaim) is named in homage to Gaiman. Literary allusions Gaiman's work is known for a high degree of allusiveness. See particularly Rodney Sharkey, James Fleming, and Zuleyha Cetiner-Oktem's articles in ImageTexT's special issue on Gaiman's work: . Meredith Collins, for instance, has commented upon the degree to which his novel Stardust depends on allusions to Victorian fairy tales and culture. Collins, Meredith. "Fairy and Faerie: Uses of the Victorian in Neil Gaiman's and Charles Vess's Stardust." ImageTexT 4.1. Particularly in The Sandman, literary figures and characters appear often; the character of Fiddler's Green is modelled visually on G.K. Chesterton, both William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer appear as characters, as do several characters from within A Midsummer Night's Dream. The comic also draws from numerous mythologies and historical periods. Such allusions are not unique to Sandman. Clay Smith has argued that this sort of allusiveness serves to situate Gaiman as a strong authorial presence in his own works, often to the exclusion of his collaborators. Smith, Clay. "Get Gaiman?: PolyMorpheus Perversity in Works by and about Neil Gaiman." ImageTexT 4.1. However, Smith's viewpoint is in the minority: to many, if there is a problem with Gaiman scholarship and intertextuality it is that "... his literary merit and vast popularity have propelled him into the nascent comics canon so quickly that there is not yet a basis of critical scholarship about his work." A Special Issue on the Works of Neil Gaiman, Introduction. David Rudd takes a more generous view in his study of the novel Coraline, where he argues that the work plays and riffs productively on Sigmund Freud's notion of the Uncanny, or the Unheimlich. Rudd, David "An Eye for an 'I': Neil Gaiman’s Coraline and the Question of Identity" Children’s Literature and Education 39(3), 2008, pp. 159-168 Though Gaiman's work is frequently seen as exemplifying the monomyth structure laid out in Joseph Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces, See Stephen Rauch, Neil Gaiman's The Sandman and Joseph Campbell: In Search of the Modern Myth, Wildside Press, 2003 Gaiman says that he started The Hero with a Thousand Faces but refused to finish it: "I think I got about half way through The Hero with a Thousand Faces and found myself thinking if this is true — I don’t want to know. I really would rather not know this stuff. I’d rather do it because it’s true and because I accidentally wind up creating something that falls into this pattern than be told what the pattern is." The Wild River Review, "Interview with the Dream King" Bibliography Neil Gaiman has written many comics and graphic novels, as well as numerous books and short stories. He has also created a number of audio books, a TV miniseries, and the scripts for several movies. See also List of fantasy authors List of horror fiction authors List of science fiction authors Notes References Neil Gaiman Bibliography External links Neil Gaiman's personal web site Neil Gaiman's weblog Neil Gaiman's Twitter stream Official site for children's books with Dave McKean (US publisher) Official site for children's books with Dave McKean (UK publisher) Official Gaiman clothing line neilgaiman.info: The Neil Gaiman wiki A Study in Emerald by Neil Gaiman, Free Audio Story Reviews of Neil Gaiman's works at Fantasy Literature | Neil_Gaiman |@lemmatized neil:58 richard:2 gaiman:147 author:14 name:8 pronunciation:1 guide:5 born:1 november:4 comic:40 buyer:2 december:1 page:3 english:5 science:8 fiction:14 fantasy:16 short:10 story:19 novel:34 graphic:4 film:11 notable:2 work:34 include:8 sandman:17 series:21 stardust:7 american:11 god:9 coraline:7 writing:8 win:18 numerous:4 award:37 hugo:8 nebula:3 bram:5 stoker:5 well:5 newbery:3 medal:3 extreme:1 enthusiasm:1 fan:10 lead:1 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877 | Geography_of_Macau | The administrative divisions within Macau (Click here for Satellite Image) Macau is a city on the southern coast of China. It is located at the south of Guangdong Province, on the tip of the peninsula formed by the Zhujiang (Pearl River) estuary on the east and the Xijiang (West River) on the west. Macau is situated 60 km west of Hong Kong and 145 km southwest of Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong Province. It is immediately adjacent to the Zhuhai Special Economic Zone. The region comprises the Macau Peninsula and the islands of Taipa and Coloane. Macau was once an island but gradually a connecting sandbar turned into a narrow isthmus. Land reclamation in the 17th century made Macau into a peninsula, and a barrier gate was built to mark the separation between the peninsula and the mainland. Pre-colonial records show that Macau totaled only 2.78 km² but began to increase as a result of Portuguese settlement. Land growth has accelerated since the last quarter of the 20th century, from 15 square kilometers in 1972 to 16.1 square kilometers in 1983 to 21.3 square kilometers in 1994. Macau's size has gradually increased as result of continued land reclamation, especially on Taipa and Coloane. In 2000, the total land area was approximately 23.6 km². There is a 0.34-kilometer-long border between Macau and mainland China and a forty-kilometer-long coastline. The main border crossing between Macau and China is the Portas do Cerco (Barrier Gate) Frontier Checkpoint on the Macau side, and the Gongbei checkpoint on the Chinese side. Location, size, border, and coastline Map of Macau, Hong Kong and surrounding countries Location: Eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China Geographic coordinates: Area: total: 28.6 km² land: 28.6 km² water: 0 km² Land boundaries: total: 0.34 km border city: Zhuhai, Guangdong Province 0.34 km Coastline: 40 km Maritime claims: not specified Topography Terrain: generally flat Elevation extremes: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m highest point: Coloane Alto 174 m Macau has generally flat terrain resulting from extensive land reclamation, but numerous steep hills mark the original natural land mass. The modern high-rise skyline of Macau obscures much of the hilly landscape. The Macau skyline both defines and obscures its topography. The Macau Peninsula is narrow in shape but varies in terrain: The East Ocean Watching Hill, West Ocean Watching Hill, Persimmon Hill, Lotus Hill, Luosi Hill and Qingzhou Hill are famous scenic spots in Macau. The Persimmon Hill used to be a fortress surrounded by stone walls. The fortress, which resembles an imposing European castle, is now a tourist attraction. Standing on the Persimmon Hill, one gains a panoramic view of both Macau and the nearby Zhuhai. The West Ocean Watching Hill, a tranquil scenic spot, is noted for the cathedral and the bishop's mansion on its top. Viewed from the Nanxi Bay in the distance, particularly against the evening glow, the cathedral and the mansion stand in their full splendor. From the top of the Persimmon Hill, one sees the Nanxi Bay and the high rise buildings there as well as the sea and the sea - spanning bridge. Climate Subtropical; humid with mild winters, hot summers. Although Macau is located in the tropics, the Siberian pressure system in the winter pushes cool air further south than in other areas of the world. Therefore, climate in Macau is best described as subtropical like its neighbor, Hong Kong, rather than tropical. Its average year-round temperature is around 23°C. Summer average temperature is around 29°C and the highest daytime temperature could reach 35°C. However, the heat is generally less intense than many places in mainland China due to the coastal location. Winter average is 14°C and the lowest temperature could drop to 5°C. There is about 2,030 millimeters of rainfall annually. Macau is exposed to tropical storms originating from the southern Pacific Ocean during the summer. Major destruction occurred in September 1874, when a devastating typhoon hit Macau and high seas swept across the low-lying area of the peninsula. There are always a few tropical storm occurrences in Macau each year (typically between May to October), although they vary in strengths. When they occur, they usually bring strong winds, rainfall and lower temperatures. Prevailing winds and weather types change follow the monsoon pattern. It is warm and moist when the southeast and southwest winds coming from Pacific Ocean, and typhoons are relatively common during summertime; and is dry and slightly cold when the north winds coming from Siberia or the northern part of Mainland China. During the transition period from northeast monsoon to southwest monsoon (March and April), the weather is moist and foggy. It is Macau's spring season. Summer is from May to September, when the southeast and southwest monsoon prevailing. It is rather hot and rainy. The weather in autumn (the end of September and October) is sunny and warm, when the southwest monsoon withdrawing gradually and the northeast monsoon advancing south. It is generally regarded as the most comfortable season there. Winter is from November to February next year, when the northeast monsoon prevailing. It is mainly dry, with occasional cold fronts arriving. Natural resources Negligible. In the past, large amounts of granite were extracted from Macau's hills for use as building material. Fresh water Relying on the water supply of Xijiang River, Macau is at present suffering its worst ever crisis of salinity in freshwater during dry season in 2006 which takes place in late winter and early spring time. The salinity level of freshwater has recently aggrandized far above the standard set up by the World Health Organization or WHO. By the end of 2007, Macau will be able to solve the problem of tap-water supply with relatively high level of salinity after the completion of the Ping Gang project. This project is aimed at shifting the intake of raw-water on the Xijiang River 20 km upstream in order to give a wide berth to the salt tide in the province of Guangdong. Land use and reclamation Macau Peninsula and Ilha Verde in 1889 Macau Peninsula, Taipa and Coloane in 1912 No arable land, pastures, forest, or woodland. Because of this deficiency, Macau's people traditionally have looked to the sea for their livelihood. arable land: 0% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 98% (1998 est.) The change of total area of Macau (in km square) since the year of 1912: Year Area of Macau Peninsula Area of Taipa Area of Coloane Area of Cotai Total area of Macau 1912 3.4＊ 2.3 5.9 —— 11.6 1936 5.2 2.6 6.0 —— 13.8 1957 5.5 3.3 6.3 —— 15.1 1986 5.8 3.7 7.1 —— 16.6 1991 6.5 4.0 7.6 —— 18.1 1996 7.7 5.8 7.6 —— 21.3 1999 7.8 6.2 7.6 —— 23.8 2000 8.5 6.2 7.6 —— 25.4 2001 8.5 6.2 7.6 3.5 25.8 2002 8.5 6.2 7.6 4.5 26.8 2003 8.7 6.2 7.6 4.7 27.3 2004 8.8 6.4 7.6 4.7 27.5 2005 8.9 28.2 2006 28.6 Environmental factors Dense urban environment. Geography - note: essentially urban; one causeway and two bridges connect the two islands of Coloane and Taipa to the peninsula on mainland See also Geography of China | Geography_of_Macau |@lemmatized administrative:1 division:1 within:1 macau:33 click:1 satellite:1 image:1 city:2 southern:2 coast:1 china:9 locate:2 south:5 guangdong:4 province:4 tip:1 peninsula:10 form:1 zhujiang:1 pearl:1 river:4 estuary:1 east:2 xijiang:3 west:5 situate:1 km:7 hong:3 kong:3 southwest:5 guangzhou:1 capital:1 immediately:1 adjacent:1 zhuhai:3 special:1 economic:1 zone:1 region:1 comprise:1 island:3 taipa:5 coloane:6 gradually:3 connecting:1 sandbar:1 turn:1 narrow:2 isthmus:1 land:11 reclamation:4 century:2 make:1 barrier:2 gate:2 build:1 mark:2 separation:1 mainland:5 pre:1 colonial:1 record:1 show:1 total:6 begin:1 increase:2 result:3 portuguese:1 settlement:1 growth:1 accelerate:1 since:2 last:1 quarter:1 square:4 kilometer:5 size:2 continued:1 especially:1 area:10 approximately:1 long:2 border:5 forty:1 coastline:3 main:1 cross:1 porta:1 cerco:1 frontier:1 checkpoint:2 side:2 gongbei:1 chinese:1 location:3 map:1 surround:2 country:1 eastern:1 asia:1 sea:6 geographic:1 coordinate:1 water:5 boundary:1 maritime:1 claim:1 specify:1 topography:2 terrain:3 generally:4 flat:2 elevation:1 extreme:1 low:4 point:2 high:6 alto:1 extensive:1 numerous:1 steep:1 hill:12 original:1 natural:2 mass:1 modern:1 rise:2 skyline:2 obscures:1 much:1 hilly:1 landscape:1 defines:1 obscure:1 shape:1 varies:1 ocean:5 watching:1 watch:2 persimmon:4 lotus:1 luosi:1 qingzhou:1 famous:1 scenic:2 spot:2 use:3 fortress:2 stone:1 wall:1 resemble:1 imposing:1 european:1 castle:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 stand:2 one:3 gain:1 panoramic:1 view:2 nearby:1 tranquil:1 note:2 cathedral:2 bishop:1 mansion:2 top:2 nanxi:2 bay:2 distance:1 particularly:1 evening:1 glow:1 full:1 splendor:1 see:2 building:2 well:1 spanning:1 bridge:2 climate:2 subtropical:2 humid:1 mild:1 winter:5 hot:2 summer:4 although:2 tropic:1 siberian:1 pressure:1 system:1 push:1 cool:1 air:1 far:2 world:2 therefore:1 best:1 describe:1 like:1 neighbor:1 rather:2 tropical:3 average:3 year:5 round:1 temperature:5 around:2 c:5 daytime:1 could:2 reach:1 however:1 heat:1 less:1 intense:1 many:1 place:2 due:1 coastal:1 drop:1 millimeter:1 rainfall:2 annually:1 expose:1 storm:2 originate:1 pacific:2 major:1 destruction:1 occur:2 september:3 devastate:1 typhoon:2 hit:1 sweep:1 across:1 lie:1 always:1 occurrence:1 typically:1 may:2 october:2 vary:1 strength:1 usually:1 bring:1 strong:1 wind:4 prevail:1 weather:3 type:1 change:2 follow:1 monsoon:7 pattern:1 warm:2 moist:2 southeast:2 come:2 relatively:2 common:1 summertime:1 dry:3 slightly:1 cold:2 north:1 siberia:1 northern:1 part:1 transition:1 period:1 northeast:3 march:1 april:1 foggy:1 spring:2 season:3 prevailing:2 rainy:1 autumn:1 end:2 sunny:1 withdraw:1 advance:1 regard:1 comfortable:1 november:1 february:1 next:1 mainly:1 occasional:1 front:1 arrive:1 resource:1 negligible:1 past:1 large:1 amount:1 granite:1 extract:1 material:1 fresh:1 rely:1 supply:2 present:1 suffer:1 bad:1 ever:1 crisis:1 salinity:3 freshwater:2 take:1 late:1 early:1 time:1 level:2 recently:1 aggrandize:1 standard:1 set:1 health:1 organization:1 able:1 solve:1 problem:1 tap:1 completion:1 ping:1 gang:1 project:2 aim:1 shift:1 intake:1 raw:1 upstream:1 order:1 give:1 wide:1 berth:1 salt:1 tide:1 ilha:1 verde:1 arable:2 pasture:2 forest:2 woodland:2 deficiency:1 people:1 traditionally:1 look:1 livelihood:1 permanent:2 crop:1 est:1 cotai:1 environmental:1 factor:1 dense:1 urban:2 environment:1 geography:2 essentially:1 causeway:1 two:2 connect:1 also:1 |@bigram guangdong_province:3 hong_kong:3 taipa_coloane:3 land_reclamation:3 square_kilometer:3 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 tourist_attraction:1 panoramic_view:1 subtropical_humid:1 daytime_temperature:1 millimeter_rainfall:1 tropical_storm:2 pacific_ocean:2 warm_moist:1 northeast_monsoon:3 southwest_monsoon:3 peninsula_taipa:1 arable_land:2 pasture_forest:2 forest_woodland:2 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 woodland_est:1 |
878 | Genosha | Genosha is a fictional country that has appeared in numerous comic book series published by Marvel Comics. It is an island nation that exists in Marvel's main shared universe, known as the Marvel Universe. The fictional nation served as an allegory for slavery and later for South African apartheid before becoming a mutant homeland and subsequently a disaster zone. Its capital was the city of Hammer Bay. Publication history Genosha first appeared in Uncanny X-Men #235 (October 1988), and was created by Chris Claremont and Rick Leonardi. Genosha received an entry in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Update '89 #3. Fictional country history Mutant apartheid The island is located off the east coast of Africa, to the north of Madagascar, and boasted a high standard of living, an excellent economy, and freedom from the political and racial turmoil that characterized neighboring nations. However, Genosha's prosperity was built upon the enslavement of its mutant population. Mutants in Genosha were the property of the state and children who were positively identified with the mutant gene were put through a process developed by David Moreau, commonly known as the Genengineer, stripped of free will and made into mutates (a Marvel term for genetically-modified individuals as opposed to those who developed mutant powers naturally). The Genengineer was also capable of modifying certain mutant abilities in order to fulfill specific labor shortages. Citizenship in Genosha is permanent and the government does not recognize any emigration. Citizens who attempt to leave the country are tracked down and forcibly brought back to the island by the special police force known as Magistrates, and mutant problems are handled by a special group known as the Press Gang. The Press Gang consisted of Hawkshaw, Pipeline, and Punchout, and were aided in their task by Wipeout. The foundations of Genoshan society has been upset in recent years due to the efforts of outside mutant interests. In the first storyline to feature the nation, some members of the X-Men (Wolverine, Rogue, and their ally Madelyne Pryor) were kidnapped by Genoshan Magistrates, under the order of the Genengineer. Later, in the multi-issue, multi-title X-Tinction Agenda storyline, the X-Men and their allies rescued their teammates, Storm, Meltdown, Rictor and Wolfsbane, from Genoshan brainwashing, toppling the government after discovering their alliance with former X-Factor ally turned mutant hater, Cameron Hodge, and that Havok was one of the Magistrates since having his memory wiped by the Siege Perilous. Havok himself, woken from his conditioning by his brother Cyclops dealt the killing blow to Cameron Hodge in the process. Another ally, a member of the New Mutants named Warlock, was killed by Cameron Hodge. The news of this death was broadcast worldwide. Conflict & Magneto's reign A new Genoshan regime that promised better treatment of mutants was put in place after Hodge's destruction. A period of general turmoil and a number of attacks by superhumans, including Magneto's Acolytes who were unwilling to forgive the former Genoshan government for its crimes against mutants, followed. A different version of X-Factor, including Wolfsbane, later returned to the island to help restore peace between its government and a rogue group of super-powered beings that had fled the island. The Genoshan government was shown with peaceful intentions, even trying to undo the ill effects visited upon Wolfsbane. Genosha was also shown to have typical suburban tract housing, like many small towns in America. After the Age of Apocalypse story arc, it was revealed and retconned that the mutate process formula was given to the Genegineer by Sugar Man, a refugee of the Age of Apocalypse time line. The United Nations ceded the island nation to the powerful mutant Magneto, after he demanded an entire mutants-only nation. X-Men vol. 2 #87 (Apr 1999) Magneto and his Acolytes managed to reestablish a modicum of peace and stability only briefly until civil war broke out between him and the remaining human population on the island led by the Magistrates. Magneto eventually defeated the magistrates and restored order to most of the island, with hold-outs briefly remaining at Carrion Cove before being obliterated. The elimination of the Legacy Virus gave Magneto a freshly healthy army, leading him to declare a campaign of global conquest. A small team of X-Men stopped this plan, badly injuring Magneto in the process (the original issue presented him as being killed, but New X-Men retconned this). By New X-Men #115, Genosha had a population of sixteen million mutants and a stable, advanced society. However, the entire island was reduced to rubble and its mutant population was slain by Cassandra Nova's Sentinels. There were few survivors, many evacuated, and the Brotherhood of Mutants turned one of the Sentinels into a memorial statue in #132. Xavier's leadership Magneto and Xavier have since then joined forces to rebuild the island nation as detailed in the series Excalibur vol. 3 (2004). This goes badly as foreign military forces have thrown up a cordon around the island, no one gets in and those trying to leave are fired upon. A few survivors and newly arriving mutants who wish to help with the rebuilding process remain on the island. Members of this volunteer 'army' include Callisto, Freakshow and Wicked. More are found in the surrounding countryside, some join with Xavier. There is a conflict with Magistrates, the island's former law enforcement. Though they are assisted by humanoid creatures they refer to as 'trolls', the Magistra's forces are driven off. Some of the Magistrates are captured and kept in the island's makeshift jail. In Excalibur #6, some of the captured Magistrates agree to work with Xavier to rebuild the island. Throughout the entire series, Unus the Untouchable and his squadron of mutants remain a problem; they don't wish to be part of Xavier's group. House of M Later Magneto learned of the Scarlet Witch's nervous break-down and her ever-growing powers to alter reality. Magneto snatched Wanda from her battle with her fellow Avengers and brought her to Genosha, where he asked Xavier to restore the Scarlet Witch’s sanity - but to no avail. The telepath couldn’t help her and, concerned of the threat to reality that Wanda posed, Xavier consulted the Avengers and the X-Men what to do with Magneto’s daughter. Their decision was rendered moot, though, as by the time they reached Genosha reality altered around the heroes - changing into the world ruled by the “House of M”. While conventional reality was eventually restored, it came at a high price, as thousands if not millions of Earth’s mutant population lost their powers or died in the process, leaving only a few hundred mutants alive or powered. Just like most of his new Genoshan allies and enemies, Magneto was among the de-powered people, remaining trapped on the island. Son of M and Collective Incident In the limited series Son of M there is a battle between some of the remaining mutants and the Inhumans. In New Avengers #19-20 it was revealed that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, and the same held true for the energies of the numerous depowered mutants. Eventually, these energies gathered in the form of an unsuspecting energy-absorbing mutant named Michael Pointer. Dubbed “the Collective” by the Avengers, against whom he then fought, the Collective traveled to Genosha and reached out to the startled Magneto. The Collective attempted to restore Magneto’s powers and convince him to lead the remaining mutants into taking over the planet. To the Collective’s surprise, Magneto resisted and allowed the Avengers to separate the energy from his body and send it into the sun. The comatose Magneto is also taken into SHIELD custody, but the helicopter that was supposed to transport him off Genosha explodes once it lifts off. Magneto’s body is not found. It has since been revealed that he survived the explosion and is apparently still depowered. To the date Genosha is now completely dead. Already in ruins before, the battle between the Inhumans and the O*N*E further destroyed the once proud island nation. Since Magneto was the last person on Genosha, it seems that it’s now totally uninhabited. Other versions Ultimate Genosha In the Ultimate Marvel imprint, Genosha has made an appearance. It is an island south of Madagascar. Its main export seems to be television programs. Mutants were recently reduced to second-class citizens after the murder of a government minister by a mutant called Longshot. Citizens include Mojo Adams, Spiral, and Deadpool. JLA/Avengers While searching for artifacts from the Marvel Universe, Martian Manhunter and Wonder Woman are seen looking through the ruins of Genosha and are disturbed by the violence against those who are different. Other media Television In the 1990s animated TV series X-Men, Genosha claims to be a mutant-friendly environment where those possessing the "x-gene" could live peacefully without fear of persecution....This is all a lie. As soon as any mutants would arrive, they would be captured. Power-negating collars would be placed around their necks and they would be put to work building Sentinels for the Genoshan government, under the direction of Bolivar Trask, Cameron Hodge, Henry Peter Gyrich, and a government official known as "the Leader." This all changes with the arrival of the X-Men. With the help of Cable and a flood orchestrated by Storm, they are able to simultaneously free the mutant slaves and destroy the Sentinels. Genosha continues to enslave mutants employing Sentinels and the Magistrates, until they are rescued by Magneto and his Acolytes with the aid of many mutants (examples being Random, Arclight, Tar Baby, Blockbuster, Peepers, the second Shocker, and even Gambit, the Beast and Professor X). All Genoshan mutants leave for Asteroid M. Before long, the country is taken over by Magneto who is ready to declare war on the rest of the world with the Genoshan mutants by his side following an attack on Professor X during an anti-mutant summit. He never follows through with his plans, though, as he is called to a dying Xavier's side in the series' final episode. In the Wolverine and the X-Men continuity, Genosha is a mutant paradise under Magneto's rule. Magneto offers the country as a sanctuary for other mutants around the world, promising peace and equality. Despite the facade of a mutant paradise, Nightcrawler, who intends on becoming a Genoshan resident, soon learns that Magneto unfairly incarcerates Genosha mutants who do not act according to Magneto's desires. In "Battle Lines," it is revealed that Senator Kelly gave Genosha to Magneto. In "Aces and Eights," Genosha has closed off its borders. In the three-part episode "Foresight," Magneto has Mystique pose as Senator Kelly and unleash the Sentinels on Genosha. This was part of Magneto's plan to reprogram them to attack humans only to face problems with the Phoenix Force. After the Phoenix Force was stopped, Scarlet Witch and Polaris had Blink teleport Magneto and Quicksilver away from Genosha. Though Genosha is no longer Magneto's country, Scarlet Witch tells Quicksilver that he is always welcome in Genosha. Video games In the SNES game, X-Men: Mutant Apocalypse, the mutant warlord Apocalypse was using the island as a hideout and using the mutant slaves for his own evil purpose. Genosha is the Sentinel's stage in the arcade and console-imported game X-Men: Children of the Atom. Master Mold can be seen working in the background. If the Sentinel wins, Master Mold lifts off. However, if the Sentinel loses, Master Mold gets destroyed as well. In X-Men Legends, Genosha is mentioned when Magneto gives his demands on television to make it a mutant paradise under his control. In X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, a chapter set in Genosha has it devastated by Apocalypse. The X-Men and the Brotherhood of Mutants had to liberate it from his control while using Magneto's sanctuary as a hub. Record Label Genosha recordings: Experimental hardcore/gabber/darkcore label run by The Outside Agency. References External links Genosha at Marvel.com Genosha at UncannyXmen.net Public forum based on Genosha hosted by Forumer.com | Genosha |@lemmatized genosha:34 fictional:3 country:6 appear:2 numerous:2 comic:2 book:1 series:6 publish:1 marvel:8 island:19 nation:9 exist:1 main:2 share:1 universe:4 know:5 serve:1 allegory:1 slavery:1 later:4 south:2 african:1 apartheid:2 become:2 mutant:45 homeland:1 subsequently:1 disaster:1 zone:1 capital:1 city:1 hammer:1 bay:1 publication:1 history:2 first:2 uncanny:1 x:22 men:16 october:1 create:2 chris:1 claremont:1 rick:1 leonardi:1 receive:1 entry:1 official:2 handbook:1 update:1 locate:1 east:1 coast:1 africa:1 north:1 madagascar:2 boast:1 high:2 standard:1 living:1 excellent:1 economy:1 freedom:1 political:1 racial:1 turmoil:2 characterize:1 neighboring:1 however:3 prosperity:1 build:1 upon:3 enslavement:1 population:5 property:1 state:1 child:2 positively:1 identify:1 gene:2 put:3 process:6 develop:2 david:1 moreau:1 commonly:1 genengineer:3 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warlock:1 news:1 death:1 broadcast:1 worldwide:1 conflict:2 magneto:31 reign:1 regime:1 promise:2 well:2 treatment:1 place:2 destruction:1 period:1 general:1 number:1 attack:3 superhumans:1 include:4 acolyte:3 unwilling:1 forgive:1 crime:1 follow:3 different:2 version:2 return:1 help:4 restore:5 peace:3 super:1 powered:2 flee:1 show:2 peaceful:1 intention:1 even:2 try:2 undo:1 ill:1 effect:1 visit:1 typical:1 suburban:1 tract:1 housing:1 like:2 many:3 small:2 town:1 america:1 age:2 apocalypse:6 story:1 arc:1 reveal:4 retconned:2 mutate:1 formula:1 give:4 genegineer:1 sugar:1 man:1 refugee:1 time:2 line:2 united:1 cede:1 powerful:1 demand:2 entire:3 vol:2 apr:1 manage:1 reestablish:1 modicum:1 stability:1 briefly:2 civil:1 war:2 break:2 remain:7 human:2 lead:3 eventually:3 defeat:1 hold:2 carrion:1 cove:1 obliterate:1 elimination:1 legacy:1 virus:1 freshly:1 healthy:1 army:2 declare:2 campaign:1 global:1 conquest:1 team:1 stop:2 plan:3 badly:2 injure:1 original:1 present:1 sixteen:1 million:2 stable:1 advanced:1 reduce:2 rubble:1 slay:1 cassandra:1 nova:1 sentinel:9 survivor:2 evacuate:1 brotherhood:2 memorial:1 statue:1 xavier:8 leadership:1 join:2 rebuild:3 detail:1 excalibur:2 go:1 foreign:1 military:1 throw:1 cordon:1 around:4 get:2 fire:1 newly:1 arrive:2 wish:2 volunteer:1 callisto:1 freakshow:1 wicked:1 find:2 surrounding:1 countryside:1 law:1 enforcement:1 though:4 assist:1 humanoid:1 creature:1 refer:1 troll:1 magistra:1 drive:1 capture:2 keep:1 makeshift:1 jail:1 captured:1 agree:1 work:3 throughout:1 unus:1 untouchable:1 squadron:1 part:3 house:2 learn:2 scarlet:4 witch:4 nervous:1 ever:1 grow:1 alter:2 reality:4 snatch:1 wanda:2 battle:4 fellow:1 avenger:6 ask:1 sanity:1 avail:1 telepath:1 concern:1 threat:1 pose:2 consult:1 daughter:1 decision:1 render:1 moot:1 reach:2 hero:1 change:2 world:3 rule:2 conventional:1 come:1 price:1 thousand:1 earth:1 lose:2 die:2 hundred:1 alive:1 enemy:1 among:1 de:1 people:1 trap:1 son:2 collective:5 incident:1 limited:1 inhumans:2 energy:5 cannot:1 destroy:4 true:1 depowered:2 gather:1 form:1 unsuspecting:1 absorb:1 michael:1 pointer:1 dub:1 fight:1 travel:1 startle:1 convince:1 take:3 planet:1 surprise:1 resist:1 allow:1 separate:1 body:2 send:1 sun:1 comatose:1 shield:1 custody:1 helicopter:1 suppose:1 transport:1 explode:1 lift:1 survive:1 explosion:1 apparently:1 still:1 date:1 completely:1 dead:1 already:1 ruin:2 n:1 e:1 far:1 proud:1 last:1 person:1 seem:2 totally:1 uninhabited:1 ultimate:2 imprint:1 appearance:1 export:1 television:3 program:1 recently:1 second:2 class:1 murder:1 minister:1 call:2 longshot:1 mojo:1 adam:1 spiral:1 deadpool:1 jla:1 search:1 artifact:1 martian:1 manhunter:1 wonder:1 woman:1 see:2 look:1 disturb:1 violence:1 medium:1 animate:1 tv:1 claim:1 friendly:1 environment:1 possess:1 could:1 live:1 peacefully:1 without:1 fear:1 persecution:1 lie:1 soon:2 would:4 negating:1 collar:1 neck:1 building:1 direction:1 bolivar:1 trask:1 henry:1 peter:1 gyrich:1 leader:1 arrival:1 cable:1 flood:1 orchestrate:1 able:1 simultaneously:1 slave:2 continue:1 enslave:1 employ:1 example:1 random:1 arclight:1 tar:1 baby:1 blockbuster:1 peeper:1 shocker:1 gambit:1 beast:1 professor:2 asteroid:1 long:1 ready:1 rest:1 side:2 anti:1 summit:1 never:1 final:1 episode:2 continuity:1 paradise:3 offer:1 sanctuary:2 equality:1 despite:1 facade:1 nightcrawler:1 intend:1 resident:1 unfairly:1 incarcerate:1 act:1 accord:1 desire:1 senator:2 kelly:2 ace:1 eight:1 close:1 border:1 three:1 foresight:1 mystique:1 unleash:1 reprogram:1 face:1 phoenix:2 polaris:1 blink:1 teleport:1 quicksilver:2 away:1 longer:1 tell:1 always:1 welcome:1 video:1 game:3 snes:1 warlord:1 use:3 hideout:1 evil:1 purpose:1 stage:1 arcade:1 console:1 import:1 atom:1 master:3 mold:3 background:1 win:1 lifts:1 legends:2 mention:1 control:2 ii:1 rise:1 chapter:1 set:1 devastate:1 liberate:1 hub:1 record:1 label:2 recording:1 experimental:1 hardcore:1 gabber:1 darkcore:1 run:1 agency:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 com:2 uncannyxmen:1 net:1 public:1 forum:1 base:1 host:1 forumer:1 |@bigram marvel_comic:1 marvel_universe:3 uncanny_x:1 handbook_marvel:1 badly_injure:1 render_moot:1 external_link:1 |
879 | Continental_Europe | Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European islands and, at times, peninsulas. Notably, in British and Irish English usage, the term means Europe excluding the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, the Republic of Ireland and Iceland. One general definition of "Continental Europe" is the European landmass excluding the UK, Ireland and Iceland. Other island nations excluded from Continental Europe are Cyprus and Malta. However, in other areas of Europe different ideas on what the term actually means prevail. Continental Europe Some definitions of Continental Europe extend the boundaries of the continent to its geographical boundaries, thus including nations that are within the elevated boundaries of the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus Mountains. Use in Ireland and the United Kingdom In both the United Kingdom and Ireland, the Continent is used to refer to the mainland of Europe. A famous, perhaps apocryphal, British newspaper headline once read "Fog in Channel; Continent Cut Off". Derivatively, the adjective "Continental" refers to the social practices or fashion of continental Europe, as opposed to those in Britain. Examples include breakfast and, historically, long-range driving before Britain had motorways. Scandinavia Map of the Scandiae islands by Nicolaus Germanus for a 1467 publication of Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei Alexandrini. The Scandinavian peninsula (Finland, Norway and Sweden) is sometimes excluded from Continental Europe. Especially, in Germanic studies, "Continental" refers to the European continent excluding Scandinavia, the British Isles, and Iceland. The reason for this is that although the Scandinavian peninsula is technically attached to Continental Europe by Karelia, it is in practice reached by sea, not by land (which would imply travelling north as far as Tornio at the 66th parallel north), and has in the past been mis-identified as an island (Scandia). Mediterranean islands In the Mediterranean context, "the continent" may refer to the continental part of Italy (as opposed to Sardinia and Sicily), Spain with Balearic islands, Alboran or the continental part of France (as opposed to Corsica). References See also Mainland Continental philosophy Western Europe Central Europe Eastern Europe Geographical centre of Europe | Continental_Europe |@lemmatized continental:13 europe:17 also:2 refer:3 mainland:3 simply:1 continent:7 explicitly:1 exclude:6 european:3 island:6 time:1 peninsula:3 notably:1 british:3 irish:1 english:1 usage:1 term:2 mean:2 united:3 kingdom:3 isle:2 man:1 channel:2 islands:1 republic:1 ireland:4 iceland:3 one:1 general:1 definition:2 landmass:1 uk:1 nation:2 cyprus:1 malta:1 however:1 area:1 different:1 idea:1 actually:1 prevail:1 extend:1 boundary:3 geographical:2 thus:1 include:2 within:1 elevated:1 ural:1 mountain:2 caucasus:1 use:2 famous:1 perhaps:1 apocryphal:1 newspaper:1 headline:1 read:1 fog:1 cut:1 derivatively:1 adjective:1 refers:2 social:1 practice:2 fashion:1 oppose:3 britain:2 example:1 breakfast:1 historically:1 long:1 range:1 driving:1 motorway:1 scandinavia:2 map:1 scandiae:1 nicolaus:1 germanus:1 publication:1 cosmographia:1 claudii:1 ptolomaei:1 alexandrini:1 scandinavian:2 finland:1 norway:1 sweden:1 sometimes:1 especially:1 germanic:1 study:1 reason:1 although:1 technically:1 attach:1 karelia:1 reach:1 sea:1 land:1 would:1 imply:1 travel:1 north:2 far:1 tornio:1 parallel:1 past:1 mi:1 identify:1 scandia:1 mediterranean:2 context:1 may:1 part:2 italy:1 sardinia:1 sicily:1 spain:1 balearic:1 alboran:1 france:1 corsica:1 reference:1 see:1 philosophy:1 western:1 central:1 eastern:1 centre:1 |@bigram ural_mountain:1 balearic_island:1 |
880 | French_Armed_Forces | {{Infobox National Military | name = French Armed Forces | native_name = Armées françaises | image = | caption = Coat of Arms of the French Republic | headquarters = | commander-in-chief= President Nicolas Sarkozy | minister = Hervé Morin | minister_title = Minister of Defence | commander = Général d'armée Jean-Louis Georgelin | active = 259,050 (2006) ranked 14th | reserve = 419,000 (2006) | deployed = 35,000 (2006 est.) | budget = €47,7 billion (ranked 2nd) US$61,5 billion (2008-09) | percent_GDP = 2.6% (2005) | founded = | current form = | disbanded = | branches = Armée de TerreMarine NationaleArmée de l'AirGendarmerie Nationale| age = 17 years of age with consent for voluntary military service (2001) | available = 13,676,509 (2005 est.) | fit = 11,262,661 (2005 est.) | reaching = 389,204 (2005 est.) | conscription = | domestic_suppliers= | foreign_suppliers = | exports = | imports = | history = Military History of FranceLa Grande Armée | rank articles = Ranks in the Armée de TerreRanks in the Royale }} The Military of France''' encompasses an army, a navy, an air force and a military police force. The President of the Republic heads the armed forces, with the title of "chef des armées" - "chief of the military forces". The President is the supreme authority for military matters and is the sole official who can order a nuclear strike. The French military has, as some of its primary objectives, the defence of national territory, the protection of French interests abroad, and the maintenance of global stability. With a reported personnel strength of 779,450 in 2006 (259,050 regular force , 419,000 regular reserve , and 101,400 law enforcement Gendarmerie ), the French Armed Forces constitutes the largest military in the European Union and the 12th largest in the world by number of troops. The French Armed Forces however have the 3rd highest expenditure of any military in the world, as well as the 3rd largest nuclear force in the world, only behind the United States and Russia. International stance French military doctrine is based on the concepts of national independence, nuclear deterrence (see Force de frappe), and military self-sufficiency. France is a charter member of NATO, and has worked actively with its allies to adapt NATO — internally and externally — to the post-Cold War environment. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATO's military wing, including the Military Committee (France withdrew from NATO's military bodies in 1966 whilst remaining full participants in the Organisation's political Councils). France remains a firm supporter of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and other cooperative efforts. Paris hosted the May 1997 NATO-Russia Summit which sought the signing of the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security. Outside of NATO, France has actively and heavily participated in both coalition and unilateral peacekeeping efforts in Africa, the Middle East, and the Balkans, frequently taking a lead role in these operations. France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable, and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France. Key elements of the restructuring include: reducing personnel, bases and headquarters, and rationalistion of equipment and the armaments industry. Since the end of the Cold War, France has placed a high priority on arms control and non-proliferation. French Nuclear testing in the Pacific, and the Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior strained French relations with its Allies, South Pacific states (namely New Zealand), and world opinion. France agreed to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992 and supported its indefinite extension in 1995. After conducting a controversial final series of six nuclear tests on Mururoa in the South Pacific, the French signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996. Since then, France has implemented a moratorium on the production, export, and use of anti-personnel landmines and supports negotiations leading toward a universal ban. The French are key players in the adaptation of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe to the new strategic environment. France remains an active participant in: the major programs to restrict the transfer of technologies that could lead to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Australia Group (for chemical and biological weapons), and the Missile Technology Control Regime. France has also signed and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention. 2008 reforms On 31 July 2007, President Nicolas Sarkozy ordered M. Jean-Claude Mallet, a member of the Council of State, to head up a thirty-five member commission charged with a wide-ranging review of French defence. The commission issued its White Paper in early 2008. Official Presidential Website, Letter of Engagement to M. Jean-Claude Mallet, 31 July 2007 . Acting upon its recommendations, President Sarkozy began making radical changes in French defence policy and structures starting in the summer of 2008. In keeping with post-Cold War changes in European politics and power structures, the French military's traditional focus on territorial defence will be redirected to meet the challenges of a global threat environment. Under the reorganisation, the identification and destruction of terrorist networks both in metropolitan France and in francophone Africa will be the primary task of the French military. Redundant military bases will be closed and new weapons systems projects put on hold to finance the restructuring and global deployment of intervention forces. In a historic change, Sarkozy furthermore has declared that France "will now participate fully in NATO," four decades after former French president General Charles de Gaulle withdrew from the alliance's command structure and ordered American troops off French soil. Jim Hoagland, "France's Whirlwind of Change", Real Clear Politics, 18 June 2008 Recent operations There are currently 36,000 French troops deployed in foreign territories - such operations are known as "OPEX" for Opérations Extérieures ("External Operations"). Along with the United States and other countries, France provides troops for the United Nations force stationed in Haiti following the 2004 Haiti rebellion. France has sent troops, especially special forces, into Afghanistan to help the United States and NATO forces fight the remains of the Taliban and Al Qaeda. In Opération Licorne a force of a few thousand French soldiers is stationed in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) on a UN peacekeeping mission. These troops were initially sent under the terms of a mutual protection pact between France and the Côte d'Ivoire, but the mission has since evolved into the current UN peacekeeping operation. The French Armed Forces have also played a leading role in the ongoing UN peacekeeping mission along the Lebanon-Israel border as part of the cease-fire agreement that brought the 2006 Lebanon War to an end. Currently, France has 2,000 army personnel deployed along the border, including infantry, armour, artillery and air defence. There are also naval and air personnel deployed offshore. Organisation The titular head of the French armed forces is the President of the Republic, in his role as Chef des Armées — the President is thus Commander-in-Chief of French forces. However, the Constitution puts civil and military government forces at the disposal of the government (the executive cabinet of ministers, who are not necessarily of the same political side as the president). The Minister of Defence (as of 2007, Hervé Morin) oversees the military's funding, procurement and operations. The French armed forces are divided into four branches: Army (Armée de Terre), including: Infantry (Infanterie) Chasseurs Alpins (mountain infantry) Armoured Cavalry (Arme Blindée Cavalerie) Artillery (Artillerie) Foreign Legion (infantry, cavalry, engineers) Troupes de marine (Marines) (infantry, cavalry, paratroopers, artillery) Army Light Aviation (Aviation Légére de l'Armée de Terre - ALAT) Engineers (Génie) including the Paris Fire Brigade Signals (Transmissions) Transport and logistics (Train) Supply (Matériel) Navy (Marine Nationale), including: Naval Air naval fusiliers (naval ground troops) and naval commandos including the Marseille Fire Battalion Air Force (Armée de l'Air) including territorial Air Defence air fusiliers (air force ground troops) Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie Nationale), a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. In 2009 this force will quit the ministry of defence to fully join the ministry of interior (police). It also include the following services: SGA (Eng: Secretariat general de l'administration = administration and construction). Délégation Générale pour l'Armement (Eng: General Weaponry Delegation) is the French defence procurement agency (a mixed military/civilian service) that includes the former Direction des Constructions Navales. It also manages a number of engineering schools: the École Polytechnique, École Nationale Supérieure de Techniques Avancées, SUPAERO, the ENSICA and the ENSIETA; Health service of the armies (Eng: Service de Santé des Armées) operates a number of military hospitals. Fuel Services (Eng: Service des Essences des Armées'' = Army Fuels Service). Manpower Every year on Bastille Day, a large military parade is staged before the President of the Republic. The total number of military personnel is approximately 359,000, although approximately 100,000 of these are in the Gendarmerie and, thus, used in everyday law enforcement operations within France (elements of the Gendarmerie are, however, present in all French external operations, providing specialised law enforcement troops/military police). Historically, France relied a great deal on conscription to provide manpower for its military, in addition to a minority of professional career soldiers. Following the Algerian War, the use of non-volunteer draftees in foreign operations was ended; if their unit was called up for duty in war zones, draftees were offered the choice between requesting a transfer to another unit or volunteering for the active mission. In 1996, President Jacques Chirac's government announced the end of conscription and in 2001, conscription formally was ended. Young people must still, however, register for possible conscription (should the situation call for it). A recent change is that women must now register as well. Equipment The standard assault rifle is the FAMAS. The standard pistol is the PAMAS, a version of the Beretta 92 produced under licence. GIAT Industries provides heavy armoured vehicles, while Dassault Aviation is the source of military aircraft. References See also Ranks in the French Army Ranks in the French Navy Ranks in the French Air Force External links Official site of the French Ministry of Defence | French_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized infobox:1 national:3 military:29 name:1 french:29 arm:3 force:27 armées:5 françaises:1 image:1 caption:1 coat:1 republic:4 headquarters:2 commander:3 chief:3 president:11 nicolas:2 sarkozy:4 minister:4 hervé:2 morin:2 defence:11 général:1 armée:7 jean:3 louis:1 georgelin:1 active:3 rank:7 reserve:2 deploy:4 est:4 budget:1 billion:2 u:1 found:2 current:2 form:1 disband:1 branch:2 de:19 terremarine:1 nationalearmée:1 l:5 airgendarmerie:1 nationale:4 age:2 year:2 consent:1 voluntary:1 service:8 available:1 fit:1 reach:1 conscription:5 export:2 import:1 history:2 francela:1 grande:1 article:1 terreranks:1 royale:1 france:22 encompass:1 army:7 navy:3 air:10 police:5 head:3 armed:7 title:1 chef:2 supreme:1 authority:1 matter:1 sole:1 official:3 order:2 nuclear:7 strike:1 primary:2 objective:1 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881 | Kamchatka_Oblast | Kamchatka Oblast (, Kamchatskaya oblast) was (until being incorporated into Kamchatka Krai on July 1, 2007) a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). To the north, it bordered Magadan Oblast and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Koryak Autonomous Okrug was located in the northern part of the oblast. Including Koryakia, the total area of the oblast was 472,300 km², encompassing the southern half of the Kamchatka Peninsula.The climate is cold and humid. Kamchatka's natural resources include coal, gold, mica, pyrites, and natural gas. Most of the inhabitants live in the administrative center, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. The main employment sectors are fishing, forestry, tourism (a growing industry), and the Russian military. There is still a large military presence on the peninsula; the home base of Russia's Pacific submarine fleet is across Avacha Bay from Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky at the Rybachy base. There are also several air force bases and radar sites in Kamchatka. As of the 2002 All-Russian Population Census, the majority of the 358,801 population is Russian (290,108), largest minorities are Ukrainian (20,870) and Koryak (7,328). The northern part of the peninsula is occupied by Koryak Autonomous Okrug, where around 6,700 Koryaks live. A small number of Evens also live here. Geography Time zone Kamchatka Oblast is located in the Kamchatka Time Zone (PETT/PETST). UTC offset is +1200 (PETT)/+1300 (PETST). Administrative divisions External links The Wonders of Kamchatka Commander Islands | Kamchatka_Oblast |@lemmatized kamchatka:8 oblast:7 kamchatskaya:1 incorporate:1 krai:1 july:1 federal:1 subject:1 russia:2 north:1 border:1 magadan:1 chukotka:1 autonomous:3 okrug:3 koryak:3 locate:2 northern:2 part:2 include:2 koryakia:1 total:1 area:1 encompass:1 southern:1 half:1 peninsula:3 climate:1 cold:1 humid:1 natural:2 resource:1 coal:1 gold:1 mica:1 pyrite:1 gas:1 inhabitant:1 live:3 administrative:2 center:1 petropavlovsk:2 kamchatsky:2 main:1 employment:1 sector:1 fish:1 forestry:1 tourism:1 grow:1 industry:1 russian:3 military:2 still:1 large:2 presence:1 home:1 base:3 pacific:1 submarine:1 fleet:1 across:1 avacha:1 bay:1 rybachy:1 also:2 several:1 air:1 force:1 radar:1 site:1 population:2 census:1 majority:1 minority:1 ukrainian:1 occupy:1 around:1 koryaks:1 small:1 number:1 even:1 geography:1 time:2 zone:2 pett:2 petst:2 utc:1 offset:1 division:1 external:1 link:1 wonder:1 commander:1 island:1 |@bigram autonomous_okrug:3 kamchatka_peninsula:1 utc_offset:1 external_link:1 |
882 | Bermuda | Bermuda (; officially, the Bermuda Islands or the Somers Isles) is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Located off the east coast of the United States, it is situated around 1,770 kilometres (1,100 mi) northeast of Miami, Florida, and 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. The nearest landmass is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, about 1,030 kilometres (640 mi) west-northwest. It is the oldest and most populous remaining British overseas territory, settled by England a century before the Acts of Union created the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Bermuda's first capital, St. George's, was settled in 1612 and is the oldest continuously inhabited English town in the Americas. Although commonly referred to in the singular, the territory consists of approximately 138 islands, with a total area of 53.3 square kilometres (20.6 sq mi). Compiling a list of these islands is often complicated, as many have more than one name (as does the entire archipelago, which, in addition to its two official names, has historically been known as "La Garza," "Virgineola," and the "Isle of Devils"). Despite the limited land mass, there has also been a tendency for place names to be repeated; there are, for example, two islands named "Long Island," three bays known as "Long Bay," and "St. George's Town" is located on "St. George's Island" within "St. George's Parish" (each known as St. George's), whereas Bermuda's capital, the "City of Hamilton", lies in Pembroke Parish, not in "Hamilton Parish", on the largest island, "Main Island," which itself is sometimes called "Bermuda." Bermuda has a highly affluent economy, with finance as its largest sector followed by tourism, giving it the world's highest GDP per capita in 2005. It has a subtropical climate, beaches with pink sand, and is surrounded by cerulean blue ocean waters. __TOC__ History Pre-settlement Bermuda was discovered in 1503 by a Spanish explorer, Juan de Bermúdez. It is mentioned in Legatio Babylonica, published in 1511 by Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, and was also included on Spanish charts of that year. Both Spanish and Portuguese ships used the islands as a replenishment spot for fresh meat and water, but legends of spirits and devils, now thought to have stemmed only from the callings of raucous birds (most likely the Bermuda Petrel, or Cahow), and of perpetual, storm-wracked conditions (most early visitors arrived under such conditions), kept them from attempting any permanent settlement on the Isle of Devils. Bermúdez and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo ventured to Bermuda in 1515 with the intention of leaving a breeding stock of hogs on the island as a future stock of fresh meat for passing ships. However, the inclement weather prevented them from landing. Some years later, a Portuguese ship on the way home from Santo Domingo wedged itself between two rocks on the reef. The crew tried to salvage as much as they could and spent the next four months building a new hull from Bermuda cedar to return to their initial departure point. One of these stranded sailors is most likely the person who carved the initials "R"and "P," "1543" into Spanish Rock which still sits at "Spittal Pond." The initials probably stood for "Rex Portugaline" and later were incorrectly attributed to the Spanish, leading to the misnaming of this rocky outcrop of Bermuda. Settlement by the English John Smith wrote one of the first Histories of Bermuda (in concert with Virginia and New England). For the next century, the island is believed to have been visited frequently but not permanently settled. The first two English colonies in Virginia had failed, and a more determined effort was initiated by King James I of England, who granted a Royal Charter to The Virginia Company. In 1609, a flotilla of ships left England under the Company's Admiral, Sir George Somers, to relieve the colony of Jamestown, settled two years before. Somers had previous experience sailing with both Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh. The flotilla was broken up by a storm, and the flagship, the Sea Venture, was wrecked off Bermuda (as depicted on the territory's coat of arms), leaving the survivors in possession of a new territory. (William Shakespeare's play The Tempest is thought to have been inspired by William Strachey's account of this shipwreck.) The island was claimed for the English Crown, and the charter of the Virginia Company was extended to include it. St. George's was settled in 1612 and made Bermuda's first capital. It is the oldest continually inhabited English town in the New World. In 1615, the colony was passed to a new company, the Somers Isles Company (The Somers Isles remains an official name for the colony), formed by the same shareholders. The close ties with Virginia were commemorated even after Bermuda's separation by reference to the archipelago in many Virginian place names, such as Bermuda City, and Bermuda Hundred. The first British coins in America were struck here. Most of the survivors of the Sea Venture had carried on to Jamestown in 1610 aboard two Bermuda-built ships. Among them was John Rolfe, who left a wife and child buried in Bermuda, but in Jamestown would marry Pocahontas, a daughter of Powhatan. Intentional settlement of Bermuda began with the arrival of the Plough, in 1612. Company colony - the seventeenth century Because of its limited land area, Bermuda has had difficulty with over-population. In the first two centuries of settlement it relied on steady human emigration to keep the population manageable. It is often claimed that, before the American Revolution more than ten thousand Bermudians (over half of the population) emigrated, primarily to the American South, where Great Britain was displacing Spain as the dominant European imperial power. A steady trickle of outward migration continued. With seafaring being the only real industry, by the end of the 18th century at least a third of the island's manpower was at sea at any one time. The archipelago's limited land area and resources led to the creation of what may be the earliest conservation laws of the New World. In 1616 and 1620 acts were passed banning the hunting of certain birds and young tortoises Meggs, Martin - Planner (Information Systems, Department of Planning - "Developing a small Island GIS: the Bermuda Experience," Bermuda. In 1649, the English Civil War raged and King Charles I was beheaded in Whitehall, London. The execution resulted in the outbreak of a Bermudian civil war; it was ended by embodied militias. This created a strong sense of devotion to the crown for the majority of colonists and it forced those who would not swear allegiance, such as Puritans and independents, into exile in the Bahamas. Forbes, Keith: "About Bermuda Online", The Royal Gazette Ltd. Accessed September 22, 2007 Bermuda Gazette of 12 November, 1796, calling for privateering against Spain and its allies, and with advertisements for crew for two privateer vessels. In the 17th century the Somers Isles Company suppressed shipbuilding, as it needed Bermudians to farm in order to generate income from the land. Agricultural production met with only limited success, however. The Bermuda cedar boxes used to ship tobacco to England were reportedly worth more than their contents. The colony of Virginia far surpassed Bermuda in both quality and quantity of tobacco produced. Bermudians began to turn to maritime trades relatively early in the seventeenth century, but the Somers Isles Company used all its authority to suppress turning away from agriculture. This interference led to the islanders demanding, and receiving, the revocation of the Company's charter in 1684; the Company itself being dissolved. The eighteenth century and a maritime economy After the dissolution of the Somers Isle Company, Bermudians rapidly abandoned agriculture for shipbuilding, replanting farmland with the native juniper (Juniperus bermudiana, also called Bermuda cedar) trees that grew thickly over the whole island. Establishing effective control over the Turks Islands, Bermudians deforested their landscape to begin the salt trade that would become the world's largest, and remained the cornerstone of Bermuda's economy for the next century. Bermudian sailors would turn their hands to far more trades than supplying salt, however. Whaling, privateering, and the merchant trade were all pursued vigorously. Vessels would sail the normal shipping routes, but had to engage an enemy vessel no matter the size or strength, and as a result many ships were destroyed. The Bermuda sloop became highly regarded for its speed and manoeuvrability. In fact it was the Bermuda sloop , one of the fastest vessels in the Royal Navy, that brought the news of the victory at Trafalgar and the death of Admiral Nelson back to England. The nineteenth century - Fortress Bermuda The First Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps Contingent, raised in 1914. By the War's end, the two Bermuda contingents had lost over 75% of their combined strength. After the American Revolution, the Royal Navy began improving the harbours and built the large dockyard on Ireland Island, in the west of the chain, as its principal naval base guarding the western Atlantic Ocean shipping lanes. During the American War of 1812, the British attacks on Washington D.C. and the Chesapeake, that would result in the writing of The Star-Spangled Banner, were planned and launched from Bermuda, the Royal Navy's 'North American Station'. It was here that the British soldiers assembled before being sent to attack Baltimore and Washington. In 1816, James Arnold, the son of famed U.S. traitor Benedict Arnold, fortified Bermuda's Royal Naval Dockyard against possible U.S. attacks. Howes, James: "Attack on Baltimore Launched from Bermuda in 'War of 1812'"2005 Today, the "Maritime Museum" occupies the Keep of the Royal Naval Dockyard, including the Commissioner's House, and exhibits artifacts of the base's military history. As a result of Bermuda's proximity to the southeastern U.S. coast, it was regularly used by Confederate States blockade runners during the American Civil War to evade Union naval vessels and bring desperately needed war goods to the South from England. The old Globe Hotel in St. George's, which was a centre of intrigue for Confederate agents, is preserved as a museum open to the public. Twentieth century - Economic and political development In the early 20th century, as modern transport and communication systems developed, Bermuda became a popular destination for wealthy American, Canadian and British tourists arriving by frequent steamship service. In addition, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act enacted by the United States against its trading partners in 1930, cut off Bermuda's once-thriving agricultural export trade (primarily fresh vegetables to the U.S.), spurring the overseas territory to develop its tourist industry. In the late 1930s, Imperial Airways and Pan American World Airways began operating scheduled flying boat airline service from New York and Baltimore to Darrell's Island, Bermuda. In 1948, regularly-scheduled commercial airline service by land-based airplanes began to Kindley Field (now Bermuda International Airport), helping tourism to reach its peak in the 1960s–1970s. By the end of the 20th century, international business had supplanted tourism as the dominant sector of Bermuda's economy (see "Economy", below). The Royal Naval Dockyard and the attendant military garrison continued to be an important component of Bermuda's economy until the mid-20th century. In addition to considerable building work, the armed forces needed to source food and other materials from local vendors. Beginning in World War II, U.S. military installations also were located in Bermuda (see "Military" section, below, and Military of Bermuda). Universal adult suffrage and the development of a two-party political system occurred in the 1960s. Prior to universal suffrage, adopted as part of Bermuda's Constitution in 1967, voting was based on property ownership (see "Politics" section, below, and Politics of Bermuda). On March 10, 1973, then-Governor of Bermuda Richard Sharples was assassinated by local Black Power militants during a period of civil unrest in the 1970s. Geography Bermuda is located in the North Atlantic Ocean, roughly 580 nautical miles (1070 km, 670 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras on the Outer Banks of North Carolina and roughly 590 nautical miles (1100 km, 690 mi) southeast of Martha's Vineyard. The island lies due east of Fripp Island, South Carolina. It has 103 km (64 mi) of coastline. There are two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda: the City of Hamilton and the Town of St. George. Bermuda is divided into various "parishes," in which there are some localities called "villages," such as Flatts Village, Tucker's Town and Somerset Village. Although Bermuda's latitude is similar to that of Savannah, Georgia, it is warmer in winter, and slightly cooler in summer. Its subtropical climate is warmed by the nearby Gulf Stream, thanks to the westerlies, which carry warm, humid air eastwards over Bermuda, helping to keep winter temperatures above freezing. The climate is humid and, as a result, the summertime heat index can be high, even though mid-August temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F). Winters are mild, with average daytime temperatures in January and February around 20 °C (68 °F), although cold fronts, which dominate the local weather for most of the year, bring Arctic air masses that can result in rapid temperature drops. Atlantic winter storms, often associated with these cold fronts, can produce powerful, gusting winds and heavy rain. Factoring in the wind chill, the felt air temperature in winter can fall below freezing, 0 °C (32 °F), even though the actual temperature rarely drops below 10 °C (50 °F). Bermuda is very susceptible to hurricanes. Its position along the Gulf Stream means that it is often directly in the path of hurricanes recurving in the westerlies, although they have usually begun to weaken as they approach the island. It is often affected by these hurricanes, although the island's small size means that direct landfalls are rare. The last hurricane to cause significant damage to the islands was category 3 Hurricane Fabian on September 5, 2003. Its eastern eyewall hit the territory and four people were killed. The only source of fresh water in Bermuda is rainfall, which is collected on roofs and catchments (or drawn from underground lenses) and stored in tanks. Each dwelling usually has at least one of these tanks forming part of its foundation. Politics Executive authority in Bermuda is vested in the monarch and is exercised on her behalf by the Governor. The governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Government. The current governor is Sir Richard Hugh Turton Gozney KCMG; he was sworn-in on December 12, 2007. Smith, Tim. The Royal Gazette: Breaking News: New Governor sworn in. 12 December, 2007. Accessed 13, December 2007 There is also a Deputy Governor (currently Mark Andrew Capes JP). Taylor, Matthew. The Royal Gazette: The Governor's right hand man. 15 January 2007. Accessed 13 December 2007 Defence and foreign affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom, which also retains responsibility to ensure good government. It must approve any changes to the Constitution of Bermuda. Bermuda now exists as an overseas territory of Britain, but it is the oldest British colony. In 1620, a Royal Assent granted Bermuda limited self-governance, thus making the Parliament of Bermuda the fifth oldest in the world, behind only the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the Tynwald of the Isle of Man, the Althing of Iceland and Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Pethen, Valarie: Bermuda Report, Second Edition 1985-1988, page 17. Department of Information Services, 1988. Bermuda Of these, it is the only one to have met continuously as a legislature since its inception through to today. The State House, the home of Bermuda's parliament 1620–1815 The Constitution of Bermuda came into force on June 1, 1967 and was amended in 1989 and 2003. The head of government is the premier. A cabinet is nominated by the premier and appointed officially by the governor. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral parliament modelled on the Westminster system. The Senate is the upper house consisting of eleven members appointed by the governor on the advice of the premier and the leader of the opposition. The House of Assembly, or lower house, has thirty-six members elected by the eligible voting populace in secret ballot to represent geographically defined constituencies. Elections must be called at no more than five-year intervals. The Progressive Labour Party won the most recent general election held on December 18, 2007, winning 22 of 36 seats in the House of Assembly. Following his victory over former Premier Alex Scott at the Progressive Labour Party delegates' conference in October 2006, the current premier is Ewart Brown. The United Bermuda Party serves in opposition. The Progressive Labour Party leadership favours independence from the United Kingdom, although polls have indicated that this is not supported by the population. While a referendum in 1995 on independence was defeated by a substantial margin, the Bermuda Industrial Union and the Progressive Labour Party (then in the Opposition) had called for a boycott of the referendum, having an unquantified impact on the result. There are few accredited diplomats in Bermuda. The United States maintains the largest diplomatic mission in Bermuda - comprising both the United States Consulate and the U.S. Customs and Border Protection Services at the Bermuda International Airport. U.S. Consul General Gregory W. Slayton is the U.S. Chief of Mission in Bermuda. Given that the United States is by far Bermuda's largest trading partner - providing over 71% of total imports, 85% of tourist visitors while there is an estimated $163 billion of U.S. capital in the Bermuda insurance/re-insurance industry alone - and the fact that an estimated 5% of Bermuda residents are U.S. citizens which represents 14% of all foreign born persons - American diplomatic presence is seen as an important element in the Bermuda political landscape. Parishes and municipalities Parishes of Bermuda Bermuda is divided into nine parishes and two municipalities. Bermuda's nine parishes: Devonshire Hamilton Paget Pembroke St George's Sandys Smith's Southampton Warwick Bermuda's two incorporated municipalities: Hamilton (city) St. George's (town) Bermuda's two informal villages: Flatts Village Somerset Village Another informal village was razed in the 20th Century, though the name is still used for the area. Tucker's Town Military Remembrance Day Parade, Hamilton, Bermuda Once known as the Gibraltar of the West, the defence of Bermuda remains the responsibility of the British government. Until the American Revolutionary War, following which Bermuda became the Royal Navy's Western Atlantic headquarters, the Bermuda government had maintained militia for the defence of the colony. Once the Royal Navy established a base and dockyard defended by regular soldiers, however, these militias became superfluous and were disbanded following the War of 1812. At the end of the 19th century, the colony did raise volunteer units to form a reserve for the military garrison. Due to its strategic location in the North Atlantic Ocean, Bermuda was vital to the Allies' war effort during both World Wars of the 20th century, serving as a marshalling point for trans-Atlantic convoys, as well as a naval and air base (during the Second World War). In May 1940, the U.S. requested base rights in Bermuda from the United Kingdom, but British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was initially unwilling to accede to the American request without getting something in return. Martin Gilbert, Churchill and America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. In September, 1940, as part of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, the United Kingdom granted the U.S. base rights in Bermuda. Bermuda and Newfoundland were not originally included in the agreement, but both were added to it, with no war material received in exchange. However, one of the terms of the agreement was that the airfield the U.S. Army was to build in Bermuda would be used jointly by the U.S. and the U.K. (which it was for the duration of the war, with RAF Transport Command relocating there from Darrell's Island in 1943). Construction began in 1941 of two airbases consisting of 5.8 km² (2¼ sq mi, 1,400 acres) of land, largely reclaimed from the sea. For many years, Bermuda's bases were used by U.S. Air Force transport and refueling aircraft and by U.S. Navy aircraft patrolling the Atlantic for enemy submarines, first German and, later, Soviet. The principal installation, Kindley Air Force Base on the eastern coast, was transferred to the U.S. Navy in 1970 and redesignated Naval Air Station Bermuda. As a naval air station, the base continued to host both transient and deployed USN and USAF aircraft, as well as transitioning or deployed Royal Air Force and Canadian Forces aircraft, The original NAS Bermuda on the west side of the island, a seaplane base until the mid-1960s, became the Naval Air Station Bermuda Annex and provided optional anchorage and/or dockage facilities for transiting U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard and NATO vessels, depending on size.. An additional U.S. Navy compound known as Naval Facility Bermuda (NAVFAC Bermuda), a SOSUS station, was located to the west of the Annex near a Canadian Forces communications facility. Although leased for 99 years, U.S. forces withdrew in 1995, as part of the wave of base closures following the end of the Cold War. Canada, which had operated a war-time naval base, HMCS Somers Isles, on the old Royal Navy base at Convict Bay, St. George's, also established a radio-listening post at Daniel's Head, in the West End of the islands during this time. In the 1950s, after the end of World War II, the Royal Naval dockyard and the military garrison were closed. A small Royal Navy supply base, HMS Malabar, continued to operate within the dockyard area, supporting transiting Royal Navy ships and submarines until it, too, was closed in 1995, along with the American and Canadian bases. HMS Ambuscade at the Royal Naval Dockyard In both World War I and World War II, Bermudians served in the British armed forces. Amongst the latter was Major-General Glyn Charles Anglim Gilbert, Bermuda's highest ranking soldier. After the war, he was instrumental in developing the Bermuda Regiment. A number of other Bermudians and children of Bermudians had preceded him into senior ranks, including Bahamian-born Admiral Lord Gambier, and Bermudian-born Royal Marines Brigadier Harvey, who, when promoted to that rank at age 39, following his wounding at the Anzio landings, became the youngest-ever Royal Marine Brigadier. The Cenotaph in front of the Cabinet Building (in Hamilton) was erected in tribute to Bermuda's Great War dead (the tribute was later extended to Bermuda's Second World War dead) and is the site of the annual Remembrance Day commemoration. Today, the only military unit remaining in Bermuda is the Bermuda Regiment, an amalgam of the voluntary units originally formed toward the end of the 19th century. Although the Regiment consists of 'voluntary units' there still exists conscription in which balloted males are required to serve for three years, two months part time, once they turn eighteen. Role in international relations As an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom, Bermuda has no seat in the United Nations and is represented by the UK in foreign affairs. Bermuda's close proximity to the United States has made it the site of past summit conferences between British Prime Ministers and U.S. Presidents. The first summit was held in December, 1953, at the insistence of Prime Minister Winston Churchill to discuss relations with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Participants at the conference included Churchill, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and French Premier Joseph Laniel. In 1957, a second summit conference was held, this time Harold Macmillan was the British Prime Minister and he arrived earlier than President Eisenhower to make it clear that they were meeting on British territory, as tensions were still high regarding the conflict over the Suez Canal in the previous year. It was said the two discussed the general situation of the world. Macmillan would return in 1961 for the third summit with President John F. Kennedy, who was familiar with Bermuda having made numerous personal visits. The meeting was called to discuss the Cold War tensions arising from construction of the Berlin Wall. The most recent summit conference in Bermuda between the two powers occurred in 1971, when British Prime Minister Edward Heath met U.S. President Richard Nixon. . Direct face-to-face meetings between the President of the United States and the Premier of Bermuda are rare, but do occur. The most recent meeting was held on June 23, 2008, between Premier Ewart Brown and then-President George W. Bush. The two leaders held talks for twenty minutes in the Oval Office of the White House in Washington D.C. and discussed a range of issues including Bermuda's tourism and reinsurance industries Prior to this, the leaders of Bermuda and the United States had not met at the White House since 1996. That meeting was held between former Premier David Saul and former President Bill Clinton. Economy Coins circulating in 2006 Since switching from the Bermuda pound in 1970, Bermuda's currency has been the Bermudian dollar, which is pegged to the US dollar. US notes and coins are used interchangeably with Bermudian notes and coins within the islands for most practical purposes; however, banks levy a small exchange rate for the purchase of US dollars with Bermudian dollars. Bank of Butterfield Exchange Rate Page Bermudian notes carry the image of HM Queen Elizabeth II. The Bermuda Monetary Authority is the issuing authority for all banknotes and coins, as well as being responsible for the regulation of financial institutions. There is a permanent exhibition of Bermuda notes and coins at the Royal Naval Dockyard Museum. Bermuda's per-capita income is approximately 50% higher than that of the United States; according to the Bermuda Government's Economic Statistics Division, Bermuda's GDP was $5.85 billion in 2007, or $91,477 per-capita, giving Bermuda the highest GDP per capita in the world. The affordability of housing has become a prominent issue over the past few years. The CIA World Factbook lists the average cost of a house in June 2003 as $976,000, while real estate agencies have claimed that this figure had risen to $1.6 million by 2006, "Average cost of houses hits $1.6m", Jonathan Kent, The Royal Gazette, January 10, 2007 and to $1.845 million by early 2007, "Average family home now $1.8m", Meredith Ebbin, Bermuda Sun, August 2, 2007 though such high figures have been disputed. "$1.6m average house price? It’s a distortion says Sir John ", Jonathan Kent, The Royal Gazette, January 12, 2007 Bermuda is an Offshore financial centre, which results from its low direct taxation on personal or corporate income. The local tax system is based upon import duties, payroll taxes and consumption taxes. The legal system is derived from that of the United Kingdom, with recourse to English courts of final appeal. As the offshore domicile of many foreign companies, Bermuda has a highly-developed international business economy; it is a financial exporter of financial services, primarily insurance, reinsurance, investment funds and special purpose vehicles (SPV). Finance and international business now constitute the largest sector of Bermuda's economy. Hamilton Large numbers of leading international insurance companies are based in Bermuda making the territory one of the world's largest reinsurance centres. Insurance Journal Those internationally owned and operated businesses that are physically based in Bermuda - of which there are around four hundred - are represented by the Association of Bermuda International Companies (ABIC). In total, over 1,500 exempted or international companies are currently registered with the Registrar of Companies in Bermuda. Thanks to its favourable tax regime and a highly reactive regulatory framework Bermuda is the domicile of choice for the implementation of insurance related innovative solutions also known as Alternative Risk Transfer (ART). ART includes captive insurances, Finite Risk insurance and insurance securitisation such as Cat bonds. The Bermuda Stock Exchange (BSX) first established in 1971 is now the world's largest fully electronic offshore securities market, with a current market capitalisation (excluding mutual funds) in excess of US$ 330 billion. There are four hundred securities listed on the stock exchange, of which almost three hundred are offshore funds and alternative investment structures, attracted by Bermuda's regulatory environment. The Exchange specialises in listing and trading of capital market instruments such as equities, debt issues, funds (including Hedge Fund structures) and depository receipt programmes. The BSX is a full member of the World Federation of Exchanges and is located in an OECD member nation. It also has Approved Stock Exchange status under Australia's Foreign Investment Fund (FIF) taxation rules and Designated Investment Exchange status by the UK's Financial Services Authority. Tourism is Bermuda's second largest industry, with the island attracting over one-half million visitors annually, of whom more than 80% are from the United States. Other significant sources of visitors are from Canada and the United Kingdom. Tourists arrive either by cruise ship or by air at Bermuda International Airport, the only airport on the island. Tourism in 2006, Royal Gazette, Jan. 11, 2007 Education The Bermuda Education Act 1996 requires that only three categories of schools can operate in the Bermuda Education system: aided school, has all or a part of its property vested in a body of trustees or board of governors and is partially maintained by public funding or, since 1965 and the desegregation of schools, has received a grant-in-aid out of public funds. maintained school, has the whole of its property belonging to the Government and is fully maintained by public funds. private school, not maintained by public funds and has not, since 1965 and the desegregation of schools, received any capital grant-in-aid out of public funds. The private school sector consists of 6 traditional private schools, two of which are religious schools, and the remaining four are secular with one of these being a single gender school and another a Montessori school. Also, within the private sector there are a number of home schools which must be registered with the government and receive minimal government regulation. The only boys’ school opened its doors to girls in the 1990s and in 1996, one of the maintained public schools became a private school. Prior to 1965, the Bermuda school system was racially segregated and when the desegregation of schools was enacted in 1965, two of the formally maintained "white" schools and both single gender schools opted to become private schools. The rest became part of the public school system and were either aided or maintained. At present there are 26 schools in the Bermuda Public School System, eighteen of which are primary schools, five are middle schools, two senior schools and one special school. There is also an Alternative Programme provided for students with behavioural challenges who cannot function in the public mainstream. There are two aided primary schools, two aided middle schools and one aided senior school. For higher education, the Bermuda College offers various associate degrees and other certificate programmes. Bermuda does not have any four-year colleges or universities. Sightseeing and attractions One of Bermuda's pink sand beaches, at Astwood Park Bermuda's unusual pink sand beaches and clear, cerulean blue ocean waters are popular with tourists and many of Bermuda's hotels are located along the south shore of the island. In addition to its beaches, there are a number of sightseeing attractions. Historic St. George's is a designated World Heritage Site. Scuba divers can explore numerous wrecks and coral reefs in relatively shallow water (typically in depth) with virtually unlimited visibility. Many nearby reefs are readily accessible from shore by snorkellers, especially at Church Bay. Bermuda's most popular visitor attraction is the Royal Naval Dockyard, which includes the Bermuda Maritime Museum. Other attractions include the Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo, Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo Bermuda Underwater Exploration Institute, the Botanical Gardens, lighthouses, and the Crystal Caves with its impressive stalactites and underground saltwater pools. It is not possible to rent a car on the island; however, visitors can hire scooters for use as private transport, or use public transport. Arts and culture Bermuda's culture is a mixture of the various sources of its population, though little trace remains of the various Native American, Spanish-Caribbean, African, Irish or Scots cultures that would have been evident in the 17th century, with Anglo-Saxon culture becoming dominant. Today, the only language other than English that is spoken by any substantial part of the population is actually Portuguese, following one hundred and sixty years of immigration from Portuguese Atlantic islands (primarily the Azores, though also from Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands). There are strong British influences, together with Afro-Caribbean. A second wave of immigration from the West Indies has been sustained throughout the 20th century, although, unlike the Africans who immigrated from that area as indentured servants (or who were imported as slaves) in the 17th century, the more recent arrivals have mostly come from English speaking countries (albeit, most of the West Indian islands whose populations now speak English were then part of the Spanish Empire). This new infusion of West Indians has both accelerated social and political change, and diversified Bermuda's culture. West Indian musicians introduced Calypso music when Bermuda's tourist industry was expanded with the increase of visitors brought by post Second World War aviation. While Calypso music appealed more to the visitors than to the locals, Reggae has been embraced since the 1970s with the influx of Jamaican immigration. Gombey dancers in Bermuda Bermuda's literary history was largely limited to non-Bermudian writers commenting on the island. In the 20th century, a large number of books were written and published locally, though few were aimed at a wider market than Bermuda (most of these being scholarly reference books, rather than creative writing). One Bermudian novelist, Brian Burland, has achieved a degree of success and acclaim internationally, although the first (and undoubtedly the most important, historically) notable book credited to a Bermudian was the History of Mary Prince, a slave narrative by a Bermudian woman, Mary Prince, which helped to end slavery in the British Empire. Bermuda's proximity to the United States means that many aspects of US culture are reflected or incorporated into Bermudian culture. Many non-Bermudian writers have also made Bermuda their home, or have had homes here, including A.J. Cronin and F. Van Wyck Mason, who wrote on Bermudian subjects. Dance and music are important in Bermuda. The dances of the colourful Gombey Dancers, seen at many events, were influenced by imported Native American and African slaves. Bermuda has produced, or been home, to actors (such as Earl Cameron, Diana Dill, and most famously, Michael Douglas and Catherine Zeta-Jones). Noted musicians have included local icons The Talbot Brothers, who performed for many decades in both Bermuda and The United States (and appearing on Ed Sullivan's televised variety show), jazz pianist Lance Hayward, pop singer Heather Nova and more recently dancehall artist Collie Buddz. In 1979, Gina Swainson was crowned "Miss World". Every year Bermuda hosts an international film festival, which shows many independent films. One of the festival's founders is film producer and director Arthur Rankin, Jr., co-founder of the Rankin/Bass production company. index.html Bermuda water colours painted by local artists are sold at various galleries and elaborately hand-carved cedar sculptures are another specialty. One such sculpture created by Bermudian artisan Chesley Trott is on display at the airport's baggage claim area. Local artwork may also be viewed at several galleries around the island. Alfred Birdsey was one of the more famous and talented water colourists, his impressionistic landscapes of Hamilton, St. George's and the surrounding sailboats, homes, and bays of Bermuda are world-renowned. Every Easter, Bermudians of all ages build kites, usually of a traditional Bermudian type, which are flown to symbolize Christ's ascent. A Bermudian kite is made to geometric designs, quite colourful, and is an art form as much as a recreational tool. Despite this, Bermudian kites are very airworthy, holding world records for altitude and duration of flight. Sports Bermuda's 2004 Olympic team attired in Bermuda shorts at the Opening Ceremonies, as televised by NBC Sport is a popular pastime in Bermuda, especially football (soccer), sailing, cricket, golf, and rugby. Bermuda's national cricket team participated in the Cricket World Cup 2007 in the West Indies. Their most famous player is a 130 kg (290 lbs, 20½ stone) police officer named Dwayne Leverock. Bermuda's team holds the world record for conceding the highest number of runs ever in the history of the World Cup. They conceded 413 runs in a 50 overs, one-day international, game against India. Also very well known is David Hemp, who is the current Glamorgan captain in English first class cricket. The annual "Cup Match" cricket tournament between rival parishes St. George's in the east and Somerset in the west is the occasion for a popular national holiday. Bermuda has the world's highest acreage of golf courses as a percentage of its total landmass. In 2007 Bermuda hosted the 25th PGA Grand Slam of Golf. This 36-hole event was held on October 16-17, 2007, at the Mid Ocean Club in Tucker's Town. This season ending tournament is between only four golfers - the winners of the Masters, U.S. Open, British Open and PGA Championship. The event returns to Bermuda again in 2008. An IOD racer on a mooring in Hamilton Harbour, Bermuda The Government announced in 2006 that it will provide substantial financial support to Bermuda's cricket and football teams. Bermuda's most prominent footballers include Clyde Best and Shaun Goater. In 2006, the Bermuda Hogges were formed as the nation's first professional football team in order to raise the standard of play for the Bermuda national football team. The team plays in the United Soccer Leagues Second Division. Sailing, fishing, and equestrian sports are popular with both residents and visitors alike. The prestigious Newport–Bermuda Yacht Race is a more than 100-year old tradition. In 2007, the 16th biennial Marion-Bermuda yacht race occurred. A sport unique to Bermuda is racing the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy. International One Design racing also originated in Bermuda. Bermuda International One Design Fleet At the 2004 Summer Olympics, Bermuda competed in sailing, athletics, swimming, diving, triathlon and equestrian events. In those Olympics, Bermuda's Katura Horton-Perinchief made history by becoming the first black female diver to compete in the Olympic Games. Bermuda has had one Olympic medallist, Clarence Hill, who won a bronze medal in boxing. Bermuda also recently competed in Men's Skeleton (head first luge) at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. Patrick Singleton placed 19th, with a final time of 1:59.81. Bermuda also competes in the biennial Island Games, which it will host in 2013. Demographics A July 2005 estimate put Bermuda's population at 65,365. The ethnic makeup of Bermuda is 54.8% black, 34.1% white, and 6.4% multiracial. The islands have a small but growing Asian community. A significant segment of the population is also of Portuguese ancestry (10%), the result of immigration from Portuguese-held islands (especially the Azores) during the past 160 years. The Portuguese of the West Indies Some islanders, especially in St. David's, trace their ancestry to Native Americans. Hundreds were shipped to Bermuda, possibly from as far as Mexico. The best known examples were the Algonquian peoples who were exiled from the New England colonies and sold into slavery in the 17th century, notably in the aftermaths of the Pequot War, and King Philip's War. Several thousand expatriate workers, principally from the UK, Canada, the West Indies, and the U.S., also reside in Bermuda, primarily engaged in specialised professions such as accounting, finance, and insurance. Others are employed in various trades, such as hotels, restaurants, construction, and landscaping services. Of the total workforce of 38,947 persons in 2005, government employment figures state that 11,223 (29 percent) are non-Bermudians. Bermuda Sun, April 4, 2007. Holidays Date Holiday </tr> 1 January New Year's Day </tr> varies Good Friday </tr> 24 May Bermuda Day </tr> Second Monday in June Queen's Official Birthday </tr> Thursday before the First Monday in August Emancipation Day </tr> Friday before the First Monday in August Somer's Day </tr> First Monday in September Labour Day </tr> Varies National Heroes' Day </tr> 11 November Remembrance Day </tr> 25 December Christmas Day </tr> 26 December Boxing Day </tr> Gallery See also List of Bermuda-related topics References External links Government Bermuda Government official government website General information UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office Profile of Bermuda Bermuda from UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office Visting Bermuda Page Background Note from the US State Department U.S. Consulate General(U.S. State Department website) Bermuda Dept. of Tourism (Bermuda Government website) Bermuda International Airport official website Other Bermuda Maritime Museum, a maritime museum housed in the historic Dockyard, dedicated to public education and historical, archaeological and heritage research. Roots Web: Ships of Bermuda (genealogy resource) Bermuda National Trust, a body dedicated to the preservation of historic and environmental sites of interest, including several museums. Bermuda's role in the War of 1812, chronicles Bermuda's little-known role in the American War of 1812 The Bermuda Insider (Insider Guide to Bermuda) US Department of State Post Report for Bermuda. Bermuda Sun, a twice-weekly newspaper. The Royal Gazette, a daily newspaper, published since 1828. Association of Bermuda International Companies. 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883 | Broadcast_domain | A broadcast domain is a logical division of a computer network, in which all nodes can reach each other by broadcast at the data link layer. A broadcast domain can be within the same LAN or it can be routed towards other LAN segments. In terms of current popular technologies: Any computer connected to the same Ethernet repeater or switch is a member of the same broadcast domain. Further, any computer connected to the same set of inter-connected switches/repeaters is a member of the same broadcast domain. Routers and other higher-layer devices form boundaries between broadcast domains. This is as compared to a collision domain, which would be all nodes on the same set of inter-connected repeaters, divided by switches and learning bridges. Collision domains are generally smaller than, and contained within, broadcast domains. While any layer two network device is able to divide the collision domains, broadcast domains are only divided by layer 3 network devices such as routers or layer 3 switches. Further explanation The distinction between broadcast and collision domain comes about because simple Ethernet and similar systems use a shared transmission system. In simple Ethernet (without switches or bridges), data frames are transmitted to all other nodes on a network. Each receiving node checks the destination address of each frame, and simply ignores any frame not addressed to its own MAC address, or to the broadcast address. If two nodes transmit at the same time, a collision results. Repeaters propagate all frames between network segments, and do not prevent collisions, and thus also propagate collisions between segments. Switches act as buffers, receiving and analyzing the frames from each connected network segment. Frames destined for nodes connected to the originating segment are not forwarded by the switch. Frames destined for a specific node on a different segment are sent only to that segment. Only broadcast frames are forwarded to all other segments. This reduces unnecessary traffic and collisions. In such a switched network, transmitted frames may not be received by all other reachable nodes. Nominally, only broadcast frames will be received by all other nodes. Collisions are localized to the network segment they occur on. Thus, the broadcast domain is the entire inter-connected layer two network, and the segments connected to each switch/bridge port are each a collision domain. Not all network systems or media feature broadcast/collision domains. For example, PPP links have neither. Broadcast domain control With a sufficiently sophisticated switch, it is possible to create a network in which the normal notion of a broadcast domain is strictly controlled. One implementation of this concept is termed a "private VLAN". Another implementation is possible with Linux and etables. This is achieved by designating one or more "server" or "provider" nodes, either by MAC address or switch port. Broadcast frames are allowed to originate from these sources, and are sent to all other nodes. Broadcast frames from all other sources are directed only to the server/provider nodes. Traffic from other sources not destined to the server/provider nodes ("peer-to-peer" traffic) is blocked. The result is a network based on a nominally shared transmission system, like Ethernet, but in which "client" nodes cannot communicate with each other, other with the server/provider. A common application is Internet providers. Allowing direct data link layer communication between customer nodes exposes the network to various security attacks, such as ARP spoofing. Controlling the broadcast domain in this fashion provides many of the advantages of a point-to-point network, using commodity broadcast-based hardware. See also Network layer Collision domain | Broadcast_domain |@lemmatized broadcast:20 domain:17 logical:1 division:1 computer:3 network:15 node:14 reach:1 data:3 link:3 layer:8 within:2 lan:2 rout:1 towards:1 segment:10 term:2 current:1 popular:1 technology:1 connect:8 ethernet:4 repeater:4 switch:10 member:2 far:1 set:2 inter:3 router:2 high:1 device:3 form:1 boundary:1 compare:1 collision:12 would:1 divide:3 learn:1 bridge:3 generally:1 small:1 contain:1 two:3 able:1 domains:1 explanation:1 distinction:1 come:1 simple:2 similar:1 system:4 use:2 share:2 transmission:2 without:1 frame:12 transmit:3 receive:4 check:1 destination:1 address:5 simply:1 ignore:1 mac:2 time:1 result:2 propagate:2 prevent:1 thus:2 also:2 act:1 buffer:1 analyze:1 destine:3 originating:1 forward:2 specific:1 different:1 send:2 reduce:1 unnecessary:1 traffic:3 switched:1 may:1 reachable:1 nominally:2 localize:1 occur:1 entire:1 port:2 medium:1 feature:1 example:1 ppp:1 neither:1 control:3 sufficiently:1 sophisticated:1 possible:2 create:1 normal:1 notion:1 strictly:1 one:2 implementation:2 concept:1 private:1 vlan:1 another:1 linux:1 etables:1 achieve:1 designate:1 server:4 provider:5 either:1 allow:2 originate:1 source:3 direct:2 peer:2 block:1 base:2 like:1 client:1 nod:1 cannot:1 communicate:1 common:1 application:1 internet:1 communication:1 customer:1 expose:1 various:1 security:1 attack:1 arp:1 spoofing:1 fashion:1 provide:1 many:1 advantage:1 point:2 commodity:1 hardware:1 see:1 |@bigram peer_peer:1 |
884 | Aryan | Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit "Ārya" meaning "noble" or "honorable". <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aryan. for the Sanskrit term, Monier-Williams has: "a respectable or honourable or faithful man, an inhabitant of Âryâvarta; one who is faithful to the religion of his country; name of the race which immigrated from Central Asia into Âryâvarta (opposed to an-arya, dasyu, daasa); in later times name of the first three castes (opposed to shudra); a man highly esteemed; a master; Âryan, favourable to the Âryan people; behaving like an Âryan, worthy of one, honourable, respectable, noble; of a good family; excellent; wise; suitable" The Avestan cognate is "Airya" and the Old Persian equivalent is "Ariya". It is widely held to have been used as an ethnic self-designation of the Proto-Indo-Iranians http://www.haryana-online.com/people/aryans.htm Since in the 19th century, the Indo-Iranians were the most ancient known speakers of Indo-European languages, the word Aryan was adopted to refer not only to the Indo-Iranian people, but also to Indo-European speakers as a whole. In Europe, the concept of an Aryan race became influential in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as linguists and ethnologists argued that speakers of these Indo-European languages constitute a distinctive race, descended from an ancient people, who were referred to as the "primitive Aryans", but are now known as Proto-Indo-Europeans. In linguistics, Aryan is most often used in the context of the sub-branch of Indo-Iranian languages referred to as Indo-Aryan languages. Etymology Proto-Indo-European (PIE) , a yo-adjective to a root "to assemble skillfully", present in Greek harma "chariot", Greek aristos, (as in "aristocracy"), Latin ars "art", etc. Proto-Indo-Iranian *ar-ta- was a related concept of "properly joined" expressing a religious concept of cosmic order. The adjective *aryo- was suggested as ascending to Proto-Indo-European times as the self-designation of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language itself. It was suggested that other words such as Éire, the Irish name of Ireland, and Ehre (German for "honour") were related to it, but these are now widely regarded as untenable, Encyclopaedia Iranica - Aryans and while is certainly a well-formed PIE adjective, there is no evidence that it was used as an ethnic self-designation outside the Indo-Iranian branch. In the 1850s Max Müller theorized that the word originated as a denotation of farming populations, since he thought it likely that it was related to the root , meaning "to plow"; thus Aryans would be those who plow. Other 19th century writers, such as Charles Morris, repeated this idea, linking the expansion of PIE speakers to the spread of agriculturalists. Most linguists now consider to be unrelated. The Proto-Iranian form *Aryāna- appears as Æryānam Väejāh "expanse of the Aryans" in Avestan, in Middle Persian as Ērān, and in Modern Persian as Īrān. Similarly, Northern India was referred to by the tatpurusha Aryavarta "Arya-abode" in ancient times. Semantics of Sanskrit arya According to Paul Thieme (1938), the Vedic term arya- in its earliest attestations has a meaning of "stranger", but "stranger" in the sense of "potential guest" as opposed to "barbarian" (mleccha, dasa), taking this to indicate that arya was originally the ethnic self-designation of the Indo-Iranians. Arya directly contrasts with Dasa or Dasyu in the Rigveda (e.g. RV 1.51.8, "Discern thou well Aryas and Dasyus"). This situation is directly comparable to the term Hellene in Ancient Greece. The Middle Indic interjection arē!, rē! "you there!" is derived from the vocative arí! "stranger!". The Sanskrit lexicon Amarakosha (c. AD 450) defines Arya as "being of a noble family", "having gentle or refined behavior and demeanor", "being well-born and respectable", and "being virtuous, honourable, or righteous". In Hinduism, the religiously initiated Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishyas were arya, a title of honor and respect given to certain people for noble behaviour. This word is used by Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Zoroastrians to mean noble or spiritual. ThinkQuest : Site Unavailable , for example, Four Noble Truths (Pali: Cattāri ariyasaccāni, Sanskrit: Catvāri āryasatyāni), and Noble Eightfold Path (Pāli: ; Sanskrit: ). Indo-European Max Müller and other 19th century linguists theorized that the term *arya was used as the self-description of the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who were often referred to at this time as the "primitive Aryans". By extension, the word came to be used in the West for the Indo-European speaking peoples as a whole. Besides Müller for example H. Chavée in 1867 uses the term in this sense (aryaque), but this never saw frequent use in linguistics, precisely for being reserved for "Indo-Iranian" already. G. I. Ascoli in 1854 used arioeuropeo, viz. a compound "Aryo-European" with the same rationale as "Indo-European", the term now current, which has been in frequent use since the 1830s. Nevertheless, the use of Aryan as a synonym for Indo-European became widespread in non-linguistic and popular usage by the end of the nineteenth century. Use of "Aryan" for "Indo-European" in academia was obsolete by the 1910s: B. W. Leist in 1888 still titles Alt-Arisches Jus Gentium ("Old Aryan [meaning Indo-European, not Indo-Iranian] Ius Gentium"). P. v. Bradke in 1890 titles Methode und Ergebnisse der arischen (indogermanischen) Altterthumswissenschaft, still using "Aryan", but inserting an explanatory bracket. Otto Schrader in 1918 in his Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde under the entry Arier matter-of-factly discusses the Indo-Iranians, without any reference to a possible wider meaning of the term. According to Michael Witzel in his paper Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts, "the use of the word Arya or Aryan to designate the speakers of all Indo-European (IE) languages or as the designation of a particular race is an aberration of many writers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and should be avoided." Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies Indo-Iranian The most probable date for Proto-Indo-Iranian unity is roughly around 2500 BC. In this sense of the word Aryan, the Aryans were an ancient culture preceding both the Vedic and Avestan cultures. Candidates for an archeological identification of this Indo-Iranian culture are the Andronovo and/or Srubnaya Archeological Complexes. India, Anatolia and Central Asia have also been suggested as possible homelands for this culture. In linguistics, the term Aryan currently may be used to refer to the Indo-Iranian language family. To prevent confusion because of its several meanings, the linguistic term is often avoided today. It has been replaced by the unambiguous terms Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Indo-Iranian, Indo-Iranian, Iranian and Indo-Aryan. The Proto-Indo-Iranian language evolved into the family of Indo-Iranian languages, of which the oldest-known members are Vedic Sanskrit, Avestan and another Indo-Iranian language, known only from loan-words found in the Mitanni language. Indo-Aryan There is evidence of an Indo-Aryan language in Mesopotamia around 1500 BC in the form of loanwords in the Mitanni dialect of Hurrian, the speakers of which, it is speculated, may have once had an Indo-Aryan ruling class. At around the same time, the Indo-Aryans associated with the Vedic civilization, which dates back to the same period. They are sometimes called Vedic Aryans because it is believed that they brought the Vedas to the Indian subcontinent after the Aryans migrated into that region (this theory is contrary to the Out of India Theory). In ancient India, the term Aryavarta, meaning "abode of the Aryans", was used to refer to the northern Indian subcontinent. Indo-Aryans are spread over most of the northern, eastern, western and central parts of the Indian subcontinent and in the islands of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indo-Aryan languages that exist outside the Indian subcontinent include Romani, the language of the Roma people, often known as "Gypsies", Parya, used in Tajikistan, Jataki, used in Ukraine, and Domari which is used in the Middle East. Iranian Since ancient times, Iranian peoples have used the term Aryan as a racial designation in an ethnic sense to describe their lineage and their language, and this tradition has continued into the present day amongst modern Iranians Encyclopedia Iranica, p. 681, Arya . In fact, the name Iran is a cognate of Aryan and means "Land of the Aryans." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, 2000 http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/indoIranianBranch.html Persian However, many of these usages are also intelligible if we understand the word Aryan in its sense of "noble" or "Spiritual". This Iranian necklace was excavated from Gilan, Iran (1st millennium BCE, National Museum of Iran). Because of evidence of its use in several Indo-European cultures the swastika came to be identified as "the oldest Aryan symbol" by several writers in the late 19th century. Thomas Wilson, curator of the Department of Prehistoric Anthropology, U.S. National Museum, wrote in 1894 that "it is believed by some to have been the oldest Aryan symbol", The Swastika: the earliest known symbol, and its migration, Report of the U. S. National Museum, p.770 Darius the Great, King of Persia (521–486 BC), in an inscription in Naqsh-e Rustam (near Shiraz in present-day Iran), proclaims: Although Herodotus claims that it was the Medes who were the Aryans, having changed their name after the arrival of Medea and potentially her son Medus Hesiod Theogony 1000-2 on the Iranian plateau. Herodotus Histories VII.62i He also calls his language the "Aryan language," commonly known today as Median Language. According to the Encyclopedia Iranica, "the same ethnic concept was held in the later centuries" and was associated with "nobility and lordship." (p. 681) The word has become a technical term in the theologies of Zoroastrianism, but has always been used by Iranians in the ethnic sense as well. In 1967, Iran's Pahlavi dynasty (overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution) added the title Āryāmehr "Light of the Aryans" to those of the monarch, known at the time as the Shahanshah (King of Kings). The term "Airya-shayana" (abode of the Aryans) has also been used in the Avesta referring to all the lands where the Aryans dwell. "Iranian Glory" (Airyana Khvarenah) occurs in the Avesta 23 times. The term also remains a frequent element in modern Persian personal names, including Arya and Aryan (boy's and girl's name), Aryana (a common surname), Iran-Dokht (Aryan daughter, a girl's name),Aryanpour (or Aryanpur, a surname), Aryamane, Ary among many others. The terms "Aryan" and "Iranian" are sometimes used interchangeably, as in the Iranian bank chain, Aryan Bank. Racial connotations Because of ethnolinguistic arguments about connections between peoples and cultural values, "Aryan" peoples were often considered to be distinct from Semitic peoples. By the end of the nineteenth century "Aryan" was used as a synonym for Indo-European, and this popular usage persists even after some academic authors have condemned such usage because of its negative connotations derived from the Nazi era. In linguistics, it is still used in the context of the sub-branch of Indo-Iranians referred to as Indo-Aryans, all though that usage has also been condemned and proposed to be replaced by the term Indic languages. The "Aryan race" was a term used in the early 20th century by European racial theorists who believed strongly in the division of humanity into biologically distinct races with differing characteristics. Such writers believed that the Proto-Indo-Europeans constituted a specific race that had expanded across parts of Europe, Iran and small parts of northern India. This usage tends to merge the Sanskrit meaning of "noble" or "elevated" with the idea of distinctive behavioral and ancestral ethnicity marked by language distribution. From the late 19th century, a number of writers had argued that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had originated in Europe. Their opinion was received critically at first, but was widely accepted by the end of the nineteenth century. By 1905 Hermann Hirt in his Die Indogermanen (Hirt consistently used Indogermanen, not Arier, to refer to the Indo-Europeans) claimed that the scales had tilted in favour of the hypothesis, in particular claiming the plains of northern Germany as the Urheimat (p. 197) and connecting the "blond type" (p. 192) with the core population of the early, "pure" Indo-Europeans. This argument developed in tandem with Nordicism, the theory that the "Nordic race" of fair-haired north Europeans were innately superior to other peoples. The identification of the Proto-Indo-Europeans with the north German Corded Ware culture bolstered this position. This was first proposed by Gustaf Kossinna in 1902, and gained in currency over the following two decades, until V. Gordon Childe who in his 1926 The Aryans: a study of Indo-European origins concluded that "the Nordics' superiority in physique fitted them to be the vehicles of a superior language" (a belief which he later regretted having expressed). The idea became a matter of national pride in learned circles of Germany, and was taken up by the Nazis. According to Alfred Rosenberg's ideology the "Aryan-Nordic" (arisch-nordisch) or "Nordic-Atlantean" (nordisch-atlantisch) race was thus a master race, at the top of a racial hierarchy, pitted against a "Jewish-Semitic" (jüdisch-semitisch) race, deemed to be a racial threat to Germany's homogeneous Aryan civilization, thus rationalizing Nazi anti-Semitism. Nazism portrayed their interpretation of an "Aryan race" as the only race capable of, or with an interest in, creating and maintaining culture and civilizations, while other races are merely capable of conversion, or destruction of culture. These arguments derived from late nineteenth century racial hierarchies. Some Nazis were also influenced by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky's The Secret Doctrine (1888) where she postulates "Aryans" as the fifth of her "Root Races", dating them to about a million years ago, tracing them to Atlantis, an idea also repeated by Rosenberg, and held as doctrine by the Thule Society. Such theories were used to justify the introduction of the so-called "Aryan laws" by the Nazis, depriving "non-Aryans" of citizenship and employment rights, and prohibiting marriage between Aryans and non-Aryans. Though Benito Mussolini's fascism was not originally characterised by explicit anti-Semitism, he too eventually introduced laws pressed upon him by Hitler, prohibiting mixed-race marriages between "Aryans" and Jews. Because of historical racist use of Aryan, and especially use of Aryan race in connection with the propaganda of Nazism, the word is sometimes avoided in the West as being tainted, in the same manner as the swastika symbol. Currently, India and Iran are the only countries to use the word Aryan in a demographic denomination. Aryan is also a common male name in India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran. See also Aryan race Aryanization Aryavarta Airyanem Vaejah Indigenous Aryans Proto-Indo-Europeans Indo-Iranian languages Indo-Iranians Indo-Aryans Iranian peoples Notes References Paul Thieme, Der Fremdling im Rigveda. Eine Studie über die Bedeutung der Worte ari, arya, aryaman und aarya, Leipzig (1938). Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Thomas Gamkrelidze, The Early History of Indo-European Languages, Scientific American, vol. 262, N3, 110116, March, 1990 A. Kammenhuber, "Aryans in the Near East," Haidelberg, 1968 Further reading Vyacheslav V. Ivanov and Thomas Gamkrelidze, The Early History of Indo-European Languages, Scientific American, vol. 262, N3, 110116, March, 1990 A. Kammenhuber, "Aryans in the Near East," Haidelberg, 1968 Arvidsson, Stefan (2006), Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science, translated by Sonia Wichmann, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Poliakov, Leon (1974). The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalistic Ideas In Europe. Translation of Le mythe aryen, 1971. External links Occurrence of "Arya" in Hindu scriptures Etymological study Aryanism in Tajikistan Genetic evidence suggests European migrants may have influenced the origins of India's caste system Aryan as a race or language, By David Frawley, American Institute of vedic Studies. Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts, By Michael Witzel, Harvard University. 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885 | Christopher_Columbus | Christopher Columbus (between August 25 and October 31, 1451 – May 20, 1506) was a Genoese navigator, colonizer and explorer whose voyages across the Atlantic Ocean—funded by Queen Isabella of Spain—led to general European awareness of the American continents in the Western Hemisphere. Although not the first to reach the Americas from Europe—he was preceded by the Norse, led by Leif Ericson, who built a temporary settlement 500 years earlier at L'Anse aux Meadows http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/nl/meadows/index_e.asp Parks Canada - L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site of Canada — Columbus initiated widespread contact between Europeans and indigenous Americans. With his several attempts at establishing a settlement on the island of Hispaniola, he personally initiated the process of Spanish colonization which foreshadowed general European colonization of the "New World." (The term "pre-Columbian" is usually used to refer to the peoples and cultures of the Americas before the arrival of Columbus and his European successors.) His initial 1492 voyage came at a critical time of growing national imperialism and economic competition between developing nation states seeking wealth from the establishment of trade routes and colonies. In this sociopolitical climate, Columbus's far-fetched scheme won the attention of Queen Isabella of Spain. Severely underestimating the circumference of the Earth, he estimated that a westward route from Iberia to the Indies would be shorter and more direct than the overland trade route through Arabia. If true, this would allow Spain entry into the lucrative spice tradeheretofore commanded by the Arabs and Italians. Following his plotted course, he instead landed within the Bahamas Archipelago at a locale he named San Salvador. Mistaking the North-American island for the East-Asian mainland, he referred to its inhabitants as "Indios". Academic consensus is that Columbus was born in Genoa, though there are other theories. The name Christopher Columbus is the Anglicisation of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. The original name in 15th century genoese language was Christoffa Rime diverse, Pavia, 1595, p.117 Corombo Ra Gerusalemme deliverâ, Genoa, 1755, XV-32 (pron. ) The name is rendered in modern Italian as Cristoforo Colombo, in Portuguese as Cristóvão Colombo (formerly Christovam Colom), and in Spanish as Cristóbal Colón. The anniversary of Columbus's 1492 landing in the Americas is observed as Columbus Day on October 12 in Spain and throughout the Americas, except that in the United States it is observed on the second Monday in October. Early life It is generally, although not universally, agreed that Christopher Columbus was born between August 25, and October 31, 1451 in Genoa, part of modern Italy. Phillips, William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. The Worlds of Christopher Columbus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Page 9. "Even with less than a complete record, however, scholars can state with assurance that Columbus was born in the republic of Genoa in northern Italy, although perhaps not in the city itself, and that his family made a living in the wool business as weavers and merchants. [...] The two main early biographies of Columbus have been taken as literal truth by hundreds of writers, in large part because they were written by individual closely connected to Columbus or his writings. [...] Both biographies have serious shortcomings as evidence." His father was Domenico Colombo, a middle-class wool weaver, who later also had a cheese stand where Christopher was a helper, working both in Genoa and Savona. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Bartolomeo, Giovanni Pellegrino and Giacomo were his brothers. Bartolomeo worked in a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood. Encyclopedia Britannica, 1993 ed., Vol. 16, pp. 605ff / Morison, Christopher Columbus, 1955 ed., pp. 14ff Columbus never wrote any works in his native language, but it can be assumed this was the Genoese variety of Ligurian. In one of his writings, Columbus claims to have gone to the sea at the age of 10. In 1470 the Columbus family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. In the same year, Columbus was on a Genoese ship hired in the service of René I of Anjou to support his attempt to conquer the Kingdom of Naples. In 1473 Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the important Centurione, Di Negro and Spinola families of Genoa. Later he allegedly made a trip to Chios, a Genoese colony in the Aegean Sea. In May 1476, he took part in an armed convoy sent by Genoa to carry a valuable cargo to northern Europe. He docked in Bristol, Galway, in Ireland and was possibly in Iceland in 1477. In 1479 Columbus reached his brother Bartolomeo in Lisbon, keeping on trading for the Centurione family. He married Filipa Moniz Perestrello, daughter of the Porto Santo governor, the Portuguese nobleman of Genoese origin Bartolomeu Perestrello. In 1479 or 1480, his son Diego was born. Voyages Navigation plans The "Colombus map" was drawn circa 1490 in the workshop of Bartolomeo and Christopher Columbus in Lisbon. "Marco Polo et le Livre des Merveilles", ISBN 9782354040079 p.37 Columbus's geographical conceptions. Europe had long enjoyed a safe land passage to China and India— sources of valued goods such as silk, spices, and opiates— under the hegemony of the Mongol Empire (the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol peace). With the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the land route to Asia became more difficult. In response to this the Columbus brothers had, by the 1480s, developed a plan to travel to the Indies, then construed roughly as all of south and east Asia, by sailing directly west across the "Ocean Sea," i.e., the Atlantic. Washington Irving's 1828 biography of Columbus popularized the idea that Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan because Europeans thought the Earth was flat. In fact, the primitive maritime navigation of the time relied on the stars and the curvature of the spherical Earth. The knowledge that the Earth was spherical was widespread, and the means of calculating its diameter using an astrolabe was known to both scholars and navigators Russell, Jeffrey Burton 1991. Inventing the Flat Earth. Columbus and modern historians, Praeger, New York, Westport, London 1991;Zinn, Howard 1980. A People's History of the United States, HarperCollins 2001. p.2 . A spherical Earth had been the general opinion of Ancient Greek science, and this view continued through the Middle Ages (for example, Bede mentions it in The Reckoning of Time). In fact Eratosthenes had measured the diameter of the Earth with good precision in the second century BC. Sagan, Carl. Cosmos; the mean circumference of the Earth is 40,041.47 km. Where Columbus did differ from the generally accepted view of his time is his (incorrect) arguments that assumed a significantly smaller diameter for the Earth, claiming that Asia could be easily reached by sailing west across the Atlantic. Most scholars accepted Ptolemy's correct assessment that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, and dismissed Columbus's claim that the Earth was much smaller, and that Asia was only a few thousand nautical miles to the west of Europe. Columbus's error was put down to his lack of experience in navigation at sea. Morison, Samuel Eliot, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: The Life of Christopher Columbus Boston, 1942 Columbus believed the (incorrect) calculations of Marinus of Tyre, putting the landmass at 225 degrees, leaving only 135 degrees of water. Moreover, Columbus believed that one degree represented a shorter distance on the Earth's surface than was actually the case. Finally, he read maps as if the distances were calculated in Italian miles (1,238 meters). Accepting the length of a degree to be 56⅔ miles, from the writings of Alfraganus, he therefore calculated the circumference of the Earth as 25,255 kilometers at most, and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan as 3,000 Italian miles (3,700 km, or 2,300 statute miles). Columbus did not realize Al-Farghani used the much longer Arabic mile (about 1,830 m). Handwritten notes by Christopher Columbus on the Latin edition of Marco Polo's Le livre des merveilles. The true circumference of the Earth is about 40,000 km (25,000 sm), a figure established by Eratosthenes in the second century BC, and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan 19,600 km (12,200 sm). No ship that was readily available in the 15th century could carry enough food and fresh water for such a journey. Most European sailors and navigators concluded, probably correctly, that sailors undertaking a westward voyage from Europe to Asia non-stop would die of thirst or starvation long before reaching their destination. Spain, however, having completed an expensive war, was desperate for a competitive edge over other European countries in trade with the East Indies. Columbus promised such an advantage. While Columbus's calculations underestimated the circumference of the Earth and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan by the standards of his peers as well as in fact, Europeans generally assumed that the aquatic expanse between Europe and Asia was uninterrupted. There was a further element of key importance in the plans of Columbus, a closely held fact discovered by or otherwise learned by Columbus: the trade winds. A brisk wind from the east, commonly called an "easterly", propelled Santa María, La Niña, & La Pinta for 5 weeks from the Canaries. To return to Spain eastward against this prevailing wind would have required several months of an arduous sailing technique, called beating, during which food & drinkable water would have been utterly exhausted. Columbus returned home by following prevailing winds northeastward from the southern zone of the North Atlantic to the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic, where prevailing winds are eastward (westerly) to the coastlines of Western Europe, where the winds curve southward towards the Iberian Peninsula. In fact, Columbus was wrong about degrees of longitude to be traversed and wrong about distance per degree, but he was right about a more vital fact: how to use the North Atlantic's great circular wind pattern, clockwise in direction, to get home. Funding campaign In 1485, Columbus presented his plans to John II, King of Portugal. He proposed the king equip three sturdy ships and grant Columbus one year's time to sail out into the Atlantic, search for a western route to the Orient, and return. Columbus also requested he be made "Great Admiral of the Ocean", appointed governor of any and all lands he discovered, and given one-tenth of all revenue from those lands. The king submitted the proposal to his experts, who rejected it. It was their considered opinion that Columbus's estimation of a travel distance of was, in fact, far too short. Arms of Columbus In 1488 Columbus appealed to the court of Portugal once again, and once again John invited him to an audience. It also proved unsuccessful, in part because not long afterwards Bartholomeu Dias returned to Portugal following a successful rounding of the southern tip of Africa. With an eastern sea route now under its control, Portugal was no longer interested in trailblazing a western route to Asia. Columbus travelled from Portugal to both Genoa and Venice, but he received encouragement from neither. Previously he had his brother sound out Henry VII of England, to see if the English monarch might not be more amenable to Columbus's proposal. After much carefully considered hesitation Henry's invitation came, too late. Columbus had already committed himself to Spain. Columbus and Queen Isabella. Detail of the Columbus monument in Madrid (1885). He had sought an audience from the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who had united the largest kingdoms of Spain by marrying, and were ruling together. On May 1, 1486, permission having been granted, Columbus presented his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred it to a committee. After the passing of much time, these savants of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, reported back that Columbus had judged the distance to Asia much too short. They pronounced the idea impractical, and advised their Royal Highnesses to pass on the proposed venture. However, to keep Columbus from taking his ideas elsewhere, and perhaps to keep their options open, the King and Queen of Spain gave him an annual allowance of 12,000 maravedis and in 1489 furnished him with a letter ordering all Spanish cities and towns to provide him food and lodging at no cost. Durant, Will "The Story of Civilization" vol. vi, "The Reformation". Chapter XIII, page 260. After continually lobbying at the Spanish court and two years of negotiations, he finally had success in 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella had just conquered Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian peninsula, and they received Columbus in Córdoba, in the Alcázar castle. Isabella turned Columbus down on the advice of her confessor, and he was leaving town by mule in despair, when Ferdinand intervened. Isabella then sent a royal guard to fetch him and Ferdinand later claimed credit for being "the principal cause why those islands were discovered". About half of the financing was to come from private Italian investors, whom Columbus had already lined up. Financially broke after the Granada campaign, the monarchs left it to the royal treasurer to shift funds among various royal accounts on behalf of the enterprise. Columbus was to be made "Admiral of the Seas" and would receive a portion of all profits. The terms were unusually generous, but as his son later wrote, the monarchs did not really expect him to return. According to the contract that Columbus made with King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, if Columbus discovered any new islands or mainland, he would receive many high rewards. In terms of power, he would be given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy and Governor of all the new lands. He had the right to nominate three persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office in the new lands. He would be entitled to 10 percent of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity; this part was denied to him in the contract, although it was one of his demands. Additionally, he would also have the option of buying one-eighth interest in any commercial venture with the new lands and receive one-eighth of the profits. Columbus was later arrested in 1500 and supplanted from these posts. After his death, Columbus's sons, Diego and Fernando, took legal action to enforce their father's contract. Many of the smears against Columbus were initiated by the Spanish crown during these lengthy court cases, known as the pleitos colombinos. The family had some success in their first litigation, as a judgment of 1511 confirmed Diego's position as Viceroy, but reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes continued until 1790. Mark McDonald, "Ferdinand Columbus, Renaissance Collector (1488-1539)", 2005, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714126449 First voyage Departure of the first voyage from the port of Palos, by Evaristo Dominguez, in the municipality of Palos de la Frontera. First voyage. Columbus claims the New World in a chromolithograph by the Prang Education Company, 1893 Replica of Santa Maria On the evening of August 3, 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships; one larger carrack, Santa María, nicknamed Gallega (the Galician), and two smaller caravels, Pinta (the Painted) and Santa Clara, nicknamed Niña after her owner Juan Niño of Moguer. The Columbus Foundation: Santa Clara They were property of Juan de la Cosa and the Pinzón brothers (Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez), but the monarchs forced the Palos inhabitants to contribute to the expedition. Columbus first sailed to the Canary Islands, which were owned by Castile, where he restocked the provisions and made repairs. On September 6, he departed San Sebastián de la Gomera for what turned out to be a five-week voyage across the ocean. Land was sighted at 2 a.m. on October 12, 1492, by a sailor named Rodrigo de Triana (also known as Juan Rodríguez Bermejo) aboard Pinta. Columbus called the island (in what is now The Bahamas) San Salvador; the natives called it Guanahani. Exactly which island in the Bahamas this corresponds to is an unresolved topic; prime candidates are Samana Cay, Plana Cays, or San Salvador Island (so named in 1925 in the belief that it was Columbus's San Salvador). The indigenous people he encountered, the Lucayan, Taíno or Arawak, were peaceful and friendly. From the October 12, 1492, entry in his journal he wrote of them, "Many of the men I have seen have scars on their bodies, and when I made signs to them to find out how this happened, they indicated that people from other nearby islands come to San Salvador to capture them; they defend themselves the best they can. I believe that people from the mainland come here to take them as slaves. They ought to make good and skilled servants, for they repeat very quickly whatever we say to them. I think they can very easily be made Christians, for they seem to have no religion. If it pleases our Lord, I will take six of them to Your Highnesses when I depart, in order that they may learn our language." Robert H. Fuson, ed The Log of Christopher Columbus, Tab Books, 1992, International Marine Publishing, ISBN 0-87742-316-4 Lacking modern weaponry and even metal-forged swords or pikes, he remarked upon their tactical vulnerability, writing, "I could conquer the whole of them with 50 men, and govern them as I pleased." Columbus Day sparks debate over explorer's legacy - News Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba (landed on October 28) and the northern coast of Hispaniola, by December 5. Here, the Santa Maria ran aground on Christmas morning 1492 and had to be abandoned. He was received by the native cacique Guacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus left 39 men and founded the settlement of La Navidad in what is now present-day Haiti. Before returning to Spain, Columbus also kidnapped some ten to twenty-five natives and took them back with him. Only seven or eight of the native Indians arrived in Spain alive, but they made quite an impression on Seville. Captain's Ensign of Columbus's Ships Columbus headed for Spain, but another storm forced him into Lisbon. He anchored next to the King's harbor patrol ship on March 4, 1493 in Portugal. After spending more than one week in Portugal, he set sail for Spain. He reached Spain on March 15, 1493. Word of his finding new lands rapidly spread throughout Europe. There is increasing modern scientific evidence that this voyage also brought syphilis back from the New World. Many of the crew members who served on this voyage later joined the army of King Charles VIII in his invasion of Italy in 1495 resulting in the spreading of the disease across Europe and as many as 5 million deaths. Second voyage Second voyage. Columbus left Cádiz, Spain, on September 24, 1493 to find new territories, with 17 ships carrying supplies, and about 1,200 men to colonize the region. On October 13, the ships left the Canary Islands as they had on the first voyage, following a more southerly course. On November 3, 1493, Columbus sighted a rugged island that he named Dominica (Latin for Sunday); later that day, he landed at Marie-Galante, which he named Santa Maria la Galante. After sailing past Les Saintes (Los Santos, The Saints), he arrived at Guadeloupe (Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, in Guadalupe, Spain), which he explored between November 4 and November 10, 1493. Michele da Cuneo, Columbus’s childhood friend from Savona, sailed with Columbus during the second voyage and wrote: "In my opinion, since Genoa was Genoa, there was never born a man so well equipped and expert in the art of navigation as the said lord Admiral." Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Columbus, Oxford Univ. Press, (1991) pp. 103-104 Columbus named the small island of "Saona ... to honor Michele da Cuneo, his friend from Savona." Paolo Emilio Taviani, Columbus the Great Adventure, Orion Books, New York (1991) p. 185 The exact course of his voyage through the Lesser Antilles is debated, but it seems likely that he turned north, sighting and naming several islands, including Montserrat (for Santa Maria de Montserrate, after the Blessed Virgin of the Monastery of Montserrat, which is located on the Mountain of Montserrat, in Catalonia, Spain), Antigua (after a church in Seville, Spain, called Santa Maria la Antigua, meaning "Old St. Mary's"), Redonda (for Santa Maria la Redonda, Spanish for "round", owing to the island's shape), Nevis (derived from the Spanish, Nuestra Señora de las Nieves, meaning "Our Lady of the Snows", because Columbus thought the clouds over Nevis Peak made the island resemble a snow-capped mountain), Saint Kitts (for St. Christopher, patron of sailors and travelers), Sint Eustatius (for the early Roman martyr, St. Eustachius), Saba (also for St. Christopher?), Saint Martin (San Martin), and Saint Croix (from the Spanish Santa Cruz, meaning "Holy Cross"). He also sighted the island chain of the Virgin Islands (and named them Islas de Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgenes, Saint Ursula and the 11,000 Virgins, a cumbersome name that was usually shortened, both on maps of the time and in common parlance, to Islas Virgenes), and he also named the islands of Virgin Gorda (the fat virgin), Tortola, and Peter Island (San Pedro). He continued to the Greater Antilles, and landed at Puerto Rico (originally San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, a name that was later supplanted by Puerto Rico (English: Rich Port) while the capital retained the name, San Juan) on November 19, 1493. One of the first skirmishes between native Americans and Europeans since the time of the Vikings took place when Columbus's men rescued two boys who had just been castrated by their captors. On November 22, Columbus returned to Hispaniola, where he intended to visit Fuerte de la Navidad (Christmas Fort), built during his first voyage, and located on the northern coast of Haiti; Fuerte de la Navidad was found in ruins, destroyed by the native Taino people, whereupon, Columbus moved more than 100 kilometers eastwards, establishing a new settlement, which he called La Isabela, likewise on the northern coast of Hispaniola, in the present-day Dominican Republic. However, La Isabela proved to be a poorly chosen location, and the settlement was short-lived. He left Hispaniola on April 24, 1494, arrived at Cuba (naming it Juana) on April 30. He explored the southern coast of Cuba, which he believed to be a peninsula rather than an island, and several nearby islands, including the Isle of Pines (Isla de las Pinas, later known as La Evangelista, The Evangelist). He reached Jamaica on May 5. He retraced his route to Hispaniola, arriving on August 20, before he finally returned to Spain. During his second voyage, Columbus and his men instituted a policy in Hispaniola which has been referred to by numerous historians as genocide. The native Taino people of the island were systematically enslaved and murdered. Hundreds were rounded up and shipped to Europe to be sold; many died en route. For the rest of the population, Columbus demanded that all Taino under his control should bring the Spaniards gold. Those that didn't were to have their hands cut off. Since there was, in fact, little gold to be had, the Taino fled, and the Spaniards hunted them down and killed them. The Taino tried to mount a resistance, but the Spanish weaponry was superior, and European diseases ravaged their population. In despair, the Taino engaged in mass suicide, even killing their own children to save them from the Spaniards. Within two years, half of what may have been 250,000 Taino were dead. The remainder were taken as slaves and set to work on plantations, where the mortality rate was very high. By 1550, 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred Taino were left on their island. In another hundred years, perhaps only a handful remained. Jack Weatherford, Examining the reputation of Christopher Columbus 9.11 - Columbus' History of Genocide Pre-Columbian Hispaniola - Arawak/Taino Indians Third voyage Third voyage. Location of city of Sanlúcar de Barrameda, the starting point for Columbus's third journey. On May 30, 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain, for his third trip to the New World. He was accompanied by the young Bartolomé de Las Casas, who would later provide partial transcripts of Columbus's logs. Columbus led the fleet to the Portuguese island of Porto Santo, his wife's native land. He then sailed to Madeira and spent some time there with the Portuguese captain João Gonçalves da Camara before sailing to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde. Columbus landed on the south coast of the island of Trinidad on July 31. From August 4 through August 12, he explored the Gulf of Paria which separates Trinidad from Venezuela. He explored the mainland of South America, including the Orinoco River. He also sailed to the islands of Chacachacare and Margarita Island and sighted and named Tobago (Bella Forma) and Grenada (Concepcion). Columbus returned to Hispaniola on August 19 to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were discontented, having been misled by Columbus about the supposedly bountiful riches of the new world. An entry in his journal from September 1498 reads, "From here one might send, in the name of the Holy Trinity, as many slaves as could be sold..." Indeed, as a fierce supporter of slavery, Columbus ultimately refused to baptize the native people of Hispaniola, since Catholic law forbade the enslavement of Christians. Who really sailed the ocean blue in 1492?, Christian Science Monitor, October 17, 2006 Columbus repeatedly had to deal with rebellious settlers and natives. He had some of his crew hanged for disobeying him. A number of returning settlers and sailors lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers of gross mismanagement. On his return he was arrested for a period (see Governorship and arrest section below). Fourth voyage Fourth voyage. Columbus made a fourth voyage nominally in search of the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his 13-year-old son Fernando, he left Cádiz, Spain, on May 11, 1502, with the ships Capitana, Gallega, Vizcaína and Santiago de Palos. He sailed to Arzila on the Moroccan coast to rescue Portuguese soldiers whom he had heard were under siege by the Moors. On June 15, they landed at Carbet on the island of Martinique (Martinica). A hurricane was brewing, so he continued on, hoping to find shelter on Hispaniola. He arrived at Santo Domingo on June 29, but was denied port, and the new governor refused to listen to his storm prediction. Instead, while Columbus's ships sheltered at the mouth of the Rio Jaina, the first Spanish treasure fleet sailed into the hurricane. Columbus's ships survived with only minor damage, while twenty-nine of the thirty ships in the governor's fleet were lost to the July 1 storm. In addition to the ships, 500 lives (including that of the governor, Francisco de Bobadilla) and an immense cargo of gold were surrendered to the sea. After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to Central America, arriving at Guanaja (Isla de Pinos) in the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras on July 30. Here Bartolomeo found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as "long as a galley" and was filled with cargo. On August 14, he landed on the American mainland at Puerto Castilla, near Trujillo, Honduras. He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, before arriving in Almirante Bay, Panama on October 16. On December 5, 1502, Columbus and his crew found themselves in a storm unlike any they had ever experienced. In his journal Columbus writes, For nine days I was as one lost, without hope of life. Eyes never beheld the sea so angry, so high, so covered with foam. The wind not only prevented our progress, but offered no opportunity to run behind any headland for shelter; hence we were forced to keep out in this bloody ocean, seething like a pot on a hot fire. Never did the sky look more terrible; for one whole day and night it blazed like a furnace, and the lightning broke with such violence that each time I wondered if it had carried off my spars and sails; the flashes came with such fury and frightfulness that we all thought that the ship would be blasted. All this time the water never ceased to fall from the sky; I do not say it rained, for it was like another deluge. The men were so worn out that they longed for death to end their dreadful suffering. Morison, Samuel Eliot,Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, Boston, 1942, page 617. In Panama, Columbus learned from the natives of gold and a strait to another ocean. After much exploration, in January 1503 he established a garrison at the mouth of the Rio Belen. On April 6 one of the ships became stranded in the river. At the same time, the garrison was attacked, and the other ships were damaged (Shipworms also damaged the ships in tropical waters. The History Channel. Columbus: The Lost Voyage. ). Columbus left for Hispaniola on April 16, heading north. On May 10 he sighted the Cayman Islands, naming them "Las Tortugas" after the numerous sea turtles there. His ships next sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel farther, on June 25, 1503, they were beached in St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica. Columbus intimidates natives by predicting lunar eclipse For a year Columbus and his men remained stranded on Jamaica. A Spaniard, Diego Mendez, and some natives paddled a canoe to get help from Hispaniola. That island's governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. In the meantime Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, successfully intimidated the natives by correctly predicting a lunar eclipse for February 29, 1504, using the Ephemeris of the German astronomer Regiomontanus. Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, 1942, pp. 653–54. Samuel Eliot Morison, Christopher Columbus, Mariner, 1955, pp. 184-92. Help finally arrived, no thanks to the governor, on June 29, 1504, and Columbus and his men arrived in Sanlúcar, Spain, on November 7. Governorship and arrest During Columbus's stint as governor and viceroy, he had been accused of governing tyrannically. Columbus was physically and mentally exhausted; his body was wracked by arthritis and his eyes by ophthalmia. In October 1499, he sent two ships to Spain, asking the Court of Spain to appoint a royal commissioner to help him govern. The Court appointed Francisco de Bobadilla, a member of the Order of Calatrava; however, his authority stretched far beyond what Columbus had requested. Bobadilla was given total control as governor from 1500 until his death in 1502. Arriving in Santo Domingo while Columbus was away, Bobadilla was immediately peppered with complaints about all three Columbus brothers: Christopher, Bartolomé, and Diego. Consuelo Varela, a Spanish historian, states: "Even those who loved him [Columbus] had to admit the atrocities that had taken place." Bobadilla's 48-page report—derived from the testimonies of 23 people who had seen or heard about the treatment meted out by Columbus and his brothers—had originally been lost for centuries, but was rediscovered in 2005 in the Spanish archives in Valladolid. It contained an account of Columbus's seven-year reign as the first Governor of the Indies. As a result of these testimonies and without being allowed a word in his own defense, Columbus upon his return, had manacles placed on his arms and chains on his feet and was cast into prison to await return to Spain. He was 53 years old. On October 1, 1500, Columbus and his two brothers, likewise in chains, were sent back to Spain. Once in Cádiz, a grieving Columbus wrote to a friend at court: It is now seventeen years since I came to serve these princes with the Enterprise of the Indies. They made me pass eight of them in discussion, and at the end rejected it as a thing of jest. Nevertheless I persisted therein... Over there I have placed under their sovereignty more land than there is in Africa and Europe, and more than 1,700 islands... In seven years I, by the divine will, made that conquest. At a time when I was entitled to expect rewards and retirement, I was incontinently arrested and sent home loaded with chains... The accusation was brought out of malice on the basis of charges made by civilians who had revolted and wished to take possession on the land.... I beg your graces, with the zeal of faithful Christians in whom their Highnesses have confidence, to read all my papers, and to consider how I, who came from so far to serve these princes... now at the end of my days have been despoiled of my honor and my property without cause, wherein is neither justice nor mercy. Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, p. 576. According to testimony of 23 witnesses during his trial, Columbus regularly used barbaric acts of torture to govern Hispaniola. Columbus and his brothers lingered in jail for six weeks before the busy King Ferdinand ordered their release. Not long thereafter, the king and queen summoned the Columbus brothers to their presence at the Alhambra palace in Granada. There the royal couple heard the brothers' pleas; restored their freedom and their wealth; and, after much persuasion, agreed to fund Columbus's fourth voyage. But the door was firmly shut on Christopher Columbus's role as governor. From that point forward, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres was to be the new governor of the West Indies. Later life Sculpture of Santa Maria, Columbus' flagship in his first voyage, at Columbus' House in Valladolid While Columbus had always given the conversion of non-believers as one reason for his explorations, he grew increasingly religious in his later years. He claimed to hear divine voices, lobbied for a new crusade to capture Jerusalem, often wore Franciscan habit, and described his explorations to the "paradise" as part of God's plan which would soon result in the Last Judgment and the end of the world. In his later years, Columbus demanded that the Spanish Crown give him 10 percent of all profits made in the new lands, pursuant to earlier agreements. Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the crown did not feel bound by these contracts, and his demands were rejected. After his death, his family sued in the pleitos colombinos for part of the profits from trade with America. On May 20, 1506, at about age 55, Columbus died in Valladolid, fairly wealthy from the gold his men had accumulated in Hispaniola. At his death, he was still convinced that his journeys had been along the east coast of Asia. According to a study, published in February 2007, by Antonio Rodriguez Cuartero, Department of Internal Medicine of the University of Granada, he died of a heart attack caused by Reiter's Syndrome (also called reactive arthritis). According to his personal diaries and notes by contemporaries, the symptoms of this illness (burning pain during urination, pain and swelling of the knees, and conjunctivitis) were clearly evident in his last three years. Cause of the death of Columbus (in Spanish) Columbus' remains were first interred at Valladolid, then at the monastery of La Cartuja in Seville (southern Spain) by the will of his son Diego, who had been governor of Hispaniola. In 1542 the remains were transferred to Santo Domingo, in eastern Hispaniola. In 1795 the French took over Hispaniola, and the remains were moved to Havana, Cuba. After Cuba became independent following the Spanish-American War in 1898, the remains were moved back to Spain, to the Cathedral of Seville, Cristóbal Colón: traslación de sus restos mortales a la ciudad de Sevilla at Fundación Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes where they were placed on an elaborate catafalque. However, a lead box bearing an inscription identifying "Don Christopher Columbus" and containing bone fragments and a bullet was discovered at Santo Domingo in 1877. To lay to rest claims that the wrong relics had been moved to Havana and that Columbus' remains had been left buried in the cathedral at Santo Domingo, DNA samples were taken in June 2003 (History Today August 2003). The results are not conclusive. Initial observations suggested that the bones did not appear to belong to somebody with the physique or age at death associated with Columbus. Giles Tremlett, Young bones lay Columbus myth to rest, The Guardian, August 11, 2004 DNA extraction proved difficult; only a few limited fragments of mitochondrial DNA could be isolated. However, such as they are, these do appear to match corresponding DNA from Columbus's brother, giving support to the idea that the two had the same mother and that the body therefore may be that of Columbus. DNA verifies Columbus’ remains in Spain, Associated Press, May 19, 2006 The authorities in Santo Domingo have not allowed the remains there to be exhumed, so it is unknown if any of those remains could be from Columbus's body. The location of the Dominican remains is in the "Columbus Lighthouse" or Faro A Colon which is in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Legacy Although among non-Native Americans Christopher Columbus is traditionally considered the discoverer of America, Columbus was preceded by the various cultures and civilizations of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, as well as the Western world's Vikings at L'Anse aux Meadows. He is regarded more accurately as the person who brought the Americas into the forefront of Western attention. "Columbus' claim to fame isn't that he got there first," explains historian Martin Dugard, "it's that he stayed." Dugard, Martin. The Last Voyage of Columbus. Little, Brown and Company: New York, 2005. The popular idea that he was first person to envision a rounded earth is false. The rounded shape of the earth has already been known in ancient times, although this came to be largely forgotten in the Middle Ages. By Columbus's time, educated men were in agreement as to its spherical shape, even if many or most people believed otherwise. More contentious was the size of the earth, and whether it was possible in practical terms to cross such a vast body of water: the longest any ship (European or otherwise) had gone without making landfall did not much exceed 30 days when Columbus embarked on his first audacious voyage lasting 70 days. Bronze statue at Central Park, New York City by Jerónimo Suñol, 1894. Bronze statue at Wooster Square in New Haven, Connecticut Replicas of the Niña, Pinta and Santa Maria sailed from Spain to the Chicago Columbian Exposition. Columbus Circle in New York City. Italian sculptor Gaetano Russo's central monument was dedicated in 1892, 400 years after Columbus arrived in America. Amerigo Vespucci's travel journals, published 1502-4, convinced Martin Waldseemüller that the discovered place was not India, as Columbus always believed, but a new continent, and in 1507, a year after Columbus's death, Waldseemüller published a world map calling the new continent America from Vespucci's Latinized name "Americus". Historically, the British had downplayed Columbus and emphasized the role of John Cabot as a pioneer explorer; but for the emerging United States, Cabot made a poor national hero. Veneration of Columbus in America dates back to colonial times. America itself was sometimes referred to as Columbia. The use of Columbus as a founding figure of New World nations and the use of the word Columbia spread rapidly after the American Revolution. During the last two decades of the 18th century the name "Columbia" was given to the federal capital District of Columbia, South Carolina's new capital city, Columbia, South Carolina, the Columbia River, and numerous other places. Attempts to rename the United States "Columbia" failed, but Columbia became a female national personification of America, similar to the male Uncle Sam. Outside the United States the name was used in 1819 for the Republic of Colombia, a precursor of the modern nation of Colombia. A candidate for sainthood in the Catholic Church in 1866, Celebration of Columbus's legacy perhaps reached a zenith in 1892 when the 400th anniversary of his first arrival in the Americas occurred. Monuments to Columbus like the Columbian Exposition in Chicago were erected throughout the United States and Latin America extolling him. Numerous cities, towns, counties, and streets have been named after him, including the capital cities of two U.S. states (Columbus, Ohio and Columbia, South Carolina). In 1909, descendants of Columbus undertook to dismantle the Columbus family chapel in Spain and move it to a site near State College, Pennsylvania, where it may now be visited by the public. At the museum associated with the chapel, there are a number of Columbus relics worthy of note, including the armchair which the "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" used at his chart table. Culpability is sometimes placed on contemporary governments and their citizens for the hardship suffered by Native Americans during the time of Christopher Columbus. Physical appearance Although an abundance of artwork involving Christopher Columbus exists, no authentic contemporary portrait has been found. There is a portrait painted by Alejo Fernández, between 1505 and 1536, titled Virgen de los Navegantes in the Royal Alcazar in Seville. At the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, 71 alleged portraits of Columbus were displayed, most did not match contemporary descriptions. Morison, Samuel Eliot Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, pg. 47-48, Boston 1942. These writings describe him as having reddish hair, which turned to white early in his life, light colored eyes, Bartolomé de Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, ed. Agustín Millares Carlo, 3 vols. (Mexico City, 1951), book 1, chapter 2, 1:29. The Spanish word garzos is now usually translated as "light blue," but it seems to have connoted light grey-green or hazel eyes to Columbus's contemporaries. The word rubio can mean "blonde," "fair," or "ruddy." The Worlds of Christopher Columbus by William D. & Carla Rahn Phillips, pg. 282. as well as being a lighter skinned person with too much sun exposure turning his face red. In keeping with descriptions of Columbus having had auburn hair or (later) white hair, textbooks use the Sebastiano del Piombo painting (which in its normal-sized resolution shows Columbus's hair as auburn) so often that it has become the iconic image of Columbus accepted by popular culture. Accounts consistently describe Columbus as a large and physically strong man of some six feet or more in height, easily taller than the average European of his day. In popular culture Columbus is a significant historical figure and has been depicted in fiction and in popular films and television. In 1991, author Salman Rushdie published a fictional representation of Columbus in The New Yorker, "Christopher Columbus and Queen Isabella of Spain Consummate Their Relationship, Santa Fe, January, 1492," (The New Yorker, June 17, 1991, p. 32). In Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus (1996) science fiction novelist Orson Scott Card focuses on Columbus's life and activities, but the novel's action also deals with a group of scientists from the future who travel back to the 15th century with the goal of changing the pattern of European contact with the Americas. British author Stephen Baxter includes Columbus's quest for royal sponsorship as a crucial historical event in his 2007 science fiction novel Navigator (ISBN 978-0-441-01559-7), the third entry in the author's Time's Tapestry Series. American author Mark Twain based the time traveller's trick in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court on Columbus's successful prediction of a lunar eclipse on his fourth voyage to the new world. Columbus has also been portrayed in cinema and television, including mini-series, films and cartoons. Most notably he was portrayed by Gérard Depardieu in 1992 film by Ridley Scott 1492: Conquest of Paradise. Scott presented Columbus as a forward thinking idealist as opposed to the view that he was ruthless and responsible for the misfortune of Native Americans. Other productions include TV mini-series Christopher Columbus (1985) with Gabriel Byrne as Columbus, Christopher Columbus: The Discovery, a 1992 biopic film by Alexander Salkind, Christopher Columbus, a 1949 film starring Fredric March as Columbus, and comedy Carry On Columbus (1992). Notes References Cohen, J.M. (1969) The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus: Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches with Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Others. London UK: Penguin Classics. Cook, Sherburn and Woodrow Borah (1971) Essays in Population History, Volume I. Berkeley CA: University of California Press Crosby, A. W. (1987) The Columbian Voyages: the Columbian Exchange, and their Historians. Washington, DC: American Historical Association. Davidson, Miles H. (1997) Columbus Then and Now: A Life Reexamined, Norman and London, University of Oklahoma Press. Friedman, Thomas (2005) The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux. Hart, Michael H. (1992) The 100. Seacaucus NJ: Carol Publishing Group. Keen, Benjamin (1978) The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son Ferdinand, Westport CT: Greenwood Press. Loewen, James. Lies My Teacher Told Me. Nelson, Diane M. (1999) A Finger in the Wound: Body Politics in Quincentennial Guatemala. Berkeley CA: University of California Press. Morison, Samuel Eliot, Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus, Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1942. Morison, Samuel Eliot, Christopher Columbus, Mariner, Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1955. Phillips, W. D. and C. R. Phillips (1992) The Worlds of Christopher Columbus. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. Turner, Jack (2004) Spice: The History of a Temptation. New York: Random House. Wilford, John Noble (1991) The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Rosa, Manuel DaSilva (2006) O Mistério Colombo Revelado. Lisbon: Ésquilo. Fuson, Robert H. (1992) The Log of Christopher Columbus. Camden, Maine: International Marine Publishing See also 1492: Conquest of Paradise, a 1992 biopic film by Ridley Scott Origin theories of Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus: The Discovery, a 1992 biopic film by Alexander Salkind Christopher Columbus, a 1949 film starring Fredric March as Columbus List of Viceroys of New Spain Viceroyalty of New Spain Bartolomeo Columbus Columbus Day Colombia, South American country named in honor of Christopher Columbus Fernando Colón Guanahani (a discussion of candidates for site of first landing) Knights of Columbus List of places named for Christopher Columbus Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Rafael Perestrello Spanish colonization of the Americas Egg of Columbus External links Christopher Columbus Fountain, Kenosha, Wisconsin (Michael Martino, sculptor) The Letter of Columbus to Luis de Sant Angel Announcing His Discovery Podcasts and audio about Columbus Columbus Navigation Images of Christopher Columbus and His Voyages Selections from the Collections of the Library of Congress. The Eclipse That Saved Columbus Science News October 7, 2006 Christopher Columbus and the Indians By Howard Zinn, from A People's History of the United States Columbus in the Bay of Pigs a historical poem about Columbus's invasion and Indigenous resistance Explorer Columbus 'named Pedro Scotto' IMDB Sister projects be-x-old:Хрыстафор Калумб | Christopher_Columbus |@lemmatized christopher:44 columbus:226 august:10 october:13 may:13 genoese:6 navigator:4 colonizer:1 explorer:4 whose:1 voyage:31 across:5 atlantic:7 ocean:16 fund:4 queen:8 isabella:10 spain:35 lead:4 general:3 european:13 awareness:1 american:13 continent:3 western:6 hemisphere:1 although:7 first:19 reach:7 america:18 europe:11 precede:2 norse:1 leif:1 ericson:1 build:1 temporary:1 settlement:5 year:18 earlier:1 l:3 anse:3 aux:3 meadow:3 http:1 www:1 pc:1 gc:1 ca:3 lhn:1 nhs:1 nl:1 meadows:1 asp:1 park:2 canada:2 national:4 historic:1 site:3 initiate:3 widespread:2 contact:3 indigenous:4 several:4 attempt:3 establish:4 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886 | Maginot_Line | The Maginot Line (IPA: [maʒi'noː], ), named after French Minister of Defense André Maginot, was a line of concrete fortifications, tank obstacles, artillery casemates, machine gun posts, and other defenses, which France constructed along its borders with Germany and Italy, in the light of experience from World War I, and in the run-up to World War II. Generally the term describes either the entire system or just the defenses facing Germany, while the Alpine Line is used for the Franco-Italian defenses. The French established the fortification to provide time for their army to mobilize in the event of attack and/or to entice Germany to attack neutral Belgium to avoid a direct assault on the line. The success of static, defensive combat in World War I was a key influence on French thinking. The fortification system successfully dissuaded a direct attack. However, it was an ineffective strategic gambit, as the Germans did indeed invade Belgium, flanked the Maginot Line, and proceeded relatively unobstructed. http://www.dushkin.com/text-data/articles/23427/23427.pdf It is a myth however that the Maginot line ended at the Belgian border and was easy to circumvent. Mosier, J. The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread the Strategic Realities of World War II, HarperCollins, 2004, pp. 2, 38. The fortifications were connected to the Belgian fortification system, of which the strongest point was Fort Eben-Emael. The Germans broke through exactly at this fortified point by airborne assault, against which the fortifications had little defense, which made it possible for them to invade France. Planning and construction The defenses were first proposed by Marshal Joffre. He was opposed by modernists such as Paul Reynaud and Charles de Gaulle who favoured investment in armour and aircraft. Joffre had support from Henri Philippe Pétain, and there were a number of reports and commissions organised by the government. It was André Maginot who finally convinced the government to invest in the scheme. Maginot was another veteran of World War I, who became the French Minister of Veteran Affairs and then Minister of War (1928–1931). Part of the rationale for the Maginot line stemmed from the massive French losses during the First World War, and their effects on French demographics. The drop in the national birth rate during and after the war, resulting from a national shortage of young men created an "echo" effect in the generation that would provide the French conscript army in the mid-1930s. Faced with inadequate personnel resources, French planners had to rely more on more elderly and less fit reservists, who also would take longer to mobilize. Static defensive positions were therefore intended not only to buy time, but also to defend an area with fewer and less mobile forces. The line was built in a number of phases from 1930 by the STG (Service Technique du Génie) overseen by CORF (Comission d'Organisation des Régions Fortifiées). The main construction was largely completed by 1939, at a cost of around 3 billion French francs. The line stretched from Switzerland to Luxembourg, although a much lighter extension was extended to the Strait of Dover after 1934. The original line construction did not cover the area chosen by the Germans for their first challenge, which was through the Ardennes in 1940, a plan known as Fall Gelb. The location of this attack, probably because of the Maginot line, was through the Belgian Ardennes forest (sector 4) which is off the map to the left of Maginot line sector 6 (as marked). Map of the principal fortified section of the Maginot line Purposes The Maginot Line was built to fulfill several purposes: To avoid a surprise attack and to give alarm. To cover the mobilization of the French Army (which took between 2 and 3 weeks). To save manpower (France counted inhabitants, Germany ). To protect Alsace and Lorraine (returned to France in 1918) and their industrial basin. To be used as a basis for a counter-offensive. To push the enemy to circumvent it while passing by Switzerland or Belgium. To hold the enemy while the main army could be brought up to reinforce the line. Organization Block 14 at Ouvrage du Hochwald in 1940 Although the name "Maginot Line" suggests a rather thin linear fortification, the Line was quite deep, varying in depth from between 20 to 25 kilometers. It was composed of an intricate system of strong points, fortifications, and military facilities such as border guard posts, communications centers, infantry shelters, barricades, artillery, machine gun, and anti-tank gun emplacements, supply depots, infrastructure facilities, observation posts, etc. These various structures reinforced a principal line of resistance, made up of the most heavily armed "ouvrages", which can be roughly translated as fortresses or major defensive works. From the front and proceeding to the rear, the Line was composed of: Border Post line (1): This consisted of blockhouses and strong houses which were often camouflaged as inoffensive residential homes, built within a few metres of the border, and manned by troops so as to give alarm in the event of sneak or surprise attack as well as delay enemy tanks with prepared explosives and barricades. Outpost and Support Point line (2): Approximately 5 kilometres (~2.5-3 miles) behind the border, a line of anti-tank blockhouses were intended to provide resistance to armoured assault sufficient to delay the enemy so as to allow the crews of the "C.O.R.F. ouvrages" to be ready at their battle stations. These outposts covered major passages within the principal line. Principal line of resistance (3): This line began 10 kilometres (~6 miles) behind the border. It was preceded by anti-tank obstacles which were metal rails planted vertically in 6 rows with heights varying from 0.70 to 1.40 m (2-4 feet) and buried to a depth of two meters (6-7 feet). These anti-tank obstacles extended from end to end in front of the major works across hundreds of kilometres, interrupted only by extremely dense forests, rivers, or other nearly-impassable terrain. The anti-tank obstacle system was immediately followed by an anti-personnel obstacle system made primarily of very dense barbed wire. Anti-tank road barriers also made it possible to block roads at necessary points of passage through the tank obstacles. Casemate de Dambach Nord - The frontage Infantry Casemates (4): These bunkers were armed with twin machine-guns (abbreviated as JM in French) and anti-tank guns of 37 or 47 mm. They could be single (with only one firing room in only one direction) or double (two firing rooms, in 2 opposite directions). These generally had 2 floors, with a firing level and a support/infrastructure level that provided the troops with rest and services (power generating units, reserves of water, fuel, food, ventilation equipment, etc…). The infantry casemates often had 1 or 2 "cloches" or turrets located on top of them. These GFM cloches sometimes were used to emplace machine guns or observation periscopes. Their crew was 20 to 30 men. Petits ouvrages (5): These small fortresses reinforced the line of infantry bunkers. The petits ouvrages were generally made up of several infantry bunkers connected by an underground tunnel network to which were attached various buried facilities, such as barracks, electric generators, ventilation systems, mess halls, infirmaries, and supply caches. Their crew consisted of between 100 and 200 men. Ouvrages (6): These fortresses were the most important fortifications on the Maginot Line, having the sturdiest construction and also the heaviest artillery. These were composed of at least six "forward bunker systems" or "combat blocks", as well as two entrances, and were interconnected via a network of underground tunnels that often featured narrow gauge electric railways for transport between bunker systems. The various blocks contained necessary infrastructure such as power stations with generating units, independent ventilating systems, barracks and mess halls, kitchens, water storage and distribution systems, hoists, ammunition stores, workshops, and stores of spare parts, food, etc. Their crews ranged from 500 to more than 1000 men. A blockhouse Observation Posts (7) were located on hills that provided a good view of the surrounding area. Their purpose was to locate the enemy and direct and correct the indirect fire of artillery from the artillery fortifications as well as to report on the progress and position of key enemy units. These are large reinforced buried concrete bunkers, equipped with armored turrets containing high-precision optics that were connected with the other fortifications by field telephone and wireless transmitters (known in French by the acronym T.S.F.). Telephone Network (8): This system connected every fortification in the Maginot Line, including bunkers, infantry and artillery fortresses, observation posts, and shelters. Two telephone wires were placed parallel to the line of fortifications, providing redundancy in the event of a wire getting cut. There were places along the cable where dismounted soldiers could connect to the network. Infantry Reserve Shelters (9): These were found between 500 and 1000 meters (~.3-.6 miles) behind of the principal line of resistance. These were buried concrete bunkers designed to house and shelter up to a company of infantry (200 to 250 men), and had such features as electric generators, ventilation systems, water supplies, kitchens and heating, which allowed their occupants to hold out in the event of an attack. They could also be used as a local headquarters and as a base from which to carry out counter-attacks. Flood Zones (10) were natural basins or rivers that could be flooded on demand and thus constitute an additional obstacle in the event of an enemy offensive. Anti-tanks rails around the casemate 9 of Hochwald ditch Safety Quarters (11) were built near the major fortifications in order to make it possible for fortress ("ouvrage") crews to reach their battle stations within the shortest possible time in the event of a surprise or sneak attack during peacetime. Supply depots (12). Ammunition dumps (13). 60 cm (~24 inch) Narrow Gauge Railway System (14): A network of narrow-gauge railways was built so as to rearm and resupply the major fortresses ("ouvrages") from supply depots up to 50 kilometers (35 miles) away. Gasoline-powered armored locomotives pulled supply trains along these narrow-gauge lines. (A similar system was developed with armored steam engines back in 1914-1918.) High-voltage Transmission Lines (15), initially above-ground but then buried, and connected to the civil power grid, provided electric power to the many fortifications and fortresses. Heavy rail artillery (16) was hauled in by locomotives to predesignated locations so as to support the pre-emplaced artillery located in the fortresses, which was intentionally limited in range to 10-12 kilometers. Inventory Ouvrages There are 142 ouvrages, 352 casemates, 78 shelters, 17 observatories and around blockhouses in the Maginot Line. There are 58 ouvrages, 311 casemates, 78 shelters, 14 observatories and around blockhouses on the North-West and 84 ouvrages, 41 casemates, 3 observatories and around blockhouses on the South-West. Armoured cloches There are several kinds of armoured cloches. The word cloche is a French term meaning bell due to its shape. All cloches were made in an alloy steel. Cloches are non-retractable turrets. The most widespread are the GFM cloches, where GFM means Guettor - Rifle machine-gun. They are composed of 3 to 4 openings, called crenels or embrasures. These crenels may be equipped as follows: Rifle machine-gun, direct vision block, binoculars block or 50mm mortar. Sometimes, the cloche is topped by a periscope. There are GFM cloches on the Line. Almost every block, casemate and shelter is topped by one or two GFM cloches. The JM cloches are the same as the GFM cloches except that they have one opening equipped with a pair of machine-guns. There are 174 JM cloches on the Line. There are 72 AM cloches (mixed weapons) on the Line, equipped with a pair of machine guns and a 25mm anti-tank gun. Some GFM cloches were transformed into AM cloches in 1934. (The aforementioned total does not include these modified cloches.) There are 75 LG cloches (lance-grenade/grenade launcher) on the Line. Those cloches are almost completely covered by concrete, only a hole is kept open to launch the grenades. There are 20 VP cloches (periscopic vision) on the Line. These cloches could be equipped with several different periscopes. Like the LG cloches, they were almost completely covered by concrete. The VDP cloches (direct and periscopic vision) are similar to the VP cloches, but have two or three openings to provide a direct view. Consequently, they were not covered by concrete. Retractable turrets The Line included the following retractable turrets. 21 turrets of 75 mm model 1933 12 turrets of 75 mm model 1932 1 turret of 75 mm model 1905 17 turrets of 135 mm 21 turrets of 81 mm 12 turrets for mixed weapons (AM) 7 turrets for mixed weapons + mortar of 50 mm 61 turrets of machine-guns Artillery Corridor inside the Fort Saint-Gobain near Modane in the Alps. Note the Decauville narrow gauge rail system, used to transport ammunition, equipment, waste material etc. 81mm mortar Anti-tank guns Features The specification of the defences was very high, with extensive and interconnected bunker complexes for thousands of men; there were 45 main forts (grands ouvrages) at 15 kilometres intervals, 97 smaller forts (petits ouvrages) and 352 casemates between, with over 100 kilometres of tunnels. Artillery was coordinated with protective measures to assure that one fort could support the next in line by bombarding it directly without harm. The largest guns were therefore 135mm fortress guns; larger weapons were to be part of the mobile forces and were to be deployed behind the lines. The fortifications did not extend through the Ardennes Forest (which was believed to be impenetrable) or along France's border with Belgium, because the two countries had signed an alliance in 1920, by which the French army would operate in Belgium if the German forces invaded. When Belgium abrogated the treaty in 1936 and declared neutrality, the Maginot Line was quickly extended along the Franco-Belgian border, but not to the standard of the rest of the Line. As the water table in this region was high, there was the danger of underground passages getting flooded, which the designers of the line knew would be difficult and expensive to overcome. There was a final flurry of construction in 1939–1940 with general improvements all along the Line. The final Line was strongest around the industrial regions of Metz, Lauter and Alsace, while other areas were in comparison only weakly guarded. In contrast, the propaganda about the line made it appear far greater a construction than it was; illustrations showed multiple stories of interwoven passages, and even underground railyards and cinemas. This reassured allied civilians. Czech connection Czechoslovakia also was in fear of Hitler and began building its own defenses. Being co-belligerent with UK and France, they were able to get advice on the Maginot design and apply it to Czechoslovak border fortifications. The design of the casemates is similar to the ones found in the southern part of the Maginot Line, and photos of such are often confused with the Maginot ones. With the Munich Agreement the Germans were able to use the Czech fortifications to study and plan attacks that proved very successful against the western fortifications (Fort Eben-Emael is the best known example). German invasion in World War II The World War II German invasion plan of 1940 (Sichelschnitt) was designed to deal with the Line. A decoy force sat opposite the Line while a second Army Group cut through the Low Countries of Belgium and the Netherlands, as well as through the Ardennes Forest which lay north of the main French defences. Thus the Germans were able to avoid a direct assault on the Maginot Line. Attacking on May 10, German forces were well into France within five days and they continued to advance until May 24, when they stopped near Dunkirk. During the advance to the English Channel, the Germans overran France's border defense with Belgium and several Maginot Forts in the Maubeuge area, whilst the Luftwaffe simply flew over it. On 19 May, the German 16th Army successfully captured petit ouvrage La Ferte (southeast of Sedan) after conducting a deliberate assault by combat engineers backed up by heavy artillery. The entire French crew of 107 soldiers were killed during the action. On June 14, 1940, the day Paris fell, the German 1st Army went over to the offensive in "Operation Tiger" and attacked the Maginot Line between St. Avold and Saarbrücken. After hard fighting, the Germans broke through the fortification line as defending French forces retreated southward. In the following days, infantry divisions of the 1st Army attacked fortifications on each side of the penetration; successfully capturing four petits ouvrages. The 1st Army also conducted two attacks against the Maginot Line further to the east in northern Alsace. One attack successfully broke through a weak section of the Line in the Vosges Mountains, but a second attack was stopped by the French defenders near Wissembourg. On 15 June, infantry divisions of the German 7th Army attacked across the Rhine River in Operation "Small Bear", penetrating the defenses and capturing the cities of Colmar and Strasbourg. By early June the German forces had cut off the Line from the rest of France and the French government was making overtures for an armistice, which was signed on June 22 in Compiègne. As the Line was surrounded, the German Army attacked a few ouvrages from the rear, but were unsuccessful in capturing any significant fortifications. But the main fortifications of the Line were still mostly intact and manned with a number of commanders wanting to hold out; and the Italian advance had been successfully contained. Still, Maxime Weygand signed the surrender and the army was ordered out of their fortifications, to be taken to POW camps. When the Allied forces invaded in June 1944 the Line, now held by German defenders, was again largely bypassed, with fighting only touching a part of the fortifications near Metz and in northern Alsace towards the end of 1944. After World War II The view from a battery at Ouvrage Schoenenbourg in Alsace. Note the retractable turret in the left foreground. After the war the Line was re-manned by the French and underwent some modifications. However, when France withdrew from NATO's military component (in 1966) much of the Line was abandoned. With the rise of the French independent nuclear deterrent by 1969 the Line was largely given up by the government, with sections auctioned off to the public and the rest of it left to decay. Ouvrage Rochonvillers was retained by the French Army as a command center into the 1990s, but has recently been closed. Ouvrage Hochwald is the only facility in the main line that remains in active service, as a hardened command facility for the French Air Force known as Drachenbronn Air Base. Generally considered one of the great failures of military history, the term "Maginot Line" is now sometimes used as a metaphor for something that is confidently relied upon, but in the end proves ineffective. External observers came to believe the French propaganda: the Line would make France impervious to invasion. When France fell in only a month, the blame was squarely laid upon the Line for preventing the French military from developing modern warfare and equipment - choosing to instead rely on bypassable fortification. However, it could be argued that this association is inaccurate, as the Line achieved the specific task it was intended to do, rendering a direct assault against France's eastern border impossible (the few Maginot forts which were directly attacked by German armored troops held very well). Consequently, the French High command expected it to be bypassed and had therefore massed the bulk of its troops on the Belgian border. See also List of all works on Maginot Line Siegfried Line Atlantic Wall Czechoslovak border fortifications Notes References Allcorn, William. The Maginot Line 1928-45. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-84176-646-1 Kauffmann, J.E. and Kaufmann, H.W. Fortress France: The Maginot Line and French Defenses in World War II, 2006. ISBN 0-275-98345-5 External links Maginot Line website, (French/English/German/Italian) Maginot line (requires Flash) Maginot Line at War, 1940 The U.S. Army vs. The Maginot Line by Bryan J. 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887 | Flag_of_the_United_States | The flag of the United States consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of Red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. The fifty stars on the flag represent the fifty U.S. states and the thirteen stripes represent the original thirteen colonies that rebelled against the British Crown and became the first states in the Union. States are represented collectively; there is no meaning to particular stars nor stripes. Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, Coined by Captain William Driver, a nineteenth century shipmaster. and The Star-Spangled Banner (also the name of the national anthem). Symbolism The flag of the United States is one of the nation's most widely recognized symbols. Within the U.S. it is frequently displayed, not only on public buildings, but on private residences. It is also used as a motif on decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world it is used in public discourse to refer to the U.S., both as a nation state, government, and set of policies, but also as an ideology and set of ideas. Many understand the flag to represent the national government established in the U.S. Constitution, the rights of the citizens promised in the Bill of Rights, and perhaps most of all to be a symbol of individual and personal liberty as set forth in the Declaration of Independence. The flag is a complex and contentious symbol, around which emotions run high. Apart from the numbers of stars and stripes representing the number of current and original states, respectively, and the union with its stars representing a constellation, there is no legally defined symbolism to the colors and shapes on the flag. However, folk theories and traditions abound; for example, that the stripes refer to rays of sunlight and that the stars refer to the heavens, the highest place that a person could aim to reach. Design Specifications The basic design of the current flag is specified by ; outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values: Hoist (width) of the flag: A = 1.0 Fly (length) of the flag: B = 1.9 Note that the flag ratio (B/A in the diagram) is not absolutely fixed. Although the diagram in Executive Order 10834 gives a ratio of 1.9, earlier in the order is a list of flag sizes authorized for executive agencies. This list permits eleven specific flag sizes (specified by height and width) for such agencies: 20.00 × 38.00; 10.00 × 19.00; 8.95 × 17.00; 7.00 × 11.00; 5.00 × 9.50; 4.33 × 5.50; 3.50 × 6.65; 3.00 × 4.00; 3.00 × 5.70; 2.37 × 4.50; and 1.32 × 2.50. Eight of these sizes conform to the 1.9 ratio, within a small rounding error (less than 0.01). However, three of the authorized sizes vary significantly: 1.57 (for 7.00 × 11.00), 1.27 (for 4.33 × 5.50) and 1.33 (for 3.00 × 4.00). Hoist (width) of the Union: C = 0.5385 (A x 7/13, spanning seven stripes) Fly (length) of the Union: D = 0.76 (B × 2/5, two fifths of the flag length) E = F = 0.0538 (C/10, One tenth the height of the field of Stars) G = H = 0.0633 (D/12, One twelfth the width of the field of Stars) Diameter of star: K = 0.0616 Width of stripe: L = 0.0769 (A/13, One thirteenth of the flag width) These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. Ex. Ord. No. 10834, August 21, 1959, 24 F.R. 6865 (governing flags "manufactured or purchased for the use of executive agencies", Section 22). In practice, however, virtually all U.S. national flags adhere to these specifications, or close to them. Colors The exact shades of red, white, and blue to be used in the flag are specified as follows: According to Flags of the World, the colors are specified by the General Services Administration "Federal Specification, Flag, National, United States of America and Flag, Union Jack," DDD-F-416E, dated November 27, 1981. It gives the colors by reference to "Standard Color Cards of America" maintained by The Color Association of the United States, Inc. Color Cable color Pantone The Pantone color equivalents for Old Glory Blue and Red are listed on U.S. Flag Facts at the U.S. Embassy's London site. Web Color The RGB color values are taken from the Pantone Color Finder at Pantone.com. RGB Values Dark Red 70180 193 C #BF0A30 (191,10,48) White 70001 Safe #FFFFFF (255,255,255) Navy Blue 70075 281 C #002868 (0,40,104) The 49- and 50-star unions When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were spontaneously submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49-star versions, the vast majority were 50-star proposals. At least three, and probably more, of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50-star flag. These designs are in the Eisenhower Presidential Archives in Abilene, Kansas. Only a small fraction of them have ever been published. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design. Of these proposals, one created by 18-year old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project has received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the union in 1959. He got an A. Decoration Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the beauty of the flag. The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "...is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy..." as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion. See McCann v. Greenway, 542 F. Supp. 647 (W.D. Mo. 1997), which discusses various court opinions denying any significance related to trim used on a flag. Rebuttal of "martial law flag" claims by tax protestors "Flower flag" Compared to the flags of many other nations, the flag of the United States is notably complex, leading to expressions such as Huāqíguó ("flower flag nation"), a Chinese name for America used in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Chinese: 花旗國. See Chinese English DictionaryCitibank, which founded a branch in China in 1902, is known as "Flower Flag Bank" (花旗銀行).Olsen, Kay Melchisedech, Chinese Immigrants: 1850-1900 (2001), p. 7."Philadelphia's Chinatown: An Overview", The Historical Society of Pennsylvannia.Leonard, Dr. George, "The Beginnings of Chinese Literature in America: the Angel Island Poems". Display and use The flag is customarily flown year-round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full-size flags. Some private use is year-round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff in remembrance of those who lost their lives in war while fighting for the U.S. Flag etiquette The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. (This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king", though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/JOH/JOHv7n3/JOHv7n3i.pdf London Olympics 1908 & 1948 .) The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct dignified flag-burning ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. It is a common myth that if a flag touches the ground or becomes soiled, it must be burned as well. While a flag that is currently touching the ground and a soiled flag are unfit for display, neither situation is permanent and thus the flag does not need to be burned if the unfit situation is remedied. Snopes.com: Flag Disposal retrieved June 14, 2008 Significantly, the Flag Code proscribes using the flag "for any advertising purpose" and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use". 4 U.S.Code Sec. 8(i). Both of these prohibitions are widely flouted, almost always without comment. Although the Flag Code is U.S. Federal law, there is no penalty for failure to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced—indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397 (1989); United States v. Eichman, 496 U.S. 310 (1990). Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established. Display on vehicles and uniforms When the flag is affixed to the side of a vehicle or uniform, it should be oriented so that the union is towards the front. This is done to give the impression that the flag is blowing backwards from its hoist as the vehicle or wearer moves forward. http://usmilitary.about.com/od/theorderlyroom/f/faqflag.htm Therefore, U.S. flag decals (or patches) on the right sides of vehicles (or uniforms) may appear to be "reversed", with the union to the observer's right instead of left as more commonly seen. Places of continuous display By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, American flags are displayed continuously at certain locations. Replicas of the Star Spangled Banner Flag (15 stars, 15 stripes) are flown at two sites in Baltimore, Maryland: Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine Presidential Proclamation No. 2795, July 2, 1948 and Flag House Square. Public Law 83-319, approved March 26, 1954 United States Marine Corps War Memorial (Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima), Arlington, Virginia Presidential Proclamation No. 3418, June 12, 1961 Lexington, Massachusetts Town Green Public Law 89-335, approved November 8, 1965 The White House, Washington, DC Presidential Proclamation No. 4000, September 4, 1970 Fifty U.S. Flags are displayed continuously at the Washington Monument, Washington, DC. Presidential Proclamation No. 4064, July 6, 1971, effective July 4, 1971 At U.S. Customs and Border Protection Ports of Entry that are continuously open. Presidential Proclamation No. 4131, May 5, 1972 By Congressional decree, a Civil War era flag (for the year 1863) flies above Pennsylvania Hall (Old Dorm) at Gettysburg College. This building, occupied by both sides at various points of the Battle of Gettysburg, served as a lookout and battlefield hospital. Grounds of the National Memorial Arch in Valley Forge NHP, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania Public Law 94-53, approved July 4, 1975 Mount Slover limestone quarry (Colton Liberty Flag), in Colton, California. First raised July 4, 1917. By Act of Congress. Washington Camp Ground, part of the former Middlebrook encampment, Bridgewater, New Jersey, Thirteen Star Flag. (Act of Congress.) By custom, at the Maryland home, birthplace, and grave of Francis Scott Key; at the Worcester, Massachusetts, war memorial; at the plaza in Taos, New Mexico (since 1861); at the United States Capitol (since 1918); and at Mount Moriah Cemetery in Deadwood, South Dakota. At the ceremonial south pole as one of the 12 flags representing the signatory countries of the original Antarctic Treaty. The surface of the Moon, having been placed there by the astronauts of Apollo 11, It is possible that Apollo 11's flag was knocked down by the exhaust force of liftoff for return to lunar orbit. Apollo 12, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16 and Apollo 17. Nashville National Cemetery Nashville City Cemetery over the grave site of Sea Captain William Driver who in 1831 nicknamed our 24 star flag "Old Glory" and hid the famous flag from Rebels during the Civil War. Particular days for display The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days: January: 1 (New Year's Day) and 20 (Inauguration Day) February: 12 (Lincoln's birthday) and the third Monday (Presidents' Day, originally Washington's birthday) May: Third Saturday (Armed Forces Day) and last Monday (Memorial Day; half-staff until noon) June: 14 (Flag Day) July: 4 (Independence Day) September: First Monday (Labor Day),11 (Patriot Day), and 17 (Constitution Day) October: Second Monday (Columbus Day) and 28 (Navy Day) November: November 11 (Veterans Day) and fourth Thursday (Thanksgiving Day) and such other days as may be proclaimed by the President of the United States; the birthdays of states (date of admission); and on state holidays. Display at half-staff The flag is displayed at half-staff as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; state-wide or territory-wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half-staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half-staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens. To properly fly the flag at half-staff, you must first hoist it briskly to the top of the pole, then slowly lower it to three-quarters of the height of the pole. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half-staff, it should be first hoisted briskly to the top of the pole, then lowered slowly to the base of the flagpole. Federal guidelines state the flag should be flown at half-staff at the following dates/times: May 15 - Peace Officers Memorial Day, unless it is the third Saturday in May, Armed Forces Day, full-staff all day The week in which May 15 occurs - Police Week 36 U.S.C. Sec. 137 Last Monday in May - Memorial Day (until noon) July 27 - Korean War Veterans Day (expired 2003) 36 U.S.C. Sec. 127 September 11 - Patriot Day Patriot Day, 2005 First Sunday in October - Start of Fire Prevention Week December 7 - Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day For 30 days - Death of a president or former president For 10 days - Death of a vice president, Supreme Court chief justice/retired chief justice, or speaker of the House of Representatives. From death until the day of interment - Supreme Court associate justice, member of the Cabinet, former vice president, president pro-tempore of the Senate, or the majority and minority leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives. Also for federal facilities within a state or territory, for the governor. On the day after the death - Senators, members of Congress, territorial delegates or the resident commissioner of the commonwealth of Puerto Rico Folding for storage Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag: Begin by holding it waist-high with another person so that its surface is parallel to the ground. Fold the lower half of the stripe section lengthwise over the field of stars, holding the bottom and top edges securely. Fold the flag again lengthwise with the blue field on the outside. Make a rectangular fold then a triangular fold by bringing the striped corner of the folded edge to meet the open top edge of the flag. Starting the fold from the left side over to the right Turn the outer end point inward, parallel to the open edge, to form a second triangle. The triangular folding is continued until the entire length of the flag is folded in this manner (usually thirteen triangular folds, as shown at right). On the final fold, any remnant that does not neatly fold into a triangle (or in the case of exactly even folds, the last triangle) is tucked into the previous fold. When the flag is completely folded, only a triangular blue field of stars should be visible. Use in funerals Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in those over other civil servants (such as the President). A burial flag is draped over the deceased's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased's next of kin as a token of respect. History The flag has been changed 26 times since the new, 13-state union adopted it. The 48-star version went unchanged for 47 years, until the 50-star version became official on July 4, 1959 (the first July 4 following Alaska's admission to the union on January 3, 1959); the 47-year-record of the 48-star version was the longest time the flag went unmodified until July 4, 2007, when the current 50-star version of the Flag of the United States broke the record. First flag At the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, the United States had no official national flag. The Grand Union Flag has historically been referred to as the "First National Flag"; although it has never had any official status, it was used early in the American Revolutionary War http://www.foundingfathers.info/American-flag/Grand-Union.html by George Washington and formed the basis for the design of the first official U.S. flag. The origins of the design are unclear. It closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the same era, and an argument dating to Sir Charles Fawcett in 1937 holds that the Company flag indeed inspired the design. However, the Company flag could have from 9 to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, a common flag throughout Britain and its colonies. Another theory holds that the red-and-white stripe—and later, stars-and-stripes—motif of the flag may have been based on the Washington family coat-of-arms, which consisted of a shield "argent, two bars gules, above, three mullets gules" (a white shield with two red bars below three red stars). A 2002 BBC documentary featuring the town of Selby and Selby Abbey showed the coat of arms with the commentator referring to it as the inspiration for the U.S. Flag, a commonly held belief in Britain. However, there is no proof that this is true and the theory is widely discredited. Washington was not involved with the committee that designed the flag in 1777, and in heraldic terms there is very little connection between the two designs. Moreover, the sequence by which the flag evolved belies any influence of the Washington arms. More likely it was based on a flag of the Sons of Liberty, one of which consisted of 13 red and white alternating horizontal stripes. The Flag Resolution of 1777 On June 14, 1777, the Marine Committee of the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new Constellation." Federal Citizen Information Center: The History of the Stars and Stripes. Accessed June 7, 2008. Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. A false tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. Guenter (1990) The 1777 resolution was probably meant to define a naval ensign, rather than a national flag. It appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters, Jr. expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States." Mastai, 60 The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars. The pictured flag shows 13 outwardly-oriented five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag. Although the Betsy Ross legend is not taken seriously by many historians, the design itself is the oldest version of any U.S. flag known to exist; it is not the oldest surviving flag artifact in cloth form, but its likeness appears on older physical relics, namely, the contemporary battlefield paintings by John Trumbull and Charles Willson Peale. They depict the circular star arrangement, and thus provide the first known historical documentation on the flag's appearance. Popular designs at the time were varied and most were individually crafted rather than mass-produced. Other examples of 13-star arrangements can be found on the Francis Hopkinson flag, the Cowpens flag, and the Brandywine flag. Given the scant archaeological and written evidence, it is unknown which design was the most popular at that time. Despite the 1777 resolution, a number of flags only loosely based on the prescribed design were used in the early years of American independence. One example may have been the Guilford Court House Flag, traditionally believed to have been carried by the American troops at the Battle of Guilford Court House in 1781. Other evidence suggests it dates only to the nineteenth century. The original flag is at the North Carolina Historical Museum. The origin of the stars and stripes design cannot be fully documented. A popular story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch by George Washington who personally commissioned her for the job. However, no evidence for this theory exists beyond Ross' descendants' much later recollections of what she told her family. Another woman, Rebecca Young, has also been credited as having made the first flag by later generations of her family. Rebecca Young's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. It is likely that Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. This contradicts the Betsy Ross legend, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Embassy of the United States of America Accessed April 11, 2008. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a bill to Congress for his work. He asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine" as payment initially. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress, and he was not the only person to have contributed to the design. It should be noted that no one else contested his claim at the time. Later flag acts In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner," now the national anthem. On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short-lived 49-star flag. As of July 4, 2007, the 50-star flag has become the longest rendition in use. The "Flower Flag" arrives in Asia The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1785 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. Preble, George Henry, [http://www.archive.org/stream/historyofflagofu00preb/historyofflagofu00preb_djvu.txt History of the flag of the United States of America, (1880).] There it gained the designation "Flower Flag [花旗]." Tappan, Eva March, The Little Book of the Flag (1917), pp. 91-92.) According to author and U.S. Naval officer George H. Preble: The above quote romanizes the Chinese words from spoken Cantonese. In Mandarin, the official Chinese language, "Flower Flag Nation" is rendered as Huāqíguó (花旗國). Chinese: 花旗國. See Chinese English DictionaryCitibank, which founded a branch in China in 1902, is known as "Flower Flag Bank" (花旗銀行).Olsen, Kay Melchisedech, Chinese Immigrants: 1850-1900 (2001), p. 7."Philadelphia's Chinatown: An Overview", The Historical Society of Pennsylvannia.Leonard, Dr. George, "The Beginnings of Chinese Literature in America: the Angel Island Poems". These names were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag") in Vietnam. In modern times, Chinese refer to America as Měiguó (美国) ("beautiful country"). Měi represents the sound of the second syllable of "America" and is thus unrelated to the flag. The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787-90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined phrase Old Glory, took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831-32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round-the-world journey in 1871. "American Flag Raised Over Buddhist Temple in Japan on July 4, 1872" Historical progression of designs In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48-star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934. (For alternate versions of the flag of the United States, see the Stars of the U.S. Flag page at the Flags of the World website.) No. ofStars No. ofStripes Design States Representedby New Stars Dates in Use Duration 0 13 N/A Leepson, Marc. (2005). Flag: An American Biography. New York: St. Martin's Press. –June 14, 1777 (18 months) 13 13 Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts,Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire,Virginia, New York, North Carolina,Rhode Island –May 1, 1795 (215 months) 15 15 Kentucky, Vermont –July 3, 1818 (278 months) 20 13 Indiana, Louisiana, Mississippi,Ohio, Tennessee –July 3, 1819 (12 months) 21 13 Illinois –July 3, 1820 (12 months) 23 13 Alabama, Maine –July 3, 1822 (24 months) 24 13 Missouri –July 3, 1836 (1831 term "Old Glory" coined) (168 months) 25 13 Arkansas –July 3, 1837 (12 months) 26 13 Michigan –July 3, 1845 (96 months) 27 13 Florida –July 3, 1846 (12 months) 28 13 Texas –July 3, 1847 (12 months) 29 13 Iowa –July 3, 1848 (12 months) 30 13 Wisconsin –July 3, 1851 (36 months) 31 13 California –July 3, 1858 (84 months) 32 13 Minnesota –July 3, 1859 (12 months) 33 13 Oregon –July 3, 1861 (24 months) 34 13 Kansas –July 3, 1863 (24 months) 35 13 West Virginia –July 3, 1865 (24 months) 36 13 Nevada –July 3, 1867 (24 months) 37 13 Nebraska –July 3, 1877 (120 months) 38 13 Colorado –July 3, 1890 (156 months) 43 13 Idaho, Montana, North Dakota,South Dakota, Washington –July 3, 1891 (12 months) 44 13 Wyoming –July 3, 1896 (60 months) 45 13 Utah –July 3, 1908 (144 months) 46 13 Oklahoma –July 3, 1912 (48 months) 48 13 Arizona, New Mexico –July 3, 1959 (564 months) 49 13 Alaska –July 3, 1960 (12 months) 50 13 Hawaii –present years( months) Future of the flag The United States Army Institute of Heraldry has plans for flags with up to 56 stars, using a similar staggered star arrangement should additional states accede. There are political movements supporting statehood in Puerto Rico (by the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico) and the District of Columbia, among other areas. Similar national flags The flag of Liberia bears a close resemblance, showing the ex-American-slave origin of the country. The Liberian flag has similar red and white stripes, though only 11 of them, as well as a blue square for the union, but with only a single large white star. The flag of Malaysia also has a striking resemblance, with red and white stripes (14 total), and a blue canton, but displaying instead of stars a star and crescent emblem. This might be due, however, to the great influence of the British East India Company, rather than the later United States flag. The flag of Hawaii, in use since it was a kingdom in the 19th century, with eight stripes in red, white, and blue, and the British Union Flag in the canton, has some resemblance to the U.S. Grand Union Flag of the 18th century. See also Ensign of the United States Flags of the United States Flags of the U.S. states Flags of the United States armed forces Flags of the Confederate States of America Gallery of flags of United States cities Jack of the United States Old Glory Gadsden flag Nationalism in the United States Flag Code Hoa Kỳ Article sections Flag desecration: United States Colors, standards and guidons: United States Associated persons Francis Bellamy (1855–1931), creator of the Pledge of Allegiance William Driver (1803–1886), who owned and named "Old Glory" Charles Fawcett, British historian who suggested the design is based on the flag of the British East India Company Thomas E. Franklin (1966–), photographer of Ground Zero Spirit, better known as Raising the Flag at Ground Zero Christopher Gadsden (1724–1805), after whom the Gadsden flag is named Robert G. Heft (1941–), a designer of the current flag's canton Francis Hopkinson (1737–1791), designer (according to some historians) Jasper Johns (1930–), painter of Flag (1954–55), inspired by a dream of the flag John Paul Jones (1747–1792), who claimed to have first raised the Grand Union Flag aboard the Alfred in 1775 Francis Scott Key (1779–1843), writer of "The Star-Spangled Banner" Mary Young Pickersgill (1776–1857), maker of the banner hoisted over Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore Katha Pollitt (1949–), author of a controversial essay on post-9/11 America and her refusal to fly an American flag George H. Preble (1816–1885), author of History of the American Flag (1872) and photographer of the Fort McHenry flag Joe Rosenthal (1911–2006), photographer of Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima Betsy Ross (1752–1836), creator of the first stars and stripes flag (according to legend) George Washington (1732–1799), who (according to legend) first sketched the stars and stripes design and on whose family arms the design may be based References Allentown Art Museum. The American Flag in the Art of Our Country. Allentown Art Museum, 1976. Herbert Ridgeway Collins. Threads of History: Americana Recorded on Cloth 1775 to the Present. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979. Grace Rogers Cooper. Thirteen-star Flags: Keys to Identification. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1973. David D. Crouthers. Flags of American History. Hammond, 1978. Louise Lawrence Devine. The Story of Our Flag. Rand McNally, 1960. William Rea Furlong, Byron McCandless, and Harold D. Langley. So Proudly We Hail: The History of the United States Flag. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981. Scot M. Guenter, The American Flag, 1777-1924: Cultural Shifts from Creation to Codification. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. 1990. online Marc Leepson, Flag: An American Biography. Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press, 2005. David Roger Manwaring. Render Unto Caesar: The Flag-Salute Controversy. University of Chicago Press, 1962. Boleslaw Mastai and Marie-Louise D'Otrange Mastai. The Stars and the Stripes: The American Flag as Art and as History from the Birth of the Republic to the Present. Knopf, 1973. Milo Milton Quaife. The Flag of the United States. 1942. Milo Milton Quaife, Melvin J. Weig, and Roy Applebaum. The History of the United States Flag, from the Revolution to the Present, Including a Guide to Its Use and Display. Harper, 1961. Albert M. Rosenblatt. "Flag Desecration Statutes: History and Analysis," Washington University Law Quarterly 1972: 193-237. Leonard A. Stevens. Salute! The Case of The Bible vs. The Flag. Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1973. Notes External links The Thirteen Stars and Stripes-A Survey of 18th Century Images of the US Flag U.S. Flag Etiquette (ushistory.org) Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the flag Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Facts About the United States Flag (citation needs to be updated) The Flag Code—U.S. Code Home: Title 4, Flag and Seal, Seat of Government, and the States—Chapter 1, The Flag Provides details about the design of the flag, treatment of the flag, the pledge of allegiance, etc. Executive Order No. 10798, with specifications and regulations for the current flag Flag of the United States of America Civil Air Patrol - Flag Folding (YouTube) (Video on the proper folding of the United States flag) | Flag_of_the_United_States |@lemmatized flag:231 united:39 state:64 consists:1 thirteen:9 equal:1 horizontal:3 stripe:28 red:13 top:6 bottom:3 alternate:5 white:15 blue:10 rectangle:1 canton:6 bear:2 fifty:4 small:4 five:3 point:5 star:64 arrange:2 nine:1 offset:1 row:2 six:1 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888 | Engelbert_Dollfuss | Dollfuss on a 1936 postage stamp. Engelbert Dollfuß (October 4, 1892 – July 25, 1934) was an Austrian Christian Social and Patriotic Front statesman, who was chancellor of Austria from 1932 and right-wing dictator of Austria from 1933 until his assassination by Nazi agents in 1934. Early life Born in Texing in Lower Austria as the child of the single and deeply religious mother Josepha Dollfuss by an unknown father, Dollfuss was educated at a Roman Catholic seminary before deciding to study Law at the University of Vienna and then Economics at the University of Berlin. Dollfuss had difficulty gaining admission into the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I due to his short stature – according to The New York Times he stood at 150 cm (4'11"), but was eventually accepted and sent to the Alpine Front. He was a highly decorated soldier and was briefly taken prisoner by the Italians as a POW in 1918. After the war he worked for the Agriculture ministry as secretary of the Farmers' Association and became director of the Lower Austrian Chamber of Agriculture in 1927, and in 1930 as a member of the conservative Christian Social Party was appointed president of the Federal Railway System. (One of the founders of the CS was a hero of Dollfuss's, Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang.) The following year he was named minister of agriculture and forests. Chancellor of Austria Dollfuss became Chancellor on May 20, 1932 as head of a coalition government, with the pressing goal of tackling the problems of the Great Depression, in a state (post-Versailles Austria) that was economically disadvantaged by the loss of a large part of the former Austro-Hungarian empire's manufacturing industry situated in Bohemia and Moravia. Much of Austria-Hungary's industry had been situated in the areas that were separated into Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia with the Treaty of Versailles, and thus this manufacturing power was lost to Austria after World War I. Dollfuss's majority in Parliament was marginal (he had only a one-vote majority). Dollfuss as dictator of Austria In March 1933, an argument arose over irregularities in the voting procedure. The president of the National Council (the lower house) resigned to be able to cast a vote as a parliament member. As a consequence the two vice presidents, belonging to other parties, resigned as well to be able to vote. As a consequence, the parliament could not conclude the session due to formal reasons. Dollfuss took the resignation of all three presidents as a pretext to declare that the National Council had become unworkable, and advised President Wilhelm Miklas to issue a decree adjourning it indefinitely. When the National Council wanted to reconvene days after the resignation of the three presidents, Dollfuss barred entrance to parliament by police force, effectively eliminating democracy in Austria. From that point onwards he governed as dictator by emergency decree with absolute power. One motive of Dollfuss' actions was that with Adolf Hitler becoming German Chancellor in 1933, it looked increasingly likely that the Austrian National Socialists (DNSAP) would gain a significant minority in future elections. On the other hand, the Soviet Union's influence in Europe had increased throughout the 1920s and early 1930s. Dollfuss thus banned the DNSAP in June 1933 and the communists later on. Under the banner of Christian Social Party, he later on established a one-party dictatorship rule largely modelled after fascism in Italy, banning all other Austrian parties including the Social Democrats. Austrofascism Due to Austrofascism's modelling after Italian fascism, Dollfuss looked to Italy in support, especially also against Nazi Germany and gained a guarantee for Austria's independence by Italy in August 1933. He also exchanged 'Secret Letters' with Mussolini about ways to guarantee Austrian independence. Mussolini was interested in Austria forming a buffer zone against Nazi Germany. Dollfuss always stressed the similarity of Hitler's and Stalin's regime, and was convinced that Austrofascism under his reign and Italofascism under Mussolini could counter both national socialism and communism in Europe. In September 1933 Dollfuss merged his Christian Social Party, the Nationalist paramilitary Heimwehr (Home Guard) (which encompassed many workers who were unhappy with the radical leadership of the socialist party) and other nationalist and conservative groups to form the Vaterländische Front. Dollfuss escaped an assassination attempt in October 1933 by Rudolf Dertill, a 22-year old who had been ejected from the military for his National-Socialist views. Austrian civil war and new constitution In February 1934, Nazi agents in the security forces provoked arrests of Social Democrats and unjustified searches for weapons of the Social Democrats' already outlawed Republikanischer Schutzbund. Due to the steps of the Dollfuss dictatorship against known Social Democrats, the Social Democrats called for nationwide resistance against the Government. A civil war began, that lasted from February 12 until February 15, with partly fierce fighting primarily in the East of Austria, especially in the streets of some outer Vienna districts, where large fortress-like municipal workers' buildings were situated, and in the northern, industrial areas of the province of Styria, where Nazi agents had great interest in a bloodbath between security forces and workers' militias. As a consequence of the resistance, that was put out by police and military power, the Social Democrats were outlawed, and its leaders were imprisoned or fled abroad. New Constitution Dollfuss staged a parliamentary session with just his party members present in April 1934 to have his new constitution approved as well as made all the decrees already passed since March 1933 "legal". The new constitution became effective on May 1, 1934 and swept away the last remains of democracy and the system of the first Austrian Republic. Assassination Dollfuss was assassinated in July 25, 1934 by eight Austrian Nazis (Paul Hudl, Franz Holzweber, Otto Planetta and others http://erfurt-web.de/PlanettaOtto&recommend_site ) of SS Regiment 89 who entered the Chancellery building and shot him in an attempted coup d'état, the July Putsch. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,747609-1,00.html It was only thanks to the Heimwehr which attacked the forming units of Nazi agents that the coup did not succeed . Another reason for the failure of the putsch was Italian intervention. Mussolini assembled the Italian army on the Austrian border and threatened Hitler with a war with Italy in the event of a German invasion of Austria as originally planned. The assassination of Dollfuss was accompanied by Nazi uprisings in many regions in Austria, resulting in further deaths. In Carinthia a large contingent of northern German Nazis tried to grab power but were subdued by the patriotic Heimwehr units. Similarly, the Nazi assassins in Vienna surrendered and were executed. Kurt Schuschnigg became the new chancellor of Austria. Dollfuss is buried in the Hietzing cemetery in Vienna, alongside his wife Alwine Dollfuss and two of his children, Hannerl and Eva. Trivia Dollfuss was a very short man and his diminutive stature (155 cm = 5' 2") was the object of satire, among his nicknames were 'Millimetternich' (referring to the autocratic imperial chancellor of Austria from 1815 - 1848, Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich), and the 'Jockey'. The New York Times also reported a series of jokes, including how in the coffee houses of Vienna, one could order a 'Dollfuss' cup of coffee instead of a 'Short Black' cup of coffee (black being the colour of the Christian Democratic political faction). In contrast to his own diminutive stature, his personal assistant and secretary Eduard Hedvicek, who later played a significant role in the unsuccessful attempt to save his life was very large and tall man (200 cm = 6'7"). Notes & References Assassination in Vienna, Walter B. Maass, published by Charles Scribners's Sons, New York The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS, by Heinz Zollin Höhne and Richard Barry První zemřel kancléř, Vladimír Bauman a Miroslav Hladký, Praha 1968 Na dne byla smrt, Otakar Brožek a Jiří Horský, Praha 1968 Bußhoff, Heinrich, Das Dollfuß-Regime in Österreich (Berlin: Duncker & Humbolt, 1968) Carsten, F. L., The first Austrian Republic 1918-1938 (Cambridge U.P., 1986) Dollfuß, Engelbert, Dollfuß schafft Arbeit [Pamphlet] (Heimatdienst, 1933) Ender, D, Die neue österreichische Verfassung mit dem Text des Konkordates (Wien/Leipzig: Österreichischer Bundesverlag, 1935) Gregory, J. D., Dollfuss and his Times (Tiptree: Hutchinson & Co. Anchor, 1935) Maleta, Alfred, Der Sozialist im Dollfuß-Österreich (Linz: Preßverein Linz, 1936) Messner, Johannes, Dollfuß (Tyrolia, 1935) Messner, Johannes, Dollfuss: An Austrian Patriot (Norfolk, Virginia: IHS Press, 2003) Moth, G., Neu Österreich und seine Baumeister (Wien: Steyrermühl-Verlag, 1935) Österreichischer Bundespressedienst, Der Führer Bundeskanzler Dr. Dollfuß zum Feste des Wiederaufbaues 1. Mai 1934 (Österreichischer Bundespressedienst, 1934) Sugar, Peter (ed.) Native Fascism in the Successor States (Seattle 1971) Tálos, Emmerich & Neugebauer, Wolfgang, Austrofaschismus (Vienna: Lit. Verlag, 2005) Walterskirchen, Gudula Engelbert Dollfuß, Arbeitermörder oder Heldenkanzler (Vienna: Molden Verlag, 2004) Weber, Hofrat Edmund, Dollfuß an Oesterreich, Eines Mannes Wort und Ziel (Wien: Reinhold Verlag, 1935) Winkler, Franz, Die Diktatur in Oesterreich (Zürich/Leipzig, Orell Füssli Verlag, 1935) Zweig, Stefan, Die Welt von Gestern, eines Dichters von Morgen (Frankfurt am Main/Bonn: Athenäum, 1965) External links Video: Dollfuss gives a speech in Burgenland 1933 (mpeg, 6,1 kb) Preceded by:Karl Buresch Chancellor of Austria Succeeded by:Kurt Schuschnigg | Engelbert_Dollfuss |@lemmatized dollfuss:27 postage:1 stamp:1 engelbert:3 dollfuß:9 october:2 july:3 austrian:11 christian:5 social:10 patriotic:2 front:3 statesman:1 chancellor:7 austria:17 right:1 wing:1 dictator:3 assassination:5 nazi:10 agent:4 early:2 life:2 bear:1 texing:1 low:3 child:2 single:1 deeply:1 religious:1 mother:1 josepha:1 unknown:1 father:1 educate:1 roman:1 catholic:1 seminary:1 decide:1 study:1 law:1 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889 | Emil_Theodor_Kocher | Emil Theodor Kocher (August 25, 1841 – July 27, 1917) was a Swiss physician, medical researcher, and Nobel laureate for his work in the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid. Kocher was born in Berne, Switzerland. He studied in Zürich, Berlin, London and Vienna, and obtained his doctorate in Berne in 1865. In 1872, he succeeded Georg Albert Lücke as Ordinary Professor of Surgery and Director of the University Surgical Clinic at the Inselspital in Berne. He published works on a number of subjects other than the thyroid gland including hemostasis, antiseptic treatments, surgical infectious diseases, on gunshot wounds, acute osteomyelitis, the theory of strangulated hernia, and abdominal surgery. His new ideas on the thyroid gland were initially controversial but his successful treatment of goiter with a steadily decreasing mortality rate soon won him recognition. The prize money, from the Nobel prize he received, helped him to establish the Kocher Institute in Berne. A number of instruments and surgical techniques (for example, the Kocher manoeuvre) are named after him, as well as the Kocher-Debre-Semelaigne syndrome. External links Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1901-1921, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1967 Universität Bern - Theodor Kocher at www.tki.unibe.ch Universität Bern - Theodor Kocher Institut - Home at www.tki.unibe.ch Emil Theodor Kocher | Emil_Theodor_Kocher |@lemmatized emil:2 theodor:4 kocher:8 august:1 july:1 swiss:1 physician:1 medical:1 researcher:1 nobel:3 laureate:1 work:2 physiology:2 pathology:1 surgery:3 thyroid:3 bear:1 berne:4 switzerland:1 study:1 zürich:1 berlin:1 london:1 vienna:1 obtain:1 doctorate:1 succeed:1 georg:1 albert:1 lücke:1 ordinary:1 professor:1 director:1 university:1 surgical:3 clinic:1 inselspital:1 publish:1 number:2 subject:1 gland:2 include:1 hemostasis:1 antiseptic:1 treatment:2 infectious:1 disease:1 gunshot:1 wound:1 acute:1 osteomyelitis:1 theory:1 strangulate:1 hernia:1 abdominal:1 new:1 idea:1 initially:1 controversial:1 successful:1 goiter:1 steadily:1 decrease:1 mortality:1 rate:1 soon:1 win:1 recognition:1 prize:2 money:1 receive:1 help:1 establish:1 institute:1 instrument:1 technique:1 example:1 manoeuvre:1 name:1 well:1 debre:1 semelaigne:1 syndrome:1 external:1 link:1 lecture:1 medicine:1 elsevier:1 amsterdam:1 universität:2 bern:2 www:2 tki:2 unibe:2 ch:2 institut:1 home:1 |@bigram nobel_laureate:1 physiology_pathology:1 berne_switzerland:1 thyroid_gland:2 infectious_disease:1 gunshot_wound:1 abdominal_surgery:1 mortality_rate:1 nobel_prize:1 external_link:1 physiology_medicine:1 elsevier_amsterdam:1 unibe_ch:2 |
890 | Coprime_integers | In mathematics, the integers a and b are said to be coprime or relatively prime if they have no common factor other than 1 or, equivalently, if their greatest common divisor is 1. The notation a b is sometimes used to indicate that a and b are relatively prime. For example, 6 and 35 are coprime, but 6 and 27 are not coprime because they are both divisible by 3. The number 1 is coprime to every integer. A fast way to determine whether two numbers are coprime is given by the Euclidean algorithm. Euler's totient function (or Euler's phi function) of a positive integer n is the number of integers between 1 and n which are coprime to n. Properties Figure 1. The numbers 4 and 9 are coprime because the diagonal does not intersect any other lattice points There are a number of conditions which are equivalent to a and b being coprime: There exist integers x and y such that ax + by = 1 (see Bézout's identity). The integer b has a multiplicative inverse modulo a: there exists an integer y such that by ≡ 1 (mod a). In other words, b is a unit in the ring Z/aZ of integers modulo a. As a consequence, if a and b are coprime and br ≡ bs (mod a), then r ≡ s (mod a) (because we may "divide by b" when working modulo a). Furthermore, if a and b1 are coprime, and a and b2 are coprime, then a and b1b2 are also coprime (because the product of units is a unit). Another consequence is that if ba-1 ≡ 1 mod a, then a and ba-1 are coprime, hence a and b must also be coprime. If a and b are coprime and a divides the product bc, then a divides c. This can be viewed as a generalisation of Euclid's lemma, which states that if p is prime, and p divides a product bc, then either p divides b or p divides c. The two integers a and b are coprime if and only if the point with coordinates (a, b) in a Cartesian coordinate system is "visible" from the origin (0,0), in the sense that there is no point with integer coordinates between the origin and (a, b). (See figure 1.) The probability that two randomly chosen integers are coprime is 6/π2 (see ), which is about 60%. See below. Two natural numbers a and b are coprime if and only if the numbers 2a − 1 and 2b − 1 are coprime. As a generalization of this, following easily from Euclidean algorithm in base n > 1. Cross notation, group If n≥1 and is an integer, the numbers coprime to n, taken modulo n, form a group with multiplication as operation; it is written as (Z/nZ)× or Zn*. Generalizations Two ideals A and B in the commutative ring R are called coprime if A + B = R. This generalizes Bézout's identity: with this definition, two principal ideals (a) and (b) in the ring of integers Z are coprime if and only if a and b are coprime. If the ideals A and B of R are coprime, then AB = A∩B; furthermore, if C is a third ideal such that A contains BC, then A contains C. The Chinese remainder theorem is an important statement about coprime ideals. The concept of being relatively prime can also be extended any finite set of integers S = {a1, a2, .... an} to mean that the greatest common divisor of the elements of the set is 1. If every pair of integers in the set is relatively prime, then the set is called pairwise relatively prime. Every pairwise relatively prime set is relatively prime; however, the converse is not true: {6, 10, 15} is relatively prime, but not pairwise relative prime. (In fact, each pair of integers in the set has a non-trivial common factor.) Probabilities Given two randomly chosen integers and , it is reasonable to ask how likely it is that and are coprime. In this determination, it is convenient to use the characterization that and are coprime if and only if no prime number divides both of them (see Fundamental theorem of arithmetic). Intuitively, the probability that any number is divisible by a prime (or any integer), is . Hence the probability that two numbers are both divisible by this prime is , and the probability that at least one of them is not is . Now, for distinct primes, these divisibility events are mutually independent—this is precisely because they are primes! (For the case of two events: A number is divisible by p and q if and only if it is divisible by pq; the latter has probability 1/pq.) Thus the probability that two numbers are coprime is given by a product over all primes, ≈ 0.607927102 ≈ 61%. Here ζ refers to the Riemann zeta function, the identity relating the product over primes to ζ(2) is an example of an Euler product, and the evaluation of ζ(2) as π2/6 is the Basel problem, solved by Leonhard Euler in 1735. In general, the probability of randomly chosen integers being coprime is . There is often confusion about what a "randomly chosen integer" is. One way of understanding this is to assume that the integers are chosen randomly between 1 and an integer . Then for each upper bound , there is a probability that two randomly chosen numbers are coprime. This will never be exactly , but in the limit as , . 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891 | Navassa_Island | Navassa Island (French: La Navase, Haitian Kreyòl: Lanavaz or Lavash) is a small, uninhabited island in the Caribbean Sea, and is an unorganized unincorporated territory of the United States, which administers it through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The island is also claimed by Haiti, which claims to have had sovereignty over Navassa since 1801. Geography and topography Navassa Island is about two square miles (5.2 km²). It is found at a strategic location south of the U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, about one-quarter of the way from Haiti to Jamaica in the Jamaica Channel. It reaches an elevation of at Dunning Hill south of the lighthouse, Navassa Island Light. This location is from the southwestern coast or east of Lulu Bay. The island's latitude and longitude is .Navassa Island is south of Cuba, east of Jamaica, and west of Haiti. This map originates with the US government and shows the US claim on the island Navassa Island - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (visible color) satellite image The terrain of Navassa Island consists mostly of exposed coral and limestone, the island being ringed by vertical white cliffs high, but with enough grassland to support goat herds. The island is covered in a forest of just four tree species: short-leaf fig (Ficus populnea var. brevifolia), pigeon plum (Coccoloba diversifolia), mastic (Sideroxylon foetidissimum) and poisonwood (Metopium brownei) Navassa National Wildlife Refuge Wildlife Navassa Island:Terrestrial biota . Its topography and ecology is similar to that of Mona Island, a small limestone island located in the Mona Passage, between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. It shares the same historical similarities as Mona Island since both are U.S. territories, were once centers of guano mining, and presently are nature reserves. Transient Haitian fishermen and others camp on the island but the island is otherwise uninhabited. It has no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages, and its only natural resource is guano; economic activity consists of subsistence fishing and commercial trawling activities. History In 1504, Christopher Columbus, stranded on Jamaica, sent some crew members by canoe to Hispaniola for help. They ran into the island on the way, but it had no water. They called it Navaza (from "nava-" meaning plain, or field), and it was avoided by mariners for the next 350 years. Despite an earlier claim by Haiti, Navassa Island was claimed for the United States in 1857 by Peter Duncan, an American sea captain, the third island to be claimed under the Guano Islands Act of 1856, because of the island's guano deposits. These deposits were actively mined from 1865 to 1898. Haiti protested the annexation, but the U.S. rejected the Haitian claim and since October 1857 has claimed the island as an unincorporated territory (according to the Insular Cases.) Navassa Island. Guano phosphate was a superior organic fertilizer that became a mainstay of American agriculture in the mid-19th century. Duncan transferred his discoverer's rights to his employer, an American guano trader in Jamaica, who sold them to the newly-formed Navassa Phosphate Company of Baltimore. After an interruption for the U.S. Civil War, the Company built larger mining facilities on Navassa with barrack housing for 140 black contract laborers from Maryland, houses for white supervisors, a blacksmith shop, warehouses, and a church. Mining began in 1865. The workers dug out the guano by dynamite and pick-axe and hauled it in rail cars to the landing point at Lulu Bay, where it was sacked and lowered onto boats for transfer to the Company barque, the S.S. Romance. The living quarters at Lulu Bay were called Lulu Town, as appears on old maps. Railway tracks eventually extended inland. Hauling guano by muscle-power in the fierce tropical heat, combined with general disgruntlement with conditions on the island eventually provoked a rebellion in 1889, in which five supervisors died. A U.S. warship returned eighteen of the workers to Baltimore for three separate trials on murder charges. A black fraternal society, the Order of Galilean Fisherman, raised money to defend the miners in federal court, and the defense built its case on the contention that the men acted in self-defense or in the heat of passion, and that the United States did not have jurisdiction over the island. The cases, including Jones v. United States, went to the U.S. Supreme Court in October 1890, which ruled the Guano Act constitutional, and three of the miners were scheduled for execution in the spring of 1891. A grass-roots petition drive by black churches around the country, also signed by white jurors from the three trials, reached President Benjamin Harrison, who commuted the sentences to imprisonment. Guano mining resumed on Navassa at a much reduced level. The Spanish-American War of 1898 forced the Phosphate Company to evacuate the island and file for bankruptcy, and the new owners abandoned the island after 1901. Navassa Island Light. The light keeper's quarters appear in the background. Ruins of Navassa Light keepers quarters. Navassa became significant again with the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914. Shipping between the American eastern seaboard and the Canal goes through the Windward Passage between Cuba and Haiti. Navassa, a hazard to navigation, needed a lighthouse. The U.S. Lighthouse Service built Navassa Island Light, a 162 foot (46 m) tower on the island in 1917, 395 feet (120 m) above sea level. A keeper and two assistants were assigned to live there until the United States Lighthouse Service installed an automatic beacon in 1929. After absorbing the Lighthouse Service in 1939, the U.S. Coast Guard serviced the light twice each year. The U.S. Navy set up an observation post for the duration of World War II. The island has been uninhabited since then. A scientific expedition from Harvard University studied the land and marine life of the island in 1930. After World War II amateur radio operators occasionally visited to operate from the territory, which is accorded "entity" (country) status by the American Radio Relay League. The callsign prefix is KP1. Fishermen, mainly from Haiti, fish the waters around Navassa. Aerial photo showing the steep rocky coast that rings the island. From 1903 to 1917, Navassa was a dependency of the U.S. Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, and from 1917 to 1996 it was under United States Coast Guard administration. Since 16 January 1996, it has been administered by U.S. Department of the Interior. On August 29, 1996, the United States Coast Guard dismantled the light on Navassa. An inter-agency task force headed by the U.S. Department of State transferred oversight of the island to the U.S. Department of the Interior. By Secretary's Order No. 3205 of January 16, 1997, the Interior Department assumed control of the island and placed the island under its Office of Insular Affairs. For statistical purposes, Navassa was grouped with the now-obsolete term United States Miscellaneous Caribbean Islands and is now grouped with other islands claimed by the U.S. under the Guano Islands Act islands as the United States Minor Outlying Islands. A 1998 scientific expedition led by the Center for Marine Conservation in Washington D.C. described Navassa as "a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity." The island's land and offshore ecosystems have survived the twentieth century virtually untouched. The island will be studied by annual scientific expeditions for the next decade at least. By Secretary's Order No. 3210 of December 3, 1999, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service assumed administrative responsibility for Navassa, which became a National Wildlife Refuge Overlay, also known as Navassa Island National Wildlife Refuge. The Office of Insular Affairs retains authority for the island's political affairs and judicial authority is exercised directly by the nearest U.S. Circuit Court. Access to Navassa is hazardous and visitors need permission from the Fish and Wildlife Office in Boquerón, Puerto Rico in order to enter its territorial waters or land. Since this change of status, amateur radio operators have repeatedly been denied entry. Attempts to ease this situation are ongoing. See also List of Navassa Island-related topics References External links STATE OF NAVAZA Navassa Island profile - OIA A photographic tour of Navassa Island - USGS Navassa Island World Factbook entry - CIA The King of Navassa Island Navassa Island Coral Reefs U.S Fish & Wildlife Service: Navassa National Wildlife Refuge The Navassa island riot. Illustrated. Published by the National Grand Tabernacle, Order of Galillean Fishermen, Baltimore, Md. Bill Warren, the King of Navassa Island Warren v. 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892 | ISO%2FIEC_8859-1 | ISO 8859-1, more formally cited as ISO/IEC 8859-1 is part 1 of ISO/IEC 8859, a standard character encoding of the Latin alphabet. It is less formally referred to as Latin-1. It was originally developed by the ISO, but later jointly maintained by the ISO and the IEC. The standard, when supplemented with additional character assignments (in the C0 and C1 ranges: 0x00 to 0x1F and 0x7F, and 0x80 to 0x9F), is the basis of two widely-used character maps known as ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen) and Windows-1252. In June 2004, the ISO/IEC working group responsible for maintaining eight-bit coded character sets disbanded and ceased all maintenance of ISO 8859, including ISO 8859-1, in order to concentrate on the Universal Character Set and Unicode. In computing applications, encodings that provide full UCS support (such as UTF-8 and UTF-16) are finding increasing favor over encodings based on ISO 8859-1. Coverage ISO 8859-1 encodes what it refers to as "Latin alphabet no. 1," consisting of 191 characters from the Latin script. This character-encoding scheme is used throughout The Americas, Western Europe, Oceania, and much of Africa. It is also commonly used in most standard romanizations of East-Asian languages. Each character is encoded as a single eight-bit code value. These code values can be used in almost any data interchange system to communicate in the following European languages (with a few exceptions due to missing characters, as noted): Modern languages with complete coverage of their alphabet Afrikaans Albanian Breton Catalan Danish English (US and modern British) Faroese Galician GermanIcelandic Irish (new orthography) Italian Kurdish (The Kurdish Unified Alphabet) Latin (basic classical orthography) Leonese Luxembourgish (basic classical orthography) Norwegian (Bokmål and Nynorsk) OccitanPortuguese (Portuguese and Brazilian) Rhaeto-Romanic Scottish Gaelic Spanish Swahili Swedish Walloon Basque Languages commonly supported with nearly complete coverage of their alphabet Dutch (missing IJ, ij but these should always be represented as IJ or ij in electronic form) Estonian (missing Š, š, Ž, ž for loan words) Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these French (missing Œ, œ and the very rare Ÿ; they are generally replaced by 'OE' and 'oe' without the normally required ligature, and 'Y' without the diaeresis) Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these Finnish (missing Š, š, Ž, ž for loan words) Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these Welsh (missing Ŵ, ŵ, Ŷ, ŷ) Note that ISO-8859-14 does contain these Coverage of punctuation signs and apostrophes For some languages listed above the correct typographical quotation marks are missing, for only « », " ", and ' ' are included. Also, this encoding scheme does not provide the correct character for the apostrophe and oriented single high quotation marks, although some texts use the spacing grave accent and spacing acute accent that are both part of ISO 8859-1, instead of the 6-shaped/9-shaped quotations marks or apostrophes (and this works reliably with some font styles where all these characters are displayed as slanted wedge glyphs). See also: Alphabets derived from the Latin History ISO 8859-1 was based on the Multinational Character Set used by Digital Equipment Corporation in the popular VT220 terminal. It was developed within ECMA, the European Computer Manufacturers Association, and published in March 1985 as ECMA-94, by which name it is still sometimes known. The second edition of ECMA-94 (June 1986) also included ISO 8859-2, ISO 8859-3, and ISO 8859-4 as part of the specification. In 1985 Commodore adopted officially for its new AmigaOS operating system ANSI/ISO8859-1 layout for its codepage and all internal operations in order to refer to international approved standards rather than proprietary standards, as it happened in those times with MS-DOS, and Mac OS and thus this standard was also used for manufacturing the keyboard layout of Amiga 1000 computer that was launched in July 1985. All versions of Amiga OS up to 3.1 used ISO8859-1. Since the demise of Commodore International in 1994 all further versions of AmigaOS (3.5, 3.9) continued to have ISO8859-1 codepage set enhanced with Euro Currency character, but without a leading firm capable to impose official standards both Amiga and its clone variants (MorphOS, AROS) did not update officially to ISO 8859-15 neither follow a common approach in the introduction of Euro character in 2001. MorphOS 2.0 and further versions are UNICODE UTF-8 compliant. Relationship to ISO/IEC 8859-15 Although ISO/IEC 8859-1 has enough characters for most French text, it is missing a few letters that are less common. It is also missing a single-glyph representation for the letter IJ, two Finnish letters used for transcription of some foreign names and in a few loanwords (Š and Ž), typographic quotation marks and dashes, and common symbols such as the euro sign (€) and dagger (†). In order to provide some of these characters, ISO/IEC 8859-15 was developed as an update of ISO/IEC 8859-1. This required, however, the removal of some infrequently-used characters from ISO/IEC 8859-1, including fraction symbols and letter-free diacritics: ¤, ¦, ¨, ´, ¸, ¼, ½, and ¾. Codepage layout Since all 191 characters encoded by ISO/IEC 8859-1 are 'graphic' (ISO's term for characters that are not control codes) and are compatible with most web browsers, they can be shown as glyphs in the following table. Since the space, no-break space, and soft hyphen characters would not normally be visible, they are represented by abbreviations for their names. All other characters are represented literally. Row and column headings indicate the hexadecimal digit combinations to produce the eight-bit code value; e.g., the letter L is at code value 4C. Code values 00–1F, 7F–9F are not assigned to characters by ISO/IEC 8859-1. The lower range 20 to 7E (the G0 subset) maps exactly to the same coded G0 subset of the ISO 646 US variant (commonly known as ASCII), whose ISO 2022 standard switch sequence is "ESC ( B". The higher range A0 to FF (the G1 subset) maps exactly to the same subset initiated by the ISO 2022 standard switch sequence "ESC . A". Related character maps The ISO/IEC 8859-1 standard has long been the basis of a number of character maps, also known as character sets, charsets, or code pages, the most popular being ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen) and Windows-1252. Both of these maps are a superset of ISO/IEC 8859-1; they supplement the standard's 191 character assignments by mapping additional characters to at least some portion of the code value ranges 00–1F, 7F, and 80–9F. ISO-8859-1 In 1992, the IANA registered the character map ISO_8859-1:1987, more commonly known by its preferred MIME name of ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen over ISO 8859-1), a superset of ISO 8859-1, for use on the Internet. This map assigns the C0 and C1 control characters to the code values 00–1F, 7F, and 80–9F. It thus provides for 256 characters via every possible 8-bit value. ISO-8859-1 is (according to the standards at least) the default encoding of documents delivered via HTTP with a MIME type beginning with "text/". It is the default encoding of the values of certain descriptive HTTP headers, and is the standard encoding used by the X Window System on most Unix machines in locales which use that character set. It was also the basis of the repertoire of characters allowed in HTML 3.2 documents (HTML 4.0, however, is based on Unicode). Escape sequences (from ISO/IEC 6429 or ISO/IEC 2022) are not to be interpreted in documents labeled as ISO-8859-1 encoded. As well as the canonical name and preferred MIME name mentioned above, the following other aliases are registered for ISO-8859-1: ISO_8859-1, ISO-8859-1, iso-ir-100, csISOLatin1, latin1, l1, IBM819, CP819. ISO-8859-1 was also incorporated as the first 256 code points of ISO/IEC 10646 and Unicode. Code point Control character Abbreviation 00 Null NUL 01 Start Of Heading SOH 02 Start of Text STX 03 End of Text ETX 04 End Of Transmission EOT 05 Enquiry ENQ 06 Acknowledge ACK 07 Bell BEL 08 Backspace BS 09 Horizontal Tab HT 0A Line Feed LF 0B Vertical Tab VT 0C Form Feed FF 0D Carriage Return CR 0E Shift Out SO 0F Shift In SI 10 Data Link Escape DLE 11 Device Control 1 DC1 12 Device Control 2 DC2 13 Device Control 3 DC3 14 Device Control 4 DC4 15 Negative Acknowledge NAK 16 Synchronous idle SYN 17 End of Transmission Block ETB 18 Cancel CAN 19 End of Medium EM 1A Substitute (character) SUB 1B Escape character ESC 1C File separator FS 1D Group separator GS 1E Record separator RS 1F Unit separator US 7F Delete DEL Code point Control character Abbreviation 80 Padding Character PAD 81 High Octet Preset HOP 82 Break Permitted Here BPH 83 No Break Here NBH 84 Index IND 85 Next Line NEL 86 Start of Selected Area SSA 87 End of Selected Area ESA 88 Character Tabulation Set HTS 89 Character Tabulation with Justification HTJ 8A Line Tabulation Set VTS 8B Partial Line Forward PLD 8C Partial Line Backward PLU 8D Reverse Line Feed RI 8E Single Shift 2 SS2 8F Single Shift 3 SS3 90 Device Control String DCS 91 Private Use 1 PU1 92 Private Use 2 PU2 93 Set Transmit State STS 94 Cancel Character CCH 95 Message Waiting MW 96 Start of Guarded Area SPA 97 End of Guarded Area EPA 98 Start of String SOS 99 Single Graphic Character Introducer SGCI 9A Single Character Introducer SCI 9B Control Sequence Introducer CSI 9C String Terminator ST 9D Operating System Command OSC 9E Privacy Message PM 9F Application Program Command APC Note that most of these control characters are not made for use in portable ISO-8859-1 encoded plain text documents, but only within specific protocols or devices, except a few ones whose behavior are standardized: TAB (09), LF (0A), CR (0D) and NEL (85); all but the first one are used to encode end of lines or to separate paragraphs, and TAB is often considered equivalent to whitespace. However FF (0C) is commonly accepted in some applications interpreting plain-text documents as an additional ignorable whitespace at the beginning of lines, to mark the position of an explicit page break when printing. However, some encodings allow using BS (08) to create additional characters by emulating the superposition of multiple characters on printing devices. Some ISO standards assign specific functions to some controls (for example in ISO 2022) where SO (0E), SI (0F), DLE (10), ESC (1B) and SS2 (8E) are used to control the encoding of characters after them or to switch between multiple encodings. The NUL character (00) is commonly used as a string terminator in some programming languages, or as a filler in database records that must be ignored and is not part of the encoded text. STX (02) and ETX (03) are commonly used for delimiting frames in some transmission protocols. SUB (1A) is also commonly used as a replacement character to mark errors detected in input transmission streams, and it may be rendered graphically. DC1 (11) and DC3 (13) are commonly used in the XON/XOFF protocol for controlling the transmission speed. Finally, EM (19) or EOT (04) may be used as an end-of-file marker in some text file formats. ISO-8859-1 and Windows-1252 confusion It is very common to mislabel text data with the charset label ISO-8859-1, even though the data are really Windows-1252 encoded. In Windows-1252, codes between 0x80 and 0x9F are used for letters and punctuation, whereas they are control codes in ISO-8859-1. Many web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters in order to accommodate such mislabeling but it is not a standard behavior and care should be taken to avoid generating these characters in ISO-8859-1 labeled content. However, the draft HTML 5 specification requires that documents advertised as ISO-8859-1 actually be parsed with the Windows-1252 encoding. HTML 5 Draft Recommendation — 20 April 2009, 2.8 Character encodings, retrieved [2009-04-20]. Similar character sets The Apple Macintosh computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman, or Mac-Roman, in 1984. It was meant to be suitable for Western European desktop publishing. It is a superset of ASCII, like ISO-8859-1, and has most of the characters that are in ISO-8859-1 but in a totally different arrangement. A later version, registered with IANA as "Macintosh", replaced the generic currency sign ¤ with the euro sign €. The few printable characters that are in ISO 8859-1 but not in this set are often a source of trouble when editing text on websites using older Macintosh browsers (including the last version of Internet Explorer for Mac). However the extra characters that Windows-1252 has in the C1 codepoint range are all supported in MacRoman and except for the few missing ISO-8859-1 characters a Macintosh can send/receive files (and email) that are encoded/marked as ISO-8859-1 (with the C1 Control Characters) and Windows-1252 by remapping the glyph's codepoint numbers. DOS had code page 850, which had all printable characters that ISO-8859-1 had (albeit in a totally different arrangement) plus the most widely used graphics characters from code page 437. See also Latin characters in Unicode ISO/IEC 8859-15 – a derivative of ISO-8859-1 Universal character set Unicode UTF-8 Notes External links ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998 ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 1: Latin alphabet No. 1 (draft dated February 12, 1998, published April 15, 1998) Standard ECMA-94: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabets No. 1 to No. 4 2nd edition (June 1986) ISO-IR 100 Right-Hand Part of Latin Alphabet No.1 (February 1, 1986) Windows Code pages Differences between ANSI, ISO-8859-1 and MacRoman Character Sets The Letter Database The ISO 8859 Alphabet Soup - Roman Czyborra's summary of ISO character sets | ISO%2FIEC_8859-1 |@lemmatized iso:71 formally:2 cite:1 iec:19 part:6 standard:16 character:66 encoding:11 latin:10 alphabet:9 less:2 refer:3 originally:1 develop:3 later:1 jointly:1 maintain:2 supplement:2 additional:4 assignment:2 range:5 basis:3 two:2 widely:2 use:27 map:9 know:5 note:9 extra:4 hyphen:4 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893 | Monomer | A monomer (from Greek mono "one" and meros "part") is a small molecule that may become chemically bonded to other monomers to form a polymer. Introduction to Polymers 1987 R.J. Young Chapman & Hall ISBN 0-412-22170-5 The most common natural monomer is glucose, which is linked by glycosidic bonds into polymers such as cellulose and starch, and is over 33% of the weight of all plant matter. Cellulose. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Synthetic monomers Examples of monomers are hydrocarbons such as the alkene and arene homologous series. Here hydrocarbon monomers such as phenylethene and ethene form polymers used as plastics like polyphenylethene (commonly known as polystyrene) and polyethene (commonly known as polyethylene or polythene). Other commercially important monomers include acrylic monomers such as acrylic acid, methyl methacrylate, and acrylamide. Natural monomers Amino acids are natural monomers, and polymerize to form proteins. Nucleotides, monomers found in the cell nucleus, polymerize to form nucleic acids - most famously, DNA and RNA. Glucose monomers can polymerize to form starches, amylopectins and glycogen polymers. In this case the polymerization reaction is known as a dehydration or condensation reaction (due to the formation of water (H2O) as one of the products) where a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl (-OH) group are lost to form H2O and an oxygen molecule bonds between each monomer unit. Molecular weight The lower molecular weight compounds built from monomers are also referred to as dimers, trimers, tetramers, quadramers, pentamers, octamers, 20-mers, etc. if they have 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, or 20 monomer units, respectively. Any number of these monomer units may be indicated by the appropriate prefix, eg, decamer, being a 10-unit monomer chain or polymer. Larger numbers are often stated in English in lieu of Greek. Polymers with relatively low number of units are called oligomers. See also Oligomer Dimer Polymer Polymerization List of publications in polymer chemistry Notes External links Polymer Structure | Monomer |@lemmatized monomer:17 greek:2 mono:1 one:2 meros:1 part:1 small:1 molecule:2 may:2 become:1 chemically:1 bond:3 form:6 polymer:10 introduction:1 r:1 j:1 young:1 chapman:1 hall:1 isbn:1 common:1 natural:3 glucose:2 link:2 glycosidic:1 cellulose:2 starch:2 weight:3 plant:1 matter:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 retrieve:1 march:1 online:1 synthetic:1 example:1 hydrocarbon:2 alkene:1 arene:1 homologous:1 series:1 phenylethene:1 ethene:1 use:1 plastic:1 like:1 polyphenylethene:1 commonly:2 know:3 polystyrene:1 polyethene:1 polyethylene:1 polythene:1 commercially:1 important:1 include:1 acrylic:2 acid:3 methyl:1 methacrylate:1 acrylamide:1 amino:1 polymerize:3 protein:1 nucleotide:1 find:1 cell:1 nucleus:1 nucleic:1 famously:1 dna:1 rna:1 amylopectins:1 glycogen:1 case:1 polymerization:2 reaction:2 dehydration:1 condensation:1 due:1 formation:1 water:1 product:1 hydrogen:1 atom:1 hydroxyl:1 oh:1 group:1 lose:1 oxygen:1 unit:5 molecular:2 low:2 compound:1 build:1 also:2 refer:1 dimer:2 trimer:1 tetramers:1 quadramers:1 pentamers:1 octamers:1 mers:1 etc:1 respectively:1 number:3 indicate:1 appropriate:1 prefix:1 eg:1 decamer:1 chain:1 large:1 often:1 state:1 english:1 lieu:1 relatively:1 call:1 oligomers:1 see:1 oligomer:1 list:1 publication:1 chemistry:1 note:1 external:1 structure:1 |@bigram glycosidic_bond:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 methyl_methacrylate:1 amino_acid:1 nucleic_acid:1 dna_rna:1 glucose_monomer:1 hydrogen_atom:1 hydroxyl_oh:1 external_link:1 |
894 | History_of_Gabon | There is little written history of Gabon prior to European contact, but various Bantu peoples are known to have immigrated to the area beginning in the 1300s. Portuguese traders who arrived in the 15th century named the country after the Portuguese word gabao, a coat with sleeve and hood resembling the shape of the Komo River estuary. The coast subsequently became a center of the slave trade with Dutch, English, and French traders arriving in the 16th century. France assumed the status of protector by signing treaties with Gabonese coastal chiefs in 1839 and 1841. In 1849, the French captured a slave ship and released the passengers at the mouth of the Komo; The slaves named their settlement Libreville, French for "free town". In 1910 Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until 1959. At the time of Gabon's independence, two principal political parties existed: the Bloc Democratique Gabonais (BDG), led by Leon M'Ba, and the Union Democratique et Sociale Gabonaise (UDSG), led by J.H. Aubame. In the first post-independence election, held under a parliamentary system, neither party was able to win a majority; the leaders subsequently agreed against a two-party system and ran with a single list of candidates. In the February 1961 election, held under the new presidential system, M'Ba became President and Aubame became Foreign Minister. The single-party solution disintegrated in 1963, and there was a single-day bloodless coup in 1964. In March 1967, Leon M'Ba and Omar Bongo were elected President and Vice President. M'Ba died later that year. Bongo again declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving the BDG and establishing the Gabonese Democratic Party (PDG). Sweeping political reforms in 1990 led to a new constitution, and the PDG garnered a large majority in the country's first multi-party elections in 30 years. Despite discontent from opposition parties, Bongo has remained president ever since. Early history From the 1300s until the present time Bantu groups immigrated into Gabon from several directions to escape enemies or to find new land. Little is known of tribal life before European contact but tribal art suggests a rich cultural heritage. Heinar Schilling (1937, p. 189) stated "The high point of Nordic seafaring was reached around the year 1000, at which time the Vikings penetrated as far south as the Congo estuary". Gabon's first confirmed European visitors were Portuguese traders who arrived in the 15th century and named the country after the Portuguese word gabao — a coat with sleeve and hood resembling the shape of the Komo river estuary. The coast became a center of the slave trade. Dutch, English, and French traders came in the 16th century. French occupation "French Congo. Natives from Gabon": Colonial postcard c.1905 France assumed the status of protector by signing treaties with Gabonese coastal chiefs in 1839 and 1841. American missionaries from New England established a mission at Baraka (now Libreville) in 1842. In 1849, the French captured a slave ship and released the passengers at the mouth of the Komo river. The slaves named their settlement Libreville - French for "free town." French explorers penetrated Gabon's dense jungles between 1862 and 1887. The most famous, Savorgnan de Brazza, used Gabonese bearers and guides in his search for the headwaters of the Congo river. France occupied Gabon in 1885, but did not administer it until 1903. Gabon's first political party, the Jeunesse Gabonais, was founded around 1922. In 1910 Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until 1959. The former territories all became independent in August, 1960 — as Chad (August 11), the Central African Republic (August 13), Congo-Brazzaville (August 15), and finally Gabon on August 17. Independence At the time of Gabon's independence in 1960, two principal political parties existed: the Bloc Democratique Gabonais (BDG), led by Leon M'Ba, and the Union Democratique et Sociale Gabonaise (UDSG), led by J.H. Aubame. In the first post-independence election, held under a parliamentary system, neither party was able to win a majority. The BDG obtained support from three of the four independent legislative deputies, and M'Ba was named Prime Minister. Soon after concluding that Gabon had an insufficient number of people for a two-party system, the two party leaders agreed on a single list of candidates. In the February 1961 election, held under the new presidential system, M'Ba became President and Aubame became Foreign Minister. This one-party system appeared to work until February 1963, when the larger BDG element forced the UDSG members to choose between a merger of the parties or resignation. The UDSG cabinet ministers resigned, and M'Ba called an election for February 1964 and a reduced number of National Assembly deputies (from 67 to 47). The UDSG failed to muster a list of candidates able to meet the requirements of the electoral decrees. When the BDG appeared likely to win the election by default, the Gabonese military toppled M'Ba in a bloodless coup on February 18, 1964. French troops re-established his government the next day. Elections were held in April 1964 with many opposition participants. BDG-supported candidates won 31 seats and the opposition 16. Late in 1966, the constitution was revised to provide for automatic succession of the vice president should the president die in office. In March 1967, Leon M'Ba and Omar Bongo (then Albert Bongo) were elected President and Vice President. M'Ba died later that year, and Omar Bongo became President. In March 1968 Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving the BDG and establishing a new party: the Gabonese Democratic Party (Parti Démocratique Gabonais) (PDG). He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate. Bongo was elected President in February 1975; in April 1975, the office of vice president was abolished and replaced by the office of prime minister, who had no right to automatic succession. Bongo was re-elected President in December 1979 and November 1986 to 7-year terms. Using the PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that divided Gabonese politics in the past, Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies. Economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked violent demonstrations and strikes by students and workers in early 1990. In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on a sector-by-sector basis, making significant wage concessions. In addition, he promised to open up the PDG and to organize a national political conference in March-April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system. The PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference. Participants essentially divided into two loose coalitions, the ruling PDG and its allies, and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party. The April 1990 conference approved sweeping political reforms, including creation of a national Senate, decentralization of the budgetary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of the exit visa requirement. In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multiparty democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister, Casimir Oye-Mba. The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from several opposition parties in its cabinet. The RSDG drafted a provisional constitution in May 1990 that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary but retained strong executive powers for the president. After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991. Under the 1991 constitution, in the event of the president's death, the prime minister, the National Assembly president, and the defense minister were to share power until a new election could be held. Opposition to the PDG continued, however, and in September 1990, two coup d’etat attempts were uncovered and aborted. Despite anti-government demonstrations after the untimely death of an opposition leader, the first multiparty National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September-October 1990, with the PDG garnering a large majority. Following President Bongo's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results. Serious civil disturbances led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement. These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994, under which several opposition figures were included in a government of national unity. This arrangement soon broke down, however, and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics. The PDG won a landslide victory in the legislative election, but several major cities, including Libreville, elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election. Modern times President Bongo coasted to easy re-elections in December 1998 and November 2005, with large majorities of the vote against a divided opposition. While Bongo's major opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, some international observers characterized the results as representative despite any perceived irregularities. Legislative elections held in 2001-2002, which were boycotted by a number of smaller opposition parties and were widely criticized for their administrative weaknesses, produced a National Assembly almost completely dominated by the PDG and allied independents. On January 18 2009, there was a reported helicopter crash, which killed several French soldiers References Petringa, Maria (2006), Brazza, A Life for Africa. Schilling, Heinar (1937), Germanisches Leben, Koehler and Amelang, Leipzig, Germany. See also Politics of Gabon External links Background Note: Gabon History of Gabon | History_of_Gabon |@lemmatized little:2 write:1 history:3 gabon:19 prior:1 european:3 contact:2 various:1 bantu:2 people:2 know:2 immigrate:2 area:1 beginning:1 portuguese:4 trader:4 arrive:3 century:4 name:5 country:3 word:2 gabao:2 coat:2 sleeve:2 hood:2 resemble:2 shape:2 komo:4 river:4 estuary:3 coast:3 subsequently:2 become:10 center:2 slave:6 trade:2 dutch:2 english:2 french:13 france:3 assume:2 status:2 protector:2 sign:2 treaty:2 gabonese:10 coastal:2 chief:2 capture:2 ship:2 release:2 passenger:2 mouth:2 settlement:3 libreville:4 free:2 town:2 one:5 four:3 territory:3 equatorial:2 africa:3 federation:2 survive:2 time:5 independence:5 two:7 principal:2 political:12 party:22 exist:2 bloc:2 democratique:4 gabonais:4 bdg:8 lead:7 leon:4 ba:11 union:2 et:2 sociale:2 gabonaise:2 udsg:5 j:2 h:2 aubame:4 first:6 post:2 election:17 hold:7 parliamentary:2 system:9 neither:2 able:3 win:5 majority:5 leader:3 agree:2 ran:1 single:5 list:3 candidate:5 february:6 new:8 presidential:2 president:18 foreign:2 minister:8 solution:1 disintegrate:1 day:2 bloodless:2 coup:3 march:5 omar:3 bongo:15 elect:5 vice:4 die:3 later:2 year:6 declare:2 state:3 dissolve:2 establish:4 democratic:3 pdg:12 sweep:1 reform:2 constitution:4 garner:2 large:4 multi:1 despite:3 discontent:2 opposition:13 remain:1 ever:1 since:1 early:2 present:1 group:1 several:5 direction:1 escape:1 enemy:1 find:1 land:1 tribal:3 life:2 art:1 suggest:1 rich:1 cultural:1 heritage:1 heinar:2 schilling:2 p:1 high:1 point:1 nordic:1 seafaring:1 reach:1 around:2 viking:1 penetrate:2 far:1 south:1 congo:4 confirm:1 visitor:1 come:2 occupation:1 native:1 colonial:1 postcard:1 c:1 american:1 missionary:1 england:1 mission:1 baraka:1 explorer:1 dense:1 jungle:1 famous:1 savorgnan:1 de:1 brazza:2 use:2 bearer:1 guide:2 search:1 headwater:1 occupy:1 administer:1 jeunesse:1 found:1 former:1 independent:4 august:5 chad:1 central:1 african:1 republic:1 brazzaville:1 finally:1 obtain:1 support:3 three:1 legislative:4 deputy:2 prime:4 soon:2 conclude:1 insufficient:1 number:3 appear:2 work:2 element:1 force:2 member:1 choose:1 merger:1 resignation:1 cabinet:2 resign:2 call:2 reduced:1 national:9 assembly:6 fail:1 muster:1 meet:1 requirement:2 electoral:1 decree:1 likely:1 default:1 military:1 topple:1 troop:1 government:8 next:1 april:4 many:1 participant:2 seat:1 late:1 revise:1 provide:3 automatic:2 succession:2 office:3 albert:1 parti:1 démocratique:1 invite:1 regardless:1 previous:2 affiliation:1 participate:1 abolish:1 replace:1 right:2 december:3 november:3 term:1 tool:1 submerge:1 regional:1 rivalry:1 divide:2 politics:3 past:1 seek:1 forge:1 movement:1 development:1 policy:1 economic:1 desire:1 liberalization:1 provoke:1 violent:1 demonstration:2 strike:1 student:1 worker:2 response:1 grievance:1 negotiate:1 sector:2 basis:1 make:1 significant:1 wage:1 concession:1 addition:1 promise:1 open:1 organize:1 conference:3 discuss:1 future:1 organization:1 attend:1 essentially:1 loose:1 coalition:1 ruling:1 ally:1 united:1 front:1 association:1 consist:1 breakaway:1 morena:1 fundamental:1 progress:1 approve:1 sweeping:1 include:4 creation:1 senate:1 decentralization:1 budgetary:1 process:1 freedom:1 press:1 cancellation:1 exit:1 visa:1 attempt:2 transformation:1 multiparty:2 democracy:1 chairman:1 create:1 transitional:1 head:1 casimir:1 oye:1 mba:1 social:1 grouping:1 rsdg:2 resulting:1 small:2 representative:2 draft:1 provisional:1 may:1 basic:1 bill:1 judiciary:1 retain:1 strong:1 executive:1 power:2 review:1 constitutional:1 committee:1 document:1 event:1 death:2 defense:1 share:1 could:1 continue:1 however:2 september:2 etat:1 uncover:1 abort:1 anti:1 untimely:1 almost:2 take:1 place:1 october:1 follow:1 vote:2 refuse:1 validate:1 result:2 serious:1 civil:1 disturbance:1 agreement:1 faction:1 toward:1 talk:1 paris:1 accord:1 figure:1 unity:1 arrangement:1 break:1 municipal:1 background:2 renew:1 partisan:1 landslide:1 victory:1 major:2 city:1 mayor:1 local:1 modern:1 easy:1 divided:1 opponent:1 reject:1 outcome:1 fraudulent:1 international:1 observer:1 characterize:1 perceived:1 irregularity:1 boycott:1 widely:1 criticize:1 administrative:1 weakness:1 produce:1 completely:1 dominate:1 allied:1 january:1 report:1 helicopter:1 crash:1 kill:1 soldier:1 reference:1 petringa:1 maria:1 germanisches:1 leben:1 koehler:1 amelang:1 leipzig:1 germany:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 note:1 |@bigram bloodless_coup:2 omar_bongo:3 vice_president:4 de_brazza:1 congo_brazzaville:1 prime_minister:4 multiparty_democracy:1 coup_etat:1 untimely_death:1 landslide_victory:1 external_link:1 |
895 | Charles_Williams_(British_writer) | Charles Walter Stansby Williams (September 20, 1886 – May 15, 1945) was a British poet, novelist, theologian, literary critic, and a member of the Inklings. Biography Williams was born in London in 1886, the only son of Richard and Mary Williams of Islington. He had one sister, Edith, born in 1889. Educated at St Albans School, Hertfordshire, Williams was awarded a scholarship to University College London, but was forced to leave in 1904 without taking a degree because his family lacked the financial resources to support him. In the same year he began work in a Methodist Bookroom. Williams was hired by Oxford University Press as a proofreading assistant in 1908 before quickly climbing to the position of editor. He continued to work at OUP in various positions of increasing responsibility until his death in 1945. One of his greatest editorial achievements was the publication of the first major English-language edition of the works of Søren Kierkegaard. Although chiefly remembered as a novelist, Williams also published works of literary criticism, theology, drama, history, biography, and a voluminous number of book reviews. Some of his best known novels are War in Heaven (1930), Descent into Hell (1937), and All Hallows' Eve (1945). T. S. Eliot, who wrote an introduction for the last of these, described Williams’s novels as "supernatural thrillers" because they explore the sacramental intersection of the physical with the spiritual while also examining the ways in which power, even spiritual power, can corrupt as well as sanctify. All of Williams’ fantasies, unlike those of J. R. R. Tolkien and most of those of C. S. Lewis, are set in the contemporary world. More recent writers of fantasy novels with contemporary settings, notably Tim Powers, cite Williams as a model and inspiration. W. H. Auden, one of Williams’ greatest admirers, reportedly re-read Williams’s extraordinary and highly unconventional history of the church, Descent of the Dove (1939), every year. Williams’s study of Dante entitled The Figure of Beatrice (1944) was very highly regarded at its time of publication and continues to be consulted by Dante scholars today. Williams, however, regarded his most important work to be his extremely dense and complex Arthurian poetry, of which two books were published, Taliessin through Logres (1938) and The Region of the Summer Stars (1944), and more remained unfinished at his death. Some of Williams’ best essays were collected and published in Anne Ridler's Image of the City and Other Essays in 1958. Williams gathered many followers and disciples during his lifetime. He was, for a period, a member of the Salvator Mundi Temple of the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross. He met fellow Anglican Evelyn Underhill (who was affiliated with the Golden Dawn) in 1937 and was later to write the introduction to her published Letters in 1943. http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~dcandmkw/spirit/eucw%20-%20int.htm Williams also formed master-disciple relationships with young women throughout his lifetime. The best known (though probably not the most significant) of these occurred in the early 1940s with Lois Lang Sims. Lang Sims, whom Williams referred to as Lalage, published a series of letters that Williams wrote to her during this period in a volume entitled Letters to Lalage (1989). Though Williams married his first sweetheart, Florence Conway, in 1917, he continually struggled to reconcile a lifelong (though probably unconsummated) love affair with Phyllis Jones (who joined the Oxford University Press in 1924 as librarian) with his Christian faith (he was an unswerving and devoted member of the Church of England, reputedly with a refreshing tolerance of the scepticism of others and a firm belief in the necessity of a "doubting Thomas" in any apostolic body). Although Williams attracted the attention and admiration of some of the most notable writers of his day, including T. S. Eliot and W. H. Auden, his greatest admirer was probably C. S. Lewis, whose novel That Hideous Strength was at the time regarded as entirely inspired by Williams's novels. Williams came to know Lewis after reading Lewis’s recently published study The Allegory of Love; he was so impressed he jotted down a letter of congratulations and dropped it in the mail. Coincidentally, Lewis had just finished reading Williams’s novel The Place of the Lion and had written a similar note of congratulations. The letters crossed in the mail and led to an enduring and fruitful friendship. When World War II broke out in 1939, Oxford University Press moved its offices from London to Oxford. Although Williams was reluctant to leave his beloved city, this move did allow him to participate regularly in Lewis’s literary society known as the Inklings. In this setting Williams was able to read (and improve) his final published novel, All Hallows' Eve, as well as to hear J. R. R. Tolkien read some of his early drafts of The Lord of the Rings aloud to the group. In addition to meeting in Lewis’ rooms at Oxford, they also regularly met at The Eagle and Child pub in Oxford (better known by its nickname "The Bird and Baby"). During this time Williams also gave lectures at Oxford on John Milton and received an honorary M.A. degree. Williams is buried in Holywell Cemetery, Oxford: his headstone bears the word "poet". Williams’s novels War in Heaven (1930) — The Holy Grail surfaces in an obscure country parish and becomes variously a sacramental object to protect or a vessel of power to exploit. Many Dimensions (1931) — An evil antiquarian illegally purchases the fabled Stone of Suleiman (Williams uses this Muslim form rather than the more familiar King Solomon) from its Islamic guardian in Baghdad and returns to England to discover not only that the Stone can multiply itself infinitely without diminishing the original, but that it also allows its possessor to transcend the barriers of space and time. The Place of the Lion (1931) — Platonic archetypes begin to appear throughout England, wreaking havoc and drawing to the surface the spiritual strengths and flaws of individual characters. The Greater Trumps (1932) — The original Tarot is used to unlock enormous metaphysical powers by allowing the possessors to see across space and time, create matter, and raise powerful natural storms. Shadows of Ecstasy (1933) — A humanistic adept has discovered that by focusing his energies inward he can extend his life almost indefinitely. He undertakes an experiment using African lore to die and resurrect his own body thereby assuring his immortality. His followers begin a revolutionary movement to destroy European civilization. Descent into Hell (1937) — Generally thought to be Williams’s best novel, Descent deals with various forms of selfishness, and how the cycle of sin brings about the necessity for redemptive acts. In it, an academic becomes so far removed from the world that he fetishizes a woman to the extent that his perversion takes the form of a succubus. Characters include a doppelgänger and the ghost of a suicidal Victorian builder. It is illustrative of Williams’s belief in the replacement of sin and substitutional love. All Hallows' Eve (1945) — Opens with a discussion between the ghosts of two dead women wandering about London. Ultimately explores the meaning of human suffering and empathy by dissolving the barrier between the living and the dead through both black magic and divine love. Works Chronological list of Williams’s publications: The Silver Stair (1912) poems Poems of Conformity (1917) Divorce (1920) poems Windows of Night (1924) The Masque of the Manuscript (1927) play A Book of Victorian Narrative Verse (1927) edited collection A Myth of Shakespeare (1928) play A Masque of Perusal (1929) play War in Heaven (1930) novel ISBN 978-0-8028-1219-3 Poetry At Present (1930) criticism The Place of the Lion (1931) novel ISBN 978-1-57383-108-6 Three Plays (1931) plays Many Dimensions (1931) novel ISBN 0-8028-1221-X The English Poetic Mind (1932) criticism The Greater Trumps (1932) novel ISBN 1-57383-111-5 A Short Life of Shakespeare: with the Sources (1933) abridgment of Chamber's 'William Shakespeare: A study of Facts & Problems' Shadows Of Ecstasy (1933) novel (first written in 1925) ISBN 1-57383-109-3 James I (1934) biography Rochester (1935) biography The New Book of English Verse (1935), editor, with Lord David Cecil, Ernest de Selincourt, E. M. W. Tillyard; collection Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury (1936) Canterbury Festival Play Queen Elizabeth (1936) biography Descent Into Hell (1937) novel ISBN 978-0-8028-1220-9 He Came Down From Heaven (1938) theology Taliessin through Logres (1938) poems The Descent of the Dove: a short history of the Holy Spirit in the Church (1939) theology Judgement at Chelmsford (1939) play Witchcraft (1941) history/theology The Forgiveness of Sins (1942) theology Outlines of Romantic Theology: Religion and Love in Dante (c. 1930, pub. 1989) theology The Figure of Beatrice: A Study in Dante (1943) criticism The Region of the Summer Stars (1944) poems All Hallows' Eve (1945) novel ISBN 1-57383-110-7 The House of the Octopus (1945) play Flecker of Dean Close (1946) biography of William Herman Flecker, 1859–1941 Arthurian Torso Containing the Posthumous Fragment of The Figure of Arthur (1948) with C. S. Lewis poetry Seed of Adam and other plays (1948) plays The Image of the City and Other Essays (1958) edited by Anne Ridler Collected Plays (1963) ISBN 978-1-57383-366-0 Charles Williams (Arthurian Poets) (1991) edited by David Llewellyn Dodds Charles Williams: Essential Writings in Spirituality and Theology (1993) edited by Charles Hefling Outlines of romantic theology; with which is reprinted Religion & love in Dante: the theology of romantic love (1990) edited by Alice Mary Hadfield Literature Ashenden, Gavin. CHARLES WILLIAMS: Alchemy and Integration. Kent State University Press, 2007. Carpenter, Humphrey. The Inklings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1978. Cavaliero, Glen. Charles Williams: Poet of Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983. Dunning Stephen M.. The Crisis and the Quest — A Kierkegaardian Reading of Charles Williams. Paternoster Biblical and Theological Monographs, 2000. Glyer, Diana Pavlac. The Company They Keep: C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien as Writers in Community. Kent State University Press. Kent Ohio. 2007. ISBN 978-0-87338-890-0 Hadfield, Alice Mary. Charles Williams: An Exploration of His Life and Work. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1983. Howard, Thomas. The Novels of Charles Williams. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991. Huttar, Charles A., and Peter J. Schakel, eds. The Rhetoric of Vision: Essays on Charles Williams. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press/London: Associated University Presses, 1996. Lindop, Grevel. Charles Williams: The Last Magician. Oxford University Press. (forthcoming, 2009) Shideler, Mary McDermott. Charles Williams: A Critical Essay. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966. Sibley, Agnes. Charles Williams. Boston: Twayne, 1982. Walsh, Chad. "Charles Williams’ Novels and the Contemporary Mutation of Consciousness," in Myth, Allegory and Gospel: An Interpretation of J. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis, G. K. Chesterton, Charles Williams. John Warwick Montgomery, ed. Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, 1974, pp. 53–77. Owen, James A. "Here There Be Dragons" and its sequel, "The Search for the Red Dragon" feature Charles Williams, C.S. Lewis, and J.R.R Tolkien as the main characters. References External links The Charles Williams Society The Novels of Charles Williams A Charles Williams Biography (Includes a photograph of CW with W.B. Yeats) Charles Williams Biography A Charles Williams Bibliography Project Gutenberg of Australia ("W") (Scroll down to download public domain copies of The Greater Trumps, Shadows of Ecstasy, The Place of the Lion, War in Heaven, Descent into Hell, Many Dimensions, and All Hallows' Eve'') (About) Many Dimensions The New Christian Year (1941) and The Passion of Christ (1939), two devotionals compiled by Charles Williams Charles Williams: Alchemy and Integration by Gavin Ashenden link to book's page on publisher's website | Charles_Williams_(British_writer) |@lemmatized charles:24 walter:1 stansby:1 williams:53 september:1 may:1 british:1 poet:4 novelist:2 theologian:1 literary:3 critic:1 member:3 inkling:3 biography:8 bear:3 london:6 son:1 richard:1 mary:4 islington:1 one:3 sister:1 edith:1 educate:1 st:1 albans:1 school:1 hertfordshire:1 award:1 scholarship:1 university:9 college:1 force:1 leave:2 without:2 take:2 degree:2 family:1 lack:1 financial:1 resource:1 support:1 year:3 begin:3 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896 | Observational_error | Observational error is the difference between a measured value of quantity and its true value. Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9 In statistics, an error is not a "mistake". Variability is an inherent part of things being measured and of the measurement process. Science and experiments When either randomness or uncertainty modeled by probability theory is attributed to such errors, they are "errors" in the sense in which that term is used in statistics; see errors and residuals in statistics. Every time we repeat a measurement with a sensitive instrument, we obtain slightly different results. The common statistical model we use is that the error has two additive parts: systematic error which always occurs (with the same value) when we use the instrument in the same way, and random error which may vary from observation to observation. The systematic error is sometimes called statistical bias. It is controlled by very carefully standardized procedures. Part of the education in every science is how to use the standard instruments of the discipline. The random error (or random variation) is due to factors which we cannot (or do not) control. It may be too expensive or we may be too ignorant of these factors to control them each time we measure. It may even be that whatever we are trying to measure is changing in time (see dynamic models), or is fundamentally probabilistic (as is the case in quantum mechanics -- see Measurement in quantum mechanics). Random error often occurs when instruments are pushed to their limits. For example, it is common for digital balances to exhibit random error in their least significant digit. Three measurements of a single object might read something like 0.9111g, 0.9110g, and 0.9112g. Surveys and general The term observational error is also sometimes used to refer to response errors and some other types of non-sampling error. Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9 In survey-type situations, these errors can be mistakes in the collection of data, including both the incorrect recording of a response and the correct recording of a respondent's inaccurate response. See also errors and residuals in statistics error in general Replication (statistics) statistical theory metrology test method Propagation of uncertainty References be-x-old:Хібнасьць | Observational_error |@lemmatized observational:2 error:18 difference:1 measured:1 value:3 quantity:1 true:1 dodge:2 oxford:2 dictionary:2 statistical:5 term:4 oup:2 isbn:2 statistic:5 mistake:2 variability:1 inherent:1 part:3 thing:1 measure:3 measurement:4 process:1 science:2 experiment:1 either:1 randomness:1 uncertainty:2 model:3 probability:1 theory:2 attribute:1 sense:1 use:5 see:4 residual:2 every:2 time:3 repeat:1 sensitive:1 instrument:4 obtain:1 slightly:1 different:1 result:1 common:2 two:1 additive:1 systematic:2 always:1 occur:2 way:1 random:5 may:4 vary:1 observation:2 sometimes:2 call:1 bias:1 control:3 carefully:1 standardize:1 procedure:1 education:1 standard:1 discipline:1 variation:1 due:1 factor:2 cannot:1 expensive:1 ignorant:1 even:1 whatever:1 try:1 change:1 dynamic:1 fundamentally:1 probabilistic:1 case:1 quantum:2 mechanic:2 often:1 push:1 limit:1 example:1 digital:1 balance:1 exhibit:1 least:1 significant:1 digit:1 three:1 single:1 object:1 might:1 read:1 something:1 like:1 survey:2 general:2 also:2 refer:1 response:3 type:2 non:1 sampling:1 situation:1 collection:1 data:1 include:1 incorrect:1 recording:2 correct:1 respondent:1 inaccurate:1 replication:1 metrology:1 test:1 method:1 propagation:1 reference:1 x:1 old:1 хібнасьць:1 |@bigram quantum_mechanic:2 |
897 | Nuclear_disarmament | United States and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945-2006 Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. Proponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war occurring, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine deterrence, which, through the possession and threatened use of nuclear weapons, has kept the world free of nuclear war since 1945. History The movement for disarmament has varied from nation to nation over times. A few prominent proponents of disarmament argued in the earliest days of the Cold War that the creation of an international watchdog organization could be used to enforce a ban against the creation of nuclear weapons. This initial movement largely failed. During the 1960s, a much stronger popular movement against nuclear weapons developed, rallying primarily around the fear of nuclear fallout from nuclear testing. After the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), which prohibited atmospheric testing, the movement against nuclear weapons somewhat subsided in the 1970s (and was replaced in part by a movement against nuclear power). In the 1980s, a popular movement for nuclear disarmament again gained strength in the light of the weapons build-up and aggressive rhetoric of US President Ronald Reagan. After the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s the momentum again faded. In the USSR, voices against nuclear weapons were few and far between as there was no "public" to speak of as a political factor. Certain citizens who had become prominent enough to safely criticize the Soviet government, such as Andrei Sakharov, did speak out against nuclear weapons, but to little effect. When the extreme danger intrinsic to nuclear war and the possession of nuclear weapons became apparent to all sides during the Cold War, a series of disarmament and nonproliferation treaties were agreed upon between the United States, the Soviet Union, and several other states throughout the world. Many of these treaties involved years of negotiations, and seemed to result in important steps toward creating a nuclear weapons free world. Key Treaties Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) - 1963: Prohibited all testing of nuclear weapons except underground. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) - signed 1968, came into force 1970: An international treaty (currently with 189 member states) to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. The treaty has three main pillars: nonproliferation, disarmament, and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology. Interim Agreement on Offensive Arms (SALT I) - 1972: The Soviet Union and the United States agreed to a freeze in the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) that they would deploy. Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) - 1972: The United States and Soviet Union could deploy ABM interceptors at two sites, each with up to 100 ground-based launchers for ABM interceptor missiles. In a 1974 Protocol, the US and Soviet Union agreed to only deploy an ABM system to one site. Strategic Arms Limitation Treat (SALT II) - 1979: Replacing SALT I, SALT II limited both the Soviet Union and the United States to an equal number of ICBM launchers, SLBM launchers, and heavy bombers. Also placed limits on Multiple Independent Reentry Vehicles (MIRVS). Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) - 1987: Created a global ban on short- and long-range nuclear weapons systems, as well as an intrusive verification regime. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) - signed 1991, ratified 1994: Limited long-range nuclear forces in the United States and the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union to 6,000 attributed warheads on 1,600 ballistic missiles and bombers. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II (START II) - signed 1993, never put into force: START II was a bilateral agreement between the US and Russia which attempted to commit each side to deploy no more than 3,000 to 3,500 warheads by December 2007 and also included a prohibition against deploying multiple independent reentry vehicles (MIRVs) on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT or Moscow Treaty) - signed 2002, into force 2003: A very loose treaty that is often criticized by arms control advocates for its ambiguity and lack of depth, Russia and the United States agreed to reduce their "strategic nuclear warheads" (a term that remain undefined in the treaty) to between 1,700 and 2,200 by 2012. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) - signed 1996, not yet in force: The CTBT is an international treaty (currently with 177 state signatures) that bans all nuclear explosions in all environments. While the treaty is not in force, Russia has not tested a nuclear weapon since 1990 and the United States has not since 1992. "Nuclear Disarmament," US Policy World. http://www.uspw.org/. Only one country has been known to ever dismantle their nuclear arsenal completely—the apartheid government of South Africa apparently developed half a dozen crude fission weapons during the 1980s, but they were dismantled in the early 1990s. Ukraine also relinquished nuclear weapons which had been based there by the Soviet Union upon the latter's breakup. NATO's European theatre After the fall of the Soviet Union, a number of former Soviet republics (Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan) found themselves in possession of Soviet nuclear weapons, but they were given to Russia (who took responsibility and ownership of the Soviet arsenal) in exchange for negative security assurances and financial compensation from the United States and the Russian Federation. As part of an effort to reduce nuclear tensions between US and Russia after the end of the Cold War, a delegation from the Russian Ministry of Defence led by US-Russian national Alexander M. Dokychuk, during an official visit to the US in 1992, stated in a live televised program that Russian nuclear missiles will never again be pointed at US cities. Organizations Many organizations and networks exist which distribute information and put pressure on governments, e.g. the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), which advocated a policy of unilateral nuclear disarmament in the United Kingdom together with the Labour far left, leading it to become Labour Party policy in 1960-61 and again in 1980-89. There was also a strong peace camp movement. Many people still felt the need for a nuclear deterrent, especially since the Cold War was still ongoing, and this policy is believed to have been a major cause of Labour's defeat in the 1983 election. In 1955, 11 leading scientists and intellectuals signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, warning of the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and calling on world leaders to find peaceful solutions to international tensions. This was followed in 1957 by the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. The 1985 Nobel peace prize-winning International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) advocates abolition of all nuclear weapons. In 2006, it initiated the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons. The Council for a Livable World, founded by nuclear physicist Leo Szilard, and its sister organization, the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, have both advocated for a reduction in global nuclear stockpiles and for an increase in non proliferation efforts. http://armscontrolcenter.org/about/ Center for Arms Control and Non Proliferation:About Us In the U.S. an organization for nuclear disarmament is Peace Action - National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. US Nuclear Policy Despite a general trend toward disarmament in the early 1990s, the George W. Bush administration repeatedly pushed to fund policies that would allegedly make nuclear weapons more usable in the post-Cold War environment , . To date the U.S. Congress has refused to fund many of these policies. However, some feel that even considering such programs harms the credibility of the United States as a proponent of nonproliferation. Recent Controversial U.S. Nuclear Policies Reliable Replacement Warhead Program (RRW): This program seeks to replace existing warheads with a smaller number of warhead types designed to be easier to maintain without testing. Critics charge that this would lead to a new generation of nuclear weapons and would increase pressures to test. Congress has not funded this program. Complex Transformation: Complex transformation, formerly know as Complex 2030, is an effort to shrink the U.S. nuclear weapons complex and restore the ability to produce “pits” the fissile cores of the primaries of U.S. thermonuclear weapons. Critics see it as an upgrade to the entire nuclear weapons complex to support the production and maintenance of the new generation of nuclear weapons. Congress has not funded this program. Nuclear bunker buster: Formally knows as the Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP), this program aimed to modify an existing gravity bomb to penetrate into soil and rock in order to destroy underground targets. Critics argue that this would lower the threshold for use of nuclear weapons. Congress did not fund this proposal, which was later withdrawn. Missile Defense: Formerly known as National Missile Defense, this program seeks to build a network of interceptor missiles to protect the United States and its allies from incoming missiles, including nuclear-armed missiles. Critics have argued that this would impede nuclear disarmament and possibly stimulate a nuclear arms race. Elements of missile defense are being deployed in Poland and the Czech Republic, despite Russian opposition. Former U.S. officials Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, Bill Perry and Sam Nunn proposed in January 2007 that the United States rededicate itself to the goal of eliminating nuclear weapons, concluding: “We endorse setting the goal of a world free of nuclear weapons and working energetically on the actions required to achieve that goal.” Kissinger, Shultz, Perry & Nunn call for A World Free of Nuclear Weapons Arguing a year later that “with nuclear weapons more widely available, deterrence is decreasingly effective and increasingly hazardous,” the authors concluded that although “it is tempting and easy to say we can't get there from here, . . . we must chart a course” toward that goal. Renewed call from Kissinger, Nunn, Perry and Shultz for Nuclear-Free World During his Presidential campaign, U.S. President Elect Barack Obama pledged to “set a goal of a world without nuclear weapons, and pursue it.” Barack Obama and Joe Biden's Plan to Secure America and Restore our Standing U.S. Policy Options for Nuclear Terrorism To prevent nuclear terrorism against itself, it is essential that nuclear materials are secured, so that "terrorist organizations" will not have access to the raw materials or already-built warheads. The United States has taken the lead in ensuring that nuclear materials globally are properly safeguarded. A popular program that has received bipartisan domestic support for over a decade is the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program (CTR). While this program has been deemed a success, its funding levels need to be increased so as to ensure that all dangerous nuclear materials are secured in the most expeditious manner possible. The CTR program has led to several other innovative and important nonproliferation programs that need to continue to be a budget priority in order to ensure that nuclear weapons do not spread to actors hostile to the United States. Key Programs Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR): The highly successful CTR program provides funding to help Russia secure materials that might be used in nuclear or chemical weapons as well as to dismantle weapons of mass destruction and their associated infrastructure in Russia. Global Threat Reduction Initiative (GTRI): Expanding on the success of the CTR, the GTRI will expand nuclear weapons and material securing and dismantlement activities to states outside of the former Soviet Union. Other states While the vast majority of states have adhered to the stipulations of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, a few states have either refused to sign the treaty or have pursued nuclear weapons programs while not being members of the treaty. Many view the pursuit of nuclear weapons by these states as a threat to nonproliferation and world peace, and therefore seek policies to discourage the spread of nuclear weapons to these states, a few of which are often described by the US as "rogue states". Declared nuclear weapon states not party to the NPT: Indian nuclear weapons - 100-145 active warheads. Norris, Robert S. and Hans M. Kristensen. "India's nuclear forces, 2005," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 61:5 (September/October 2005): 73–75. Pakistani nuclear weapons - 30-80 active warheads North Korean nuclear weapons - 1-10 active warheads Undeclared nuclear weapon states not party to the NPT: Israeli nuclear weapons - 75 - 200 active warheads Norris, Robert S., William Arkin, Hans M. Kristensen, and Joshua Handler. "Israeli nuclear forces, 2002," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 58:5 (September/October 2002): 73-75. Excerpt online. Nuclear weapon states not party to the NPT that disarmed and joined the NPT as non-nuclear weapons states: South African nuclear weapons - disarmed from 1989-1993 Former Soviet states that disarmed and joined the NPT as non-nuclear weapons states: Belarus Kazakhstan Ukraine Non-nuclear weapon states party to the NPT currently accused of seeking nuclear weapons: Iranian nuclear weapons program Non-nuclear weapon states party to the NPT who acknowledged and eliminated past nuclear weapons programs: Libyan nuclear weapons program See also Nuclear arms race Nuclear-free zone Nuclear proliferation Nuclear weapon Nuclear warfare Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Nuclear weapons and the United States Seabed Arms Control Treaty Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Partial Test Ban Treaty United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency External links Nuclear Files.org Arms Control and Disarmament Annotated bibliography for nuclear arms control from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Council for a Livable World Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation People v The Bomb: Showdown at the UN - TV documentary report on 2005 NPT Review crisis William Walker, "President-elect Obama and Nuclear Disarmament. Between Elimination and Restraint.", Proliferation Papers, Paris, Ifri, Winter 2009 Robert S. Norris & Hans M. Kristensen, "Nuclear U.S. and Soviet/Russian intercontinental ballistic missiles, 1959-2008" Robert S. Norris & Hans M. 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898 | Ahmed_al-Nami | A former law student and muezzin, Ahmed bin Abdullah al-Nami (احمد النامي, also transliterated Alnami or al-Nawi) (December 13, 1977 – September 11, 2001) was named by the FBI as one of the hijackers of United Airlines flight 93 as part of the September 11 attacks. History Born to the Quraish tribe of Saudi Arabia, Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others al-Nami served as a muezzin at the Seqeley mosque after having reportedly become very religious sometime in early 1999. That autumn he enrolled in the King Khaled University at Abha to study Sharia, he left his family home in Khamis Mushayt in the summer of 2000 to complete the Hajj, but never returned - instead travelling to the Al Farouq training camp in Afghanistan where he met and befriended Waleed and Wail al-Shehri, two brothers from Khamis Mushayt, and Saeed Alghamdi. The four reportedly pledged themselves to Jihad in the Spring of 2000, in a ceremony presided over by Wail - who had dubbed himself Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi after one of Muhammad's companions. Boston Globe, Driving a Wedge: Part I Dubbed "Abu Hashim", al-Nami was considered "gentle in manner" by his colleagues, and reported that he had a dream in which he rode a mare along with Muhammad, and that the prophet told him to dismount and fight his enemies to liberate his land. During his time at al-Farooq, there is a curious mention under Mushabib al-Hamlan's details that al-Nami had recently had laser eye surgery, an uncited fact that does not reappear. By October he had taken a prospective hijacker Mushabib al-Hamlan from Afghanistan to Saudi Arabia where they both procured B-1/B-2 tourist/business visas on October 28 - but al-Hamlan then decided not to proceed and is thought to have returned to his family. Al-Nami's Visa application has since been reviewed, and while he mentioned that Mushabib will be travelling with him, he listed his occupation as student but failed to provide an address for his school, and listed his intended address in the United States merely as Los Angeles - in the end he never used this Visa to enter the United States, and reported his passport (C115007, which showed evidence of travel to Afghanistan) as "lost", and procured a new one from Jeddah (C505363). He used the new passport to acquire a new B-1/B-2 visa in Jeddah on April 23, again recopying his answers from previously although crossing out the lines regarding Mushabib and previous attempts to acquire a visa. He was interviewed by a consular officer, who again approved his application. Records at the time only recorded past failures to procure a visa, so the officer had no way of realising that al-Nami had successfully received an earlier visa. In mid-November 2000, the 9/11 Commission believes that al-Nami, Wail and Waleed al-Shehri, all of whom had obtained their U.S. visas in late October, traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to Beirut and then onward to Iran where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped. This probably followed their return to Saudi Arabia to get "clean" passports. An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight, although this may have been a coincidence. While in the United Arab Emirates, al-Nami purchased traveler's cheques presumed to have been paid for by Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including Majed Moqed, Saeed Alghamdi, Hamza Alghamdi, Ahmed al-Haznawi and Wail Alshehri. 2001 al-Nami in Video In March 2001, Ahmed al-Nami appeared in an Al Qaeda farewell video showing 13 of the muscle hijackers before they left their training centre in Kandahar; while he does not speak, he is seen studying maps and flight manuals. On April 23, al-Nami was recorded obtaining a new US Visa. On May 28, al-Nami arrived in the United States from Dubai with fellow-hijackers Mohand al-Shehri and Hamza al-Ghamdi. By early June, Al-Nami was living in apartment 1504 at the Delray Racquet Club condominiums with Saeed al-Ghamdi in Delray Beach, Florida. He telephoned his family in 'Asir shortly after arriving in the country. In June, he phoned his family for the last time. He was one of 9 hijackers to open a SunTrust bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, and on June 29 received either a Florida State Identification Card or Drivers License. He may have been one of three hijackers that listed the Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida as their permanent address on drivers' licenses, though other sources claim he listed the Delray condominium. On August 28, al-Nami and Ahmed al-Haznawi reportedly bothered a Delray Beach resident, Maria Siscar Simpson, to let them through her apartment to retrieve a towel that had fallen off their balcony onto hers. On September 7, all four Flight 93 hijackers flew from Fort Lauderdale to Newark International Airport aboard Spirit Airlines. Jarrah and al-Haznawi both received their one-way tickets on September 5. Attack On September 5, al-Nami and Saeed al-Ghamdi purchase tickets for a September 7 flight to Newark at the Mile High Travel on Commercial Boulevard—paying cash for their tickets. Ziad Jarrah and Ahmad al-Haznawi also purchase tickets for the same flight though from Passage Tours. On September 11, al-Nami arrived in Newark to board United Airlines Flight 93 along with Saeed al-Ghamdi, Ahmad al-Haznawi and Ziad Jarrah. Some reports suggest al-Haznawi was pulled aside for screening while others claim there is no record of whether any of the four were screened; the lack of CCTV cameras at the time has compounded the problem. al-Haznawi and one of the other three checked bags, and they boarded the plane between 7:39 am and 7:48 am; al-Nami seated in First Class 3C, next to al-Ghamdi. Due to the flight's routine delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings and were told to be on the alert, though within two minutes Jarrah had stormed the cockpit leaving the pilots dead or injured. At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas, which some have questioned may have signified an allegiance to the Egyptian Islamic Jihad. The calls also indicated that one of the men had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside; it is not known which hijacker this was. Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes, and organized a brief assault to retake the cockpit. It is believed the hijackers crashed the plane into the Pennsylvania farmland rather than cede control of the plane. All aboard died. Aftermath After the attacks, an employee of Saudi Arabian Airlines named Ahmed al-Nami came forward to say that he feared his identity had been stolen, although he had never lost his passport. References External links The Final 9/11 Commission Report Report that an Ahmed al-Nami is still alive | Ahmed_al-Nami |@lemmatized former:1 law:1 student:2 muezzin:2 ahmed:7 bin:1 abdullah:1 al:44 nami:19 احمد:1 النامي:1 also:4 transliterate:1 alnami:1 nawi:1 december:1 september:7 name:2 fbi:1 one:8 hijacker:11 united:6 airline:4 flight:8 part:2 attack:3 history:1 bear:1 quraish:1 tribe:1 saudi:5 arabia:4 videotape:1 record:5 abdulaziz:1 omari:1 others:2 serve:1 seqeley:1 mosque:1 reportedly:3 become:1 religious:1 sometime:1 early:3 autumn:1 enrol:1 king:1 khaled:1 university:1 abha:1 study:2 sharia:1 leave:3 family:4 home:1 khamis:2 mushayt:2 summer:1 complete:1 hajj:1 never:3 return:3 instead:1 travel:6 farouq:1 training:2 camp:1 afghanistan:4 meet:1 befriend:1 waleed:2 wail:4 shehri:3 two:3 brother:1 saeed:5 alghamdi:3 four:3 pledge:1 jihad:2 spring:1 ceremony:1 preside:1 dub:2 abu:2 mossaeb:1 janubi:1 muhammad:2 companion:1 boston:1 globe:1 drive:1 wedge:1 hashim:1 consider:1 gentle:1 manner:1 colleague:1 report:5 dream:1 ride:1 mare:1 along:2 prophet:1 tell:2 dismount:1 fight:1 enemy:1 liberate:1 land:1 time:4 farooq:1 curious:1 mention:2 mushabib:4 hamlan:3 detail:1 recently:1 laser:1 eye:1 surgery:1 uncited:1 fact:1 reappear:1 october:3 take:1 prospective:1 procure:3 b:4 tourist:1 business:1 visa:9 decide:1 proceed:1 think:2 application:2 since:1 review:1 list:4 occupation:1 fail:1 provide:1 address:3 school:1 intended:1 state:4 merely:1 los:1 angeles:1 end:1 use:2 enter:1 passport:5 show:2 evidence:1 lose:2 new:4 jeddah:2 acquire:2 april:2 recopy:1 answer:1 previously:1 although:3 cross:1 line:1 regard:1 previous:2 attempt:1 interview:1 consular:1 officer:2 approve:1 past:1 failure:1 way:2 realise:1 successfully:1 receive:3 mid:1 november:1 commission:2 believe:2 obtain:2 u:2 late:1 group:1 beirut:1 onward:1 iran:1 could:1 without:1 get:2 stamp:1 probably:1 follow:1 clean:1 associate:1 senior:1 hezbollah:1 operative:1 may:4 coincidence:1 arab:1 emirate:1 purchase:3 traveler:1 cheque:2 presume:1 pay:2 mustafa:1 hawsawi:1 five:1 pass:1 uae:1 purchased:1 traveller:1 include:1 majed:1 moqed:1 hamza:2 haznawi:7 alshehri:1 video:2 march:1 appear:1 qaeda:1 farewell:1 muscle:1 centre:1 kandahar:1 speak:1 see:1 map:1 manual:1 arrive:3 dubai:1 fellow:1 mohand:1 ghamdi:5 june:4 live:1 apartment:2 delray:4 racquet:1 club:1 condominium:2 beach:2 florida:3 telephone:1 asir:1 shortly:1 country:1 phone:2 last:1 open:1 suntrust:1 bank:1 account:1 cash:2 deposit:1 around:2 either:1 identification:1 card:1 driver:2 license:2 three:2 naval:1 air:1 station:1 pensacola:1 permanent:1 though:3 source:1 claim:3 august:1 bother:1 resident:1 maria:1 siscar:1 simpson:1 let:1 retrieve:1 towel:1 fall:1 balcony:1 onto:1 fly:1 fort:1 lauderdale:1 newark:3 international:1 airport:1 aboard:2 spirit:1 jarrah:4 ticket:4 mile:1 high:1 commercial:1 boulevard:1 ziad:2 ahmad:2 passage:1 tour:1 board:2 suggest:1 pull:1 aside:1 screen:2 whether:1 lack:1 cctv:1 camera:1 compound:1 problem:1 check:1 bag:1 plane:5 seat:1 first:1 class:1 next:1 due:1 routine:1 delay:1 pilot:2 crew:1 notify:1 hijacking:1 alert:1 within:1 minute:1 storm:1 cockpit:2 dead:1 injure:1 least:1 cellphone:1 call:3 make:1 passenger:2 indicate:2 saw:1 wear:1 red:1 bandana:1 question:1 signify:1 allegiance:1 egyptian:1 islamic:1 men:1 tie:1 box:1 torso:1 bomb:1 inside:1 know:1 hear:1 fate:1 hijacked:1 organize:1 brief:1 assault:1 retake:1 crash:1 pennsylvania:1 farmland:1 rather:1 cede:1 control:1 die:1 aftermath:1 employee:1 arabian:1 come:1 forward:1 say:1 fear:1 identity:1 steal:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 final:1 still:1 alive:1 |@bigram al_nami:19 saudi_arabia:4 abdulaziz_al:1 al_omari:1 al_shehri:3 boston_globe:1 los_angeles:1 arab_emirate:1 traveller_cheque:1 majed_moqed:1 al_haznawi:7 al_qaeda:1 muscle_hijacker:1 al_ghamdi:5 delray_beach:2 pensacola_florida:1 fort_lauderdale:1 ziad_jarrah:2 saudi_arabian:1 external_link:1 |
899 | Empty_set | The empty set is the set containing no elements. In mathematics, and more specifically set theory, the empty set is the unique set having no (zero) members. Some axiomatic set theories assure that the empty set exists by including an axiom of empty set; in other theories, its existence can be deduced. Many possible properties of sets are trivially true for the empty set. Null set was once a common synonym for “empty set,” but “null set” is now a technical term in measure theory. Notation A symbol for empty set Common notations for the empty set include "{}," "", and "". The latter two symbols were introduced by the Bourbaki group (specifically Andre Weil) in 1939, inspired by the letter Ø in the Danish and Norwegian alphabet. Earliest Uses of Symbols of Set Theory and Logic. Other notations for the empty set include "Λ", "0", and "‣" John B. Conway, Functions of One Complex Variable, 2nd ed. P. 12. Properties By the principle of extensionality, two sets are equal if they have the same elements; therefore there can be only one set with no elements. Hence there is but one empty set, and we speak of "the empty set" rather than "an empty set." The mathematical symbols employed below are explained here. For any set A: The empty set is a subset of A: ∀A: ∅ ⊆ A The union of A with the empty set is A: ∀A: A ∪ ∅ = A The intersection of A with the empty set is the empty set: ∀A: A ∩ ∅ = ∅ The Cartesian product of A and the empty set is empty: ∀A: A × ∅ = ∅ The empty set has the following properties: Its only subset is the empty set itself: ∀A: A ⊆ ∅ ⇒ A = ∅ The power set of the empty set is a set containing only the empty set: 2∅ = {∅} Its number of elements (that is, its cardinality) is zero. Moreover, the empty set is finite: |∅| = 0 The connection between the empty set and zero goes further, however: in the standard set-theoretic definition of natural numbers, we use sets to model the natural numbers. In this context, zero is modelled by the empty set. For any property: For every element of ∅ the property holds (vacuous truth); There is no element of ∅ for which the property holds. Conversely, if for some property and some set V, the following two statements hold: For every element of V the property holds; There is no element of V for which the property holds, then V = ∅. By the definition of subset, the empty set is a subset of any set A, as every element x of ∅ belongs to A. If it is not true that every element of ∅ is in A, there must be at least one element of ∅ that is not present in A. Since there are no elements of ∅ at all, there is no element of ∅ that is not in A. Hence every element of ∅ is in A, and ∅ is a subset of A. Any statement that begins "for every element of ∅" is not making any substantive claim; it is a vacuous truth. This is often paraphrased as "everything is true of the elements of the empty set." Operations on the empty set Operations performed on the empty set (as a set of things to be operated upon) can also be confusing. (Such operations are nullary operations.) For example, the sum of the elements of the empty set is zero, but the product of the elements of the empty set is one (see empty product). This may seem odd, since there are no elements of the empty set, so how could it matter whether they are added or multiplied (since “they” do not exist)? Ultimately, the results of these operations say more about the operation in question than about the empty set. For instance, notice that zero is the identity element for addition, and one is the identity element for multiplication. Mathematics Extended real numbers Since the empty set has no members, when it is considered as a subset of any ordered set, then any member of that set will be an upper bound and lower bound for the empty set. For example, when considered as a subset of the real numbers, with its usual ordering, represented by the real number line, every real number is both an upper and lower bound for the empty set. Bruckner, A.N., Bruckner, J.B., and Thomson, B.S., 2008. Elementary Real Analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall. P. 9. When considered as a subset of the extended reals formed by adding two "numbers" or "points" to the real numbers, namely negative infinity, denoted which is defined to be less than every other extended real number, and positive infinity, denoted which is defined to be greater than every other extended real number, then: and That is, the least upper bound (sup or supremum) of the empty set is negative infinity, while the greatest lower bound (inf or infimum) is positive infinity. By analogy with the above, in the domain of the extended reals, negative infinity is the identity element for the maximum and supremum operators, while positive infinity is the identity element for minimum and infimum. Topology Considered as a subset of the real number line (or more generally any topological space), the empty set is both closed and open. All its boundary points (of which there are none) are in the empty set, and the set is therefore closed; while for every one of its points (of which there are again none), there is an open neighbourhood in the empty set, and the set is therefore open. Moreover, the empty set is a compact set by the fact that every finite set is compact. The closure of the empty set is empty. This is known as "preservation of nullary unions." Category theory If A is a set, then there exists precisely one function f from {} to A, the empty function. As a result, the empty set is the unique initial object of the category of sets and functions. The empty set can be turned into a topological space, called the empty space, in just one way: by defining the empty set to be open. This empty topological space is the unique initial object in the category of topological spaces with continuous maps. Does the empty set exist? Axiomatic set theory In Zermelo set theory, the existence of the empty set is assured by the axiom of empty set, and its uniqueness follows from the axiom of extensionality. However, the axiom of empty set can be shown redundant in either of two ways: A logic such that provability and truth hold for both empty as well as nonempty domains is called a free logic. Set theory is almost never formulated with free logic as its background logic; hence many theorems of set theory are valid only if the domain of discourse is nonempty. Canonical axiomatic set theory assumes that everything in the (nonempty) domain is a set. Therefore at least one set exists; call it A. By the axiom schema of separation (a theorem in some theories), the set B = {x | x∈A ∧ x ≠ x} exists and, having no members, is the empty set; The axiom of infinity, included in all mathematically interesting axiomatic set theories, not only asserts the existence of an infinite set I (from which B in the preceding paragraph may be constructed), but typically requires that the empty set be a member of I. Philosophical issues While the empty set is a standard and widely accepted mathematical concept, it remains an ontological curiosity, whose meaning and usefulness are debated by philosophers and logicians. The empty set is not the same thing as nothing; rather, it is a set with nothing inside it and a set is always something. This can be a stumbling block. If so, the following homely figure of speech may be helpful. Think of a set as a bag, and its members as being the contents of the bag. An empty bag undoubtedly still exists. Jonathan Lowe argues that while the empty set: "...was undoubtedly an important landmark in the history of mathematics, … we should not assume that its utility in calculation is dependent upon its actually denoting some object." it is also the case that: "All that we are ever informed about the empty set is that it (1) is a set, (2) has no members, and (3) is unique amongst sets in having no members. However, there are very many things that 'have no members', in the set-theoretical sense—namely, all non-sets. It is perfectly clear why these things have no members, for they are not sets. What is unclear is how there can be, uniquely amongst sets, a set which has no members. We cannot conjure such an entity into existence by mere stipulation." George Boolos argued that much of what has been heretofore obtained by set theory can just as easily be obtained by plural quantification over individuals, without reifying sets as singular entities having other entities as members. *George Boolos, 1984, "To be is to be the value of a variable," The Journal of Philosophy 91: 430-49. Reprinted in his 1998 Logic, Logic and Logic (Richard Jeffrey, and Burgess, J., eds.) Harvard Univ. Press: 54-72. Tom McKay has disparaged the "singularist" assumption that natural expressions using plurals can be analysed using plural surrogates, such as signs for sets. He argues for an anti-singularist theory which differs from set theory in that there is no analogue of the empty set, and there is just one relation, among, that is an analogue of both the membership and the subset relation. Use in linguistics Set theory generally is a basic tool in formal semantics. Hence the empty set plays an important role in linguistics. It is used in language-teaching to denote a natural form (also colloquially named the dictionary form), which is generally the nominative singular for languages with declensions. It is also employed to emphasize that nothing should be added to the noun. However, this type of empty set is usually written with the same size as the other letters and so looks more like a ø than like a ∅. The empty set symbol is sometimes used in natural language syntax and morphology to represent morphemes that are not pronounced. See also Inhabited set For denoting important spaces, see open box (␣) and \verbatim in LaTeX. 0 (number) Notes References Paul Halmos, Naive set theory. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960. Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974. ISBN 0-387-90092-6 (Springer-Verlag edition). Jech, Thomas, 2003. Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, Revised and Expanded. Springer. 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