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Cooley, C. J.
The defendant in this case was summoned ■as garnishee of one McGee, and the question in the case is whether, at the time summons in garnishment was served, he was debtor to McGee or had in possession property belonging to him. The defendant made disclosure in which he said:
“ I reside in the town of Bridgewater, Washtenaw county, Mich. I know the defendant, Edwin L. McGee. I had some deal with the defendant the last part of March or the first of April. I bought a quantity of sheep of him. There was one hundred and ninety-seven or eight. I bought them by the pound, and , agreed to pay five dollars and five shillings per one hundred pounds. The whole came to-eleven hundred and fifty dollars. I made this bargain on the thirty-first day of March last. I had a chattel mortgage on the sheep at the time I bought them, of five hundred and seventy dollar's. The amount of the mortgage was to apply on the purchase of the sheep. I didn’t pay anything more-at the time of making the bargain. The sheep were delivered to me on Saturday, Afrril 1,- 1882. I went up to-McGee’s, the defendant’s, on- Saturday morning, before the service of the garnishee. 1 helped him drive the sheep in the road for the purpose of driving them down here to me.. He drove them down here to me that morning. While we-were driving the sheep on the scales the garnishee summons, was served on me. That was after they were driven down to me, as I supposed. At the time the garnishee was served on me I had not paid anything more than the amount of the-chattel mortgage on the sheep. At the time of the service of this garnishee I had no property, goods or effects in my hands, or under my control, belonging to Edwin L. McGee,, defendant.”
Unless a jury would be warranted on this disclosure in-, finding an indebtedness from defendant to McGee, there-could be no recovery. The circuit judge was of opinion they would not be, and so instructed them.
Whether or not there was indebtedness, would depend’ upon whether the sale of the sheep was complete at the time-the summons was served. It is shown by the disclosure that, the price to be paid was not yet determined. They were sold! by the pound, and the weighing had not yet taken place. It, also appears that no payment towards the purchase price had been made. No credit seems to have been bargained for, and consequently payment and delivery would be concurrent acts unless the contrary was agreed, and it does not appear that, there was any other agreement. But even if it had been so-agreed the sale would have been ineffectual under the Statute of Frauds unless delivery had been made ; there having as yet been no payment and no delivery of anything by way of earnest. The case, then, turns upon the question of actual delivery of the sheep.
Delivery in a case like this could only be made by the vendor surrendering possession to the vendee with the intent thereby to transfer the title, and by the vendee accepting it as owner. Does such a transfer of possession appear here, is the question. The defendant says McGee delivered the sheep to him ; but he is a layman and is not using language with technical accuracy: he proceeds to say what was in fact done, and we must judge from that whether the delivery had taken place. The fact appears to be that McGee had never transferred possession at all; he had brought the sheep to be weighed, and he and this defendant were driving them upon the scales when the summons was served. It is very clear McGee had not at that time resigned possession, and he had never agreed to do so until payment was made. Had defendant undertaken at that time to drive the sheep away, McGee unquestionably, as we think, would have had aright to resist, even to the use of force.
It is true that facts tending to show delivery are for the jury ; and it may be said there were such facts in this case. But it is so clear that the jury would not have been justified in finding a delivery upon this disclosure that we are not willing to disturb the judgment because the instruction of the judge to them was given in too positive a form. If he had left the facts to the jury, saying to them that in his opinion no delivery was made out, the instruction would have been technically correct, and the result the same as now, or if the jury had disregarded his opinion, it would have been his duty to set aside the verdict. The positive instruction has not therefore wronged the plaintiff.
The judgment must be affirmed.
The other Justices concurred.
Afterwards, at the January term, 1885, a motion for re-taxation was made and granted January 6.
jHewitt for the motion.
Norris against.
Pee Curiam. A counsel fee as for argument will not be allowed in taxing costs if the brief of the prevailing party, though printed, was neither served in advance on opposing counsel nor handed to the Court when the case was reached. | [
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Per Curiam.
The defendant in an attachment case, where the writ had been served both personally and upon property, moved to set aside the writ for defects in the affidavit, and the judge denied the motion. The defendant then moved this Court for a mandamus to compel the granting of the motion. Held, that the Court would not interfere in this manner to inquire into the grounds of the motion. | [
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Champlin, J.
Plaintiff brought an action against defendant for libel. The defendant is a corporation operating a line of railroad between Detroit, Michigan, and Chicago in the state of Illinois. It employs a large number of men in different capacities, and there are twenty-nine different places along the line of the road where agents are employed who have authority to employ men to perform services for the company. In order to secure competent and reliable employees, and to prevent imposition from discharged employees being again employed upon another part of the road, the defendant makes and keeps what it calls a “ discharge list,” in which is entered monthly the names of such employees as are discharged during the current month, their occupation, and under the heading of “ Why Discharged ” the reason or cause of discharge. Such lists are sent to each of the twenty-nine agents or heads of departments upon whom devolve duties touching the employment, supervision or selection of servants or employees of defendant. The defendant regards the keeping and distribution of such discharge lists among its heads of departments as an essential and necessary method of prosecuting its business, and as a necessary safeguard to protect itself against the employment of inefficient and unfit persons that have been discharged on some other part of the line.
The plaintiff resided at Niles, on the line of defendant’s road, and had worked for defendant four or five years, first as a mason and for the last two or three years as a carpenter. About the 14th or 15th of November, 1882, he was at work for defendant at Michigan City, and rode from there to his home at Niles on the fast train. This train' has a dining car attached, and a passenger before arriving at Niles left his overcoat in his seat and went forward into the dining car. Plaintiff claims that by mistake, when he got off at Niles, he took the passenger’s overcoat in place of his own, and went into the tool-shop and threw the coat upon the bénch and did not go back to the shop until the morning of the second day afterwards, when Mr. .Humphrey came in and asked if any of the men had taken a coat by mistake; that he replied to Humphrey, “ Night before last I threw a coat on that bench; look at that;” and told Humphrey, “If that is the coat he had better put a tag oh it and send it back, but that my coat was gone;” which he described, and Humphrey said it was in the baggage-room, and. he went there and got it. Two or three- days after that, he was discharged. The defendant showed that when the passenger reported the loss of his coat it instituted an investigation, and the assistant superintendent was informed by defendant’s special agent that the coat was taken while the passenger was out to supper, and that an old coat was left in its place ; that he sent one of his men to investigate, and the gentleman’s coat was found at the residence of Mr. Bacon, at West Niles; that the statement of the special agent was to the effect that there was such a difference between the two coats that .Bacon must have known that he had taken a coat not belonging to himself.
In the month of March following, the name df plaintiff was entered on the discharge list, which comprised the names of thirty in all, as follows;
“ Michigan Central Bailroad Company.
March. Discharge List. 1882..
NAME. OCCUPATION. WHY DISCHARGED.
Bacon, John. Carpenter. Stealing.”
This list -was sent between the first and fifth of April to the defendant’s twenty-nine heads of departments above mentioned, in Michigan, Indiana and Illinois, one of which was sent to and received by Gr. W. Doliver, assistant road-master at Niles. This list was in his custody, and the only person who had access to his books was his clerk, Elon Lombard. No one ever applied to him to see the list, and he never showed it to any one. Plaintiff endeavored to ascertain the reason of his having been discharged. He inquired of Mr. Palmer, a foreman in the employ of defendant, and asked him if it was on account of the coat, and he did not -say whether it was or not. In April, 1882, plaintiff had a ■conversation with Lombard in Mr. Doliver’s office about the matter, and he showed plaintiff the discharge list for the 'month of March, 1882 ; and plaintiff then brought this action. •
The defendant pleaded the general issue and gave notice 'that it would insist in its defense and give evidence tending to show that the said several alleged libelous publications in the declaration mentioned are true. On the trial the plaintiff called Mr. Doliver as a witness, who at plaintiff’s .request produced the discharge' list. Having shown the facts above narrated the plaintiff then offered the discharge list in evidence, which was objected to as irrelevant and immaterial. The circuit judge sustained the objection, on the .ground that the plaintiff had not shown a publication. This ruling was excepted to.
• The defendant offered no testimony and the circuit judge then charged the jury as follows: “ This is an action for libel brought by the plaintiff against the -defendant, charging him with a certain publication. The evidence introduced, or attempted to be introduced, I think does not sustain that proposition. Both parties having rested and there being no evidence before the jury that there was any publication, the only thing remaining for the jury to do is to bring in a verdict for the defendant.” Exception was duly taken to this charge, and the jury rendered their verdict for defend•ant.
The only question presented by the record is, was there •any evidence of publication of the alleged libel ? If so, it was error to take the case from the jury.
In considering this question, it must be borne in mind that the words alleged are actionable in themselves, and imputed malice if false, and it must be determined irrespective of any defense based upon the question of whether the writing was under the circumstances privileged. That defense would have been proper after a publication had been shown, and in justification of the act.
It has not been without much reluctance and against strong-dissent that corporations have been held liable to actions for libel, the opposition being based mainly upon two grounds :
1st. That they are created for specified purposes, and libels composed and published by their officers or agents must necessarily be beyond the scope of the legitimate authority of such corporations, and therefore not binding upon them ;
2nd. Because malice, which is a necessary requisite in libel,, cannot be imputed to a corporation.
Since however, corporations have taken such common and important parts in the business of the country, and have been created for almost every conceivable purpose where an aggregation of capital can be employed to advantage, it has been considered to be more consonant with the principles-of justice to hold them to a large measure of the accountability which attaches to individuals. It is well 'settled in this State that an action can be maintained against a corporation for libel.
The acts of the managing officers of the corporation in-carrying on its affairs and managing its business are considered the acts of the corporation itself. No question is made-upon this point, and it may be considered as conceded that the act-of the superintendent in sending out these discharge lists to the agents of the corporation was the act of the corporation itself: But the argument is and the circuit judge-so held, that the transmission of the libel from the superintendent to the twenty-nine heads of department in Michigan, Indiana and Illinois was only passing the libel from one-agent of defendant to another agent of defendant, and it had never reached the hands or knowledge of a third person, but in fact remained in the possession of the composer.
This argument is wholly untenable. If a person compose a libel and send it to his agent, to be read by him, and it reaches its destination and is read by such agent, it is a sufficient publication to support the action. There are in this country railroad and telegraph corporations whose lines extend through many states and who employ many thousand agents. There are a great number of insurance companies •employing agencies in several states. Can it be possible that these corporations possess an immunity to defame any person by sending such libel to. every agent in their employment ? Why should they possess this immunity more than .an individual employing a large number of agents ? Why should it be held a publication in one case and not in the •other? In my opinion every agent to whom this discharge list was delivered was a third person respecting this corporation and the plaintiff, and it constituted a publication of the libel.
The defendant presents a question to this Court which was not presented or ruled upon in the court below. He has argued here that the communication, under the circumstances •appearing in the evidence, -wasprivileged, and therefore the •question as to whether it was published has become and was quite immaterial.
I do not think it proper for us to consider this branch of •the case presented by defendant’s counsel, for the reason that the question of privilege was" not brought before the court below; if it had been, the plaintiff would have been entitled to introduce evidence to show express malice. Although it is for the court to determine whether the subject-matter to which the libel relates, the interest of the author in it, or his relations to it, are such as make the communication privileged, yet the question of good faith, belief in the truth of the statement and the existence of actual malice are facts to be determined by the jury. Klinck v. Colby 46 N. Y. 427; Hamilton v. Eno 81 N. Y. 116; Adcock v. Marsh 8 Ired. (N. C. L.) 361; Hart v. Gumpach L. R. 4 P. C. 439; Fowles v. Bowen 30 N. Y. 20; Gassett v. Gilbert 6 Gray 94. The ruling of the court below in rejecting the discharge list as evidence, and holding that there has been no publication, foreclosed the plaintiff from the opportunity of introducing such proof.
The judgment must be reversed and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
The bill in this case was filled to restrain defendant Lovejoy from selling land on an execution upon attachment proceedings against Dugald McMillan. Graham is brought in as sheriff. The bill seeks a perpetual injunction and release. Defendant Lovejoy demurred generally, and his demurrer was overruled, and he appeals from that order.
It is difficult, from the very peculiar framing of this bill, to know on what ground of equity complainant meant to rely. There is nothing in it from beginning to end which makes definite averments of fact and indicates the use to be made of them. But the complainant’s brief filed in this Court rests the case upon the ground that complainant became a bona fide purchaser after the proceedings in attachment had progressed to nearly a completion, and before judgment, and that the proceedings were void for non-compliance with the statute, and were not properly recorded in the register’s office.
The bill, in setting out its derivative title does not aver what interest McMillan originally had, or had at the time of ■defendant’s levy, but merely that he had an “ undivided interest.” It avers that on the 29th day of December, 1882, he conveyed by warranty deed his “ estate, right, title and interest,” but whether it was the same as when the attachment was levied, or how much it was, in no way appears. It is also averred that at that date he was paid “ for his said title and interest in said lands” one thousand dollars and more. As the lands amount to several thousand acres of what it is to be inferred from the bill are valuable pine lands, it is evidently not impossible that his interest was regarded as very small or else purchased at somewhat remarkable rates for a bona fide purchase for value. The allegations are very meager.
But passing over this defect, the bill is not a bill to quiet title, because as yet it appears there is no execution sale made. It can only be regarded as a bill to remove a cloud from complainant’s title, arising out of proceedings alleged to be invalid.
The only equity relied on is that complainant is a bona fide purchaser. But we think it is very difficult to find any authority for stopping unfinished legal proceedings against third persons on any such ground. Lord Hardwicke, in Patterson v. Slaughter Amb. 293, laid it down very broadly that the claim of a bona fide purchase was available in equity as a defense, but not as a basis of action for a complainant. Beekman v. Frost 18 Johns. 544 is very emphatic in denying the use of such a claim for offensive operations. And in Stockton v. Williams 1 Doug. (Mich.) 546, it was said that “no rule is better established than that a,court of equity will not restrain a person from the assertion of title in the course of judicial proceedings, or decree a release by one to another, unless in a case entirely free from doubt.” Pages 566-1. As the bill avers McMillan to bo irresponsible, it is evident that defendant’s claim, which is much larger than the alleged payment to McMillan by complainant, and accrued earlier, gives him a very strong equity prior in time to conqfiainant’s, and that if complainant has a superior right it is a legal one under the recording laws and not an equitable one, and depends entirely on the failure of the attachment for alleged irregularity.
But in setting out the attachment proceedings there is no attempt to point out wherein the illegality consists. Instead of averring the absence of one or more jurisdictional requirements, the bill throws together what it calls a “ substantially true transcript” of the proceedings, and leaves the court to grope its way through this mass which is not even arranged chronologically, to find out as it best may the absence of some important jurisdictional requisite. This is not fair or proper pleading. A complainant is bound to point out the defects on which he relies. If the complainant had done so, some, at least, of what counsel on the argument relied on as defects, might be supplied. But when he sets out what is not averred to be anything but a substantial transcript we are left to conjecture what counsel may regard as falling outside of substance, and this is not sufficient.
Furthermore, it is to be observed that if it is true, as must be claimed, that the court on a mere inspection of the papers can see that these proceedings are void on their face, then it is impossible for them to make a cloud on title. Complainant claims that it has record priority, and if so, that title cannot be injured by a later record based on a nullity. We have not discovered any such defect, but inasmuch as if-it exists it is claimed by complainant to be patent, equity cannot be called upon to deal with it. When title has been completed under an execution sale, the validity of such title can be tried by proper proceedings based on or aimed against it.
There is nothing in the bill suggesting that the proper steps were not taken to file the proof of attachment with the register of deeds. How far the neglect, if any, of that officer may prejudice defendant we need not now inquire. If defendant complied with the law, he did so before complainant got any rights, and there would be no equity in preventing him from proceeding to a sale, and then having the respective merits of the titles fairly litigated.
. We discover no equity in the bill, and it should have been dismissed. We might leave the case here, if it did not present some peculiarities which we ought not to pass unnoticed.
It is a cardinal rule in equity that a preliminary injunction should never be granted without the oath of some one, from his own knowledge, of such facts .as will justify it. In this case nearly all of the facts outside of the attachment record are set up on mere belief. The bill avers distinctly that these facts were within the knowledge of two members of the corporation, Abijali Weston and John D. Mersereau, who negotiated the purchase from McMillan. No reason is given why the bill was not signed and sworn to by some of its officers, although it is a domestic corporation ; but it is signed and sworn to by the solicitor of record, who swears to no personal knowledge, and to no reason why the bill is not verified by some one who had such knowledge.
The injunction was allowed 'by a circuit court commissioner, and it does not appear that any notice was given either to defendant or his attorneys, and no reason is given for dispensing with it. The bill is, and was regarded by the commissioner as, one to stay proceedings at law; and in supposed compliance with section 105 of the chapter concerning Courts of Chancery (IIow. Stat. § 6695), which allows the officer allowing such an injunction to dispense with security on the ground that the verdict or judgment was obtained by actual fraud, the allowance here dispensed with it. The only fraud alleged here is the act of proceeding to judgment with knowledge of complainant’s claim. This is not sworn to positively, but it would be ridiculous to call such steps obtaining the judgment by actual fraud.
But beyond this it is expressly provided by Rule 112 of the Chancery Rules, that a circuit court commissioner shall not under any circumstances stay proceedings at law by injunction without notice. He has no power to act at all in such a case, whatever may be done by the judge.
The order for an injunction was unwarranted, and by this neglect of the statutory and rule requirements, defendant lias been subjected to unauthorized interference and deprived of the redress in damages which the law contemplated he should secure in case of the dissolution of the injunction. Such an abuse of 'the process of the court cannot be passed by without notice.
The decree must be reversed and the bill dismissed with costs of both courts.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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] |
Campbell, J.
Respondent was convicted of statutory burglary from a store, and sentenced to twelve years in the State prison. There was, so far as we can perceive, no testimony whatever that he committed it. The only testimony on which the case went to the jury seems to have been some reference to a failure to make a square division of what was called by Butler the “ Fremont deal.” There was no reference to a burglary or crime of any sort committed in Fremont. One Derinda Bailey, however, in a very vague and loose way testified that there was some talk, not distinctly located as to time, and to which she said she paid little attention, of which she states: “ It was something about somebody’s getting in, and he taking the stuff out after they handed it out to him.” This is the only thing which lias any bearing at all ’upon the action of any one, having any resemblance to an act of theft from a building, and it identifies no place or person or property. But, such as it was, defendant ■offered to show by Mi’s. Bailey’s deposition on the examination before the magistrate, that she had told inconsistent stories. The court refused to allow this, because she had not been cross-examined upon it, and had it shown to her, and been asked if she so swore.
As this ruling is in direct contravention of Lightfoot v. People 16 Mich. 507, where it was held, such depositions were receivable as original evidence to discredit the witness who made them, without cross-examining him concerning them, the error is plain and must lead to a reversal. It was especially material, as this case went to the jury.
It is unaccountable to us that any conviction should have been allowed on this testimony, and that respondent should have been visited with so severe a sentence, after the defects had been for a second time brought to the notice of the court on a motion for new trial. We do not think it would be proper for us, having the responsibility on reversal of determining the custody of respondent, to allow him to be treated as under strong presumption of felon)', as we think that he ought not to be tried again on any such slender proofs as w'ere put in here.
In reversing the judgment and ordering a new trial we shall direct the prisoner to be discharged from the State prison and admitted to recognize for himself, wdthous tureties, in the sum of one hundred dollars, for his appearance hereafter in the court below.
Judgment will be rendered accordingly.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Sherwood, J.
This is an action on a replevin bond, in which Homer A. Quackenbush, now deceased, was principal and the two Fergusons were sureties.
The suit in which the bond was given was tried in 1878, and Henry had judgment. He had taken the goods as deputy sheriff of the county of Lapeer by virtue of several executions and two writs of attachment against one Pannelee. Henry’s claim was a lien under these writs, and amounted to $2644.49, and judgment was taken for that amount, on his election to take the value of his interest under the lien. Execution against the defendants on this judgment was returned unsatisfied, and the plaintiff then brought this suit on the bond.
At the time the suit was brought, Quackenbush was living and was in possession of the goods, claiming a portion of them as owner. He has since died, and his interest is now represented by the administrator.
The defendants pleaded the general issue, and gave notice they would show in their defense:
First. That the levies under which the plaintiff claimed were fraudulent and void, and gave him no lien upon the property taken.
Second. That $1500 worth of the goods taken by the plaintiff under his pretended levy were not the goods of Quackenbush, but were held by him at the time for sale on commission.
Third. That at the time the goods were taken by plaintiff the defendant Charles Ferguson had a mortgage lien upon them for the sum of about $4000, which was prior in time to the plaintiff’s pretended services.
These several defenses are claimed to be admissible under the following provisions of our statute, viz.:
“In any action prosecuted on such bond given by the plaintiff in an action of replevin, for the deliverance of any property, the defendants may show, in mitigation of the damages, that the obligee in such bond had only a lien upon, or special property, or part ownership in said property at the time of commencement of suit in replevin, and that the defendants, or either of them, had at the same time a part ownership or other valuable interest in said property; and if such lien, special property, part ownership, or other interest of said obligee, with interest thereon, amount to less than the value of the property replevied, a corresponding reduction shall be made from such value.” How. Stat. § 8354.
The plaintiff failed on the trial, and brings the case here on error, the record containing substantially all the evidence. It appears from the testimony that Parmelee’s business from January till September, 1874, was principally selling hardware and agricultural implements in Imlay City, and Homer A. Quackenbush was his clerk; that on the 11th of August, 1874, Parmelee sold and transferred by bill of sale his stock of goods of all kinds to defendant Peter Ferguson, who thereupon took possession of them, and hired Quackenbush to take charge of the business; that on the 24th of August, 1874, Peter Ferguson sold the goods to Quackenbush and took back a mortgage thereon for $4000. Afterwards, Peter transferred the mortgage to the defendant Charles Ferguson, who was his brother, and received in exchange some hotel property in Marlette, in Sanilac county. Charles subsequently took the property for the mortgage, and gave up the notes to Quackenbush. Charles sold and disposed of the goods, and had the avails thereof.
Five judgments were obtained against Parmelee, as follows :
1st. January 27, 1874, for $716.14 and costs; execution issued and levied on the goods claimed by Quackenbush, February 10th following.
2d. Judgment, January 28,1874, for $209.52. and costs; execution issued thereon and levied upon the same goods February 10th, thereafter.
3d. Judgment, January 29,1874, for $131.17 and costs; execution issued thereon and levied upon same goods, February 12th thereafter.
4th. Judgment, June 1,1874, for $463.23 and costs; execution issued-and levied upon same goods same day.
5th. Judgment in justice’s court, August 25, 1874, for $62.50 and costs; execution levied upon same property, September 18th following.
6th. Attachment issued September 19, 1874, for $485.66 and costs, and levied same day on same goods.
7th. A second attachment levied same time for about $800, on same goods.
It further appears, by the testimony, that the goods were not disturbed or removed nor receipted for when they were levied upon under the executions, but were so taken and removed by the officer when the attachments were levied. It is substantially conceded that the attachment and the execution on the White & Ham judgment [that of August 25, 1874] were properly levied, but the levies under the other writs are claimed not to have been properly made, and were therefore void. The levy under the White & Ham execution was made September 18th and the attachment September 19th. After the goods were taken on the attachment, Quackenbush, who was then alive, replevied them with the result above stated.
On the trial the jury found the general property in the goods to be in Quackenbush, and that the sheriff had a special interest therein to the extent of his levies, the amount being $3917.38.
It was in that replevin suit that the bond in this suit was given, and the plaintiff now seeks to recover the sum found by the jury in that ease as defendants’ special lien, and interest thereon. The mortgage was given on the 24th of August, 1874, so that, if it was valid, it was prior in time to the Ham execution and the levies under the attachments, and was sufficient in amount to exhaust the proceeds of the goods if applied to its payment, and would leave nothing for the sheriff.
It was claimed by plaintiff upon the trial, that the levies made'on the 10th and 12th of February and on the 1st of June, 1874, were valid, and therefore preceded the mortgage lien of Charles Ferguson. The question of their validity went to the jury under proper instructions from the court, and they found against the plaintiff upon this point.
As between the liens under the other levies and the mortgage (if the mortgage was valid), it was not necessary to file the latter to preserve its priority. The notes were negotiable, and the notes and mortgage were not given by the •defendant in the writs under which the levies were claimed to have been made, and who was not a creditor of Quackenbush and does not claim in hostility to the owner of the •mortgage.
If Charles Ferguson bought the mortgage in good faith, :and without notice of prior levies upon the property, his .rights thereunder could not be affected by the fraud of, or notice to his assignee, and the questions of notice and of fraud were properly submitted to the jury by the circuit judge, ■and their verdict was also against the plaintiff upon those points.
It was strenuously contended on the trial, and conceded •by the circuit judge, that the finding in the replevin suit that Quackenbush was the general owner of the property, while Henry had a lien thereon for a specified amount, was ■conclusive, in this case, of the title of Quackenbush, and would therefore support the mortgage which he gave. This •contention would have been plausible if the finding had related to the time when the mortgage was given, but in point of fact it related to a different time. The mortgage was given at a previous time. What that time was, was a ■disputed question on the trial; one party contending that it was given at its date, and the other that it was antedated. Now, a finding that Quackenbush was owner at one time ■could not have retroactive effect to fix his ownership at a prior date; still less could it do so when the prior time itself wap in dispute, as was the case here. There was, therefore, error in holding the finding conclusive on this question.
The action of replevin is a possessory action, and in the •suit between Quackenbush alone and the plaintiff it was only necessary to show the former entitled to the possession of the property at the time of bringing the suit; and the adjudication that Quackenbush was the general owner, was only for the purpose of determining the right of the plaintiff subject to the special lien set up on the defense in that suit, as between the parties therein, and has no binding effect beyond that.
The defendant Peter Ferguson claimed to be the owner of the Hensien judgment, and the right to have it allowed to him in defense on the trial at the circuit, and this was permitted ; the circuit judge saying to the jury that, if they found the execution in the case to be the first valid levy upon the goods when they were taken by the plaintiff, and that Peter Ferguson had bought and paid the judgment, he would occupy the place of Hensien in the premises, and be entitled to have it deducted from the value of the replevied property as found by the jury, as it appears the claim was not presented by the sheriff with the other claims, the value of which goes to make up the amount of the lien.
We are unable upon the facts stated to discover any error in this part of the judge’s charge. Any other rule would certainly work great injustice, such as the law never contemplated or would tolerate. It is the actual and just rights of the parties which are to be kept in sight in this class of cases, and we see no difficulty under the statute in permitting what the' circuit judge said to the jury they might do in regard to this claim. We think the defendants, who are-sureties on the replevin bond, may show rights in themselves,, or in either of them, to the property, which was taken upon the writ of replevin, and for which the plaintiff took judgment under his lien established at the trial. Simple justice requires this, of course, if Charles Ferguson would be entitled to have the amount of his mortgage deducted from the amount of the plaintiff’s lien found by the jury in the first suit, and there was no error in the ruling of the court in giving such direction to the jury.
The other question presented, as to the admissibility of the testimony offered for the purpose of showing there was. included among the goods taken by the plaintiff property to the amount of $700 or $800, which was held on commission and did not belong to Quackenbush at the time the levy thereon was made, is one of more difficulty. It does not appear that they were covered by the mortgage, or that either of the defendants’ sureties had any interest in them. Still, the general title seems to have been adjudicated as belonging to Qnackenbush, subject to the lien under the levies, and so- ■far as we can discover from the record the value of these goods constituted a part of the plaintiff’s lien under his levies in the replevin suit. The evidence was offered for the purpose of having their value deducted from the amount claimed by plaintiff in this case. ¥e can see no way of doing this under the statute or practice in such cases. We think the admission of this evidence was improper, to the prejudice of the rights of the plaintiff, and therefore error.
Not so, however, with regard to the testimony relating to property owned by Quackenbush and included under the •sheriff’s lien, but not purchased of Parmelee. The instraction given by the court to deduct that amount was correct. Charles Ferguson became the owner of these goods under his mortgage interest and purchase of the property, and he being a bona fide holder, the amount of that interest could therefore properly be deducted.
We have not considered the exceptions in this ease seriatim or in detail, but think that what we have said sufficiently covers all the questions necessary to discuss. This is the fourth time the case has been before us for review. The charge of the circuit judge seems to have been full, and in the main correct. We regret that we cannot finally dispose of the case at this time; but for the two errors stated
The judgment must be reversed and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
The plaintiff is a pl^sieian, and brings suit to recover compensation for services in curing the defendant of a disease of one of the defendant’s legs. It was a part of the plaintiff’s case that he performed the services under a special agreement that he was only to be paid in the event of a cure. He therefore took the burden of showing that a cure had been effected. His own evidence was very positive to that effect, and Dr. Seymour, as an expert, who saw the leg when the ease was discharged as cured, gave evidence which was very strong to the same effect. The plaintiff also showed that the defendant, after the time the leg was considered by the plaintiff as cured, had voluntarily made a payment towards the services.
The defendant gave evidence to show that more than a year after the leg had been supposed to be cured, it wás still sore and lame, and required treatment; and the question of fact principally contested on the trial was, whether this soreness was the original disease, or had been produced by some new cause. When the plaintiff took the case in rebuttal he called Dr. Seymour and proposed to ask him the following question: “ At the time this defendant was discharged by Dr. Beebe as cured, state if you know whether he was suffering from inflammation of the knee-joint which has been testified to by the medical witnesses for the defense.” This question was objected to as not calling for rebutting evidence and the objection was sustained.
We think the court might very well have permitted this question to be asked; but we cannot say there was error in refusing it. It was a part of the plaintiff’s case that he left the leg cured; and he should have put in, before resting, all the evidence tending to show the fact. He could put in none afterwards except by favor of the court. And the evidence which this question called for would clearly have been admissible as a part of the plaintiff’s case before he rested. Other questions proposed to be put to the same witness come within the same ruling.
It is complained that the court ehai’ged the jury that they might consider the condition of the defendant’s leg at the time of the trial as bearing upon the question of cure. The time which had elapsed was so considerable that it might be questionable if the charge could be sustained had there not been some evidence which fairly tended to refer the existing inflamed condition of the leg to the original disease; and the jury in considering such evidence must necessarily do so in ■connection with existing appearances and the explanation • which was given of them.
Both parties requested the court to instruct the jury what was meant by the plaintiff in undertaking to cure the leg; and the judge instructed them that there was to be an absolute, permanent cure, and an eradicating of the original trouble, and the leg restored to its normal original condition, under the contract. This, it is said, was too strong a statement of tlfe contract, as it would require a removal of any tendency that might exist towards the recurrence of any and all diseases from which the leg had suffered and been cured.
The question what oral contract parties have made is not for the court, but for a jury: McKenzie v. Sykes 47 Mich. 294; if the parties see fit to refer it to the court, the construction the court places upon the language and negotiations of the parties cannot well be held erroneous if it is an admissible construction under the evidence. And we cannot say that such was not the case here. If the jury had put the same construction upon the agreement the parties entered into, as testified by witnesses, we do not think their verdict could be held entirely unwarranted by the evidence.
The judgment must be affirmed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
The purpose of the bill in this case is to enforce a trust in lands arising by implication of law from the alleged fraud of the defendant.
The parties to the suit are brothers, and heirs-at-law of James Pierce wdio died intestate at Sharpsville in Pennsylvania, December 2, 1874. His estate was a large one, and included railway and banking interests, coal lands and a blast furnace in Pennsylvania, and mining interests in Marquette county in this State. Shortly after his death it was agreed between his widow and his five sons that Wallace and Jonas should be appointed administrators, but that the estate for sometime should be neither sold nor divided, and that each son should take charge of some portion of the estate and manage it for the common benefit. Under this agreement the mining interests in Marquette county were put in charge of defendant, who continued to be manager thereof until April, 1881, when an amicable partition was made of the estate, except that the Marquette mining property was not divided and was still left in defendant’s charge.
The bill in this case avers that James Pierce in his lifetime purchased a large amount-of stock in the S. C. Smith Iron Mining Company, then operating an iron mine in Marquette county. He also advanced a large sum of money to that corporation to enable it to carry on its business. The corporation however fell into financial difficulties and went into bankruptcy, and in 1878 the said Wallace and Jonas as administrators purchased its real estate and commenced mining operations and operated a saw-mill thereon by consent of all the heirs. The mine was then called the Cheshire mine.
The bill further avers that in the year 1879 the defendant suggested the propriety of making explorations on the north line of the Cheshire mine property for iron ore, and it was agreed that defendant should endeavor to get a lease of the property adjoining on the north for the benefit of the estate; for the purpose of mining iron ore for a royalty; that such lands at the time were of little known val'ue, but the heirs were willing to expend some money in explorations thereon; that defendant informed the others that he could not take such a lease as administrator, but would take it in his individual name for the benefit of all, to which the other heirs assented; that he thereupon did procure such a lease, and the heirs took possession, and commenced operations thereon, calling the leased lands the North- Cheshire; that within a year five thousand dollars were expended thereon, without apparent valuable result, and the cost charged to the profit and loss account of the Cheshire mine, — the Cheshire and North Cheshire being treated by all parties as one property.
-The bill then states the negotiations for a partition of the estate between the heirs, which was accomplished in April, 1S81. In the course of these defendant proposed to take the Marquette mining property at ten thousand dollars, he representing that the property as a mine was valueless, and could only be regarded as wild land with a saw-mill thereon and certain property for mining purposes at the mine; that afterwards in November or December, 1880, complainant Frank Pierce proposed to take half the Marquette property, to which defendant assented, but in January or February following defendant said he would not take it at his valuation until he had seen it again, and in March he went to Marquette and on his return wanted to take to himself exclusively all the Marquette mining property that belonged to the estate. Complainants, however, had been investigating its value and had learned that the profits for the last year had been seven thousand five hundred dollars, and thereupon insisted on taking said property with defendant in equal shares. They charge defendant with keeping them in ignorance of the value of the property in order to obtain it himself at a nominal valuation. The result of the negotiations was that the five brothers were left joint owners of the Cheshire mine while the other property was divided.
The bill then avers that for the first time the defendant, on April 5, 1881, informed complainants that the lease of the-North Cheshire property was his and he should keep it as his own ; to which they objected and protested, claiming that the North Cheshire was developed into a mining property from wild land, by the money and exertions of complainants- and defendant in common, and that they regarded and should continue to regard it as common property. Up to this time-they had had implicit confidence in defendant, but they charge that he used his position as manager of the common-property to obtain possession of the North Cheshire, and in the absence of complainants, in April, 1881, he directed the-book-keeper of the Cheshire to separate the amounts expended on the North Cheshire from the Cheshire, which they protested against when it came to their knowledge, and refused to ratify the action.
The bill then prays that the Cheshire mine property be-sold under the order of the court, and the proceeds divided ^ that defendant render an account in respect to the North Cheshire property, now called the Swanzey ; and that a receiver be appointed pending the suit, and commissioners to-make partition.
The answer admits the arrangement for carrying on the Cheshire mine for the benefit of all the heirs, but avers that in the spring of 1880 a division of the property of the estate-among the several parties entitled thereto was agreed upon, under which defendant was to have the mining property in the county of Marquette at the value of ten thousand dollars. ITe was also to have one-half the accounts of the mine, the other half being set over to complainant Frank Pierce. At that time the entire property of the estate was appraised, and a division of the whole agreed upon. No conveyances, were then made, but the parties entered into possession of the greater part of the portions assigned to them respectively, arid managed and carried them on as their individual property. The division was to date from April 1, 1880, and each received the profits of his portion from that time. The Marquette mining property was considered to belong to defendant from that time ; but in the latter part of the following December complainant Frank Pierce decided that he wanted a one-half interest in the same, and defendant agreed thereto, and such changes were made in the division of the estate as were rendered necessary thereby. Early in the following spring the other complainants became dissatisfied with the valuation of the property as it had been agreed upon, and insisted upon a change in the division, which defendant declined to assent to, but finally, about the 5th of April 1881, it was agreed between defendant and complainants that they should all take equal interests in said mining property subject to all the liabilities, and with all the profits accruing thereto from the 1st of April 1880, and that defendant and Frank Pierce should have each a half interest in the accounts of the mine up to that date. This division was consummated by deed and defendant was left in themanage- ' ment.
The answer further states that in the year 1879, by mutual ■ agreement of the parties, explorations were entered upon on their common property to find other ore if possible, as the old mine appeared to be about worked out. A shaft was sunk and other work done near the north line of the property, and up to the division of April 1st, 1880, about eleven hundred dollars had been expended in these explorations. Thereafter the defendant continued them on his own account expending sixteen hundred dollars in addition to what had been expended before, and during that year, with a view of taking a lease of the property adjoining on the north, he expended about one thousand dollars upon that. All the accounts of explorations, both upon the Cheshire mining property, and upon that to the north were kept together on the books of defendant, who in the division as it then stood was the owner of the Cheshire mine, but the accounts were separated after the change in the division in December, when it was agreed that Frank Pierce should take a half interest in the Cheshire mine, and after the final division about April 5th, 1881, whereby all the parties became equally interested in the Cheshire mine, the sum which had been expended on the North Cheshire property was charged over on the books to defendant. From the date last mentioned the mining business on the Cheshire mining property was carried on by all the parties as a partnership, under the name of “ The Cheshire Iron Company,” and that upon adjoining land to the north was carried on by defendant alone under the name of “ The North Cheshire Mine.”
The defendant denies positively that he ever undertook to obtain a lease or leases for the benefit of the estate, in his own name or otherwise. He avers that he commenced efforts to obtain the property since called “ The North Cheshire ” property and now the Swanzey, after the division of 1880, and while the Cheshire mine was understood to be his own ; that he did not ascertain all the owners until July of that year, and did not obtain a contract for a lease until in November following. He denies all misrepresentation or deception in respect to the Cheshire mine, and avers that the accounts of the mine were kept at Sharpsville, Pennsylvania, where the complainants had access to them at all times. He says he always claimed the North Cheshire property as his own after he acquired it, and denies any equitable claim on the part of complainants to any participation therein.
The case was heard on pleadings and proofs and decree rendered affirming the right of complainants to an equal participation with defendant in the “North Cheshire” mine property, and for an accounting and partition. A reference for the appointment of a receiver was also ordered.
From this abstract of the pleadings it will appear that the case for complainants depends upon their establishing the fact that defendant, when he took a lease of the property since known as the North Cheshire mining property, and now as the Swanzey, took the same under circumstances which charged it with a trust in his hands for the benefit of complainants. The bill avers an understanding that it was to be and was acquired by defendant for the common benefit of all the heirs; but it also makes out a case of constructive trust against the defendant, arising from the facts that the explorations to determine the value of the property were made by defendant, as manager of the Cheshire mine, and at the expense of that property when it was owned by all the parties jointly, and when defendant was managing it in the interest of all, and under obligation.to give to all the benefit of his knowledge and of such acquirements as he should make at the common expense.
Any understanding, preceding or contemporaneous with the North Cheshire property lease, that defendant should procure such a lease and hold it for the benefit of all the heirs, we do not find made out. We do not think that if immediately .after its acquisition he had insisted with the others that he had taken the lease in the common interest of all, and if he had undertaken to charge them with its obligations, he would have heen able to establish against them a duty of any sort, supported by anything done or said by themselves, to participate in the chances which would attend the taking of the lease, and the experiment of opening mines on the leased lands. lie must, as we believe, have failed in showing that they had consented to take any such chances or to participate in any such experiment. We therefore put out of view all questions of the legal validity of any such understanding, contenting ourselves with saying we do not find it proved.
Neither do we find that independent of express agreement a case of constructive trust is made out. Such a case must rest upon fraud either actually intended or resulting from a failure to recognize and observe the rules of business integrity. A charge of the kind, especially when made against a near relative who up to the time of making it had heen implicitly confided in, ought not to be lightly made or accepted. All presumptions must be against it. Campau v. Lafferty 50 Mich, 114, 117. Tire accused party in common fairness is entitled to a favorable construction of any conduct reasonably consistent with integrity; and the accusation which might seriously affect his business reputation for life, should not be held proved on facts and circumstances which are merely ambiguous, and may therefore,, if fully understood, be consistent with honesty.
In this case there are some circumstances which standing by themselves without explanation look unfavorable to the defendant. lie did .undoubtedly prospect on the North Cheshire property and acquire a lease of it while managing the Cheshire mine; he expended money on the leased land during that period; he mingled the accounts of expenses with the accounts of the Cheshire mine. But when all the facts appear, the case is relieved of its unpleasant features.
In the first place, on the facts as they appear when all disclosed, the defendant, though manager for all the parties to some extent, was not and had not been in the position of owing to the other heirs the duty to give to the common business all his time. He had some portion of his father’s estate in charge; others of the heirs had other interests in charge in the same way; but we find nothing in the case resembling the employment of agents whose entire time and abilities are paid for while the employment continues. On the contrary we think these parties were fully at liberty to engage in independent employments and ventures of their own, as they undoubtedly all of them did. There was nothing therefore in the mere fact that defendant when prospecting and when acquiring a lease of adjoining lands was manager of the Cheshire mine that could preclude his taking the lease in his own interest.
But in the second place we think the defendant has established the fact that after April, 1880, he understood, and had a right to understand, that the Cheshire mine was apportioned and set-off by agreement from the common property to him; and that this understanding fully accounts for and excuses his mingling the North Cheshire accounts with those of the Cheshire mine, until the following Decejmber, at which time his brother Frank insisted upon and was accorded an interest in the Cheshire mine, when a separation of accounts became necessary and was made. "When thus explained we see that the fact that the accounts were mingled while defendant was thus understood to be owner of the Cheshire mine is not by itself even a suspicious circumstance ; much less a circumstance proving fraud.
But complainants insist that the understanding whereby defendant was to take the Cheshire mine at a valuation of $10,000 was assented to on their part in consequence of false and deceptive statements made by defendant for the purpose •of procuring that property to himself for a very small fraction of its value; that when they discovered the facts they insisted on sharing equally in the mine, and have done so, and that defendant cannot therefore be permitted to retain advantages acquired by him while the understanding which was arrived at only in consequence of his fraud, continued.
But if it be true, as complainants charge, that defendant fraudulently undertook to acquire the Cheshire mine for less than its value, we do not see that the fact aids the complainants in this suit. That fraud was apparently redressed when defendant consented that the Cheshire mine should be held in common by all; and the attempt to perpetrate it cannot by itself work a forfeiture of rights by defendant. If he had before the final adjustment acquired independent interests, he had a right to retain them; and the complainants, in order to establish any rights for themselves in respect to such interests would be under the necessity of laying a basis therefor in contract. But as we have already said, no contract that defendant should obtain a lease of the North Cheshire property in the interest of all is made out; and.we do not think there was even an understanding to that •effect. The defendant made a venture there which proved to be successful, and which for that reason complainants are now desirous to share in ; but it was, perhaps quite as likely -at the outset to prove unsuccessful as thousands of mining ventures in the same region have done heretofore. The mere fact of contiguity to the mining lands owned by the parties in common neither made out against complainants an obligation to participate in the risks, nor against defendant an impediment to taking the venture upon his own hands. Each party was at liberty to act independently of the, other in the matter except as by contract they might agree to joint expen ditures and joint risks, which in this ease we do not find they ever did.
Our conclusion is that this bill so far as it claims rights for complainants in the North Cheshire or Swanzey mine, must fail. Complainants are entitled to a severance of interests in the Cheshire mine, and may take decree for an accounting and a sale for the purposes of a partition if they desire. But we do not think there is any case for a receiver. No allegation of insolvency is made against defendant, and complainants have been satisfied heretofore to leave their interests in his hands. But pending further proceedings, if complainants elect to take them and defendant objects to a receiver, he should not be allowed to charge for his own services.
Defendant is entitled to costs of this Court, but the costs in the circuit court will be left to the discretion of that court, to which the record will now be remitted.
Sherwood and Champlin, JJ. concurred.
Campbell, J. The object of this suit is to reach a leasehold interest in mining property which stands in defendant’s name, but which he is alleged to hold for the common benefit of himself and complainants as partners.
The case contains a great deal of testimony which is chiefly valuable as showing the relations of all the parties arising out of their father’s intestacy. Much of it does not go very far towards settling this controversy, which arises out of a transaction detached for most purposes from all the rest. As connected with a final division of the paternal estate, it has some force.
Complainants and defendant are brothers and constitute all the heirs of James Pierce, deceased, who resided in Pennsylvania and died intestate in December, 1874, leaving a widow still surviving. Among his other possessions was an interest in, and a debt against an iron mine then known as the S. C. Smith Iron Mine, having some collateral and appurtenant interests besides the mining land in Marquette county. Complainant Walter Pierce and defendant were appointed administrators in Pennsylvania, but not appointed in Michigan. The several sons were employed more or less in the management of different classes of property in Pennsylvania and elsewhere for the general account, and in 1877 this mine was put in operation again under the direction of the estate, defendant being manager, with the consent of the widow and heirs. In 1879 the title was purchased for the estate at bankruptcy sale, and was thereafter carried on by the consent of all the parties under the nominal charge of the administrators, and under defendant’s special supervision imtil the distribution hereafter mentioned.
In April, 1881, after a series of propositions and fignrings, a division was got at which was intended to parcel out the estate between the widow and heirs,' and most of the property outside of this mine was set apart in. separate ownership to-the widow and heirs. This Smith iron mine, which had become known as the Cheshire iron mine, was at first in these negotiations set down to defendant, and subsequently to him and another jointly. Finally on a discovery or an alleged discovery that it was more valuable than it had been set down in the estimate, it was concluded that it should be owned by all the sons equally and worked for their benefit as partners under defendant’s supervision. This distribution was completed April 1, 1881, to be retrospective so far as the use and benefit of the various parcels were concerned, so as to give each the profits of such use from the same time in the previous year.
On the 31st day of December, 1880, in pursuance of previous negotiations, defendant took in his own name the option of a lease of an adjoining parcel of mining land, lying north of the mine thus held in common and subsequently called the North Cheshire. He got a lease in due form on the 15th of April, 1882. Complainants claim that this acquisition belongs to the partnership. Defendant claims it as his own.
Some preliminary questions were suggested concerning the title of the principal property and the necessity of making the widow a party. It does not seem to us that any important principle is involved here.- It cannot be claimed that, as Pennsylvania administrators or as administrators at all, the two parties thus designated could have carried on this Michigan mine. They derived their power entirely from the personal consent of the widow and heirs, who were all of age. By mutual consent the widow relinquished all interest in this property and it became the property of the sons, who became partners, but who took the property just as it had stood previously, and were entitled to hold it with all its appurtenances, as they and the widow would have done if no change had been made. It is not claimed by defendant that any other rule was intended. The only contention is whether this North Cheshire property was included.
It is claimed and shown that when the article of distribution was executed defendant asserted his claim to separate ownership of this. But it is also clear that this was -there denied. If it had theretofore been a partnership interest, inasmuch as all these heirs took an equal share in the old mine and kept it in common, this assertion could not change the facts. There was we think nothing at that time which could amount to an acquiescence And in the paper then executed there was no such designation of the Cheshire mining property as would exclude it if really owned together.
Upon this fact there is a direct conflict of testimony. It appears that the original exploration and the working up to the time of the distribution had been with the funds and appliances of the Cheshire Company, although defendant claims he meant and ordered the keeping of the accounts and application of expenses to be kept separate. The actual separation on the books seems to have been made somewhat later, and the accounts for money expended remained open for some time. The houses erected by the Cheshire Company were used for the North Cheshire miners, but defendant claims this was to be made good by rent. There was also some mingling of products which both parties claim as operating differently from each other’s theories. It is also shown that the joint properties would be of considerable service to each other if held together.
In the conflict of testimony as to what was actually intended I am satisfied from a comparison of the whole case that the acquisition of the North Cheshire was first thought •of in connection with the other mine, and that it. was understood among the brothers and by the widow that this was in -contemplation. If so, then the use of the Cheshire facilities and money to obtain and develop it, was the natural result. The whole course of business, including these expenditures and the manner of their first entry on the books, all have some bearing in confirmation of complainants’ testimony.
The case being one of fafet entirely, and the decision below according with what seems the practical understanding and ■conduct of the parties before the full value of the speculation became known, I think it should be affirmed. | [
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Coolet, C. J.
The information in this case charges th'e respondents with claiming and usurping the corporate right, liberty, privilege and franchise known and called “ The Detroit, Grand Haven & Milwaukee Railway Company,” claiming to be organized and incorporated under some act or acts of the territory of Michigan, or of the State of Michigan, without being in fact so organized and incorporated, and also the corporate franchises, liberties and privileges of keeping, maintaining and. operating a railroad extending westward from Pontiac to Grand Haven, and that of levying and receiving tolls and fares from passengers transported on said railroad, and of levying and collecting freight charges for carrying freight in cars upon said railroad, and calls upon them to show by what right they claim to exercise and use such franchises and corporate rights.
The defendants have pleaded to the information, setting out in full the title on which they rely. The title relied upon is as follows :
1. The charter of the Detroit & Pontiac Railroad Company for the building of a railroad from Detroit to Pontiac, which was granted by the territorial council of the territory of Michigan, March 7,1834, under which a railroad company was organized, which completed and put in operation a railroad between the towns named by October 1, 1844.
2. The charter of the Oakland & Ottawa Pailroad Company, gran ted .April 3, 1848, for the construction of a railroad from Pontiac byway of Fentonville to Lake Michigan ; under which a railroad company was organized, the line of the road located and construction begun.
3. An Act of the Legislature approved February 13J1855, whereby the name of the Detroit & Pontiac Pailroad Company was changed to the Detroit & Milwaukee Pail way Company, and the company, for the purpose of forming a continuous line, was authorized to purchase all the rights, property and franchises of the Oakland & Ottawa Pailroad Company. The purchase is alleged to have been made, and thereby the Detroit & Milwaukee Pail way Company became authorized to own, possess, build and maintain a continuous line of railroad from Detroit through Pontiac, and by way of Fentonville to Lake Michigan, and did, under the name last aforesaid, publicly use and exercise said corporate rights, privileges and franchises, and did proceed to complete the building and equipment of such railroad, and did on November 22, 1858, complete, equip and put in operation said railroad, so as to form a continuous line of railroad from Detroit through Pontiac by way of Fentonville to Grand Haven on Lake Michigan, and did thereafter continue to operate the same until it was sold on foreclosure as hereafter stated.
4. It is averred that the Legislature after said Act of 1855 did solemnly, by repeated acts of legislation duly passed by votes of more than two-thirds of all the members elected to each house thereof, recognize, confirm and ratify the said act, and did also recognize and confirm the said Detroit & Milwaukee Pail way Company as a body corporate lawfully organized and existing under the provisions of said act. The subsequent acts are enumerated, and are the following:
(a) “ An Act to authorize the Detroit & Milwaukee Pail-way Company to issue its shares in the kingdom of Great Britain,” approved February 14, 1857.
(5) “ An Act disposing of certain grants of land made to the State of Michigan by Act of Congress approved June 3, 1856,” approved February 14, 1857.
(.a) “ An Act to authorize directors of the Detroit and Milwaukee Railway Company to be represented at board of directors by prttxy,” approved February 3, 1858.
(d) “ An Act to legalize certain loans made by the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company, and to permit further loans,” approved January 29, 1859.
(e) “ An Act to authorize the Detrojt and Milwaukee Railway Company to purchase the property, rights and franchises of the Port Huron & Milwaukee Railway Company,” approved January 29, 1859.
(f) “ An Act to authorize the Detroit and Milwaukee Railroad Company to issue stock in place of the original stock of the Detroit and Milwaukee Railway Company,” approved March 4, 1861.
The plea then avers the borrowing of money in 1855 and afterwards by the Detroit and Milwaukee Railway Company and the giving of mortgages to secure the loans, the foreclosure of certain of the mortgages and the sale of the railroad with its appurtenances on October 4, 1860, to Thomas Reynolds and W illiam Gray, and the subsequent reorganization of the company' by the purchasers under the name of “The Detroit & Milwaukee Railroad Company.” Also a subsequent foreclosure, but of prior mortgages, under Which, on September 4, 1878, the railroad with its appurtenances and franchises was again sold to Samuel Barker and others, who reorganized the same under the name of “ The Detroit, Grand Haven & Milwaukee Railway Company,” and that thereby the said Detroit, Grand Haven & Milwaukee Railway Company became a lawful corporation, possessed of all the franchises and privileges of said Detroit & Milwaukee Railroad Company, and authorized to own and maintain said railroad with its appurtenances, franchises and privileges, and that the respondents have been and are stockholders and directors thereof, and as such they lawfully claim and exercise the franchises in question.
Such is the title upon which the respondents rely. The Attorney General has demurred to the plea, and the case has been brought to a hearing upon the demurrer. The question is whether the title set out in the plea is sufficient. The Attorney General contends that it is not, and points out certain particulars in which it is supposed to be defective.
I. It is said that the Act of February 13, 1855, through which the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company made •claim to the franchises and privileges which had before that date pertained and belonged to the Detroit & Pontiac Railroad Company and to the Oakland & Ottawa Railroad Company, was never constitutionally passed, and therefore never hecame a law at all, but was a mere nullity. The Act was •one purporting to amend or alter a corporate charter, and therefore, under the Constitution (Art. xv., § 8), required the assent of two-tliirds of the members elected to each house. Referring to the legislative journals, thej'- seem to ■show that the affirmative vote in the lower house lacked one of the necessary two-thirds. Consequently, it is said, the Detroit & Pontiac Railroad Company never acquired the franchises of the Oakland & Ottawa Railroad Company, and the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company was never legally organized. This is a somewhat startling proposition, in view of the vast interests that may be affected by its being sustained, and we have listened with great interest to the views which have been presented in its support. And it must be conceded that if we look no further than the act now under consideration, the prima facie case is with the Attorney General. A bill considered in the Legislature, but not constitutionally passed, can never become a law by its being signed by the Governor and published with the statutes. That is too plain a proposition to need argument or illustration.
But it is a surprising 'fact, if the vote was insufficient, that the question of invalidity was not sooner raised. Nothing was better understood at the date of the act in question than the requirement of the Constitution in respect to the amendment of corporate charters: the subject had been largely discussed when the Constitution was before the people for adoption five years before, and the provision on the subject was re garded as of great importance. There was a considerable vote in opposition to the act in question, and if the vote in its favor was insufficient, it seems strange that attention was-not challenged to the fact immediately. It is customary in this State to publish the daily journals of the Legislature in-full, and to place printed copies on the desks of members on the morning of the day succeeding the one whose proceedings they give; and it seems incredible that if a mistake was made in declaring a bill passed which had not received the necessary vote, the mistake should not have been discovered as early as the day following. When the circumstances and the legislative custom are taken into consideration, there is much ground for the suggestion which is made on the part of respondents, that a mistake occurred-in the making up or printing of the journal, aud that the mistake probably consisted in the omission of one or more names in giving the final vote. And plausibility is given to the suggestion by the fact that twelve members of the house are not recorded as having voted at all when the bill was put upon its passage. But we cannot now judicially determine that there was any such mistake: the legislative journals furnish no proof of it, and it remains merely a plausible conjecture. We direct our attention, therefore, to the facts occurring since, and which are relied upon as giving validity to the Act of 1855 even though it may not have been constitutionally adopted.
The subsequent facts to be considered embrace — -first, the acts of the stockholders in the several railroad companies and of other persons done in reliance upon the Act of 1855; and seoond, the acts of the State itself in recognition of that Act. And first, of the acts of stockholders. It appears beyond dispute or cavil that the stockholders in the Detroit & Pontiac and the Oakland & Ottawa Railroad Companies accepted the Act of 1855 and acted upon it as valid legislation; that the one class bargained and paid for the rights and franchises belonging to the other, and the other sold them; that the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company contracted large debts which could have had no validity if the corporation was not lawfully organized; that it assumed to issue and sell "bonds, and to give mortgages for their security, and that it •constructed, equipped and put in operation a railroad from .Pontiac by way of Eentonville to Grand Haven, part of a •continuous line from Detroit to Lake Michigan. It also appears that when the bonds of the company failed to be paid the mortgages were foreclosed, the road and its franchises were sold, as was supposed, and new companies successively •organized by the purchasers to operate the road in reliance upon the franchises. The bonds issued amounted to many millions of dollars; they were sold in the money markets ■of this country and Europe, and bought in the belief that they were entirely valid; the shares of the company sxrpposed to have succeeded to the franchises, rights and property ■of the Detroit & Pontiac Pailroad Company were also, for more than a quarter of a century, dealt in as the shares of lawful corporations possessing the property, rights and fran•cliises which they assumed to possess. These are unquestioned facts.
Next, as to the acts of the State. To understand and appreciate the full significance of these it is necessary to know that the Act of 1855 was not promoted exclusively in the interest of the railroad companies named in it, but the State itself was largely concerned, and expected to accomplish important public purposes by means of it. Twenty years "before that timé the State had planned for the construction of several parallel lines of railroad across the State from east to west, one of which was to be north of the line of the Michigan Central Pailroad, and was expected to be of very high value, not only to all that part of the State through which it would run, but to the whole State. Much disappointment had come from the road not being constructed; and when the Detroit & Pontiac Pailroad Company, which .already had near thirty miles of road in successful operation, and could command means for the construction of more, proposed, on certain terms which were expressed in the Act ■of 1855, to purchase the rights and franchises of the Oakland & Ottawa Company and to extend their own road to Lake Michigan, there is no reason for doubting that the people of the State at large looked upon this as a favorable opportunity for accomplishing a desire which twenty years-before had found expression in the legislation of the State, and which ever since had been kept constantly in view.
Keeping this in mind, we may be better able to understand the significance of subsequent legislation.
The first act thereafter passed which is of importance in-this litigation, was a short Act, approved February 14, 1857, the purpose of which was to authorize the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company to establish an office for the-transfer of its shares in London or elsewhere in the kingdom of Great Britain. Manifestly the intent was to facilitate-the sale of the shares in the money markets of that country.. No question is made of the legal adoption of this Act, but it was idle legislation if the Act of 1855 had no validity.
. The next Act to be mentioned was approved on the same day, and had for one of its objects to confer upon the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company a certain land grant to aid in the construction of a railroad from Owosso to Grand Haven, being part of the line which had been located by the Oak^ land & Ottawa Railroad Company, and transferred by that company to the Detroit & Milwaukee. This Act makes no-reference to the Act of 1855, but it was plainly, so far as concerned this grant, supplemental to that Act, and could not have been more so had it referred to it in terms.
The Act of February 3, 1858, authorizing the directors of the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company to be represented at board meetings by proxy, is only significant as showing continuous recognition by the State of that company as a lawful corporation.
The Act to authorize the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company to purchase the property, rights and franchises of the Port Huron & Milwaukee, approved January 29, 1859, was passed in furtherance of the original purpose of the State that the parallel line of road, north of the Michigan Central, should have an eastern terminus different from that of the latter road. This Act was also plainly supplemental to that of 1855.
The Act to legalize loans made by the Detroit & Milwaukee Kailway Company, which was also approved January 29, 1859, refers to bonds and mortgages issued by the company “ in pursuance of its charter,” and purported to give to it full power to borrow “ such further sum or sums of money as may be necessary to carry out fully the objects and designs of' the charter of, and other acts of the Legislature of the State of Michigan in relation to, the said Detroit & Milwaukee Kail way Company.” But what charter did the company have to which this Act could refer ? The answer, and the only possible answer, is it had none whatever, except the old charter of the Detroit & Pontiac Railroad Company which became the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company by change of name under the permission of the Act,of 1855. This was the understanding of the shareholders, and it was quite as certainly the understanding of the State. 'j
We need not follow this subject further. No one pretends that any of the legislation subsequent to the Act of 1855 was adopted in disregard of constitutional forms. It is indeed suggested that the Legislature -was probably ignorant, at the several times when the subsequent enactments were passed, of the defect in the first act; but no such suggestion is admissible. The foundation of the relator’s whole case is that this Court must take judicial notice of the journals of the Legislature, and of the defect in legislative action which they show. But judicial knowledge is not exclusively for the courts; what the judiciary takes notice of, the Legislature takes notice of also; and the Legislature is just as conclusively presumed to know that a pretended statute was never passed as we are. The case is to be considered, therefore, upon the assumption that the Legislature knew in fact what the members were bound in law to know, and that they acted iu what was done by them in that knowledge.
What is proposed now, in the name of the State, is that the supposed Act of 1855, which is now said to be no legislative act at all, though the Legislature has often and in the most solemn manner recognized it as valid, shall be rejected and declared null. This is proposed to be done, too, under circumstances which would render the consequences appalling. Property to the amount of many millions of dollars, consisting of bonds and other evidences of supposed indebtedness and of supposed corporate shares, would be instantly annihilated, and tangible property to equal value would be left without lawful owner. "Very likely many persons not before us to-day, except by indirect representation, might be reduced from supposed affluence to poverty by such a judgment.
If the Act of 1855 is annulled, nearly all of the subsequent legislation which has been referred to.must fall with it. Much of that legislation was .unquestionably adopted in due form and with competent power; but it would fall because it is in its nature supplementary, and is defective or meaningless except in connection wjth that in reference to which it was enacted. What is asked, therefore, in the name of the State, is not merely that the Act of 1855 should be annulled, but that several other acts should in effect be set aside also. And this may well raise the question whether it is consistent with the honor and dignity of the State that under the circumstances the questions which have been argued should be raised. It has already been seen that- the important public purpose which the State had in view in assenting to the Act of 1855 has been accomplished ; the railroad from Pontiac to Lake Michigan has been constructed and for many years operated, and the State has reaped the benefits. But in order to accomplish this public purpose it seems to have become necessary to put the bonds and shares of the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway Company upon the market as well in Europe'as in this country: the State recognized the necessity, and by its legislation provided for facilitating sales. The bonds and shares were sold to the amount of very many millions; and every purchaser of one of them made the purchase in reliance upon legislation of this State which appeared to sanction if not to invite it. Concede that purchasers were bound to know that the Act of 1855 was a nullity, and it is immaterial to the considex-ation now suggested; for the subseqxxent acts recognized the cox'poi'ation as a lawful body poli tic, the owner of a great railway and competent to contract debts and give mortgages ; and it was these facts which concerned purchasers of bonds and shares, and upon which they relied in buying. For the State under such circumstances to take steps for the annihilation of all these shares and securities by legal decision would have all the appearance of bad faith and of public repudiation of solemn State engagements. The several acts of legislation were not indeed contracts ; but when the State by valid legislation invites the public to make specified investments, it may well be said that its faith is pledged to do nothing on its part which shall have for its purpose to render the investments worthless.
It may be said and is said that there can be no estoppel against the State in respect to such questions; and this is undoubtedly true. It is further said that the questions the Court is called upon to decide are purely legal questions. But when the dignity and honor of the State are involved the Judiciary has them in charge quite as much as either of the other departments of the government: one department as much as another must see that they suffer no detriment at its hands, while it is acting as representative of sovereignty within its constitutional sphere of duty. If therefore the appeal to the Court is to any extent an appeal to the discretion of the Court, it becomes its plain duty to see that when it speaks for the State it shall speak the voice of justice and maintain unimpaired the public faith; and it must do this even though the legislative or the executive departments were demanding something different. But in this case we do not understand that any department of the government has demanded or desired anything different, or that the people or any part of them have any wish inconsistent with public faith and integrity. Questions of a legal nature have for some time been made in respect to some of the legislation which has been referred to, and the Attorney General has thought it wise to bring them to the attention of the Court for settlement. This was very proper, and does not seem to be complained of. At the same time it seems equally proper to the Court that the consequences of a par ticular solution, not only to the owners of shares and securities but to the State itself, should be presented, and that it should be shown that this might possibly be a case in which the argument ab inconvenienti should be conclusive.
' But treating the questions as purely legal questions, unaffected by the considerations mentioned, we should still be of opinion that no case was made by the relator. If we concede that the Act 'of 1855 was not constitutionally adopted, and that for that reason it was a nullity at the time, it will not follow that it has remained invalid to this time. What the Legislature failed at that time to adopt in due form, it had ample power to affirm and validate afterwards if it saw fit to do so. It might have been confirmed by an act of legislation expressly declaring the intent of the Legislature to that effect; but that would be only one method of confirmation. The indirect method, by recognizing and acting upon it as a valid law and inviting others to do so, might be equally effectual. The question of confirmation is not one of form but of the expression of legislative will; and when we find the will expressed in any form of words, direct or indirect, it is sufficient. But the legislative will that the Act of 1855 should stand and have the effect intended in passing-it, has been manifested over and over again during a period of over a quarter of a century, and has not during all that time been in doubt. We must dismiss this branch of the case as requiring no further discussion or consideration at our hands.
II. But another objection is made to the Act of 1855 which goes to its substance. The Act, it is said, is in conflict with that provision of the Constitution which declares that the Legislature shall pass no act renewing or extending a special act of incorporation. Article xv, § 8. The Act of 1855, it is said, undertook to do this,- and as the Legislature could not do it originally, neither could it afterwards confirm and validate the void attempt.
We think the relator misconceives the act. It does not purport or attempt to renew or extend any special act of incorporation. The general purpose is to enable the Detroit & Pontiac Railroad-Company to take a new name, and under such new name to extend its road from Pontiac to Lake Michigan. There was nothing in this opposed to the Constitution either in letter or spirit. And this answers a further objection that the Act of 1855 created a new corporation in violation of article xv, § 1 of the Constitution. ¥e do not so understand it.
III. It is further contended that an Act approved February 10, 1859, under which the railroad company is supposed to have been re-organized after the sales on foreclosure, was without validity for that purpose for the two reasons — -first, that it was without validity when passed; and second, that it has since by implication been repealed.
The Act is entitled “An Act in relation to mortgages against preferred stock in, and the delivery of goods by, railway companies.” Here it is said are two or more objects expressed, and therefore the act is invalid under the Constitution, art. iv, § 20. This is a somewhat technical objection, and we are not disposed to consider it after this great lapse of time. But it may be proper to remark that the Act did not bring together subjects totally foreign to each other. The whole Act concerned railways ; and if it can be considered a technical disregard of the Constitution, it was probably inadvertent.
The repeal of the Act is supposed to have been accomplished either by the amendment of the General Railroad Law by an Act passed in 1872 (Sess. L., p. 83), or by the general revision of that law in 1873 (Pub. Acts, p. 496), both of which covered the same general subject. But we do not agree in this. Those acts must be understood to refer to companies organized under the General Railroad Law, while the Act of 1859 evidently had other companies in view. It speaks of railway companies' — a term not made use of in the general law, but which the company succeeding the Detroit & Pontiac had taken as a part of its new name.
It is suggested rather than urged that the Legislature had no constitutional power to pass the Act of February 10, 1859, as applicable to chartered corporations, because the effect was to create new corporations with the old chartered powers. But the purpose of the act was to permit the creditors of chartered corporations to enforce their demands by a sale and transfer of the franchises; and this would be impossible if the sale were of itself to operate as a destruction of the franchises. The Act merely gave a remedy for the enforcement of debts; and as franchises were to be sold for,the satisfaction of debts, it provided a method whereby they might be kept alive.
¥e have now considered the questions raised, so far as seems necessary to a determination of the main ■ question whether the defendants are guilty of the usurpation charged upon them, and are clearly of opinion that they are not. It may be proper to refer to the case of Cook v. Detroit, Grand Haven & Milwaukee Railway Co. 43 Mich. 345, in which the validity of that corporation was indirectly recognized, though importance is not attached to it except as a part of the public history of the company.
The demurrer is overruled, and judgment must be entered for respondents.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
Plaintiff sued defendants in justice’s court, and declared against them in trespass “for that the defendants heretofore, to wit, on the 22d day of July, 1882, at the township of De Witt, in said county, went into the dwelling-house occupied by this plaintiff, in the township and county aforesaid, and then and there, without any leave or license whatever from this plaintiff, then and there took the goods belonging to this plaintiff and carried them out of said house into the highway, and damaged this plaintiff in a large sum, to wit, one hundred dollars; and then and there, with force and arms, put this plaintiff out of said dwelling-house, and caused her to spend time and money to procure another house, and to pay for teams and rent,” etc. To this declara tion the defendants pleaded the general issue, with notice that on the trial the title to land would come in question, and gave bond for the transfer of the cause to the circuit court under the statute. It was certified to that court by the justice accordingly.
On the trial it appeared that defendants, at the time of the alleged trespass, were acting in the service of a writ of restitution for the removal of Julian Love and his family from the dwelling-house in question, and the deliver-y of possession to Elbridge G-. Wood. Plaintiff in this suit was at the time staying in the house with the family of Love, and was removed with the family. This was the trespass complained of. Defendants appear to have regarded her as a visitor in the family, and as having no other right to remain there than Love himself. Plaintiff, to show that she was not there in the right of Love, put in evidence certain deeds of the land on which the dwelling-house stood, from the heirs of one Gribbs to herself, her counsel saying: “ I propose to put in the title that she claims to be in possession under, and I also propose to show by her that she was there by permission of her sister, who owned the land, and that she was living there by her sister’s permission, so far as that is concerned, and all the claims she had for being there she got from her sister, except the title she had; to show title to the land; to show that she did not hold under Mr. Love; that she was acting under her own independent rights.” When the deeds were actually put in evidence, however, counsel disclaimed an intention to prove title, and stated that he proved them “ for the purpose of proving a right of possession there.”
The verdict in the case was for the defendants, and on moving for judgment the question of right to costs arose. Under the statute, the defendant in justice’s court who fails to give notice and file bond, as was done in this case, is precluded in his defense from all evidence drawing in question the title to lands (How. Stat. § 6894); but if he gives such notice and bond, and the title, on the ease being certified to the circuit court, is found not to come in question, he must pay costs, whatever may be the disposition of the case on the merits. How. Stat. § 6897.
It is very evident that in this case the defendants had reason. to expect that the title would come in question on the trial. The plaintiff claimed occupancy of the dwelling-house by the declaration, and she had deeds purporting to convey . the land on which it stood. There would therefore have been no safety in the defendants proceeding to trial in the justice’s court, and there is a manifest hardship in their case if they were to be compelled to litigate in the circuit court at their own expense, even though the merits of the case were with them. But this the plaintiff claims they must do, as she disclaimed proof of title by her deeds; and the circuit judge assented to this view, and gave judgment for costs to the plaintiff.
¥e think this was erroneous. The offer of the deeds by the plaintiff, whatever-counsel may have said at the time, .had no other purpose than to prove some sort of right to the land in the plaintiff; the offer was meaningless on any other supposition. Now, whether the right was a mere right of possession, or on the other hand was the complete ownership, it was title of some sort; and it was immaterial for the purposes of this statute what it was. If plaintiff relied upon any rights whatever in the dwelling-house, of which the deeds could be proof, she put title in question when she introduced the deeds in evidence. And she would just as much put it in question by setting up ownership in her sister, and claiming possession in her right. It seems, however, to have been upon her own deeds that she was relying; and these could have been of no service to her in any way except as they might give her at least an apparent right of some sort in the land.
The defendants are entitled to costs of all the courts, and judgment must be entered in this Court accordingly.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Ciiamplin, J.
This is an action of trespass brought by plaintiff against the defendant before a justice of the peace. The trial resulted in a judgment for the plaintiff from whicli defendant appealed to the circuit court, where the cause was tried before a jury and resulted in a verdict for plaintiff for nominal damages. The defendant brings the case here upon writ of error.
Exception is taken to the ruling of the circuit judge in refusing permission to defendant to amend his plea, which was the general issue interposed in justice’s court by setting up title to the locus in quo in himself. The ruling was correct.
If the defendant wished to interpose the plea of title he should have done so when issue was joined before the justice. Neglecting to do so the issue in the circuit must be the same as that tried before the justice. The gist of the action was therefore the injury,to the plaintiff’s possession.
The plaintiff and defendant were in possession of adjoining lots. The plaintiff called as a witness a surveyor who testified to making a survey and marking the boundary line between the lot of plaintiff and defendant, and plaintiff testifies he built his fence a part of the way on this line. The defendant produced as a witness another surveyor who testified to making a survey and marking the division line between the lots in question. This survey brought the division' line some fourteen inches further north than that made by the other surveyor, and upon the land claimed by plaintiff. Both surveyors claimed that they measured from the original survey of the plat and testified fully as to the manner in which their surveys were made. It appears from the testimony that the defendant’s house is built so near his north line that the drip from the eaves falls upon plaintiff’s land six inches from the line of defendant’s survey, and by plaintiff’s survey twenty-four inches. The defendant’s wife in his presence tore down the fence built by plaintiff, and defendant then proceeded to built a fence upon the line located by his surveyor, and thereupon plaintiff brought this action.
The questions involved were those of fact and depended upon the correctness of the respective surveys. The judge submitted the questions of fact to the jury and instructed them that if they found the plaintiff’s survey the correct one then their verdict should be for the plaintiff; but if they found the defendant’s survey to be Correct they should find for the defendant.
Two questions were submitted to the jury: First, “ Do the eaves of defendant’s house drip on plaintiff’s lot; and if so, how much ?” They answered, “ Yes; twenty-four inches.” Second, “How many inches do defendant’s house and fence encroach upon plaintiff’s lot?”- They replied, “Fourteen-inches.”
The defendant’s counsel requested the court to charge the jury that eaves projecting beyond the line cannot, under the circumstances of this case, constitute a trespass, which the court refused. This was error; but this error does not call for a reversal of the judgment on this ground, for the reason that it was an error which did not result in injury to defendant. The verdict was for six cents nominal damages; and if on the other facts in the case the verdict can be supported, it should not be disturbed. These facts the jury have found in plaintiff’s favor by their answer to the second question. The other errors assigned are not well taken and are overruled.
The judgment.is affirmed. '
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Sherwood, J.
This action was brought to recover the contract price of a twine self-binding harvester, under an order of which-the following is a copy:
“Walter A. Wood Mowing & Rearing Machine Co.,
80 Taylor Street, Chicago, Ill.
I hereby order one Walter A. Wood Twine Self-binding-Harvester, 5 feet 6 inches cut, to be delivered atPetersburgb, Mich., care of O. H. Russell, on or before J uly 15,1883, for-which I agree to pay you the sum of $78 in Junior Reaper, and in manner as follows: The balance, $147 cash, with • freight from Petersburgh, on or before September 25, ’83,. with interest at 7 per- cent, per annum from the date of delivery of machine or commencement of harvest. If paid on or before maturity no interest to be paid.
Warranty. This -machine is warranted to be well made.. ■of good materials, and with proper management capable of cutting and binding in a workmanlike manner, doing the-binding at least as well as is usually done' by hand. The-purchaser shall be allowed one. day’s use to give the machine a fair trial, and if it should not work well immediate written-notice must be given to the agent from whom it was purchased, and reasonable time allowed to get to it and remedy the defects, if any (the purchaser rendering necessary and, friendly assistance), when, if it cannot be made to do good work, it shall be returned to the place where received free of charge, and the payments of money or notes will be-refunded. Failure to give notice as above shall be deemed -conclusive evidence that the machine fills the warranty,, whether it is kept in use or not.
[Signed] Fred. Gaertner, Purchaser.”
The declaration was special upon this instrument, with-the common counts added. Plea, general issue. The case-was tried before the court without a jury, and under special findings of fact and law judgment was rendered against the defendant for the sum mentioned in the order, and interest. The case comes before us on error, the record containing apparently all the testimony and the findings of the circuit judge. It is unnecessary for us to consider the findings further than to ascertain what judgment was rendered. The court held upon the trial in admitting the testimony that no agreement made or understanding had between the parties at the time the order was given, could be shown, upon the ground that it would be varying the terms of the written contract. This ruling might very easily prevent showing the entire failure of the consideration upon which the order was given for the machine, and thereby defeat the very contract which was made for its purchase and which constitutes the ground of defense in the'case. The law will not tolerate such injustice.
In this case the defendant proposed to prove that it was a part of the consideration for which the order was given, that this plaintiff should, at the time of the delivery of the property ordered by defendant, furnish a man to set up the machine and make it work in the manner prescribed in the order. This the court refused to permit, and the defendant excepted. This was error. Defendant also proposed to show that it was the custom of the company, on all sales of such machines by plaintiff, to furnish such a man and do such work. This was also refused by the court. We think this was error. If such was the fact it constituted a part of the contract, and a correct understanding of the same could hardly be obtained without that condition in some way appearing. The above facts were proposed to be proved in connection with the fact that the company failed to perform its agreement in that regal'd. We think the case falls within the rule laid down by this Court in Phelps v. Whitaker 37 Mich. 72, and in Weiden v. Woodruff 38 Mich. 130.
The judgment must be reversed and a new trial granted.
Campbell and Champlin, JJ. concurred.
Cooley, C. J. concurred in the result. | [
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] |
Champlin, J.
On the 21st of February, 1884, complainant filed a bill of complaint against defendants, alleging therein that he is a creditor of the Prentiss Lumber Company, a corporation organized under Act 187 of the Session Laws of 1875, by filing articles of association on the 20th of March, 1882; that defendants Prentiss, Eeid and Billings were its stockholders and first directors; that soon after their formation the corporation became the owner of certain real estate, and also a large amount of other property connected with its business; that it carried on its business up to or about September 7, 1883; that on or about January 30, 1883, it filed its annual statement showing total assets of $210,127.91, and total liabilities of $86,261.10; that about the middle of June, 18S3, the company, through its president, said George Prentiss, represented to complainant that it was the owner of a large amount of real and personal property and worth over and above its liabilities $150,000, and that all the property he, Prentiss, formerly owned, and was in any way connected with said business belonged to the corporation, which was then doing a successful business; that relying upon these representations complainant then sold to the corporation lumber of over the value of $4200 on three months’ credit; that within sixty days Prentiss informed him that the directors of the corporation had mortgaged the entire property of the corporation to certain of its creditors, leaving a large number ■of its creditors, including complainant-, unsecured, but assured him that there was abundant property belonging to the corporation to pay all its debts; that the directors have the books and records of the corporation in their possession and refuse complainant access to the same; that the corporation is insolvent, and has been for a long time; that it has no one honestly looking after it's affairs; that Prentiss and Eeid •are engaged, and have been for several months past, in disposing of the corporate property in their own interest; charges ■on information and belief that they have taken within six months large quantities of lumber belonging to the corporation, and shipped the same to Ohio, where they have* started a lumber-yard; that they have invested money belonging to the corporation in pine lands, taking the title in their own ■or others’ names, and also charging them with selling and converting, other specified property to their own use, of the value of $10,000 or upwards; that the real estate has been mortgaged for over $130,000; that none of the mortgages can be foreclosed in time to interfere with the use of the mill for the sawing season of 1884, and offering to pay $6000 for the use of the premises for the sawing season of 1884; that February 18, 1884, Eeid and Prentiss, assuming to act for the corporation, by quitclaim deed conveyed the mill premises to defendant Churchill; that this conveyance is a fraud upon complainant and the other unsecured creditors of the corpor■ation, and that Churchill participated in the fraud, and received the conveyance upon some secret arrangement between the parties by which the use of the mill was to inure to the benefit of Prentiss and Eeid; that no actual consideration was paid, and that Prentiss and Eeid are insolvent; that the conveyance was not made in the' course of business of the corporation, and is void fpr want of authority in said Prentiss and Eeid to make the transfer; that Prentiss and Eeid should be removed from the office of directors of said corporation, and the deed to Churchill canceled, and that all alienations of property made by the said directors contrary ■to law be set aside, and said directors account for their official misconduct, and pay to the creditors all sums of money and the value of all property that they may have acquired, to-themselves or transferred to others, or that may have been lost or wasted by any violation of their duties as directors, and that the said stock, property, things in action and effects-of said corporation be sequestered and a receiver appointed, of the same'.
In addition to the foregoing, the bill contains the statements and charges of a judgment creditor’s bill, and also the appropriate prayer for such bill, including the requisite prayer for a receiver and injunction. It requires the defendants to-answer under oath. The defendants appeared and filed separate demurrers to the bill.
While these demurrers were pending and undisposed of,, the complainant moved on the matter of the bill, unsupported by affidavits, for the appointment of a receiver. In opposition to this motion the defendants filed the affidavits-of the 'defendants Billings, Eeid, Prentiss and Churchill.
These affidavits deny the allegations of the bill with reference to the fraudulent disposition of the corporate property, as well as the representations alleged to have been made to-complainant. They do not deny the statement made in the bill that the defendant corporation is, and for a long time-past has been, insolvent, but Billings says “ that to the best, of his knowledge the Prentiss Lumber Company has no assets,, money, property, debts or choses in action, or equitable interest of value, which can be applied iii the extinguishment of complainant’s judgment.” Eeid says “that the PrentissLumber Company has no equitable interests, things in action or other property, exclusive of all prior just claims thereon,, which complainant could not discover and reach by execution, of the value of five hundred dollars, or of any other-value;” and he “denies that said corporation has now, or had when said bill was filed, any money, legal or equitable claims or demands, due it from different persons, and that it has a large amount of real estate, contracts in lands, and other interests, legal and equitable, in real estate, boats and. vessels, or any interests in the property conveyed to the-defendant Churchill, or that it has money and other personal property.” Prentiss “ denies that said Prentiss Lumber Company has equitable interests, things in action or other property, of the value of upwards of five hundred dollars, or any value, exclusive of all prior just'claims upon the sariie, which complainant could not discover and reach by execution on his said judgment.”
None of the affidavits deny the regularity or validity of complaigant’s judgment or the return of the sheriff that the defendant had no goods, chattels, land's or tenements whereof he could cause to be made the residue of the damages and costs, according to the exigency of said writ.
On the hearing of the motion the court made the following order:
“The motion for the appointment of a receiver in this cause having come on to be heard, and .solicitors for the respective parties having been heard thereon, now, on motion of Turnbull & Dafoe, solicitors for the complainant, it is ordered by the court that Charles B. Greely be, and he is hereby, appointed receiver of all the property, equitable interests, things in action and effects of said Prentiss Lumber Company, a corporation, one of the above-named defendants, belonging of in any way appertaining to said defendant [said corporation] at the time of the commencement of this suit, to wit: on the 2d day of February, A. D. 1884 (except such as are exempt by law under the statutes of this State, if any), and vested with all the rights and powers of a receiver in chancery, upon the .filing with the register of this court a bond for the faithful performance of his duties as such in the penal sum of five thousand dollars, and the approval by this court.
And it is further ordered that said Prentiss Lumber Company and its proper officers assign, transfer and deliver over to said receiver, on oath, under direction of the court or the judge thereof, all and singular the property, real and personal, of or belonging to said corporation, said defendant and the said Prentiss Lumber Company, its officers and agents, forthwith surrender and deliver to said receive]- all the assets, materials, tools, machinery, fixtures, effects and property of every description, nature and kind of or belonging to .said Prentiss Lumber Company; and also all money, drafts and bills of exchange, cheeks or other evidence of indebtedness- due and owing to said Prentiss Lumber Company, as well as all books of account, books of record of said corporation, accounts, deeds, bonds, mortgages, certificates of stock, vouchers and papers of every nature and description belonging to said corporation, and that said receiver, or either or any of the parties to this cause, have leave to apply to the court from time to time for such further order or direction as may be necessary.”
The receiver qualified and the Prentiss Lumber Company appealed.
Jurisdiction is conferred upon the court of chancery in behalf of a creditor who has obtained judgment at law, and who has been unable to collect the same upon execution, in whole or in part, to compel a discovery of any property or things in action belonging to the defendant, and of any property, money or things in action due to him or held in trust for him, and to prevent the transfer of any such property, money or things in action, or the payment or delivery thereof to the defendant, except where such trust has proceeded from some person other than the defendant. How. Stat. § 6614. The next section provides that the court shall have power to compel such discovery and to prevent such transfer, payment or delivery, and to decree satisfaction of the amount remaining due upon such judgment out of any property, money or things in action belonging to the defendant, or held in trust for him — with the exception above stated — which shall be discovered by the proceedings in chancery, whether the same were originally liable to be taken in execution or not, except property exempt from execution.
These provisions relative to judgment creditors were originally adopted into our statutes from those of the state of Kew York. 2 Hev. Stat. tit. 2, pt. 3, art. 2, §§ 38, 39. The construction given to the law and practice in such cases by the courts of that state is therefore entitled to great weight. Under the practice of the court of chancery of New York state, if the equity of the bill filed by judgment creditors after the return of execution unsatisfied was not denied upon the application, it was almost a matter of course to appoint a receiver, pending the litigation, to preserve and protect the property for the benefit of whoever should bo entitled to it under the decree of the court. Osborn v. Heyer 2 Paige 343; Bloodgood v. Clark 4 Paige 574; Fitzburgh v. Everingham 6 Paige 29; Bank of Monroe v. Schermerhorn Clark Ch. 214. Under a similar statute the court of chancery in New Jersey held the same doctrine. Fuller v. Taylor 2 Halst. Ch. 301. The same practice prevailed in suits by judgment creditors in the English courts of chancery. Middleton v. Dodswell 13 Ves. 266. It is the duty of the complainant who has obtained an injunction in such suit to apply for a receiver without delay. Osborn v. Heyer and Bloodgood v. Clark supra; Philips v. Atkinson 2 Brown C. C. 272; Read v. Bowers 4 Brown C. C. 441; Waters v. Taylor 15 Ves. 10.
If the case is a proper one for a receiver, the denial by the defendants that the corporation has any property or effects of any kind is no bar to the exercise of the jurisdiction. If the denial in this respect ultimately proves true, the defendant is not injured and the complainant proceeds at the peril of being obliged to pay costs. This was the principle laid down in the foregoing cases in New York, and in Fuller v. Taylor supra.
That a judgment creditor’s bill can be maintained under the foregoing provisions of the statute, there can be no doubt. A corporation is treated as a person, and the statute prescribing the rules for the construction of statutes provides that the word ‘ person ’ may extend and be applied to bodies politic and corporate, as well as to individuals.” How. Stat. § 2, subd. 12. This construction is consistent with the manifest intent of the Legislature, and has been applied in many instances to corporations as falling naturally within its scope.
It is proper to consider other provisions of the statute with reference to judgment creditors of corporations. How. Stat. •ch. 281, § 3, [§ 8150] enacts that the circuit court within the proper county shall have jurisdiction over directors, managers, trustees and other officers of corporations, and over any persons who may have held such offices in any corporation, provided that proceedings are commenced within one year after they have ceased to be such directors, managers, trustees and other officers:
First. To compel them to account for their official conduct in the management and disposition of the funds and property committed to their charge.
Second.. To decree and compel payment by them to the corporation whom' they represent, and to its creditors, of all sums of money and of the value of all property which they may have acquired to themselves or transferred to others, 01-may have lost or wasted by any violation of their duties as such directors, managers, trustees, or other officers. * * *
Seventh. To set aside all alienations of property made by the trustees or other officers of any corporation contrary to the provisions of law, or for purposes foreign to the lawful business and objects of such corporations, in cases where the persons receiving such alienation knew the purpose for which the same was made.
Eighth. To restrain and prevent any such alienation in cases where it may be threatened or there may be good reason to apprehend that it is intended to be made.
Section 5 enacts that the jurisdiction conferred in the third section of the chapter shall be exercised as in ordinary cases on bill or petition, as the case may require or as the court may direct, at the instance (among others mentioned) of any creditor of such corporation; and section 6 provides:
“Whenever a judgment at law, or a decree in chancery, shall be obtained against any corporation, incorporated under the laws of this State, and an execution issued thereon shall have been returned unsatisfied in part or in whole, upon the petition of the person obtaining such judgment or decree, or his representatives, the circuit court within the proper county may sequestrate the stock, property, things in action and effects of such corporation, and may appoint a receiver of the same.”
These statutes are in pari materia and must be construed together. The bill in this case is framed, not only as a judgment creditor’s bill in the ordinary signification of that term, but it is framed to invoke the jurisdiction conferred by chapter 281. The stock of an insolvent corporation constitutes a trust fund for the payment of its creditors. The same has sometimes been said with reference to the other property of an insolvent corporation. Among the creditors of such corporation equality is equity. The statute recognizes this maxim and declares that the court shall, upon final decree, cause a just and fair distribution of the property of such corporation, and of the proceeds thereof, to be made among the fair and honest creditors of such corporation in proportion to their respective debts. Any creditor of the corporation is entitled to come in by bill or petition and establish his claim and share in 'the assets, and this he may do, although the bill is not filed in behalf of all creditors or of such as should come in and share the expense.
The statements in the bill amply sustain the jurisdiction of' the court; and although the affidavits of the defendants deny all fraud and misapplication of the funds of the corporation, they fail entirely to deny the main facts which entitle the complainant to the relief afforded under that statute. They do not deny the obtaining of the judgment, and issue and return of the execution unsatisfied in part. They do not deny that the corporation is insolvent. They do not deny that it ceased to carry on its business more than four months previous to the filing of the bill; although there is a qualified denial of this fact in the affidavit of Mr. Prentiss. He says that he “ denies that said company ceased to do business more than four months ago.” But he immediately proceeds to show his meaning of such denial by saying: “ but says that said company has been closing up its affairs, reducing its assets to cash and paying its creditors as rapidly as it can.” He also says “ that said corporation was unable to carry on the business of manufacturing lumber at its said mill during the coming season for want of available capital.” So it may safely be said that the allegation that the corporation had ceased to carry on business for more than four months stands uncontradicted.
The affidavits of the defendants show affirmatively that the defendant corporation is proceeding, through its officers, to convert its assets into money as rapidly as possible, and to pay off certain of its creditors. It being insolvent, such action must result in the payment of some to the exclusion of others. Such conduct in behalf of its officers, although legal and proper before a bill is filed against it by a judgment creditor whose execution is returned unsatisfied, becomes improper after the filing of such bill. From that, time no unsecured creditor is entitled to a preference over others. The object of the statute is to bring all the property of a corporation so circumstanced within the control and disposition of the court, to the end that it may be distributed equally and ratably among all the honest creditors of the corporation. According to the affidavits of the defendants they have used all diligence to convert the assets and apply them to the payment of the creditors of the .corporation, but whether to the secured creditors or to the unsecured they do not say; and with such diligence and dispatch have they prosecuted this object that they swear that the corporation has now no property, equitable interests or things in action remaining, exclusive of prior just liens thereon, which can be applied to the payment of complainant’s debt.
The defendant, however, insists that a receiver will in no case be appointed when the issue stands on demurrer, and Cook v. Detroit & Milwaukee Railroad Co. 45 Mich. 453, is relied upon as supporting that position. The facts in that case were different from those in the present one. The receiver in that case was appointed ex parte while the issue stood upon demurrer. The defendant was exercising its corporate functions and conducting its business as usual. The court below decreed on this ex parte application that the stock, property, things in action and effects of the defendant “ be and the same hereby are sequestered,” and it not only appointed a receiver without giving the defendants an opportunity of be. ing heard, but decreed a sequestration of the railroad company’s property. Courts of equity are always averse to appointing receivers upon an ex parte application without notice to defendants whose rights are to be affected. It must be an extraordinary case which would justify such appointment ex parte, and some special circumstances must be shown to exist which would render it necessary to put a receiver in possession of the debtor’s property to prevent irreparable loss: Sandford v. Sinclair 8 Paige 373; the rule being that a receiver will not be appointed before answer unless it appears that there is danger to the property or fund by the insolvency of the party having possession of it, or from some other cause; but when justice requires it, and the merits appear to demand it, upon the hearing of which due notice is given, one will be appointed. West v. Swan 3 Edw. Ch. 420; Vann v. Barnett 2 Brown C. C. 158; Metcalfe v. Pulvertoft 1 Ves. & B. 180.
In Howard v. Palmer Walk. Ch. 391, the order for a receiver was granted on a special' motion of which notice was given to the defendant’s solicitor, who did not appear to oppose it. The case stood upon demurrer; and the court held that the demurrer was no objection to granting the order; that if the defendant had appeared and opposed the appointment on that ground, the court would have looked into the pleadings to see whether the demurrer was well taken, and if it had any doubt on the question, would have ordered the motion to stand over until the demurrer was disposed of.
In reviewing the action of a circuit judge in appointing a receiver two things will be considered: First, whether the discretion vested in him has been abused ; and second, whether a right has been impaired by such appointment.
It is not easy to prescribe limits to discretionary action. There are however certain general principles by which its exercise is governed. As a general rule, it would be safe to say that when insolvency is alleged, and not denied upon the hearing of the application, and it is made to appear that there is danger that the assets will be misappropriated or wasted, a receiver should be appointed.
In this case, as before stated, the insolvency charged is not denied, and the bill of complaint makes a strong case of misappropriation, which I think the circuit judge was warranted in regarding as not overcome by the affidavits. If the defendant could be permitted to keep on converting the assets and applying them to the payment of secured or favored creditors, it may well be that when final decree was rendered there would be nothing to distribute among the fair and honest creditors of the corporation in proportion to their respective debts, as contemplated by the státute.
Neither do I see that any substantial right has been impaired by the appointment. Ordinarily, the control and management of the affairs of a Corporation will not be taken from its authorized officers before final decree; yet circumstances may exist where it may be proper to do so, and place the property in the hands of a receiver pending the litigation. This, I think, is such a case, and warranted the court below in placing the property, if any remained, in the custody of a receiver pending litigation. If there was in fact no property left to pass to the receiver, no rights can be affected. The appointment is made for and on behalf of all parties interested, and not for the benefit of the complainant or defendant merely. It determines no rights; it merely secures the property for the benefit of those who shall appear entitled to it. The affidavits filed in opposition to the motion fail to show that the corporation is engaged in carrying on its business, but do show that it is closing up its business, and is unable to carry it on for want of available means. The order of the court was made upon notice and after full hearing, and I can see no good reason for reversal.
The order appealed from is affirmed with costs, and the record remanded for further proceedings.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
The plaintiff, a brakeman on the road of defendant, brings suit for an injury received by him while-coupling cars. The injury happened to him while in the discharge of his duties as brakeman, and under the general principle that the servant takes upon himself the risks incident to his employment, the defendant is not responsible unless his case is brought within some recognized exception to the principle.
To make out an exception the plaintiff avers that at the time of the injury the engineer and fireman in charge of the locomotive of the train “temporarily left their respective posts for some purpose unknown to the plaintiff,” and that the conductor, who was without competency for the purpose, undertook to take the place of the engineer, and ordered the plaintiff to make a coupling. It was while-he was obeying this order, and while the conductor was managing the engine, and in consequence of the conductor’s unskillfulness, that the plaintiff, as he avers, was injured. The order, it is said, was wrongful under the circumstances, and though the plaintiff, under the decision in Chicago & N. W. R. R. Co. v. Bayfield 37 Mich. 205, was excusable for obeying it, yet he did not, while obeying it, take upon himself the incidental risks ; such risks not being within the contemplation'of his employment.
The Bayfield case seems to us altogether different from this. There a common laborer on a railroad was ordered by his superior to perform the duties of a brakeman, and while doing so was injured. He was ordered into a different service to any in which he had ever engaged; and the order was plainly wrongful. But in this case the plaintiff was put to no new or different service, and the only complaint is that in the very service he agreed to perform he was exposed to a risk not properly belonging to it, and therefore not contemplated by his contract of service.
The risk was certainly unusual, and probably not in the minds of either party when the plaintiff was employed ; but that fact would not of itself determine the responsibility. Accidental injuries are often — perhaps most generally — the results of unexpected causes ; but if these causes arise in the course of a servant’s employment, he must be deemed to have assumed their risks. And the only question there can be in this case is whether the plaintiff was ordered to do something which under the circumstances was outside of his employment, so that, had he been inclined to do so, he might rightfully have refused obedience to the order. And this, as it seems to us, must depend upon whether, when the contingency appears to the conductor to render it necessary, that official may for the occasion take charge of the engine, and at the same time require the brakeman to continue to perform his service. •
That contingencies may and do arise in which the conductor should take charge of the engine for the time, is undoubted. The necessity may sometimes be as urgent as it is plain ; and lives may depend upon it. This might happen from injury to the engineer, or sudden illness; and when to leave the train where the disability of the engineer occurs would endanger some other train. But there might be other reasons for the engineer leaving his post, for which the company would not be in fault, and the conductor, with the train in his charge and under obligation to avoid other trains, must act in the emergency as the necessities of the case shall require. His highest and plainest duty in some circumstances will be to take possession of the engine and operate it. And it cannot be possible that when such is his duty the brakeman may rightfully prevent its performance by refusing to remain at his post.
In this case the plaintiff says the engineer and fireman temporarily left their posts for some purpose unknown to the plaintiff. It is not charged that they did so with the company’s consent, or that there was any wrong connected with their leaving for which the company was responsible. Suppose they had gone off on a strike; may other persons employed on the train refuse to assist in moving it out of the way of other trains ? Surely this question must be answered in the negative.
If under any circumstances the conductor may rightfully take charge of the engine, this suit must fail, as there is no allegation in the declaration to show that in this case he was not justified. And he being the person responsible for the safety and management of the train, must be allowed a certain discretion in deciding upon emergencies, and the presumptions must favor his action. And when he acts rightfully, it is contemplated in the employment of his subordinates that they, within their several spheres, shall assist him.
That there is nothing in the Bayfield case which in the opinion of the judges who decided it, conflicts with this view, is apparent from the case of Greenwald v. M. H., & O. R. R. Co. 49 Mich. 197. In that case a fireman was ordered to perform the engineer’s duty, and while doing so an injury occurred to a brakeman, for which suit was brought. The Chief Justice, speaking for the Court, said the order “was a proper one beyond question and the case was disposed of on that assumption. But as respects the propriety and rightfulness of the order, that case stands upon exactly the same ground with this.
The case of Houston &c. R. Co. v. Myers 55 Tex. 110: s. c. 8 Am. & Eng. Ry. Cas. 114, is directly in point here. That case differs from this only in the fact that it was the fireman and not the conductor who was managing the engine, and who was alleged to be incompetent for the duties of the engineer. A brakeman who was injured while the fireman was thus in charge, brought suit against the railroad company, but was held not entitled to recover. The judge of the Superior Court took the same view of this case, and we think his judgment should be affirmed.
The opinion of this Court in Detroit Savings Bank, v. Zeigler 49 Mich. 157: s. c. 1 Am. & Eng. Corp. Cas. 333, contains much respecting mutual assistance by subordinates in special cases, that applies with force to the case of servants in various capacities on a railroad train.
Campbell, J. concurred.
Champlin, J. The plaintiff was a brakeman in the employment of defendant, and while so employed met with the injury complained of. He sued defendant to recover damages therefor, and filed the following declaration :
“ Henry S. Hodman, plaintiff herein, who is a resident of the city of Detroit, by Conely, Maybury & Lucking, his attorneys, complains of the Michigan Central Hailroad Company, defendant, a domestic corporation, which is also a resident of said city of Detroit, defendant herein, of a plea of trespass on the case, filing this declaration, entering rule to plead, etc., as commencement of suit:
First. Eor that, whereas, heretofore, to-wit, on the 17th day of November, 1882, the said defendant was owner and operator of a line of railway between Detroit, Michigan, and Chicago, Illinois, which railway passes through the city of Niles, Michigan, and the said plaintiff was an employee of defendant, and engaged as a brakeman on one of its freight trains, on the said day, and his train reached Niles on said day, and the conductor in charge of said train was one Frank Matteson, the agent of the said defendant, and said conductor had charge of said train, and command of the other employees of said defendant on said train, including the said plaintiff.
And while the said train was at Niles, as aforesaid, the engineer and fireman in charge of the locomotive of said train temporarily left their respective posts for some purpose unknown to plaintiff; and the said conductor ordered tliis plaintiff to make a coupling of the car at the end of one portion of the said train to a car standing on a side track, said locomotive being attached to said portion of said train ; but this the said plaintiff at first did not do, because of the absence of said engineer and fireman. But the said conductor himself undertook and attempted to fill the place of said engineer and direct the operations of said locomotive, and he peremptorily ordered this plaintiff to make the said coupling ; and the said plaintiff, in obedience to said repeated orders, and not voluntarily and willingly, undertook and attempted to make such coupling, and in so doing, while himself exercising the utmost care and prudence, the plaintiff’s right hand was caught in the draw-bars and badly smashed and injured, and so much injured that it became necessary to amputate the index and middle fingers of his said right hand, and they were so amputated in consequence thereof ; and he was by said injury caused great pain and suffering, and he was put to great expenses about his cure, for care, nursing, physician’s services and the like; and he was for a long time disabled by such injuries from attending to his ordinary occupations, and will for a long time continue to be, to-wit, during his natural life-time; and he was and is and will be otherwise sick, sore, lame and disordered.
And the plaintiff avers that said injuries to him aforesaid were directly caused by the said superior officer of plaintiff, the said conductor, compelling plaintiff to take the said risk as aforesaid, and by the unskillful manner in which the said conductor operated the said locomotive'and directed its movements; and the said conductor had not the skill and experience in operating a locomotive requisite for the occasion, and was not a fit and competent person to direct and control the said locomotive engine while plaintiff was making the said coupling; and it was because of such want of fitness, competency, skill and experience on the part of said conductor so attempting,- as aforesaid, to manage and direct said locomotive that plaintiff was injured as above set out, the said injury having been caused by the sudden, jerky, plunging movements of the train propelled by said locomotive.
And plaintiff was himself free from negligence in respect to the cause of said injury, whereby an action hath accrued to plaintiff and against defendant to plaintiff’s damage two thousand dollars, wherefore he brings suit.”
The defendant filed a general demurrer, which was sustained by the court, and final judgment was rendered in favor of defendant.
It was implied, as apart of the contract between the plaintiff and defendant, that the trains upon which the plaintiff was employed to do the service required of a brakemañ should be run and operated by an engineer possessed of the requisite skill and experience for the position while he should be engaged in the performance of his duties 5 and while the train should be so run and operated he assumed all the risks incident to such employment, but he did not assume the risks incident to such employment should the engine be run and operated by a person without skill or experience, for this would be to put him in a situation of greatly increased periL and risk of personal safety in the performance of his duties.
In this case it is alleged in the declaration that the conductor was the agent of defendant, and had charge of the train and command of the other employees of defendant on the train, including the plaintiff. He was put, therefore, by the defendant in his place to discharge the duty which the defendant owed to the plaintiff, to see that the employees of the defendant were discharging the respective duties required of them, and in the discharge of this duty the conductor was not a co-servant but the representative of the defendant, who in that respect is bound by the act or omissions of the conductor the same as though such acts had been done or omitted by defendant personally. And the defendant having placed the conductor in a position of authority over the plaintiff and' other servants, and made them subject to his direction and control, while the defendant is not chargeable for the consequences of directions given by such superior officer within the scope of the general employment, he is chargeable to plaintiff for an abuse of such authority as much as he would be to a stranger. Wood Mast. & Serv. §§ 438, 439, 450, and cases cited in notes.
Suppose the conductor had ordered a day laborer or an entire stranger to take the place of the engineer during his temporary absence, and through his negligence, carelessness and want of skill plaintiff had received the injury complained of without fault on his part, it would have constituted such an abuse of authority as to render the defendant liable. It was likewise an abuse of his authority in the conductor to order the brakeman to couple the cars in the absence of the engineer, while he himself being a person unfit, incompetent and lacking the requisite skill and experience, attempted to manage and operate the locomotive engine in making such eonpiing.
By the exercise of his authority the conductor ordered the plaintiff to perform services of increased peril not contemplated by his contract with defendant. The case is no different from what it would have been had the defendant been a natural person, and without possessing the requisite skill and experience and being wholly unfit and incompetent, had himself undertaken to run and manage the engine, and had at the same time ordered the plaintiff to couple the cars, and the injury had resulted in consequence of the want of fitness, competency, skill and experience of defendant. The defendant is equally as liable for the acts of his agent, the conductor, as if they were his own, when such acts are an abuse of his authority, or where he stands in place of the defendant.
What was said in the Bayfield case is equally pertinent here, namely: “ When one person engages in the enjoyment of another, he undertakes to obey all lawful orders, and he subjects himself for any failure to do so, to the double liability of being expelled from the employment and of being required to pay damages. It is true the master had no right to direct him to do anything not contemplated in the employment, but when one thus contracts to submit himself to the orders of another, there must be some presumption that the orders he receives are lawful, the giving of the orders being of itself an assumption that they are lawful; and the servant who refused to obey would take upon himself the burden of showing a lawful reason for the refusal.” Chicago & N. W. Ry. Co. v. Bayfield 37 Mich. 210. The principles laid down in that case rule this. Both are based upon an abuse of authority; and as was said in that case, “ It is .in general no excuse to the employer that an injury which has occurred was caused by disobedience of his orders, whether they be express orders or implied orders. He assumes the risk of such disobedience when he puts the servant into his business; and the reasons for holding him responsible for the servant’s conduct are the same whether the injury results from a failure to observe the master’s directions, or are from neglect of the ordinary precautions for which no specific directions are deemed necessary.”
In the Bayfield case the excess or abuse of authority consisted in directing a common laborer to perform the duty of a brakeman, which was a more perilous duty than that for which the servant had contracted. In this case the abuse of authority consisted in the twofold act of ordering the plaintiff to couple ears in the absence of an engineer, and in attempting to run and manage the engine, being entirely unfit and incompetent to perform that duty, and the liability results from the combined act and order of the conductor.
The judgment should be reversed, the demurrer overruled, with leave to defendant to plead in twenty days from the time of notice of filing the remittitur, and the cause remitted to the court below for further proceedings.
Sherwood, J. concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
Plaintiff, as widow of William Wheeler, deceased, sues for her dower in land of which defendant holds a clear record title in good faith and for value and is-entitled to the equities of his predecessors. Her claim is that her husband once owned the land, and that she never parted with her dower. The court below decided in her favor.
On the trial, to make out her case, she showed a deed, given in 1865 by John P. Mason to her husband, under which they went into possession. This deed was never recorded. It was subsequently given up by surrender in writing, with directions in writing to the vendor to convey to Andrew Ely,— which he did. This conveyance was made subject to a mortgage referred to in .it, given by Wheeler to one Nye, which the vendee was to pay, and which is not now outstanding. A subsequent deed was made, subject to a mortgage to Wheeler? concerning which there is no question, as it came from the record owner.
It is claimed by plaintiff that defendant, by reason of these -references, had notice of Wheeler’s title, and therefore of such claim as plaintiff had as dowress. It appears, however, that she and her husband both left the premises at or about the time when he relinquished his deed; and there are some other facts connected with their relations which might perhaps require attention if defendant stood in a different position. He is only informed, therefore, constructively of what appears in his deed and the chain of title. There is nothing in these papei-s which indicates that Wheeler ever owned the legal title, and nothing which would warn a purchaser of anything but Nye’s rights, and of those there is no controversy.
But plaintiff insists, and so the court below seemed to consider, that a right of dower has some preference over other rights under our land laws. The statute in regard to unrecorded deeds (How. Stat. § 5683) makes them void as to subsequent bona fide purchasers whose deeds are first recorded. This is defendant’s position. Whatever plaintiff’s rights may have been, they depend solely on the unrecorded deed to her husband. Hnderthe statute defendant’s honest purchase, made under previous bona fide purchasers, left this precisely as if it lia.d never existed. We can see no possible reason for ingrafting on this statute an exception which is at variance with its language, and at variance with the plain purpose of ¿he law, which is to give honest .purchasers a right to rely •on the record.
This makes it unnecessary to consider the important and interesting questions lying outside of the record title, and we •shall not discuss them. In our opinion the court below should .have directed a verdict for defendant.
The judgment must be reversed and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, O. J.
The able and ingenious argument made by ‘the counsel for the principal defendants in the original suit ;and the complainants in the cross-suit, has failed to satisfy us ■that there is any equity in the case set up for his clients.
The original bill is filed to foreclose a mortgage given by defendant Martin L. Sweet on certain premises in Grand Rapids. It was a purchase-money mortgage, and was given May 1, 1874. The purchase price of the premises was •$21,000, of which $2000 was paid at the time, and the mort•gage now in suit given for the remaining $19,000. Possession of the premises was immediately given to the purchaser, and has been held by him ever since. A brick store was upon tbe premises, and also other buildings, and improvements have been put upon these since the purchase, at the discretion of the purchaser. Payments have also been [made upon] the mortgage from time to time, the last of which was made September 13, 1880 — six years and four, months from the time of the purchase. After this payment Sweet refused to pay any more, claiming that the purchase was forced upon him by duress, and demanding that it be rescinded. He also claimed that he was entitled to rescind because of breaches of the covenants of seizin and against incumbrances contained in the deed of the premises to him. Haldane, who was the vendor and mortgagee, refused to rescind, and filed his bill to foreclose the mortgage. The crossrbill was filed by defendants to set aside the purchase.
The alleged duress rests upon the following allegations: Sweet, previous to the purchase, was owner of a valuable brick hotel in Grand Kapids, situate in the same block with the store of Haldane. The street in front of both, and the cellars in the block were liable to be flooded at the time of spring freshets by the overflow of Grand river, and the common council of the city decided to raise the grade of the street. Sweet deemed it advisable that his hotel should be raised at the same time, and sent to Chicago for an expert to consult with on the subject. The expert came on and examined the premises and reported that the whole block, as far as and including Haldane’s store, ought to be raised together, because the buildings had common walls, and one could not be raised by itself without cutting the end off from the party wall between it and the next. Sweet thereupon went to Haldane and asked him to unite in having the buildings all raised together, the only other party concerned having already agreed to do so. Sweet claims that Haldane assented to this, and that he then went on and incurred expense in getting ready for the raising, but that afterwards Haldane notified him he should not raise his building, but only elevate the lower floor. This is claimed to have been in bad faith, and for the purpose of compelling Sweet to purchase, or lose his expenditures. Meantime the danger of a spring freshet was imminent. Hnder these circumstances negotiations for a purchase were entered upon, and finally completed as before stated. Sweet claims that he only made the purchase under the compulsion which has been stated above, and that the price he was to pay was considerably more than the value of the premises.
• Haldane denies having made any agreement to raise his-, store before the negotiations of purchase, and denies all bad faith, and claims that the price was not unreasonable. A great mass of testimony has been taken on these subjects, but we do not think under the circumstances wé are called upon to attempt to settle the issue of veracity between these parties.
Certain prominent facts in' this case are too plain to be overlooked, and they are decisive. Conceding, for the purposes of this case, that the facts set up by Sweet would have- made out a case of legal duress, so that he might, if he had proceeded promptly, have had an equitable claim to have the purchase rescinded, it is very clear that by his subsequent conduct he has waived any such right. For more than six years before making any complaint he has dealt with the property as his own ; raising the building, and changing it at discretion, leasing it to tenants of his own selection, and for such business as he saw' fit to allow to go into it; irrespective altogether of any wishes Haldane may have had on the subject, and making payments in recognition of the válidity of the purchase. Meantime it appears that the two persons who, next to the parties to this suit, must have known most, about the original transaction, have passed away by death, so that it has been impossible to obtain their evidence, and the court that should endeavor on this record to determine the questions of fact upon which the'parties differ, could feel no assurance that the means of forming a correct judgment were afforded it.
It is impossible to sustain such a defense under such circumstances. It would be grossly inequitable to permit it to be entered upon at all. The laches is conclusive. The duress, if there was any, was a' species of fraud, and should have been complained of promptly, while the facts were fresh and the witnesses were living. To attempt an investigation of the facts now might be to enter upon inquiries which, with the imperfect lights at our command, would lead us altogether astray and result in gross injustice. This is not to be sanctioned. Sweet, by his long acquiescence and by his acts of affirmance, has sanctioned what was done, even if at the time he might have been entitled to relief. This is all we need to say on this branch of the ease.
The alleged breaches of covenant in the deed of conveyance are shortly disposed of. The premises, it is said, were incumbered at the time of the purchase. The incumbrances consisted of two public or semi-public alleys, and of certain leases of the buildings or of parts of them, and of a right of way. ■ As to these leases, it appears they wei-e turned over to Sweet, who has had the benefit of them. It is very plain, therefore, that he is in no position to make any claim on equitable grounds as regards the leases. The alleys were open to observation at the time, and he must have known all about them and bought with them in mind. If they constituted a technical breach of covenant, they certainly present no equitable claim to.-a rescission of the purchase.
It is further said that Haldane’s title was defective; and Sweet has bought in the name of another person a right which he alleges was outstanding in third persons. Upon this we have only to remark that these persons do not appear to have been asserting title, and their right is at least doubtful. Under the circumstances Sweet should be left to his suit on his covenant.
The only error we discover in the record was in not awarding costs to Mrs. Sweet. She was made a party to the original suit, though she had not signed the mortgage. This was proper enough, because she had an interest in the question whether the mortgage was in fact a purchase-money mortgage, so that its foreclosure would cut off her right of dowei-. But the subpoena in the case served upon her should have been underwritten with a notification of the purpose of, the suit, so as to save her the necessity of giving any attention to the case. [Chancery Bule 122.] It appears that she appeared and filed a disclaimer, to which replication was unnecessarily interposed. When the cas.e was dismissed as to her after-wards, costs to the extent of a solicitor’s fee should have been given her. The decree will be modified in that regard, and in all others affirmed. Mrs. Sweet will be allowed a solicitor’s fee in this Court.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Sherwood, J.
The plaintiffs were partners and owners of a certain steam-tug, and with it were engaged, during the season of 1883, in towing logs and timbers and doing other tug work on Burt lake, Indian river and Mnllett lake, which are navigable waters, the lakes being connected by the river, which is about six miles long. On the 4th day of May of that year the defendants Nelson, Smith and Bailey had each a drive of logs in the river in the orders named, commencing at Burt lake, and each party had a boom stretched across the river at the end of his drive, and the defendants had one also in front of their drive and just above the mouth of the Sturgeon river, kept there to enable Nelson to run his logs out of the Sturgeon river into Indian river. On the 4th day of May, 1883, the plaintiffs desired to take the tug through to Mullet lake, where they had work engaged for her, and requested the defendants to open their boom and allow the boat to pass down to the lake. This defendants refused to do, and threatened the plaintiffs if they attempted to remove the boom, and prevented them from going further down the river. The plaintiffs claim that in consequence of such refusal and the obstruction to navigation caused by*the defendants, they were deprived of the use of their boat five and one-half days, to their great damage, for the recovery of which this action on the ease was brought.
To the plaintiffs’ declaration the defendants pleaded the general issue. A trial was had at the Cheboygan circuit, by jury, before Judge Hamsdell, and a recovery of sixty dollars was obtained for the plaintiffs. All the testimony is returned in the bill of exceptions. Two of the exceptions taken were to the rulings of the court on the admissibility of the testimony. I do not think these rulings are open to the criticism made by defendants’ counsel, and the court committed no error in overruling them.
The circuit judge gave the jury the following instructions, among others:
“ That the Indian river in Cheboygan county is a public highway, in which all persons have equal rights to pass and repass, and to navigate the same with boats, vessels and saw-logs and other floatable property; that the plaintiffs could not dictate to the defendants, nor fix the time when they might enter that stream with their drive of saw-logs; that the rights of defendants in the river and to use it as a public highway are equal to those of plaintiffs. The rights of all persons therein are equal for all reasonable purposes, and vessels have no greater rights than saw-logs. Each person has the right to the legitimate use of the stream, using reasonable care, and though he unavoidably impede or obstruct another temporarily, no action can be maintained. If defendants’ logs were detained in the stream by reason of Nelson’s, Thompson Smith’s and Bailey’s logs being in the stream ahead of them, blocking up the river, and defendants moved their logs as soon as they reasonably could after the obstruction of the other logs was removed, no action can be maintained, and the verdict of the jury should be for the defendants. No man can'be punished in damages for an enjoyment of his undoubted rights, when he acts reasonably and with prudence. Injury alone will not support an action on the case. The injury must be coupled with a wrong, and if the act be not unlawful in itself, then, unless done in a manner, at a time, or under circumstances which render it wrongful, there can be no liability for any injury that may result. In this case, in case the jury should find for the plaintiffs, the verdict should only be for the plaintiffs’ actual damages by the detention, as appears from the evidence in the case.”
In addition to the above, the court charged the jury that “the defendants had no greater right to cut the booms holding the logs of Nelson ‘and Bailey than the plaintiffs had, and unless the defendants by some force or means prevented them doing so, the defendants are not liable for the detention caused by Nelson’s and Bailey’s logs and booms; that is, if you should find from the evidence that the detention was caused by Nelson’s and Bailey’s logs, and not by defendants.” The exception to this last charge was not well taken. It was very proper under the testimony contained in tile record. It was certainly as favorable to defendants as the circumstances would permit. There was testimony in the case tending to-show that had the defendants’ boom been opened and -the tug allowed to pass down the river among the logs, it would have made its way through in a few hours, and there is no testimony showing that if defendants had allowed the tug to pass their boom, those below would not have been opened for it.
Defendants further asked the coiirt to charge that “ if the jury find from the evidence that the plaintiffs aided the defendants, by the use of their tug and men, in filling the stream with logs and creating the obstruction complained of, the plaintiffs have no right of action, and the verdict of the jury should be for the defendants.” This was refused, and the court stated that “the evidence is, the plaintiffs were employed by the defendants, and while so employed put the logs in the river by the order and direction of the defendants. The putting in was lawful.” To the refusal, and to this statement made by the court, exception was taken. There was no error committed in this ruling. The only wrong attributed to the plaintiffs, and which it is alleged contributed to the injury complained of, was their assistance rendered in placing the logs in the stream. The wrong, if any, was not-in the defendants placing the logs in the river. This they had the right to do, and employ whomsoever they pleased to-assist them in doing it; and those who assisted committed no unlawful act. The wrong complained of is the placing of the boom across the river and holding the logs in such manner as to completely obstruct and prevent the passage of the plaintiffs’ tug for an unreasonable length of time, to their injury. This the defendants could not do without incurring liability to the plaintiffs. These remarks apply with equal force to the defendants’ ninth request, which was also properly refused by the court.
The court gave the jury the following charges, as requested by plaintiffs’ counsel:
“First. If you find from the evidence in the case that Indian river is a navigable stream where the plaintiffs’ tug was, and that the defendants, or any of their employees who had charge of and were running logs for them, needlessly obstructed the navigation of the river so as to prevent the plaintiffs from passing along the river with their tug for the purpose of navigating said river in prosecuting their business as tug-men, then the plaintiffs are entitled to recover.
Second. If you find from the evidence in the case that Indian river is a navigable stream, and that the defendants’ employees maintained a boom across said river, which boom obstructed the navigation of the river, and thereby prevented the plaintiffs from navigating the said river with their tug, the plaintiffs are entitled to recover the damages they have sustained thereby.
Third. Lumbermen or persons running logs cannot by custom acquire the right to 'obstruct a navigable stream by maintaining a boom across the river so as to prevent the passage of vessels along said river, and if they do so they are liable for the proximate damages occasioned thereby.”
It is conceded by counsel that Indian river is a navigable stream. The first two requests, taken together, do no more than submit to the jury the wrongful acts of the defendants in the use they made of the river, and I do not think they are exceptionable. The charge contained in the third request was correct. I know of no law authorizing or tolerating a custom which would allow the defendants wrongfully or negligently to completely obstruct a public highway or a navigable river to the injury of any person entitled to the free use thereof. The great inconvenience to the public which would necessarily result from the application of such a doctrine is the best refutation that can be made to its legal existence, and it is unnecessary to consider it further.
The remaining question in the case claiming attention is the right of the plaintiffs to recover their costs, which was permitted at the circuit, the judgment being for less than $100. We think the ruling of the circuit judge was right, and full costs were properly allowed to the plaintiffs. The case falls within the first clause of How. Stat. § 8964. The obstruction of the river complained of in the plaintiffs’ declaration was clearly a private nuisance as well as a public one, and in such case the statute referred to may be properly applied. The record shows a fair trial and no error, and
The judgment should be affirmed.
The other J ustices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
Complainant having filed a hill of divorce alleging marriage and various acts relied on as statutory-grounds of cruelty, and abandonment without provision, defendant put in a plea denying the marriage, and issue being joined on this, complainant prevailed and the case was ordered to proceed to answer. Defendant appeals.
The bill avers a regular marriage in Sandwich, Ontario, on May IT, 1881, both parties living in the township of Spring-wells near Detroit, and a reason for marriage in Canada being stated to be a desire to keep it from the knowledge of defendant’s family. It is set out that they at once assumed and continued (marital relations, first in his house, then in her father’s house in Springwells and in the town of Yan Burén, and lastly, from the fall of 1882 until some time in March, 1883, on Spruce street, in the city of Detroit, where they kept house until he abandoned her. It also avers the birth of a son in the spring of 1882, and that at the Spruce-street house she was induced, for the purposes of concealment before mentioned, to assume the name of McDonald, although informing other people that Cross was her husband. The bill finally sets up attempts by defendant to induce complainant to give the child away, and .afterwards to get her to charge the paternity upon a gentleman in Belle-ville, which was finally done by a paper which she was deceived into signing by the effect of wine and of misrepresentation as to its contents, but which she repudiated when discovered.
The plea being a deniál of an essential part of complainant’s case, the burden was on her to prove the marriage to the satisfaction of the court, in accordance with the allegations. The testimony was all taken before a commissioner, and both parties were sworn, complainant’s personal testimony being objected to as unwarranted, but no objection being taken to defendant’s. No testimony was taken in open court.
As complainant comes before the court asserting herself to be a married woman, and was sworn without defendant’s consent, she was within the prohibition of Comp. L. §4772, of the divorce law as amended in 1883 (How. Stat. § 6260), which declares that parties shall only be examined in open court. If not married she has no case, and she cannot be sworn under claim of being married, in violation of the statute. Defendant’s testimony is not objected to, and could not be ruled out on this preliminary question without deciding it against him. Any admissions made by either would stand on a separate ground.
No marriage certificate is shown, and no proof was made of the Canadian marriage, either by the persons said to have been present at it, or by documentary evidence from the officer, or from any Canadian record. No mention is made of the name of the magistrate or of the witness, and no difficulty seems to be alleged and none definitely proved as to getting direct proof, if it existed. The laws of Canada have not been proved, to show whether a justice could marry parties there. The bill does not purport to rely on any but a valid Canadian marriage. She claims to have been engaged a year, but no proof except hers is introduced to show it.
If we could look at complainant’s testimony, it shows no more than the appearance of the parties before a respectably appearing man called a justice, and a witness, with no mention of'their names, or other means of identification, and no tangible reason why such names can not be given, and no statement why, if unknown, they were not learned. This would be very unsatisfactory evidence in any case; but, leaving it out, there is no proof at all of the Canadian marriage, or of any definite marriage at any ascertained time or place.
Reliance is, however, had — although such is not the theory of the bill — on a common-law marriage by consent and matrimonial conduct, and this is sought to be proved by acts, repute and admissions.
If any such marriage existed, it is still claimed to have been at the time mentioned in the bill, and there is no attempted proof of any other. All the alleged acts and admissions are made significant only as retrospective.
This makes it proper to consider the surroundings. Previous to the spring of 1881 defendant was keeping house over his butcher shop, with several children, mostly grown up, or nearly so, including a son and various daughters. There is some not very clear testimony about a housekeeper who had some peculiar difficulty with him, either before or afterwards, or both, but who was not in the house during complainant’s sojourn. Defendant was a dealer in cattle and meat. Complainant came into his house and employ in some capacity, apparently as housekeeper, early in the year, and in the lodging arrangements complainant lodged with the daughters, defendant had a room by himself, and his son and a hired man another. This arrangement continued precisely after as before the alleged marriage, so long as complainant remained in the house, which was until September. Her parents lived quite near, and had a large family, housed about as closely in a few rooms as defendant’s inmates.
There is no testimony but complainant’s which has any tendency to show that during this period, from the alleged marriage to the return to her father’s, complainant and defendant had any marital relations whatever, or were supposed to have. According to the theory of the bill the marriage was to be kept from the family, and any publicity would prevent this. But if complainant’s story is to be looked into, it indicates that there were acts not seriously sought to be concealed which would indicate the reverse of honest relations to any one not informed of a marriage, with no question or allusion on the part of daughters whose character is not impugned on the record. Without other proof of marriage these relations do not lead to evidence of it.
In September complainant left her alleged husband’s house and went back to her father’s. The reason she gives is a dispute with defendant’s son, not quite grown up, about the pay of her brother for wages. That a wife should leave her husband’s house on any such account, with no grievance against her husband and no assertion of wifely character, is not a natural course, and this is a circumstance bearing against any inference of marriage from conduct and surroundings, unless explained and aided by more definite proofs. Defendant’s claim is that slie never was in his house except as in service, and that she left because her employment was terminated.
All the remaining testimony for complainant is made up of conduct of defendant and repute.
From September, 1881, she lived at her father’s, a few rods distaut, and in March her father and his family went back to Yan Burén, where they had formerly lived, and she went with them and remained till November, 1882. A child was born to complainant in April, 1882, seven months or thereabouts after she left defendant’s house.
There is testimony from her father and mother, and some other relatives, that during her stay at her father’s, Cross lived there a good deal of the time and treated complainant as his wife, and that she was addressed in his presence as Mrs. Cross. There is also some testimony of his admissions of marriage. He did not go with her to Yan Burén, and is not shown to have been there to reside, but there is evidence of several persons of his treatment of her as if she were his wife, and his recognition of the child. There is, however evidence that the question of whether they were married or not was mooted even before the alleged marriage, by reason of her being in defendant’s house, and that the same discussions kept up until and after the birth of the child, and that it was then questioned seriously. All of the testimony concerning the open recognition is hardly to be reconciled with the allegations in the bill concerning a desire to keep the matter concealed from defendant’s family or his former housekeeper, and any mastery on that account was evidently useless and uncalled for. The contradictions and anomalies in the testimony are very considerable. And the facts concerning the residence on Spruce street cannot be explained consistently with much of the remainder of the case. The statements made by complainant were not uniform. Her name she gave to various persons as McDonald. It does not appear that Cross was ever called by any but his true name. She called him at times her brother-in-law, and at others explained to the land lord’s wife that he was her husband, but they wished to keep the marriage secret from his children. But the testimony of her parents, if true, showed that he had gone openly with her from his own house, in the fall of 1881, to live with her at her father’s, near by, where his children could not possibly have been ignorant of it. It also appears from her father’s testimony that at the' time she occupied the Spruce-street house Cross told him she had gone away to visit friends West, and that he did not ascertain her real whereabouts for some months. Whatever the facts may have been, it is apparent that there was no time when these parties seem to have lived in such a way as to remove doubts and questions about their relations, and that more or less falsehoods and mystifications were purposely maintained. Both parties have made statements which do not impress us as credible. We have no doubt relations of some intimate character did exist through a considerable period, at times, if not continuously. But we do not feel convinced from any of the oral testimony that they were marital relations.
In the conflict of witnesses there is one class of testimony which should be reliable, if genuine. The complainant avers the existence of numerous documents in the shape of letters and other papers, but produces only two. The defendant also relies on some papers. These will require attention.
In her testimony complainant stated that at the time of her Sandwich marriage defendant wrote upon a paper the day of the week and date of the marriage, and his and her name^ with some verses, and gave it to her; that she put it away and had seen it within a month or two before testifying, and then saw it was an old paper and soiled, and did not think it of any account and took no care of it. She had said she had no other marriage certificate, and it is strange and unfortunate that such a paper, if existing, should have been treated so carelessly. But before the ease was ended she produced another paper, dated May 21,1881, four days after the alleged marriage, which is of the same purport and is as follows (except as to orthography): “ Springwells, May the 21,1881. Compliments of your husband Donald Cross, to his wife Mrs. Sarah Cross, of Springwells, Mich.”
This is definite and would be almost conclusive if genuine. Out of many letters spoken of, one is produced, dated at Springwells on the 5th of some month not named, in 1882, which complainant says was brought her by her brother while in Nan Burén. It is signed with defendant’s name, and contains affectionate expressions and calls her wife and himself husband. These papers were produced at a late-stage in the testimony. She explained the delay by a statement that defendant had her things and she did not know where they were. The testimony on this is not very clear. These are the only specimens of his handwriting in the case, except some writing put in and made before the commissioner at the request of complainant’s solicitor, for comparison.
Defendant put in evidence an affidavit sworn to by complainant before a notary in Detroit, who is a member of the bar, dated March 7, 1883, and charging a person in Nan Burén township as father of her child. This document is genuine, but complainant says she was deceived as to its contents. There are also some genuine signatures made by herself during the examination and .on the record, and some letters which she denies, and the writing of which is the subject of other proof. One of these letters, marked Exhibit D, is dated a few days before the affidavit, and while it sets forth in a natural and somewhat pathetic way her troubles, is entirely inconsistent with marriage, although indicating former relations of another character.
The testimony of all the witnesses who know defendant’s handwriting is positive that the exhibits laid to his charge are not in his handwriting. The specimens about which there is no dispute do not at all resemble them. On the other hand, it is equally clear, from a comparison of papers, that the letter and writing charged to him and the letters and other papers charged as hers, are from the same hand, and contain some very singular peculiarities which are found in her genuine and undisputed handwriting. Among these, which are numerous in the longer documents, are the writing tlie word “ Cross ” with two short final letters, instead of a long and short one always found in his signatures as known, and writing the letter u with but a single plain mark nearly like an r. The capital W made by her is peculiar, and is identical in all the papers, both those laid to him .and those laid to her. The identity in preparation of the disputed documents on both sides is manifest on even a slight comparison, and becomes plainer by a close one. There is a uniform use of peculiarly shaped letters seldom formed as they are formed here. There is uniformity in a somewhat peculiar way of writing some capital letters. The word “thought” appears in both sets of letters beginning with an h crossed to stand for th. The letter Jo is written in both in a singular and uniform shape. These resemblances are too numerous and too exact to be accidental, and it is impossible not to see that they are all from the same source. Either Cross wrote the papers he lays to her, or she or some one who copied the style of those papers wrote those laid to him which, as already suggested, were not introduced until his documentary proofs were in and had been in for some time.
It is worthy of note that while complainant in her testimony denies that she wrote the most significant of these letters, Exhibit D, she says that she has seen it before and knows who wrote it, but fails to name the writer.
TJpon a review of all the testimony bearing on the question of handwriting and the genuineness of the disputed documents, we are satisfied that complainant wrote the papers which purport to have been written by her. And we are also satisfied from the testimony that she signed the affidavit referred to, voluntarily and with full knowledge of its contents. "We are also satisfied that the papers laid to defendant are not genuine.
We cannot avoid the conclusion that whatever these parties may have done to keep up appearances, neither of them ever supposed they were married. Their relations were evidently more intimate than those of unmarried persons should be, but they did not produce, even among strangers and other third persons, any general conviction that they were husband and wife. The real question is how they themselves regarded their relation, and reputation is only important as circumstantial evidence of this. But here the reputation was always doubtful, and the conduct of the parties such that nothing but complainant’s claim that the marriage was to be kept private could account for it all consistently with such a relation. We make no allusion to some portions of the testimony not bearing directly on the fact of marriage, except as to the probability arising from the personal character of the two parties, as we think it unnecessary.
In our opinion the complainant has failed to pi’ove mai’riage, and the plea denying it is made out.
As costs in equity are not of absolute right, we are disposed, in view of the relations between these parties, to leave both 'to pay their own costs in both courts.
The decree must be reversed, and the bill dismissed without costs to either party.
The other Justices concuxTed. | [
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Cooley, O. J.
This case was tried in the circuit court on appeal from commissioners. The claim was for the board and care of the decedent for nearly six years immediately preceding his death, which took place August 15, 1882.
It appeared in evidence that the claimant in 1876 was living on a small place owned by herself, and was earning her living by cleaning house and doing other similar work for her neighbors. She bad no family, and decedent had a mortgage of three hundred dollars on her place. Decedent had children, but for some reason he went to board at the house of the claimant. lie was then eighty-six years of age or thereabouts, and he continued to reside there till the time of his death. There was no evidence in the ease to show the understanding on which he went there. It appeared that he took a horse and a cow there, and there was some evidence that the cow was given to the claimant; but this appears to be left uncertain. It also appeared that he frequently brought groceries and took there; that he had wood, corn and pork drawn there; and it did not appear that he left at his death any account of these things against the claimant. He also, it would seem, gave the claimant a sewing-machine. In December, 1876, he loaned her two hundred and twenty dollars, for which she gave him a note which remained unpaid at his death. There was evidence that after he had lived at her house some years he said, referring to the mortgage which he held upon her place,, that he was staying there to pay the mortgage, and there would be enough coming from him to cancel it at his death, and he would cancel it at once were it not for his family. In May, 1881, the promoters of a railroad scheme desired a right of way through the claimant’s land, and claimant said she would give it if decedent would release his mortgage. He made inquiries to satisfy himself that she would have the benefit of the release in case he gave it, except as to the right of way, and haying made sure of that, he gave the release. It was testified that the right of way was worth twenty dollars.
The claimant did not cease her work for others when decedent went to live with her, but she appears sometimes to have given up jobs on his account. She gave evidence that it was worth from five to eight dollars a week to board and care for him, and the evidence on the other side tended to reduce this estimate very considerably. The défense offered evidence that when claimant first presented her demand to the commissioners she charged at the rate of three dollars and a half a week, only. This was excluded.
The plaintiff claimed to recover on a quantum meruit, on the theory that there had been no understanding between the parties in respect to compensation. The theory of the defense was that the parties had been living together on the terms that each was contributing to the support of the other, and making no charge for what was done or furnished. If the jury should not accept this theory, it was then claimed that the defense should be allowed whatever decedent had furnished to the claimant,'as a set-off against her claim.
When the case went to the jury the trial judge was requested by the defense to give the following instructions:
“ The jury are instructed that the fact, if it is a fact, that during afi the time decedent boarded and lodged at the claimant’s house no claim or demand was made upon him for the claim here in suit, or any part of it, is a circumstance tending to show that the alleged indebtedness does not exist; and that circumstance should be considered by the jury in-determining their verdict.
If the jury find from the evidence in the ease that the claimant furnished decedent with board, lodging and attendance, as claimed, and that decedent furnished such groceries, provisions and similar articles for household use, and that he furnished such wood and fuel as were needed for the same, then they are at liberty to infer from such evidence that the articles so furnished by him were an equivalent for the board, lodging, attendance, etc., furnished by her; and if they so find, then she cannot recover in this action.
If the jury find from the evidence that the mortgage mentioned in the evidence was not, in fact, paid by the claimant, but was discharged by the decedent in consideration of the relations existing between the parties, or in consideration of such board, lodging or attendance, then the amount of the mortgage should be set off against any claim proved in her favor in this action, less the damages she sustained by reason of releasing the right of way to the railroad company.”
All these requests were refused. In his general charge the judge said to the jury among other things the following:
“ Something was said upon the argument by counsel about one side furnishing provision and the other work, and neither side could recover. That is what is called a community of interest. That question does not arise here before you at all. There is no evidence of a community of interest in this case whatever. The evidence on both sides shows to the contraxy.
In cases of this kind where pex-sons are not related to each other, if one person does anything for another, the law presumes an implied promise to pay. Therefore if you find from the evidence that this old gentleman went to live with this woman at her house, and'she fux’nished him with pi’ovision and cai’ed for him, etc., then the law implies that he promised to pay her for it a reasonable compensation — whatever it was worth under all the circumstances.
Now in detennining the question as to what it was worth, and as to the amount of offsets the old gentleman has given her, the pei'son of all others in the world who could have told the story just as it was is precluded by the statute from giving in her testimony unless the other side consents to it, which they have not seen fit to do in this case; therefore Mi’s. Ludlow, the one who knows more than anybody else, is px-ecluded by the law from giving in her testimony, while the children and grandchildren, and children-in-law and cousins on the other side, equally intei’ested in the money as the old gentleman himself, are allowed to come in here and testify.”
And refen'ing to the offset claimed by the defense he said:
“ Now an offset has to be proved precisely as a claim would be if it was sued by a plaintiff, and evidence which would not support a claim if it had been sued will not support an offset. Therefore the court and juxy are not at liberty to guess at an offset in trials between parties; the offsets must be proved. If a plaintiff sues a man for twenty articles he must specify the articles, and must prove that he had the articles and the value of the articles; the juxy are not permitted to guess at the articles nor the value of the articles.
They must prove them precisely the same as if they had been sued by some individual. It rnust be done by items, and proof that the party had each one of these items; and where they fail to prove an item,-they cannot recover for it. Wherever they can show that the old gentleman bought an article and paid for it with money out of his pocket, that would be charged against the old lady as an offset in this case. They might perhaps have proved a great many of these articles by the old lady, but they saw fit not to do it but to prove them in this guess-way plan, which is not evidence on which the jury can rely.”
The jury returned a verdict for the claimant for nine hundred dollars and thirty-five cents.
I. We think the judge erred in not allowing the defense to show that when the claimant first presented her account it was much less than the amount she was seeking to recover and establish on the trial. The fact, though not conclusive against her, would have been- significant; for she knew what her services had been, and also whether there was any understanding in respect to compensation; and her account would have been in the nature of an admission that she was not entitled to any larger sum. The jury should have been allowed to take it into consideration with the other evidence, and to give it such weight as they thought it deserved.
II. We also think the judge erred in instructing the jury that there was no evidence in the case tending to show that the parties were living together on an understanding that no charges were to be made by either for what was furnished for the benefit and support of both. What the exact understanding between the parties was, if they ever had any, did not appear; but much was shown in the proof that looked like such an arrangement as the defense insisted was made; and if the jury had come to the conclusion that the theory of the defense was the one which the evidence tended to establish, we do not see how a finding to that effect could be said to be unwarranted. It was not' for the court to say, upon the evidence as it stood, that the theory upon which the claimant relied was most plausible; the fact appeared in the evidence on both sides that there had been continuous contri- % butions by each of the parties .to the joint support, and it was not shown that account was being made of these on either side, as would be looked for if they were dealing with each other on the basis of mutual accounts. An inference that what one furnished was to offset what was supplied by the other might not be an unnatural or unreasonable one under the circumstances; and the fact that the parties were not related to eatíh other would not preclude its being drawn. Dunlap v. Allen 90 Ill. 108. The fact seems to be that both were dependent; she from poverty and he from age; and a mutual arrangement of the sort suggested might have been altogether reasonable.
III. The judge erred in putting entirely out of view all the evidence of groceries etc., furnished by the decedent which could not be specified particularly, and the value of the items shown. The proofs were not put in for the purpose exclusively of establishing offsets; but also because it tended to support the theory of common interest. The jury had a right to consider it for its bearing' upon that theory; but if that theory was rejected, it would still have importance. The suit involved the value of the claimant’s services, and there being no special contract, the value must be judged of in view of all the circumstances. And it cannot be held that the circumstance that decedent was furnishing a considerable portion of the provisions was one of no importance in that inquiry, or that what she supplied to him was worth just as much when he furnished a part of the provisions as it would have been if she had furnished them all. It was to be regretted that the case could not be made more certain; but the elements of uncertainty were not in the case of one party exclusively; the judge himself took occasion to remark upon the impossibility of the claimant giving proof of her daily and hourly services for the decedent; but, nevertheless, he very properly allowed witnesses to express opinions in respect to value;' and it is evident from the verdict that the jury based their verdict upon these opinions. But if these were admissible, at least equally so was the evidence of parties who could testify to articles being furnished by the decedent for household use. „
IY. If the jury accepted the claimant’s theory of the case, it would seem plain that the estate was entitled to be allowed the amount of the mortgage, after deducting the value of the right of way. The claimant had given evidence which tended to show that the decedent was being boarded by her by way of payment of the mortgage ; and when afterwards it appeared that he discharged the mortgage for her benefit, the right to have the amount applied upon the board would follow legitimately. The claimant would now have the transaction assume the form of a discharge of the mortgage in consideration of her releasing the right of way: a most improbable thing in view of the small value of the right of way, and of the entire absence of evidence to show the decedent to have been specially interested in the railroad scheme. But all this was for the jury.
Y. The remarks of the judge respecting the failure of the defense to consent to the claimant’s testifying seem to have been intended as an arraignment of the statute which precludes litigants who are adverse parties to the representatives of deceased persons from testifying to matters which must, if true, have been within the knowledge of such deceased persons. They were very well calculated to impress the jury that there was some moral wrong in claiming the protection of the statute, and that the party who would take advantage of it was justly subject to unfavorable inferences. But it would be serious error purposely to give the jury such an impression. The Legislature has deemed the statute a wise and necessary one; and the enactment of the statute has settled the policy of the State in that regard, and the courts have nothing to do but give it effect. This indirect criticism of the statute makes it worse than useless to the parties it was intended to protect; for it. suggests to juries that they are endeavoring to suppress the truth, and that their case must be regarded with suspicion for that reason. It is easy to see that a party, under such-circumstances, might prejudice his case instead of aiding it by objecting to an incompetent witness giving evidence. This Court had occasion to say in Knowles v. People 15 Mich. 414, that unfavorable inferences could not legitimately be drawn from a party’s availing himself of a statutory privi lege; and what was said in that case is applicable here. To the same effect are People v. Tyler 36 Cal. 522; State v. Cameron 40 Vt. 555; Devries v. Phillips 63 N. C. 53.
The judgment must be set aside and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
Plaintiff sued defendant on a railroad aid note, conditioned on the completion of the railroad of plaintiff as far as the township of Eiley. The declaration was upon the common counts with a copy of the instrument attached, the execution of which was denied but fully proved, as well as the performance of the condition. The only defense is that the paper was not admissible under the declaration because it is claimed not to be a promissory note in its proper sense. The plaintiff recovered below, and all the errors assigned rest on this objection.
The ground of it is that the statute concerning pleadings, which provides for declaring with common counts and a copy of the paper (How. Stat. §§ 7345-6 &c.), applies only to-bills of exchange and promissory notes negotiable under the law. But the only new rule brought in by that statute was-the provision which allowed a single suit to be brought against endorsers and other parties as well as makers. So far as the makers of notes are concerned it has always been competent, to sue them under the common counts. Brown v. McHugh 35 Mich. 50. This doctrine is old and elementary, and it is-a novelty to see it questioned. See Chitty on Bills, 593. And it is equally well settled that a note not negotiable, if given for a valuable consideration and when it has become absolutely payable, may be sued for by the payee in the same way. Edwards, Cow. & H. notes 730, 731. In the present case a sum certain was shown to have become fully due under the agreement contained in the note, and it was properly recovered under the general counts.
The judgment must be affirmed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
Wallin and.Isdell were informed against for the robbery of one Rutan of a sum of money. The robbery was alleged to have taken place in the saloon of defendant Wallin in East Saginaw, late in the evening of November 1, 1883. Isdell pleaded guilty to the information, and Wallin was tried separately.
Rutan, it appeal's, accompanied by one Burras, had gone to East Saginaw on the day of the robbery to transact business at the United States Land-office. After concluding the business the two had a lunch at a restaurant, and Rutan drank beer more than .once in the course of the afternoon. At six o’clock Burras took the cars of the Detroit & Bay City Railroad Company for home. Rutan remained, intending to take the train of the Jackson, Lansing & Saginaw Railroad going north on the west side of the river at nine o’clock the same evening. He crossed the river to take that train, but was late in reaching the station, and the train was gone. He recrossed the river to East Saginaw, and entered Wallin’s saloon. Rutan’s evidence is that he entered no other saloon previous to entering Wallin’s after his return from the west side of the river; but the defense put in testimony, that he drank beer at Wallin’s early in the evening, and also that he was in a place kept by one Stabback, where he both drank and played cards until he left to take the cars. It is agreed on all sides, however, that Ñutan was in Wallin’s after nine o’clock on his return from the station.
Ñutan testifies that when he found he was late for the cars .he went into Wallin’s to inquire for some place to pass the night. He found Isdell behind the bar, and asked him about lodgings. Isdell told him they did not keep lodgers, but he would show him where he could find lodgings. Isdell proposed that they should throw dice for the drinks before going, to which Ñutan assented. Another man was standing there who, Ñutan was satisfied, was Wallin. Isdell introduced Ñutan to him as a lumberman, and they shook hands together, and then the three threw dice together. After the game was finished, they all drank. Ñutan then turned ■around and put his left hand upon the screens standing neai', when Wallin caught hold of his arm and said “You are not going to get away in this way,” or something to that effect. Ñutan made excuse that he wanted to go to the water closet •at the other end of the room, and started to go there. Just as he reached the water closet Wallin caught hold of both his arms near the elbow, while Isdell threw his hand around his neck, put one hand over his mouth, took his pocket-book from his pocket with the other, took out the money and then put back the pocket-book. Wallin was holding him all the tóme. After all this occurred they let him go from the saloon. He was greatly in fear,, and ran off as fast as he •could until he met policemen, to whom he told the story. Ñutan, while he and the others were shaking dice in the ■saloon, noticed another man come in, but the two who shook dice with him were the men who robbed him.
The defense did not contest the fact of the robbery, nor of Isdell’s connection with it; but their theory of the case was that the other guilty party was one Howard. The question of fact on the trial, therefore, resolved itself into a •question of identity; the prosecution contending that Wallin was the associate of Isdell in the robbery, while the defense insisted it was Howard. Hutan’s evidence fixing the crime upon Wallin, was corroborated by one Tilloch, a policeman, who testified to seeing Isdell, Ñutan and another, who he believed to be Wallin, throwing diee together, and also by Isdell, who swore positively that Wallin was the person who-held Eutan while the witness robbed him. On the other hand Wallin testified that he had been lying down and asleep-in a back dining-room until near eleven o’clock, which was after the hour of the robbery, when he got up and went into-the saloon. Isdell and Howard were there, but both soon went out. Eutan afterwards came into the saloon with a policeman, and said it was there he had been robbed. This testimony as to his whereabouts the forepart of the evening was-corroborated by other witnesses.
The defense also produced evidence that Howard was in Wallin’s saloon in the evening, throwing dice with Isdell and Eutan. The next morning Isdell and Wallin were arrested, and Wallin then went to see Howard. He did not find him,, but left word for. Howard to come and see him, which he-did. Wallin says he told Howard, Eutan claimed to have been robbed in the saloon. Howard said he wasn’t robbed that he knew anything about; that he shook dice with him for money, but did not say for how much. Wallin said “He-claims he was robbed, and takes me for you.” Howard responded, “What am I going to do about it?” Wallin said,. “We are arrested, and you know 1 never shook dice that night.” Howard then said, “ What are you going to do-about it?” And Wallin responded, “You know your own business: you know you were standing at the bar, and both went out as soon as I came in.” Howard said, “ What would you do?” And Wallin replied, “I don’t know anything-about what you did, or anything about it, and I don’t propose to know.” The next he heard Howard was gone, and he was unable to find him.
Howard’s story was that he only stepped into Wallin’s for a moment after half past ten in the evening; that Wallin was counting over some money and Isdell stood by him;, that he got a drink of Isdell and then left; that subsequently he went to see Wallin in response to a request, sent him, and Wallin took out thirty dollars and gave him, told him to keep mum and that he had better go- away for awhile, which he promised to do. That afternoon nr evening he saw Wallin again, who inquired if he was not gone yet, and said he might as well go then as any time if he was going; and Howard did then go, first to Alpena and then to Cheboygan, where he was arrested and brought back.
When the witness Tilloch was on the stand he was asked the question : “ Is there any doubt existing in your mind that the man you saw standing at the right-hand side of Rutan at the time when you looked through was this defendant Wallin?” The question was objected to as incompetent. It sought to bring out, it is said, not what the witness saw at the time and the impression then made, but the conclusion to which he had subsequently arrived. This conclusion might depend much upon the character of the witness: with one person an impression might strengthen until it became a certainty in the mind; with another, reflection might remove it. But while this may be true, we think the question unobjectionable. The witness had testified that he thought the man he saw was Wallin. If he, when testifying, had any ■doubts of the identity, it was proper to ascertain the fact; if he had none, the grounds of his belief might be inquired into. The jury were entitled to know what the witness knew respecting the identity, and how positive his knowledge was: if he was speaking doubtfully they should know it, and if with confidence, it was proper they should know the grounds ■of his confidence.
Tilloch was also permitted to testify that Rutan, the next ■day, pointed out Wallin to him and said he was one of the parties who robbed him; the remark not being made in Wallin’s presence. This is assigned for error. But the fact that Wallin was not within hearing is of no importance. The statement was no evidence of Wallin’s guilt; it -was only a circumstance attending the search for the guilty parties and the arrest, and was of no importance except as it •showed that Rutan’s belief that Wallin and not Howard was the man concerned had been continuous.
Wallin, when testifying on his own behalf, testified to the officers’ coming in and arresting Isdell the next morn ing, and was then asked whether he assisted the officers in any way in investigating the robbery. This was objected to, but the objection was overruled, and he replied : “No, sir; I just told them that Dave [Isdell] and Curley [Howard] went out together; they were in there-when I went in. I could not tell them anything I did not. know.” Complaint is made of this question, but we think without reason. The crime had been committed in defendant’s place of business, and his servant had been concei-ned. There was strong evidence connecting him personally with the crime; and when he took the witness stand in exculpation, it was proper to permit the prosecution to inquire what his conduct in connection with the accusation had been, that it might be seen how far it was consistent with the innocence-he was testifying to.
Some other errors are assigned upon the admission of testimony for which no reasons are assigned in the brief for the-defense, and as error is not apparent, we pass them without, further remark.
When the case was about to be submitted to tire jury, the-defense requested the judge to charge them as follows: “ It is the theory both of the prosecution and the defense that two persons, and two persons only, were concerned in the alleged robbery; and it is conceded that one of these persons is David-Isdell. It is claimed by the prosecution that thé other person is the prisoner,'and by the defense that the-other person is William Howard, one of the People’s witnesses. In arriving at a verdict you are not to consider any other theory than this one of the prosecution and defense;. and if from the testimony you have a reasonable doubt as to-whether or not the defendant Wallin or the witness Howard,, or any other person, assisted Isdell in committing this robbery,, you must give defendant Wallin the benefit of that doubt and acquit him.” The judge did not give this instruction in terms; but after saying that Isdell confessedly was one of the guilty parties, he added : “ The question in this case is, who-is the other man. That is the question for you to decide. If you are satisfied from the testimony in this case beyond a. reasonable doubt that "Wallin was the other party, yon ought to find him guilty. If you are not so satisfied, you ought to acquit him. As I said before, the other party who is guilty is the party who held his arms. That is the man you are looking for. And in considering the testimony, I invite you to consider it with that end in view; to ascertain who that man was who held his arms there near the water closet. Not any other man that he may have had something to do with, or that he may have shaken dice with. But the man that held his arms when he was near the water closet is the party you want to find, and ascertain who he is.”
The complaint made of this instruction is that it suggested the presence and participation of some third person, when there was nothing in the record tending to show it, and all the evidence showed that the person who threw dice with Butan was the person who assisted in robbing him. This, it is said, may have misled the jury. And later, in response to an inquiry by the jury, the judge said : “ If you should find from the testimony in this case that defendant Wallin was in the saloon at the time Butan was there, and that he took hold of Butan’s arms as he was about to leave, with a design to detain him in the saloon, and also with a design and intent that he should then and there be robbed of his money, and should also find that he was robbed of his money at that time, although Wallin may not have been the man who held him or abstracted the money, he would by the act of detention for that purpose, in that design, be an aider and abettor in the offense, and would be liable as principal.”
Here again is a suggestion that some third party may hav'e participated in the robbery, and that Wallin may have performed the first act in detention,.and the third party been assistant later. Neither the prosecution nor the defense claimed that this was the fact. But neither the judge nor the jury were tied down closely to the theories respectively advanced : the facts were laid before them as the parties claimed they were, and they were at liberty to draw their own conclusions even though they might have differed from both theories. The prosecution said Isdell and Wallin were the guilty parties; the defense said they were Isdell and Howard; but with evidence so much confused as this was, and given by parties who at the time were drinking freely, it would not have been surprising if the jury had believed that neither of the theories advanced was altogether correct, or altogether false. A fourth party, it was conceded, was in the saloon at one time while Rutan was there; and the request for instructions made by the defense seems to concede the possibility that the jury might have doubts whether this fourth party was not the assistant in the robbery.
But whether the evidence did or did not warrant such a suggestion, we do not think a casual remark like that made by the judge could be made the subject of legal exception. In the first place, it is difficult to understand how it could be damaging to the defense, to suggest that possibly some other person might have been concei-ned in the robbery. It -would seem, on the other hand, to be probably favorable. But if the defense thought otherwise, and considered the remark unwarranted, they should have called attention to it at the time, and given the judge an opportunity for correction. If when the judge comments on the facts, as the parties called upon him to do in this case, every word and every sentence may be the subject of a general objection, and must be justified on error when for the first time the reasons for the exception are given, no verdict, in a closely-contested trial as this was, would be likely to stand. This is not the way to deal with a charge; it should be assumed that the judge intends accuracy, and if carelessly he is inaccurate, he should at once be given opportunity for correction.
The defense also asked the. judge to instruct the jury that as Isdell admitted his own guilt, and as it appeared from his evidence that he expected favor when he came to be sentenced, because of giving his evidence, they must consider him a person unworthy of credit, and should give little, if any, credit to his testimony, and would not be justified in convicting the defendant upon it. Also, that “ in considering his testimony they must bear in mind its worthless and unreliable character, and would not be authorized in considering it as corroborating other testimony.” The judge declined to give such instructions, but told the jury all questions of credibility of testimony were for them.
It is not the right of any party to demand such instructions •as were here proposed. There is no such rule of law as the requests assume. The force of a witness’ testimony depends upon the credit the jury think it entitled to; and no court has a right to lay down for a jury rules whereby they shall determine the force of evidence, irrespective of the credence they actually give it in their minds. People v. Jenness 5 Mich. 305; People v. Schweitzer 23 Mich. 301. The facts which manifestly detract from the credit are before the jury, and it is supposed they will duly weigh them ; and specific directions that they must or must not believe a witness are an invasion of their province. The judge was right in declining them in this case, and he was right in saying to the jury, as he did in substance, that when the law permits persons to testify as witnesses, it assumes that they may tell the truth, and whether they have done so in the case is for the jury to say under all the circumstances appearing before them.
The defense also requested the judge to point out to the jury the circumstances tending to discredit the witness Howard ; and this was refused. We repeat that instructions inspecting the credibility of witnesses, w'hich involve no question of law, are not matter of right. The judge is under no obligation to comment upon the facts; he may, if he •chooses, confine himself strictly to laying down such rules ■of law as must guide the action of the jury, and leave the facts to them without a word of comment. In many ■cases this is no doubt the desirable course. And it is always within the discretion of the judge to adopt it.
. Criticism is made of the judge’s instructions on the presumption of innocence to which the defendant was entitled ; but we think it not well founded. The charge on that subject was full, and as we think, fair and accurate. It is also complained that in calling attention to the evidence of the defendant on his own behalf, the facts that would tend to detract from his credibility were pointed out, though it was not done in the case of the witnesses Isdell and Howard. Here, again, the fault found concerns the exercise of the judge’s discretion. What the judge said was correct, and the fault found with him is that he did not go farther and extend his comments to the testimony of other witnesses. But no abuse of discretion appears in the case, and therefore nothing which will support an exception. The defendant, so far as we can judge by the record-, has had a fair trial, and we discover nothing indicating a purpose on the part of the judge that he should be dealt with otherwise than fairly and justly.
No legal error appearing, the'conviction must be affirmed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Sherwood, J.
The record in this case shows the defendant was arrested and brought before a magistrate, in the county of Saginaw, on a charge of assault with intent to kill and murder one Jacob Jonsen. He waived examination, and was bound over to appear at the circuit court in said county, wherein he appeared on the 4th day of December, 1S83, and was there arraigned upon an information containing two counts: the first charging him with the crime of assault with intent to kill and murder, and the second with “ an assault with intent to do great bodily harm, less than the crime of murder.” To this information the defendant pleaded not guilty. On the issue thus made the cause went to trial, and on the 7th day of March, 1884, the jury rendered their verdict, finding the defendant guilty “of assault with intent to do great bodily harm.” The court afterwards sentenced him to the State prison for ten years.
No exception was taken by respondent or his counsel to proceeding to trial without any. preliminary examination on the charge contained in the second count in the information. Thirty-one assignments of error are presented for our con sideration. Four relate to the charge of the court, and the others to proceedings upon the introduction of evidence. The offense of which the defendant was convicted was created by statute at the last session of the Legislature of this State. (Act 11 of 1883.) It is claimed that the count containing this statutory offense cannot be joined with one charging the common-law offense of assault with intent to murder. Both offenses are. felonies; both are punishable by imprisonment— one not exceeding ten years and the other for life ; a fine may be added to the first. The proofs establishing the latter would necessarily be sufficient to convict for the former. The latter crime includes the former, and it was conceded by counsel for the respondent that the proofs would be the same, on the trial, on both counts.
It is difficult to give a satisfactory reason why these two offenses may not be joined in the saíne information in different counts.- Under the first count the defendant is charged with an intent to do the greatest bodily harm possible, and in the second with the intent to do bodily harm, amounting to an offense greater than a misdemeanor, and less than murder. In both cases the offenses charged are of the same character, were committed at the same time, by the same force, and only differ in the degree of injury inflicted. While only one exists at common law, both are defined by our statute, and the penalties regulated thereby. The one being statutory only, furnishes no ground in the case stated for misjoinder. 2 Hale’s Pleas of the Crown 173; King v. Johnson 2 Leach 1103; 1 Chit. Cr. L. 253; Baker v. State 4 Ark. 56; Com v. Tuok 20 Pick. 356; State v. Brady 14 Vt. 353; State v. Cocker 3 Har. (Del.) 554; State v. Grisham 1 Hayw. 12; Josslyn v. Com. 6 Metc. 236; State v. Flye 26 Me. 312; People v. Austin 1 Park. Cr. 154; United States v. Peterson 1 Woodb. & M. 305; Com. v. Manson 2 Ashm. 31; McGregg v. State 4 Blackf. 101; State v. Coleman 5 Port. 32; Wash v. State 14 Sm. & M. 120; People v. Baker 3 Hill 159; State v. Hogan R. M. Charlt. 474; Kane v. People 8 Wend. 203; Carlton v. Com. 5 Met. 532; United, States v. O'Callaghan 6 McL. 596; Stephen v. State 11 Ga. 225; Burk v. State 2 Har. & J. 426. Neither does the fact that the prescribed penalties are different. King v. Darley 4 East 174; 1 East P. C. 408-410; Kightly v. Birch 2 M. & S. 533. Nor was the defendant prejudiced in any manner by the joinder upon the trial. By the joinder of the counts he became entitled to the greatest number of challenges allowed by law, and a greater number than he would have been, had the information contained a single count for the crime of which he was convicted. Neither does the information present 'a case in which the People could be required to elect between the counts. When distinct offenses are charged in different counts, but are committed by the same acts, at the same time, and the same testimony must necessarily be relied upon for conviction, the prisoner cannot be confounded in making his defense, and the People ought not to be compelled to elect. People v. Costello 1 Den. 83; People v. Rynders 12 Wend. 425; Kane v. People 8 Wend. 203; State v. Smith 8 Blackf. 489; Wash v. State 14 Sm. & M. 120. We think the ruling of the circuit judge was right upon this subject.
It is unnecessary now to determine the extent of the injury required to bring a case within the statute under which the conviction in this case was had. It very clearly appears from the record that “ great bodily harm less tham murder” was committed. That the injury was committed by shooting was admitted upon the trial; the extent of the injury and the intent with which it was done being the main questions litigated before the jury. “A sane man * * must be presumed to contemplate and intend the necessary, natural and probable consequences of his own acts,” (3 Greenl. Ev. §§ 13, 14; Rex v. Farrington Russ. & Ry. 207; Com. v. Webster 5 Cush. 305); but when the intent is the gist of the crime, as in this case, this presumption, though a very important circumstance in making the proof necessary upon this point to convict, is not conclusive nor alone sufficient, 'and should be supplemented by other testimony to avoid a reasonable doubt.
¥e have examined the testimony tending to show the extent of the injury, and find nothing improper in the ruling of the court upon the objections taken upon that subject. It appears from the testimony that the defendant kept a saloon in East Saginaw not far from the one in which the shooting was done, and that a Miss Kelly occupied rooms in the upper part of the same building, and the defendant was found in these rooms when he was arrested. This woman was not sworn or examined by either party, neither was she in the room when the arrest was made, nor present when the shooting was done. But the people were allowed, against the objection of immateriality, to prove she was reported to be Sweeney’s woman ; that she was of ill repute and kept a house of ill-fame. We think this testimony was open to the objection taken. It certainly had no tendency to prove either the extent of the injury or the intent with which it was committed. The inference sought to be drawn from it was that if the defendant would associate with this lewd woman, it might be considered as a circumstance tending to show the depravity of heart which would prompt the commission of the crime charged. This was vicious. No such inference was propei, and when the testimony was ruled in against the strenuous objections of counsel for the defendant, it gave to it an importance which we think would hardly fail to operate to his prejudice. The testimony should have been excluded.
The people called James Hassett, a witness who was present and saw much of the transaction when the offense was committed. It became the duty of the prosecution to call him, and it was claimed by the attorney for the People that he was an unwilling witness. He had previously given a narration of the facts to the prosecuting attorney and the chief of police, which was taken down in writing at the time and read over to the witness, and which he signed. He was examined at length by the prosecution, and cross-examined by defendant’s counsel. On re-examination he was' shown the statement signed by him, and recognized his signature. He was then examined as to the statements he therein made. This testimony was objected to as incompetent and immaterial, and a large number of exceptions were taken. None of the cross-examination appears in the re'cord, and for this reason it is difficult to say whether the exceptions are well taken or not; but from what is shown in the record it appears that the court allowed portions of the written statement to be given in evidenee'as contradicting the testimony of the witness upon the trial, and so far as this was done it was erroneous. If the writing was thus contradictory, the whole statement should have been read to the jury.
It seems to have been conceded by counsel for the defendant, upon the trial, that the evidence given by the witness did not differ materially from the statement contained in the paper. But that was of no consequence so long as it.was claimed otherwise by the prosecutor. We think the case comes within the rule laid down in Lightfoot v. People 16 Mich. 507. The witness occupied a position when the shooting was done where he could have seen much of what occurred, and the tendency of the course pursued on the trial, in connection with the avowal of counsel for the People, was to impress upon the minds of the jury that the offense he saw committed was much greater than he had disclosed in his testimony. This was prejudicial to defendant.
Dr. Ross was examined by the prosecution as to the extent ■of the physical injuries committed by the prisoner. Nine exceptions are taken to the rulings of the court on the admission of his testimony. We find no error in these rulings.
At the close of the trial counsel for defendant presented thirteen requests to be given to the jury. Error is assigned as follows: “ The said circuit judge erred in refusing to grant the said defendant’s requests ’•’ (numbering them). If it is intended this assignment of error is to be taken distributive] v, the language used is insufficient for that purpose. The substance of several of the requests was given in the charge, which disposes of this error as assigned. Three assignments •of error are based upon certain portions of the charge as .given. We have carefully looked through the charge given by the court in this case, and do not think the exceptions are well taken. It fairly covers the case presented. But for the errors above mentioned
The judgment must be reversed and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Sherwood, J.
The bill in this case is filed to restrain the collection of drain taxes, and thereby prevent the clouding the title of the complainants’ land. No relief is sought against the defendant Lutz. The tax complained of was assessed as that part of the expense which the commissioner made chargeable against the township of Gaines for the benefit of the public health and highways of the township. The injunction in the case was on motion dissolved by the circuit judge, and the defendant then demurred to the bill of complaint. The demurrer was sustained on the hearing and complainants appeal.
The complainants, by their bill, ask to be relieved of the taxes assessed against them for the construction of two drains, known as the Hammond and Drakey drains. They were designed to be constructed under the drain law of 1881. The complainants are owners and in the actual possession of taxable property in the township of the value of $89,840, which was in the aggregate assessed for the purposes above stated; and that the sum of $13.32 was assessed upon the several parcels,of land of complainants, being that part assessed against the same for the public purposes aforesaid.
The bill of complaint avers in regard to the Hammond drain, that the assessment is illegal and void for the following reasons:
First. Because it does not appear that application for the construction of such a drain was made to him in writing by five freeholders residing in the township or townships in which such drain, or the lands to be drained thereby, were situated.
Second. Because the application made to said commissioner and upon which he assumed to act, does not sufficiently designate or describe the character or dimensions of the proposed drain.
Third. Because said drain commissioner did not proceed as soon as pi’acticable, upon the filing with him of application under which he assumed to act, to examine personally the line of the proposed drain.
Foxtrih. Because it does not appear that said drain commissioner was of the opinion that it was necessary and for the good of the public health that the application for said drain should be granted.
Fifth. Because said drain commissioner did not, as a means of determining the necessity and practicability of said proposed drain, cause a survey and measurement of the line of the same to be made by a competent surveyor.
Sixth. The route of said drain as established by said drain commissioner did not follow the natural water-course mentioned in the application, but deviated therefrom, and there by caused additional expense to a large amount for the construction of the same.
Seventh. Said drain commissioner did not appoint a time and place of hearing upon the application made to him within the time limited by the statute therefor.
Eighth. Said drain commissioner did not make application to the probate court for the County of Kent for the appointment of special commissioners within the time limited by the statute therefor.
Ninth. The application made by said drain commissioner to said probate court did not show that application had been made to said drain commissioner for the construction of said drain by the requisite number of freeholders residing in the proper township or townships.
Tenth. Said application to probate court did not show that said drain commissioner had caused a survey to be made of the line, of the proposed drain referred to, or that it described the same according to such survey, or state the time and place of hearing upon the application made to said drain commissioner.
Eleventh. It does not appear that the special commissioners appointed by the probate court were properly sworn in respect to the performance of their duties as such special commissioners.
Twelfth. It does not appear that the application for the laying out of said drain, with minutes of the action of the drain commissioner thereon so far as had, including a copy of the application to the probate court, with the citation annexed, and proof of service thereof, with the minutes of the survey signed by the surveyor, were present at the viewing and hearing had by the special commissioners.
Thirteenth. It does not appear that said special commissioners ascertained the necessity of such drain, or for taking private property for the use and benefit of the public for the purpose thereof.
Fourteenth. There was no proper basis of assessment in respect to what said township of Gaines should be liable to pay by reason of benefit of such drain to the public health, or as a means of improving any public highway.
Fifteenth. It does not appear that said drain commissioner gave the requisite notice of the time when or the place where he would meet parties for the purpose of letting contracts for the construction of such drain, or that any notice was given by said drain commissioner as to the time when the assessment of benefits would be subject to review.
Sixteenth. The return of said drain commissioner to the township clerk does not contain minutes of any survey of said drain signed by the surveyor by whom such survey was made.
Seventeenth. That, as your orator believes, said drain was not a necessary public improvement and does not benefit the public, and the taxable property of your orators in said township of Gfaines is not justly or properly chargeable with any tax or assessment on account of the same.
The bill avers, in the case of the Drakey drain, the assessment is void, in addition to the above errors, numbered 1, 2, 4, 5, 14, 15 and 17, “ because it appears that in the opinion of said drain commissioner it was not necessary, or for the good of the public health, that the application made to him, and under which he assumed to act, in respect to said so-called Drakey drain should be granted,” and “ because said drain commissioner caused said drain to be located, and assessments are made upon the property of this township, as for the construction of a drain as part of said so-called Drakey drain, which was not embraced in the application under which he assumed to act in so doingthat the assessment roll of the town was in the town treasurer’s hands, who claimed it was a lien upon the several parcels of land for the several amounts assessed against them; and that he intended to return the lands for the non-payment of the same, and thereby create additional claims upon them. The bill contains, as exhibits attached thereto and as constituting a part thereof, all the proceedings which appear of record, under which it is claimed said drains and the construction thereof were accomplished.
It is claimed on the part of defendants that if complain ants have not paid tho taxes complained of, they have before this been returned to the county treasurer and therefore no relief can be given. The prevention of their return, however, is not all the relief prayed for. The complainants ask that the assessment may be decreed void and we think a bill •competent for this purpose entirely proper.
The defendants also insist that if the assessment is void, as •claimed by the plaintiffs, then they are not injured by the proceedings, as a void lien will not cloud their title, and they rely upon Curtis v. East Saginaw 35 Mich. 508, and Detroit v. Martin 34 Mich. 170, as sustaining this point. Chief Justice Cooley says in his work on Taxation, p. 542: “ A cloud upon one’s title is something which constitutes an apparent incumbrance upon it, or an apparent defect in it; something that shows prima facie some right of a third party, either to the whole or some interest in it. An illegal tax may or may not constitute such a cloud.” This definition has received the approval of this Court in the case of Detroit v. Martin above referred to. In the case we are now discussing the amount claimed to be illegal was assessed as part of the township taxes, and was to be collected the same as other township taxes under the general law, and the assessment roll was in the hands of the treasurer for collection. The statute makes the tax, when assessed, prima facie a debt against the •owner of the property (Sess. L. 1882, p. 18, § 35); and after the assessment roll, with the warrant attached, is delivered to the treasurer for collection, the tax appearing upon the roll becomes a lien upon the land against which it was assessed. See sections 26 and 30 of the same Act. And such a lien has been held by this Court, when the tax proceedings were illegal and void, to create a cloud upon the owner’s title, and the remedy here sought was applied to get rid of the lien and tax. Scofield v. Lansing 17 Mich. 437. The tax in this case could only be enforced under the law of 1882 above cited ; and by the second clause, under the eighty-fifth section of the act, a proper court may, if “ the person or persons appointed to decide whether a tax shall be raised under a given law have acted without jurisdiction,” declare the proceedings and the tax void.
Was the assessment illegal and void ? — seems to be the only remaining question for consideration. The bill avers that it was, and sets forth the proceedings under which the assessment was made as showing the facts upon which the assessment is-based. It does not appear that five freeholders, residing in the township of Gaines, ever presented a petition for the construction of either of the drains mentioned in the complainants’ bill. The statute requires the names of five persons to the petition, who are resident freeholders of the township. Whiteford Township v. Probate Judge of Monroe County 53 Mich. 130.
The descriptions of the drains in the applications were toe indefinite to authorize any action to be taken by the commissioner. The description in each case is quite as uncertain as that contained in the application in the case of Null v. Zierle 52 Mich. 540, which was held insufficient to confer jurisdiction.
We need not consider the case further. It already appears the action taken by the commissioner was without jurisdiction under the statute, and this is sufficient. The assessment was void. I think the decree at the circuit should be
Reversed and demurrer overruled without costs.
The other Justices concurred.
The petitions.were as follows:
To the Township Drain Commissioner of the Township of Gaines and County of Kent :
The undersigned freeholders of said township do hereby make application to, and respectfully ask you to establish and open a drain in the village of Hammond in said township, commencing at the west side of the Michigan Central Railroad and on the south side of the highway running east and west, and on the east side of the highway running parallel with-the said railroad, and the said drain to run in a westerly course alongthe natural water-course until sufficient fall can be obtained to cause the’ water to be carried off so as not to overflow the highway and sidetvalks in said village.
Dated this 8th day of August, A. D. 1882.
William McOrodan, O. 8. Keifer, George Draper, T. Draper, J. H. Loveless, Sylvester A. Loveless, W. J. Hardy, Geo. Éyer, Gon. Shea, O. Deming.
To the Township Drain Commissioner of the Township of Gaines and Oounty of Kent:
The undersigned hereby make application to and respectfully ask you to establish and open a water-course or locate a ditch in said Township of Gaines, as follows:
On the west side of sec. fifteen (15), running thence east and north 160-rods more or less.
First through Klingman’s land and then Heifer’s land.
Dated this 30th day of June, 1882.
Frank Drakey, Applicant.
Robert Herrington, Owen L. Dodge, Oscar Willard, FF. B. Clemens> Henry Kelley, John Leatherman, Fi'eeman Brewer, Morris Freeman. | [
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Campbell, J.
Complainant, who had signed two notes for defendant William L. Arnold and had been compelled to pay them, procured a judgment for $300, September 23, 1881, and levied on lands on an execution thereunder. Upon the 9th of July, 1881, when complainant was urging payment,. William L. Arnold conveyed the land, which was his farm,, to his father Seaman Arnold, for an alleged consideration of $3000. Seaman Arnold subsequently conveyed the property to the other defendants, who are William Arnold’s children, reserving a life interest. This bill is filed to avoid the conveyance to Seaman Arnold, and the voluntary conveyance to the children, as fraudulent against complainant.
The defendants claim that "William Arnold was indebted to his father, and had been for a long time, and that the deed was made to apply on this indebtedness. Complainant claims that as a matter of fact it was made for the express purpose of defeating his claim now in judgment.
We think the testimony shows quite clearly that the immediate purpose of the deed was to cut off from complainant the means of collecting his debt, on the alleged ground that he had failed to pay Seaman Arnold on a mortgage a similar amount which the latter had demanded as compound interest. That this purpose existed there seems no room for controversy.
It is possible that if the conveyance had been the result of an honest attempt to prefer Seaman Arnold as a creditor over another creditor, its effect on the latter would not be so material. But the testimony, in our view, shows no such agreement or sale. There were no negotiations credibly shown, and no terms of settlement agreed upon, and no credits settled. The grantor was left in possession and control, just as he had been before, and it is shown that there was an understanding, afterwards carried out, that the property should be conveyed to William’s children. All of the circumstances indicate a purpose to cover up the property for the benefit of William and his family.
Without going into the details of the testimony, such is the conclusion we draw from the record. In our opinion, complainant has been defrauded, and the decree should be reversed, and one granted in pursuance of the prayer of the bill, with costs against the adult defendants.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Champlin, J.
Maxwell sued Kellogg before a justice of the peace, and recovered a judgment for eighteen dollars. The declaration was oral, and as taken down by the justice was as follows: “ The plaintiff declared verbally in assumpsit •on special contract made between the parties, by which the ■defendant, in consideration of the price agreed upon between them, received, sold and delivered to the plaintiff ten peach trees, which peach trees the defendant contracted and agreed with the plaintiff should and were to be of five Hale’s Early and five Early Crawfords. The plaintiff paid to the defendant the consideration of said trees, relying upon said representation of said defendant that said peach trees were five of Hale’s Early and five of Early Crawfords. Said plaintiff took said trees and set them out and cultivated the same for •over three years, but said trees were not as represented, but were and are seedlings, a natural fruit, to plaintiff’s damage three hundred dollars.” Defendant appealed to the circuit, where the cause was tried before a jury, who found a verdict for defendant. Plaintiff brings the case here and assigns error upon the rulings of the circuit judge in the admission of testimony and in the instruction he gave to the >ry-
On the trial the plaintiff gave evidence tending to establish the cause of action set forth in his declaration. As matter of defense the defendant claimed that he did not sell the trees in question to plaintiff, but at his request, and acting for him, he obtained the trees from a nursery-man by the name of Glidden, who delivered them to him as being of the varieties named, and that he paid him ten cents each therefor, and delivered them to the plaintiff for the same price. There was considerable conflict in the testimony, not only as to the contract made between the parties,' but as to what occurred at the time it was entered into; plaintiff claiming that defendant said he had the trees in his own nursery, from which he would supply plaintiff and be responsible that they should be of the varieties known as “Hale’s Early” and “ Early Crawfordsand defendant claiming that he told plaintiff that he had no peach trees in stock, but could get him some from other sources. It was shown conclusively that the trees were not of the varieties named or required by plaintiff, but were seedlings, and bore peaches of an inferior quality. Plaintiff also showed that he had taken good care of and cultivated the trees for four years, and introduced evidence to show the difference in value of the trees as they were and of what their value would have been if they were “Hale’s Early” and “Early Crawfords.” It was shown that the trees, when delivered by defendant to plaintiff, were in two bundles, upon one of which was attached a tag marked “ Hale’s Early,” and upon the other a tag marked “ Early Crawfords.”
The principal ground of error assigned and relied upon before us relates to the admission of testimony for the purpose of showing that there is an uncertainty or difficult}' recognized among fruit-tree growers in getting trees true to name. Several of the witnesses were asked by the counsel for the defense the following question : “ Is there any difficulty in the second man — that is, the man who purchases from the original party who does the budding — is there any difficulty in his telling what the variety is which he gets by inspection ? State fully.” And also the following question; “ Is there any uncertainty or difficulty recognized among fruit-growers in getting trees true to name?”
- The questions were objected to as being wholly immaterial; but the court held that such testimony was competent and proper, and admitted the testimony. This ruling was erroneous. The testimony was wholly irrelevant to the issue. If, as the plaintiff claimed, there was an express contract to deliver peach trees of the varieties denominated Hale’s Early and Early Crawfords, the difficulties in the way of performing were of no importance in arriving at the questions whether such contract had been made, and if made, whether it had been performed. Neither was such testimony relevant to sustain the theory advanced by the defendant. It had no tendency to establish the agency of defendant, or to show that he was procuring the trees for plaintiff’s accommodation and at his request. Its drift was to draw the minds of the jury from the real question in issue as presented by the pleadings; and if it had any office to perform, it was to lead the jury to conclude that if the contract was as alleged by plaintiff, still, on account of the difficulty in ascertaining trees true to name, the defendant was excused from performance. There was considerable of this kind of testimony admitted into the case against plaintiff’s objection. It was clearly inadmissible, and should have been excluded. Defendant’s counsel, however, insists that the reason stated in the objections to the admission of the testimony are not known to the law; that an objection to the admission of tes. timony on the ground that it is immaterial, is stating no ground for the objection, and therefore the assignments of error based thereon ought not to be sustained. There is no doubt that the objection of immateriality is more properly an objection to pleading than to evidence, but we think it quite clear that the learned judge was not misled by. the improper use of the term, and that he understood the objection to be aimed at the relevancy of the proposed testimony, and we are disposed so to regard it. "Without passing upon the other errors assigned, we think, for the error above mentioned, the judgment must be
Reversed and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Champlin, J.
The plaintiff is a wholesale butcher doing business on Michigan Grand avenue in the city of Detroit. He had received at his place of business the carcasses of twenty-one calves, which had been dressed but not skinned, to sell on commission. Defendant Lane was meat inspector of the city of Detroit, and defendant Blum was his assistant. On the morning of the 9th of April the defendants went into plaintiff’s place of business, where these calves were exposed for sale, and selected eight out of the twenty-one, and marked them and took them away.- Plaintiff knew that Lane was inspector and that Blum was his assistant. Before taking them away Blum requested plaintiff to skin them, but he refused. Plaintiff brought replevin before a justice of the peace, and after suit was commenced, defendant Blum tendered the skins to plaintiff, and he refused to take them. The property was not seized upon the writ, and plaintiff proceeded for its value. The record does not disclose the pleadings in the cause. The plaintiff recovered before the justice, and defendants appealed to the circuit where the cause was again tried and the above facts appeared in evidence.
The only evidence of the action of the defendants was given by the plaintiff. The defendants did not introduce any witnesses in their defense, if they had any. The evidence showed that the calves were worth from eight to ten dollars each. At the close of the- testimony the court instructed the jury as follows:
“ I am under the impression that under the testimony as it stands, that it does not appear that there has been any condemnation. I don’t think that because a police officer has a man in custody, that he necessarily has the right to arrest him, or that the presumption is that he had the right to arrest him, without any reference to such authority. There is nothing appearing that he either examined them or looked at them. There is something said about a mark, but that is not enough. All there is is that he took the meat away, which is the same as though it appeared that he had a man in custody. It is the same as if a police officer should put a cow in poxmd, and at the same time it would be presumed that he took them upon the highway. In order to justify the officer, it should appear that he examined them, or did something in the way of making an inspection ; but you can’t draw any presumption until something appears showing that the proper state of facts was presented to him upon which to base a judgment; something more than a presumption that he must have passed judgment. I don’t like to see such a case go off on any such grounds, as it will come back without any decision whatever from the Supreme Court; that will be the result of it. You will have all your pains and money spent for nothing. I don’t see anything in this -testimony which can be construed in any other way, and if you will read it over carefully you will see there is only what he says about the mark. In that view of the case I shall direct the jury to return a verdict for the value of the property as they may find it.”
We think the court was right in the view it took of the evidence, and that the questions of justification and of the constitutionality of the law under which the officers were appointed, so very fully, ably and exhaustively presented and argued by the counsel for defendants, are not raised by this record. It follows that
The judgment must be affirmed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, O. J.
Plaintiff sued in justice’s court ujion a promissory note for forty-four dollars, purporting to have-been made by defendant Thomas B. Shaw, March 9, 1880, payable ninety days after date to the order of "William Stewart the plaintiff’s testator, and endorsed by the defendant Edward Fitzgerald. The plaintiff had judgment in the-justice’s court, and the defendants appealed.
The execution of the note by Shaw was not denied, and the-endorsement by Fitzgerald was proved. The plaintiff proved by "W. E. Stewart, a son of the testator, that the note was. found in his father’s box of papers after his death. On cross-examination it appeared that another note for forty dollars, signed by defendant Shaw and endorsed by the testator, and bearing date March 29,1879, was found in the same-box. Defendants then offered evidence that this forty-dollar note which was payable at a bank, was paid there by the-maker, the testator not being present at the time. This was objected to as irrelevant, and counsel for defendant to show its relevancy, stated that plaintiff’s counsel in opening the-case to the jury had stated that he claimed that the note in suit was given to take up the forty-dollar note. The trial judge had not heard-this remark, and he inquired of plaintiff’s, counsel if he made it. The reply was: “ Mr. Stevenson asked me what my theory was as to what the note sued on was given for. I did not state it as a fact; I merely stated we found the two notes, and we presumed one note was given to take up the other.” The court thereupon excluded the-proposed evidence.
The ruling was correct. The remark was a mere side-bar-remark, and no part of the plaintiff’s opening. • The plaintiff was not called upon to prove a consideration for the note in suit: it proved itself; and the evidence that there had been a previous note which had been taken up had no tendency to-prove that the note in suit was connected with it, in consideration or origin. The surmise of counsel that such was the- fact might or might not be well based: it certainly was no proof of the fact.
The defendant further proved by the son of the testator that at one time at or near the date of the note in suit he was told by his father to go with defendant Shaw to a bank in town and procure a sum of money, the amount of which he did not recollect, for Shaw, and that they started, but did not go to the bank and did not get the money. Evidence was then offered of Shaw himself that this was on the day the note in suit was given ; but this was ruled out as inadmissible, because it related to a matter that must have been equally within the knowledge of the testator. The defendants then claimed to go to the jury on'the question whether Shaw had ever received consideration for the note in suit, but the court ruled against them.
There was no error in these rulings. Shaw was not a competent witness to disprove the consideration of a note given by him to the testator: Downey v. Andrus 43 Mich. 65, and cases cited; Eccard v. Brush 48 Mich. 3; and no competent evidence was given or offered which connected the money which was to have been' obtained at the bank with this note.
The judgment must be affirmed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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] |
Champlin, J.
Tlie bill in this cause was filed to foreclose a mortgage executed by defendants John Q. and Emma S. McKernan to complainant on the 5th day of March, 1875. In addition to the statements usually found in such bills, it sets forth that about May 14, 1873, John Q. McKernan and one Henry Steinbach purchased from Samuel L. Smith lots numbered 5 to 18 inclusive, in block 19 according to the recorded plat of the village of L'Anse, and that a written agreement for the purchase and sale was entered into, and that $400 of the purchase money was paid down, and the purchasers took and remained in possession until about March 8, 1878, on which day Smith and wife conveyed by warranty to McKernan and Steinbach lots 12, 13, 14 and 15, of block 19 aforesaid, being four of the same lots covered by complainant’s mortgage; that in consideration of this deed MeKer nan and Steinbach released, discharged and surrendered to Smith the balance of the lots covered by the contract; that McKernan and Steinbach, at the time of the execution of the deed and release of the contract, had failed to perforin the conditions of the agreement, and had ceased to have any interest in the lands so released and discharged, legal or equitable, and from that time forward complainant’s mortgage applied to the lots included in the deed, and to no others; that the deed was made and delivered by Smith to McKernan .and Steinbach pursuant to and as fulfillment of said written agreement; and that his said mortgage, when given, covered said McKernan’s equitable title to the lots mentioned in said written agreement, and on and after the delivery of said deed covered the legal title of said McKernan in and to the lots in said deeds mentioned.
To this bill the defendant Kuppe filed a joint plea and answer, setting forth that on the 29th day of March, 1880, he exhibited his bill of complaint in the same court against the complainant and John Q. and Emma S. McKernan for the foreclosure of a mortgage by defendants John Q. and Emma S. McKernan to him (Kuppe) on the same lands described in complainant’s bill, which was taken as confessed by the McKernans, and that Edwards appeared and answered, upon which issue was formed, and that such proceedings were thereafter had in said suit that on the 5th day of September, 1881, a decree was rendered in favor of Kuppe and against Edwards and the McKernans, and under such decree said premises were sold at public auction, and upon such sale the said premises were bid in by Kuppe; that the sale was ratified and confirmed by the court; “ all which said several matters and things this defendant doth aver and pleads the said former bill, answer and decree, and the said several proceedings in the said former suit, in bar to the said complainant’s present bill.” He sets forth in answer to complainant’s bill, on information and belief, that at the time when"it is alleged in the complainant’s bill that said John Q. and Emma S. McKernan executed and delivered to him said mortgage, said John Q. McKernan had no title to said lands, and no inter est therein which was capable of being mortgaged by himself and his wife; that on the 9th day of January, 1879, complainant, as plaintiff, brought suit in the circuit court for the county of Baraga against said John Q. McKernan and one Henry Steinbach, who was the owner of all the interests in said lands not then owned by John Q. McKernan; that such proceedings were thereafter had in such suit that said complainant, on the 26th of February, 1879, recovered judgment against McKernan and Steinbach, and afterwards, by virtue of an execution issued in said suit, the sheriff of said county levied upon and sold the same, and the said lands were bid in by the complainant on such sale, and in due course of law a deed was executed to complainant, and duly recorded in the office of the register of deeds of said county; that said deed was afterwards by this Court declared to be subject to the title of this defendant; and this defendant insists that said suit at law is a waiver of complainant’s mortgage, and that said mortgage was, by reason of said deed, rendered null and void.
Such was the issue made by the pleadings between these parties. The mortgage to Edwards was duly recorded on March 17, 1875. It was given as security for a precedent, debt, but there is nothing in the printed record before us to show what, if any, time was given for the payment of the indebtedness when the mortgage security was given. The testimony is that a note was made for the amount then owing, but when it became due is not stated, and the note is admitted to have been lost. It appears that March 22, 1878, Samuel L. Smith and his wife conveyed the lots in dispute to Mc-Kernan and Steinbach, and it is stipulated in this record that they then owned the four lots conveyed as tenants in common. Prior to the 22d day of March, 1878, defendant McKernan was indebted to defendant Kuppe, and Pnppe was desirous of obtaining security therefor; and in order to secure the payment of such indebtedness he took from Mc-Kernan and wife a mortgage on McKernan’s undivided half interest in the lots; and also from Steinbach a separate mortgage upon his undivided half interest in the same lots. Whether this indebtedness to Buppe was the individual debt of McKernan or the joint debt of McKernan and Steinbach, does not satisfactorily appear from this record; but, whether several or joint, the two mortgages were given to secure to defendant Buppe the payment of the same debt. The same uncertainty with respect to the time or terms of these mortgages exists in the printed record before us, as observed in the case of the McKernan mortgage. The rale of this Court requires the whole return except the formal parts, in chancery cases, to be printed for the use of court and counsel, and if counsel see fit to so abridge the printed record as to leave [out] important data therefrom, which appear in the original record, this Court will either affirm the judgment or decree of the court below, or, as was said on a previous occasion in a case between these same parties, they must not complain if the court, in considering what is produced, does not find it as full and satisfactory as he supposed, or extend it by construction to meet 'a defense that might have been proven. Ruppe v. Steinbach 48 Mich. 466.
The controversy is therefore between two creditors of McKernan, striving to secure precedent debts. Neither advanced nor gave any new consideration for their mortgages. If Edwards’ mortgage did not cover the legal title, neither did Buppe occupy the position of a bona fide purchaser. Boxheimer v. Gunn 24 Mich. 372. lie does not appear to have extended the time of credit, released any securities, or parted with anything of value.
The case of Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. v. Maltby 8 Paige Ch. 361, has been often cited as authority for the doctrine that the record of a mortgage upon an equitable interest in lands is not notice to a subsequent purchaser or encumbrancer, without actual notice from the holder of the legal title. In that case Maltby had purchased certain real estate by contract from Squires, which consisted of four lots in the city of Buffalo. He then sold by contract lot 1 to Buchanan, lot 2 to Lin-hart, and lot 3 to Hodge, who went into possession under their contracts of purchase. While they were thus in possession, Maltby executed the mortgage to complain ant, which complainant placed upon record. Now, it is evident from this statement of the position of the parties, that the possession of these contract purchasers from Maltby was notice to complainants of their rights, and that the complainant could only reach in equity the unpaid pur chase money due from them to Maltby, if any remained-In adjusting the equities between the parties it was wholly immaterial whether Maltby held the title or not. The purchasers from Maltby were prior in point of time to the mortgage to complainaut, and being in possession complainant took his mortgage subject to their rights. Maltby’s contract of purchase from Squires was not assigned to complainants. His interests under it were simply mortgaged. Neither were the contracts given by Maltby to the purchasers from him assigned to complainants. These purchasers, therefore, had the right to make ¡Dayments to Maltby upon their contracts of purchase, even though they had received actual notice of the complainant’s mortgage. Constructive notice by recording the mortgage no more affected their rights than actual notice would have done. Complainant was not a subsequent purchaser or encumbrancer, who are the only class of persons protected by the registry laws. The only way open for complainant to reach the moneys owing to Maltby, was to arrest its payment in equity and obtain a decree to apply it to the payment of his mortgage debt. And this is what the chancellor held he might do, and all that he did do. What was said about the record of the mortgage not being constructive notice, must, I apprehend, be taken in its relation to the facts of that case, and not that the record of a mortgage of an equitable interest is in no case constructive notice to subsequent purchasers or encumbrancers. In Tefft v. Munson 63 Barb. 31, the court, in referring to this case, says that what was said about the record of the mortgage being notice was obiter. It is the prevailing doctrine now that conveyances of equitable interests in land are within the recording acts. Parkist v. Alexander 1 Johns. Ch. 394; Johnson v. Stagg 2 Johns. 510; Hunt v. Johnson 19 N. Y. 281; Stoddard v. Whiting 46 N. Y. 627; United States Ins. Co. v. Shriver 3 Md. Ch. 381; Wendell v. Wadsworth 20 Johns. 663; Jackson v. Dubois 4 Johns. 216; Tarbell v. West 86 N. Y. 280; Shaw v. Poor 6 Pick. 86; Wilder v. Brooks 10 Minn. 50; Digman v. McCollum 47 Mo. 372; General Ins. Co. v. United States Ins. Co. 10 Md. 524; Hays v. Richardson 1 Gill. & J. 384; Thomas v. Kennedy 24 Iowa 397, 407; Bellas v. M’Carty 10 Watts 13; Neligh v. Michenor 3 Stockt. 539.
A brief reference to the statute relating to the subject of recording conveyances will show very clearly that such mortgages are within the provisions made for recording conveyances. How. Stat. § 5674 enacts that every register of deeds shall keep an entry-book of deeds and an entry-book of mortgages. The next section provides that in the entry-book of mortgages he shall enter all mortgages and other deeds intended as securities, and § 5676 requires the register to record in the books provided for that purpose all mortgages at full length. Section 5683 enacts *that “Every conveyance of real estate within this State, hereafter made, which shall not be recorded as provided in this chapter, shall be void as against any subsequent purchaser in good faith, and for a valuable consideration, of the same real estate or any portion thereof, whose conveyance shall be first duly recorded.” Section 5688 enacts that “ The terra ‘purchaser,’ as used in this chapter, shall be construed to embrace every person to whom any estate or interest in real estate shall be conveyed for a valuable consideration, and also every assignee of a mortgage, or lease, or other conditional estate.” Section 5689 defines the term “ conveyance ” as used in that chapter, and says that it shall be construed to embrace every instrument in writing by which any estate or interest in real estate is created, aliened, mortgaged or assigned; or by which the title to any real estate may be affected in law or equity, except wills, leases for a term not exceeding three years, and executory contracts for the sale or purchase of lands.
It was held in Burns v. Berry 42 Mich. 179, that the protection which this statute (§ 5683) gives to a bona fide purchaser does not proceed upon the theory, and is not made to depend upon the fact, that the grantor at the time of such conveyance had any interest in the premises whatever, or that any passed from him by his conveyance to such subsequent purchaser; that it is not by force of the conveyance but by the terms of the statute, that such subsequent purchaser acquires title to the premises. So that in this case it is no objection to the record of the mortgage as constructive notice that McKernan did not hold the legal title at the time he executed the mortgage to Edwards. The mortgage was a conveyance by which the title to real estate might be affected in equity, and therefore directly within the protection of the recording laws., In evei’y case of two or more mortgages upon the same land, all except the first must of necessity be merely of the equitable estate of the mortgagor; yet no doubt ever existed that such mortgages of equitable interests were entitled to be recorded, and that such record operated as notice to subsequent purchasers of the legal estate. The statute does not declare that the record shall be notice to subsequent purchasers, but only that unrecorded conveyances shall be void as to subsequent purchasers in good faith whose conveyances shall be first recorded; and courts have held uniformly that the effect of the recording laws was that the record of a conveyance, which is entitled to be recorded under such laws, operates as constructive notice to subsequent purchasers claiming under the same grantor, or through one who is the common source of title. Losey v. Simpson 3 Stockt. 246; Murray v. Ballou 1 Johns. Ch. 566; Raynor v. Wilson 6 Hill 469; Stuyvesant v. Hall 2 Barb. Ch. 151; Cook v. Travis 20 N. Y. 400; Lightner v. Mooney 10 Watts 407; Leiby v. Wolf 10 Ohio 83; Bates v. Norcross 14 Pick. 224; Fenno v. Sayre 3 Ala. 458; Whittington v. Wright 9 Ga. 23; Digman v. McCollum 47 Mo. 372; Parkist v. Alexander 1 Johns. Ch. 394; Thomas v. Kennedy 24 Ia. 397; Alderson v. Ames 6 Md. 52; Hetherington v. Clark 30 Penn. St. 393; Brock v. Headen 13 Ala. 370; Long v. Dollarhide 24 Cal. 218; St. John v. Conger 40 Ill. 535; Tilton v. Hunter 24 Me. 29; Tarbell v. West 86 N. Y. 280.
In this case McKernan was the common grantor of Edwards and of Euppe. It is claimed, however, that Euppe was under no obligation to search the records in point of time anterior to the vesting of the legal title in his grantor, in order to ascertain whether his grantor had made conveyance prior to his acquisition of the legal title, and there are some authorities which hold to this doctrine. Calder v. Chapman 52 Penn. St. 359; Doswell v. Buchanan 3 Leigh 381. It seems to me that the doctrine of those authorities holds the purchaser to a very limited line of duty, and materially circumscribes the purposes and usefulness of the recording laws. It was the design of those laws that all rights, encumbrances or conveyances connected with or in anywise concerning land should appear upon the public records, for the protection of purchasers or encumbrancers, and should be construed so as to effect that end. Any conveyance which under those laws is entitled to be recorded, should be held to be constructive notice to all persons of the interest conveyed by any person in the chain of title from the government to the last purchaser. The law requires every register of deeds to keep an “ entry-book of deeds ” and an “ entry-book of mortgages,” and to enter therein the date of the reception of such conveyances, the names of the grantors and the grantees, and the township, range and section where the lands conveyed lie, and that he shall make such entries in the order in which such instruments were received ; and it declares that every such instrument shall be considered as recorded at the time so noted (How. Stat. §§ 5674, 5676), and it was held by this Court in Sinclair v. Slawson 44 Mich. 126, that a conveyance so entered was, in law, considered as recorded, for all purposes of notice and protection.
The law provides that every register of deeds shall also keep a proper general index to each set of books, in which he shall enter alphabetically the name of every party to each and every instrument recorded by him, with a reference to the book and page where the same is recorded. How. Stat. § 5682. The object of this provision is to afford facilities to the searcher after recorded conveyances through the names of the grantors and grantees. The records therefore furnish ready means of information to purchasers investigating the title to land, and of the conveyances made by any person in the chain of title ,• and they cannot be held to be excused from making search for mortgages of equitable interests made by their grantors previous to obtaining the legal title,, for the reason that it is a matter of common notoriety that, such mortgages are frequently made, and are entitled to be recorded, and if recorded appear upon the entry-book and index to have been made by the person from whom they are about to purchase. The remarks of the court in Digman v. McCollum supra, are pertinent upon this subject. The court observes: “ In dealing with equitable titles and interests in real property, is the purchaser bound at his peril to look into the state of his vendor’s title as shown by the registry of deeds ? I perceive no sufficient reason for making a distinction in this respect between legal and equitable estates. Under our system of registration, careful and prudent men, whether purchasing a legal or equitable interest in real property, search the records to ascertain the state of the vendor’s title, and courts act upon the assumption that such searches are made.” Alderson v. Ames 6 Md. 52, was a case which in its facts is quite parallel to the one under consideration, and the court held that the record of the mortgage was constructive notice to a subsequent mortgagee from the same grantor, after he had acquired the legal estate. I am of opinion that the record of the mortgage from McKernan to complainant operated as constructive notice to Ruppe, and that, his mortgage must be held subject thereto.
The case of Wing v. McDowell Walk. Ch. 175, so far as the same conflicts with the views above expressed, must be considered as overruled. It may be remarked, however, that the statutes of 1838, under which that decision was made,, aside from being quite unlike our present law in the language of the section upon which it is based, did not contain the substance of §§ 5688 and 5689 of the present Statutes, which I think materially affects the construction to be given to § 5683 above cited. I am also of opinion from this record that Ruppe had actual notice of complainant’s mortgage. This fact is in dispute, and the testimony respecting it is contradictory ; but I think the decided weight of testimony tends to prove that defendant had actual notice. In arriving at this conclusion, I lay entirely out of view the testimony of the witness Chadbourne. His testimony was clearly incompetent. He was under a retainer as the attorney and counsel of Ruppe, and whatever communications Ruppe made to him were privileged. And it does not render them less so that he informed Ruppe at the time he was retained by him that he was under a prior retainer to Edwards. It was a breach of the privilege of his client Ruppe, for him to give testimony in this case against his client’s objection, and such testimony must be stricken from the record. There remains as bearing upon this point the testimony of Thomas D. Meads, the register of deeds, who testifies positively to Mr.. Ruppe’s coming to his office and requesting him to search, the records of Baraga county to ascertain if there was, anything against McKernan’s property; that he did so, and found the record of the mortgage from McHernan to. Edwards, and informed Ruppe of it. This was in the fall, of 1877 or winter of 1878. The reasons he gives for remembering the conversation are quite satisfactory, and leave no-doubt as to the fact and time of occurrence.
Mr. McKernan also testifies to a conversation he had with Mr. Ruppe in the fall of 1877 or winter of 1878. He says; he owed Ruppe, and he wanted his money, and he (McKernan) told him he would like to pay him, and suggested to him that if he had a little means that he would try and buy pine land and go into the lumber business, and get out of it in that way; that Ruppe said to him: “You can’t get money unless you give good security, and you can’t give security because you have given a mortgage to Mr. Edwards on your* land, unless you get the money through Mr. Edwards to buy pine lands.” He also testifies to telling Mr. Chandler, who acted as the attorney of Mr. Ruppe in obtaining the mortgage to Ruppe, that he had already given a mortgage to Mr. Edwards and he didn’t know how that would work, and Mr. Chandler told him that didn’t make any difference, and he afterwards gave the mortgage.
Against this testimony stands the testimony of Mr. Ruppe, who denies the interview-as stated by Mr. Mead, — also the conversation with McICernan, and also denies all knowledge or actual notice of the existence of the Edwards mortgage previous to the taking of his; but there is no contradiction of McKernan’s statement concerning his notifying Mr. Chandler of the Edwards mortgage. It is sought, however, to discredit this statement by showing that the witness testified to this interview with Chandler in the suit brought by Ruppe against Steinbaeh and Edwards, and he then omitted to state that lie had informed Chandler of the Edwards mortgage. In explanation he says that he only answered such questions as were asked him, and he was not asked respecting that portion of the interview. These witnesses were examined in open court, and the circuit judge had the opportunity of observing them and judging of their credibility ; and if we had any doubt as to the weight to be accorded to their evidence, the fact that the circuit judge took the same view of their testimony given orally in his presence as we do from the depositions, confirms us in the opinion we entertain of its reliability.
It appears that McKernan and Steinbaeh were partners in the brewing business, and as such partners had borrowed from Edwards about $1400, and on the 9th day of January, 1879, Edwards brought suit against the firm, obtained judgment, levied upon the lots in question, and sold them at sheriff’s sale, and became the purchaser thereof on the 2d day of March, 1880, and afterwards went into possession, claiming under the sheriff’s sale. While he was in possession, Ruppe filed two bills of complaint to foreclose the two mortgages taken by him, and made Edwards a party defendant. Edwards answered, setting up the judgment against the firm and sale thereunder, and also claiming that the land was partnership assets, and claiming that the mortgages to Ruppe were given to secure the individual debt of McICernan to Ruppe, and also that the partnership was insolvent, and that liis partnership debt existed prior to the Ruppe mortgage .and his lien was therefore prior to the lien of the Ruppe mortgages. Rut this Court held in that case that Edwards had not by his proof satisfactorily established the fact that the lands were partnership property, and affirmed the decree below, which was in Ruppe’s favor. Ruppe v. Steinbach 48 Mich. 466.
The existence or validity of the mortgage from McKer•nan to Edwards was not involved 'in that suit, and was unaffected by the decision of that case. Wurcherer v. Hewitt 10 Mich. 453; Dawson v. Danbury Bank 15 Mich. 489; Shotwell v. Harrison 22 Mich. 410, 426; Summers v. Bromley 28 Mich. 125. When the sales were made under the decrees rendered upon the Ruppe mortgages, Edwards became the purchaser of the undivided half mortgaged by Steinbach, and Ruppe of the undivided half mortgaged to him by McKernan, being the same undivided half -in question in this suit. Complainant testified that he has never abandoned or released, or intended to abandon or release, his mortgage, mid never intended to yield up the lien which it gave him upon this property. Rut defendant Ruppe claims that by purchasing the whole property at sheriff’s sale the lien of his mortgage became merged in the legal title, and ceased to exist for all purposes whatever, and that his (Ruppe’s) mortgage lien being prior to’such execution lien, he holds the title under his purchase at the mortgage sale discharged of any lien thereon in favor of complainant.
We cannot accede to this view. It is true, as a general rule, that when the legal title becomes united with the equitable so that the owner has the whole title, the mortgage is merged by the unity of possession. But if the owner has •an interest in keeping the titles distinct, or if there be an intervening right between the mortgage and the equity, there is no merger. This is elementary doctrine. 1 Jones on Mortgages § 848, and notes. In this case Edwards had an interest in keeping the titles distinct, and there was also the mortgage to Ruppe intervening, which of itself was sufficient to pre vent a merger. We think the decree of the circuit court should be affirmed with costs.
Cooley, C. J. concurs.
Campbell, J. This bill was filed to foreclose a mortgage given in March, 1875, by McKernan and wife on an undivided half of 14 lots numbered from 5 to 18 in block 19 in the village of L’Anse, now in Baraga county, for which McKernan and Henry Steinbach held an unrecorded contract from S. L. Smith, on which there had been a part payment of $500. The mortgage in suit was given for $5179.54, being the balance as alleged of an old unsettled account due Edwards, and was very much beyond the value then or since of the lands mortgaged. It was put on record not long after its date.
On the 22d of March, 1878, with the assent, as the bill indicates, of complainant, the land contract for the 14 lots was given up, and canceled, and Smith gave McKernan and Steinbach a warranty deed of lots 12, 13, 14 and 15, and each of them at the same time gave mortgages to Ruppe of their several undivided interests, which were duly recorded. The bill avers that McKernan and Steinbach failed to perform their executory contract and ceased to have any interest in the lands not conveyed, but claims that his own mortgage attached to the lots conveyed, and was superior to the Ruppe mortgage. It is not averred or shown that there was any agreement to this effect.
Edwards, afterwards, sued McKernan & Steinbach, as partners, for a partnership debt, and in March 1880 obtained a certificate on sheriff’s sale, and afterwards got a deed, and has been in possession for some three years or thereabouts. In March 1880 Ruppe filed his bill making Edwards a party as a subsequent encumbrancer. Edwards answered and claimed priority of right over Ruppe on the ground that as a partnership creditor he was to be preferred to a mortgagee of one of the partners. But it was held in this Court in Ruppe, v. Steinbach 48 Mich. 465, that by taking the warranty deed in the usual form of a tenancy in common, the parties had authorized Ruppe to deal with the land in that shape. While setting out his title in that case Edwards made no reference to any other title or encumbrance, and the foreclosure was had and sale made as if none existed. As already stated, this mortgage, if valid, left no value whatever to be secured by the mortgage to Ruppe.
The question now is whether this early mortgage can be •enforced against Ruppe.
The testimony does not, in my opinion, indicate that when Ruppe took his mortgage he knew that Edwards set up any such claim. Apart from other circumstances it is clear that no one at that time had any idea that such a mortgage, if existing, would leave anything worth mortgaging. The circumstances indicate that the warranty ■deed from Smith, which all parties approved, and which ■Smith could not have given if Edwards was supposed to retain any rights against the contract, was part of one arrangement whereby Ruppe was to obtain his mortgages. Neither Ruppe nor any one else would have taken a mortgage which would be worthless when given. It is hardly credible that Edwards, seeing and approving the surrender of the contract and the conveyance of lands not in accordance with its terms, •or with his mortgage rights on the ten lots surrendered, supposed or intended it to be kept in force, and it would have been a gross fraud to let Ruppe act upon a different belief, as he certainly must have done. If he had no notice actually, there was nothing to affect him constructively, as not only was Smith’s contract unrecorded, but the statute does not make the record of interests under executory contracts emanating from private titles notice to subsequent purchasers under the legal title. If executory contracts are beyond the protection of the recording laws I cannot conceive that a mortgage of such a contract can stand on any better ground : still less a mortgage of a part interest.
The case of Wing v. McDowell Walk. Ch. 175, was based on recording laws which in this respect have not been substantially changed ; and although the chancellor in that case seems to have obtained 'the idea that the rule in New York was different, the case of Farmers’ L. & T. Co. v. Maltby 8 Paige 361, which was subsequent to Parkist v. Alexander, cited by him, shows that as against holders under the legal title the rule in that state does not differ from the rule-laid down by Chancellor Manning, which has never been questioned by any later decision, and has, I think, always been supposed to create a rule of property.
But upon all the facts of this case that question is not at all controlling. As already stated the mortgage is an old mortgage and was allowed, if not, as may fairly be supposed, intended, to pass without any reference at the time when a large part of the land covered by it was taken out of it by complainant’s approval, but without any written evidence of it. It has been allowed to outlaw, so far as the secured debt is concerned. Complainant subsequently paid a considerable sum for the equity of redemption. He set up in Buppe’s suit a claim entirely inconsistent with its validity, when, if he supposed it valid, it would have sufficed to render Buppe’s mortgage worthless. These facts taken together are not to be harmonized with the idea that he considered it as in force after the new arrangement with Smith.
But the failure to set it up in the foreclosure suit reaches further. While it is well settled that a prior mortgagee is not a necessary party to a foreclosure suit, yet it is not held that he may not be made a party where there are other interests claimed by him, or where there are questions otherwise rendering it desirable. When he undertakes to set up his title,, to show why he should not be affected by the foreclosure, there is no' reason why he should not set it up fully. It is always competent for a subsequent mortgagee to redeem, so as to make complete title by his foreclosure, provided the prior mortgage is due. And any purchaser on a foreclosure has a right to assume that the title disclosed is the true one, although in the absence of any answer the case may be otherwise. The rule as generally agreed upon is that it is proper, but not necessary, to bring in prior encumbrancers. Story’s Eq. PL § 193, and notes; Farmers’ & Mech. Bank v. Bronson 14 Mich. 361.
Upon the record we think no equities are shown in complainant, and his bill should have been dismissed, and the decree should be entered accordingly.
Sherwood, J. concurred. | [
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Allen, J.
Did the zoning board of appeals of defendant township, in granting a conditional use permit to plaintiff for mining sand and gravel, err in imposing a five-year time limit, expiring June 31, 1982, on such operation and by requiring that the final grade level of such operation be at least 15 feet above the water table? In an opinion dated January 27, 1982, and order pursuant thereto entered February 25, 1982, the circuit court for Washtenaw County sustained the five-year time and grade level limitations and added an additional year for site rehabilitation to be completed by June 30, 1983. From the order of the trial court, plaintiff appeals as of right.
On December 8, 1975, plaintiff filed an application with defendant Scio Township for a conditional use permit for removal of sand and gravel from a 9.67-acre parcel (the "Baldus property”) and a 48.01-acre parcel (the "Ehnis property”) in Scio Township. Plaintiff had been removing gravel from an adjoining 127.67-acre parcel (the "Dunstan property”) for 10 or 15 years. Plaintiff’s parcels are zoned General Agricultural District A-l, in which the removal of sand and gravel is permitted only as a conditional use. The Baldus-Ehnis-Dunstan properties adjoin the westerly boundary of Loch Alpine Subdivision, zoned Residental District R-1B. It was platted in the mid-1920’s, and by April, 1960, included 48 single-family homes. By 1977, Loch Alpine contained 165 single-family homes.
On September 20, 1976, the Scio Township Board denied plaintiff’s application for a permit, finding that extension of the gravel operation would be detrimental to nearby residents who actively opposed the grant of a permit because of excessive noise, vibration, and dust in the general vicinity, as well as heavy truck traffic and sand and stones dropped on public roads. The township also noted that plaintiff’s present Dunstan operation was in violation of the Scio Township zoning ordinance because no permit had been obtained and that plaintiff had failed to properly respond to citizens’ numerous past complaints about unlawful hours of operation, failure to restrict hauling to designated haul routes, failure to fence as required by township ordinances, and excessive noise.
Plaintiff appealed the township’s denial of their permit application to the Scio Township Zoning Board of Appeals. The zoning board of appeals granted plaintiff’s conditional use permit subject to certain conditions, including the five-year time limitation on plaintiff’s operation and progressive rehabilitation of the land, including the previously mined Dunstan property.
Plaintiff next brought this action in the Washtenaw County Circuit Court, challenging the zoning board of appeals restrictions on its operations and the five-year limitation on recovery of the gravel. By opinion dated January 27, 1982, the circuit court held that the five-year limitation was a reasonable decision and based upon material evidence, but held that plaintiff should be given one year beyond the five-year period to rehabilitate the land.
In its briefs on appeal, plaintiff raised two grounds for reversal: (1) the zoning board of appeals decision to limit plaintiff’s mining operation to five years and to require a rehabilitated grade level not less than 15 feet above the water table are not supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record as required by the Township Rural Zoning Act, MCL 125.293a; MSA 5.2963(23a), and (2) even if supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence, the five-year time limitation is prohibited by this Court’s decision in Room & Board Homes & Family Care Homes, Operators & Owners v Mayor of Detroit, 67 Mich App 381; 241 NW2d 216 (1976). We address the issues in inverse order. At oral argument, plaintiff raised a third ground for reversal. This third issue will be discussed later.
I
Is Room & Board Homes v Mayor of Detroit controlling, thereby making a time limitation an impermissible restriction?
In Room & Board Homes, the Zoning Board of Appeals of the City of Detroit sought to impose a time limitation (period of years) during which an existing building, proposed to be converted into an adult foster care facility, could be operated as an adult foster care facility. Conversion of existing buildings for such purposes was authorized under § 62.0402 of the zoning ordinance providing for "special exceptions”. Under that section, the zoning board was empowered to "impose such conditions and safeguards as it deems necessary to carry out the intent, spirit, and purposes of this ordinance”. Defendants Mayor of Detroit and zoning board of appeals argued that, since it was difficult to determine whether converting property to an adult foster care facility would have an injurious effect on the neighborhood, such use should only be allowed for a limited period of years. Plaintiffs, owners and operators of adult foster care facilities in the City of Detroit, argued that nothing in the ordinance gave the zoning board of appeals the authority to impose a time limitation. The trial court held in favor of plaintiffs. On appeal, this Court affirmed, saying:
"The question to be answered in the present case is whether the Board of Zoning Appeals can place a time limitation on a 'special exception’ under its authorized power to 'impose such condition and safeguards as it deems necessary to carry out the intent, spirit and purpose of this Ordinance’. The board may not impose conditions unrelated to the use of the land. 3 Anderson, American Law of Zoning, § 15.31, p 161. Moreover, it must be kept in mind that a 'special exception’ does not vary the ordinance but permits certain uses authorized under stated conditions in the ordinance. We are not talking, therefore, about a use otherwise proscribed by the ordinance. Thus, once the board has determined that a use qualifies under the ordinance as a 'special exception’ and conditions related to the use of the land are imposed, that use cannot be subject to a time limitation.” 67 Mich App 384-385. (Emphasis supplied.)
The Scio Township zoning ordinance does not per se authorize a time limitation as a condition which may be imposed in granting a conditional use. However, art 6, § 6.08 of the township ordinance expressly authorizes the imposition of "conditions as it deems necessary to protect the public interest of the Township and the surrounding property”. In this respect the language of the township ordinance is similar to the language of the City of Detroit zoning ordinance in Room & Board Homes. The fact that the township ordinance concerns "a conditional use” and the city ordinance concerned "a special permit” or "special exception” is immaterial. In modern zoning law the terms are virtually synonymous. _
Defendant argues that Room & Board Homes is distinguishable because there the foster care home was a permanent use whereas a gravel operation is inherently temporary in nature. The company president acknowledged as much when he testified: "By the very nature of the business you begin to go out of business at any deposit location from the day you remove the first shovelfull.” Plaintiff argues that the distinction in meaningless since, under the holding in Room & Board, once a use qualifies as a special exception, the use cannot be subject to a time limitation. In our opinion, the policy considerations justifying a time limitation, when applied to a permanent use such as an adult foster care home, are much more compelling than where the proposed use is temporary in nature at the outset and where there is a strong desire on the part of the surrounding community to limit the activity to a definite known period of time. Further, a limitation on the length of time one may extract sand and gravel from the ground is definitely related to the use of the land, whereas limitation on the use of a building already constructed on the land is a limitation on the use of the building. See Striar and Etter, Local Government, 23 Wayne L Rev 765, 810 (1977).
Furthermore, though the cases are sparse and the limitation imposed is measured in days rather than years, courts in other jurisdictions decline to treat as automatically invalid a limitation in time.
"In cases where the grant of the exception or variance is within the zoning board’s discretion, but is assailed as an abuse of discretion by reason of the board’s alleged failure to protect the interests of other landowners, the imposition of limitations on hours or days of operation has been relied on by the court as demonstrating that the zoning board properly consid ered the interests of other landowners and acted within its discretion in granting the exception or variance.
"In some cases an applicant who has been successful in securing a variance or exception from a zoning board contests the board’s attaching conditions to the variance or exception so as to restrict hours or days of operation. The validity of such conditions appears to turn on the particular circumstances." (Emphasis supplied.) Anno: Imposing Restriction as to Hours or Days of Operation of Business as Condition of Allowance of Special Zoning Exception or Variance, 99 ALR2d 227, §§ 3, 4, pp 228, 229.
For all of the foregoing reasons, we decline to extend Room & Board to the situation in the instant case.
II
Is the zoning board of appeals decision to limit plaintiffs operations to ñve years and to require a rehabilitated grade level not less than 15 feet above the water table supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record?
The main thrust of plaintiffs brief is that the decision to limit plaintiffs operation to five years and to require a rehabilitated grade level of a certain depth is not supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record as required by the Township Rural Zoning Act. That statute provides:
"(1) The decision of the board of appeals rendered pursuant to section 23 shall be final. However, a person having an interest affected by the zoning ordinance may appeal to the circuit court. Upon appeal the circuit court shall review the record and decision of the board of appeals to insure that the decision:
"(a) Complies with the constitution and laws of the state.
"(b) Is based upon proper procedure.
"(c) Is supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record.
"(d) Represents the reasonable exercise of discretion granted by law to the board of appeals.
"(2) If the court finds the record of the board of appeals inadequate to make the review required by this section, or that there is additional evidence which is material and with good reason was not presented to the board of appeals, the court shall order further proceedings before the board of appeals on conditions which the court considers proper. The board of appeals may modify its findings and decision as a result of the new proceedings, or may affirm its original decision. The supplementary record and decision shall be filed with the court.
"(3) As a result of the review required by this section, the court may affirm, reverse, or modify the decision of the board of appeals.” MCL 125.293a; MSA 5.2963(23a).
Plaintiff repeatedly argues that the record is devoid of any representation or other kind of evidence that the operation could be completed in five years under the restrictions imposed in the permit. Prior to February 2, 1977, the date on which the zoning board of appeals granted the permit, all testimony was that operations could be completed within a five- to ten-year period. On April 13, 1976, the company president informed the township planning commission that the company’s "proposed schedule of operations would cover a period of approximately seven years to remove the gravel deposit and rehabilitate the properties under consideration”. On September 20, 1976, the township denied the conditional use permit. Paragraph 4 of the findings of fact contained in the board’s order of refusal refers to the five-year period for excavation:
"If granted the conditional use permit, the applicant intends to acquire ownership of the Dunstan and Baldus-Ehnis properties and continue the Dunstan operation northward into the Baldus-Ehnis property. The applicant estimates that the usable sand and gravel of the properties could be depleted and the operation completed in ñve years, although applicant considers ten years to be a more realistic estimate.” (Emphasis supplied.)
Two days after the township board’s denial of the permit, plaintiff applied to the zoning board of appeals. Plaintiffs application did not contain a suggested time period for the life of the permit. Some seven or more hearings were held by the board of appeals, at which complaints were heard from neighboring citizens and extensive testimony was taken. On October 13, 1976, the company attorney, responding to a request from Emil Jebe, chairman of the board of appeals, wrote to the board of appeals stating, inter alia:
"* * * The following circumstances, many of which were also considered in Salem Township, when fully analyzed, support the finding of a reasonable use in this case: (a) scarcity of natural resource and its definite need, as fully documented, (b) the proposed use fully complies with all ordinance conditions, (c) the use is not a perpetual use, but will be self-extinguishing within approximately ñve to ten years. ” (Emphasis supplied.)
At the December 9, 1976, meeting, Chairman Jebe stated that "he believes five years will be a reasonable balance between the desires of the residents and the long range goals of Scio Township”. Commissioner Rupert responded that he did not agree since he understood the company had stated it needed a minimum of seven years, and better, ten years. Minutes of the board of appeals meeting for December 9, 1976, reflect that Chairman Jebe responded as follows:
"Mr. Jebe responded that the record shows in at least two places that the applicant said five years, although he has said at other times that he would prefer seven to ten. There are 134 acres on the Dunstan farm. Allowing for the house, etc., Whittaker & Gooding has moved over 100 acres of material in about ten years, which is approximately ten acres per year. The proposed Baldus and Ehnis area is 57.68 acres. Take off 100 feet for the border according to the ordinance, which is 12 acres, that leaves 45 acres. If they remove nine acres per year, that would be comparable to what they did in the Dunstan pit. Mr. Jebe said he does hold that a certain time limit is possible.”
On January 27, 1977, plaintiff was shown a proposed conditional use permit with a five-year limitation period. Charles Gooding, company president, immediately took issue with the limitation, stating that seven years was the minimum. Nevertheless, at its February 2, 1977, meeting, the board of appeals, by a vote of four to one, granted a conditional use permit subject to a five-year completion period. On February 9, 1977, Charles Gooding again appeared before the board of appeals and at considerable length explained why plaintiff could not meet the five-year limitation. He stated that company engineers estimated there were 4-1/2 million tons of recoverable aggregate; that during the past five years of operation the average rate of removal was 600,000 tons; that at full rate of production it would take 7-1/2 years to deplete the deposit, but with the other many restrictions imposed by the township relating to hours of work plus the requirement imposed for rehabilitation, ten years would be required to permit full recovery of the available aggregate. Notwithstanding plaintiffs protestations, a conditional use permit was issued for a period of only five years.
Given the above chronology of events and statements made, we cannot say that the record is devoid of any representation or evidence that operations including rehabilitation could be completed within a five-year period. On at least two occasions, the five-year period was mentioned by the company. In addition, the December 9th minutes reflect a logical basis for the five-year limitation. However, it does appear that the longer deliberations dragged on, particularly at the appeal board level, the more the plaintiff shifted from a five- or seven-year period to a ten-year period. While there is testimony which supports the five-year period, a greater quantum of evidence supports a ten-year period. Nevertheless, given the conflicting testimony, we cannot conclude that the appeal board’s decision (as modified by the trial court) was without record support.
Assuming, arguendo, that there was insufficient evidence on the record to show that, given the limitations imposed on plaintiff, the underlying sand and gravel could be totally excavated within five years, it does not necessarily follow that error occurred. The decision of the board of appeals was made pursuant to the Scio Township Zoning Ordinance. Under the ordinance, the board of appeals could not look solely at the interests of the company, but was required to balance the petitioner’s interests with the interests of the community. The ordinance, which specifically mandates that the grant of the requested use be compatible with the "existing or intended character of the township”, reads as follows:
"Section 6.08 Required Standards and Findings.
"The Planning Commission and Township Board shall review the particular circumstances and facts of each proposed use in terms of the following standards and required findings, and shall find and record adequate data, information and evidence showing that such a use on the proposed site, lot or parcel meets the following standards:
"A. Will be harmonious, and in accordance with the objectives and regulations of this Ordinance.
"B. Will be designed, constructed, operated, maintained, and managed so as to be harmonious and appropriate in appearance with the existing or intended character of the general vicinity.
"C. That the proposed use will be served adequately by essential public facilities and services such as highways, streets, police and fire protection, drainage ways, refuse disposal, or that the persons or agencies responsible for the establishment of the proposed use shall be able to provide adequately any such service.
"D. That the proposed use will not be detrimental, hazardous, or disturbing to existing or future neighboring uses, persons, property or the public welfare.
"E. That the proposed use will not create additional requirements at public cost for public facilities and services that will be detrimental to the economic welfare of the community.
“If the facts do not establish that the findings and standards set forth in this Ordinance will apply to the proposed use, the Township Board shall not grant a conditional use permit. In granting of any conditional use permit the Township Board shall impose such conditions as it deems necessary to protect the public interest of the Township and the surrounding property, and to achieve the objectives of this Ordinance. The breach of any such condition of safeguard shall be considered a violation of this Ordinance.” (Emphasis supplied.)
The primary factor weighing against granting the permit was the opposition of many residents of the neighboring Loch Alpine Subdivision and other residents of the township who voiced their opposition to granting the permit application either individually or through the Scio Citizens’ Committee and the Loch Alpine Improvement Association. The zoning board minutes of November 4, 1976, show 416 signatures of protesting citizens. Their complaints mentioned, inter alia: the allegation that the gravel pit was not harmonious with the surrounding area; excessive noise and dust from the operation; noise and traffic of large trucks and resulting stones on roads; reduction in the value of homes; excavation close to property lines of homes; lack of fencing; and the allegation that the gravel pit was an attractive nuisance for children. These complaints are contained in the zoning board minutes of October 28, 1976, November 4, 1976, December 2, 1976, December 9, 1976, and February 2, 1977.
A second consideration favoring the grant of a permit was the opportunity to force plaintiff to rehabilitate the nearly exhausted Dunstan property as a condition to granting the permit to extract gravel from the Ehnis-Baldus property. According to the zoning board minutes of December 9, 1976, if a permit was not granted, the Dunstan property would not be rehabilitated.
A third factor favoring the grant of the permit was plaintiff’s interest in extracting the gravel and the larger community interest in mining a natural resource that is in substantial demand.
The balancing of these three considerations can be seen throughout the board’s deliberation and in its order granting the limited permit. These considerations were clearly at the heart of Chairman Jebe’s proposal that the permit end after five years. Again we refer to the minutes of the December 9, 1976, meeting:
"Mr. Jebe responded by saying that we need to accomplish a sense of balance. There are certain things the board would like to accomplish and by going the permit route, the township would have a contract with the applicant and a list of things the applicant has said he will do. The board wants to remove a legal nonconforming use from a location where the use is not wanted. The board wants to rehabilitate both the new area and the Dunstan farm. The application does not mention the Dunstan farm, but the applicant has said he will also include the Dunstan area in his rehabilitation plan. We are concerned about the citizen complaints and Mr. Jebe concluded that the operation should not continue more than five years from the beginning of its operation. He hopes (by a temporary disturbance) to accomplish a reasonable balance between (1) allowing the applicant to recover his resource and (2) the wishes of the residents. The actual proposed area of removal is farther away from Loch Alpine than previous work areas and there may be ways to quiet the processing plant. Mr. Jebe said he believes five years will be a reasonable balance between the desires of the residents and the long range goals of Scio Township.”
In summary, the relevant question is not whether the record supports a finding that the operation could be completed in five years under the restrictions imposed in the permit, but whether the record contains testimony and other evidence that supports the board’s balancing of interests (as required by ordinance) between the plaintiffs request for ten years and the neighborhood residents’ demand that no permit be issued. The mid-point between the company’s initial estimate of five to ten years for completion including rehabilitation is seven and one-half years. The board granted five years and the circuit court granted an extra year. In our opinion, the decision to place a five-year time limitation on plaintiffs operation, as extended by one year by the circuit court, was a reasonable exercise of discretion and is supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record.
We also reject plaintiffs argument that the requirement that the rehabilitated grade be not less than 15 feet above the water table is not supported by the evidence. We do agree that it is not supported by anything in the topographical map introduced into evidence as Exhibit A. However, it is more than adequately supported by other testimony.
At the January 19, 1977, zoning board business meeting, Chairman Jebe proposed that the final grade of the property be not less than 20 feet above the ground water table. This figure apparently came from a ground work paper by board member Wood, as evidenced by the zoning board minutes of February 2, 1977. At the next meeting, plaintiffs geologist, Glen Miller, stated that plaintiff would like the final grade to be ten feet above the water line. The zoning board minutes of January 27, 1977, show that this proposal provoked questions, either from board members or from members of the audience, about whether this depth could accommodate future sewer lines. At the following meeting, Mr. Poiner, who lived near the gravel pit, asked for a discussion of the ten-foot final grade proposal. According to the zoning board minutes of February 2, 1977, he objected to plaintiffs proposal, noting that a home with a seven- or eight-foot basement plus foundation would be in the water table. Bill Petring, another member of the audience, opposed the ten-foot grade because of possible problems with normal variations in the ground water table. Chairman Jebe requested that plaintiffs attorney take these concerns back to plaintiff and asked for a response from plaintiff. At the February 9, 1977, meeting, the board members voted four to one to reduce the final grade from 20 feet to 15 feet above the water table.
Based on this record, the zoning board exercised reasonable discretion in requiring that the final rehabilitated grade be at least 15 feet above the water table. The stated purpose of the permit was to allow expeditious removal of the gravel "while simultaneously achieving the site’s reclamation as useable land in harmony, and in keeping with the intended character of the general vicinity”. Plaintiff’s argument that the 15-foot final grade is not supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the record is without merit.
Ill
Is § 6.08 of the ordinance invalid for lack of standards?
A third issue, first raised by appellate counsel for plaintiff at oral argument, merits consideration. Counsel argued that the power given the township in granting a conditional use, to "impose such conditions as it deems necessary”, is invalid by reason of lack of standards. The language of the ordinance to which counsel referred, reads:
"In granting of any conditional use permit the Township Board shall impose such conditions as it deems necessary to protect the public interest of the Township and the surrounding property, and to achieve the objectives of this Ordinance.”
The legal question presented is the sufficiency of the standards required in ordinances involving the grant of a conditional use. This question is dis cussed at length in 3 Rathkopf, The Law of Zoning and Planning, § 41.09, p 41-36. The great majority of jurisdictions find generalized standards sufficient where the grant involved is a conditional use.
"It will be found that generalized standards are acceptable in most jurisdictions. The purpose of the special exception-conditional use technique is to confer a degree of flexibility in .the land use regulations. This would be lost if detailed standards covering each specific situation in which the use is to be granted or, conversely, each situation in which it is to be denied, were required to be placed in the ordinance. The difficulty of so doing was noted by a California court which pointed out that if it were possible to find a legislative draftsman capable of performing such a task — of drafting standards to govern the likely as well as all possible contingencies relating to a conditional use — there would be no need to make the use a conditional one. In that case they could be made part of the zoning ordinance proper requiring no exercise of discretion on the part of anyone. The court concluded by stating that the use of general standards was a necessity: 'All of which goes to point up our belief that if the purposes of zoning are to be accomplished, the master zoning restrictions or standards must be definite while the provisions pertaining to a conditional use or a variance, designed to relieve against uncertain eventualities, must of necessity be broad and permit an exercise of discretion.’ ” (Footnotes omitted.)
The following generalized standards in local ordinances have been found sufficient to guide boards in granting or withholding a conditional or special use permit: "determine [and vary the application of the use district regulations] in harmony with their general purpose and intent” (Holy Sepulchre Cemetery v Town of Greece, 191 Misc 241, 246; 79 NYS2d 683 [1947]); "will not interfere with the general purposes for which the Flood Plain districts have been established and will not be detrimental to the public health, safety or welfare” (Turnpike Realty Co, Inc v Town of Dedham, 362 Mass 221, 225; 284 NE2d 891 [1972]); "not injurious to the surrounding neighborhood and not contrary to the spirit and purpose of this ordinance” (Florka v City of Detroit, 369 Mich 568, 570; 120 NW2d 797 [1963]); "may recommend conditions be attached which it (Board of Adjustment) finds are necessary to carry out the purpose of this ordinance” (Schultz v Board of Adjustment of Pottawattamie County, 258 Iowa 804, 809; 139 NW2d 448 [1966]). Of course, if the Scio Township ordinance had provided no more than that the board "shall impose such conditions as it deems necessary”, the ordinance would be fatally defective for lack of standards. However, the ordinance is not so vague. The language "to protect the public interest of the Township and the surrounding property, and to achieve the objectives of this Ordinance” is added. Further, the purposes of the ordinance are spelled out in detail in the eight subsections of § 1.03. We find § 6.08 of the Scio Township ordinance no less specific than the comparable sections of ordinances found sufficient in Florka, supra, and in the other cases cited above. Accordingly, we reject the argument that the ordinance is invalid for want of standards.
Affirmed. _
Plaintiffs amended complaint contained a claim under the Michigan Environmental Protection Act, MCL 691.1201 et seq.; MSA 14.528(201) et seq. It should be noted, although not part of this appeal, that defendant moved for partial summary judgment against plaintiffs EPA claim for failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted. The circuit court granted defendant’s motion. Plaintiff appealed from the partial summary judgment order to this Court. By published opinion released June 8, 1982, this Court affirmed the circuit court’s order. Whittaker & Gooding Co v Scio Twp, 117 Mich App 18; 323 NW2d 574 (1982). On June 29, 1982, plaintiff filed a delayed application for leave to appeal to the Supreme Court.
"And it has been held that the terms 'special exception’ and 'special permit’ are synonymous with the term 'conditional use’, the latter having replaced the term 'special exception’ in most modern zoning ordinances.” 3 Rathkopf, The Law of Zoning and Planning, § 41.02, p 41-8.
Noting that there is a trend toward a more liberal construction of standards, see Ours Properties, Inc v Ley, 198 Va 848; 96 SE2d 754 (1957), and 3 Anderson, American Law of Zoning, § 19.09, p 378. | [
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D. S. DeWitt, J.
Plaintiffs appeal as of right from a July 16, 1981, judgment and order of the lower court denying their motion for a preliminary injunction. We affirm.
On February 20, 1981, the defendant Muskegon County Board of Commissioners adopted an accommodations tax ordinance pursuant to authority granted under MCL 141.861 et seq.; MSA 5.3194(371) et seq. Under this ordinance, a four percent excise tax was to be levied on the revenue derived from the rental of motel and hotel accommodations to transient guests in Muskegon County after June 1, 1981. Soon after the ordinance was enacted, the defendants county controller and the Board of Commissioners promulgated rules and regulations governing the enforcement of the accommodations tax ordinance.
Plaintiffs are various motel and hotel operators and owners who do business in Muskegon County. On May 29, 1981, they filed the present action challenging the accommodations ordinance, its enabling act and its attendant rules and regulations. Plaintiffs sought a preliminary injunction restraining the county from levying the tax prior to a final judicial determination of its validity.
On July 1, 1981, after considering oral and written arguments, the trial judge rendered a well-reasoned opinion which found no merit in plaintiffs’ contentions that the accommodation ordinance; (1) violates the provisions of Const 1963, art 9, § 31, the so-called Headlee Amendment; (2) improperly permits the county to contract with a nonprofit agency; (3) improperly subjects certain hospitals and nursing homes to the tax; (4) improperly levies a tax on the occupiers of rooms; (5) violates Const 1963, art 9, § 8, which imposes a limit of four percent on sales taxes; and (6) violates equal protection of the law. The trial judge found in favor of plaintiffs on two arguments; (1) that the accommodations ordinance and its regulations authorize tax liens beyond the powers provided in its enabling statute, MCL 141.861 et seq.; MSA 5.3194(371) et seq., and (2) that the ordinance improperly permits the county to retain all interest and penalties for administrative and enforcement costs. The trial judge concluded that the portions of the ordinance which he found to be null and void could be severed from the remainder of the ordinance so as to preserve it. Since neither party disputes the judge’s holdings as to these severed portions we do not here discuss them. The trial judge denied plaintiffs’ request for a preliminary injunction based on the ordinance as interpreted. Plaintiffs now appeal, raising four issues for our consideration.
Plaintiffs first argue that the Muskegon County accommodations tax ordinance and its enabling statute violate the four percent limitation on sales taxes set forth in Const 1963, art 9, § 8.
The power to tax is exclusively vested in the Legislature pursuant to the provisions of Const 1963, art 9, § 1. However, the state is not limited to imposing only those taxes enumerated in the constitution. Stockler v Dep’t of Treasury, 75 Mich App 640, 647; 255 NW2d 718 (1977). Prior to the adoption of the Muskegon County accommodations tax ordinance, Muskegon County motel and hotel owners and operators were subject to a four percent use tax imposed upon them by the Michigan Use Tax Act, MCL 205.91 et seq.; MSA 7.555(1) et seq. Because of the levy imposed by the challenged ordinance, Muskegon County motel and hotel owners and operators must now pay a total of eight percent tax on their annual gross receipts.
Const 1963, art 9, § 8 provides, in pertinent part, that:
"The Legislature shall not impose a sales tax on retailers at a rate of more than 4% of their gross taxable sales of tangible personal property.”
The question before us is whether the state use and the local accommodations taxes are cumulatively subject to this four percent limitation. Because the four percent limitation clearly applies to a state sales tax, it is necessary for us to determine whether both the Michigan use tax and the Muskegon County accommodations tax are sales taxes within the meaning of this provision of the constitution.
The Michigan General Sales Tax Act, MCL 205.51 et seq.; MSA 7.521 et seq., permits the levy of a tax on the privilege of engaging in the business of making retail sales. The tax presently is levied at a rate of four percent of the retailer’s gross receipts. MCL 205.52; MSA 7.522. A "sale at retail” is defined as "a transaction by which is transferred for consideration the ownership of tangible personal property, when the transfer is made in the ordinary course of the transferor’s business”. MCL 205.51(l)(b); MSA 7.521(l)(b). Although the tax is passed on to the purchaser at retail, the burden of collecting the tax is imposed upon the retailer. Sims v Firestone Tire & Rubber Co, 397 Mich 469; 245 NW2d 13 (1976).
The Michigan Use Tax Act of 1937 was intended to complement the General Sales Tax Act by imposing a tax on tangible personal property purchased out of state for use, storage, or consumption in Michigan. National Bank of Detroit v Dep’t of Revenue, 334 Mich 132; 54 NW2d 278 (1952). Its purpose was to counteract the trend of consumers purchasing tangible personal property outside this state to avoid the three percent sales tax in effect at that time. Imposition of the use tax equalized the competitive status of Michigan and non-Michigan merchants.
Under § 3a of the Use Tax Act, MCL 205.93a<h); MSA 7.555(3a)(b), the use of rooms or lodging furnished by hotelkeepers or motel operators amounts to the use or consumption of a service subject to taxation under the act.
The four percent Muskegon County accommodations tax is authorized under the provisions of MCL 141.861 et seq.; MSA 5.3194(371) et seq. Section 2 of this act, in pertinent part, provides that a local unit of government:
"[M]ay enact an ordinance to levy, assess, and collect an excise tax from all persons engaged in the business of providing rooms for dwelling, lodging, or sleeping purposes, except in hospitals or nursing homes, to transient guests, whether or not membership is required for the use of the accommodations. The tax imposed pursuant to this act shall be at a rate of not more than 5% of the total charge for accommodations subject to this act.”
Pursuant to the authority granted under this enabling statute, the defendant Muskegon County Board of Commissioners adopted ordinance #10, the accommodations ordinance. It provides, in pertinent part:
"There is hereby levied upon and shall be collected from all persons engaged in the business of providing rooms for dwelling, lodging or sleeping purposes to transient guests, whether or not membership is required for the use of the accommodations, an excise tax equal to 4% of the total charge for accommodations.”
Plaintiffs argue that the case of Lockwood v Comm’r of Revenue, 357 Mich 517; 98 NW2d 753 (1959), holds that the state use tax is equivalent to the sales tax and, hence, subject to the four percent constitutional sales tax limitation. Plaintiffs contend that, under Lockwood, the local accommodations tax is equivalent to the state sales and general use taxes and, thus, is also subject to the four percent limitation.
Prior to 1959, the Michigan Constitution limited the imposition of a sales tax to the rate of three percent. Const 1908, art 10, § 23. At that time, both the General Sales Tax and the Use Tax Acts imposed a three percent rate of taxation. In 1959, the Legislature raised the rate of the use tax to four percent. It also amended the Use Tax Act to provide for an additional one percent tax on the use, storage, or consumption of tangible personal property on which the three percent tax had already been imposed. Thus, tangible personal property purchased outside of Michigan was taxed at the rate of four percent and tangible personal property purchased within the state was subject both to a three percent sales and a one percent use tax. The plaintiffs in Lockwood challenged the 1959 amendment to the Use Tax Act as unconstitutional on the ground that it exceeded the three percent constitutional limitation imposed on sales taxes.
The defendants in Lockwood contended that the additional one percent tax was a use tax and not a sales tax. For this reason, it was allegedly not subject to the sales tax limitation provision.
The Supreme Court found in favor of plaintiffs, holding that, despite the different label, the additional one percent tax on tangible personal property was a sales tax, not a use tax, and was subject to the three percent limitation. To reach this conclusion, the Court looked at the precise nature of the tax and how it functioned. It found that this tax was, in substance, a sales tax and declined to be persuaded by a label. It did not hold that all use taxes are sales taxes. Nor did it hold that all use and sales taxes are to be lumped for any reason. The Court did hold that a sales tax, masquerading as a use tax, was subject to the constitutional limitation. However, the Lockwood Court did not address the constitutionality of the four percent use tax on tangible personal property purchased outside the state for use, storage, or consumption within Michigan. It ordered only that the state "refrain from levying, assessing or collecting the additional 1% tax”. 357 Mich 560. Thus, contrary to plaintiffs’ argument in this case, Lockwood does not stand for the proposition that the state general use tax is subject to the same constitutional limitations imposed on the state general sales tax. Rather, Lockwood stands for the proposition that a court must determine the true nature of the tax and not be misled by legislative legerdemain. We are persuaded, therefore, that plaintiffs have misunderstood the import of the Lockwood decision.
The power of the state to impose a use tax is not limited by the provisions of Const 1963, art 9, § 8. However, even if it were, we would affirm here because the Muskegon County accommodations tax is not subject to that constitutional provision. The sales tax is clearly defined as a tax on a "sale at retail” involving the transfer of ownership of tangible property. Under no stretch of the imagination, or the language, can the use of a bed in a motel be defined as a transfer of ownership in a tangible property. Moreover, the revenues raised by the accommodations tax are not used in the same fashion that revenues raised by the sales or use taxes are used. Significantly, money raised pursuant to the accommodations tax is to be deposited in a special fund and may be used only to pay:
"(a) The cost of administration and enforcement of the ordinance.
"(b) The financing of the acquisition, construction, improvement, enlargement, repair, or maintenance of convention and entertainment facilities, including the payment of principal and interest, when due, on bonds or other evidence of indebtedness issued by the county for convention and entertainment facilities.
"(c) Current or future annual rental payable by the county to an authority authorized pursúant to state law for the purpose of acquiring, constructing, improving, enlarging, repairing, or maintaining the convention and entertainment facilities and leasing them to the county.
"(d) The promotion and encouragement of tourist and convention business in the county.” MCL 141.867; MSA 5.3194(377).
On the other hand, money raised pursuant to levies under the sales or use taxes are deposited in the state general fund. A portion of the sales tax revenues are remitted to various local units of government (MCL 205.75; MSA 7.546), whereas the use tax revenues are disbursed by legislative appropriation. MCL 205.111; MSA 7.555(21).
We are convinced, therefore, that neither the Use Tax Act nor the Muskegon County ordinance is subject to the limitation provisions of Const 1963, art 9, § 8. For this reason, the Muskegon County ordinance is valid even though it is levied in conjunction with the general use tax.
Plaintiffs next argue that the accommodations tax ordinance violates Const 1963, art 9, § 31, popularly known as the Headlee Amendment. In pertinent part, that constitutional provision provides:
"Units of Local Government are hereby prohibited from levying any tax not authorized by law or charter when this section is ratified or from increasing the rate of an existing tax above that rate authorized by law or charter when this section is ratified, without the approval of a majority of the qualified electors of that unit of Local Government voting thereon.”
The Muskegon County tax is unconstitutional, inasmuch as it did not receive voter approval, unless it can be determined that it was "authorized by law” prior to December 22, 1978, the date on which the Headlee Amendment was ratified. Defendants contend, the trial judge found, and we agree, that the term "authorized by law” does not require that a tax actually be levied on the date that the Headlee Amendment became effective. Rather, it requires only that a local government be empowered to levy the tax on the date that the Headlee Amendment was ratified, even if the local government had not exercised its authority.
The drafters of the Headlee Amendment expressly intended that a local unit of government be permitted to levy a tax it was empowered to levy on the date that the Headlee Amendment was ratified without a vote of its electors:
"[T]he intent of the wording was to permit Local units to retain those taxing powers they had by state law or local charter prior to the effective date of the amendment. Thus, a Local unit that was not levying or imposing the full amount of its taxing authority at the time of the effective date of the amendment would continue to be able to exercise such power after the effective date of the amendment. For example, a city with a 20 mill limit in its charter that only levied 15 mills in 1978 could increase its millage rate up to its 20 mill charter level without again going to the voters for approval. Likewise, a school district that had voter approval to levy extra voted millage at the time of adoption could increase its millage rate up to the amount authorized without again seeking voter approval, even though the maximum millage authorized might not have been levied in 1978.” William H. Shakers, Drafters’ Notes — Tax Limitation Amendment (Taxpayers United Research Institute, February 15, 1979), pp 11-12.
While it is clear that the Muskegon County accommodations tax does not violate the express provisions of the Headlee Amendment, when the constitutional provisions, which later became known as the Headlee Amendment, were originally placed before the voters as "Proposal E”, voters were presented with the following ballot description:
"Proposal for Tax Limitation.
"The Proposed Amendment Would:
"1. Limit all state taxes and revenues, excepting federal aid, to its current proportion of total state personal income and to provide for exception for declared emergency.
"2. Prohibit local government from adding new or increasing existing taxes without voter approval.
"3. Prohibit the state from adopting new or expanding present local programs without full state funding.
"4. Prohibit the state from reducing existing level of aid to local governments, taken as a group.
"5. Require voter approval of certain bonded indebtedness.” (Emphasis added.)
Plaintiffs contend that, on the basis of this ballot description, it may be inferred that voters intended to prohibit local governments from adopting any new taxes without their express approval. The language of the ballot description, indicating that the Headlee Amendment would prohibit local governments from adding any new, or increasing any existing, taxes without voter approval does not plainly distinguish between those taxes that were authorized by statute at the time of the adoption of the Headlee Amendment and those taxes that were authorized and levied at the time that the amendment was ratified. If this language is taken to mean that local governments were prohibited from adding any new taxes not authorized by law, or increasing any existing taxes above the maximum limit permitted by existing law without voter approval, then the ballot description would have sufficiently described the proposed amendment. However, if the language of the ballot description was meant to convey the idea that local units of government could not enact any new taxes even if previously authorized by law, or increase existing taxes up to the authorized maximum limit without voter approval, then the ballot description does not adequately reflect the language of the Headlee Amendment or the intent of its drafters.
In accordance with Const 1963, art 12, § 2, a ballot description must accompany every proposed amendment by petition to the constitution of this state:
"The ballot to be used in such election shall contain a statement of the purpose of the proposed amendment, expressed in not more than 100 words, exclusive of caption. Such statement of purpose and caption shall be prepared by the person authorized by law, and shall consist of a true and impartial statement of the purpose of the amendment in such language as shall create no prejudice for or against the proposed amendment.”
The "person authorized by law” to draft the statement of purpose behind a ballot proposal is the State Board of Canvassers. MCL 168.474; MSA 6.1474. Where the language employed by the State Board of Canvassers to describe the purpose of a proposed amendment to the constitution contains omissions or defects likely to mislead voters, the election must be voided and set aside. Jackson v Comm’r of Revenue, 316 Mich 694; 26 NW2d 569 (1947). See also West Shore Community College v Manistee County Bd of Comm’rs, 389 Mich 287; 205 NW2d 441 (1973).
The Muskegon County accommodations tax was "authorized by law” at the time that the Headlee Amendment was ratified because a state statute which permitted it to be levied was in existence. It is the actual language of the amendment, and not its ballot description drawn by the State Board of Canvassers, which is the law of the state. The principle that a constitutional amendment must be construed in the light of the intent of the people by whom it was adopted does not justify a construction in accordance with a ballot description at variance with the actual unambiguous amendatory language. If the language of the amendment and that of its ballot description does not convey precisely the same meaning, the discrepancy is not relevant to the construction of the plain language of the amendment itself. A discrepancy likely to mislead voters as to the intent and purpose of the amendment affects the validity of the adoption of the constitutional amendment, not its construction. Neither party to these proceedings claims the Headlee Amendment to have been illegally adopted. The issue was not briefed or addressed either in the circuit court or here on appeal.
We find no merit to plaintiffs’ argument that the accommodations tax ordinance and its enabling statute violate both federal and state constitutional guarantees of equal protection of the law. A legislative scheme that does not involve a suspect classification, such as race, need only comply with a rational basis test in order to be constitutional. Allied Stores of Ohio, Inc v Bowers, 358 US 522; 79 S Ct 437; 3 L Ed 2d 480 (1959).
In the instant case, plaintiffs contend that the accommodations tax ordinance violates equal protection because it failed to impose a tax on other businesses which will benefit from the increased convention and tourist trade generated by the accommodations tax revenues. The trial judge found that the tax scheme adopted by the ordinance bears a "fair and substantial relationship to the object” of the ordinance. We concur.
Tax revenues expended to promote tourism and conventions bear a substantial relationship to the motel and hotel industries in Muskegon County. Moreover, the exclusion from the taxation classification of other businesses likely to benefit from increased tourism and convention business, such as restaurants, campgrounds, and retail stores, is not invidious because a substantial portion of their business is derived from local residents. The motel and hotel industry derives a far greater portion of its income from tourism and conventions. Therefore, the classifications scheme adopted in the accommodations tax ordinance violates neither the state nor the federal Equal Protection Clauses.
Similarly, we reject plaintiffs’ contention that the accommodations tax ordinance illegally grants powers to the county which exceed or conflict with those authorized under the enabling statute. Specifically, plaintiffs contend that the ordinance permits the county to contract with a nonprofit agency to carry out the provisions of the ordinance and that it permits the room providers to pass the tax on to room occupants.
The enabling statute for the accommodations tax ordinance provides that revenues must be "deposited in a special fund to be used by the county or by an authority which is organized pursuant to state law” only to pay certain costs. MCL 141.867; MSA 5.3194(377). The narrow issue before us, then, is whether by contracting with a nonprofit agency Muskegon County will use the money in a manner inconsistent with, or prohibited by, the enabling statute.
The statute does not expressly prohibit a county from entering into a contract with a nonprofit agency to carry out the general purposes of the act. The only express limitation imposed on local governments concerns the costs that may be paid by the revenues derived from the accommodations tax. MCL 141.867; MSA 5.3194(377). Michigan counties have been granted general power to enter into contracts. MCL 45.3; MSA 5.283. Therefore, because the enabling statute does not prohibit a county from entering into a contract with a nonprofit agency, and because counties do have general authority to enter into contracts, the Muskegon County ordinance is not invalid solely because it permits such a contract. This is not to say that the contract itself may not be invalid if, for example, it violates a specific provision of the enabling statute, such as that limiting the costs that may be paid from revenues derived from the tax. There is nothing in the record at this time that establishes such an invalidity.
Nor is the accommodations tax ordinance in violation of the enabling statute because it imposes a four percent tax on the room occupant rather than the room provider. MCL 141.862; MSA 5.3194(372) specifically states that a county is authorized to impose a tax on "persons engaged in the business of providing rooms”. Pursuant to § 4 of the accommodations tax ordinance, motel and hotel owners and operators "shall collect the tax”. Contrary to the argument of plaintiffs, however, § 4 of the ordinance does not conclusively establish that the tax is on the room occupant. Rather, in § 3a of the accommodations tax ordinance it is clearly stated:
"There is hereby levied upon and shall be collected from all persons engaged in the business of providing rooms for dwelling or lodging or sleeping purposes to transient guests, whether or not membership is required for the use of the accommodations, an excise tax equal to 4 percent of the total charge for accommodations.”
Interpreting § 3a and § 4 in conjunction, § 4 merely permits motel and hotel owners and operators to pass the tax along to room occupants. In Sims v Firestone, supra, the Supreme Court held that the cost of the sales tax which, like the accommodations tax, is a tax on the business entity and not on the consumer, could be passed on to the consumer as a cost of doing business. The situation in the Sims case is sufficiently analogous to the present one to control here. It is apparent that plaintiffs may pass on to their customers the cost of the four percent accommodations tax.
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After Remand
Before: R. B. Burns, P.J., and Mackenzie and J. T. Kaixman, JJ.
Per Curiam.
After a jury trial, defendant was convicted of assault with intent to commit great bodily harm less than murder, MCL 750.84; MSA 28.279, and of possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony, MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2). Defendant was sentenced to imprisonment for consecutive terms of five to ten years and two years and appealed by right. Defendant argued, among other things, that he had been denied a fair trial because a juror had failed during voir dire to reveal that he was to be a prosecution witness in a similar case. The juror was not directly asked if he had ever witnessed a similar crime. Defendant argued that a prosecution witness naturally tends to identify himself with the prosecution and to distrust the defense. Defendant submitted an affidavit from his trial counsel indicating that, had counsel been aware that the juror was a prosecution witness in a similar case, he would have exercised a peremptory challenge to have the juror dismissed. Since we regarded the record then before us as insufficient to resolve defendant’s contentions, we retained jurisdiction and remanded the case to the trial court as follows:
"[S]ince it is unclear whether the juror in question was aware at the time of trial that he would be called as a witness in the other case, we feel that the proper procedure is to remand this matter for an evidentiary hearing in the trial court. At that hearing, the trial judge should determine whether (1) the juror’s status as a witness deprived him of his ability to act impartially in the case at bar; (2) defendant could have successfully challenged the juror for cause; or (3) defendant would have 'otherwise’ dismissed the juror by exercising a peremptory challenge had the truth been revealed.” People v Larry Smith, 106 Mich App 203, 213; 307 NW2d 441 (1981).
On remand, defendant’s trial counsel testified that he would have peremptorily challenged the juror had he been aware that the juror was a prosecution witness in a similar case. The juror testified that he had not actually seen the similar crime committed:
"I was not present when Mr. Ritsema was shot. I was about a half — about three-quarters or a quarter of a — or a whole block away and my testimony was that I saw this panel truck pull up from this street, go into the gas station and then proceeded into the driveway and I — in my evidence, I said it sounded like to me the thing was backfiring. That’s all I saw. I couldn’t tell you whether he is black, white or yellow, whether he’s male or female.”
The other case was not tried until trial in this case was completed. The juror testified that, although he had made a statement to the police, he was not told that he would be called as a witness until he was served with a subpoena. The subpoena was served after trial in this case was completed. The juror also testified that his involvement in the other case had no influence on his consideration of this case.
The trial judge found that the juror’s status as a witness did not deprive him of the ability to act impartially in this case and that defendant could not have successfully challenged the juror for cause. The trial judge made no finding as to whether the juror would have been dismissed by peremptory challenge had his status as a witness in the other case been revealed. Defendant now argues that this Court should make the finding that the trial judge failed to make. We decline to do so since testimony on remand has rendered the question moot. What defense counsel would have done if the juror had informed him that he was to be a witness in a similar case is irrelevant since the juror could not have so informed counsel. At the time of voir dire the juror himself did not know he was to be a witness. Moreover, the juror’s status as a prosecution witness could not have led the juror to identify himself with the prosecution before he became aware that he was a prosecution witness.
Defendant points to other information concerning the juror which became available on remand and which he claims would have led his counsel to exercise a peremptory challenge had it been revealed at voir dire. At voir dire, the jurors were asked if they had any relatives or close friends who were or had been involved in police work. The juror involved in this appeal did not inform the court of any such relationship. On remand, it was revealed that the juror had a slight acquaintance with his local police chief and several other police officers, none of whom were from a department involved in this case. The juror also revealed that he had been upset and distracted at the time of trial because his daughter had been dying of leukemia. However, we hold that reversal and a new trial is not required under the circumstances presented here because defendant waived any defect in the jury selection process, the juror’s answers to the questions at voir dire were not false, and the information was not such that the juror should have disclosed it even absent questioning.
The purpose of voir dire is to afford counsel an opportunity to elicit sufficient information to de velop a rational basis for excluding jurors for cause or by peremptory challenge. The scope of voir dire examination is within the sound discretion of the trial judge and his decision will not be set aside absent an abuse of discretion. People v Harrell 398 Mich 384; 247 NW2d 829 (1976). This Court has ordered a new trial where the trial judge restricted voir dire in a manner which prevented development of a factual basis for the exercise of peremptory challenges. People v Sears, 88 Mich App 1; 276 NW2d 496 (1979). However, defendant may not argue that the trial judge unduly restricted the scope of voir dire where, as here, his counsel was permitted to ask such questions as he deemed necessary and eventually expressed his satisfaction with the jury selected. People v Brown, 393 Mich 174; 224 NW2d 38 (1974).
False answers by a juror to questions on voir dire, whether intentional or unintentional, deny the defendant a fair trial if correct answers would have led the parties to challenge him. People v Graham, 84 Mich App 663, 666-667; 270 NW2d 673 (1978). Here, however, the juror’s answers to the questions on voir dire were not false. For example, the juror’s relationship with the police officers could not be characterized as a close friendship. A defendant is denied a fair trial where a juror fails to disclose on voir dire a matter which would deprive him of the capacity to act impartially even though the juror was not asked about the matter. People v Hannum, 362 Mich 660, 666-667; 107 NW2d 894 (1961). However, we cannot say that the matters on which defendant relies were matters which would have deprived the juror of his capacity to act impartially.
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R. B. Burns, P.J.
Defendant pled guilty to carrying a dangerous weapon in a motor vehicle, MCL 750.227; MSA 28.424, on November 2, 1981. He was sentenced according to a plea-bargaining agreement to two and one-half years to five years in prison to run concurrently with the sentence he was then serving. Defendant appeals, alleging that the trial court erroneously failed to grant him credit for time served in jail while incarcerated on another conviction.
Defendant had escaped from prison when he was arrested for the present offense of carrying a dangerous weapon. He was returned to prison and was not charged with escape.
MCL 769.11b; MSA 28.1083(2) provides defendants with credit for presentence incarceration under certain circumstances:
"Whenever any person is hereafter convicted of any crime within this state and has served any time in jail prior to sentencing because of being denied or unable to furnish bond for the offense of which he is convicted, the trial court in imposing sentence shall specifically grant credit against the sentence for such time served in jail prior to sentencing.”
However, MCL 768.7a; MSA 28.1030(1) reads:
"Sec. 7a. (1) A person who is incarcerated in a penal or reformatory institution in this state, or who escapes from that institution, and who commits a crime during that incarceration or escape which is punishable by imprisonment in a penal or reformatory institution in this state shall, upon conviction thereof, be subject to sentence therefor in the manner provided by law for such crimes. The term of sentence imposed for the crime shall commence at the expiration of the term or terms of sentence which the person is serving or has become liable to serve in a penal or reformatory institution in this state.” (Emphasis supplied.)
Prior to the amendment of this act in 1976, the act read:
"Sec. 7a. Any person who is now or hereafter incarcerated in any penal or reformatory institution in this state, or who escapes from such institution, and commits a crime punishable by imprisonment in any penal or reformatory institution in this state shall, upon conviction thereof, be subject to sentence therefor in the manner provided by law for such crimes. The term of sentence imposed for such crime may, at the discretion of the court pronouncing judgment in such cause, commence forthwith or at the expiration of the term or terms of sentence which such person is serving or has theretofore become liable to serve in any penal or reformatory institution in this state.” (Emphasis supplied.)
The trial court erred when it sentenced the defendant to a concurrent sentence. Prior to the statute’s amendment in 1976, the court had discretion to sentence a person who had committed a crime while an escapee to the concurrent sentence or a consecutive sentence. The amendment in 1976 restricted the court and mandated a consecutive sentence.
Inasmuch as the defendant’s sentence does not start until the expiration of his prior sentence, he is not entitled to credit for time served while incarcerated on another offense.
As the terms of the sentence were part of the plea-bargaining agreement, the trial court is reversed and the case is remanded to the trial court for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
Reversed and remanded. | [
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Mackenzie, P.J.
It is alleged and admitted that the male plaintiffs are employees of defendant within the meaning of the Worker’s Disability Compensation Act, MCL 418.131; MSA 17.237(131). The male plaintiffs have alleged that they were exposed in the course of their employment to large quantities of the chemical benzidine and that, as a result, they developed cancer of the bladder. Plaintiffs alleged that defendant knew that benzidine caused cancer of the bladder but that defendant "maliciously, intentionally, and wantonly” withheld this information from plaintiffs and "maliciously, intentionally, and wantonly” assured plaintiffs that exposure to benzidine would not harm them. The circuit judge granted accelerated judgment for defendant pursuant to GCR 1963, 116.1(2) on the ground that plaintiffs’ claim was barred by the exclusive remedy provision of the Worker’s Disability Compensation Act, MCL 418.131; MSA 17.237(131). Plaintiffs appeal by right.
Plaintiffs argue that the exclusive remedy provision does not bar an action for an intentional tort and that, alternatively, plaintiffs’ action was not barred because the male plaintiffs are suffering from a condition which is not presently disabling and therefore is not compensable under the act. Defendant argues that plaintiffs’ action presented questions concerning compensation over which the Bureau of Workers’ Compensation has exclusive jurisdiction.
In Neal v Roura Iron Works, Inc, 66 Mich App 273, 275; 238 NW2d 837 (1975), the Court said:
"[I]n order to decide that plaintiffs present action is precluded by the exclusive remedy provision of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, we must answer the following three questions in the affirmative: (1) Were the 'conditions of liability under the act’ present at the time of plaintiffs injury?, (2) Is plaintiff seeking to recover damages for personal injuries?, and (3) Is plaintiff’s suit based upon the employer-employee relationship?”
See also People v Chrysler Corp, 98 Mich App 277, 281-282; 296 NW2d 237 (1980), and Bourassa v ATO Corp, 113 Mich App 517, 519-520; 317 NW2d 669 (1982). We will examine the three questions posed by Neal in reverse order.
Issues concerning injuries and whether they grew out of and in the course of the employment relationship must be initially submitted to the Bureau of Workers’ Compensation for determination as to jurisdiction and liability. Szydlowski v General Motors Corp, 397 Mich 356; 245 NW2d 26 (1976); Herman v Theis, 10 Mich App 684; 160 NW2d 365 (1968); Bednarski v General Motors Corp, 88 Mich App 482; 276 NW2d 624 (1979); Dixon v Sype, 92 Mich App 144; 284 NW2d 514 (1979); Sewell v Bathey Mfg Co, 103 Mich App 732; 303 NW2d 876 (1981); Johnson v Arby’s, Inc, 116 Mich App 425; 323 NW2d 427 (1982). Only cases which are based on a different relationship between the parties and in which it is clear that the employer-employee relationship between the parties is unrelated to the cause of action may be commenced in circuit court without an initial determination by the bureau. Compare Panagos v North Detroit General Hospital, 35 Mich App 554; 192 NW2d 542 (1971), with Neal, supra. The cause of action alleged here was not so clearly unrelated to the employer-employee relationship as to fall within the Panagos exception.
Various panels of this Court have relied on either the nature of the cause of action stated or the type of injury alleged to hold that plaintiff was not seeking to recover damages for personal injuries. See Moore v Federal Dep’t Stores, Inc, 33 Mich App 556; 190 NW2d 262 (1971) (claim for damages for humiliation, embarrassment, and deprivation of personal liberty arising out of false imprisonment), Milton v Oakland County, 50 Mich App 279; 213 NW2d 250 (1973) (claim for damages for breach of contract, including damages'for physical and mental injuries arising out of breach), Stimson v Michigan Bell Telephone Co, 77 Mich App 361; 258 NW2d 227 (1977) (claim for damages for sex discrimination; damages for mental injuries culminating in disablement held not recoverable), Broaddus v Ferndale Fastener Division, Ring Screw Works, 84 Mich App 593; 269 NW2d 689 (1978) (claim for damages for intentional infliction of emotional distress through wrongful denial of compensation benefits; damages for compensable physical injuries held not recoverable), and Pacheco v Clifton, 109 Mich App 563; 311 NW2d 801 (1981) (claim for damages for discrimination based on national origin, including damages for mental injuries culminating in disablement). These cases are not consistent in all respects; compare Milton and Pacheco with Stimson and Broaddus. However, they clearly show that damages such as plaintiffs seek to recover here are damages for personal injuries and so are within the act.
Plaintiffs point out that they have claimed damages for mental injuries such as humiliation, loss of quality of life, and, in the case of plaintiff wives, loss of spousal companionship. Since these claims derive from plaintiff husbands’ claimed physical injuries, they do not support a conclusion that plaintiffs’ action was not one to recover damages for personal injuries. Cole v Dow Chemical Co, 112 Mich App 198, 206; 315 NW2d 565 (1982).
Plaintiffs suggest that intentional torts are outside the scope of the exclusive remedy provision regardless of whether they involve damages for personal injuries. Plaintiffs place considerable reliance on decisions from other jurisdictions. These and similar decisions are discussed in 2A Larson, Workmen’s Compensation Law, § 68.11, pp 13-1— 13-2:
"Several legal theories have been advanced to support this result. The best is that the employer will not be heard to allege that the injury was 'accidental’ and therefore was under the exclusive provisions of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, when he himself intentionally committed the act. A second is that the employer severed the employment relation by his act of violence. Unless the facts show that the parties did indeed treat the relation as terminated from that time on, this1' argument is rather fictitious, especially when, as sometimes happens, the employee continues on the same job after the assault. The most fictitious theory of all is that the assault does not arise out of the employment; for if it is a work-connected assault, it is no less so because the assailant happens to be the employer. The nonaccidental theory, then, is the most satisfactory; but the others may be put to work in jurisdictions which do not require that the injury be accidental.” (Footnotes omitted.)
The first theory, which Larson regards as the most satisfactory, is inapplicable in Michigan be cause our statute contains no requirement of accidental injury. As we have shown, Michigan allows an action for damages which, as a matter of fact, did not arise out of the employer-employee relationship, but except in clear cases, such a claim must be submitted to the Bureau of Workers’ Compensation for initial determination. Plaintiffs would have us go beyond this rule, either by holding that as a matter of law intentional torts do not arise out of the employer-employee relationship by adopting one of the "fictions” discussed by Larson or by holding that the drafters of Michigan’s statute intended that actions for intentional torts, like actions in which plaintiff is not seeking to recover damages for personal injuries, fall outside the exclusive remedy provision.
Some Michigan authority supports such a result. In Kissinger v Mannor, 92 Mich App 572, 577; 285 NW2d 214 (1979), the Court said:
"The Legislature could not have intended that the exclusive remedy section of the act be construed to preclude a plaintiff’s recovery for injuries suffered in an intentional tort such as the one before us.”
However, this statement has little precedential value because it is expressly limited to an intentional tort such as the one then before the Court and because the Court was careful to point out that the case fell within other exceptions to the exclusive remedy provision. The Court noted that plaintiff’s injuries had not resulted in a disabling condition for which compensation under the act was available and that plaintiff’s injuries did not arise out of the employer-employee relationship and occurred irrespective of the fact that plaintiff happened to be employed at the time.
In McKinley v Holiday Inn, 115 Mich App 160, 165; 320 NW2d 329 (1982), the Court relied on Professor Marcus Plant, Torts, 19 Wayne L Rev 703, 748-749 (1973), to conclude that the Legislature did not intend the exclusive remedy provision to bar an action for intentional tort. However, this conclusion was also dicta because the Court held that plaintiffs complaint was grounded solely in negligence.
The exceptions to the exclusive remedy provision for actions which did not arise out of the employer-employee relationship and for actions in which plaintiff is not seeking to recover damages for personal injuries are derived from the language of the statute. See MCL 418.131; MSA 17.237(131) and MCL 418.301(1); MSA 17.237(301X1). Most cases involving intentional torts will fall within one or the other of these exceptions. As no language in the statute suggests a separate exception for intentional torts, we can only create such an exception through theorization about legislative intent without regard to the language of the statute or through utilization of one of the unsatisfactory fictions discussed by Larson. We cannot say either that the Legislature clearly intended a separate exception for intentional torts not falling within one of the other exceptions or that public policy so clearly requires such a result as to justify our creation of a legal fiction. We decline to create a separate exception to the exclusive remedy provision for intentional torts.
Plaintiffs claim that their injuries are not presently disabling and point out that bladders are not among the organs listed in the specific loss schedule contained in MCL 418.361; MSA 17.237(361). Plaintiffs argue that they may bring a civil action to recover damages for injuries for which compensation is not available. Plaintiffs’ position finds some support in the language used in Kissinger v Mannor, supra, p 577, although we do note that the Court in McKinley v Holiday Inn, supra, p 165, reading Kissinger, commended the Kissinger decision for rejecting this position.
Plaintiffs’ position reduces to an absurdity. For example, if plaintiffs have suffered a personal injury arising out of the employer-employee relationship, they are clearly entitled to compensation for their medical expenses; see MCL 418.315; MSA 17.237(315). If plaintiffs may bring a civil action to recover damages for every aspect of their injury for which compensation is not available, then a civil action may be brought in nearly every case, because, for example, pain and suffering are probably incurred by the victims of most industrial accidents, yet pain and suffering are not compensable under the act. Plaintiffs overlook that a fundamental purpose of workers’ compensation legislation is to exchange the possibility of full compensation for certain, if less full, compensation. See Addison v W E Wood Co, 207 Mich 319, 324; 174 NW 149 (1919), wherein the Supreme Court stated:
"The purpose and scope of the legislation is directed and limited to providing a measure of compensation, not full but certain, to those incapacitated for work by industrial accidents, to be paid without regard to any of the legal liability tests of the employee’s or employer’s negligence, assumption of risk or negligence of a fellow-servant.”
In Neal v Roura Iron Works, Inc, supra, this exception was stated more narrowly. The Neal Court indicated that a civil action could be brought where conditions of liability under the act did not exist. This exception may be traced to Moore v Federal Dep’t Stores, Inc, supra, pp 559-560. Arguably, it no longer has any effect since the language on which it is based was eliminated from the exclusive remedy provision by 1972 PA 285. See Hoffman v National Machine Co, 113 Mich App 66, 73; 317 NW2d 289 (1982), but see Neal, supra, p 275, fn 1.
Careful examination of the workers’ compensation statute leads us to conclude that this exception has no independent significance. The essential conditions of liability under the act are stated in MCL 418.301(1); MSA 17.237(301X1), which provides in part:
"An employee, who receives a personal injury arising out of and in the course of employment by an employer who is subject to this act at the time of the injury, shall be paid compensation as provided in this act.”
Thus, if the other two questions stated in Neal, supra, and quoted at the beginning of this opinion are answered in the affirmative, the answer to the question "Were the 'conditions of liability under the act’ present at the time of plaintiff’s injury?” is necessarily "yes”.
Rather than affirm here, we elect to apply a remedy analogous to that used in Bednarski v General Motors Corp, supra, p 487; Dixon v Sype, supra, pp 149-150, and Johnson v Arby’s, Inc, supra, pp 431-432. We reverse the circuit court’s decision and remand the case to circuit court. Plaintiffs shall, within 30 days of the release of this opinion, file an application with the bureau for a hearing on the question in controversy. If such application is timely filed, the circuit court shall hold the instant action in abeyance pending the decision of the bureau. If the bureau deter mines that plaintiffs have suffered personal injuries arising out of or in the course of employment, or if plaintiffs fail to apply for a determination by the bureau within 30 days (or to seek review of this decision in the Supreme Court in timely fashion), the circuit court decision granting an accelerated judgment for defendant shall stand affirmed. If the bureau determines that plaintiffs have not suffered personal injuries arising out of or in the course of their employment, the circuit court action may proceed.
Reversed and remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion. | [
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Per Curiam.
Defendant was convicted by a jury on July 30, 1980, of assault with intent to murder, MCL 750.83; MSA 28.278, and was sentenced to 50 to 75 years imprisonment. His previous conviction for the same crime was reversed by the Supreme Court. People v Gardner, 406 Mich 369; 279 NW2d 785 (1979), cert den Michigan v Gardner, 444 US 1093; 100 S Ct 1061; 62 L Ed 2d 783 (1980). He now appeals as of right.
At his first trial, defendant and codefendant, Michael Kidder, were represented by the same attorney. The defendants, inmates at Jackson prison, were charged with assaulting a prison guard. The guard testified that he was struck over the head by an "awful hard blow, terrible blow” and immediately lost consciousness, although he was aware of more than one blow to his head. Both defendant and Kidder admitted that each committed an assault on the guard, Kidder testifying that he struck the first, but not very hard, blow. Defendant agreed that the blow struck by Kidder had not been hard and further admitted hitting the prison guard over the head with a board about four times and subsequently striking the guard with a crowbar. Defendant testified that he struck the guard because he "[wjanted to knock him out so [he] could get time, get out of there * * *55
The Supreme Court found that the defendant was deprived of effective assistance of counsel because, although defendant’s and Kidder’s defenses were not necessarily inconsistent, it should have been apparent to defense counsel at the beginning of the case that the testimony would portray notably less culpability of Kidder and greater culpability of Gardner. The Court found that defense counsel did not pursue defendant’s defense to the fullest extent, specifically by counsel’s objecting to admitting into evidence defendant’s statement which at least implied that defendant was taking the blame for the crime in an effort to aid codefendant Kidder and by counsel’s distinguishing the relative culpability of his two clients in his closing argument.
Upon retrial, defendant’s prior testimony was admitted over defense counsel’s objections in the prosecution’s case in chief. Defendant did not testify at the trial. Defendant claims on appeal that admitting this prior testimony, tainted by his former counsel’s ineffectiveness, mandates reversal.
Generally, testimony given by a defendant at a prior trial is admissible upon retrial. People v Thompson, 97 Mich App 319; 293 NW2d 812 (1980); MRE 801(d)(2)(A). Defendant, however, argues that Harrison v United States, 392 US 219; 88 S Ct 2008; 20 L Ed 2d 1047 (1968), requires reversal.
In Harrison, the United States Supreme Court reversed the defendant’s murder conviction because the prosecutor had read into evidence the defendant’s testimony from his first trial. The conviction from his former trial had been reversed because of the erroneous admission into evidence of an illegally obtained confession. The Court applied the "fruit of the poisonous tree” doctrine:
"The question is not whether the petitioner made a knowing decision to testify [at his former trial], but why. If he did so in order to overcome the impact of confessions illegally obtained and hence improperly introduced, then his testimony was tainted by the same illegality that rendered the confessions themselves inadmissible.” (Emphasis in original.) 392 US 223.
In Harrison, the Supreme Court found the defendant’s testimony had in fact been tainted and reversed the conviction.
The focus on why the defendant testified has also been used in two cases where the defendant’s previous conviction was reversed due to ineffective assistance of counsel.
In Commonwealth v Mangini, 493 Pa 203; 425 A2d 734 (1981), the defendant’s second trial was allegedly tainted by the prosecution’s using an eyewitness’s testimony admitted at the first trial. At the time of the crime, the eyewitness was diagnosed as a paranoid schizophrenic and was using prescribed medication. Although this witness was found incompetent to testify at the second trial, the defense counsel at the first trial had failed to bring any motion to determine the witness’s competency. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court ruled:
"Considering the entire record before us of all prior proceedings, the use in the present trial of the very testimony which has been indelibly stamped with prior counsel’s ineffectiveness is offensive to our sense of justice and the notion of fair play.” 493 Pa 210.
However, the Court specifically rejected a per se rule:
"We caution that our holding today is not a per se rule requiring exclusion of any testimony from a prior trial wherein trial counsel had been ineffective. All of the factual variables of each case must be examined to determine if the ineffectiveness so tainted the testimony-sought to be introduced as to affect its reliability or to otherwise render its subsequent use unfair.” 493 Pa 212.
In Mancusi v Stubbs, 408 US 204; 92 S Ct 2308; 33 L Ed 2d 293 (1972), the defendant’s first trial was reversed on an apparent per se rule of ineffective assistance of counsel because the defense counsel had been appointed only four days before trial. The prosecution’s key witness, although present at the first trial, was unavailable at the second. The defendant argued that his right to confrontation was denied when that witness’s testimony from the first trial was admitted at the second trial, claiming the cross-examination at the first trial was inadequate. Rather than assuming the right to confrontation was preserved because the witness was available for cross-examination at the first trial, or assuming the situation required a per se exclusionary rule, the United States Supreme Court examined the cross-examination to determine its effectiveness. The Supreme Court then concluded the cross-examination had, in fact, been adequate; consequently, "the transcript of [the witness’s] testimony in the first trial bore sufficient 'indicia of reliability’ and afforded 'the trier of fact a satisfactory basis for evaluating the truth of the prior statement.’” 408 US 216.
Analyzing the specific facts of defendant’s situation, we affirm his conviction. Defendant does not claim that his testimony at the first trial was prompted by his defense counsel’s strategy to exculpate codefendant Kidder. Instead, defendant testified in an attempt to convince the jury that he was guilty of only assault with intent to do great bodily harm less than murder rather than the charged offense. As such, the joint representation did not taint defendant’s prior testimony.
Defendant’s claim of instructional error does not require reversal. People v Kramer, 108 Mich App 240, 247-248; 310 NW2d 347 (1981).
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Per Curiam.
Appellants are Michigan residents who own 100% of the stock of a subchapter S corporation known as the Buffalo Bills, which is a New York corporation doing business in New York and California. In 1975 and 1976, appellants filed their Michigan income tax returns and deducted from their adjusted gross income the income received by them from the subchapter S corporation. The appellee, Department of Treasury, disallowed the deductions, added them back to appellants’ gross income thereby increasing the Michigan tax due in the amount of $4,140.77, and assessed a penalty of $414.09 and interest of $1,082.05, for a total additional tax due of $5,636.91.
Appellants filed a petition with the State Board of Tax Appeals contesting the action of the Department of Treasury and subsequently brought suit in Ingham County Circuit Court for recovery of the $5,636.91 paid as assessed. The Ingham County Circuit Court affirmed the assessment finding that such distributions were to be treated like dividends and could be taxed in this state.
The question presented is whether distributions to Michigan resident shareholders from a New York subchapter S corporation should be allocated to Michigan for income tax purposes?
There has been only one appellate court decision from this state that has considered the issue presented in this case, and then, only indirectly.
In Grunewald v Dep’t of Treasury, 104 Mich App 601; 305 NW2d 269 (1981), lv den 412 Mich 875 (1981), it was held that Michigan residents cannot take into account their distributive share of losses sustained by an out-of-state limited partnership when computing their income subject to the Michigan income tax. Grunewald, supra, p 608. In arriving at that conclusion, this Court relied upon the Board of Tax Appeals decision in Craighead v Dep’t of Treasury, Mich Tax Rep (CCH), ¶ 200-751 (1978):
"The board relied in part on a since-repealed statute which required shareholders in subchapter S corporations to include their proportionate share of the corporation taxable income in their income for state income tax purposes without distinguishing between in-state or out-of-state subchapter S corporations. MCL 206.81; MSA 7.557(181), repealed by 1975 PA 233. The board also suggested that subchapter S distributions are equivalent to corporate dividends which are allocated to this state where the taxpayer is a resident, MCL 206.113; MSA 7.557(1113). Finally, the board found no basis for application of the allocation and apportionment provisions of the Income Tax Act to subchapter S distributions.
"While we agree with the board’s treatment of sub-chapter S distributions as corporate dividends, we cannot make the same analogy with limited partnership income because partnership income has always been taxed as income to the partners rather than at the partnership level.” Grunewald, supra, p 607.
A subchapter S corporation, i.e., small business corporation, is limited to no more than 15 shareholders, Internal Revenue Code, § 1371(a)(1), al though a husband and wife are treated as one shareholder. IRC § 1371(c). An eligible corporation may elect not to be subject to corporation taxes. IRC § 1372(a). Once becoming an electing small business corporation, IRC § 1372(a), such status can only be terminated by 1) the addition of new shareholders, 2) revocation, 3) ceasing to be a small business corporation, 4) having foreign income of over 80%, or 5) having passive investment income of over 20%. IRC § 1372(e). Undistributed taxable income of an electing corporation is included in the gross income of the shareholders, i.e., the amount each would have received as a dividend if there was a pro rata distribution. IRC § 1373(a). The amount so included shall be treated as a dividend. IRC § 1373(b); Treas Reg § 1.1373-1 (1982). Conversely, the net operating loss of an electing corporation is allowed as a deduction from the gross income of the shareholders. IRC § 1374(a). The amount so deducted is treated as a "deduction attributable to a trade or business carried on by the shareholder”, IRC § 1374(b); Treas Reg § 1.1374-2 (1982), and each shareholder is entitled to deduct his or her pro rata share of the loss. IRC § 1374(c). Subchapter S, IRC §§ 1371-1379, has many references to distributions being treated as dividends, e.g., § 1375(a) (capital gains are includable in gross income of shareholders as dividends) although such distributions are not treated as dividends for some purposes, i.e., when computing some tax credits or the dividends received exclusion in the process of determining gross income under § 116 but only to the extent such is a distribution out of earnings and profits under § 316(a)(2) for the taxable year, IRC § 1375(b), or when undistributed shares are distributed in later years. IRC § 1375(d). Plaintiffs do not fall under any of the exceptions.
The Income Tax Act of 1967, MCL 206.1 et seq.; MSA 7.557(101) et seq., provides that:
"(1) 'Taxable income’ in the case of a person other than a corporation, an estate, or trust means adjusted gross income as defined in the internal revenue code subject to the following adjustments:
"(j) Adjustments resulting from the allocation and apportionment provisions of chapter 3.” MCL 206.30; MSA 7.557(130).
Chapter 3 provides that:
"Any taxpayer having income from business activity which is taxable both within and without this state, other than the rendering of purely personal services by an individual, shall allocate and apportion his net income as provided in this act.” MCL 206.103; MSA 7.557(1103).
"For purposes of allocation and apportionment of income from business activity under this act, a taxpayer is taxable in another state if (a) in that state he is subject to a net income tax, a franchise tax measured by net income, a franchise tax for the privilege of doing business or a corporate stock tax, or (b) that state has jurisdiction to subject the taxpayer to a net income tax regardless of whether, in fact, the state does or does not.” MCL 206.105; MSA 7.557(1105).
"(1) In the case of a resident individual, estate or trust all taxable income from any source whatsoever, except that attributable to another state under the provisions of sections 111 to 115 and subject to the credit provisions of section 255, is allocated to this state.” MCL 206.110; MSA 7.557(1110).
"Interest and dividends are allocable to this state if the taxpayer is a resident partnership, estate or trust or individual of this state or has a commercial domicile in this state.” MCL 206.113; MSA 7.557(1113).
"All business income, other than income from transportation services shall be apportioned to this state by multiplying the income by a fraction, the numerator of which is the property factor plus the payroll factor plus the sales factor, and the denominator of which is 3.” MCL 206.115; MSA 7.557(1115).
Finally,
" 'Business income’ means income arising from transactions, activities and sources in the regular course of the taxpayer’s trade or business and includes income from tangible and intangible property if the acquisition, rental, management and disposition of the property constitutes integral parts of the taxpayer’s regular trade or business operations.” MCL 206.4(2); MSA 7.557(104X2).
Plaintiffs claim that the foregoing provisions dictate that distributions from out-of-state subchapter S corporations to Michigan residents are not includable in the latters’ income subject to the Michigan income tax.
"The property, payroll, and sales factors represent the percentage of the total property, payroll, or sales of the business used, paid, or made in this state. MCL 206.116; MSA 7.557(1116), MCL 206.119; MSA 7.557(1119), MCL 206.121; MSA 7.557(1121). Each factor in the present case is zero; thus, the fraction specified by § 115 is 0/3, and none of the taxpayers’ income from the limited partnership is attributable to Michigan.” Grünewald, supra, p 606.
However, such a result in this case requires a finding that subchapter S distributions are "business income”. Yet, it is clear that those distributions do not arise "in the regular course of the taxpayer’s trade or business” as the taxpayers in this case are the plaintiffs, not the corporation. The trade or business is carried on by the corporation, not by the shareholders. Likewise, plaintiffs are not subject to franchise taxes in other states. Rather, it is the corporation which is subject to such taxes. Further, although Congress’s intent in enacting subchapter S may have been to treat shareholders in small corporations more like partners, it is clear that distributions from such corporations are treated like dividends while net operating losses are treated as deductions in a trade or business.
"(1) For the purposes of this act, the words, terms and phrases set forth in this chapter and their derivations have the meaning given therein. When not inconsistent with the context, words used in the present tense include the future, words in the plural number include the singular number, and in the singular number include the plural. 'Shall’ is always mandatory and 'may’ is always discretionary.
"(2) Any term used in this act shall have the same meaning as when used in comparable context in the laws of the United States relating to federal income taxes unless a different meaning is clearly required. Any reference in this act to the internal revenue code shall include other provisions of the laws of the United States relating to federal income taxes.
"(3) It is the intention of this act that the income subject to tax be the same as taxable income as defined and applicable to the subject taxpayer in the internal revenue code, except as otherwise provided in this act.” MCL 206.2; MSA 7.557(102).
Thus, distributions from out-of-state subchapter S corporations to Michigan residents are not "income from business activity” but, rather, are "dividends * * * allocable to this state” and includable in taxable income. Conversely, net operating losses should be treated as deductions in a trade or business, i.e., deductible only in the state where the business activity takes place, and Craighead, supra, appears to be wrongly decided.
Consequently, the trial court did not err by affirming the tax assessment against plaintiffs.
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] |
Per Curiam.
Defendant appeals as of right from his conviction on four charges of delivery of cocaine in an amount less than 50 grams, MCL 333.7401(2)(a)(iv); MSA 14.15(7401)(2)(a)(iv). On September 17, 1980, defendant was convicted by a jury on one charge of delivery of cocaine. Thereafter, defendant pleaded guilty to the three other charges. Defendant was also convicted of felony-firearm and sentenced to four concurrent terms of two to ten years for the delivery of cocaine.
Defendant appeals, claiming "entrapment”.
At the outset of his trial on September 15, 1980, defendant asserted an entrapment defense to all of the charges. An evidentiary hearing was held, before the jury was called, in compliance with People v Turner, 390 Mich 7; 210 NW2d 336 (1973); People v D’Angelo, 401 Mich 167; 257 NW2d 655 (1977).
At the evidentiary hearing, the defendant admitted delivery of a substance on each of the occasions charged, but denied that the substance he delivered was cocaine.
The trial court ruled that the defendant could not claim entrapment in the face of his denial that the crime had been committed. The Court in People v D’Angelo, supra, ruled that defendants do not have to admit criminal liability in order to claim entrapment.
The finding of the trial court in the present case is set out in full:
"The Court: First of all, the court does not feel that, the court does not feel that the court could have ruled that there is a defense of entrapment for the reason that the defendant has denied delivery of any controlled substance which, taking the testimony, according to defendant, there was no crime for him to be entrapped in because he did not commit any crime, therefore, I do not think the defense of entrapment is even applicable in this case.
Secondly, assuming, however, that the defendant acknowledged that the packets contained cocaine, this court does not believe that the conduct of the police officers, using the objective test, constitutes conduct so reprehensible that the defense of entrapment should be available to the defendant. The defendant met the individual he referred to named Mary. She asked him if he smoked marijuana. He said he did. She asked him if he had done any cocaine. He answered no but he would try it because he heard it wouldn’t hurt you. They went to her car. She asked him — she said she would like some cocaine and asked if he could get it for her.
The fact that the defendant concluded that she was attractive, appealing to him and that motivated him to procure the cocaine is not the kind of conduct that this court believes was intended to amount to conduct so reprehensible. There is no suggestion that she proposition [sic] him, simply that she dressed in a way that was attractive to him.
The court does not conclude any testimony given by the defendant would indicate that the police officer in this case engaged in conduct so reprehensible that this court should interfere and conclude that there was entrapment and for those reasons, the court does deny the defense request that the defense of entrapment applies.”
GCR 1963, 517.1 requires that, in all actions tried upon the facts without a jury, the court shall find the facts specially and state separately its conclusions of law thereon. People v Jackson, 390 Mich 621; 212 NW2d 918 (1973), extended GCR 1963, 517.1 to criminal cases. This Court is aware of the ruling in People v Oliver, 63 Mich App 509, 522; 234 NW2d 679 (1975), however, we do not agree. The term "action” is defined in Bouvier’s Law Dictionary (Students ed, 1928), p 41, as:
"The formal demand of one’s right from another person or party, made and insisted on in a court of justice. In a quite common sense, action includes all the formal proceedings in a court of justice attendant upon the demand of a right made by one person or party of another in such court, including an adjudication upon the right and its enforcement or denial by the court.”
Clearly, the term "actions” as used in GCR 1963, 517.1 contemplates a finding of fact and a statement of law in all contested matters where evidence in presented to the trial judge for his decision. The task of the appellate court is to determine whether the trial court was "clearly erroneous” in its finding of fact and whether the trial court made proper application of the law. People v Jackson, supra. The task of the appellate court is rendered virtually impossible when the trial court fails to follow the dictates of GCR 1963, 517.1. The Court, in the instant case, finds the factual statement of the trial judge to be inadequate.
In a "Turner” type hearing, the defendant has the burden of proving his claim by a preponderance of the evidence. People v Turner, supra. The circuit judge, sitting as trier of the fact, had a right to disbelieve all of the testimony of the sole witness, and if he did so, obviously, the defendant failed to carry his required burden of proof. Such a finding does not appear on the record of this case. To the contrary, the trial court’s opinion seems to accept as true the facts as claimed by defendant.
There is no evidence on the record that defendant was accustomed to dealing in drugs. Defendant claims, and it is uncontradicted by the prosecution, that defendant was induced by the police to commit a crime that he would not have committed if the police had not been present. Indeed, defendant claims that he advised the police undercover agent that he had never used cocaine before and the undercover agent did not take the stand to deny that such a statement was made to her. Since police knew defendant was not a cocaine dealer, yet induced him to make purchases and sales of cocaine, it would appear the police agents impermissibly manufactured or instigated a crime. See People v White, 411 Mich 366, 390; 308 NW2d 128 (1981); People v Killian, 117 Mich App 220; 323 NW2d 660 (1982). However, the failure of the trial court to make findings of fact prevents this Court from making a final determination on the entrapment question.
The decision of the trial court is reversed and the case remanded for an evidentiary hearing on the question of entrapment.
No ruling is made on the felony-firearm conviction since that issue was not appealed, briefed, or argued.
Reversed and remanded.
D. C. Riley, J., concurs in the result only. | [
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Per Curiam.
Defendant appeals and plaintiff cross-appeals from a jury verdict in Wayne County Circuit Court which awarded damages to plaintiff for personal injuries suffered in a car-motorcycle accident.
Between midnight and 12:30 a.m. on June 8, 1974, plaintiff and a friend rode motorcycles on a two-lane road. As plaintiff reached a crest in the road, he noticed his friend was no longer by his side. As he proceeded down the other side of the slight hill, plaintiff heard a shout causing him to look over his should behind him. At that point, plaintiff testified, he saw a car, driven by the defendant, coming down the incline towards him. The two vehicles collided. Plaintiff testified that he believed the car struck the rear of his motorcycle. Defendant testified that his car struck the front of plaintiff’s motorcycle because it faced him broadside, straddling the road’s center as if to make a U-turn. Attempting to avoid the accident, defendant testified, he swerved his car into the left lane.
Plaintiff suffered a fractured right arm. A rod was surgically placed in plaintiff’s forearm and a cast put over the arm by Dr. James Ryan, an orthopedic specialist. The cast was removed in September or October of 1974. The rod was removed sometime between November, 1974, and January, 1975, the record being unclear. After the rod was removed and up to the time of trial, plaintiff complained of stiffness in his arm in damp, cold weather.
At trial, after the parties had rested and prior to closing arguments, the trial judge granted plaintiffs request to change a word in Dr. Ryan’s deposition transcript, which had already been read to the jury. Defendant contends this was reversible error.
On the first day of trial, the following from Dr. Ryan’s deposition was read to the jury:
”Q. If he [plaintiff] were to indicate, Doctor, that his arm still becomes stiff and swells if any unusual activity is required, would that be inconsistent with your experience and understanding of the medical situation?
"A. I would think so at this date.” (Emphasis added.)
The actual question put to the doctor was whether the symptoms were consistent. Through a stenographic error, the word "inconsistent” was inserted into Dr. Ryan’s deposition transcript.
On the second day of trial, plaintiffs counsel apparently alluded to the transcript error when he told the court:
’’[Plaintiff’s attorney]: There is only one other matter I believe there is a mistake in a transcript. I think it can be remedied by Wednesday. I don’t want to point out yet what it is, but I am having the court reporter check it. And with the court’s permission, if there is— certainly I ought to be able to make that correction I believe at any stage prior to closing argument. I will have that by Wednesday. I am just having the court reporter check the shorthand notes. And I will bring it to the court’s attention prior to Wednesday.
"[Defense attorney]: I am not even entitled to know what he is talking about until Wednesday?”
The trial court allowed the correction on the third day of trial after the parties had rested. The jury was informed that the correct word was "consistent”. The trial judge read again to the jury the erroneous transcription ¡and then the corrected version.
GCR 1963, 308.4 reads:
"As to Completion and Return of Deposition. Errors and irregularities in the manner in which the testimony is transcribed or the deposition is prepared, signed, certified, sealed, indorsed, transmitted, filed or otherwise dealt with by the person before whom taken under Rules 306 or 307 are waived unless a motion to suppress the deposition or some part thereof is made with reasonable promptness after such defect is, or with due diligence might have been, ascertained.”
Under the court rule, the transcript mistake should have been deemed waived. Its last minute correction was reversible error requiring a new trial. Under GCR 1963, 308.4, errors in deposition transcripts are waived if not corrected within a reasonable time after the error was discovered or should have been discovered. Here, the error should have been discovered sooner. Plaintiff took the deposition nearly two years prior to trial. The transcript was 24 pages long. A party exercising due diligence would have discovered the error between the time of transcription and the time it was read at trial. The treating physician’s deposition testimony in a personal injury lawsuit is important. GCR 1963, 308.4 does not contemplate only an express waiver, as plaintiff seems to believe.
Moreover, correction of the transcript after the parties had rested was prejudicial to the defendant. In his opening statement, defense counsel relied on the very part of Dr. Ryan’s transcript which was later changed. Defense counsel informed the jury that plaintiffs claims of swelling were considered inconsistent by Dr. Ryan with the type of injuries sustained in the motorcycle accident. The defense sought to show that plaintiffs injuries were not serious and that defendant was not responsible for injuries to plaintiff which occurred after plaintiff fell while on a fishing trip. Then plaintiff’s counsel referred to the corrected part of the transcript in his closing and rebuttal arguments, reciting as damages plaintiffs residual problems with his elbow having stiffness. Thus, the late correction of the transcript destroyed the defense strategy. It also impaired defendant’s credibility with the jury. See Seaton v State Farm Life Ins Co, 75 Mich App 252; 254 NW2d 858 (1977); GCR 1963, 308.5.
Because we reverse and remand for a new trial, we address defendant’s other contentions and plaintiffs cross-appeal. The trial judge did not reversibly err in failing to instruct the jury, sua sponte, to reduce future damages to their present worth under SJI 34:03, see now SJI2d 53:03, absent manifest injustice. Neal v Friendship Manor Nursing Home, 113 Mich App 759; 318 NW2d 594 (1982), Harper v National Shoes, Inc, 98 Mich App 353; 296 NW2d 1 (1979). See Grewe v Mount Clemens General Hospital, 404 Mich 240; 273 NW2d 429 (1978). We do not consider plaintiff’s argument that, it is a common trade-off in Wayne County Circuit Court for one party not to request present worth instructions if the other does not request an instruction on prejudgment interest, Neal, supra, p 767, fn 1, since no agreement ap pears of record, Dora v Lesinski, 351 Mich 579; 88 NW2d 592 (1958). Parties should place such agreements on the record.
We find the evidence adduced at trial sufficient to warrant the instruction to the jury, SJI2d 12:01, that, if it found a rear end collision had occurred, under the statute, MCL 257.402(a); MSA 9.2102, it could presume defendant was negligent. Reasonable persons could differ on whether a rear end collision had occurred. Jaworski v Great Scott Supermarkets, Inc, 403 Mich 689, 698; 272 NW2d 518 (1978). Defendant testified that plaintiffs motorcycle faced him broadside and that his car struck the front end of the motorcycle. Plaintiff testified he believed the rear end of his motorcycle was struck.
Finally, we accept plaintiffs contention on cross-appeal that the trial judge erred in instructing the jury that plaintiff was entitled to recover noneconomic damages only for the period during which he suffered a serious impairment of body function, under MCL 500.3135(1); MSA 24.13135. The trial judge followed Rusinek v Schultz, Snyder & Steele Lumber Co, 98 Mich App 380; 296 NW2d 262 (1980), rev’d on other grounds 411 Mich 502; 309 NW2d 163 (1981), reh den 412 Mich 1101 (1981), the only case available on the controlling law. However, we believe that Rusinek was incorrectly decided.
MCL 500.3135(1); MSA 24.13135(1) provides:
"A person remains subject to tort liability for noneconomic loss caused by his or her ownership, maintenance, or use of a motor vehicle only if the injured person has suffered death, serious impairment of body function, or permanent serious disfigurement.”
Thus, according to the plain and unambiguous terms of the statute, a tortfeasor is liable for noneconomic loss where the injured person has sustained, inter alia, serious impairment of body function. Once this threshold has been crossed by a particular plaintiff, the defendant remains liable for all noneconomic loss suffered by the plaintiff. Nothing in the language of the statute supports the result reached by the Rusinek panel; indeed, the Court was forced to rely upon vague policy considerations instead of focusing on the words chosen by the Legislature.
Statutes in derogation of the common law must be strictly construed, see Rusinek, supra, 411 Mich 508; and it is clear beyond peradventure that a statute that abolishes liability for noneconomic loss is contrary to the common law. The Rusinek panel’s construction of the statute is inconsistent with this cardinal principle and does violence to the Legislature’s intent in enacting this provision. Permitting severely injured persons to recover all of the noneconomic damages they have sustained "does not create a new case nor does it contribute significantly to the problems the act was intended to alleviate”. 411 Mich 508.
Accordingly, on remand, the trial court should instruct the jury that plaintiff is entitled to recover noneconomic damages for the period beyond which he suffered a serious impairment of body function.
Reversed and remanded. | [
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Per Curiam.
Plaintiffs appeal as of right from the entry of an order granting the motion for summary judgment filed by defendant Auto-Owners Insurance Company.
Where a plaintiff has failed to state a claim upon which relief may be granted, summary judgment is proper under GCR 1963, 117.2(1). Sowels v Laborers’ Int’l Union of North America, 112 Mich App 616; 317 NW2d 195 (1981). A party against whom a claim is asserted may move for summary judgment in his favor at any time. GCR 1963, 117.1. In determining whether to grant summary judgment for failure, to state a claim, the pleadings alone are considered. May v Leneair, 99 Mich App 209, 213; 297 NW2d 882 (1980); Todd v Biglow, 51 Mich App 346, 349; 214 NW2d 733 (1974), lv den 391 Mich 816 (1974). Factual allegations contained in the complaint are taken as true, along with inferences or conclusions which may be fairly drawn from the facts alleged. McCallister v Sun Valley Pools, Inc, 100 Mich App 131, 135; 298 NW2d 687 (1980), lv den 411 Mich 905 (1981).
In order to adequately state a claim of Auto-Owners’ liability based on its negligent failure to inspect, plaintiffs had to establish that Auto-Owners had actually undertaken a duty to inspect. The law is clear that there is no general duty to inspect on the part of an insurer. Smith v Allendale Mutual Ins Co, 410 Mich 685, 705; 303 NW2d 702 (1981). A duty may arise only where an exception has occurred, i.e., the parties have contracted for inspection or the insurer has voluntarily undertaken it for the insured’s benefit. It was insufficient to baldly state that Auto-Owners had a duty to inspect. Plaintiffs were required to allege the facts which created Auto-Owners’ duty because a duty does not exist and cannot be presumed unless Auto-Owners is acting under an exception to the general rule. Where no exception is alleged, plaintiffs cannot show that Auto-Owners had a duty to inspect. Merely stating that Auto-Owners had such a duty, without alleging the agreement or intent which alone can create such a duty, is insufficient to state a claim. Where well-pleaded facts in plaintiffs’ complaint fail as a matter of law to establish that Auto-Owners owed any duty to plaintiffs, summary judgment is appropriate. Lahti v Finnish Mutual Fire Ins Co, 76 Mich App 398, 400; 256 NW2d 610 (1977).
Affirmed.
Plaintiffs’ alternative allegations that Auto-Owners had a duty to repair or a duty to warn plaintiff Kenneth French are totally merit-less. | [
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Per Curiam.
Plaintiff, Michael Roek, commenced this action on September 29, 1980, against defendant, Board of Education of the Chippewa Valley School District, alleging that defendant had failed to offer him a teaching contract for the 1980-1981 school year in violation of MCL 380.1236(2); MSA 15.41236(2). Both parties moved for summary judgment. The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of plaintiff. Defendant now appeals as of right the trial court’s order granting summary judgment in favor of plaintiff.
The issue here is strictly one of statutory construction. The facts are not in dispute. Plaintiff was employed by defendant during the 1979-1980 school year as a substitute teacher in the Chippewa Valley School District. He taught for 112 full days and 10 half days during the school year. MCL 380.1236(2); MSA 15.41236(2) provides:
"(2) A teacher employed as a substitute teacher for 120 days or more during a school year shall be given first opportunity to accept or reject a contract for which the person is certified after all other teachers of the school district are reemployed in conformance with the terms of a master contract of an authorized bargaining unit and the employer.”
Defendant did not offer plaintiff a teacher contract for the 1980-1981 school year. The sole question on appeal is whether plaintiffs employment for 112 full days and 10 half days should be construed as satisfying the requirement that he be employed for 120 days or more before he can claim the protec tion of the statute. Defendant argues that a statu* tory "day” is a full day of employment. Consequently, it contends that plaintiff worked for only 117 days and is not entitled to the statute’s benefits. Plaintiff argues that any day on which a substitute teacher is called in to work is to be counted as a day under the statute. Accordingly, he contends that he worked for 122 days and qualifies under the statute.
Plaintiff moved for summary judgment on the ground that there was no genuine issue as to any material fact, GCR 1963, 117.2(3). That subrule provides that a moving party is entitled to summary judgment where "there is no genuine issue as to any material fact, and the moving party is therefore entitled to judgment as a matter of law”. Summary judgment pursuant to GCR 1963, 117.2(3) was the proper method of disposing of this case since there was no genuine issue as to any material fact, and either plaintiff or defendant was entitled to judgment as a matter of law.
The question before the Court is a novel one. No prior cases resolve the issue before this Court. Nor do any other sections of the School Code, MCL 380.1 et seq.; MSA 15.4001 et seq., aid in interpreting the meaning of the statute. The first rule of statutory construction is that where no ambiguity exists, there is no room for judicial construction. Stover v Retirement Board, 78 Mich App 409, 412; 260 NW2d 112 (1977). Plaintiff and defendant both argue that the plain meaning of the statute favors each of their respective positions. We are convinced that the phrase "employed as a substitute teacher for 120 days or more” is susceptible to more than one reasonable interpretation. Where the language of a statute is ambiguous, the court should give it a reasonable construction consider ing both its purpose and the object it seeks to accomplish. Charter Twp of Pittsfield v City of Saline, 103 Mich App 99, 104-105; 302 NW2d 608 (1981); Attorney General v Michigan Property & Casualty Guaranty Ass’n, 80 Mich App 653, 657-658; 263 NW2d 918 (1978).
We conclude that the more reasonable and logical interpretation of the statute is that a substitute teacher’s rights accrue when he or she has been called in on 120 or more days to teach. The purpose of the statute is to give substitute teachers who have taught for a substantial portion of the school year the first opportunity to accept or reject a full-time teaching contract for the following year before offering positions to "outsiders”. It would be inconsistent with this purpose to allow a school district to add up quarter or half days to avoid the obligation imposed by the statute. Under defendant’s interpretation, a teacher could work an entire school year of 180 half days and still not come within the statute.
For these reasons, we are led to the conclusion that summary judgment in favor of the plaintiff was appropriate in this case. No factual development could possibly support defendant’s defense at trial. Partrich v Muscat, 84 Mich App 724, 730; 270 NW2d 506 (1978).
Affirmed. No costs, a public question being involved. | [
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Per Curiam.
This is an appeal from a decision of the Michigan Employment Relations Commission (MERC). That body upheld a hearing referee’s dismissal of the appellant’s charge.
Robert Wines, the appellant, charged that he was denied a promotion by the City of Huntington Woods, the appellee, because of his union activities. When the case first went before a hearing referee in 1980, the referee ruled that the six-month period of limitation had run. MCL 423.216(a); MSA 17.455(16)(a). That decision was appealed to this Court. In Wines v City of Huntington Woods, 97 Mich App 86; 293 NW2d 730 (1980), we held that the statute of limitations is tolled during the period that an employee has no actual knowledge or reason to know of the unfair labor practice. We remanded for the referee to apply this test and determine whether the limitation period had run in Wines’ case. The referee deferred ruling on the issue until after a hearing on the merits. After the hearing, the referee ruled in favor of the city on two grounds: first, the limitation period had run because Wines knew of his cause of action and, second, Wines never proved that the denial of promotion was the result of antiunion animus. MERC affirmed the referee’s decision. On appeal, Wines presents three issues.
We first consider Wines’ argument that our earlier decision was a ruling that Wines’ charge was filed within the limitation period. If it was, the hearing referee would have been bound by that decision. In the opinion, this Court clearly announced a rule as to the tolling of the limitation period but remanded the cause for further proceedings so the rule could be applied to Wines’ facts. We lacked sufficient facts to make that decision at the appellate level. MERC decided that Wines knew of the possibility that he was denied a promotion for union activities within the limitation period, yet failed to file a charge until after he had compiled more evidence.
With respect to determining when a person discovers, or knows or has reason to know of, his cause of action so as to commence the running of the limitation period, we have explained that it is not necessary that the person recognize that he has suffered invasion of a legal right. Leary v Rupp, 89 Mich App 145; 280 NW2d 466 (1979). Nor is running of the limitation period held in abeyance until a person obtains professional assistance to help him determine whether he has a cause of action. Sedlak v Ford Motor Co, 64 Mich App 61; 235 NW2d 63 (1975). Rather, the limitation period commences when the person knows of the act which caused his injury and has good reason to believe that the act was improper or done in an improper manner. Leary, supra.
The gravamen of Wines’ unfair labor practice charge is that, because of his union activities, the city manager miscalculated his total test score. As a result, Wines had the second highest, rather than the highest, total score, and he was not selected for promotion. Wines asserts • that the limitation period did not commence until May 18, 1978, when in response to his request he received from the city the raw numerical score for the examination. Not until that time was Wines able to determine whether the total scores had been calculated in conformance with the scoring method provided in the written promotion policy. Therefore, Wines argues that his charge filed on July 13, 1978, was timely.
We agree with MERC that the six-month limitation period began to run on March 15, 1975, when another candidate was promoted. On that date, Wines knew that he had been denied the promotion. In addition, the events which Wines alleged at the hearing as proof of antiunion animus of the city manager had already occurred. Therefore, on March 15, 1975, Wines knew of the act injuring him and had good reason to believe that the act was improper.
By our finding that the unfair labor practice charge was barred by the six-month statute of limitations, we need not reach the other issues raised concerning MERC’s decision on the merits.
Dismissal of charge affirmed. | [
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Per Curiam.
The defendant was convicted by a jury of assault with intent to rob while armed. MCL 750.89; MSA 28.284. Sentenced to serve a term of 8 to 20 years imprisonment, defendant appeals his conviction as a matter of right.
Defendant argues that certain remarks by the prosecutor in his closing argument were improper and require reversal. The complained of remarks are as follows: "Has the prosecutor been trying to hide anything? Well we introduced his statement. It wasn’t Mr. Pitts that introduced it, it was the people.” The "statement” mentioned by the prosecutor was given by the defendant to the police after his arrest and introduced at trial by the people. In it, the defendant confessed to the crime and described some sympathetic aspects of his background. We note at the outset that the defendant failed to object to these remarks at trial. Appellate review is thus foreclosed unless our failure to decide the issue would result in a miscarriage of justice. People v Duncan, 402 Mich 1, 15-16; 260 NW2d 58 (1977).
The prosecutor’s remarks must be viewed in the context in which they were made. People v Allen, 351 Mich 535; 88 NW2d 433 (1958). It is clear that the prosecutor did not intend to stress to the jury that the defendant failed to introduce his confession. Instead, he emphasized those portions of defendant’s statement which could evoke the jury’s sympathy. His primary point was that the people, having introduced evidence favorable to the defendant, did not "hide anything” from the jury. Nevertheless, by stressing that "[i]t wasn’t Mr. Pitts [defense counsel] who introduced it, it was the people” the prosecutor may have conveyed to the jury that the defendant was "hiding” this evidence. It is well-settled that a defendant is under no duty to "take the stand or proffer evidence, but rather may remain silent protected by the presumption of innocence”. People v Shannon, 88 Mich App 138, 143; 276 NW2d 546 (1979). Any prejudice, however, could have been remedied by a curative instruction. Because defendant neither objected nor reguested a curative instruction, we cannot reverse. People v Duncan, supra, People v Hall, 396 Mich 650; 242 NW2d 377 (1976). Defendant’s conviction is affirmed.
Affirmed.
The defendant’s statement was read into the record as follows:
"I have been out of work for about twelve months now. I have done a few small side jobs for a few bucks; but nothing to amount to anything.
"One day last week, about Monday or Tuesday, I was over to my girlfriend’s house at 8202 Archdale.
"I had my rifle over there and I decided to saw it off because I was thinking about shooting myself.
"I didn’t bother the gun from the time I cut it off until today.
"This morning about seven or eight a.m., I was over to her house again.
"I started thinking about shooting myself again. I had my gun with me.
"Sometime after that I left her house.
"I was just walking around. Finally I arrived at the Foto-mat on Greenfield at Joy Road.
"I had not planned to rob, I had not planned a robbery; but I needed the money.
"I walked up to the girl and bought some flashcubes.
"I paid for the cubes and then I told her to give me all the money.
"I never pulled the gun; but I had it in my jacket pocket.
"When she gave me the money I just walked away. She gave me the money and the bag with the flashcube.”
Regarding the statement, the prosecutor said:
"It lays out that Mr. Page has had some bad times in the past.
"It kind of paints him as going through some maybe tragic experiences in his own life.
"It kind of paints him in a better light then to go up for no reason at all and rob somebody.
"That wasn’t hidden from you. That was presented.” | [
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Fitzgerald, C.J.
(for affirmance). In our order granting leave to appeal, we stated as the first issue whether "the charge allowed by the fuel cost adjustment clause [is] a charge to recover past costs, or a charge based on past experience reflected in a current charge”. The answer to this question is decisive in resolving all of the issues presented in this case.
The cornerstone of the position taken by Edison, and accepted by the opinion for reversal, is that the FCAC adopted in February 1974 was intended' to impose a fuel adjustment in the billing month to recover fuel costs incurred two months before. If that is the way the clause operated, then the December 1974 and January 1975 fuel costs had not yet been billed when the MPSC changed the FCAC in February 1975.
On the other hand, if, as the MPSC maintains, the FCAC was designed to impose a fuel adjustment in the billing month as an estimate of fuel costs based on prior experience, then Edison did not suffer any gap in collection of fuel costs in the months in question because the December 1974 and January 1975 billings included the fuel costs for those months.
We think it is clear that the February 1974 FCAC used prior costs as an estimate of current costs, and would affirm.
I
Three features of the FCAC demonstrate that it was not designed to recover all past costs, but was intended only to estimate current costs on the basis of past experience.
First, the FCAC based its adjustment on the consumption of electricity in the billing month, not on consumption in the prior month whose fuel costs were used. If the superseded FCAC was intended to produce a dollar-for-dollar recovery of excess fuel costs, it would have applied the adjustment factor on the basis of actual fuel costs in a given month to the amount of energy used by a customer in that month. However, the superseded FCAC applied the adjustment factor to the amount of energy used in the billing month, which was one or two months after the month in which the fuel was used. Consequently, there never would be an exact match of excess fuel costs and FCAC billings unless energy use in the cost month was the same as energy use in the billing month. Any variation would lead to a corresponding over- or undercollection of fuel expenses. Similarly, individual Edison customers were never billed the actual cost of the energy they had used; rather, they were billed an amount based on a formula using an earlier month’s costs and current month’s usage.
A second feature of the FCAC that demonstrates that it was a charge for estimated fuel costs in the billing month is that customers leaving Edison were not assessed an additional charge for the excess fuel costs in their last two months of service, nor were new customers excused from paying the adjustment charge for their first two months of service. If, as Edison and the opinion for reversal contend, the superseded FCAC was in fact a charge to recover past costs, customers leaving Edison would avoid paying for fuel they used and new customers would be forced to pay for fuel charges incurred before they received service.
Finally, perhaps the clearest evidence that the FCAC was not designed to recover past costs is the fact that the superseded FCAC was applied in the month following its inception. The fuel clause became effective February 4, 1974, and Edison first applied it to residential customers in its March 1974 bills. Under the fuel clause formula, the adjustment was based on January 1974 costs. Using the analysis of the opinion for reversal and Edison, the March bill was a deferred charge for January’s costs. However, Edison had already collected all it was entitled to for January under its pre-FCAC rate structure. Thus, application of the February 1974 FCAC to collect for costs incurred in January 1974 would have meant that Edison was collecting more for January than was authorized under the rate structure in effect in January, the clearest possible kind of prohibited retroactive ratemaking. Only if the billings in March 1974 were meant to charge for March fuel costs, estimated with the actual January data, could the FCAC be permissible prospective ratemaking.
The opinion for reversal says that with the change in the FCAC in February 1975, "Edison was entitled to collect at some time for December and January as such.” As the foregoing analysis of the FCAC demonstrates, Edison did collect for December 1974 and January 1975 — in its December 1974 and January 1975 billings. There was no gap in Edison’s billing of fuel costs recoverable under its FCAC.
II
Litigation over whether fuel adjustment clauses are deferred or current charges has been fairly common in federal courts. Indeed, those courts have developed a standard terminology for characterizing the two kinds of systems, referring to a fuel clause that recovers all past costs as a "cost of service” tariff, and to a clause that uses past costs to estimate current ones as a "fixed rate” tariff.
We find several cases from the United States Courts of Appeals dealing with very similar facts persuasive authority for finding the superseded Edison FCAC to have been a fixed-rate tariff, designed to estimate current costs on the basis of past experience.
Boston Edison Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 611 F2d 8 (CA 1, 1979), is a case factually very similar to the instant case. Boston Edison appealed an order of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission that had struck down a surcharge to cover fuel cost expenses allegedly left unrecovered when Edison converted from a two-month lag billing formula to a current month formula. The First Circuit noted that under the former fuel clause, fuel costs from one month were applied to energy use in the second succeeding month. Thus, the old clause was not designed to achieve dollar-for-dollar recovery as would a true cost of service tariff. The Court also noted that Edison failed to assess additional charges on customers leaving the system as would be expected under a true deferred billing system. The Court therefore concluded that the fuel clause was a fixed-rate tariff and, therefore, no surcharge could be allowed. Both of the reasons underlying the First Circuit’s decision are present in the instant case.
In Public Service Co of New Hampshire v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 195 US App DC 130; 600 F2d 944 (1979), cert den 444 US 990; 100 S Ct 520; 62 L Ed 2d 419 (1979), four electric companies sought review of the commission’s orders refusing to allow surcharges to compensate for alleged uncompensated fuel costs to which the companies claimed to have become entitled when they switched from fuel clauses based on fuel costs in the billing month rather than for some prior period. Two of the companies had fuel clauses based on fuel costs from two months preceding the billing month, which coincides with the system used in the fuel clauses in the instant case. As did Edison in the present case, the companies began billing under the superseded clauses immediately after they became effective.
The District of Columbia Circuit held that the fuel clauses were fixed-rate tariffs primarily on the basis of two facts. The first was that the formulas mismatched the costs from an earlier month with the power consumption in the billing month.
"Thus, the fuel adjustment charge that was used was not based on the cost of fuel that had been used to generate the power for which users were billed. Since customer usage varies from month to month, this mismatch — applying a fuel adjustment factor based on one month to kilowatt-hours used during another month— would not lead to exact recovery of actual fuel expenses. Thus, the superseded clauses did not simply defer recovery of the cost of fuel. The clauses brought about a charge that differed from actual cost. This result is inconsistent with petitioners’ claim that the clauses were cost of service tariffs with deferred billing. But the result squares with the Commission’s view that the clauses were fixed rate tariffs which used fuel costs in a prior period as a proxy for actual current costs.” (Emphasis in original; footnote omitted.) 195 US App DC 138-139; 600 F2d 952-953.
Second, the Court said that the companies’ billing was not actually deferred because they began billing immediately after the clauses became effective, rather than waiting until the "billing lag” had elapsed.
The District of Columbia Circuit concluded that the fuel clauses were fixed-rate tariffs and, accordingly, the refusal to impose surcharges was proper. Again, the reasons supporting the Court’s decision apply with equal force to the facts of the case before us.
In two other cases, Virginia Electric & Power Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 580 F2d 710 (CA 4, 1978), and Jersey Central Power & Light Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 589 F2d 142 (CA 3, 1978), the federal courts were again presented with alleged unbilled fuel expense resulting from a superseded fuel clause. The principal issue was whether the old clause was designed to collect actual expenses on a deferred basis or to collect an approximation of current costs based on past experience. Each Court held that the superseded fuel clause before them fell within the latter category.
Both Courts noted that new customers began paying the adjustment immediately and that customers leaving the system were not billed for deferred charges. In addition, the Fourth Circuit pointed out that the company billed adjustments in the first month the fuel clause became effective and that these initial adjustments could not legally have represented charges for past service.
The FCAC in the Third Circuit case, like Edison’s, required the adjustment factor to be applied to energy used during the billing month. The Court noted that this was inconsistent with the utility’s contention that the charge was a pass-on of actual past costs incurred. In order to achieve that result, the Court said that the billing should have been computed on the basis of energy use in the month in which the fuel expenses were actually incurred.
The Third Circuit Court of Appeals also thought it significant that the FCAC used a formula, as this was inconsistent with the utility’s argument that an assessment of actual cost was intended. Nor did the fact that the formula was based on costs of a past period, the Court said, prevent it from being used as the basis for a current charge.
"The fact that the formula was based on costs in a preceding period did not change its effect of providing a method to calculate a current charge rather than to exact a precise recovery of past expenses. Such a formula could as well have been based, for example, on some past wholesale price index or similar factor rather than actual cost incurred, and yet be the basis for a 'current’ charge.” 589 F2d 145.
All of the factors which led to the Courts’ decisions in these two cases are present here. As explained more fully above, Edison’s new customers began paying immediately and customers leaving the. system were not billed for deferred charges; Edison billed adjustments in the month after the fuel clause became effective; Edison’s superseded FCAC required the adjustment factor to be applied to energy used during the billing month rather than the fuel cost incurrence month; and, Edison’s superseded FCAC used a formula based on costs of a past period.
Ill
We think the concern that Edison has not been able to recover all of its costs misses the point. Certainly it is true that in this case Edison’s total FCAC charges were less than its excess fuel costs. However, that is simply one of the risks that any utility operating under our regulatory system takes. Rates are set on the basis of estimates of costs, typically based on a "test year” or other period, which is sometimes adjusted on the basis of predictions as to future trends and events that will affect costs. In the case of Edison’s February 1974 rates, the FCAC provided a further device for improving the estimates on which the billings were based. But the essential principle of the rule against retroactive ratemaking is that when the estimates prove inaccurate and costs are higher or lower than predicted, the previously set rates cannot be changed to correct for the error; the only step that the MPSC can take is to prospectively revise rates in an effort to set more appropriate ones. The MPSC’s adoption of the lag-adjustment factor in February 1975 was simply one more effort to better estimate current costs in future billings. _
The applicable statute did not create a right of the utility to have any particular kind of fuel adjustment clause; it merely authorized the MPSC to use such clauses. Thus, Edison is entitled to whatever the MPSC-approved FCAC provided. Analysis of the operation of the FCAC in question and examination of the most relevant authorities compels the conclusion that Edison’s February 1974 FCAC did not entitle it to a dollar-for-dollar recovery of excess fuel costs. It provided a specific method of calculating adjustments based on excess fuel costs in prior months. Edison has used the formula to collect the appropriate amounts, and it is entitled to no more.
The Court of Appeals judgment should be affirmed.
Williams and Ryan, JJ., concurred with Fitzgerald, C.J.
Levin, J.
(for reversal). On February 4, 1974, the Michigan Public Service Commission authorized the Detroit Edison Company to include in its rate structure a fuel adjustment clause for domestic service; the order provided that "[t]he adjustment shall apply to the second billing month following the calendar month in which the fuel is burned”.
On July 29, 1974, the commission entered an order authorizing and directing Edison to adopt revised accounting procedures so that costs or credits subject to later billing are "deferred” until reflected in billing adjustments without increase in rate base or cost of service for ratemaking purposes and with proper disclosure in the financial statements of the company. This meant that Edi son could set up on its balance sheet as an asset the "deferred” fuel expense to be collected two months hence.
On February 3, 1975, the commission granted Edison a rate increase, and, at the same time, on its own initiative, decided that the billing lag should be eliminated because the fuel cost adjustment clause did not "in fact achieve the goal of fully recognizing the changes in fuel costs in a timely manner. Therefore the commission finds it necessary to correct the operation of the clause to reduce the existing time lag between the incurring and the reflecting of increased or decreased costs of fuel in the fuel adjustment. This lag has become a significant problem with rapidly escalating cost of fuels and with the potential assessment of proposed new taxes on these fuels.”
The February 3 order went on to state that the commission was revising "the procedure used in determining the appropriate billing month adjustment factor so as to effectively eliminate the lag. This should be accomplished using actual figures as the basis for calculation of the adjustment factor.”* **
The February 3 order also provided that the elimination of the lag "removes the need” for Edison to account for deferred fuel costs as directed in July, 1974, and, therefore, Edison "should file an application with the commission for a determination in a separate proceeding as to disposition of the accumulated fuel cost deferral up to the effective date of this order.”
On December 22, 1975, the commission entered an order finding that Edison’s actual fuel costs in December 1974 and January 1975 exceeded the amount it could recover under the fuel cost adjustment clause by $26,349,806. The commission observed that Edison had not asserted that it is entitled to recover the $26,349,806 "because of the accounting treatment” (emphasis in original) authorized in July 1974, but asserted rather that the accounting entries resulting from that order "simply serve as the device for measuring the amount of fuel costs actually incurred which were not collected by [Edison] from its customers prior to February 3, 1975”. The commission concluded that it was "inherent in [Edison’s] previous fuel clause that the full amount of fuel expenses would not be collected if fuel costs rose above the base fuel cost without at some subsequent time falling below the base cost. The only effect of Case No. F-647 [decided by the order dated July 29, 1974] was to display the undercollection separately in Account 174.” -_
"So understood, it is evident that [Edison] in effect requests the commission to retroactively revise the fuel clause which was in existence prior to February 3, 1975. The purpose of that revision would be to permit [Edison] to recover dollar for dollar its actual fuel expenses, even though the clause as originally adopted did not permit complete and total recovery in a period of steady [sic] rising fuel costs.”
Finally, the commission said it was "aware of the potential for negative consequences for [Edison] if those accumulations are written off in too short a period. Consequently, the commission finds that the $26,349,806 should be written off against net income over a period of 10 years.”
Edison and the Attorney General filed actions in the circuit court for review of this order. The circuit court vacated the commission order and remanded to the commission with directions to enter an order as proposed by the hearing referee allowing collection of the $26,349,806 over a 12-month period. The commission complied with that direction on October 1, 1976. The collection of the surcharge proceeded while the appeals by the Attorney General and the commission from the circuit judge’s decision were pending.
On March 20, 1978, the Court of Appeals reversed and directed the circuit court to remand the cause to the commission for such further action as was necessary.
We granted leave to appeal.
I
The Court of Appeals focused on the July 29, 1974, order concerning the accounting treatment of "deferred fuel costs”. It said that the commission order in that proceeding did not set rates but, rather, was limited to accounting procedures. The effect of that order was merely to create a "paper” asset, and that bookkeeping entry does not entitle Edison to additional revenues.* ****
Edison did not contend, however, that it was entitled to collect for the two-month lag because it had been authorized to show the amount thereof as an asset on its books. The commission’s order of December 22, 1975, acknowledged that Edison made no such claim. The accounting procedures authorized by the commission, rather, simply recognized that Edison spent more money for fuel during the relevant period than it had collected under the fuel adjustment clause.
II
It is urged that under the February 3, 1975 revised fuel adjustment clause the amount to be collected in February and March 1975 includes the December 1974 and January 1975 fuel adjustment amounts of $26,349,806. Edison responds that the fuel adjustment clause, as revised on February 3, 1975, merely authorizes use of the December and January amounts for the purpose of computing what is owing for February and March. Merely that the amount so to be calculated is to be partly based on December and January does not mean that Edison has collected for December and January. But, says the commission and the Attorney General, Edison was still authorized to collect for December and January in February and March. Not so, says Edison, we were only authorized to collect February and March costs computed on the basis of December and January, and never collected for December and January. But the commission and the Court of Appeals say that those are just paper entries, and that Edison still collected a sum of money equal to the December and January costs.
We agree with Edison. Once the commission authorized the fuel adjustment clause in February 1974, and then decided in February 1975 to eliminate the billing lag — and that was what the commission said it was doing — Edison was entitled to collect at some time for December and January as such. Although February and March were to be calculated on the basis of December and January, Edison never was paid for December and January as such.
The commission’s order of December 22, 1975, states in effect that Edison cannot complain because it never was supposed to collect the $26,349,-806. It would always be some amount behind and would never catch up. The only way that it could catch up would be if fuel costs fell to the base level. _
The commission’s order of February 3, 1975, revising the fuel clause, states that the clause "is intended to recover all increases in fuel costs which are beyond applicant’s control on a timely basis”. The commission’s order of December 22, 1975, states that the hearing referee would have allowed collection of the $26 million over a 12-month period. The order states that Edison does not assert that it is entitled to recover the $26 million because of the accounting treatment provided for in the order of July 29, 1974, and that its request should not be denied on the ground that the proceedings do not constitute rate proceedings.
The commission decided against Edison on the ground that Edison is in eifect seeking a retroactive revision of the fuel clause:
"So understood, it is evident that applicant in eifect requests the commission to retroactively revise the fuel clause which was in existence prior to February 3, 1975. The purpose of that revision would be to permit applicant to recover dollar for dollar its actual fuel expenses, even though the clause as originally adopted did not permit complete and total recovery in a period of steady rising fuel costs._
"The commission is persuaded that granting applicant’s request would be inappropriate and unfair. The commission is not empowered to establish rates for a past period, but instead is only allowed to engage in prospective ratemaking. At the least, applicant’s request comes especially close to violating that principle. The previous fuel clause was adopted after thorough and full hearing in a rate case; if it was an improper or insufficient clause, then applicant should have so argued at that time. Further, applicant’s proposal in this proceeding, if adopted, would mean that applicant’s present customers would be charged for fuel expenses incurred on behalf of customers during a previous period; clearly, the respective sets of customers may and do consist of different people and entities. Consequently, the commission cannot permit the temporary surcharge requested by applicant to recover the $26,349,806 of undercollection under its previous fuel cost adjustment clause.
"The administrative law judge noted '* * * the underlying commission policy * * * that customers would pay for increased fuel expenses such as those represented by the $26,349,806 involved in these proceedings’ as the basis for his recommendation. The administrative law judge’s interpretation of commission policy is accurate with regard to the fuel cost adjustment clause of Case No. U-4570, wherein the billing lag was eliminated. However, the policy implicit in applicant’s previous fuel clause was not the same as the policy implicit in the clause adopted in Case No. U-4570. The previous clause embodied a policy which contemplated either undercollection or overcollection, depending upon whether the cost of fuel increased or decreased from the basing point. Since fuel costs in fact increased during that period, it is consistent with that policy that applicant bear the burden of the undercollection.”
When the commission, in its order of February 3, 1975, stated that Edison shall file an application for a determination in a separate proceeding "as to disposition of the accumulated fuel cost deferral up to the effective date of this order”, it was speaking of expenses (excess fuel costs of $26 million) that had been incurred within just a few months of the date of the order. Edison could not have been expected to have filed an application more immediately than within a few months after the incurrence of the expense.
The rule against retroactive ratemaking does not require that an application for an increase in rates be filed before the incurrence of the expense which is said to justify the increased rate. The rule against retroactive ratemaking precludes the commission from increasing or reducing rates retroactively, but manifestly does not preclude it from acting on the basis of facts that occurred before the order was entered.
Edison is not seeking a retroactive change in the fuel clause, but simply recovery of the $26 million two-month lag which the fuel clause carried forward from month to month until the commission’s catch-up order of February 3, 1975, and its order of December 22, 1975, requiring the write-off of that amount.
If Edison had complained about the form of the fuel clause at the time it was first approved by the commission, the commission would no doubt have advanced administrative and other objections to a current collection of the full amount of the excess cost to justify the form of the clause.
There is no reason to suppose that Edison waived the right someday to seek and collect the $26 million merely because it was satisfied at the time the fuel clause was first approved with a two-month lag and to carry forward what grew to $26 million from month to month.
There is nothing in any of the orders which indicates that the commission decided that Edison was never to collect the $26 million until the order of December 22, 1975, providing that it be written off, at which point Edison acted expeditiously by filing an action in the Ingham Circuit Court less than a month later, on January 19, 1976.
What Edison sought in 1975 and what it was entitled to was some sort of order recognizing its right ultimately to recover, and providing a means by which it would recover, the $26 million two-month lag carried forward for which no provision for collection had as yet been made.
Although the fuel clause as originally established may have provided for an indefinite carrying forward of this amount, it does not follow that Edison could not seek at any time to have the commission provide for the current collection of the amount of the two-month lag or that it had waived the right to seek the current collection of, and ultimately to collect, the $26 million actually expended. It is apparent from the several modifications in less than two years of this fuel clause that fuel clauses are subject to change.
It was beyond the power of the commission to require Edison to write off $26 million of expenses actually incurred.
The Court of Appeals judgment should be reversed.
Kavanagh and Coleman, JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
Levin, J.
The opinion for affirmance states that ”a fuel clause that recovers all past costs [is] a 'cost of service’ tariff’ and a fuel clause that "uses past costs to estimate current ones [is] a 'fixed rate tariff that this fuel adjustment clause, approved by the commission in February, 1974, "was not designed to recover past costs”; that the statute does not "create a right of the utility to have a particular kind of fuel adjustment clause”: "Edison is entitled to whatever” the commission-approved fuel adjustment clause provides. While "it is true that in this case Edison’s total [fuel adjustment clause] charges were less than its excess fuel costs”, "that is simply one of the risks that any utility operating under our regulatory system takes”. In that "analysis”, "[t]here was no gap in Edison’s billing of fuel costs recoverable under” the fuel adjustment clause.
When this fuel adjustment clause was authorized, there was no prospect of fuel costs being "lower than predicted”. This was, as the commission observed, "a period of steady rising fuel costs”.
Because fuel costs were moving — in the commission’s language, "escalating” — in one direction: up, the two-month lag meant that collection of the excess fuel costs for that period was at least deferred or, as the commission would now have this Court read the fuel adjustment clause, would never occur at all.
While in another context the concept of "estimating” or approximating might be regarded as a fair, albeit a rough accommodation, where that method can only, in light of market conditions, work against the utility, it cannot properly be characterized or justified as even-handed and just "one of the risks that any utility operating under our regulatory system takes”.
If this fuel adjustment clause "was not designed to recover past costs” and if Edison could only recover for the $26 million amount of the two-month lag if and when the cost of fuel returned to December 1973 levels, then it was "designed” to assure that Edison would never recover the excess fuel cost for the two-month lag.
While the commission was indeed authorized to design the fuel adjustment clause, Edison need not acquiesce in "whatever” the commission approved. It was not until the entry of the December 22, 1975, order requiring a write-off of the $26 million amount of the two-month lag that Edison knew that the commission (which had given other indications) — ignoring both the reason for providing for adjustment in rates to recover excess fuel costs and the terminological anachronism — would characterize the fuel adjustment clause as a fixed rate and require a write-off of the $26 million amount of the two-month lag.
In sum, the commission could not, consistently with the purpose of fuel adjustment clauses, design a clause which, as the commission would now have us read it, was bound to fail to recover excess fuel costs, and Edison acted timely when it sought judicial relief as soon as the commission declared that the fuel adjustment clause did not contemplate that Edison could ultimately bill customers for the amount of the two-month lag.
Riley, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
403 Mich 853 (1978).
The FCAC could not affect February 1974 billings because the second preceding month would have been December 1973, the base month for the FCAC, as to which, by definition, there could be no excess fuel costs.
Michigan Bell Telephone Co v Public Service Comm, 315 Mich 533; 24 NW2d 200 (1946).
As noted in the opinion for reversal, we remanded to the MPSC for the taking of evidence and the making of findings regarding the fuel adjustment clauses used between February and May, 1975.
On remand, the MPSC found that the modifications in FCAC adopted in the February 1975 order were put into effect in billings for February 1975, except that the lag-adjustment feature was not used immediately. For customers being billed on the two-month lag system, the lag-adjustment procedure went into effect in April. For those being billed on a one-month lag system, the lag adjustment was first applied in March 1975. Thus, even using Edison’s theory regarding the operation of the FCAC, the failure to apply the lag adjustment in February and March means that the 1974 FCAC was still effectively in operation in December 1974 and January 1975, resulting in the recovery of Edison’s excess fuel costs for those months.
Maine Public Service Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 622 F2d 23, 25 (CA 1, 1980); Boston Edison Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 611 F2d 8, 9 (CA 1, 1979); Public Service Co of New Hampshire v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 195 US App DC 130, 134; 600 F2d 944, 948 (1979).
Edison relies upon Maine Public Service Co v Federal Power Comm, 579 F2d 659 (CA 1, 1978), which it claims "seriously challenges” the cases relied upon by appellees. In that case, the First Circuit held that the Federal Power Commission had erred in regarding itself as automatically precluded by the "filed rate doctrine” from approving a surcharge because the First Circuit found the "filed rate doctrine” was not applicable. Under the "filed rate doctrine” a public utility "can claim no rate as a legal right that is other than the filed rate, whether fixed or merely accepted by the Commission.” Montana-Dakota Utilities Co v Northwestern Public Service Co, 341 US 246, 251; 71 S a 692; 95 L Ed 912 (1951).
The Court remanded the case to the commission for reconsideration, stating that the commission was not precluded from rejecting the surcharge, but that it was error for the commission to have rejected the surcharge on the grounds that its hands were tied by the "filed rate doctrine”. Obviously, there is no problem with the "filed rate doctrine” in the instant case. The narrow ground upon which the Maine case turns is sufficient in itself to distinguish it from the case at bar.
Yet, Edison seizes upon other language in the opinion which it claims, inter alia, requires the conclusion that surcharges do not necessarily constitute retroactive ratemaking and that courts reviewing surcharges must "inquire into the equities”, considering the reasonable expectations of customers and the legitimate needs of the utility.
The language upon which Edison relies has been seriously undermined by later cases. On remand, the commission concluded that the FCAC was a fixed-rate tariff and, therefore, the surcharge was disallowed. The decision was appealed to the First Circuit, which denied the petition for review. Maine Public Service Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, 622 F2d 23 (CA 1, 1980).
In a later First Circuit case, Boston Edison Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, supra, the Court also disallowed a surcharge, holding that a fixed-rate tariff was involved. Significantly, the author of the original Maine Public Service decision, speaking for himself, stated that Maine Public Service must be read in light of the presentation the commission made at the time. The commission chose to rest mainly on the "filed rate doctrine”, and the Maine Public Service Court did not feel that the commission had analyzed sufficiently the nature of the superseded fuel clause which determined the question of retroactive ratemaking.
Thus, it is clear that the First Circuit has held that it will disallow a surcharge where a fixed-rate tariff is involved. This is similar to the other federal decisions considered. In addition, in Public Service Co of New Hampshire v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, supra, the District of Columbia Circuit thoroughly analyzed the language in Maine Public Service relied upon by Edison and was extremely critical of it.
Of course, the utility faces a corresponding "risk” of overcollection should costs fall. Cf. Michigan Bell Telephone Co v Public Service Comm, supra.
See, e.g., Attorney General v Public Service Comm, 63 Mich App 69; 234 NW2d 407 (1975).
See, e.g., General Telephone Co of Michigan v Public Service Comm, 78 Mich App 528; 260 NW2d 874 (1977).
See generally General Telephone Co of Michigan v Public Service Comm, 341 Mich 620, 632; 67 NW2d 882 (1954):
"This Court made it very clear in Michigan Bell Telephone Co v Public Service Comm, 315 Mich 533 (66 PUR NS 287), that the commission cannot establish a retroactive rate thereby correcting injustice caused by delay in establishing rates for the past. When failure to provide adequate rates in the past cannot be remedied by retroactive orders, it follows that every reasonable effort should be made by the commission to eliminate unnecessary delay and to pass judgment on facts that will not only reflect upon the present but a reasonable period in the future.”
We also disagree with Edison’s claim that the deferred fuel cost accounting procedure approved on July 29, 1974, implies that excess fuel costs incurred but not yet "reflected” in customers’ bills were to be recovered in later months.
First, the accounting change was authorized almost six months after the superseded FCAC was adopted. Thus, it cannot serve as an indication of Edison’s or the commission’s intent regarding the nature of the superseded FCAC at the time it was instituted. One of the acknowledged purposes of the accounting change was to enable Edison to have a more favorable financial position to assist in sales of its securities. This, we suggest, is the primary implication of Edison’s request for and the commission’s approval of the accounting change.
Edison also argues that use of the deferred accounting method would have violated accounting principles and misled investors unless there was a reasonable assurance of recovery; hence, the commission would not have approved the accounting change unless it believed that the superseded FCAC was a recovery mechanism. This contention fails for two reasons. First, in the order approving the accounting change, the commission specifically ordered the change to be properly disclosed in Edison’s financial statements. Second, in its original application for the deferred accounting method, realizing that a balance might be left in such an account if the FCAC was changed to make it more current, Edison included a paragraph which would have allowed charging customers for this balance. This paragraph was deleted by stipulation and replaced with a paragraph in which Edison agreed that the new accounting method would not result in higher rates for its customers. Thus, neither Edison nor its investors was misled to believe that the accounting change assured recovery of any balance created by its use.
Finally, we note that other courts have likewise rejected the argument that implementation of deferred fuel accounting implies recovery of excess fuel costs in later months. Boston Edison Co v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, supra, p 10; Public Service Co of New Hampshire v Federal Energy Regulatory Comm, supra, pp 136-137; State of North Carolina ex rel Utilities Comm v Attorney General, 291 NC 451, 472-474; 232 SE2d 184, 197 (1977).
Former MCL 460.6a; MSA 22.13(6a).
For a number of years fuel cost adjustment clauses had been included in rates charged by Edison to industrial and commercial customers. The statute (MCL 460.6a; MSA 22.13[6a]) was amended in 1972, and thereafter such clauses could be provided for domestic service.
The Legislature has recently amended this statute again to preclude fuel adjustment clauses. 1982 PA 304. In addition, the adoption of Proposals D and H at the 1982 general election will affect utility practices in this area.
On September 20, 1973, Detroit Edison applied to the commission for authority to include a fuel adjustment clause in its domestic (residential) rate schedules. (Case No. U-4426.) On February 4, 1974, the commission granted Edison’s request to add a fuel adjustment clause to the rates for its domestic customers. The billing rule approved by the commission allowed Edison to increase or decrease the charges per kilowatt-hour by the amount that costs for fuel had increased or decreased from the cost in a base month (December 1973). The approved billing rule said that "[t]he adjustment shall apply to the second billing month following the calendar month in which the fuel is burned.”
Thus, beginning in February 1974, Edison customers’ electric bills consisted of two components: a base rate, and a fuel cost adjustment based on the fuel costs incurred two months before. For example, the September 1974 fuel costs (adjusted by a "line loss factor”) exceeded the December 1973 base costs by $0.53517 per kilowatt-hour adjustment.
The fuel adjustment clause for certain commercial and industrial customers operated somewhat differently. Fuel costs were billed to those customers in the next billing month following the month in which the fuel was burned.
Edison’s accounting procedures called for fuel costs to be recorded as expenses in the month when the fuel was used. Under the fuel adjustment clause approved in February 1974 billings to customers did not immediately reflect cost changes, creating a lag in recovery of fuel costs, which were rapidly increasing during this period. Citing this billing lag, on June Í8, 1974, Edison petitioned the commission for approval of a change in the accounting procedure. (Case No. F-647.)
On July 29, 1974, the commission approved the request for the accounting change. The commission authorized Edison to record fuel costs above the base as an asset on the company’s balance sheet. The accounting procedures treated these "deferred fuel costs” as being recovered when customers’ bills were adjusted on the basis of these excess fuel costs two months later. The change in accounting procedures was made retroactive to January 1974.
The February 3, 1975 order was issued in connection with a pending Edison rate increase application. (Case No. U-4570.) The order revised Edison’s fuel cost billing rule. The order added a "lag adjustment” provision. Under the new rule, bills for a particular month would be adjusted on the basis of the second previous month’s excess fuel cost plus the difference between the second and the fourth preceding months’ excess fuel cost. Assuming a steady increase in fuel prices over the relevant period, this formula would lead current fuel cost adjustment billings to quite closely reflect actual current fuel prices.
The new schedule read much the same as the first; i.e., "[t]he fuel adjustment shall be applied to the second billing month following the calendar month in which the fuel is burned”, but to correct for the two-month lag, there was to be an increase or decrease "by the difference between the 'two-month lag’ adjustment factor applied in the second immediately preceding billing month and the 'two-month lag’ adjustment factor to be applied for the immediate billing month.”
The amount actually collected from customers was only $23,514,-278.
This Court initially denied leave to appeal. 403 Mich 823 (1978). However, Edison’s motion for reconsideration was granted and on reconsideration leave to appeal was granted. 403 Mich 853 (1978). On October 27, 1978, this Court stayed the refund of the money collected.
After the cause was argued, we remanded on February 1, 1980, to the commission to take evidence and make specific findings of fact regarding the method of calculation and figures used by Edison in determining billings for the months of February, March, April, and May of 1975, and particularly as to which fuel adjustment clause was used during those months. The findings after remand were filed by the commission on July 30, 1982.
The Detroit Edison Co v Public Service Comm, 82 Mich App 59, 74-75; 266 NW2d 665 (1978).
"The pertinent facts necessary to determine the central question raised by this application are clear and undisputed. Under the fuel cost adjustment clause existing prior to February 3, 1975, there was a billing lag. The result of that lag was that changes in applicant’s fuel costs were not recognized in customers’ bills until 30 to 60 days after they were incurred. Thus, if fuel costs steadily increased, applicant would spend more for fuel than it collected from its customers through the fuel clause. Conversely, if fuel costs steadily declined, applicant would collect more from its customers through the fuel clause than it actually expended for fuel.
"In Case No. U-4570, the commission revised applicant’s fuel clause so that fuel expenditures and revenues from the fuel clause would occur at about the same points in time. Since fuel costs had steadily increased during the preceding period, applicant had not collected through the previous rates, including the fuel clause, all of its actual expenditures for fuel.
"The Order in Case No. F-647 had nothing to do with this undercol-lection of $26,349,806. It was inherent in applicant’s previous fuel clause that the full amount of fuel expenses would not be collected if fuel costs rose above the base fuel cost without at some subsequent time falling below the base cost. The only eifect of Case No. F-647 was to display the undercollection separately in Account 174.” MPSC Order, December 22, 1975 (Case No. U-4758).
“Finally, it is necessary that the proper disposition of the amounts accumulated in Account 174 be determined. The commission is aware of the potential for negative consequences for applicant if those accumulations are written off in too short a period. Consequently, the commission finds that the $26,349,806 should be written off against net income over a period of 10 years.” MPSC Order, December 22, 1975 (Case No. U-4758).
Ante, p 517.
Ante, p 516.
Ante, p 524.
Ante, p 522.
Ante, p 517.
Ante, p 523.
Order of December 22, 1975 (Case No. U-4758); see seventh paragraph of the opinion for reversal, ante, p 528, for quoted language in context.
Order of February 3, 1975 (Case No. U-4570); see third paragraph of the opinion for reversal ante, p 526, for quoted word in context.
Commission’s order of July 29, 1974 (Case No. F-647), speaking of credits subject to "later billing” and "deferred payment”; and the order of February 3, 1975, fn 8 supra, speaking of a "billing lag” and "deferred fuel costs” and "accumulated fuel cost deferral”. | [
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Ryan, J.
This case is a so-called "reverse” Freedom of Information Act case in which the plaintiffs seek to enjoin rather than compel disclosure of public records. The plaintiffs are five classified civil service employees of the State of Michigan who have filed a class action seeking to enjoin the defendants, the Michigan Civil Service Commission and the Department of Civil Service, from releasing to several labor organizations a list of names and addresses of all classified civil service employees.
The plaintiffs assert that 1) the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) affirmatively prohibits the contemplated disclosure, 2) the FOIA does not require disclosure of the names and addresses, 3) disclosure would constitute an enjoinable violation of plaintiffs’ right of privacy, and, finally, 4) disclosure would violate the Civil Service Commission’s authority to regulate all conditions of employment under Const 1963, art 11, § 5. While we find it unnecessary to decide whether the FOIA requires disclosure or whether FOIA-mandated disclosure would infringe upon the authority of the Civil Service Commission, we reject the remainder of the plaintiffs’ arguments. We hold that the FOIA never prohibits disclosure, and that these plaintiffs are not entitled to injunctive relief under their common-law or constitutional right of privacy. Accordingly, the decision of the Court of Appeals is affirmed.
I
In the fall of 1977, the defendant state agencies received several requests for a list of names and addresses of all classified civil service employees. The requests were submitted by various labor organizations which sought to use the information for the purpose of soliciting members in furtherance of their organizational campaigns among those state employees. A determination had already been made as to the appropriate division of state employees into bargaining units for representation elections which would culminate in certifica tion, for the first time, of labor organizations to represent the various units of employees. The defendants complied with the first of the requests in October of 1977, and indicated their intention to comply with the later requests for the list on November 15, 1977. On November 14, 1977, the executive secretary of the MSEA, one of the requesting unions, informed the defendants that pleadings to obtain judicial relief would be filed before the information was released. On November 15, 1977, the five named plaintiffs filed this action in the Ingham Circuit Court and obtained a temporary restraining order blocking the release of the names and addresses. Four of the five named plaintiffs were members of the MSEA, having authorized the payment of their dues through payroll deductions. The MSEA orally withdrew its request on November 15, 1977, and provided written confirmation that it wanted its request held in abeyance on November 17, 1977.
Two labor organizations, the Organization of Classified State Employees and the Welfare Employees Union, sought to intervene as defendants in order to argue that the FOIA compelled disclosure of the requested names and addresses. The plaintiffs opposed the intervention. A hearing was conducted on December 9, 1977, and the circuit judge denied the motion to intervene in an opinion filed December 21, 1977. No appeal was taken from this denial.
On May 25, 1978, the circuit judge entered an order clarifying the temporary restraining order which indicated that the restraining order of November 15, 1977, did not prohibit the Civil Service Commission from releasing the names and addresses of state employees pursuant to commission rule 5(1), the so-called "ten percent” rule. That rule authorizes the release, within 15 days of a representation election, of a list of names and addresses of state employees working within a particular bargaining unit to the bona fide unions that will appear on the ballot. This clarifying modification was made at the suggestion of the plaintiffs.
The defendants then filed a motion for summary judgment. On September 28, 1978, the circuit court issued an opinion denying the defendant’s motion for summary judgment and instead granted summary judgment in favor of the plaintiffs. The defendants appealed to the Court of Appeals, which reversed. Tobin v Civil Service Comm, 98 Mich App 604; 296 NW2d 320 (1980). The plaintiffs’ application for leave to appeal to this Court was granted upon reconsideration. 410 Mich 908 (1981).
II
The plaintiffs argue that if a public record is one of those named in the FOIA as "exempt from disclosure” the statute affirmatively prohibits disclosure.
We conclude that the language of the act, the intent of the Legislature, public policy, and federal case law support the opposite conclusion, and we hold, therefore, that the Michigan FOIA authorizes, but does not require, nondisclosure of public records falling within a FOIA exemption.
The language of the FOIA is clear and unambiguous:
"A public body may exempt from disclosure as a public record under this act: [the lengthy list of FOIA exemptions follows].” MCL 15.243; MSA 4.1801(13). (Emphasis added.)
The Court of Appeals interpreted the term "may” in a permissive rather than mandatory sense.* *** 6*The plaintiffs argue that the Court of Appeals clearly erred in interpreting "may” to mean "may” rather than, "shall”. We disagree. The words "may” and "shall” are to be given their ordinary and primarily accepted meaning. Smith v Amber Twp School Dist No 6, 241 Mich 366, 369; 217 NW 15 (1928); Breen v Kehoe, 142 Mich 58, 62; 105 NW 28 (1905).
We find nothing to indicate that the Legislature intended the Freedom of Information Act to require nondisclosure. The Michigan Constitution of 1963, art 4, § 24, requires that the object of a law shall be expressed in its title. Nothing in the title of the FOIA or its statement of "public policy” suggests that the problem being addressed was the excessive disclosure of governmental information. While the federal government and some state legislatures have responded to the problems of government overdisclosure by passing so-called "privacy acts”, the Michigan Legislature has not done so.
Further evidence that the Legislature intended the FOIA to be purely a disclosure statute is found in the enforcement provisions of the act. Under MCL 15.240(1); MSA 4.1801(10)(1), an action may be commenced in circuit court to compel disclosure of public records; no provision is made for an action to forbid disclosure. Only persons asserting the right to inspect a public record are eligible for an award of attorney fees or punitive damages, MCL 15.240(4) and (5); MSA 4.1801(10X4) and (5), and only a person requesting public documents is authorized to commence an action in circuit court under FOIA. MCL 15.235(7); MSA 4.1801(5)(7). The absence of any provisions in the statute allowing third parties such as these plaintiffs to bring an action to compel nondisclosure is persuasive evidence that the FOIA did not create such rights. Any asserted right by third parties to prohibit disclosure must have a basis independent of the FOIA.
The plaintiffs argue that it would be against public policy to permit a public body to disclose information exempted from disclosure under the FOIA. We can accept plaintiffs’ argument that most information exempted from disclosure under FOIA should not be routinely disclosed without accepting the argument that the FOIA absolutely prohibits such disclosures. In the usual case, law enforcement agencies will not reveal confidential information furnished only by a confidential source. Nondisclosure is authorized by MCL 15.243(l)(b)(iv); MSA 4.1801(13)(1)(b)(iv). But suppose a confidential source informs the police that a dangerous criminal drives a certain vehicle and fits a certain description. Does the FOIA foreclose the police from broadcasting the information to the general public in the hope that the public will provide further information leading to the arrest of the suspect? We think not. In the usual case, law enforcement agencies refuse to disclose law enforcement investigative techniques or procedures. MCL 15.243(1)(b)(v); MSA 4.1801(13)(1)(b)(v). But if that prohibition were absolute, it would be extremely difficult to adequately train new police officers without revealing investigative techniques or procedures.
The ability to make a discretionary disclosure not required by the FOIA does not allow a public body to disregard other substantive limitations on disclosure. For example, the right of privacy discussed in part IV of this opinion, the Administrative Procedures Act, or other laws may affirmatively prohibit disclosure of information under certain circumstances. However, a party suing to prevent disclosure must rely on that substantive law to prevent disclosure. The FOIA provides no assistance for the plaintiff in a reverse FOIA lawsuit. In effect, a reverse FOIA suit to prevent disclosure of information within a FOIA exemption must be evaluated as if the FOIA did not exist.
The United States Supreme Court reached the same result in Chrysler Corp v Brown, 441 US 281, 292-293; 99 S Ct 1705; 60 L Ed 2d 208 (1979), a case interpreting the federal FOIA counterpart of the Michigan FOIA exemption provision:
"[T]he FOIA is exclusively a disclosure statute * * *.
"[T]he FOIA by itself protects the submitters’ interest in confidentiality only to the extent that this interest is endorsed by the agency collecting the information.
"Enlarged access to governmental information undoubtedly cuts against the privacy concerns of nongovernmental entities, and as a matter of policy some balancing and accommodation may well be desirable. We simply hold here that Congress did not design the FOIA exemptions to be mandatory bars to disclosure.” (Footnote omitted.)
Since the Michigan FOIA was patterned after the federal FOIA, decisions under the federal law are often instructive and, in this instance, persuasive.
We hold that the Michigan FOIA does not prohibit the disclosure of the list of names and addresses of all classified civil service employees.
III
Our resolution of the first issue makes it unnecessary to decide whether the Freedom of Information Act requires disclosure of the list of names and addresses. While the defendants initially believed that the FOIA required disclosure, they now place total reliance on their authority to make a discretionary disclosure. Since we hold that the allegation that the information falls within the privacy exemption does not prevent the discretionary disclosure contemplated by the defendants, any further interpretation of the FOIA would be obiter dictum. The fact that the defendants agree with the plaintiffs that the information falls within the privacy exemption and that its disclosure is, therefore, not required, is an independent reason not to decide the issue. Without the benefit of genuine advocacy, the Court will not undertake to construe the privacy exemption authoritatively.
IV
In support of their claim that the contemplated disclosure of names and addresses should be enjoined, the plaintiffs cite the common-law right of privacy, the constitutional right of privacy, and the specific facts of this controversy that support their claim for injunctive relief.
The common-law right of privacy is said to protect against four types of invasion of privacy.
" '1. Intrusion upon the plaintiff’s seclusion or solitude, or into his private affairs.
" '2. Public disclosure of embarrassing private facts about the plaintiff.
" '3. Publicity which places the plaintiff in a false light in the public eye.
" '4. Appropriation, for the defendant’s advantage, of the plaintiff’s name or likeness.’ Prosser, Privacy, 48 Cal L Rev 383, 389 (1960).” Beaumont v Brown, 401 Mich 80, 95, fn 10; 257 NW2d 522 (1977); see also 3 Restatement Torts, 2d, § 652A, p 376.
The plaintiffs claim that the disclosure of their names and home addresses constitutes an intrusion into their seclusion, solitude, or private affairs. Adopting the three-part test of the Court of Appeals in Beaumont, the plaintiffs argue that all three elements are present.
"Intrusion as a branch of the right to privacy has three elements: (1) the existence of a secret and private subject matter; (2) a right possessed by plaintiff to keep that subject matter private; and (3) the obtaining of information about that subject matter by defendant through some method objectionable to the reasonable man.” Beaumont v Brown, 65 Mich App 455, 462; 237 NW2d 501 (1975), rev’d 401 Mich 80 (1977).
Names and addresses are not ordinarily personal, intimate, or embarrassing pieces of information. The supposed right to keep such information se cret is at best riddled with exceptions. We agree with Prosser’s view, as expressed in 3 Restatement Torts, 2d, § 652D(a), Comment, p 387, that
"Complete privacy does not exist in this world except in a desert, and anyone who is not a hermit must expect and endure the ordinary incidents of the community life of which he is a part. Thus he must expect the more or less casual observation of his neighbors as to what he does, and that his comings and goings and his ordinary daily activities will be described in the press as a matter of casual interest to others. The ordinary reasonable man does not take offense at a report in a newspaper that he has returned from a visit, gone camping in the woods or given a party at his house for his friends.”
The plaintiffs’ claim that disclosure of their names and addresses would intrude upon their privacy must also fail because the plaintiffs have suggested absolutely nothing objectionable about the method by which the information was obtained or is proposed to be released.
In rejecting any invasion of privacy based on an "intrusion” theory, the Court of Appeals in Beau- moni, supra, p 463, noted that the information disclosed "was simply available as part of the employer-employee relationship”, while the information requested was secured by merely writing a letter. That is exactly the situation in this case. Neither of these means are "intrusive” or objectionable to the reasonable person. The only aspect of the contemplated disclosure offensive to the plaintiffs is the fact of disclosure, not the method by which it was obtained.
No other jurisdiction has ever recognized a cause of action based on the release of an individual’s name and address, without more. In Shibley v Time, Inc, 45 Ohio App 2d 69; 74 Ohio Op 2d 101; 341 NE2d 337 (1975), the court held that the defendants’ practice of selling subscription lists to direct mail advertisers without the subscriber’s consent did not constitute an invasion of the subscriber’s common-law right of privacy. If the publication of names and addresses of specific persons was made with the expectation and hope that it would, for example, bring others to molest them and their families, a different result might be required. No such allegations are present in this case. Certainly the expectation that the person listed will be subjected to unsolicited messages from the public employee unions is insufficient to create an actionable invasion of privacy, since the mailing of unsolicited messages not amounting to harassment is not actionable. Bradshaw v Michigan National Bank, 39 Mich App 354; 197 NW2d 531 (1972); see Anno, Unsolicited Mailing, Distribution, House Call, or Telephone Call as Invasion of Privacy, 56 ALR3d 457, and cases cited therein. We find no violation of the common-law right of privacy in the contemplated release of names and addresses of public employees to a public employee labor organization.
The plaintiffs also rely upon their right of privacy under the Michigan and federal constitutions. The case most closely on point is NLRB v British Auto Parts, Inc, 266 F Supp 368 (CD Cal, 1967), aff'd 405 F2d 1182 (CA 9, 1968), cert den sub nom Teledyne v NLRB, 394 US 1012; 89 S Ct 1625; 23 L Ed 2d 39 (1969). In the British Auto Parts case, it was held that the employees’ constitutional right of privacy was not abridged by the ordered release of names and addresses from the employer to a labor union attempting to organize the employees. In response to the employer’s claim that disclosure of the addresses, obtained with a promise of confidentiality, would violate the employees’ right of privacy, the Court responded:
"However, it is clear that no such [privacy] rights are invaded by the Excelsior rule [Excelsior Underwear, Inc, 156 NLRB 1236 (1966)]. * * * With respect to the employees’ 'right to privacy,’ as the Supreme Court pointed out in Martin v City of Struthers, 319 US 141; 63 S Ct 862; 87 L Ed 1313 (1943), those who do not welcome visits to their homes are free to turn the visitors away and will have the protection of the law in doing so.” 266 F Supp 373.
Instead of arguing that the British Auto Parts case was wrongly decided, the plaintiffs agree that the disclosure of employee names and addresses to labor unions obtaining at least a 10% showing of interest does not infringe upon the right of privacy, while arguing that disclosure of the very same names and addresses to a labor union with less than a 10% authorization is unconstitutional. We agree with the Court of Appeals that this claim is of questionable validity. If the uncon-sented-to disclosure of one’s name and address invades the "right to be let alone”, destroys the sanctity of the home, intrudes into one’s private affairs, and reveals a secret and private subject matter that one has a right to keep private, then it should not matter that the organization to which the information is disclosed has the support of at least 10% of the appropriate bargaining unit. Conversely, if disclosure under the “Excelsior” or "10%” rule passes constitutional muster, it is difficult to understand why a 9.9% rule or a rule authorizing disclosure to any legitimate labor organization would not be equally constitutional.
We find the latter view to accord with the weight of authority. In Webb v City of Shreveport, 371 So 2d 316 (La App, 1979), the plaintiff union organizers sought the names and addresses of city employees under the Louisiana public records law. A number of employees intervened, alleging the existence of a paramount constitutional right of privacy against disclosure. The court held that the contemplated disclosure violated neither the state nor federal constitutions.
"A person’s employment, where he lives, and where he works are exposures which we all must suffer. We have no reasonable expectation of privacy as to our identity or as to where we live or work. Our commuting to and from where we live and work is not done clandestinely and each place provides a facet of our total identity.”
See Milwaukee Board of School Directors v WERC, 42 Wis 2d 637; 168 NW2d 92 (1969); Timberlane Regional Education Ass’n v Crompton, 114 NH 315; 319 A2d 632 (1974). See also Lamont v Comm’r of Motor Vehicles, 269 F Supp 880 (SD NY, 1967), holding that the federal right of privacy does not prohibit the State of New York from selling to the highest bidder names and addresses of persons registering automobiles.
We find no infringement of plaintiffs’ right to privacy under either the federal or state constitutions.
In support of their claim for injunctive relief, the plaintiffs argue that disclosure of their names and addresses to the public employee unions would expose them to physical danger from hostile clients; that abusive labor union picketing of employees’ homes would result; and that unless the requested injunction is granted, the state could release personal medical information about state employees. The plaintiffs’ fear of injury at the hands of the hostile general public is not well taken, since the contemplated disclosure was not to the general public but to a public employee labor organization. The fear of picketing at supervisors’ homes is insufficient to justify injunctive relief in that (1) the cited instances of home picketing did not involve the unions scheduled to receive the names and addresses in this case, (2) peaceful picketing at the residences of public officials, however annoying, is entitled to some measure of constitutional protection, see Carey v Brown, 447 US 455; 100 S Ct 2286; 65 L Ed 2d 263 (1980), and (3) abusive or threatening picketing is most appropriately controlled by civil and criminal sanctions. The asserted fear that the state will release personal medical information about state employees is simply frivolous; the plaintiffs have alleged no facts to support the notion that such a disclosure is contemplated or has ever occurred.
We recognize that for a few individuals, disclosure of their names, addresses, or other seemingly impersonal information could be extremely harmful. See United States Dep’t of State v Washington Post Co, 456 US 595; 102 S Ct 1957; 72 L Ed 2d 358 (1982) (confirmation or denial of American citizenship of Iranian officials might result in their exe cution); Ruffalo v Civiletti, 539 F Supp 949 (WD Mo, 1982) (disclosure of the name and address of the plaintiffs son would violate the confidence of the federal witness protection program). We find particularly appropriate the analysis undertaken in Open Records Decision No. 169, Office of the Attorney General of Texas (1977). Only five out of more than 3,000 public employees were found both to have taken effective action to maintain the secrecy of their addresses, and to have demonstrated "truly exceptional circumstances such as * * * an imminent threat of physical danger as opposed to a generalized and speculative fear of harassment or retribution”. Three of the five were police officers, one of whom had a "contract” on his life resulting from a specific criminal investigation. We find no such allegations in this case; these plaintiffs have, therefore, failed to plead facts sufficient to warrant injunctive relief.
V
The plaintiffs’ final argument is that disclosure would violate the Civil Service Commission’s authority to regulate conditions of state employment under Const 1963, art 11, § 5. The decision by the defendant Civil Service Commission to disclose the names and addresses cannot and does not infringe upon its own authority. The plaintiffs’ attack appears to be aimed not against the discretionary disclosure involved in this case, but against mandatory disclosure under the FOIA. Since it is unnecessary to decide whether the FOIA requires disclosure in this case, it is similarly unnecessary to decide whether the Legislature unconstitutionally infringed on the authority of the Civil Service Commission by enacting the FOIA.
The decision of the Court of Appeals is affirmed.
Fitzgerald, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, Levin, and Coleman, JJ., concurred with Ryan, J.
Riley, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
MCL 15.231 et seq.; MSA 4.1801(1) et seq.
On October 4, 1977, Local 31-M of the Service Employees International Union requested the names and home addresses of all state classified employees. The request was granted. On November 7, 1977, the Organization of Classified State Employees filed a written request for the same information. On November 9, 1977, the defendant received a written request for the list from the Welfare Employees Union. In a letter dated November 8, 1977, the Michigan State Employees Association requested a magnetic tape, rather than a hard copy printout, of names and addresses of all state classified employees who were not dues-paying members of MSEA.
"5. Conduct of Elections
"(1) The [state personnel] director shall provide the petitioner [i.e. the employee organization with a 30 percent showing of interest in a unit], any intervenor with a 10 percent showing of interest, and the employer with a list of all eligible voters in the most appropriate unit together with their addresses of record within 15 calendar days of the director’s decision to conduct the election.”
The requirement for disclosure of a showing of interest by at least 10% of the employees of the proposed unit would favor larger labor organizations which had already obtained a 10% showing of interest. Unions attempting to obtain that initial 10% showing would not have the benefit of the list. The list would also be denied to intervening unions with a 10% showing until the decision to conduct an election was made. This would also tend to favor the union with the largest pre-campaign support, shortening the time during which a challenging union could effectively present its position to the employees.
"Notably absent from the FOIA universe is a class of public records that must be preserved from disclosure. It is not possible to interpret public bodies’ privilege to refuse disclosure of exempted materials as an obligation to protect those records from public view. The act itself demonstrates the Legislature’s ability to distinguish between 'may’ and 'shall’.” Tobin, supra, p 608.
The case of McBrian v Grand Rapids, 56 Mich 95; 22 NW 206 (1885), cited by the plaintiffs, does not control here. In that case, the statute stated that the city "may contract with the lowest responsible bidder” for its sewer construction project. This Court interpreted the statute to mean that the city "may” reject all bids and readvertise the project, but if any bid is accepted, it "shall” be the bid of the lowest responsible bidder. This interpretation resolved an ambiguity, effectuated the legislative intent, and is not contrary to our decision in this case.
The title to 1976 PA 442 reads:
"An Act to provide for public access to certain public records of public bodies; to permit certain fees; to prescribe the powers and duties of certain public officers and public bodies; to provide remedies and penalties; and to repeal certain acts and parts of acts.”
MCL 15.231; MSA 4.1801(1):
"(1) This act shall be known and may be cited as the 'freedom of information act’.
"(2) It is the public policy of this state that all persons are entitled to full and complete information regarding the affairs of government and the official acts of those who represent them as public officials and public employees, consistent with this act. The people shall be informed so that they may fully participate in the democratic process.”
5 USC 552(a) et seq.; Cal Penal Code § 630 et seq.
For example, information of a personal nature where public disclosure would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of privacy, MCL 15.243(1)(a); MSA 4.1801(13)(1)(a); records compiled for law enforcement purposes, when disclosure would interfere with law enforcement proceedings, deprive a person of a right to a fair trial, invade personal privacy, disclose the identity of a confidential source, or endanger law enforcement personnel, MCL 15.243(1), subds (b) and (c); MSA 4.1801(13X1), subds (b) and (c); and records specifically exempt from disclosure by statute,. MCL 15.243(1)(d); MSA 4.1801(13)(1)(d), would, by definition, cause harm if released.
MCL 24.201 et seq.; MSA 3.560(101) et seq. An agency decision to disclose or to deny disclosure might be reviewable under the standards of MCL 24.306; MSA 3.560(206). However, the plaintiffs in this lawsuit do not allege that the defendants’ decision to release the names and addresses under these circumstances violated the Administrative Procedures Act.
5 USC 552(a) et seq. Specifically, 5 USC 552(b) provides that "[t]his section does not apply to matters that are * * * [followed by the list of exemptions]”.
For availability of driver’s license information, including record of traffic offenses and the duty to notify of address changes, see MCL 257.204a; MSA 9.1904(1), MCL 257.208; MSA 9.1908, MCL 257.315; MSA 9.2015, MCL 257.316; MSA 9.2016. For availability of vehicle registration lists, see MCL 257.232; MSA 9.1932, authorizing the Secretary of State to sell the lists to any person for a reasonable price. Names and addresses involved in the conveyance of real property are open to public inspection in the office of the Register of Deeds. MCL 565.25; MSA 26.543, MCL 565.551; MSA 26.791. Property tax assessment rolls and indexes may be inspected. MCL 211.10a; MSA 7.10(1), MCL 211.25a; MSA 7.25(1). Information on corporate officers and directors is available through the Corporation and Securities Bureau. MCL 450.1131; MSA 21.200(131). Names, addresses, ages, and other information required by the Director of Public Health in an application for a marriage license are matters of record. MCL 551.102; MSA 25.32.The rolls of registered voters and the elections in which they have voted are available for inspection and copying. MCL 168.516; MSA 6.1516, MCL 168.522; MSA 6.1522.
Nor do I read the separate opinion in Falk v State Bar of Michigan, 411 Mich 63, 161-164; 305 NW2d 201 (1981) (Williams, J., joined by Coleman, C.J.), as suggesting that the use of the State Bar membership list for commercial mailings violates the recipient’s common-law right of privacy. My colleague’s opinion noted that under Rowan v United States Post Office Dep’t, 397 US 728; 90 S Ct 1484; 25 L Ed 2d 736 (1970), the addressee of any advertisement has an absolute right to prevent the sender from further mailings to the named addressee. 39 USC 4009, now 39 USC 3008. My brother’s opinion merely noted that the State Bar is not exempt from the strictures of 39 USC 3008. Nothing in Rowan, or the separate opinion in Falk, suggests that the recipient of unwanted advertising may neglect to exercise his right to remove his name from the list and then sue for damages on the basis of a common-law invasion of privacy theory.
See also Consolidated Edison Co of New York v Public Service Comm of New York, 447 US 530, 542, fn 11; 100 S Ct 2326; 65 L Ed 2d 319 (1980):
"Although this Court has recognized the special privacy interests that attach to persons who seek seclusion within their own homes, see Rowan * * *, the arrival of a billing envelope is hardly as intrusive as the visit of a door-to-door solicitor. Yet the Court has rejected the contention that a municipality may ban door-to-door solicitors because they may invade the privacy of households. Martin v City of Struth-ers, 319 US 141, 146-147; 63 S Ct 862; 87 L Ed 1313 (1943).”
The plaintiffs’ suit against the publishers of Time Magazine, Esquire, Playboy, and Ladies Home Journal alleged that prior consent should be required before one’s name and address could be sold, since the original subscription contract did not explicitly provide for such a sale. The court disagreed, holding that the plaintiffs had failed to state a claim under any recognized theory of invasion of privacy and refusing to extend the common law to recognize such a claim.
Cf. McNutt v New Mexico State Tribune Co, 88 NM 162; 538 P2d 804 (1975), cert den 88 NM 318; 540 P2d 248 (1975), discussed in Anno, Publication of Address as Well as Name of Person as Invasion of Privacy, 84 ALR3d 1159. In McNutt, a newspaper editor published the names and home addresses of two police officers involved in a shootout in which two members of an organization known as the "Black Berets” were killed. It was alleged that the addresses had no news value but were published with the expectation that it would bring persons to the addresses to molest the plaintiffs and their families. The publication of the names and addresses was supposedly in retaliation for the officers’ refusal to give information to the newspaper. The court held that whatever minimal invasion of privacy might have occurred was insufficient to overcome the defendant’s First Amendment privilege.
Even if the individual plaintiffs could allege sufficient exceptional circumstances to justify nondisclosure, the appropriate remedy would be an injunction limited to those individuals rather than the blanket injunction issued by the trial judge in this case. In practice, it is doubtful that the state would indiscriminately disclose the names and addresses of such persons if those persons requested anonymity and provided substantiation for their position. | [
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Kavanagh, J.
In this case we are asked to consider the liability of police officers and their municipal employer for conduct involved in the high-speed pursuit of a traffic violator which resulted in severe injuries to the plaintiff.
Plaintiff, Ronald Fiser, appeals the entry of summary judgment for defendants City of Ann Arbor and Ann Arbor police officers David L. Miller, Donald Terry, and Walter Lunsford. Plaintiff seeks damages for injuries sustained in an automobile collision involving his car and a car driven by Michael Lehman, which was being chased by an Ann Arbor police car driven by defendant Lunsford at the time of the accident. Plaintiff alleges that his injuries were caused in part by the negligence of the police officers.
In the early morning hours of October 19, 1975, plaintiff was driving his automobile south on South Main Street in Ann Arbor. At the same time, an automobile driven by Michael Lehman was proceeding east on Madison Street toward the intersection of Madison and South Main. Lehman was being pursued by a fully marked Ann Arbor police car with activated emergency sirens and overhead oscillating lights. Traveling at a high speed, Lehman disregarded the flashing red light at the intersection, entered the intersection without stopping, and struck plaintiff’s car. Plaintiff was severely injured.
Lehman’s collision with plaintiff’s vehicle terminated an automobile chase in which all of the defendant police officers had been involved. Lehman was first observed by defendants Miller and Terry when he failed to stop for a flashing stop signal. The officers, on duty in a fully marked Ann Arbor police car, immediately signaled Lehman to stop. When Lehman ignored this signal, defendant Miller, the driver of the police car, activated the overhead emergency lights and began to pursue Lehman. A high-speed chase ensued through residential and business areas with the vehicles reaching speeds of 110 miles per hour and the drivers disregarding traffic signals. At some point in the pursuit, Lehman lost control of his vehicle, and, after being struck by the police car, Lehman’s car came to a stop. As Officer Terry left the police car to approach Lehman, Lehman sped away again, nearly running down Officer Terry.
Officer Miller continued to pursue Lehman’s vehicle alone. Miller followed Lehman the wrong way down a one-way street and shortly thereafter lost track of the Lehman car. About two minutes later, Sergeant Lunsford, who was also operating a fully marked Ann Arbor police car and who had received a radio report of the high-speed chase, the collision involving Officer Terry, and a description of the Lehman vehicle and its license number, spotted Lehman’s car and began pursuit with his emergency lights and siren activated. Lunsford pursued Lehman for approximately six blocks at a maximum speed of about 55 miles per hour in a 25 miles per hour zone. Approaching the intersection of Madison and South Main, Lunsford observed Lehman unsuccessfully attempt to brake before accelerating to get through the intersection. In accelerating, Lehman struck the vehicle driven by plaintiff broadside.
The trial court reviewed the affidavits of the police officers, the allegations of plaintiffs amended complaint, and testimony given by Sergeant Lunsford at the hearing on the defendants’ motion for summary judgment, and granted the City of Ann Arbor and Officers Miller, Terry, and Lunsford summary judgment. In a split decision, the Court of Appeals affirmed the judgment of the circuit court. For the reasons stated below, we reverse the summary judgment rendered in favor of the City of Ann Arbor, Officer Miller, and Sergeant Lunsford.
The defendants argue that the City of Ann Arbor and the police officers involved are immune from any tort liability arising out of the accident. Defendants rely on MCL 691.1407; MSA 3.996(107):
"Sec. 7. Except as in this act otherwise provided, all governmental agencies shall be immune from tort liability in all cases wherein the government agency is engaged in the exercise or discharge of a governmental function. Except as otherwise provided herein, this act shall not be construed as modifying or restricting the immunity of the state from tort liability as it existed heretofore, which immunity is affirmed.”
However, the Legislature has provided an exception from governmental immunity for injuries resulting from the negligent operation of a govern ment-owned vehicle by an officer of a governmental agency, MCL 691.1405; MSA 3.996(105):
"Sec. 5. Governmental agencies shall be liable for bodily injury and property damage resulting from the negligent operation by any officer, agent, or employee of the governmental agency, of a motor vehicle of which the governmental agency is owner, as defined in Act No. 300 of the Public Acts of 1949, as amended, being sections 257.1 to 257.923 of the Compiled Laws of 1948.”
Therefore, if the pursuit of Michael Lehman constituted negligent operation of the police vehicles, defendants Miller, Lunsford, and the City of Ann Arbor are not immune from tort liability. We affirm the circuit court’s grant of summary judgment in favor of Officer Terry because he did not operate either of the police vehicles involved in the pursuit.
In a negligence action a judgment for the defendant can properly be made only upon a determination a) that the defendant did act as a reasonably prudent man would have acted under the same or similar circumstances, i.e., that the defendant did not violate the standard of care owed to the plaintiff, b) that the plaintiff suffered no injury, c) that the defendant’s negligence did not cause the plain tiff’s injury, or d) that the injury of the plaintiff was too insignificantly connected to or too remotely affected by the defendant’s negligence. For a proper grant of summary judgment for the defendant, a trial judge must rule that all reasonable men would agree on the conclusion of a), b), c), or d). Davis v Thornton, 384 Mich 138, 142; 180 NW2d 11 (1970).
In determining whether the trial court properly granted summary judgment for the defendants in this case, we must review the reasonableness of the officers’ actions and the question whether these actions could have been a proximate cause of plaintiff’s injuries, and decide whether all reasonable men would agree with the conclusions. Plaintiff’s injuries are not in question.
In McKay v Hargis, 351 Mich 409, 418; 88 NW2d 456 (1958), the Court set out the standard by which to determine a claim of negligence on the part of a police officer. The officer’s conduct should be compared to "that care which a reasonably prudent man would exercise in the discharge of official duties of like nature under like circumstances”.
The defendants claim that the duty they owe to the public in regard to the operation of police vehicles is governed by specific legislation pertaining to authorized emergency vehicles. MCL 257.603; MSA 9.2303 provides in part:
"(b) The driver of an authorized emergency vehicle when responding to an emergency call, but not while returning from an emergency call, may exercise the privileges set forth in this section, subject to the conditions of this section._
"(c) The driver of an authorized emergency vehicle may:
"(1) Park or stand, irrespective of the provisions of this act.
"(2) Proceed past a red or stop signal or stop sign, but only after slowing down as may be necessary for safe operation.
"(3) Exceed the prima facie speed limits so long as he does not endanger life or property.
"(4) Disregard regulations governing direction of movement or turning in specified direction.
"(d) The exemptions granted in this section to an authorized emergency vehicle shall apply only when the driver of the vehicle while in motion sounds an audible signal by bell, siren, air horn, or exhaust whistle as may be reasonably necessary except as provided in subsection (e), and when the vehicle is equipped with at least 1 lighted lamp displaying a flashing, oscillating, or rotating red or blue light”. (Emphasis added.)
MCL 257.632; MSA 9.2332 states:
"The speed limitation set forth in this chapter shall not apply to vehicles when operated with due regard for safety under the direction of the police when traveling in emergencies or in the chase or apprehension of violators of the law or of persons charged with or suspected of a violation, nor to fire department or fire patrol vehicles when traveling in response to a fire alarm, nor to public or private ambulances when traveling in emergencies * * *. This exemption shall not however protect the driver of the vehicle from the consequences of a reckless disregard of the safety of others.” (Emphasis added.)
The defendants allege that Officer Miller and Sergeant Lunsford were operating their vehicles within the terms of the statutes, and that therefore they cannot be held to have been negligent.
In order for MCL 257.603; MSA 9.2303 to apply, defendants must show that the officers reasonably believed an emergency existed. The chase or apprehension of violators of the law or persons suspected of a violation does not necessarily constitute an emergency situation. "Whether or not there was an emergency (or circumstances warranting the driver’s belief that there was) bringing into play the provisions of the applicable statutes * * * is a matter of fact.” Hoffmaster v McNett, 2 Mich App 709, 711; 141 NW2d 352 (1966). The finder of fact must determine whether the circumstances of this case brought the emergency provisions of the statute into play.
Even if it be determined that the officers were excused by statute from obeying most of the rules of the road, the officers must not endanger life or property. The legislative intent is expressed in these statutes — emergency vehicles must be driven with due regard for the safety of others. Kalamazoo v Priest, 331 Mich 43, 46; 49 NW2d 52 (1951). Thus, the existence of an emergency is but one factor to be considered in evaluating the reasonableness of an officer’s conduct.
Other factors to be considered in determining whether the pursuing officer’s actions were, reasonable include speed of pursuit, the area of pursuit, weather and road conditions, the presence of pedestrians and other traffic, the presence or absence of audible and visible warnings, and the reason the officers were pursuing the fleeing vehicle.
In the instant case, Officer Miller initiated the pursuit because he observed Lehman run a flashing red light. A high-speed chase ensued in resi dential and business areas at speeds of up to 110 miles per hour, with the drivers ignoring traffic signals and proceeding the wrong way on a one-way street. The pavement was wet because it was raining. Shortly after Officer Miller lost sight of Lehman, Sergeant Lunsford took up the chase. Defendant Lunsford was aware that Lehman had failed to stop for Officers Miller and Terry when they chased him for several blocks at high speeds and that Lehman had already lost control of his vehicle once. Nonetheless, defendant Lunsford pursued Lehman through residential and business districts for six blocks at speeds of up to 30 miles per hour in excess of the posted limits. Lunsford admitted that he was concerned about the intersection of Madison and South Main, which at that time of morning is heavily traveled. It was at this intersection that the collision with plaintiff occurred.
After reviewing the evidence, we hold that a jury could reasonably have concluded that the City of Ann Arbor, through its agents, violated the standard of care owed to the plaintiff.
The circuit court and Court of Appeals also found no liability as a matter of law because the actions of defendants Miller and Lunsford were not a proximate cause of plaintiffs injuries. The courts based this determination on the fact that defendant Miller had lost sight of Lehman and was a mile away from the intersection of Madison and South Main when the collision with plaintiff occurred, and that defendant Lunsford’s vehicle, which was chasing Lehman at the time of the accident, did not make physical contact with plaintiffs car. The courts also found that the negligent driving of Lehman was an intervening act causing the collision.
This Court discussed the issue of proximate cause at length in Camp v Wilson, 258 Mich 38, 41-42; 241 NW 844 (1932):
" 'If a man does an act and he knows, or by the exercise of reasonable foresight should have known, that in the event of a subsequent occurrence, which is not unlikely to happen, injury may result from his act, and such subsequent occurrence does happen and injury does result, the act committed is negligent, and will be deemed to be the proximate cause of the injury.’ Tozer v Michigan Central R Co, 195 Mich 662, 666; 162 NW 280 (1917).
" 'It is elementary that where injury results from the concurrent negligence of two or more, each proximately contributing to the result, recovery may be had against one or more, although but one satisfaction may be had.’ Banzhof v Roche, 228 Mich 36, 41; 199 NW 607 (1924).
" 'There may be more than one proximate cause for the same injury, and the mere fact that some other cause cooperates with the negligence of the defendant to produce the injury for which suit is brought does not relieve him from liability.’ 2 Blashfield, Cyclopedia of Automobile Law, p 1204.”
With regard to the effect of an intervening act, 2 Restatement Torts, § 447, p 1196, explains:
"The fact that an intervening act of a third person is negligent in itself or is done in a negligent manner does not make it a superseding cause of harm to another which the actor’s negligent conduct is a substantial factor in bringing about, if
"(a) the actor at the time of his negligent conduct should have realized that a third person might so act, or
"(b) a reasonable man knowing the situation existing when the act of the third person was done would not regard it as highly extraordinary that the third person had so acted.” Quoted with approval in Davis, supra, 384 Mich 149, and Comstock v General Motors Corp, 358 Mich 163, 179; 99 NW2d 627 (1959).
The question of proximate cause is generally held to be one for the jury. Comstock, p 180. Any doubts about the relations between the causes and the effects should be resolved by the jury. The determination of remoteness should seldom, if ever, be summarily determined. Davis, pp 145, 147.
Plaintiff’s contention in the present case is that the reckless and negligent conduct of Lehman was the result, in part, of the way in which he was being pursued by the officers. Plaintiff alleges that the defendants’ pursuit of Lehman at high speeds and without regard for traffic laws caused Lehman to drive negligently and, in an effort to evade his pursuers, to recklessly turn his car, causing a collision with plaintiff’s vehicle.
We agree that the excessive speed of the Lehman vehicle could be said to have resulted from the fact that he was being pursued by the police and that it was this high speed which caused him to lose control of the car.
Under the facts of this case, we hold that reasonable men might conclude that the pursuit by defendants Miller and Lunsford was not too remote a cause of plaintiff’s injuries and that the negligent conduct of Michael Lehman did not sever that causal connection.
The defendants argue that a reversal of the decision of the Court of Appeals would be contrary to good public policy because it would have a chilling effect on the performance of police officers. Whatever the merits of defendants’ argument, it is not for us to decide. The Legislature has determined the public policy embraced in MCL 257.603, 257.632, 691.1405; MSA 9.2303, 9.2332, 3.996(105), and, if the performance of police officers is chilled thereby, undoubtedly the Legislature was satisfied that a higher public good was served by enacting the statutes. Even if we were persuaded that the policy is unwise, we would not be free to change it.
Plaintiffs claims of negligence and proximate causation of his injuries on the part of defendants City of Ann Arbor, Officer Miller, and Sergeant Lunsford are properly questions of fact for the jury.
Affirmed in part, reversed in part, and remanded. Plaintiff may tax costs.
Williams, C.J., and Levin, Brickley, and Cavanagh, JJ., concurred with Kavanagh, J.
In the order of this Court granting leave to appeal, the parties were directed to include among the issues to be briefed whether the decision by police to pursue and to continue pursuit of a traffic violator was "discretionary” or "ministerial”. We have since determined that the resolution of this issue is unnecessary in this case. Accordingly, we do not address it here.
Judge Deake of the circuit court explained, "[t]his court is of the opinion that the Legislature did not intend, and thus the statute does not provide, that the mere operation of a police car radio should be deemed 'operation * * * of a motor vehicle’ so as to subject Terry to the motor vehicles exception to the general rule of governmental immunity.” The Michigan Vehicle Code defines "operator” as "every person, other than a chauffeur, who is in actual physical control of a motor vehicle upon a highway”. MCL 257.36; MSA 9.1836.
MCL 257.2; MSA 9.1802 includes police vehicles within the meaning of "authorized emergency vehicles”.
In Lingo v Hoekstra, 176 Ohio St 417, 420; 200 NE2d 325 (1964), the Ohio Supreme Court recognized the distinction the General Assembly had made between "response to an emergency call” and "the immediate pursuit of an actual [or] suspected violator of the law” and held that the officer’s pursuit of a suspected violator to pace his speed did not as a matter of law constitute "responding to an emergency cadi”. MCL 257.632; MSA 9.2332 makes such a distinction.
Cases holding that in similar situations negligence or recklessness and proximate causation are questions for the jury include Kuzmics v Santiago, 256 Pa Super 35; 389 A2d 587 (1978), Mason v Bitton, 85 Wash 2d 321; 534 P2d 1360 (1975), Schatz v Cutler, 395 F Supp 271 (D Vt, 1975), and Myers v Town of Harrison, 438 F2d 293 (CA 2, 1971), cert den 404 US 828 (1971).
There is authority to the contrary. For a collection of cases concerning the liability of a governmental unit or its officers for injuries resulting from police chases, see 4 ALR4th 865; 83 ALR2d 452. | [
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The complaint for mandamus is considered. We vacate the October 25, 1982, order of the Attorney Discipline Board and remand this matter to the hearing panel for further proceedings. Once the hearing panel issued its order of eligibility for reinstatement on October 4, 1982, providing that petitioner would be reinstated upon his fulfillment of certain conditions specified in the order, the Attorney Discipline Board was without authority to stay the reinstatement pending the taking of additional testimony. On remand the hearing panel is directed to reinstate petitioner upon satisfaction of the stated conditions. Review of the reinstatement decision may then be had pursuant to GCR 1963, 967 and 973. We do not retain jurisdiction. | [
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Rehearing denied. Reported at 415 Mich 483.
Cavanagh, J., not participating. | [
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Coleman, J.
Defendant was convicted of armed robbery and the possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony. He presents three issues in seeking to have his convictions reversed. First, he argues that a pistol admitted into evidence was the result of an unlawful warrantless search of his automobile, which was parked in his driveway. Second, he contends that it was reversible error to admit into evidence for impeachment purposes the defendant’s statement of noninvolvement made to a police officer newly assigned to the case subsequent to defendant’s request for an attorney. Third, he argues that he was denied the effective assistance of counsel.
We find that none of these contentions under the circumstances of this case warrant the reversal of his conviction and therefore affirm the judgments of the Court of Appeals and the trial court.
I
In the afternoon of December 24, 1977, the Flint Police Department was notified that an armed robbery had just occurred at Pro-Clean, a laundry and dry cleaning establishment in Flint. The police, upon arriving at the scene, were informed that the robbery was perpetrated by a masked black male armed with a small silver pistol and that a woman may also have been a participant. The assistant manager of the store gave the police a piece of paper containing a description of a car, a white over blue Buick, and a license number. This piece of paper had been given to the assistant manager by a customer, who had told him that this was the car in which the robber had escaped.
The police then drove through the neighborhood in the general area of the cleaners. Within a few minutes, they saw a car parked in a driveway which matched the vehicle description and bore the license plate number that they had been given. There were wet tire tracks leading up to the vehicle from the street and wet footprints leading from the driveway into the adjoining house. The officers knocked on the door of the house and, receiving no response, forced the door and entered. They found the defendant, dressed and with his shoes on, lying on a bed. After arresting him, they proceeded to search the house for the woman. In an open closet next to the bedroom where defendant was found, one of the officers saw a purse with currency protruding from the top and it was seized. The police officers did not find the woman and did not find a gun on defendant’s person or in the house.
One of the police officers then went outside and searched the car, which was unlocked. He testified that he was both looking for the gun, because he believed a female accomplice was still at large, and routinely inventorying the car prior to its being towed away and impounded. As he reached to open the glovebox, he observed a silver pistol hanging from under and somewhat behind the dashboard just to the right of the. steering wheel. He took the gun and several other items prior to impounding the car.
The defendant was taken to the Flint police station. At approximately 3 p.m. of the same afternoon, he was advised of his Miranda rights and he indicated that he did not want to make a statement but that he wanted an attorney. No further questions were asked of him at that time. Two days later, on Monday, December 26, 1977, an officer who that day had been assigned to the case advised the defendant of his Miranda rights. The officer testified that the defendant answered affirmatively when asked if he wanted to waive his right to have an attorney present and to discuss the matter. The officer obtained a statement of noninvolvement from the defendant. The defendant testified that he made the statement as a result of the police officer telling him that he was going to be sentenced to life imprisonment and that it would be better if he talked.
Prior to trial, defendant moved to suppress both the gun obtained from the car and the statement he gave on December 26, 1977. Regarding defendant’s statement, the trial judge believed the police officer and disbelieved the defendant. He ruled that the statement was admissible because the defendant knowingly and voluntarily waived his Miranda rights. He also found the gun admissible on two alternative grounds. First, he found that exigent circumstances existed which justified the search of the automobile. Second, he found that the gun was obtained pursuant to a reasonable inventory search.
At defendant’s trial for armed robbery and the possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony, four employees of Pro-Clean testified. They related that a man with a ski mask came into the store about 1:30 p.m., December 24, 1977, brandished a small silver pistol, and demanded money. One of the four employees testified that a woman was with him. The man was given currency and coin rolls which the employees estimated as totaling between $100 and $200. One of the employees testified that the robber was given two rolls of coins. Because of the mask, none of the employees were able to identify the person.
A 15-year-old boy and his mother also took the stand at trial. The boy testified that he had entered Pro-Clean and was standing at the counter when the man with the mask and gun entered. After the man told everyone not to move, the boy ran out the door to the car in which his mother was waiting. He told his mother that a robbery was taking place inside. They sat in their car, which was near one of the doors of Pro-Clean. The man with the mask came running out of that door, pulled off his mask and ran across an open lot to Kermit Street. The boy and his mother identified the defendant as being the man they saw leaving the shop and as the man they saw driving towards them as he turned from Kermit onto Mott Street.
The boy testified that he and his mother were driving away from Pro-Clean when he saw the defendant driving a blue and white Buick. He wrote the license number on a piece of paper, with a description of the car and then returned to Pro-Clean. He gave the piece of paper with the license number and description to a man at Pro-Clean.
The police testified at trial concerning their arrest of the defendant. The gun and the money in the purse seized by the police were also admitted into evidence. The assistant manager of the store, one of the four employees at Pro-Clean at the time of the robbery, testified that the gun looked like the one used in the robbery. The money obtained from the purse amounted to $107, including two coin rolls.
The defendant testified at trial that he had been in the laundry earlier in the day with a Mr. Thompson, but that he was at Earl Farmer’s at the time during which the robbery had occurred. He testified that he had just gone from Mr. Farmer’s to his mother’s house about 1:30 or 1:35 p.m. and had then gone to bed for a nap. He did not reside at his mother’s home, but because she was away, he was taking care of it. He was awakened by the police and arrested.
In rebuttal, the police officer to whom the defendant made a statement on December 26, 1977 testified. He stated that the defendant had told him that he had gone to his mother’s home after leaving Robert Thompson. According to defendant’s statement to the officer, while the defendant was driving into the driveway, a man named James approached the defendant. The defendant said that James came into the house and told the defendant he wanted to borrow the car to go get two ladies. The defendant thought that that was a good idea, so he allowed James to take the car. James came back in a little while, but without any ladies. He wanted the defendant to take him for a ride but the defendant was tired and wanted to take a nap. James left and the defendant said he went to sleep.
The jury convicted the defendant of armed robbery and possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony. Defendant appealed to the Court of Appeals challenging the admission into evidence of the gun and of the statement he made to the police officer after his request for counsel. He also alleged that he was denied effective assistance of counsel. The Court of Appeals addressed only the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel, stating that it was the only issue meriting discussion.
The Court stated:
"We concede that the question here presented * * * is a close one. We determine that the performance of defense counsel in this case, while certainly wanting in some respects, did not fall to the level condemned in Beasley v United States, 491 F2d 687 (CA 6, 1974). We conclude that defense counsel did perform as well as a lawyer with ordinary training and skill in the criminal law and that he did conscientiously protect his client’s interests, undeflected by conflicting considerations. We also find that any mistake that was made by defense counsel was not one but for which defendant would have had a reasonable likelihood of acquittal.”
Judge Kelly dissented, concluding that a remand for an evidentiary hearing on ineffective assistance of counsel should be ordered.
Appellate counsel was appointed for the defendant, pursuant to an order of this Court, for the purpose of filing an application for leave to appeal. Defendant’s appellate counsel, with the consent of the prosecutor, requested an evidentiary hearing in the trial court after filing a delayed motion for new trial. The hearing was held but the motion for new trial was denied by the trial judge. Defendant then filed his application for leave to appeal, which this Court granted on November 25, 1981.
II
We initially note an issue that we do not address. Appellant for the first time on this appeal challenges the lawfulness of his arrest. He relies on Payton v New York, 445 US 573; 100 S Ct 1371; 63 L Ed 2d 639 (1980), in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that absent exigent circumstances, the police may not make a nonconsensual and warrantless entry into a private dwelling to make an arrest. Appellant asserts that the police officers could have obtained a warrant and, if necessary, watched the house pending its issuance. Because they did not obtain a warrant, appellant contends the arrest was unlawful and, as a consequence, the gun and statement obtained from the defendant thereafter should have been suppressed.
The appellee gives three reasons why reversal should not be predicated on this ground. First, the issue was not raised in either the trial court or the Court of Appeals. Second, appellee argues Payton v New York should not be applied retroactively to an arrest that occurred approximately three years prior to the Payton decision. Third, the arrest was justified by the exigent circumstances that existed in this case.
We conclude that because the issue was not raised below, it is not properly before this Court.
Ill
Defendant argues that it was reversible error for the trial court to deny his motion to suppress from evidence the gun found in his automobile. He contends that the search was unconstitutional under the Fourth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States because the car was parked on private property with no reasonable chance for destruction or disappearance during the period of time necessary to apply for a warrant. A guard could have been posted to prevent the loss of any evidence until a warrant was issued. Hence, appellant concludes that this case does not come within the automobile exception to the warrant requirement. Appellant also contends that this case is distinguishable from South Dakota v Opperman, 428 US 364; 96 S Ct 3092; 49 L Ed 2d 1000 (1976), which the trial court alternatively found would justify the present search as an inventory search.
The standards we must apply in evaluating the search in this case are those arising from the Fourth Amendment. In Cady v Dombrowski, 413 US 433, 439; 93 S Ct 2523; 37 L Ed 2d 706 (1973), the Supreme Court stated:
"The ultimate standard set forth in the Fourth Amendment is reasonableness. In construing this com mand, there has been general agreement that 'except in certain carefully defined classes of cases, a search of private property without proper consent is "unreasonable” unless it has been authorized by a valid search warrant.’ * * * One class of cases which constitutes at least a partial exception to this general rule is automobile searches. Although vehicles are 'effects’ within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment, 'for the purposes of the Fourth Amendment there is a constitutional difference between houses and cars.’ ” (Citations omitted.)
This constitutional difference between houses and cars was recognized in Carroll v United States, 267 US 132, 153; 45 S Ct 280; 69 L Ed 543 (1925), and explained as follows:
"[T]he guaranty of freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures by the Fourth Amendment has been construed, practically since the beginning of the Government, as recognizing a necessary difference between a search of a store, dwelling house or other structure in respect of which a proper official warrant readily may be obtained, and a search of a ship, motor boat, wagon or automobile, for contraband goods, where it is not practicable to secure a warrant because the vehicle can be quickly moved out of the locality or jurisdiction in which the warrant must be sought.”
The Court in Carroll concluded that when a police officer stops a car to search for contraband, the legality of the search is determined by whether the officer had probable cause to believe that contraband was in the car.
In this case there clearly was probable cause for the search. The car in which the gun was found bore the license plate and matched the description given to the police of the car being driven by the perpetrator of the armed robbery. The police, after arresting the unarmed defendant minutes after the robbery, had probable cause to believe that the missing gun or other evidence of the crime would be in the car. Given probable cause, however, a more difficult question is whether the automobile exception applies, thus allowing the warrantless search.
In Coolidge v New Hampshire, 403 US 443; 91 S Ct 2022; 29 L Ed 2d 564 (1971), a search of an automobile seized in defendant’s driveway was held not to come within the automobile exception to the warrant requirement. The police in Coolidge had conducted an investigation over several weeks that linked the defendant to a murder. When enough evidence had been accumulated to justify the arrest of the defendant, the state Attorney General, acting as a justice of the peace, issued an arrest warrant and search warrants for defendant’s house and cars. The defendant was arrested at his house. His wife was told that she could not use the cars because they had been impounded. Subsequently, the cars were towed to the police station, where they were later searched.
The Court held that the evidence found in one of the automobiles was improperly admitted at defendant’s trial. The warrants that were issued by the state Attorney General were invalid because he was. not a neutral and detached magistrate. Absent a valid warrant, there were no exigent circumstances justifying the search of the car. The Court stated: "Since the police knew of the presence of the automobile and planned all along to seize it, there was no 'exigent circumstance’ to justify their failure to obtain a warrant.” Coolidge, supra, 478. In rejecting the "plain view” argument that the car could be seized and searched because it was an instrumentality of the crime and plainly visible at defendant’s house, the Court stated:
"[T]he determining factors are advance police knowledge of the existence and location of the evidence, police intention to seize it, and the ample opportunity for obtaining a warrant.” Coolidge, supra, 482.
Although Coolidge is similar to the present case in the fact that the defendant’s car when seized was in the driveway of the home in which he was arrested, it differs from this case in several important particulars. The police in the present case did not know where they would find the defendant and they found him at his mother’s residence only minutes after the robbery occurred. Unlike the officers in Coolidge, the police did not come to defendant’s home planning to make an arrest and planning to search the car that they expected to find there. They were searching for a car that they happened to find at a residence. Prior to finding the automobile in the present case, there was no opportunity to obtain a warrant. After arresting the defendant, the police had reason to believe that a female accomplice was in the area and a gun was in the car.
Such facts also distinguish this case from People v White, 392 Mich 404; 221 NW2d 357 (1974). In White, the police went to defendant’s apartment to arrest him for a murder that had occurred a week before. After arresting him, they searched the house for a gun, and not finding it, proceeded to search his car, where they did find it. No search or arrest warrants had been obtained, although no reason appears why they could not have sought such warrants prior to proceeding to defendant’s apartment. This Court, relying on Coolidge, in part predicated its finding of unreasonability of the search on the conclusion that the search did hot come within the perimeters of the automobile exception. This Court also found no probable cause for the search. The present case differs from White in the same respect that it differs from Coolidge: the police in the present case had no opportunity to obtain a search warrant prior to the time that the car was found.
Defendant, however, relies on one of the statements in White to argue that after the defendant was arrested, the car should have been guarded pending the issuance of a warrant. In White, p 417, this Court stated: "The appellant’s automobile was parked and unoccupied when the police arrived with an ample number of officers to allow the automobile to be guarded while a warrant was sought.” Appellant essentially argues that his automobile could have been seized first and searched later, after a warrant was obtained.
This argument, however, has been rejected by the Supreme Court. In Chambers v Maroney, 399 US 42, 50-52; 90 S Ct 1975; 26 L Ed 2d 419 (1970), the Court wrote:
"Neither Carroll, supra, nor other cases in this Court require or suggest that in every conceivable circumstance the search of an auto even with probable cause may be made without the extra protection for privacy that a warrant affords. But the circumstances that furnish probable cause to search a particular auto for particular articles are most often unforeseeable; moreover, the opportunity to search is fleeting since a car is readily movable. Where this is true, as in Carroll and the case before us now, if an effective search is to be made at any time, either the search must be made immediately without a warrant or the car itself must be seized and held without a warrant for whatever period is necessary to obtain a warrant for the search.
"In enforcing the Fourth Amendment’s prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures, the Court has insisted upon probable cause as a minimum requirement for a reasonable search permitted by the Constitution. As a general rule, it has also required the judgment of a magistrate on the probable-cause issue and the issuance of a warrant before a search is made. Only in exigent circumstances will the judgment of the police as to probable cause serve as a sufficient authorization for a search. Carroll, supra, holds a search warrant unnecessary where there is probable cause to search an automobile stopped on the highway; the car is movable, the occupants are alerted, and the car’s contents may never be found again if a warrant must be obtained. Hence an immediate search is constitutionally permissible.
"Arguably, because of the preference for a magistrate’s judgment, only the immobilization of the car should be permitted until a search warrant is obtained; arguably, only the 'lesser’ intrusion is permissible until the magistrate authorizes the 'greater’. But which is the 'greater’ and which the 'lesser’ intrusion is itself a debatable question and the answer may depend on a variety of circumstances. For constitutional purposes, we see no difference between on the one hand seizing and holding a car before presenting the probable cause issue to a magistrate and on the other hand carrying out an immediate search without a warrant. Given probable cause to search, either course is reasonable under the Fourth Amendment.”
Thus, the Court upheld the warrantless search of an automobile at the station house on the grounds that the search could have been conducted when the car was stopped, and "there is little to choose in practical consequences between an immediate search without a warrant and the car’s immobilization until a warrant is obtained”. Chambers, p 52. See also United States v Ross, 456 US 798, 807, fn 9; 102 S Ct 2157; 72 L Ed 2d 572 (1982).
In this case also "there is little to choose in practical consequences between an immediate search without a warrant and the car’s immobilization until a warrant is obtained”.
We conclude, therefore, that the warrantless search of appellant’s car was permissible under the Fourth Amendment. There was probable cause for the search, and absent the seizure, the car retained its mobility, especially since the police had reason to believe a female accomplice was still at large. The missing gun and missing accomplice provided exigent circumstances. Thus, the seizure was appropriate, and given the seizure, the search was warranted under Chambers, supra. Additionally, because the robbery had occurred just minutes prior to the time the police found the automobile, the police could not have obtained a search warrant prior to the time the automobile was found. They were in hot pursuit of the robber. This fact, plus the obvious fact that the police did not know they were going to defendant’s home to arrest him and search for evidence, distinguishes this case from Coolidge, supra, and White, supra. Although it is argued that an officer could have stayed with the car while a warrant was obtained by another, there were only three officers at the scene. The problems were acute. We can assume that backup help may have been available, but the necessity, if any, for a warrant under these cir cumstances is vague, even to experienced counsel and judges. The reasonable actions of the police under these circumstances did not constitute an impermissible invasion of private property or of an individual’s protected right to privacy in an automobile identified as having been involved in a robbery just minutes prior to the search. We would not require useless exercises, empty of substance, when there- is no discerned legal or practical need. Accordingly, the trial court properly denied defendant’s motion to suppress the gun.
Because we find this search proper under the automobile exception to the warrant requirement, there is no need to consider whether the search was a proper routine inventory search prior to towing away the car.
IV
Appellant also contends that the use for impeachment purposes at trial of statements he made to a police officer who initiated questioning after appellant requested counsel was reversibly erroneous. The defendant had moved to suppress these statements but the trial court denied his motion. Defendant argued that the denial of the motion was an error in light of Edwards v Arizona, 451 US 477; 101 S Ct 1880; 68 L Ed 2d 378 (1981). In Edwards, pp 484-485, the Court held: See, also, People v Paintman, 412 Mich 518; 315 NW2d 418 (1982).
"[A]n accused, such as Edwards, having expressed his desire to deal with the police only through counsel, is not subject to further interrogation by the authorities until counsel has been made available to him, unless the accused himself initiates further communication, exchanges, or conversations with the police.”
However, neither Edwards nor Paintman considered whether voluntary statements obtained from a defendant in violation of the Edwards holding could be used for impeachment purposes. The trial court found defendant’s statements to be voluntary. Although the trial court’s denial of the motion to suppress the statement did not limit its use to impeachment, at trial the statement was used only for that purpose. The trial court in denying the delayed motion for a new trial found that the Edwards decision did not affect the principle that voluntary statements obtained in violation of Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694 (1966), could be used for impeachment purposes. Harris v New York, 401 US 222; 91 S Ct 643; 28 L Ed 2d 1 (1971). Oregon v Hass, 420 US 714; 95 S Ct 1215; 43 L Ed 2d 570 (1975).
In Harris, the defendant was not advised of his right to appointed counsel. The statements that he thereafter made were conceded by the prosecution to be in violation of Miranda, and the prosecution made no effort to use them in its case in chief. The prosecution did, however, seek to use the statements to impeach the defendant’s testimony. The Supreme Court agreed that such use of voluntary statements was permissible:
"Miranda barred the prosecution from making its case with statements of an accused made while in custody prior to having or effectively waiving counsel. It does not follow from Miranda that evidence inadmissible against an accused in the prosecution’s case in chief is barred for all purposes, provided of course that the trustworthiness of the evidence satisfies legal standards.
"The shield provided by Miranda cannot be perverted into a license to use perjury by way of a defense, free from the risk of confrontation with prior inconsistent utterances.” Harris, pp 224, 226.
This Court noted the Harris rule for voluntary statements in People v Reed, 393 Mich 342; 224 NW2d 867 (1975), but found it inapplicable to the involuntary statements present in that case.
Harris is determinative of the instant question. Edwards was a ruling on the nature of the Miranda rights, particularly addressing the question of how the right to counsel is waived once it is invoked. Harris specifically addresses the question involved here, which is whether any use can be made of a voluntary statement obtained in violation of Miranda. Regarding this question Edwards is silent. Therefore, we conclude that no error was committed by the use of defendant’s prior voluntary statement for impeachment purposes. See also State v Cartwright, — Mont —; 650 P2d 758 (1982).
V
Appellant’s final contention is that he was denied his right under the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States to the effective assistance of counsel. McMann v Richardson, 397 US 759; 90 S Ct 1441; 25 L Ed 2d 763 (1970). In People v Garcia, 398 Mich 250; 247 NW2d 547 (1976), this Court followed Beasley v United States, 491 F2d 687 (CA 6, 1974), in rejecting the farce or mockery standard once prevalent as the measure of whether the effective assistance of counsel had been afforded to the defendant. In Beasley, p 696, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stated:
"We hold that the assistance of counsel required under the Sixth Amendment is counsel reasonably likely to render and rendering reasonably effective assistance. It is a violation of this standard for defense counsel to deprive a criminal defendant of a substantial defense by his own ineffectiveness or incompetence. * * * Defense counsel must perform at least as well as a lawyer with ordinary training and skill in the criminal law and must conscientiously protect his client’s interest, undeflected by conflicting considerations. * * * Defense counsel must investigate all apparently substantial defenses available to the defendant and must assert them in a proper and timely manner.” (Citations omitted.)
The defendant’s most important contention regarding the ineffective assistance of counsel is that he was denied a substantial alibi defense. He claims that his attorney failed to investigate the defense properly by not speaking to Earl Farmer and that he failed to present the defense properly at trial because he called neither Earl Farmer nor Robert Thompson to testify. Further, he failed to request an alibi instruction.
The trial judge carefully considered those contentions after conducting an evidentiary hearing. In his opinion denying defendant’s motion for a new trial, he wrote:
"The testimony of Robert Thompson would not have helped the defense. He would say that he and the defendant had gone to the cleaners-laundromat earlier on the day of the 1:30 robbery. He had not seen the defendant after 12 or 12:15, over one hour before the robbery occurred. His testimony would only have shown that the defendant had been at the place that was later robbed and would have seen that it was especially busy and making money.
"Should defense counsel have called Earl Farmer as a witness? When defendant made a statement to Sgt. Darby on December 26th, he never mentioned being with Earl Farmer; rather, he mentioned a 'James’ whose last name he did not know. Defense counsel had no recollection of ever being told about Earl Farmer. Since defense counsel knew about Robert Thompson and tried to produce him, but never mentioned Earl Farmer when asked if he would like the names of his witnesses given to the jury on voir dire, I think Mr. Talkow was never told about him; and I disbelieve any contrary statements of the defendant.
"Moreover, Earl Farmer’s testimony would not establish an alibi. Mr. Farmer is careful to say that the defendant left him at least 15 minutes before the robbery occurred. The time could have been much longer. Mr. Farmer was later convicted of illegal possession of Demerol and he would not have made a convincing witness. Frankly, I doubt that he ever saw the defendant on the day of the crime.
"The problem with use of Farmer or anyone to establish an alibi is that the police found the defendant pretending sleep in a house, alone, about seven minutes after the robbery. By necessity, the defense had to contend that at the time of the robbery the defendant was home asleep, alone.
"Should defense counsel have asked for an instruction on alibi? Obviously, if the jury believed that the defendant was home asleep at the time of the robbery or that he was anywhere other than the place of the robbery at the time it occurred, or if the jury had a reasonable doubt about that, they would have acquitted him. The jury was properly instructed as to the presumption of innocence, reasonable doubt and that they must find that the defendant committed the crime. An instruction on 'alibi’ seems unnecessary in the circumstances of this case.”
These findings and conclusions of the trial judge convincingly demonstrate that defendant was not deprived of a substantial alibi defense by defense counsel.
The remaining arguments are without merit.
In concluding that defendant was not denied the effective assistance by his retained attorney, we note that his attorney did raise the significant issues. An evidentiary hearing on remand addressed the res gestae witness challenges. All have been considered by this Court.
We conclude that neither the trial court nor the Court of Appeals committed reversible error.
We affirm.
Fitzgerald, C.J., concurred with Coleman, J.
Levin, J.
I
Esters challenges the lawfulness of his arrest relying on Payton v New York, 445 US 573; 100 S Ct 1371; 63 L Ed 2d 639 (1980). In Payton, the United States Supreme Court held that absent exigent circumstances a police officer cannot make a nonconsensual warrantless entry of a home to effect an arrest. The Court declined to define "exigent circumstances”. Id., p 583.
The people present three reasons why Payton does not render the arrest of Esters illegal. The first is the failure of Esters to raise the issue in the trial court or in the Court of Appeals. It would not, however, have been possible to raise this issue at those times because this case was tried and then reviewed by the Court of Appeals before the United States Supreme Court decided Payton.
The arrest of Esters occurred three years before Payton was decided. The people contend that Pay-ton should not be retroactively applied. In United States v Johnson, 457 US 537; 102 S Ct 2579; 73 L Ed 2d 202, 217-218 (1982), the United States Supreme Court held that Payton applies "to all cases still pending on direct appeal at the time when Payton was decided”. Johnson’s arrest, before Payton was decided, did not bar application of Payton in Johnson.
The people’s third contention is that Payton does not invalidate the arrest of Esters because there were exigent circumstances. We agree.
An armed masked man and a woman accomplice had robbed a dry-cleaning establishment. As the man left the scene, he took off his mask and was seen by two persons in the parking lot. Shortly thereafter those persons saw him in an automobile. They noted and gave the license number and a description of the automobile and robbers to an employee of the dry-cleaning establishment. The police arrived at the scene within seven minutes of the robbery and were given this information. They immediately began a search of the area and within minutes spotted the automobile a few blocks from the scene of the robbery.
The automobile was parked in the driveway of a house. Wet tire tracks in the driveway indicated that it had been recently driven. The police also saw wet footprints between the automobile and the house.
The police knocked at the door and, receiving no response, forced it open, entered the house, and arrested Esters. Seeking the gun and the accomplice, the police searched the house, but found neither.
These facts constitute exigent circumstances. See Warden v Hayden, 387 US 294; 87 S Ct 1642; 18 L Ed 2d 782 (1967). In Hayden, an armed robber was followed by two cab drivers as he left the scene of the robbery and entered a house. One driver relayed a description of the robber and his whereabouts to a dispatcher, who in turn relayed the information to the police. The police arrived within minutes and entered the house. The United States Supreme Court held that the police
"acted reasonably when they entered the house and began to search for a man of the description they had been given and for weapons which he had used in the robbery or might use against them. The Fourth Amendment does not require police officers to delay in the course of an investigation if to do so would gravely endanger their lives or the lives of others. Speed here was essential, and only a thorough search of the house for persons and weapons could have insured that Hayden was the only man present and that the police had control of all weapons which could be used against them or to effect an escape.” 387 US 298-299.
In the instant case, the police were given descriptions of the robbers and of the automobile, and the automobile’s license number. The police searched in the vicinity of the robbery and quickly discovered the automobile. The police arrived in hot pursuit knowing that an armed robber and possibly an accomplice had probably entered the house shortly before their arrival. As in Hayden, speed was essential in attempting to apprehend the suspects before they could escape.
We would apply Payton in this case, but hold that exigent circumstances justified the warrant-less entry and arrest.
II
Esters also challenges the warrantless search of the automobile. The automobile was parked in the driveway of the house in which the police apprehended him. We agree with the lead opinion that there was probable cause for the search, and that the missing gun and missing accomplice were in the instant case exigent circumstances justifying the warrantless search. However, we do not agree that the automobile exception cases, cited in the lead opinion, are applicable.
The warrantless search of Esters’ automobile was justified for the same reasons that the arrest and search of the house were justified. The police had been informed that a gun had been used in the commission of the robbery and that the robber had an accomplice. After arresting Esters and searching the house, a short time after the robbery, the police had not uncovered the gun nor found the accomplice. The automobile in the driveway matched the description of the one used in the robbery. Speed was essential in both searches to protect the police, and in apprehending the suspects to prevent their escape. See Warden v Hayden, supra. The exigent circumstances justified the warrantless search of the automobile.
Ill
We agree with the lead opinion that the statements made by Esters to the police officer after Esters requested counsel, while inadmissible in the prosecution’s case in chief, were, as a matter of United States constitutional law, admissible for impeachment purposes. Oregon v Hass, 420 US 714; 95 S Ct 1215; 43 L Ed 2d 570 (1975). A different question would have been presented, however, had the statements been made after Esters retained counsel to represent him in this matter. But see Part V.
IV
We concur in Part V of the lead opinion.
V
Justice Ryan concurs in Parts I through IV of this opinion and would affirm the conviction.
Justices Kavanagh and Levin would, on Michigan constitutional grounds, reverse the conviction and join in the conclusions expressed in Justice Williams’ opinion on the issue dealt with in Part III of this opinion.
Williams, J.
(for reversal). In section IV, Justice Coleman concludes that the trial court did not err in allowing into evidence at trial defendant’s "prior voluntary statement for impeachment purposes”. It is undisputed that the custodial interrogation of the defendant by the police after he invoked his right to counsel violated the technical holding of Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694 (1966), which is grounded in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments’ prohibition against compelled self-incrimination. Edwards. v Arizona, 451 US 477; 101 S Ct 1880; 68 L Ed 2d 378 (1981).
The question which remains is whether this Court, after the decision in Edwards, should ex tend the principle established in Harris v New York, 401 US 222; 91 S Ct 643; 28 L Ed 2d 1 (1971), and Oregon v Hass, 420 US 714; 95 S Ct 1215; 43 L Ed 2d 570 (1975), where the United States Supreme Court upheld the use of a defendant’s prior statement, obtained in violation of Miranda, to impeach his trial testimony. Justice Coleman applies Harris in the instant case. We would not.
In Miranda, the Supreme Court held that the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments’ prohibition against compelled self-incrimination mandated that custodial interrogation be preceded by advice to a defendant that he has the right to remain silent and also the right to the presence of an attorney. In recognizing these substantive constitutional rights, that Court also established the procedures to be used subsequent to the warnings. If a defendant indicates that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation is to cease. If he requests counsel, the interrogation is to end until an attorney is present. 384 US 474. In short, the Miranda Court concretely established the right to have counsel present during custodial interrogation. In addition, the Supreme Court later noted the difference between the procedural safeguards triggered by a request to remain silent and a request for an attorney. See Michigan v Mosley, 423 US 96, 104, fn 10; 96 S Ct 321; 46 L Ed 2d 313 (1975). It indicated that greater protection is to be accorded the latter right.
Moreover, the Court in Edwards not only reemphasized the importance of the right to counsel during custodial interrogation, but it also stated that "additional safeguards are necessary when the accused asks for counsel”. Edwards, supra, 484. See, also, People v Paintman, 412 Mich 518, 524; 315 NW2d 418 (1982). Thus, the Edwards Court held the following:
"[W]e now hold that when an accused has invoked his right to have counsel present during custodial interrogation, a valid waiver of that right cannot be established by showing only that he responded to further police-initiated custodial interrogation even if he has been advised of his rights. We further hold that an accused, such as Edwards, having expressed his desire to deal with the police only through counsel, is not subject to further interrogation by the authorities until counsel has been made available to him, unless the accused himself initiates further communication, exchanges, or conversations with the police.” 451 US 484.
In Harris, supra, the Supreme Court allowed a statement made by a defendant who had not been advised of his right to appointed counsel in violation of Miranda to be used for impeachment purposes. Unlike Harris, the Edwards decision concerned a defendant who had not only been advised of his Miranda rights, but who had invoked his right to have counsel present. Harris is therefore distinguished. Nor do we believe, like Justice Coleman, that Edwards is silent on the question of the use of defendant’s prior statements for impeachment purposes.
First, the Supreme Court in Edwards labeled an accused’s request for an attorney a "significant event”, more significant even than the complete failure to give the Miranda warnings. This crucial invocation of a Fifth Amendment right should prevent the government from availing itself of this constitutional violation even for impeachment purposes.
Second, Justice Coleman, like the trial court, says "that no error was committed by the use of defendant’s prior voluntary statement for im peachment purposes”. (Emphasis added.) Justice Coleman has phrased the issue as "whether any use can be made of a voluntary statement obtained in violation of MirandaHowever, in Edwards, the Court stated that:
"Schneckloth [v Bustamonte, 412 US 218, 226; 93 S Ct 2041; 36 L Ed 2d 854 (1973)] itself thus emphasized that the voluntariness of a consent or an admission on the one hand, and a knowing and intelligent waiver on the other, are discrete inquiries. Here, however sound the conclusion of the state courts as to the voluntariness of Edwards’ admission may be, neither the trial court nor the Arizona Supreme Court undertook to focus on whether Edwards understood his right to counsel and intelligently and knowingly relinquished it. It is thus apparent that the decision below misunderstood the requirement for finding a valid waiver of the right to counsel, once invoked.” 451 US 484.
In light of this language, we would refuse to extend Harris in such a way that statements taken in violation of Edwards can be used for impeachment purposes unless there is a finding of a "valid waiver of the right to counsel, once invoked”. 451 US 484. We would thus hold that the trial court erred in allowing the prior statement of the defendant, taken in violation of Miranda, to be used for impeachment purposes at trial where in the instant case there was not a sufficient finding of a valid waiver of the right to counsel.
Furthermore, we feel that the defendant’s rights may not be diminished merely because the state fails to respond to defendant’s request for counsel, as it should have done. Once he has asked for counsel, the defendant has done all that is within his power to secure this guaranteed right. We would consider in some future case where the matter has been properly raised whether the de fendant should not be protected against an abuse of authority involving the defendant in a statement that he would not have made had he been properly counseled, as requested. It is our present opinion that a defendant having requested counsel while in custody may not subsequently be found to have waived that right unless it may be found that the defendant made this waiver with the intelligence and knowledge which he would have had, had he obtained the advice of counsel.
Justices Kavanagh and Levin would join in the conclusion expressed in Justice Williams’ opinion on Michigan constitutional grounds.
Riley, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
The Fourth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States provides:
"The right of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.”
Prior to any criminal trial, many persons have been involved in the process. Some are lawyers, while others are not. From the police officer whose concern is to protect the public within the framework of ever-developing state and federal constitutional guidelines and statutes to the final appellate body to review every link in the connective chain, individual rights are protected. Sometimes, a flaw in the chain is difficult to detect or is not ascertainable until an appellate court rules that it is in fact a flaw. In the meanwhile, law enforcement and the administration of justice must continue. Interpretation of the constitutional prohibition against unreasonable search and seizure changes with the times and the courts. Fair trials often are tested against the standard of perfect trials. That test must be subjective, so various judges and levels of appellate judges differ as to what is fair, what is constitutional.
Particularly in cases of hot pursuit and other situations where time is of the essence and unknown dangers must be considered, quick action may be reasonable and an appellate overlay of common sense may be a needed ingredient in decisionmaking.
Carroll v United States, 267 US 132; 45 S Ct 280; 69 L Ed 543 (1925), concerned a search of an automobile which was stopped on a highway. Chambers v Maroney, 399 US 42; 90 S Ct 1975; 26 L Ed 2d 419 (1970), concerned the validity of a warrantless search at the station house of an automobile which had earlier been stopped on the highway and which could have been legally searched when initially stopped. These cases do not concern the validity of a search of a parked automobile. | [
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The Executive Message of the Governor, pursuant to GCR 1963, 797.1(a), filed with the Court on December 29, 1982, requesting that the Court direct the Ingham Circuit Court to certify certain questions for immediate consideration in the case of Michigan State Chamber of Commerce v Michigan, Docket No. 82-30835-CS, is considered.
Upon the representation of counsel that an agreed statement of facts is being prepared, pursuant to GCR 1963, 797.1(a), we direct the Ingham Circuit Court to certify the controlling question or questions of public law involved in the case of Michigan State Chamber of Commerce v Michigan to this Court with a statement of facts relevant thereto sufficient to make clear the application of the question or questions no later than January 28, 1983. The agreed statement of facts shall be filed with the circuit court and with this Court no later than January 24, 1983.
Miller, Canñeld, Paddock & Stone for plaintiffs. Frank J. Kelley, Attorney General, Louis J. Caruso, Solicitor General, and Gary P. Gordon and Michael J. Hodge, Assistants Attorney General, for defendants.
The questions having been certified, it is ordered that the parties file briefs not later than March 16, 1983, and that the case be placed on the April, 1983 Session Calendar for argument and submission. The parties shall also address the question of whether 1982 PA 304 has any impact on 1982 PA 212 or otherwise affects the issues in this matter and, if so, how. | [
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Per Curiam.
This appeal brought by the prose cutor concerns this Court’s decisions in People v Rogers, 412 Mich 669; 316 NW2d 701 (1982), and People v Jones, 410 Mich 407; 301 NW2d 822 (1981).
I
The defendant was initially charged with first-degree murder, armed robbery, and possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony. He was tried by a jury and convicted as charged in 1978. However, the Court of Appeals awarded him a new trial. 100 Mich App 146; 298 NW2d 694 (1980). When the matter was remanded for a new trial, the defendant ultimately entered into a plea bargain whereby he pled guilty to charges of armed robbery and possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony in return for dismissal of the first-degree murder charge and a sentence bargain of 8 to 15 years on the armed robbery conviction to follow the 2 years to be served for the felony-firearm conviction. However, the actual sentence which was imposed was 6 to 15 years for the armed robbery conviction to follow the mandatory 2-year term for felony-firearm.
The defendant appealed his plea-based convictions to the Court of Appeals. In an unpublished per curiam opinion, the Court of Appeals set aside the defendant’s convictions of armed robbery and felony-firearm. The rationale for doing so was the fact that in conjunction with the plea of guilty to the charge of armed robbery the defendant had not been informed that he could not be placed on probation for that offense. People v Rogers, 412 Mich 669; 316 NW2d 701 (1982). The rationale for setting aside the defendant’s conviction of felony-firearm was that he was not informed of the mandatory minimum sentence for that offense. The Court of Appeals cited our decision in People v Jones, 410 Mich 407; 301 NW2d 822 (1981), as authority for this action. Judge Cynar dissented.
II
In People v Rogers, the defendant, charged with first-degree murder and possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony, pled guilty pursuant to a plea bargain to charges of second-degree murder and felony-firearm. The judge advised the defendant that second-degree murder was punishable by life imprisonment, but did not tell him that he could not be placed on probation.
This Court’s opinion in Rogers does not indicate the sentence imposed on Rogers. Rogers was, however, sentenced in accordance with a sentence bargain. This Court nevertheless reversed Rogers’ conviction because of the failure to advise him that he could not be placed on probation.
Rogers was predicated on People v Jones, where this Court held that it was reversible error to fail to advise of the maximum and minimum sentences even though there had been sentence bargaining in Jones and the companion Grant cases.
We are now of the opinion that a failure to advise a defendant pleading guilty that an offense is not probationable or of the maximum and minimum sentences which could be imposed should not be regarded as reversible error per se where there is a sentence bargain and the defendant has been sentenced in accordance with the bargain.
In Guilty Plea Cases, 395 Mich 96, 113, 118; 235 NW2d 132 (1975), this Court said: "Whether a particular departure from Rule 785.7 justifies or requires reversal or remand for additional proceedings will depend on the naturé of the noncompliance.” The Court also said that a failure to advise of the maximum and of any mandatory minimum sentence would "continue to require reversal”. This Court also adopted a new Rule 785.7 which, for the first time, required in subsection (l)(f) advice on the unavailability of probation in certain cases. This Court added:
"Noncompliance with a requirement of Rule 785.7 may but does not necessarily require reversal.
"Whether a particular departure from Rule 785.7 justifies or requires reversal or remand for additional proceedings will depend on the nature of the noncompliance. ” (Emphasis supplied.)
Where there is a sentence bargain, it is not within the spirit of Guilty Plea Cases, which makes the question of reversal "depend on the nature of the noncompliance”, to reverse — although the defendant knows what sentence, or the range of the sentence, he will receive and is sentenced in accordance with the sentence bargain— because he has not been informed by the judge concerning a higher maximum sentence, that an agreed-upon sentence was mandatorily required or that the offense was not probationable.
Accordingly, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), in lieu of granting leave to appeal, we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals and reinstate the defendant’s convictions of armed robbery and felony-firearm.
Williams, C.J., and Kavanagh, Levin, Ryan, Brickley, and Cavanagh, JJ., concurred.
Boyle, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
In Jones, this Court reversed Jones’s conviction of armed robbery because he had not been informed of the maximum sentence and the Grants’ convictions because they had not been informed of the maximum sentence for armed robbery or of the mandatory two-year sentence for felony-firearm. In Jones, the judge advised the defendant that he would impose a maximum sentence not to exceed 10 to 15 years and might sentence to a lesser minimum. In the companion Grant cases, the judge told each of the Grants that the sentence would be 13 to 15 years on the underlying felony and an additional 2 years on the felony-firearm conviction.
This Court relied on Guilty Plea Cases, 395 Mich 96; 235 NW2d 132 (1975), and People v Beaty, 72 Mich App 159; 249 NW2d 337 (1976), in reversing in Jones. In Beaty, the Court of Appeals held that a failure to inform the defendant of the maximum sentence at the time of plea taking was not reversible error. Judge Thomas M. Burns dissented, and this Court reversed for the reasons stated in Judge Burns’s dissent, 400 Mich 813. | [
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Williams, C.J.
This is a case of first impression. It concerns the interpretation of art 6, § 23 of the 1963 Michigan Constitution, as amended. It also requires consideration of art 6, § 2. The issue is whether a Governor can appoint to fill a Supreme Court justice vacancy not only for a part of the term in which the vacancy occurs, but also for a part of the next succeeding term. Specifically, the issue is whether "the remainder of the unexpired term” as designated in § 23 refers to the term in which the "vacancy occurs” or the term in which the "election” takes place, when the "vacancy” and "election” occur in different terms. The pertinent language of art 6, § 23 is the second sentence which reads as follows:
"The person appointed by the governor shall hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs, at which election a successor shall be elected for the remainder of the unexpired term.”
We find that, while there may be a slight tilt in the language favoring the interpretation that the appointment is restricted to the term in which the vacancy occurs, the language may arguably be interpreted either to limit the appointed term to the eight years in which the vacancy occurs, or to extend the appointed term into the next eight-year term. However, we are convinced that the injustice that can arise from the extended appointment term, combined with the historical preference for an elected judiciary and non-holdover Supreme Court terms, indicates that the more limited appointment was the intent of the people. We would therefore in the instant case find that the appointed term should have been until noon January 1, 1983. Additionally, since the remainder of the purported appointment is void, the present Governor is authorized to make an appointment as of noon January 1, 1983.
I. Facts
On November 2, 1982, the Honorable Blair Moody, Jr., an incumbent Associate Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court, was re-elected to a new eight-year term of office on this Court. His then current term of office was due to expire 12 noon on January 1, 1983. Prior to the taking of the constitutionally required oath of office for the new term, Blair Moody, Jr., died on November 26, 1982.
On December 9, 1982, the Governor appointed defendant Court of Appeals Judge Dorothy Com-stock Riley to fill the vacancy. The appointment read:
"To the Secretary of State: Let a commission bearing date December 9, 1982 issue to Dorothy Comstock Riley * * * as Justice of the Michigan Supreme Court, to serve until 12:00 noon of the first day of January, 1985 (to fill the vacancy created by the death of the Honorable Blair Moody, Jr.)”.
Defendant filed the oath of office on the same day and assumed office.
On January 3, 1983, the Attorney General filed this action for quo warranto in the Court of Appeals. Bypass was granted after the issue was argued before this Court on January 8, 1983, pursuant to GCR 1963, 852.
II. Constitutional and Statutory Provisions
Several constitutional and statutory provisions are involved in the analysis of this situation. The term of office for a Supreme Court justice is established in Const 1963, art 6, § 2, which provides:
"The supreme court shall consist of seven justices elected at non-partisan elections as provided by law. The term of office shall be eight years and not more than two terms of office shall expire at the same time.” (Emphasis added.)
The prior Constitution, ratified in 1908, required the Legislature to set the term of office. Pursuant to this authority, the Legislature in 1954 provided:
"The term of office of justice of the supreme court shall be 8 years, beginning on the first day of January next following the election and shall continue until a successor is elected and qualiñed.” (Emphasis added.) MCL 168.399; MSA 6.1399 (1954 PA 116).
The 1963 Constitution before amendment in 1968 also included a mechanism to be used to fill vacancies which may arise for a variety of reasons, for example death or removal. As ratified in 1963, the Constitution provided in art 6, § 23:
"A vacancy in the elective office of a judge of any court of record shall be filled at a general or special election as provided by law. The supreme court may authorize persons who have served as judges and who have retired, to perform judicial duties for the limited period of time from the occurrence of the vacancy until the successor is elected and qualified. Such persons shall be ineligible for election to fill the vacancy.”
This was a marked change from the previous Constitution which granted the Governor the power to make vacancy appointments. The convention comment explained:
"The change is made in order to maintain consistency in the idea that this state should have an elected judiciary. The present system of appointment by the governor to fill vacancies, bestowing on the appointee the incumbency designation, has had an overwhelming tendency to insure the election of the appointee. This has created in effect an appointive judiciary.”
However, in 1968, § 23 was amended to reinstate the Governor’s power to fill vacancies. Article 6, § 23, now reads:
"A vacancy shall occur in the office of judge of any court of record or in the district court by death, removal, resignation or vacating of the office, and such vacancy shall be filled by appointment by the governor. The person appointed by the governor shall hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs, at which election a successor shall be elected for the remainder of the unexpired term. Whenever a new office of judge in a court of record, or the district court, is created by law, it shall be filled by election as provided by law. The supreme court may authorize persons who have been elected and served as judges to perform judicial duties for limited periods or specific assignments.”
The 1968 amendment was also reflected in the legislative provision which implemented the Constitution. The 1970 act reads:
"Whenever a vacancy shall occur in the office of justice of the supreme court, the governor shall appoint a successor to fill the vacancy. The person appointed by the governor shall be considered an incumbent for purposes of this act and shall hold office until 12 noon of January 1 following the next general election at which a successor is elected and qualified. At the next general November election held at least 90 days after such vacancy shall occur, a person, nominated under section 392, shall be elected to fill such office, and the person so elected shall hold such office for the remainder of the unexpired term. A candidate receiving the highest number of votes for said office and who has subscribed to the oath as provided in section 1 of article 11 of the state constitution shall be deemed to be elected and qualified, even though a vacancy occurs prior to the time he shall have entered upon the duties of his office.” MCL 168.404; MSA 6.1404.
In Schwartz v Secretary of State, 393 Mich 42, 47; 222 NW2d 517 (1974), this Court made the following observation on the amendment:
"[T]he people intended to rectify the mistake of the 1963 Constitution in its original form of having removed the historic constitutional authority of the Governor to appoint persons to fill judicial vacancies. This Court would blink the facts of life if it did not take judicial notice of the fact that this omission embarrassed the operation of government by leaving important judicial offices without their own regular incumbent for long periods of time.”
Defendant also points out that MCL 168.399; MSA 6.1399 reads:
"The term of office of a justice of the supreme court shall be 8 years, beginning on the first day of January next following the election and shall continue until a successor is elected and qualified.”
III. Prior Case Law
As a threshold matter, this is a case of first impression. When closely examined, prior Michigan case law fails to address the present situation.
At first blush, People ex rel Andrews v Lord, 9 Mich 227 (1861), would seem to resolve the case before us. In that case the incumbent probate judge was re-elected but died before the commencement of the new term. The Governor made one appointment for the unexpired term; a second appointment was made in January, when the new probate judge term would have commenced.
The 1850 Constitution provided, first, that a probate judge’s term of office continued for a period of "four years, and until his successor is elected and quáliñed” (emphasis added), Const 1850, art 6, § 13, and, secondly, that a vacancy in the office of probate judge "shall be filled by appointment of the governor, which shall continue until a successor is elected and qualified”. Const 1850, art 6, § 14.
Relying on these provisions, the Court unanimously invalidated the January 1 appointment, writing:
"These provisions are so free from ambiguity that there is no room left for construction. A person appointed to fill a vacancy can only be superseded by one who is duly elected, and holds in the same manner as if originally the incumbent until thus superseded. His term of oifice did not expire on the first day of January, 1861, unless some one elected and qualified was then ready to take office.” Lord, supra, p 230.
This analysis is typical when the Constitution provides, as the 1850 Constitution did, that the appointee’s term includes a holdover provision. See Anno: 164 ALR 1248. The result will also be achieved if the vacancy-filling provision does not specify a duration for the appointee’s term, but the incumbent’s term of office includes a holdover provision. The holdover language ensures that a vacancy will not occur merely by expiration of the term of office; an officer holds office until his elected successor replaces him. In the Lord case, holdover language appeared in both sections of the Constitution; in the present case it appears in neither.
The other cases of this Court cited by defendant are also distinguished on these grounds. In Lawrence v Hanley, 84 Mich 399, 400; 47 NW 753 (1891), the statute established the regular term for the office of county auditors at three years and until their successors shall be elected and qualified. In Baxter v Latimer, 116 Mich 356, 362; 74 NW 726 (1898), the term of office for field and line officers was established at "three years from the date of their election, and until their successors are commissioned”. In both cases, this Court relied on the holdover provision to find that no vacancy occurred at the expiration of the incumbent officers’ terms.
Therefore, while each of these cases would be useful in analyzing an appointment to an office or term containing a holdover provision, this is not the factual posture we are asked to address.
IV. Rules of Constitutional Construction
Both parties recognize that the rule of "common understanding” set forth in Traverse City School Dist v Attorney General, 384 Mich 390, 405; 185 NW2d 9 (1971), is the correct one to apply when construing a constitution. We agree. We stated in the Traverse City School Dist case:
"The primary rule is the rule of 'common understanding’ described by Justice Cooley:
" 'A constitution is made for the people and by the people. The interpretation that should be given it is that which reasonable minds, the great mass of the people themselves, would give it. "For as the Constitution does not derive its force from the convention which framed, but from the people who ratified it, the intent to be arrived at is that of the people, and it is not to be supposed that they have looked for any dark or abstruse meaning in the words employed, but rather that they have accepted them in the sense most obvious to the common understanding, and ratified the instrument in the belief that that was the sense designed to be conveyed.” (Cooley’s Const Lim 81)’
"A second rule is that to clarify meaning, the circumstances surrounding the adoption of a constitutional provision and the purpose sought to be accomplished may be considered. On this point this Court said the following:
" 'In construing constitutional provisions where the meaning may be questioned, the court should have regard to the circumstances leading to their adoption and the purpose sought to be accomplished.’ Kearney v Board of State Auditors (1915), 189 Mich 666, 673.’ ” (Emphasis added.)
In the final analysis, the issue of this case is what was the common understanding and intent of the people in approving §§ 2 and 23, as amended, of the Judicial Article.
As pertinent, §§ 2 and 23 read as follows:
Section 2
"The term of office shall be eight years * *
Section 23
"The person appointed by the governor shall hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs, at which election a successor shall be elected for the remainder of the unexpired term.”
V. Analysis
Both plaintiff and defendant claim that the meaning of art 6, § 23 is clear, but they disagree as to what the meaning is.
Plaintiff argues:
"Had the people desired to resurrect the gubernatorial authority to make an appointment until a successor was elected and qualified they could easily have done so, but they did not. Instead they provided for an interim appointment until the first possible general election at which a successor would be elected for 'for the remainder of the unexpired term.’ The use of the phrase 'for the remainder of the unexpired term’ in the second sentence of Const 1963, art 6, § 23, indicates that the sentence is only applicable when an election can be held within the unexpired term. In other situations the plain language of Const 1963, art 6, § 2, means that an appointee cannot hold office beyond the expiration of the term.”
Defendant, on the other hand, argues:
"The meaning of § 23 is clear on its face. It says .simply and directly:
" '* * * The person appointed by the governor shall hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs * * *.’
"* * * There is no ambiguity; no interpretation is necessary * *
It will be noticed that defendant consistently fails to recognize the second half of the sentence on which she relies. The whole sentence, giving emphasis to the words she leaves out, reads as follows:
"The person appointed by the governor shall hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs, at which election a successor shall be elected for the remainder of the unexpired term.” (Emphasis added.)
It is the phrase "remainder of the unexpired term” in this second half of the sentence on which plaintiff relies for his construction.
While defendant and amicus never argue beyond the statement in the first part of the sentence, it is rudimentary law that all parts of a document should, if possible, be construed together. Obviously this would apply with particular force to the different parts of the same sentence. Our first concern therefore must be to read the whole sentence together and determine whether the second part of the sentence impacts in any way upon the first part of the sentence quoted by defendant. If it does, and justifies differing interpretations by plaintiff and defendant, as seems apparent, then we must determine which interpretation is the proper one.
There is no question plaintiff believes the second part of the sentence impacts upon the first. Plain tiff contends that the phrase "for the remainder of the unexpired term” "indicates that [the first half of the] sentence is only applicable when an election can be held within the unexpired term”. While defendant nowhere discusses whether there is any impact of the second part of the sentence, she must argue that it does not require "an election be held within the unexpired term” in which the vacancy occurs, for that would negate her contended right to continue in office.
We are therefore left with a very real argument as to whether "the first general election held after the vacancy occurs” has to be within "the unexpired term” in which the vacancy occurs or whether it may be within the subsequent unexpired term. The fact of the matter is that the sentence can be read either way, depending upon whether "the remainder of the unexpired term” refers to the term in which the "vacancy occurs” or the term in which "the first general election [is] held”. If the former, the plaintiff prevails. If the latter, defendant prevails.
Analysis of the parties’ contentions, therefore, reveals that however clear the first part of the second sentence of § 23 is, when read together with the second part, there is an ambiguity that must be resolved by interpretation.
This ambiguity does not appear where the vacancy arises sufficiently before "the first general election held after the vacancy occurs” so that both the election and the vacancy occur in the same term. Then, of course, the "election” reference and the "vacancy” reference are to the same term. For example, in the case of former Chief Justice Coleman resigning in the second year of her eight-year term, the appointee, Justice Brickley, serves "until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs”, or until the end of the fourth year of Chief Justice Coleman’s term. In this case, both the "vacancy” and the "election” occurred in Chief Justice Coleman’s eight-year term, so the "vacancy” and the "election” references were to the same eight-year term. There is no revealed ambiguity under these circumstances.
The ambiguity arises when the "vacancy” and the "election” occur in different eight-year terms. For example, in the instant case the "vacancy” occurred in Justice Moody’s term ending noon January 1, 1983 and the "election” will occur in the succeeding term of eight years. Does the "remainder of the unexpired term” refer to the remainder of the "unexpired term” in which the "vacancy” occurred or the "remainder of the unexpired term” of the "term” in which the successor will be "elected?” The alternative chosen, of course, produces quite different results. If the "remainder of the unexpired term” refers to the term in which the "vacancy” occurred, then, of course, there would be no time to be served in the new term. If it referred to the term in which the election occurred, then there would be six years to be served. This difference indicates beyond peradventure that an ambiguity exists.
The question before us is how to interpret § 23 to achieve the result the people intended. We believe the people intended the reference point to be the term in which the "vacancy” occurs.
We will proceed to show (A) that § 2 clearly excludes the concept of Supreme Court justice holdover and that except for a few years this has been historically so; (B) that § 23 does not unambiguously provide for holdover and (C) balancing the alternatives of interpreting § 23 as not autho rising a holdover and as authorizing a holdover, it appears to us convincingly that the intent of the people, if they had considered this matter, as they apparently did not, would not have been to provide for a holdover from one eight-year term to the next.
A. § 2 Excludes Holdover
No intention on the part of the people to authorize holdover in office can be found in § 2 of the 1963 Constitution. Quite the contrary. There are a number of factors indicating an intention against holdover: (1) § 2 does not include holdover language; (2) lack of holdover language in § 2 for the Supreme Court justices contrasts sharply with holdover language for judges of other courts; (3) historically the general rule has been non-holdover Supreme Court justice terms; (4) there is case authority that language similar to § 2 is not authority for a holdover term; (5) holdover legislation cannot contravene the Constitution.
(1) No Holdover in § 2 Language
Section 2 does not include holdover language. It states: "The term of office shall be eight years and not more than two terms shall expire at the same time.” This language is abundantly straightforward. It contains none of the traditional holdover language such as "and until their successors are elected and qualified”. It provides for eight years, no less and no more.
(2) §2 No Holdover Language Contrasts With Holdover Language Elsewhere
The finite eight-year term for Supreme Court justices in the Constitution is in stark contrast to the holdover terms prescribed for the Court of Appeals (art 6, § 9), the circuit court (art 6, § 12) and the probate court (art 6, § 16). These terms are established for "a term of six years and until their successors are elected and qualiñed” (emphasis added). The inclusion of the traditional holdover language in the judicial provisions of §§ 9, 12, and 16 must dictate that the significant absence of this language in § 2 was intended. The people did not intend to annex a holdover term to the office of Supreme Court justice.
(3) No Holdover General Rule Historically
The Constitution has never used holdover language to designate the term of office for a Supreme Court justice. The 1835 and 1850 Constitutions established the term as a finite number of years. See Const 1835, art 6, § 2; Const 1850, art 6, § 2. The 1908 Constitution, art 7, § 2, provided: "The term of office shall be prescribed by law”. The Legislature, pursuant to this authority, established finite terms on various occasions. See 1915 CL 12007; 1929 CL 3001, 13528; 1948 CL 601.2.
In 1954, the Legislature set the term of office as follows: "The term of office of justice shall be 8 years * * * and shall continue until a successor is elected and qualiñed” (emphasis added). 1954 PA 116, effective June 1, 1955; MCL 168.399; MSA 6.1399. In art 6, § 2 of the 1963 Constitution, the people definitively stated that the "term of office shall be eight years”, thus deleting the holdover period in the term of office as created by the Legislature. The difference between the term of office of a justice before and after the adoption of the 1963 Constitution is made obvious by the emphasized language. Before the 1963 Constitution, the term of office included a holdover provision. If a candidate won an election and then died before his elected term began, the incumbent justice would hold over "until a successor was elected and qualified”. After the deletion of this provision in the 1963 Constitution, the incumbent would not hold over, and the office would remain vacant. The term was for eight years, and that was that.
So of the approximately 148 years from 1835 to date, the Constitution provided for a holdover term in setting the term of a justice of the Supreme Court in only eight years. Whether the 1968 amendment in providing for filling of a vacancy in § 23 changes this, we will subsequently consider.
(4) Constitutional Silence No Authority for Holdover
A holdover provision is not to be read into the silence of the Constitution. As this Court stated in Toy ex rel Elliott v Voelker, 273 Mich 205, 215-217; 262 NW 881 (1935):
" 'Until his successor is elected and qualified’ is not esoteric language. The phrase is common in this State and elsewhere. The words are plain and have an accepted meaning in the law.
"The term [of office of superintendent of public instruction] consists of a 'fixed tenure and a contingent term.’ * * * The hold over provision is purely conditional, on failure of an elected successor or his qualification. Thereby, the right of incumbent to hold over term does not end until his successor has been elected and has accepted the office by qualifying. So, barring contingencies, the office is held by an elected official. This is further than the Constitution goes in securing an elected officer in such other State offices, of at least equal importance and rank, as the lieutenant governor, secretary of State, State treasurer, auditor general and attorney general, whose terms are ñxed at two years without right of hold over. Constitution 1908, art 6, § 1. Even the governor does not hold over in case of the death of his elected successor before the commencement of the term.” (Citation omitted; emphasis added.)
Section 1 of article 6 of the 1908 Constitution provided "There shall be elected at each general biennial election a governor * * * for the term of two years”. The 1908 constitutional provision is consequently effectively similar to § 2.
(5) Legislation Cannot Override Constitution
Nonetheless, defendant and amicus argue that MCL 168.399; MSA 6.1399 creates a holdover term for Supreme Court justices. This statute, enacted in 1955, before the 1963 Constitution, states:
"The term of office of justice of the supreme court shall be 8 years, * * * and shall continue until a successor is elected and qualified.”
This argument flies in the face of settled constitutional principle. Where the Constitution has spoken, neither the Legislature (nor the Supreme Court for that matter) may amend the Constitution. Pillon v Attorney General, 345 Mich 536; 77 NW2d 257 (1956).
Section 2 of art 6 of the 1963 Constitution definitely fixed the term of office for Supreme Court justices at eight years. Therefore, it is not within the power of the Legislature or this Court to amend the Constitution by annexing a holdover term. Section 2 sets forth a definite term of years, and so it must remain until altered by the people through constitutional amendment.
B. Problems Interpreting § 23 as Holdover
Having established that § 2 unequivocally establishes a fixed term of eight years with no holdover, and having established that being in pari materia, §§ 2 and 23 should be construed together, if possible, we turn to examine whether § 23 indicates a clear and unambiguous intent of the people to change the 1963 Constitution and the normal rule of no Supreme Court justice holdover.
There are two reasons why § 23 does not clearly and unambiguously require a holdover or its equivalent interpretation: (1) if § 23 is interpreted as requiring holdover, it allows for an unjust result; and (2) a holdover interpretation of § 23 would permit an appointed justice to hold over but deny that same right to an elected justice.
(1) Holdover Interpretation of § 23 Can Have Unjust Result
Section 23, as amended, states: "The person appointed by the governor shall hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs, at which election a successor shall be elected for the remainder of the unexpired term.” Under a holdover reading of this language, if defendant had been elected to succeed Justice Moody and had Justice Moody died prior to January 1, the Governor’s appointee would have displaced the defendant from an office to which she had been duly elected. Obviously, this result— which permits divesting a duly elected officer of his or her office — is repugnant to the common understanding of the people who ratified the Constitution.
Additionally, this absurd result would not materialize if § 23 contained traditional holdover language. Under a holdover analysis, an appointee’s term ends when an elected officer steps forward to claim the office. Under traditional holdover language, it is irrelevant whether the election which grants the successor his right to office occurs before or after the vacancy occurs.
However, the inflexible language of § 23 dictates that the election must occur after the vacancy, thus giving rise to the absurd situation. As noted above, however, this repugnancy disappears if § 23 is read in conjunction with § 2; if § 2 confines the operation of § 23 to the term in which the vacancy arose, then appointments will terminate either by the replacement of the appointee by an official elected after the vacancy, or by the termination of the eight-year term in which the vacancy arose.
We find further support for our interpretation of § 23 in the legislation enacted to implement this section of the Constitution. Although the first portion of MCL 168.404; MSA 6.1404 generally tracks the Constitution, the last sentence is enlightening. Here the Legislature has provided that one who is elected to an office is not divested of his right to hold office because a vacancy occurs prior to the commencement of his term. Thus the Legislature has recognized the people’s clearly expressed preference for elected justices, and has done so in a way consistent with our interpretation that the defendant’s term ends with the eight-year limitation rather than the January 1 noon after the next election.
(2) Holdover Interpretation of §23 Prefers Appointed Justices Over Elected Justices
Section 2 makes it clear beyond peradventure that elected justices have eight-year terms with no right to hold over. If interpretation gives § 23 the effect of a holdover term that would mean that an appointed justice would have the right to hold over but an elected justice would not.
The whole history of judicial selection in Michigan evinces a strong insistence on election of judges and a limited grant of power of appointment. Of course, the people could provide for holdover appointments, but in the case of Supreme Court justices because of a strong contrary history it should not be presumed unless in clear and unambiguous language.
C. Problems Interpreting § 23 as not Holdover
Two technical objections have been raised against interpreting § 23 as not a holdover provision. We are unpersuaded that either should override our interpretation.
(1) It has been pointed out that when a vacancy occurs after the last election in an eight-year term, the appointee cannot "hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs”, if the election must fall within the eight-year term as required by tying the "term” in "remainder of the unexpired term” to the "term” in which "the vacancy occurs”. There is no question that the "until * * * the first general election” language in that situation becomes inoperative. But that is not an unjust result such as divesting a newly elected justice of his term of office. In fact, it would prevent that injustice.
(2) We are also aware that by interpreting §23 as not a holdover provision, a Governor is authorized, in some circumstances, to make two appointments rather than one. Arguably, this result contravenes the constitutionally expressed preference for elected officials.
However, this criticism is without merit. Although two appointments may be allowed, this in no way decreases the number of elected justices that serve, impedes the process for supplying the office with an elected official, nor favors an appointed over an elected official.
Additionally, for reasons more fully stated in Part VI, infra, the interpretation which allows two appointments actually ensures that the people’s vote is given the greatest possible efficacy.
D. Conclusion
While attempting to reinstate the gubernatorial appointment power which had been deleted from the 1963 Constitution, the drafters of § 23 created a latent ambiguity as to whether a holdover provision for the appointee was intended. Plaintiff argues that the Governor’s appointment continues only for the unexpired time remaining of the eight-year term in which the vacancy arose. Defendant, of course, believes that the appointee’s term extends until her elected successor takes office in whichever eight-year term that happens to fall. The language of § 23 alone does not lead ineluctably to either result.
However, the practical problems associated with the application of a holdover interpretation of § 23 and the policy advantages inherent in the adoption of a non-holdover interpretation convince us that a non-holdover interpretation is what the people would have intended had this issue confronted them.
The injustice which may arise from application of a holdover interpretation of § 23 weighs heavily against adopting such an interpretation. Also, an interpretation which grants appointed justices rights that are denied elected justices is inappropriate.
We therefore hold that § 23 is not a holdover provision. Rather, it authorizes the Governor to appoint only until the end of an eight-year term. The effort to appoint for the succeeding eight-year term is therefore null and void and defendant has no title to her office after noon on the first day of January 1983.
VI. Policy Considerations
Much has been argued of the policy predilections underlying § 23. We find it clear beyond peradventure that the fundamental philosophy of the people in judicial selection is, and has been, the intent to reserve to themselves the right to choose their justices by popular election. This intent is expressed in various provisions of article 6.
First, the people have singlemindedly and tenaciously rejected the adoption of an appointed judiciary system. A well-meaning and powerful minority over at least the last 30 or 40 years has consistently endeavored to persuade the people that judicial selection should be exclusively by gubernatorial appointment. But those campaigns have never succeeded, even to the extent of gaining sufficient signatures to permit a referendum ballot. It is manifest that the people of Michigan have remained steadfast and convinced that the best method of judicial selection is through the popular ballot.
Second, in the 1963 Constitution the people not only expressed their intent that the people should elect their Supreme Court justices, they even divested the Governor of the right to fill vacancies as provided in previous Constitutions. This power was reluctantly restored by the 1968 amendment.
Third, the people declined to permit incumbent justices without renewed popular mandate to hold over. As discussed above, the right to hold over had been granted by a 1954 statute (MCL 168.399; MSA 6.1399) enacted pursuant to art 7, § 2 of the 1908 Constitution. However, in art 6, § 2 of the 1963 Constitution, the people definitively stated that the "term of office shall be eight years”, thus deleting the holdovér period in the term of office as created by the Legislature. After the deletion of the legislatively created holdover provision by the 1963 Constitution, an incumbent would no longer hold over if an elected successor was not ready to succeed him at the end of his eight-year term. Instead, the office would become vacant. The term was for eight years, and that was that.
Any fair appraisal of the Judicial Article of the 1963 Constitution prior to the 1968 amendment cannot fail to recognize that the people had with clarion voice made two points abundantly clear. First, the people were determined to use the elective process to select their justices. Second, the people did not want their justices to serve beyond an eight-year term without renewing their popular mandate.
In the light of this clear expression of the popular will to choose their justices by election to eight-year non-holdover terms, we examine the instant issue. Supreme Court Justice Blair Moody had just won an overwhelming mandate for a new term of office by about 300,000 votes over his nearest competitor when he unfortunately died before he qualified for his new term. The issue before us is whether the people intended that a Governor whose popular mandate had all but expired have the power to fill Justice Moody’s new term beginning after the Governor had left office as well as the power to fill the vacancy for the few weeks remaining in Justice Moody’s then current term and also the Governor’s final term?
Given the people’s clearly stated intention to elect their justices for eight-year terms without holdover, it is hardly credible that they would grant a Governor, especially an outgoing Governor, the power to fill a vacancy with a holdover period. This is particularly true when such an interpretation would mean giving an outgoing Governor the right to appoint to a term that did not even begin until the outgoing Governor’s own popular mandate had expired. The effect of this would be to deny the people expression of their most recent mandate in favor of a mandate already superseded. This would be a complete, 180-degree turnabout from the people’s constitutional reliance on the electoral philosophy and process.
But that is what the defendant and amicus argue. They contend that the people have in their constitution clearly and unambiguously given an outgoing Governor in his last few months the power to appoint a person to a Supreme Court term that would include a term that would not commence until that Governor’s term of office and power had expired. We believe that the people have not indicated such a clear denial of their basic philosophy.
Nonetheless, both defendant and amicus have advanced two public policy considerations on behalf of their position, arguing that if plaintiffs theories prevail: (1) the independence of the judiciary will be undermined, and (2) the orderly management of government and the continued smooth operation of its branches during times of transition when no elected official is available to take the incumbent’s place will be disrupted. Although we agree that these are necessary considerations in light of the nature of the case before us, we do not agree with the defendant’s and amicus’ dire predictions of the consequences of our decision.
As we have noted, the people have clearly expressed their desire for an independent judiciary, chosen by them at a special or general election. Despite this directive from the people, we are still faced with the fact that, regardless of whether plaintiff or defendant prevails in this case, we will have an appointed justice on this Court until the next general election in November 1984. The fact that defendant was a participant in the last election and garnered a significant number of votes does not affect her status as an appointed justice.
However, defendant and amicus argue that if plaintiff prevails, the judiciary will become subject to the whim and control of the Governor because, at the end of the term, the appointed justice may be removed or replaced if his or her performance is unsatisfactory to the Governor.
In the first place, under our interpretation of the Constitution, the appointed justice is no longer entitled to fill the appointed office at the end of the term. It is not a matter of removing the justice from office; the expiration of the term automatically ends the justice’s appointed status and right to hold the office, and the former justice again becomes merely a potential appointee. The Governor then has the power to appoint to fill the resulting vacancy, caused by the beginning of a new term of office which is not filled by an elected official.
In the second place, a potential appointee is always chosen for office at the pleasure of the Governor. Thus, it is true that the appointed justice will only be reappointed to the new term if the Governor is satisfied with his or her performance in office in the prior term. However, this is no different in effect on the independence of the judiciary than a judge from the Court of Appeals seeking to be appointed to a vacancy on our Court. That judge will only be appointed if his or her performance has been satisfactory to the Governor. Therefore, the possibility always exists that a judicial officer, in the hopes of securing an appointment, will feel the need to tailor his or her performance in office to the known desires of the Governor. Our holding today does not serve to lessen the independence of the judiciary any more than it was lessened when the Governor’s power to appoint persons to fill judicial vacancies was restored.
Defendant and amicus also argue that the smooth operation of government will be disrupted by our holding, which creates a vacancy at the end of the term even when there is a qualified individual already in office, ready and willing to continue in office until the next general election. They argue that the policy behind holdover provisions is to ensure continuity in governmental operations during times of transition when there is no elected successor to take office and that the existence of such a vacancy could unnecessarily disrupt such continuity.
We recognize that the result of our holding is that, near the end of one term and the beginning of a new term, there may be two different appointed justices to the same office within a relatively short period of time. However, we believe that any disruption this may cause will be minimal and short-term. A far greater disruption would occur if the Governor failed to replace a justice whose term had expired. However, this possibility exists any time there is a vacancy on this Court, should the Governor fail to exercise his or her power of appointment, and our holding does not make this possibility any more or less probable. We do not agree with defendant, and amicus that the proper way to avoid this potential problem is to find that no vacancy exists at the beginning of the new term.
We wish to point out that our holding is not intended to announce a policy against holdover provisions for public office. There is much merit to defendant’s and amicus’ argument with respect to the benefits of holdover provisions; however, we think such provisions should be established by the people and not by judicial fiat.
VII. Right to Appoint in New Term
There remains consideration of whether the Governor in office at the time the justice’s newly elected term commences can appoint to office. This depends upon two factors. First, does a vacancy exist that permits a Governor to appoint? Const 1963, art 6, § 23. Second, does the opportunity to appoint exist within the limited operation of § 23, i.e., that it applies only to the term in which the vacancy arose?
It is obvious that there is no impediment to appoint with respect to the second factor. The vacancy, if one exists, dates from the first day of the eight-year term so that the formula of the second sentence of §23 works perfectly with respect to § 23 and § 2. The critical question, then, becomes whether a vacancy allowing appointment exists.
The first sentence of §23 as amended reads pertinently as follows:
"A vacancy shall occur in the office of judge of any court of record or in a district court by death, removal, resignation, or vacating of the office * * *.”
In the instant case, Justice Moody died during the prior term to the one to which he was re-elected. There is no question that his death created a vacancy in the current term he was serving. It is argued that death in a prior term does not create a vacancy in the succeeding term to which the decedent was elected, and there is some reason so to interpret § 23.
However, we are called upon to construe the intent of the people in the language they employed to address a problem that may arise from a variety of situations. The problem which § 23 attempted to rectify was the difficulty created by vacancies in judicial offices between elections. The solution was to establish limited gubernatorial appointments. To prohibit gubernatorial appointment where the vacancy was created subsequent to a general election but prior to the succeeding eight-year term would in part defeat the general purpose of MCL 168.404; MSA 6.1404 (1970 PA 10).
The intention and even the literal text of § 23 can be reasonably and properly construed to accomplish its purpose. There is no question that in the new term a vacancy exists because of the death in the prior term. 'Therefore, there is a "death” which under § 23 allows the Governor to make an appointment. This would surely be the common understanding of § 23.
Additionally, it is difficult to reject the argument that there was a "vacating of the office” in the new term. It is impossible to vacate the office in the new term by failing to qualify or failing to take the office in the prior term. Whatever is done in the prior term has no eifect on whether the office is vacated in the new term. The only way the new term of office can be vacated is by the office holder failing to qualify, take office, etc., during the new term.
Consequently, if a newly elected official goes to and stays in another jurisdiction and does not show up to qualify and take his new office after a reasonable time, it certainly can be said that the office was vacated during the term to which he was elected.
This presents us with the question whether the failure of a deceased person to qualify and take office is in principle any different from a living person failing to do so. It would appear to us that there certainly is no logical difference. As such there was a vacating of the office during the new term. What is more, in our mind that would be the common understanding of the public generally.
We therefore hold that the incoming Governor can appoint to fill former Justice Blair Moody, Jr.’s new term to which he was elected in the 1982 election.
VIII. Conclusion
Before restating our conclusions, it is incumbent upon us to express appreciation for the helpful and even commendable briefs and oral arguments, especially on such short notice.
We hold that Const 1963, art 6, § 23 may operate only within the Supreme Court justice term in which the vacancy arose. Therefore, § 23 authorizes the Governor to appoint only until the end of an eight-year term.
In this case, Justice Moody died five weeks before the expiration of the term he was serving. Under § 23, the Governor was empowered to make an appointment only until 12 noon, January 1, 1983. The Governor’s attempt to extend the appointment beyond January 1, 1983 is therefore null and void.
Additionally, we hold that a vacancy arose on January 1, 1983 which authorizes the current Governor to make an appointment to the office of Supreme Court justice. This appointment will continue until 12 noon of January 1 following the next general election._
Finally, we concur with our brother Kavanagh.
Judgment against defendant will enter but without costs.
Kavanagh, J.
The Attorney General of Michigan brings this action in quo warranto, GCR 1963, 715.2(1), against Dorothy Comstock Riley, defendant, to decide whether she presently possesses the right to hold the office of justice of the Michigan Supreme Court. Having granted plaintiffs application for leave to appeal prior to decision by the Court of Appeals, this Court has original jurisdiction. GCR 1963, 852, 816.2. By leave of Court, Governor William G. Milliken has intervened as amicus curiae.
We hold that a vacancy in the office of justice of the Supreme Court can arise only in a term of that office and that an appointee to fill such vacancy may not serve beyond the end of that term, and accordingly judgment of ouster may enter.
At the general election held November 2, 1982, Justice Blair Moody, Jr., was re-elected to an eight-year term of office on the Supreme Court, commencing at noon January 1, 1983. After reelection, but before his first term was to expire at noon January 1, 1983, and before qualifying for the new term, Justice Moody died November 26, 1982, thereby creating a vacancy in the term of office he was then serving.
Pursuant to the command of the constitution that a "vacancy shall be filled by appointment by the governor”, Const 1963, art 6, § 23, Governor Milliken appointed the defendant on December 9, 1982, to fill the vacancy left by the death of Justice Moody. According to the terms of the commission issued to defendant, her tenure as an appointed justice was due to expire January 1, 1985.
Governor Milliken’s term as Governor expired contemporaneously with that of Justice Moody’s first term at noon January 1, 1983. Governor James J. Blanchard, elected at the November, 1982, general election, began his term of office at noon January 1, 1983. Governor Blanchard has not attempted to appoint a person to the Court. The presént action in quo warranto was commenced January 3, 1983.
We are asked to decide whether a person appointed to fill a vacancy on the Supreme Court arising in the last two months of a term of office may continue to hold office after the expiration of the term in which the vacancy arose, within the meaning of Const 1963, art 6, § 23.
The Attorney General argues that the term of office for justice of the Supreme Court is fixed at eight years without right of holdover. Consequently, Const 1963, art 6, § 23, means that one appointed to fill a vacancy arising within an eight-year term serves until January 1 following the first general election held after the vacancy arises or until the end of the term in which, the vacancy arises, whichever event first occurs. Such an application of § 23 alone, argues the Attorney General, is consistent with the omission of holdover language in Const 1963, art 6, § 2.
The defendant, on the other hand, contends that a plain reading of Const 1963, art 6, § 23 yields the conclusion that one appointed to fill a vacancy serves until January 1 following the first general election at which a successor is elected and qualified, regardless of the duration of the term in which the vacancy arises. The constitution vests in the appointee an interim term, unrelated to the term in which the vacating justice served. In addition, a justice has a right to hold over by reason of prior constitutions and MCL 168.399; MSA 6.1399.
Amicus curiae makes essentially the same argument as defendant.
The constitution provides the method for filling vacancies on courts of record. As originally adopted, Const 1963, art 6, § 23, called for special or general elections to fill vacancies, replacing for the first time the gubernatorial power of appointment. In 1968, § 23 was amended to reinvest the Governor with the power to fill vacancies by appointment. See Schwartz v Secretary of State, 393 Mich 42; 222 NW2d 517 (1974). Section 23 generally commands the Governor to fill vacancies which occur by death, removal, resignation or vacating of office. The second sentence of § 23 limits the Governor’s power of appointment by defining the duration of the appointee’s right to hold office. What the second sentence of §23 means as applied to the present facts is the question to be answered.
Section 23, in pertinent part, reads:
"A vacancy shall occur in the office of judge of any court of record or in the district court by death, removal, resignation or vacating of the office, and such vacancy shall be filled by appointment by the governor. The person appointed by the governor shall hold office until 12 noon of the first day of January next succeeding the first general election held after the vacancy occurs, at which election a successor shall be elected for the remainder of the unexpired term.”
In determining the meaning of § 23, we are mindful that constitutions, made for the people and by the people, are given the interpretation that reasonable minds, the great mass of the people themselves, would give them. Traverse City School Dist v Attorney General, 384 Mich 390, 405; 185 NW2d 9 (1971). We must ascertain the common understanding, that meaning which a particular provision would naturally convey to the popular mind. Carman v Secretary of State, 384 Mich 443, 451; 185 NW2d 1 (1971).
The "plain meaning” of § 23 urged upon us by defendant and amicus is that an appointee to the Supreme Court serves until January 1 following the first general election at which a successor is elected and qualified, regardless of the point at which the vacancy arises in the term. Section 23, they argue, creates an unrelated, separate, interim term for an appointee. In the present case, this is but a holdover by the appointee of the preceding justice’s term of office.
An appointee’s tenure cannot be unrelated to the scheme of eight-year terms of office established by Const 1963, art 6, § 2. Because a person’s right to hold office can only have meaning in the context of terms, whether for years or life or determinable upon the happening of some contingency, the established terms of office set out in § 2 are relevant to the meaning of § 23. We find that § 23 contemplates this and rather than carve out a term unrelated to the constitutional schedule of terms provides that a successor holds office for the remainder of the unexpired § 2 term.
In our view, the critical language of § 23 which puts into context the tenure of the appointee is the election of a successor "for the remainder of the unexpired term”. The unexpired term referred to is the one in which the vacancy occurs, not the one in which the election is held. The expression presupposes that an election can yet be held within the term in which the vacancy occurs to fill out the unexpired term. This satisfies the mandate of § 2 that justices be elected. An appointment is authorized only until the first general election can be held.
As further support for their view of the plain meaning of § 23, defendant and amicus argue that an appointee is given a right of holdover. This right of holdover, they say, is not unique to the 1963 Constitution, but was also present in Const 1850, art 6, § 14, and Const 1908, art 7, § 20. The present § 23 differs from the preceding two constitutions only by specifying the date (the next general election) at which a successor is elected and qualified.
The concept of a vacancy in an office entails the notion of the absence of a qualified person to exercise the powers of that office. The powers of an office can be exercised only during a term of that office so the period of a "vacancy” could not extend beyond the end of a term. If no appointment had been made to fill the vacancy in the term Justice Moody was serving at the time of his death, the vacancy would have continued only until the term ended. That an appointee "to fill a vacancy” could serve in an office beyond the end of the term of that office is self-contradictory. We know of no case where the appointed justice was authorized to hold over where the vacating justice would not have been. The first appointee to the probate court in the case of People ex rel Andrews v Lord, 9 Mich 227 (1861), was held authorized to serve until a successor was elected and qualified. The Court cited provisions both for the term of office and for the tenure of the appointee, each of which included holdover language. Essential to the appoin tee’s right to hold over was the concurrent right of the elected judge to hold over.
Const 1963, art 6, § 2 states a fixed and definite term of office of eight years. The elected holder of that term possesses no contingent right to sit beyond eight years. The constitution anticipates new terms occurring in each of the seven offices at eight-year intervals. So far as § 2 is concerned, at least, no event disturbs the commencement of these terms, which are ordinarily filled by election. So far as Michigan voters are concerned, a new eight-year term commenced at noon on January 1, 1983, which they filled at the last general election. It cannot be the plain meaning of § 23 that the death of Justice Moody one month prior to the expiration of his term gave his appointed successor the right to extend that term for two years when Justice Moody could not have done so. The appointee could not fill a vacancy and be clothed with greater rights than those held by the predecessor. We do not believe that § 23 may be read to alter the scheme of § 2.
As a separate argument, defendant and amicus contend that an elected justice does possess a right to hold over. Under this argument, Justice Moody’s failure to qualify after his election to succeed himself meant that no vacancy arose on January 1, 1983. The appointee stepped into Justice Moody’s first term of office to serve until a successor is elected and qualified at the next general election. The right of an elected justice to hold over, it is said, comes from MCL 168.399; MSA 6.1399, which reads:
"The term of office of justice of the supreme court shall be 8 years, beginning on the first day of January next following the election and shall continue until a successor is elected and qualified.”
This statute, however, was last amended in 1954, prior to adoption of the 1963 Constitution, and since constitutional provisions prevail, only statutes predating the 1963 Constitution which are not repugnant to it have any force. Const 1963, art 3, § 7. The Legislature may not increase or diminish a constitutional term of office. See Attorney General ex rel Cook v O'Neill, 280 Mich 649, 663; 274 NW 445 (1937) (Potter, J., concurring). That part of § 399 which attempts to add to the term of office of a Supreme Court justice contravenes Const 1963, art 6, § 2, and is therefore void.
We are further convinced that the constitution did not intend to authorize a Supreme Court justice to hold over because of the presence of express holdover language in other parts of Article 6. Court of Appeals judges, Const 1963, art 6, § 9, circuit judges, Const 1963, art 6, § 12, and probate judges, Const 1963, art 6, § 16, are all authorized to hold office for six years "and until their successors are elected and qualified”.
Such language is conspicuously absent from § 2 stating the term of office for Supreme Court justices. Expressio unius est exclusio alterius. The contingent right of holdover is not an inherent incident of a term of office, Toy ex rel Elliott v Voelker, 273 Mich 205; 262 NW 881 (1935). We conclude that a Supreme Court justice’s term of office is eight years without right of holdover. For this reason, Andrews, supra, Lawrence v Hanley, 84 Mich 399; 47 NW 753 (1891), and Baxter v Latimer, 116 Mich 356; 74 NW 726 (1898), cited by defendant and amicus, are inapposite.
The appointment to fill a vacancy in the final months of a term of office must end with the term. The appointee cannot succeed to rights greater than those held by the vacating justice.
Under the majority rule, which we here adopt, a public officer may validly make a prospective appointment to fill a vacancy certain to occur in a public office only where the appointing officer would be empowered to fill the vacancy when it actually occurs. Anno: 75 ALR2d 1277. Thus, Governor Milliken’s appointment of defendant could not have any legal effect to fill the vacancy occurring January 1, 1983, because such vacancy arose after the expiration of his term of office. Although the vacancy was certain to occur on January 1, 1983, by reason of the death of Justice Moody, it could not arise prior to January 1, 1983. A vacancy in an office is a vacancy arising during a term of office. In the present case, there was no vacancy to be filled in the new term of office until that term commenced.
The Governor in office at the beginning of the term to which Justice Moody had been elected has the power to fill the vacancy arising in that term by Justice Moody’s inability to enter upon the duties of the office when the term began.
Judgment may enter. No costs, a public question.
Defendant has also argued that our interpretation will create a critical shortage of appointees. Defendant feels it is absurd to suggest that anyone would surrender a respectable position to accept an appointment for a period of only a few weeks or months.
We are unpersuaded by this supposed difficulty. In 1933, a similar situation arose and was resolved without the dilemma defendant predicts. On August 31, 1933, Justice Clark resigned four months before his term expired. Governor Comstock appointed Thomas Weadock, a distinguished private practitioner, on September 1. This appointment continued only until December 31, 1933; on January 1, 1934, the winner of the April election stepped into office. Therefore, although the appointment lasted only four months, an appointee was found to fill the office.
The majority rule prohibits such an appointment. Anno: 75 ALR2d 1277.
The disinterested public purpose of the admonitions by defendant and amicus concerning the media reports of judicial political bias would have been more impressive if uttered in a non-adversarial context. | [
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Reconsideration of the Supreme Court’s orders of February 7, 1979, May 3, 1979, and April 3, 1980, are denied April 13, 1983. Reported below: 401 Mich 252 (1977), reh den 402 Mich 954, 959, and 405 Mich 830. | [
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Complaint for superintending control dismissed without prejudice to the institution of an appropriate action in circuit court by any of the parties to the action or by individuals or entities not parties to the action for a determination of the duty to pay or the right to be paid in accordance with a fee schedule for the compensation of lawyers representing indigent defendants. The record in the original proceeding is an inadequate basis for decision because of factual questions and disputes which must be resolved before judgment, but which have never been the subject of proofs by the parties. | [
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Rehearing denied. Reported at 415 Mich 443. | [
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Rehearing denied. Reported at 416 Mich 235.
Ryan, J., would grant rehearing. | [
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Rehearing denied. Reported at 415 Mich 381. | [
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An order was entered by this Court on August 30, 1982, directing attorney John C. Mouradian to show cause within 30 days why he should not be held in contempt of this Court for failing to file an application for leave to appeal on defendant’s behalf. No response to the August 30, 1982 order was received.
This Court having again considered the matter, it is ordered that attorney John C. Mouradian pay the clerk of this Court the sum of $250 in court costs, payable to the State of Michigan, within 10 days of the clerk’s certification of this order. These costs are assessed because of the needless additional work required of this Court by the failure of Mr. Mouradian to file an application for leave to appeal or seek to withdraw as the defendant’s attorney within a reasonable time after his appointment. It is the finding of this Court that Mr. Mouradian is in contempt of this Court. It is further found that the defendant’s appeal to this Court has been unreasonably delayed through Mr. Mouradian’s inaction.
The clerk shall deposit the costs paid pursuant to this order with the State Treasurer for credit to the State General Fund. The costs are personal to the attorney and may not be charged back to the county.
It is further ordered that the Detroit Recorder’s Court proceed without delay to appoint new counsel for the defendant. | [
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Per Curiam.
In People v DerMartzex, 390 Mich 410; 213 NW2d 97 (1973), we held that evidence of a sexual act between the defendant and the victim preceding the one charged was admissible when the defendant is a member of the victim’s household. The Court of Appeals has extended DerMartzex in this case and in People v Hammer, 98 Mich App 471; 296 NW2d 283 (1980), to an antecedent sexual act between the defendant and a person other than the victim who is also a member of the victim’s household. We are unable to concur in this extension.
I
The defendant was charged with first-degree criminal sexual conduct. MCL 750.520b(l)(b); MSA 28.788(2)(l)(b). The victim was the defendant’s 15-year-old stepdaughter. She testified that she and the defendant had engaged in sexual intercourse on December 5, 1978, and at several other times. A sister testified to acts of sexual intercourse between her and the defendant covering an extended period. The defendant’s natural daughter testified that the defendant had tried to French kiss her and had fondled her breasts. All three were members of the same household at the time of the sexual activity. The prosecutor’s theory, as outlined in his opening statement, was that as each of the stepdaughters reached puberty, the defendant initiated regular sexual relations with them.
The defendant denied any sexual involvement with the three girls. The jury convicted him as charged, and he was sentenced to life imprisonment. The Court of Appeals affirmed in an unpublished opinion per curiam of July 9, 1981.
II
A
In DerMartzex, supra, the defendant was charged with assault with intent to rape a ten-year-old female child living in his household. The trial court allowed the child to testify as to other acts of sexual misconduct perpetrated on her by the defendant. The defendant appealed, and we affirmed. We established an exception to the general rule that acts of misconduct should not be admitted because common experience indicates that sexual intercourse or attempts at sexual intercourse are frequently the result of prior acts of sexual intimacy and that the testimony was proper for the purpose of corroboration:
"[T]he probative value outweighs the disadvantage where the crime charged is a sexual offense and the other acts tend to show similar familiarity between the defendant and the person with whom he allegedly committed the charged offense.” 390 Mich 413.
In Hammer, supra, the defendant was convicted of criminal sexual conduct in the first degree for inserting an artificial penis into his 15-year-old daughter on January 7, 1978. The victim also testified that her father had been sexually abusing her since she was five or six years old. The defendant’s three other daughters testified that he had also engaged in sexual misconduct with them on several occasions. The Court of Appeals rejected the defendant’s contention that it was reversible error for the trial judge to admit the testimony of prior sexual abuse of the three sisters:
"Again, we emphasize that the principal issue confronting the jury was the credibility of Rhonda Hammer. If her sisters were prohibited from testifying as to sexual assaults against them, Rhonda’s credibility would have been undermined. The jury might well have asked the question, Why would the defendant engage in such conduct toward only one of four daughters? To prevent such an erroneous question from reaching the jury’s consideration, we hold that under the facts of the instant case the testimony of the complainant’s sisters was properly admitted to corroborate and lend credence to the complainant’s testimony. See People v Fritts, 72 Cal App 3d 319; 140 Cal Rptr 94 (1977), and State v Sutton, 4 NC App 664; 167 SE2d 499 (1969). This holding is particularly appropriate when one notes that the defendant denied the sexual assault in question or any prior sexual assaults had taken place, thereby implicitly charging the complainant with fabricating the evidence against him.” 98 Mich App 476.
The Court of Appeals in this case relied on DerMartzex and Hammer.
B
Our decision in DerMartzex was premised on our earlier one in People v Jenness, 5 Mich 305, 323-324 (1858), in which the witness had testified to previous acts of sexual intercourse between her and the defendant:
"In any case, where a witness has testified to a fact or transaction which, standing alone and entirely unconnected with anything which led to or brought it about, would appear in any degree unnatural or improbable in itself, without reference to the facts preceding and inducing the principal transaction, and which, if proved, would render it more natural and probable; such previous facts are not only admissible and relevant, but they constitute a necessary part of such principal transaction — a link in the chain of testimony, without which it would be impossible for the jury properly to appreciate the testimony in reference to such principal transaction. And such previous facts should therefore be elicited by the examination of the party producing the witness. Any other rule, in such a case, would be grossly unfair towards the witness; render a trial a process for suppressing, rather than eliciting, the truth, and defeat the very objects for which courts of justice are instituted.
"In the order of nature, facts do not occur single and independent — isolated from all others — but each is connected with some antecedent fact, or combination of facts, from which the fact in question follows as an effect from a cause. Torn from this necessary connection, and exhibited alone, many real occurrences would appear under the guise of falsehood, and truth itself would be made to lie.
"To permit the evidence, therefore, of an isolated transaction, which could only be made to appear probable by exhibiting the antecedent facts which induced it, and yet to exclude from the investigation all such antecedent facts, would be to set at defiance the order of nature, and the laws of truth which God has stamped upon the human mind.”
In People v Coston, 187 Mich 538, 546; 153 NW 831 (1915), however, we rejected as "untenable” the argument that the complainant’s sister could testify to an act of sexual intercourse between her and the defendant. In People v Dean, 253 Mich 434, 435; 235 NW 211 (1931), we distinguished between "previous acts of misconduct between the same parties” and the defendant’s similar acts with others. We believe this distinction is sound. The rationale for the Jenness exception was that the prior sexual acts between the victim and the defendant were a part of the "principal transaction” necessary for the jury to weigh the victim’s testimony about the principal transaction. That was our reasoning in DerMartzex as well:
"The principal issue confronting a jury in most statutory rape cases, and particularly so where the charged offense is attempted statutory rape, is the credibility of the alleged victim. Limiting her testimony to the specific act charged and not allowing her to mention acts leading up to the assault would seriously undermine her credibility in the eyes of the jury. Common experience indicates that sexual intercourse and attempts thereat are most frequently the culmination of prior acts of sexual intimacy.” 390 Mich 414-415.
Prior sexual acts between the defendant and persons other than the complainant are not part of the principal transaction. Accordingly, the trial court erred in permitting this testimony to be given.
In lieu of granting leave to appeal, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), we reverse the defendant’s conviction and remand the case to the Recorder’s Court of the City of Detroit for a new trial.
Williams, C.J., and Kavanagh, Levin, Ryan, Brickley, Cavanagh, and Boyle, JJ., concurred.
We recognize that there may be some circumstances when prior sexual acts between the defendant and others might be admissible under a similar acts analysis. See, e.g., People v Oliphant, 399 Mich 472; 250 NW2d 443 (1976). The prosecutor did not seek to base admission of the testimony on this ground, however, in this case, even though there may exist a basis for admitting the testimony of the complainant’s sister on this ground. | [
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Williams, C.J.
The issue in this case is whether MCL 333.7215; MSA 14.15(7215), which authorizes the Board of Pharmacy to classify controlled substances within legislatively established schedules, is an unlawful delegation of legislative power. Defendant directs a two-pronged attack on the delegation, claiming that the statute: (a) lacks sufficient standards to govern the exercise of the delegated power, and (b) represents an unconstitutional attempt by the Legislature to delegate its exclusive power to create crimes. Additional issues raised are whether the Board of Pharmacy abused its delegated authority and whether defendant was denied proper notice that his conduct was prohibited.
We hold that the Legislature’s delegation of authority to add controlled substances to pre-existing schedules in accordance with specific criteria is not an unlawful delegation of power despite the fact that penal consequences flow from violation of the board’s rules. The statute contains sufficient standards and safeguards to avoid infirmity under both separation of powers and due process challenges. Additionally, the board did not abuse its discretion in the promulgation of the rule.
I. Facts
Under the controlled substances act, MCL 333.7101 et seq.; MSA 14.15(7101) et seq., oifenses and penalties dealing with regulated drugs are defined in part according to the dangerousness and abuse potential of the substance involved. After initially classifying a number of substances onto one of five schedules, the Legislature delegated to the Board of Pharmacy the power to "add substances to, or delete or reschedule all substances enumerated in the schedules”, MCL 333.7201; MSA 14.15(7201), and specifically authorized the board to supplement each schedule with new substances found to meet threshold criteria for that classification. MCL 333.7211; MSA 14.15(7211), MCL 333.7213; MSA 14.15(7213), MCL 333.7215; MSA 14.15(7215), MCL 333.7217; MSA 14.15(7217), MCL 333.7219; MSA 14.15(7219).
In 1979, the State Board of Pharmacy, pursuant to its authority under MCL 333.7215; MSA 14.15(7215), classified pentazocine (also known by its trade name, Talwin) as a schedule 3 controlled substance. This information, embodied as 1979 AC, R 338.3120(2)(a), was first published in the Michigan Administrative Code’s Quarterly Supplement (No 99, p 92) issued August 14, 1979; it later appeared in the 1979 Michigan Administrative Code.
On August 20, 1980, defendant was charged with possession with intent to deliver 22 tablets of phenmetrazine and possession with intent to deliver 43 tablets of pentazocine. On September 18, 1980, he pled guilty to the reduced charge of possession of pentazocine. MCL 333.7403(2)(b); MSA 14.15(7403)(2)(b). Defendant was sentenced to two years probation.
On appeal as of right, defendant challenged the Legislature’s delegation of authority to the Board of Pharmacy to schedule controlled substances and claimed that he was not given notice that possession of pentazocine was a criminal act. Finding both claims meritorious, the Court of Appeals reversed defendant’s conviction. People v Turmon, 117 Mich App 345; 323 NW2d 698 (1982).
On February 18, 1983, this Court granted the Wayne County Prosecutor leave to appeal. 417 Mich 888 (1983).
II. Delegation to the Board of Pharmacy
A. Sufficiency of Standards
Defendant challenges the controlled substances act as an unconstitutional delegation of authority in that the Legislature failed to provide sufficient safeguards to prevent an abuse of legislative power. Defendant asserts that the standards provided in the act are deficient for two reasons. First, the standards fail to avoid a separation of powers problem: the final scheduling decision, he argues, is a policy determination improperly left to the discretion of the administrative agency rather than the Legislature. Second, or perhaps as a corollary to the first allegation, defendant asserts that the unfettered scheduling discretion of the agency is devoid of due process protection. We disagree with both conclusions.
The criteria this Court has utilized in evaluating legislative standards are set forth in Dep’t of Natural Resources v Seaman, 396 Mich 299, 309; 240 NW2d 206 (1976):
"While no hard and fast rule exists for determining whether a given statute has provided sufficient standards, a number of guiding principles have evolved in Michigan jurisprudence to assist in making a determination in this case.
"First, the act in question must be read as a whole; the provision in question should not be isolated but must be construed with reference to the entire act. Argo Oil Corp v Atwood [274 Mich 47, 53; 264 NW 285 (1935)].
"Second, the standard should be 'as reasonably precise as the subject matter requires or permits’. Osius v St Clair Shores, 344 Mich 693, 698; 75 NW2d 25; 58 ALR2d 1079 (1956).
"The preciseness of the standard will vary with the complexity and/or the degree to which subject regulated will require constantly changing regulation. * * *
"Third, if possible the statute must be construed in such a way as to 'render it valid, not invalid’, as conferring 'administrative, not legislative’ power and as vesting 'discretionary, not arbitrary, authority’. Argo Oil Corp v Atwood, supra, 53.”
Footnote 7 amplifies the second principle:
"A standard cannot be considered 'as reasonably precise as the subject matter requires or permits’ if it does not satisfy due process requirements. See decision in State Highway Comm v Vanderkloot, 392 Mich 159, 169-178; 220 NW2d 416 (1974).”
B. Application of Principles
The first principle requires that the controlled substances act be read in its entirety to determine if the Legislature has provided sufficient guidelines to direct and constrain the agency’s exercise of the delegated authority. Guidelines for the Board of Pharmacy are incorporated in appropriate sections of the statute.
The controlled substances act establishes a comprehensive catalog of offenses and penalties relating to controlled substances. MCL 333.7401-333.7408, 333.7410; MSA 14.15(7401)-14.15(7408), 14.15(7410). The act also establishes five schedules of controlled substances. These schedules, initially formulated by the Legislature, rank the substances according to potential for abuse. The Legislature prescribed penalties for the controlled substances offenses on the basis of a combination of three factors: the nature of the conduct and the classification and amount of the substance involved.
The act grants the "administrator”, defined by MCL 333.7103; MSA 14.15(7103) as "the Michigan board of pharmacy or its designated or established authority”, the power to modify the original schedules established by the Legislature. MCL 333.7201; MSA 14.15(7201). The eight-member board shall consist of six registered pharmacists licensed in the state for at least two years and two representatives of the general public. MCL 333.17721; MSA 14.15(17721), MCL 333.16135; MSA 14.15(16135)..
Before any substance is added to, deleted from, or reclassified among the schedules, the board must consider each of eight factors:
"(a) The actual or relative potential for abuse.
"(b) The scientific evidence of its pharmacological effect, if known.
"(c) The state of current scientific knowledge regarding the substance.
"(d) The history and current pattern of abuse.
"(e) The scope, duration, and significance of abuse.
"(f) The risk to the public health.
"(g) The potential of the substance to produce psychic or physiological dependence liability.
"(h) Whether the substance is an immediate precursor of a substance already controlled under this article.” MCL 333.7202; MSA 14.15(7202).
In order to assist consideration of each factor, the statute also establishes a scientific advisory commission. MCL 333.7206; MSA 14.15(7206). The seven-member commission consists of two physicians, two pharmacists, the chief of the crime detection laboratory of the Department of Public Health, the director of mental health, and the director of state police. The board must receive this commission’s recommendation, although it is not bound by its suggestions.
With regard to each schedule, the board may include a substance on a specific schedule only after the board finds it to possess certain characteristics. For example, a substance may be placed on schedule 3 only if the board finds all of the following:
"(a) The substance has a potential for abuse less than the substances listed in schedules 1 and 2.
"(b) The substance has currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
"(c) Abuse of the substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.” MCL 333.7215; MSA .14.15(7215).
These provisions clearly provide a proper framework to guide and direct agency action. The legislative policy expressed in the statute is apparent: controlled substance offenses are to be graduated in severity according to the dangerousness of the drug involved and its potential for abuse. Classification of the substances is placed in an agency with the technical expertise to make the necessary factual evaluation, and access to relevant information is provided. Numerous guidelines direct the board’s evaluation. These provisions insure that the legislative policy expressed in the act will be given effect and substance through the agency’s factual evaluation.
Given the Legislature’s clearly articulated policy, we must reject the defendant’s argument that the statutory provisions "leave the final scheduling conclusion to a policy determination” by the Board of Pharmacy. In this statutory scheme, the agency makes factual findings regarding abuse potential and potency of drugs, compares these factual findings to the scheduling criteria established by the Legislature, and thereby locates the appropriate classification of the substance. Thus, the Board of Pharmacy functions as a factfinder; the Legislature retains the policy-making control.
Addressing the second principle, the defendant concedes that "[t]he standards, in and of themselves, appear as reasonably precise as the subject matter of the legislation requires or permits”. We agree. Our previous examination of the statute revealed that the Legislature provided clear, detailed standards to guide agency action and to facilitate judicial review. Further, we note that the rapid rate at which new drugs are developed and introduced and the incredible ingenuity exhibited in the discovery of novel methods to abuse drugs necessitates a measure of flexibility in the area of drug regulation. See State v Kellogg; 98 Idaho 541, 543-544; 568 P2d 514 (1977); State v Sargent, 252 Or 579; 449 P2d 845 (1969).
Additionally, inclusion of the Administrative Procedures Act provisions as mandatory procedures to be followed in the board’s rulemaking further insures against possible abuse of delegated power by the Board of Pharmacy. MCL 333.7201; MSA 14.15(7201).
Therefore, consonant with the third principle of preferring a valid to an invalid result, we conclude that the delegation of authority to the Board of Pharmacy is valid and constitutes neither an unconstitutional delegation of authority nor allows the board to act in an arbitrary or discriminatory manner.
C. Delegation of the Power to Create Criminal Offenses
Defendant also argues that regardless how stringent the standards set by the Legislature, this delegation of power must fail. According to defendant, the creation of crimes, and more specifically of felony offenses, is an inherently legislative task which may not be delegated.
As a threshold matter, we recognize that some legislative powers are simply not delegable. Though not specifically mandated by any constitutional provision, this prohibition arises from the basic structure of the government. Certain powers of the legislative branch require exercise by the Senate or the House of Representatives, or both, in order for their purposes to be served. For example, Const 1963, art 11, § 7 grants to the House of Representatives the power to impeach civil officers and to prosecute the impeachment. For the House to assign this impeachment power to a commission or agency would violate the spirit and the principle of art 11, § 7. Here, the nature of the function within the constitutional framework of the government precludes delegation.
However, the complexities of modern government necessitate that today many facets of traditionally "legislative” power be exercised by administrative agencies. Provided that sufficient standards and safeguards, as discussed above, are provided to circumscribe the agencies’ use of legislative power, thereby insuring effectuation of legislatively declared policies and a means to "check” agency action, such delegation of legislative power has been sanctioned repeatedly by this and other courts. See 1 Davis, Administrative Law, § 2.10, p 113, and § 2.04, p 30 (1976 Supp).
Defendant correctly notes, and we agree, that the creation of crimes is an inherently legislative task. See United States v Wiltberger, 18 US (5 Wheat) 76, 95; 5 L Ed 37 (1820); 21 Am Jur 2d, Criminal Law, § 11, p 124; 1 Wharton, Criminal Law (C. Torcia ed), § 10, pp 31-32. As stated in People v Hanrahan, 75 Mich 611, 619; 42 NW 1124 (1889):
"To declare what shall constitute a crime, and how it shall be punished, is an exercise of the sovereign power of a state, and is inherent in the legislative department of the government.”
However, the standard of review of legislative delegation does not differ when the statute involves criminal sanctions. The Legislature is not precluded from including penal sanctions in a statute which declares a legislative policy, articulates guidelines to effectuate the policy, and authorizes an executive agency to implement its purpose.
Review of this Court’s cases which scrutinized the Legislature’s delegation of power to create crimes reveals that such delegation has been permitted if sufficient safeguards protect the public from arbitrary and capricious abuses of delegated discretion.
In Senate of the Happy Homes Club of America v Alpena Board of Supervisors, 99 Mich 117; 57 NW 1101 (1894), the Court held unconstitutional a legislative scheme whereby persons arrested for drunkenness would be acquitted upon completion of a private alcohol rehabilitation program. Since each private program could enforce its own rules— as stringent or as lenient as it chose — and compliance with these varying rules automatically resulted in acquittal, the Court found that the Legislature had delegated to private corporations the power to acquit criminals, and thus to enact criminal law. This complete abdication of the legislative role and failure to insure any degree of accountability in the creation of crimes was held unconstitutional.
On the other hand, statutory arrangements in which the Legislature provides regulatory guidelines for a subject area and prescribes penalties for violations of rules to be promulgated by an agency placed in charge of the regulatory activity have been approved by the Court. Thus, in People v Soule, 238 Mich 130; 213 NW 195 (1927), the Court reviewed an act which gave the commission of conservation the power to declare open season for birds, fish, and fur-bearing animals. The Legislature had declared that the commission was to regulate the wildlife of the state. Procedures were set forth to promulgate the rules, and penalties (including incarceration) were established for violation of properly promulgated rules. The Court found that this delegation of rulemaking power with attached criminal penalties included sufficient safeguards to avoid a separation of powers challenge. Pragmatically, the Court recognized that management of the state’s natural resources required consideration of voluminous data; practical necessity dictated that evaluation of these facts should be left to an executive agency with considerable expertise. This Court concluded: "Where the statute provides a punishment for violating the regulations or orders of a commission, the power to create a crime is not delegated to the commission.” Id., 139. Therefore, the fact that the agency’s rulemaking could have direct penal consequences did not invalidate the delegation of authority. See also Westervelt v Natural Resources Comm, 402 Mich 412; 263 NW2d 564 (1978); Dep’t of Natural Resources v Seaman, supra.
These cases indicate that the power to define crimes, unlike some legislative powers, need not be exercised exclusively and completely by the Legislature. Provided sufficient standards and safeguards are included in the statutory scheme, delegation to an executive agency is appropriate, and often necessary, for the effectuation of legislative powers.
Clearly, the controlled substances act is premised on a legislative design similar to that employed in Soule. The Legislature formulated a comprehensive group of crimes dealing with controlled substances. An index of drugs adjudged dangerous or harmful was compiled, and the drugs were graduated according to potential for abuse. Penalties, including fines and incarceration, were coordinated to reflect the gravity of the offense and the seriousnesss of the controlled substance involved. Finally, the Board of Pharmacy, an eight-member board consisting of six pharmacists and two public members, was given the strictly controlled authority to modify the controlled substances schedule to insure that it reflect current developments in the drug industry.
Defendant correctly notes, however, that while the regulatory scheme approved in Westervelt, Soule, and Seaman, supra, included only misdemeanor-level crimes, the controlled substances act creates felonies. While it is true that more serious consequences flow from a felony conviction under the controlled substances act, we find no meaningful distinction between the delegation of power to make rules regarding misdemeanor offenses and the delegation of rulemaking relative to felony offenses. The severity of the penalty does not destroy the accountability of the Legislature nor the safeguards provided to protect the public. Therefore, the Legislature has not unconstitutionally delegated a nondelegable power.
III. Failure to Comply With Statute
Although defendant raises various challenges to the Legislature’s delegation to the Board of Pharmacy, the main focus of the defendant’s challenge is upon the statutory scheme itself, not upon the recipient agency’s exercise of that power. Nonetheless, defendant does briefly argue that the board abused its delegated authority by failing to adopt the federal classification.
The federal government scheduled pentazocine as a schedule IV drug on February 19, 1979. 21 CFR 1308.14(f). The Board of Pharmacy promul gated 1979 AC, R 338.3120, designating pentazocine as a schedule 3 drug on April 25, 1979. Defendant argues that § 7204 of the controlled substances act directs the board to "similarly control” a substance once it receives notice of the federal agency’s action. According to defendant, the board’s failure to schedule pentazocine as a schedule 4 drug is an unlawful act.
However, this argument misperceives the authority delegated in this statute. Section 7204 in its entirety reads:
"If a substance is designated, rescheduled, or deleted as a controlled substance under federal law and notice thereof is given to the administrator, the administrator shall similarly control the substance under this article after the expiration of 30 days following publication in the federal register of a final order designating a substance as a controlled substance or rescheduling or deleting a substance, unless within that 30-day period, the administrator objects to inclusion, rescheduling, or deletion. In that case, the administrator shall publish the reasons for objection and afford all interested parties an opportunity to be heard. At the conclusion of the hearing, the administrator shall publish a decision, which shall be final unless altered by statute. Upon publication of the objection to inclusion, rescheduling, or deletion under this article by the administrator, control under this article is stayed until the administrator publishes the decision.” (Emphasis added.) MCL 333.7204; MSA 14.15(7204).
Thus, this statute vests the board with discretion —once the federal government schedules a drug and brings it to the state board’s attention, the state agency must take some action regarding the drug. The board may either mirror the federal scheduling or object to that action and provide a hearing for an alternate disposition. Therefore, the Board of Pharmacy is not directed to automati cally incorporate the federal action into the Michigan controlled substances act.
In fact, three state supreme courts have ruled that provisions requiring automatic incorporation of federal substance classifications represent an unconstitutional delegation of state legislative authority to a federal agency. See State v Rodriguez, 379 So 2d 1084 (La, 1980); State v Johnson, 84 SD 556; 173 NW2d 894 (1970); State v Grinstead, 157 W Va 1001; 206 SE2d 912 (1974).
We find therefore that § 7204 does not require the board to adopt the federal agency’s decision to classify pentazocine as a schedule 4 substance.
IV. Sufficiency of Notice
Finally, defendant argues that his Fourteenth Amendment rights to due process protection have been violated regarding the notice aspects of this act. Defendant expands on two areas: first, he argues that the state’s "system [of] post-act administrative amendments” to the controlled substances act deprived him of fair notice that possession of pentazocine was a criminal offense. Second, defendant asserts that the board’s failure to comply with the requirement of Const 1963, art 4, § 25 that amended statutes be re-enacted and published at length represents an independent violation of the constitution which also deprived him of notice of the statute. We are unpersuaded by either of these arguments.
A. Notice
Unquestionably, due process requires that defendant be apprised of conduct which a criminal statute prohibits. The parameters of notice requirements of criminal statutes are often explored in the context of challenges for vagueness. In one such challenge, this Court quoted with approval United States v Harriss, 347 US 612, 617; 74 S Ct 808; 98 L Ed 989 (1954):
" 'The constitutional requirement of definiteness is violated by a criminal statute that fails to give a person of ordinary intelligence fair notice that his contemplated conduct is forbidden by the statute. The underlying principle is that no man shall be held criminally responsible for conduct which he could not reasonably understand to be proscribed.’ ”
People v Dempster, 396 Mich 700, 714-715; 242 NW2d 381 (1976). See also People v Abate, 105 Mich App 274, 282; 306 NW2d 476 (1981).
Of course, vagueness challenges are usually directed at the notice provided by the actual language of the statute. In the present case, defendant argues that the notice deficiency arises from the form of publication of the agency’s rule. In either situation the underlying concern is the same: "No man shall be held criminally responsible for conduct which he could not reasonably understand to be proscribed”.
The controlled substances act contains various provisions regarding notice. First, the act incorporates the procedures set forth in the Administrative Procedures Act. MCL 333.7201; MSA 14.15(7201). That act requires that all rules promulgated by an agency shall be filed with the Secretary of State, MCL 24.246(1); MSA 3.560(146)(1), and that the Secretary of State, "as often as he deems it advisable”, shall publish the rules in a supplement to the Michigan Administrative Code. MCL 24.246(3); MSA 3.560(146)(3).
Second, the act directs:
"The administrator shall notify all registrants under this article, the secretary of the senate, the clerk of the house of representatives, the attorney general, and the director of the department of state police of any change in scheduling or rescheduling not later than 30 days before the change is effective.” MCL 333.7231; MSA 14.15(7231).
Pursuant to these provisions, 1979 AC, R 338.3120, which classified pentazocine as a schedule 3 substance, was published in the Michigan Administrative Code’s Quarterly Supplement, No. 99, p 92. The supplement was issued on August 14, 1979.
We must therefore inquire whether these statutory provisions as applied to these facts provided "a person of ordinary intelligence fair notice that his contemplated conduct is forbidden by the statute”.
Initially we note the time honored maxim that ignorance of the law is no excuse. 4 Blackstone, Commentaries, p 27. However, it would be unreasonable to presume this knowledge if access to the statute is unavailable.
In the present case, the rule in question was published in a supplement to the Michigan Administrative Code fully a year before defendant was arrested for possession of the drug. We do not find it unreasonable to expect the people of this state to acquire familiarity with its laws through reference to a compilation published by the state. Reference to the controlled substances act would lead the reader to conclude that the schedules are continually being modified by the Board of Pharmacy and that the agency’s supplementation should be sought elsewhere. Accord, Montoya v O’Toole, 94 NM 303, 305; 610 P2d 190 (1980).
Therefore, we find the notice provisions sufficient to satisfy due process requirements.
B. Re-Enact — Publish Clause
Finally, defendant contends that he was denied notice that his conduct was prohibited by the Legislature’s failure to republish or re-enact MCL 333.7216; MSA 14.15(7216) after amendment by the Board of Pharmacy. Defendant relies on Const 1963, art 4, § 25 which provides:
"No law shall be revised, altered or amended by reference to its title only. The section or sections of the act altered or amended shall be re-enacted and published at length.”
This Court examined the plain meaning and purpose of article 4, § 25 at length in Advisory Opinion re Constitutionality of 1972 PA 294, 389 Mich 441; 208 NW2d 469 (1973). The Court concluded:
"The language of § 25 is quite clear. It says succinctly and straightforwardly that no law (meaning statutory enactment) shall be revised, altered or amended by reference to its title only. * * *
"There are only two sentences in § 25. Although the second word is 'law’, it is obvious from the reading of the entire section that 'law’ means act or section of an act.” (Emphasis added.) Id., p 470.
Clearly, the action of the Board of Pharmacy may not be labeled a "statutory enactment”; it is a statutorily authorized agency promulgated rule. As such, 1979 AC, R 338.3120 falls outside the ambit of art 4, § 25.
Additionally, we note that the underlying problem which prompted the inclusion of art 4, § 25 in the constitution has been avoided with the rule’s promulgation. Advisory Opinion explained the purpose of art 4, § 25:
"Section 25 is worded to prevent the revising, altering or amending of an act by merely referring to the title of the act and printing the amendatory language then under consideration. If such a revision, alteration or amendment were allowed, the public and the Legislature would not be given notice and would not be able to observe readily the extent and effect of such revision, alteration or amendment.” 389 Mich 470.
When published in the administrative code, pentazocine was not presented in isolation with a bare reference to the controlled substances act. Rather, the code supplement set forth the entire list of schedule 3 substances, with pentazocine included. Thus, notice of "the extent and effect of such revision, alteration or amendment” was presented clearly and intelligibly.
V. Conclusion
Therefore, having reviewed the challenged sections of the controlled substances act and the act in its entirety, we hold that the Legislature’s delegation to the Board of Pharmacy of the authority to schedule controlled substances in accordance with detailed criteria is not an unlawful delegation of power. Sufficient standards and safe guards are included in the statute to satisfy the requirements of both the separation of powers doctrine and due process.
Additionally, publication of the rule in the administrative code provided sufficient notice that defendant’s conduct was proscribed. Also, the board’s promulgation of rules does not fall within the strictures of Const 1963, art 4, § 25.
Finally, the Board of Pharmacy did not abuse its discretion in classifying pentazocine as a schedule 3 substance.
The decision of the Court of Appeals is therefore reversed.
Levin, Ryan, Brickley, Cavanagh, and Boyle, JJ., concurred with Williams, C.J.
This act closely resembles the federal narcotic and dangerous drug law, 21 USC 801-904. The federal law in turn served as the pattern for the Uniform Controlled Substances Act which has been adopted with minor variations in 46 states as well as Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia. Uniform Controlled Substances Act, 9 ULA, p 78 (1983 Supp).
1979 AC, R 338.3120(2)(a) reads:
“(2) Unless specifically excepted or unless listed in another schedule, a material, compound, mixture, or preparation that contains any quantity of the following substances having a depressant effect on the central nervous system, including its salts, isomers (whether optical, position, or geometric), and the salts of such isomers, whenever the existence of such salts, isomers, and the salts of isomers is possible within the specific chemical designation, is included in schedule 3:
"(a) Chlorhexadol
Glutethimide
Lysergic acid
Lysergic acid amide
Methyprylon
Pentazocine
Sulfondiethylmethane
Sulfonethylmethane
Sulfonmethane”.
In holding the delegation provision unconstitutional, the Turmon panel expressly rejected the holding of an earlier panel, People v Uriel, 76 Mich App 102; 255 NW2d 788 (1977), approving constitutionality. Subsequently, two panels have rejected the holding in Turmon. See People v O’Neal, 122 Mich App 370; 333 NW2d 56 (1983); People v Berry, 123 Mich App 237; 333 NW2d 234 (1983).
This is clearly the majority position among the 25 states which have addressed the delegation issue of similar controlled substances acts. Nineteen states have found the act constitutional; 16 of these decisions were rendered by the states’ highest appellate courts. Ex parte McCurley, 390 So 2d 25 (Ala, 1980); Curry v State, 279 Ark 153; 649 SW2d 833 (1983); Cilento v State, 377 So 2d 663 (Fla, 1979); Ward v State, 248 Ga 60; 281 SE2d 503 (1981); State v Kellogg, 98 Idaho 541; 568 P2d 514 (1977); People v Avery, 67 Ill 2d 182; 367 NE2d 79 (1977); Hohnke v Commonwealth, 451 SW2d 162 (Ky, 1970); State v Boyajian, 344 A2d 410 (Me, 1975); State v King, 257 NW2d 693 (Minn, 1977); State v Thompson, 627 SW2d 298 (Mo, 1982); Montoya v O’Toole, 94 NM 303; 610 P2d 190 (1980); People v Einhorn, 75 Misc 2d 183; 346 NYS2d 986 (1973); State v Lisk, 21 NC App 474; 204 SE2d 868 (1974); State v Brown, 576 P2d 776 (Okla Crim App, 1978); State v Sargent, 252 Or 579; 449 P2d 845 (1969); State v Peloquin, — RI —; 427 A2d 1327 (1981); State v Edwards, 572 SW2d 917 (Tenn, 1978); Threlkeld v State, 558 SW2d 472 (Tex Crim App, 1977); State ex rel Scott v Conaty, 155 W Va 718; 187 SE2d 119 (1972), overruled in part by State v Grinstead, 157 W Va 1001; 206 SE2d 912 (1974).
We note that six states’ highest appellate courts have found the act unconstitutional. State v Rodriguez, 379 So 2d 1084 (La, 1980), Howell v State, 300 So 2d 774 (Miss, 1974), State v Krego, 70 Ohio Misc 14; 433 NE2d 1298 (1981), State v Johnson, 84 SD 556; 173 NW2d 894 (1970), State v Gallion, 572 P2d 683 (Utah, 1977), and In re Powell, 92 Wash 2d 882; 602 P2d 711 (1979).
However, the statutes under review in two of the cases (Rodriguez, supra, and Johnson, supra) included provisions for automatic inclusion of any federally scheduled drug. See also State v Grinstead, supra. This provision, which is not included in the Michigan statute, served as the basis for the court’s ruling.
The federal courts have displayed even more vigor in upholding the similar federal statute. See 47 ALR Fed 869.
We note that People v Hanrahan, supra, cited by both parties, is not dispositive of the issue at hand. In Hanrahan, this Court upheld a municipal ordinance which criminalized keeping houses of prostitution. The city’s legislatively granted charter specifically designated this power to the common council, a duly elected legislative body. The Court found that Const 1850, art 4, § 38 authorized the Legislature to delegate legislative power regarding local concerns to townships, cities, and villages.
In contrast, the present case addresses the Legislature’s delegation of power to an executive agency.
Both the federal and Michigan acts include the same scheduling criteria for the five schedules. For example, 21 USC 812(b)(3) states that the required findings for a schedule III substance are:
"(A) The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II.
"(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.
"(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.” MCL 333.7215; MSA 14.15(7215) lists the same criteria.
While not the "focal point” or "thrust” of his due process argument, defendant also objects to the fact that this criminal offense is located in the public health section of the compiled laws rather than the criminal code and that the substances are not listed by their "commercial or generic” names.
However, it is not unreasonable to expect the public to utilize the index to the statutes to locate the controlled substances act. Nor do we take objection to the omission of trade names in the statute; this information is available by reference to the Physician’s Desk Reference or a call to a local pharmacist. | [
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Leave to appeal denied.
Reconsideration denied February 28, 1984.
Kavanagh and Levin, JJ., would grant reconsideration. | [
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Kavanagh, J.
This case concerns the question of whether the liability of the Second Injury Fund for workers’ compensation benefits is "derivative” from the liability of an employer and whether the fund may dispute its liability for basic and differential benefits in a case wherein the employer has stipulated to or agreed with the employee’s entitlement to compensation for a prior loss.
We hold the Court of Appeals was correct in remanding this case to the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board and accordingly affirm its decision.
On June 25, 1976, following a hearing, plaintiff was awarded compensation for the loss of industrial use of his left leg in an August, 1973, work-related accident. It was stipulated that defendant’s responsibility did not extend beyond payment for the 215 weeks of scheduled loss benefits. The employer and insurer did not appeal from what is referred to as a "stipulation award”.
On July 28, 1976, plaintiff filed a petition seeking benefits for total and permanent disability. Plaintiff alleged the loss of industrial use of the left leg preceded by the loss of an eye. At a hearing held on August 26, 1977, plaintiff testified that he had had the lenses removed from his left and right eyes in August 1970 and January 1974. Medical testimony was received from Dr. Lawrence Hoffman on behalf of the Second Injury Fund and from Dr. Lawrence Stocker on behalf of the plaintiff. Dr. Stocker, an opthalmologist, testified that he began treating plaintiff in December 1967, and on August 18, 1970, performed a cataract extraction of the natural lens of the left eye. On January 29, 1974, a similar operation was performed on plaintiffs right eye. The operations left plaintiff with only "protective vision”, i.e., vision which would enable plaintiff to see the outlines of objects but not to read, drive a car, etc. Following each surgical operation, plaintiff was fitted with a contact lens which returned his vision in the affected eye to 20/20 or better. Dr. Stocker believed that plaintiffs contact lenses might cause him difficulty in a dusty environment, and that pain might also interfere with the wearing of the lenses.
Dr. Hoffman, also an opthalmologist, examined plaintiff on March 9, 1977, at the request of the Second Injury Fund. Dr. Hoffman testified that plaintiff’s corrected vision was 20/30+ in the right eye and 20/20— in the left eye. Uncorrected vision was 20/200 in both eyes.
On the basis of the above evidence, the hearing referee issued a decision on December 13, 1977, finding total and permanent disability and assigning liability to the Second Injury Fund, specifying that plaintiff "had a permanent disability in the form of the loss of his left eye as of 8/18/70, and, subsequently, on 7/1/74, lost the industrial use of his left leg as a result of the injury of 8/13/73”.
The Second Injury Fund appealed. At oral argument on January 4, 1979, defendant Cadillac Gage agreed with plaintiff as to the claimant’s prior eye loss. The WCAB found that this admission and the stipulation of loss of leg were binding on the Second Injury Fund.
The Second Injury Fund appealed to the Court of Appeals. In a published opinion released November 19, 1980, the Court reversed and remanded to allow the WCAB to address the merits of the appeal. Clark v Cadillac Gage, 101 Mich App 513; 300 NW2d 622 (1980).
In finding the Second Injury Fund bound by the employer’s admission of eye loss and stipulation of leg loss, the appeal board relied upon White v Weinberger Builders, Inc, 397 Mich 23; 242 NW2d 427 (1976). In White, the employees’ claims for compensation benefits were disputed by their employers, and in each case the employer’s liability was terminated by a redemption agreement and lump-sum settlement. The redemption was made without admitting liability. Each claimant in White subsequently petitioned the Second Injury Fund seeking differential benefits under MCL 418.521(2); MSA 17.237(521X2). The fund denied liability on the basis that the liability of the employers had not been admitted or adjudicated at a hearing. The Court of Appeals and this Court agreed, holding that establishment of employer liability was a prerequisite to Second Injury Fund liability. Both opinions contained language indicating that the fund’s liability was derivative of that of the employer.
White "binds the fund to the stipulation and admission entered into by the defendant employer” in the appeal board’s opinion. The Court of Appeals disagreed with this analysis:
"We do not believe White is controlling in the present case, which does not involve the differential benefits provision of the act. Derivative liability and a passive role for the Second Injury Fund make sense where the employer and its insurer have a sufficient stake in the outcome of the case to resist a dubious claim. The instant case does not present such a situation since only the Second Injury Fund would have been required to pay benefits for total and permanent disability if plaintiff prevailed. By admitting that plaintiff had a preexisting disabling eye injury, the employer did not render itself 'liable’ for any additional benefits.” 101 Mich App 516.
Plaintiff argues that the above decision is erroneous in several respects. First, the fund’s liability is always derivative of the employer’s liability, and the fund may not relitigate issues determined between the employee and the employer or carrier.
The Second Injury Fund responds that the Court of Appeals correctly found White inapplicable because White did not involve a stipulation by the employer or the fund’s assumption of liability for basic compensation.
We recognize the distinction between "basic compensation” and "differential benefits” which the Court of Appeals used to explain its decision distinguishing this case from White. We base our agreement with their conclusion on other grounds, however.
Because White involved a redemption of employer liability prior to the assertion of a claim against the Second Injury Fund it does not control disposition of this case wherein no redemption is involved.
We are now persuaded that the language approved in White — "liability of the Second Injury Fund is derivative from that of the employer” and "a prior determination of employer liability” must be limited to that case only.
The phrase "derivative from” refers to a source. The liability of the fund "derives” from the statute as does the liability of the employer. The fact that the statute provides fund liability only under circumstances wherein it provides employer liability does not convert employer liability into the source of the fund’s liability. The only source of liability is the statute.
Likewise unless we be concerned only with procedural regulation, in giving effect to the statute, the phrase "prior determination of employer liability” should be read "determination of (prior) employer liability”, for the statute provides fund liability without regard to time but only to the circumstance of employer liability.
The time when such determination is made, apart from a matter of procedure, should make no difference. The statute provides fund liability only under circumstances giving rise to employer liability.
Here there was a determination of liability by the referee upon the evidence adduced at a hearing. The correctness of that determination was properly subject to review by the appeal board. The board’s acceptance of the employer’s "stipulation” or "agreement” to the prior eye injury suggests that it did not consider the sufficiency of the other evidence because of the stipulation. The fund was entitled to the appeal board’s ruling on the adequacy of the evidence despite the stipulation.
For this reason the Court of Appeals remand to the WCAB was in order.
Affirmed.
Fitzgerald, C.J., and Williams and Levin, JJ., concurred with Kavanagh, J.
MCL 418.521(1); MSA 17.237(521)(1) provides:
"If an employee has a permanent disability in the form of the loss of a hand, arm, foot, leg or eye and subsequently has an injury arising out of and in the course of his employment which results in another permanent disability in the form of the loss of a hand, arm, foot, leg or eye, at the conclusion of payments made for the second permanent disability he shall be conclusively presumed to be totally and permanently disabled and paid compensation for total and permanent disability after subtracting the number of weeks of compensation received by the employee for both such losses. The payment of compensation under this section shall be made by the second injury fund, and shall begin at the conclusion of the payments for the second permanent disability.” | [
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Cavanagh, J.
Defendant Coles, an 18-year-old with no prior record, was convicted by a. jury of armed robbery and sentenced to a term in prison of 15 to 25 years. His conviction and sentence were affirmed by the Court of Appeals.
Defendant Waits was convicted by a jury of delivery of heroin and sentenced to a term in prison of 13 to 20 years. Defendant Waits’ prior record consists of several misdemeanor convictions and a 12-year-old felony conviction of attempted larceny from an automobile. His conviction and sentence were affirmed by the Court of Appeals.
Defendant Gonzales, a 19-year-old, pled guilty as charged to armed robbery and was sentenced to a term of 15 to 40 years in prison. Defendant Gonzales admitted to having been convicted of a prior felony, although the record is unclear regarding whether he was a juvenile at that time. His presentence report indicates that his juvenile record was extensive. The Court of Appeals affirmed his conviction and sentence.
We granted leave to appeal in the three cases and directed the parties to include among the issues to' be briefed whether this Court should adopt, implement, and apply a procedure for appellate review of criminal sentences and, if necessary, reconsider this Court’s decision in Cummins v People, 42 Mich 142; 3 NW 305 (1879).
I. Appellate Review of Sentencing
A. History of Appellate Review of Sentencing in This State.
The source of the Michigan rule regarding appellate review of sentencing apparently dates back to the 1879 case of Cummins v People. In Cummins, the defendant was convicted of breaking and entering an occupied dwelling and stealing a bottle of sherry and an unspecified quantity of cigars. Defendant was sentenced to a term of seven years in prison and argued on appeal that his sentence constituted cruel or unusual punishment. This Court held that:
"The sentence was not in excess of that permitted by statute, and when within the statute, this court has no supervisory control over the punishment that shall be inflicted. The statute gives a wide discretionary power to the trial court upon the supposition that it will be judicially exercised in view of all the facts and circumstances appearing on the trial.” (Emphasis added.)
It is apparent from the above-quoted holding in Cummins that this Court did not establish a rule which precluded appellate courts from reviewing a sentence imposed upon a convicted defendant; rather, the Court merely established that the scope of review was to be a narrow one. The intended result of Cummins was that if an appellate court reviewed a sentence and found it to fall within the statutory limits, the court would be precluded from providing any relief to the defendant with respect to altering the punishment imposed by the trial court. The decision in Cummins did not preclude appellate review of a convicted defendant’s sentence because only after such review could it be determined whether the trial court judicially exercised its discretion in imposing a sentence within the statutory limitations or even whether the court imposed a sentence that was illegal and subject to appellate relief.
Unfortunately, the decision in Cummins provided no clear standard regarding the scope of appellate review of sentences imposed within statutory limitations. Although the Cummins holding appears to stand for the proposition that there should be no appellate review of sentences imposed within statutory limits, this Court has regularly entertained arguments from convicted defendants who allege that a particular sentence, imposed within the statutory limit, constitutes cruel or unusual punishment in violation of the state constitution. Such review is necessary because the judicial premise that the length of imprisonment for a felony is for the Legislature to determine cannot be taken as absolute; statutory sentences must be subject to judicial review in order to ensure that the constitutional prohibition against cruel or unusual punishment is not violated.
This Court, in People v Lorentzen, 387 Mich 167; 194 NW2d 827 (1972), examined prior Michigan case law dealing with the issue of appellate review of sentences alleged to constitute cruel or unusual punishment. The Court concluded that the dominant test to be used in reviewing whether a sentence constitutes cruel or unusual punishment is whether the punishment is so excessive that it is completely unsuitable to the crime. In addition to examining this test of the proportionality of the sentence imposed to the offense committed, the Court looked to comparative law from other states in order to determine what punishment is considered appropriate for a given offense. Under this test, the definition of cruel or unusual punishment becomes a flexible one, changing with the evolving standards of decency as expressed by similar penal statutes. Finally, the Court also concluded that a punishment may be considered unconstitutionally cruel or unusual if it thwarts the rehabilitative potential of the individual offender and does not contribute toward society’s efforts to deter others from engaging in similar prohibited behavior. On the basis of these three tests, this Court concluded in Lorentzen that the statute pertaining to the sale of marijuana violated the prohibition against cruel or unusual punishment, and the defendant’s sentence was vacated.
Although there is a long line of cases which indicates this Court’s unwillingness to review sentences which are within legal limits, appellate review of sentences historically has encompassed more than the limited considerations whether the sentence imposed was within the statutory limits and whether it constituted cruel or unusual punishment in violation of the constitution. This Court has granted relief to a defendant whose sentence did not include the appropriate credit for time served, whose sentence violated public policy, and whose sentence was not based upon the offense for which the defendant had been convicted.
In recent years, the scope of review of sentences has become broader. Sentences have been vacated when imposed as punishment for exercising the right to trial instead of pleading guilty or for waiting until the day of trial to plead guilty, or when imposed by the trial court under the assumption that the defendant was guilty of a crime of which he had not been convicted or in consideration of a previous conviction which was invalid. In addition, this Court held in People v Tanner, 387 Mich 683; 199 NW2d 202 (1972), that a sentence imposed under the indeterminate sentence act may not include a minimum term which exceeds two-thirds of the maximum term. Defen dants are to receive an updated, accurate presentence report, and the trial court’s failure to provide such a report and rely on it may require resentencing. A sentence reflecting undue emphasis on revenge or one imposed pursuant to a local sentencing policy which removes the trial court’s discretion to individualize sentences is infirm. Defendants are also guaranteed the right of allocution prior to being sentenced and must be resentenced if this right is violated.
It is thus clear that appellate review of sentences to date has included both the procedural consideration of how the defendant was sentenced as well as a consideration of whether the substance of the sentence was statutorily or constitutionally permissible. What is now at issue is whether we should more clearly expand the scope of appellate review to include a review of the trial court’s exercise of discretion in sentencing a defendant when the sentence falls within statutory limits which do not constitute cruel or unusual punishment, when the sentence does not violate the rule established in Tanner, supra, when the trial court has not relied upon impermissible considerations, and when the court rules relating to sentencing procedures were properly followed. The prosecutors argue that this Court has no authority to expand the scope of appellate review of sentences into the area of the exercise of the trial court’s discretion and that there is no need for such an expansion because the present scope of judicial and executive review of sentencing adequately protects a defendant’s rights. Defendants respond by arguing that not only does this Court have the authority to expand the scope of appellate review of sentences but that the need for such expansion is compelling and the time has come for this Court to take such a step.
B. Authority of This Court to Engage in Appellate Review of Sentencing.
The prosecutors in these cases assert that this Court does not have the authority to institute, by case law, appellate review of sentences. As we have noted, and the prosecutors have agreed, some form of review of sentencing already exists. Indeed, the prosecutors rely on the existence of limited review of sentences to demonstrate that a defendant’s rights are adequately protected. However, since the authority of this Court has been questioned, it is beneficial to examine the sources of judicial power regarding the sentencing process.
Although mindful of the fact that Const 1963, art 6, § 5 gives this Court the power to promulgate and implement rules of practice and procedure for Michigan courts, it is argued that, except where there are constitutional provisions otherwise, the right to an appeal is strictly a matter of legislative prerogative, and it is solely within the Legislature’s province to determine in what cases, under what circumstances, and from what courts, appeals may be taken. Moore v Spangler, 401 Mich 360, 368-369; 258 NW2d 34 (1977); Chicago, D & C G T J R Co v Simons, 210 Mich 418, 420; 178 NW 12 (1920). The jurisdiction of a court to entertain an appeal in a certain matter is thus established by the constitution or by statute, and this Court may not, by rule or otherwise, enlarge or diminish such jurisdiction.
While it is argued that no constitutional or statutory authority vests this Court with jurisdiction to engage in appellate review of sentencing, the defendants point out that no constitutional or statutory provision exists which limits the review power of this Court or precludes it from passing upon the propriety of sentences imposed by trial courts. In addition, the defendants assert that the constitutional right to an appeal in a criminal case includes the right to sentence review.
This Court’s general review power is grounded in Const 1963, art 6, § 4, which provides in part:
"The supreme court shall have general superintending control over all courts; power to issue, hear and determine prerogative and remedial writs; and appellate jurisdiction as provided by rules of the supreme court.”
The judicial power of this Court has been further defined in MCL 600.212-600.223; MSA 27A.212-27A.223, which, inter alia, grant appellate jurisdiction over any matter or question of law brought before the Court in an authorized manner and grant the Court the power to promulgate and amend general court rules governing the practices and procedures in all courts of record. These rules may include practices and procedures for the method of review of decisions from inferior tribunals. Furthermore, this Court has defined its authority, as permitted by the foregoing constitutional and statutory provisions, to include the power to:
"Give any judgment and make any order which ought to have been given or made, and make such other and further orders and grant such relief as the case may require.” GCR 1963, 865.1(7).
Thus, it is clear that this Court has a broad jurisdiction and far-reaching powers in the area of appellate review.
Jurisdiction in the Court of Appeals is conferred by statute, although this Court prescribes the rules of practice and procedure in that Court. MCL 600.308; MSA 27A.308 confers jurisdiction upon the Court of Appeals to entertain appeals from, inter alia:
"[l](a) All final judgments from the circuit court, court of claims, and recorder’s court * * *.
"[2](d) Such other judgments or interlocutory orders as the supreme court may by rule determine.”
We conclude that a sentence following a conviction is as much a part of the final judgment of the trial court as is the conviction itself. Since the Court of Appeals has jurisdiction to hear appeals from final judgments of trial courts, whether the appeal be one to which a defendant is absolutely entitled or one in which a defendant must apply for leave to appeal, the Court of Appeals has jurisdiction to hear appeals involving a review of a defendant’s sentence. We find no sound reason for interpreting the applicable constitutional and statutory provisions as carving out an exception to the right of appeal regarding sentencing matters. None of those relevant provisions limit the particular issues subject to appellate review. We therefore conclude that the foregoing constitutional and statutory authority vest appellate courts with the jurisdiction to review all sentencing issues.
The foregoing analysis applies not only to the appellate jurisdiction of the Court of Appeals, but also to that of the circuit court and of this Court. To the extent that the decision in Cummins, supra, is read to hold that an appellate court does not have the authority to review a convicted defendant’s sentence, we disavow such a conclusion.
However, an appellate court’s authority to consider appeals involving sentencing issues and that court’s authority to resentence the defendant on appeal are two separate matters. If the court determines that resentencing is necessary, the case must be remanded to the trial court. The appellate court may direct that the defendant be resentenced by a different judge if the court determines that is warranted by the circumstances.
We reach this conclusion for two principal reasons. First, the Legislature has indicated its intention to confer upon the trial courts alone the power to impose criminal sentences. Second, policy considerations dictate that sentencing should remain the responsibility of the trial courts.
The jurisdiction to impose a sentence is set forth in MCL 769.1; MSA 28.1072, as follows:
"A judge of a court having jurisdiction is authorized and empowered to pronounce judgment against and pass sentence upon a person convicted of an offense in a court held by that judge. The sentence shall not be in excess of the sentence prescribed by law.”
The forerunner to this provision expressly included justices of the Supreme Court and judges having jurisdiction over criminal cases among those possessing authority to impose a sentence. We read MCL 769.1; MSA 28.1072 now to exclude other courts from possessing jurisdiction to impose a sentence where one court has already exercised jurisdiction to convict and sentence a defendant.
In addition, the policy of this state favors individualized sentencing for every convicted defendant. The sentence must be tailored to fit the particular circumstances of the case and the defendant. People v McFarlin, 389 Mich 557, 574; 208 NW2d 504 (1973). As we stated recently in People v Pulley, 411 Mich 523, 529-530; 309 NW2d 170 (1981):
"To so tailor the sentence, the judge must gather complete and detailed information about the offender. The judge must assess the reliability of the information received, assure that it is reasonably up-to-date, determine its competency , as a sentencing consideration, and resolve challenges to its accuracy.”
This process entails the need for a certain amount of factfinding which is best discharged by the trial court. Appellate courts were not established to engage in any significant factfinding functions, and, were they to resentence a defendant, such a function would become necessary, lest they have only a skeletal picture from which to determine the propriety of a given sentence. Furthermore, a defendant’s right to allocution prior to sentencing might have to be extended to a defendant being resentenced at the appellate level, especially when a significant amount of time has passed between the original sentencing in the trial court and the resentencing in the appellate court. Such a re quirement would further burden the appellate process, and thus we conclude that imposing the duty to resentence a defendant on the appellate courts is both unnecessary and unwise.
It is also argued that if this Court were to adopt and implement a procedure to expand the appellate review of sentences, it would encroach upon the duties and responsibilities of the legislative and executive branches of this state.
Our attention is directed to this Court’s decision in In re Callahan, 348 Mich 77, 80; 81 NW2d 669 (1957), in which we held that the Legislature has the exclusive authority to determine the appropriate length of imprisonment for a felony and that a court, in imposing a sentence, has only limited discretion to act within the parameters set forth in the statute. We continue to adhere to this view. See Brinson v Genesee Circuit Judge, 403 Mich 676, 681; 272 NW2d 513 (1978). We believe that the people of this state, through their elected legislative representatives, are the appropriate ones to determine what specific punishment a defendant should receive for the conviction of a given crime.
However, instead of adopting a scheme of presumptive sentencing, which would specify a definite term of punishment for each act declared to be a crime, the Legislature chose to adopt a scheme of indeterminate sentencing, which directs courts to sentence certain defendants to a minimum and maximum term of punishment. In order to ensure that the purpose of indeterminate sentencing could not be undermined by a sentencing court, this Court held in Tanner, supra, that any sentence which provides for a minimum term which exceeds 2/3 of the maximum is improper because it fails to comply with the indeterminate sentence act. We reached this conclusion on the ground that too short an interval between the minimum and maximum sentence given by the trial court prevented the sentence from being indeterminate.
Indeterminate sentencing, by its very nature, requires the trial court to exercise a certain degree of discretion in the imposition of a sentence. This does not amount to an encroachment by the judiciary into the legislative prerogative of establishing punishment for crimes. As we stated in In re Southard, 298 Mich 75, 82; 298 NW 457 (1941):
"The policy expressed by the people, in providing by constitutional amendment for an indeterminate sentence law, directed the legislature to adopt a flexible law and the courts to fit the punishment in the exercise of their discretion to the needs of the particular case. In no other way could the will of the people be carried into effect. A discretion must be exercised in order to have indeterminate sentences.”
The judicial power to exercise discretion in the imposition of sentences is thus an integral part of the legislative scheme of indeterminate sentencing, and it will always remain that unless removed or curtailed by the Legislature. Southard, p 81. It is this exercise of discretion that we intend to now subject to a limited appellate review, and any such review will in no way interfere with the Legislature’s ability to maintain or change the method of sentencing in this state.
In addition, we are not persuaded that an expanded appellate review of sentencing will infringe upon the exclusive power of the Governor to modify or reduce sentences. See Const 1963, art 5, § 14. Although we have faithfully guarded the Governor’s prerogative under the foregoing constitutional provision, we have also held that a court clearly has the authority to set aside a previously imposed invalid sentence and impose a new one without infringing upon any power granted to the Governor. People v Whalen, 412 Mich 166, 169; 312 NW2d 638 (1981). As previously discussed, this Court has already established certain circumstances in which a sentence will be held invalid. See also Whalen, pp 169-170. All we do today is add to the list another set of circumstances in which a sentence may be declared invalid. In such a situation, it is the responsibility of the courts to correct error and resentence the defendant to a valid sentence. As we stated in People v Murray, 72 Mich 10, 17; 40 NW 29 (1888):
"It will not do to say the executive may apply the remedy in such a case [in which a sentence within the statutory limits was held to be clearly excessive]. We do not know what the executive may do, and it is but a poor commentary upon the judiciary when it becomes necessary for the executive to regulate the humanity of the bench.”
C. The Need for Greater Appellate Review of Sentences.
In People v Burton, 396 Mich 238, 243; 240 NW2d 239 (1976), this Court stated:
"We appreciate that a strong case can be made for appellate review of sentencing. This Court is not, however, yet prepared to take that step.”
Since this Court is now taking a step toward that goal, it is incumbent upon us to examine the arguments both for and against expanding the current scope of appellate review of sentencing.
Those in favor of a wider scope of appellate review of sentencing argue that the network of protections and safeguards attendant to the determination of a defendant’s guilt should not vanish at the conclusion of the guilty plea or conviction. The amount of time in loss of liberty which a defendant faces is also of critical importance both to the defendant and the people of this state, yet, currently, sentencing is discretionary with the trial judge, checked only by the statutory boundaries set down by the Legislature. A product of such unchecked discretion is alleged to be a denial of the defendant’s procedural due process rights which include an appeal as a matter of right from the final judgment of the trial court. Such an appeal was intended to include the right of appeal of sentences. This argument continues that to foreclose the traditional checks and balances on the trial court and to allow the exercise of the court’s discretion on so fundamental an issue as sentencing to go unreviewed constitutes a fundamental unfairness and violates a defendant’s rights to due process of law under the Michigan Constitution.
As previously discussed, appellate review of a defendant’s sentence, though limited, already exists in this state. Defendant’s due process right to be sentenced to an ascertainable term of punishment within statutory limits which do not constitute cruel or unusual punishment has been carefully guarded by the appellate courts. In addition, this Court has protected a defendant’s procedural due process right to be sentenced on the basis of legally valid considerations. We do not agree that the constitutionally guaranteed right of appeal mandates review of the trial court’s exercise of discretion in sentencing in order to comport with due process of law. The expansion of the scope of appellate review of sentencing is a matter of public policy within this Court’s power to adopt; it is not constitutionally required.
Those who favor a broader appellate review of sentencing argue that another product of the unchecked discretion exercised by the trial courts is the imposition of an unjust sentence, which may be excessively severe, excessively lenient, or excessively disparate in relation to similarly situated defendants who have committed similar crimes. The result of such sentences is said to be a feeling of betrayal on the part of the defendant and the public, with confidence in the criminal justice system correspondingly diminished.
The excessively severe sentence is one which far exceeds what all reasonable persons would per ceive to be an appropriate social response to the crime committed and the criminal who committed it. However, when such a sentence falls within the statutory maximum term, a defendant has rarely been able to obtain relief on the ground that the sentence constitutes cruel or unusual punishment. In contrast, the excessively lenient sentence is one which falls far short of what all reasonable persons would perceive to be an appropriate social response to the crime committed and the criminal who committed it. Despite the significant public outcry usually generated by such a sentence, relief has not been obtainable to vindicate the perceived wrong done to the public.
Those who favor restricted sentence review argue that there are only a very small number of sentences imposed each year which, because of being too harsh or too lenient, shock the conscience of the community. Opening the appellate doors to review of all sentences will allegedly result in a great wave of burdensome appeals, creating additional great public expense. In addition, because of all the factors which contribute to a trial court’s decision on sentencing, meaningful review of judicial discretion in this area will be extremely difficult. In order for an appellate court to review a sentence, it must have before it every factor which the trial court considered, a virtually impossible task. Thus, if sentence review is to be made available in every case, the burden upon the already overloaded appellate system will be enormous.
We are not convinced that expanding the appellate scope of review to include a limited review of the trial court’s exercise of discretion will result in a flood of appeals. Many defendants now appeal their convictions simply because of their dissatis faction with the severity of their sentences, not because they want to contest the finding of guilt. Their appeals must presently be based upon the subterfuge of attacking their convictions rather than directly attacking what concerns them most, the appropriateness of their sentences. Moreover, such defendants sometimes win because the appellate judges agree that their sentences are inappropriate and strain the law to reach the desired relief. As noted by the American Bar Association, in the Introduction to ABA Standards for Criminal Justice Relating to Appellate Review of Sentences (2d ed), p 20.5:
"Overt appellate review [of sentences] serves to focus appeals on what is really at stake, to the benefit both of future sentences and of the doctrine of harmless error. It also avoids an unnecessary retrial where only the sentence is defective.”
We believe that a wider scope of sentence review will promote honesty and clarity in criminal appeals rather than unduly burden appellate courts with an increasing number of appeals.
In addition, even if the number of sentences reviewed under a broader standard which would warrant relief are Tew, any injustice committed is still deserving of a remedy. Although it is argued that a defendant may request relief from the Governor from an excessively severe sentence, we believe that there should be some means by which the judiciary can correct an injustice inflicted by the improper actions of one of its officials. The continued life of the judicial process depends upon the maintenance of public confidence in the courts, and such confidence depends upon the perception that the courts will dispense justice.
The excessively severe and the excessively len ient sentences are not the only ones which have been identified as being in need of appellate review. Another type of sentence alleged to constitute an injustice is the sentence which is significantly disproportionate to the sentences generally imposed upon similarly situated defendants who have committed similar crimes. For any one offense there is often a wide range of sentences available, and sentencing judges have demonstrated a significant variety of attitudes when it comes to deciding what constitutes an appropriate sentence. Thus, it is possible to find two defendants within the same prison system who have similar backgrounds, who were convicted of the same crime under similar facts and circumstances, and yet one is serving a disproportionately longer term of imprisonment. Such disparity in sentences, it is argued, does not merely result from permissible factors such as the culpability and background of the defendants; rather, it often arises from impermissible considerations such as the race of the defendant, his economic status, or the personal bias and attitude of the individual sentencing judge. Increased uniformity in sentencing similarly situated defendants is said to be in keeping with our constitutional concept of a unified judiciary in this state.
This argument is not without its vocal critics. The idea that sentences should be uniform throughout the state is argued to be inconsistent with the traditional views of the function of sentencing in the criminal process. The effect of a crime on the community in which it occurred and the deterrent effect of the resultant punishment on the persons who live and work in that community have always been considered relevant factors to be weighed by the trial judge. It is suggested that the interplay between society and crime varies greatly from community to community and that it is not reasonable to believe that every community in this state has, or should have, the same interest in preventing and punishing each type of crime.
We are not prepared at present to decide whether disparity in sentencing may result from the different priorities of the community in which a defendant committed an offense. However, we do agree that disparity in sentences which results from considerations such as the race or economic status of a defendant or the personal bias and attitude of an individual sentencing judge is unjustified and impermissible. Unjustified disparities promote disrespect for the criminal justice system and resentment among prisoners, thus impairing their morale and motivation for rehabilitation. We conclude that such sentences should be subject to appellate review and relief when warranted.
D. Appellate Review of Sentences in Other Jurisdictions.
The American Bar Association has made the following observation regarding appellate review of sentences in this country:_
"The number of jurisdictions in this country in which appellate review of sentences is available is steadily growing. Over half of the states now permit review of the merits of sentences in some circumstances. The principle that there ought to be appellate review of sentences, particularly of sentences imposed in serious cases, is now widely accepted.”
Indeed, our research indicates that there are at most only ten states in this country which do not allow any form of appellate review of sentences. The remaining states, either by statute, court rule, or case law, allow some form of appellate review of sentences, although the scope of review varies widely from state to state.
States which provide for appellate review of sentences by statute or by court rule have established a procedure for such review either within the existing appellate structure or by way of a separate review panel which then has the authority to increase or decrease a sentence imposed by the trial court. In some states the decision of the review panel may not be reviewed on appeal whereas other states allow an appeal from such a panel, but apply a limited scope of review.
States which provide for appellate review of sentences by case law generally apply an "abuse of discretion” standard, although this can mean anything from a virtually de novo sentencing to an almost total preclusion of relief. Other standards used include findings that the sentencing court was "clearly mistaken”, committed "clear legal error”, or imposed a sentence which "shocks the conscience” of the reviewing court.
In light of the extensive literature devoted to the issue of appellate review of sentencing, we will not take time here to examine in depth the review practices currently available in other jurisdictions. It is sufficient for us to note that we have examined many of these authorities and have arrived at the conclusion that, like most of the other states in this country, our state should extend some form of appellate review to those defendants who desire to challenge the trial court’s exercise of discretion in imposing sentence.
E. Conclusion.
In light of the foregoing analysis, we conclude that the existing scope of appellate review of sentences should be expanded. We are aware that there are a variety of proposals in existence at the present time which address this issue; however, in the meantime, we need to adopt some means to review the trial court’s exercise of discretion in sentencing. We intend this step toward greater review of sentencing to be a starting point. The scope of review may subsequently evolve, by means of case law or statutory enactment, into something more definite or even different from that which we announce today.
We first hold that, in order to aid the appellate review process, the trial court must at the time of sentencing articulate on the record its reasons for imposing the sentence given. Articulating reasons for imposing a sentence improves the justification for the sentence and serves to develop a rational policy on which to base sentencing in the future. As the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit stated in United States v Brown, 479 F2d 1170, 1172-1173 (CA 2, 1973):
"Were we writing on a clean slate, we might well be persuaded in favor of a requirement that the sentencing judge state his reasons. Such a rule would be 'a powerful safeguard against rash and arbitrary decisions’ at this crucial stage of the criminal process where the defendant’s liberty is at stake. * * * It would serve 'to promote thought by the decider, to compel him to cover the relevant points, to help him eschew irrelevancies— and, finally, to make him show that these necessities have been served.’ * * * It would also promote fairness by minimizing the risk that the sentencing judge might rely on misinformation or on inaccuracies in the presentence report. * * * If a misapprehension on the court’s part were disclosed, the defendant and his counsel would then have the opportunity to answer and explain, pointing out the error. A Sphinx-like silence on the court’s part precludes anyone (including the parties, the judge, and an appellate tribunal) from learning whether he acted in error. Furthermore, a statement of reasons by the court could prove to be of considerable assistance to prison and parole authorities in later determining the type of institution in which the defendant should be incarcerated and the time and conditions of parole.”
This Court noted in People v Snow, 386 Mich 586, 592; 194 NW2d 314 (1972), that the proper criteria for determining an appropriate sentence include: (1) the disciplining of the wrongdoer, (2) the protection of society, (3) the potential for reformation of the offender, and (4) the deterring of others from committing like offenses. This list is not exhaustive, and we do not purport to instruct the trial courts on every criterion which they must consider when imposing a sentence. However, we do now require that the trial court state on the record which criteria were considered and what reasons support the court’s decision regarding the length and nature of punishment imposed.
We next hold that an appellate court shall, upon a defendant’s request in an appeal by right or in an appeal by leave granted, review a trial court’s exercise of discretion in sentencing, but may afford relief to the defendant only if the appellate court finds that the trial court, in imposing the sentence, abused its discretion to the extent that it shocks the conscience of the appellate court. If under this standard the appellate court deems that resentencing is warranted, the appellate court shall, after specifically stating its reasons for such action, remand the case to the trial court for resentencing. The trial court then may, upon resentencing, raise or lower the term of the defendant’s punishment in light of the concerns expressed by the appellate court.
None of the cases before us are appeals which were initiated by the prosecutor. For that reason, and for the reason that we have granted leave to appeal in several other cases involving the general issue of the prosecutor’s right to appeal, we take no position at this time regarding the prosecutor’s right to appeal the length of a defendant’s sentence. We recognize that there are valid arguments both in favor of and against the allowance of prosecutor-initiated appeals of sentences, but we will reserve decision on this issue for a more appropriate time.
To the extent that this Court’s decision is in conflict with the holding in Cummins, supra, we expressly overrule that holding.
Our decision to expand the scope of appellate review of sentences to include a limited review of the trial court’s exercise of discretion applies to the three cases before us as well as to: (1) currently pending appeals in which the issue has been raised, (2) currently pending appeals in which the appellant’s initial brief has not yet been filed, and (3) appeals filed after the date of this decision. The rule requiring trial courts to state on the record the specific criteria considered in sentencing and the reasons for the nature and length of the sentence imposed is to be given only prospective application from the date of this decision.
Since our decision to expand the scope of appellate review of sentences is to be applied to the three cases before us, we remand these cases to the Court of Appeals for reconsideration of the defendants’ sentences in light of the now applicable standard of review. The Court of Appeals may in turn either affirm the sentences or remand the cases to the trial courts for resentencing or for an explanation of the courts’ reasons in imposing a given sentence.
II. Defendants’ Remaining Issues on Appeal
A. Defendant Coles.
Defendant Coles, in his second issue on appeal, claims that his in-court identification by the complaining witness was prejudicially tainted by a prior photographic show-up and line-up. We disagree. We first note that the defendant failed to move for suppression of the complaining witness’s in-court identification and failed to object to the witness’s identification testimony. Thus, the question of suggestiveness is not properly preserved for review by this Court. People v Lee, 391 Mich 618, 626-627; 218 NW2d 655 (1974).
In addition, our examination of this record does not indicate that the photographic identification procedure was "so impermissibly suggestive as to give rise to a very substantial likelihood of irreparable misidentification”. Lee, supra, p 626. Further, we note that there was an adequate independent basis for the complaining witness’s identification. The witness had observed the defendant at close range for at least a minute and watched from the back of the brightly lit store for approximately ten minutes or more as the defendant operated the cash register while his confederates waited on customers. In light of the foregoing, we find no error pertaining to this issue which requires reversal.
Defendant Coles next argues that he was denied his right to a fair and impartial jury when his codefendant pled guilty after participating in the jury selection and the trial court failed to give a cautionary instruction sua sponte. This specific issue was not raised or argued by the defendant in the trial court or in the Court of Appeals. However, Judge T. M. Burns raised the issue on his own initiative by way of dissent in the Court of Appeals decision, and the Court of Appeals majority responded to it and found no error. We agree. Defendant did not request a cautionary instruction and, although we agree that it is better practice for the trial court to give an instruction explaining that the fact that one defendant has admitted his guilt must have no bearing on the question of whether the remaining defendant is guilty, there is no requirement that an instruction of this type must be given sua sponte. We find that no manifest injustice resulted from the failure to give such an instruction.
Lastly, defendant Coles argues that he was denied the effective assistance of counsel by his trial attorney’s failure to move for a mistrial or request a cautionary instruction with regard to the identification procedures and testimony and his codefendant’s midtrial guilty plea. We disagree. We find no error of a magnitude to constitute ineffective assistance of counsel under the principles announced by this Court in People v Garcia, 398 Mich 250; 247 NW2d 547 (1976), reh den 399 Mich 1041 (1977).
B. Defendant Gonzales.
Defendant Gonzales argues that he is also entitled to resentencing because the trial judge based his sentence solely on the seriousness of the charge and failed to respond to the defendant’s objections to inaccuracies in the presentence report. In light of the fact that we are remanding the defendant’s case to the Court of Appeals for reconsideration of the sentence imposed, we direct the Court to give plenary consideration to this issue as well.
C. Defendant Waits.
Defendant Waits argues that he is entitled to a reversal of his conviction and a new trial because various instances of prosecutorial misconduct occurred during his trial. He claims that the trial judge’s failure to prevent them constituted an abuse of discretion. We have carefully reviewed the record and do not find that the defendant’s claims, which were preserved for appeal by an appropriate objection, rise to a level of magnitude requiring a new trial. Although the actions of the prosecutor were at times overzealous, we do not find that the trial judge abused his discretion in failing to prevent such conduct or that any manifest injustice resulted to the defendant.
Defendant Waits also argues that he is entitled to a new trial because the trial judge abused his discretion in denying a motion for a mistrial based upon the non-responsive testimony of a prosecution witness. The testimony in question indicated that the defendant had been involved in previous similar drug transactions.
Although we agree that the answer was unresponsive and improper, we do not conclude that a mistrial was warranted under these circumstances. A mistrial should only be granted where the inci dent is so egregious that the prejudicial effect can be removed in no other way. It is for this reason that the declaration of a mistrial necessarily rests in the sound discretion of the trial judge who observed the incident giving rise to the mistrial request and who is in a better position to evaluate the allegations of prejudice and the possibility of its removal short of a mistrial. Here, the trial judge concluded that the unresponsive answer was short, was not elicited by the prosecutor, and was not prejudicial to the defendant to the extent that a mistrial was warranted. Defense counsel should have sought a curative instruction, but failed to do so. We find no abuse of discretion in the trial judge’s decision to deny the motion for a mistrial.
The convictions of defendants Waits, Gonzales, and Coles are affirmed. The cases are remanded to the Court of Appeals for reconsideration of the sentence imposed on each defendant.
Williams, C.J., and Kavanagh, Levin, Ryan, and Brickley, JJ., concurred with Cavanagh, J.
Boyle, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
MCL 750.529; MSA 28.797.
MCL 333.7401; MSA 14.15(7401).
MCL 750.529; MSA 28.797.
412 Mich 914 (1982); 412 Mich 917 (1982).
Cummins v People, 42 Mich 142, 144; 3 NW 305 (1879).
Const 1963, art 1, § 16 states, inter alia, "cruel or unusual punishment shall not be inflicted”.
In re Callahan, 348 Mich 77, 80; 81 NW2d 669 (1957); People v Harwood, 286 Mich 96, 98; 281 NW 551 (1938).
Cummins v People, 42 Mich 142, 144; 3 NW 305 (1879); Newaygo County Prosecutor v Newaygo Circuit Judge, 69 Mich 610, 613-614; 37 NW 701 (1888); People v Morris, 80 Mich 634, 637; 45 NW 591 (1890); People v Smith, 94 Mich 644, 646; 54 NW 487 (1893); People v Whitney, 105 Mich 622, 627; 63 NW 765 (1895); People v Jagosz, 253 Mich 290, 292; 235 NW 160 (1931); People v Paton, 284 Mich 427, 429; 279 NW 888 (1938); People v Harwood, 286 Mich 96, 98; 281 NW 551 (1938); People v Commack, 317 Mich 410, 415; 26 NW2d 924 (1947); People v Connor, 348 Mich 456, 463; 83 NW2d 315 (1957); People v Krum, 374 Mich 356, 362; 132 NW2d 69 (1965); Lane v Dep’t of Corrections, Parole Board, 383 Mich 50, 60; 173 NW2d 209 (1970); People v Malkowski, 385 Mich 244, 247-248; 188 NW2d 559 (1971).
Moore v Parole Board, 379 Mich 624; 154 NW2d 437 (1967).
People v Baum, 251 Mich 187; 231 NW 95 (1930).
People v Hoaglin, 262 Mich 162; 247 NW 141 (1933); People v Ancksornby, 231 Mich 271; 203 NW 864 (1925).
People v Courts, 401 Mich 57; 257 NW2d 101 (1977); People v Earegood, 383 Mich 82; 173 NW2d 205 (1970).
People v Grimmett, 388 Mich 590; 202 NW2d 278 (1972); People v Moore, 391 Mich 426; 216 NW2d 770 (1974).
People v Triplett, 407 Mich 510; 287 NW2d 165 (1980).
People v Chapa, 407 Mich 309; 284 NW2d 340 (1979); People v Ensign (On Rehearing), 112 Mich App 286; 315 NW2d 570 (1982).
People v Berry, 409 Mich 774; 298 NW2d 434 (1980).
Const 1963, art 6, § 10.
Const 1963, art 6, § 13; MCL 600.601; MSA 27A.601.
MCL 769.1; MSA 28.1072 formerly provided:
"The justices of the supreme court, or any of them, or any of the several circuit judges in the respective circuits, or any judge of a court of record having jurisdiction of criminal cases, in this state, are hereby authorized and empowered to pronounce judgment against and pass sentence upon all persons heretofore convicted, or that may hereafter be convicted in any court held by said justices, or judges, or any of them, for any offense heretofore committed or that may hereafter be committed against the laws of this state: Provided, That such sentence shall in no case or respect be greater than the penalty now or that may be prescribed hereafter by law.”
MCL 769.8; MSA 28.1080.
People v Fox, 312 Mich 577, 581-582; 20 NW2d 732 (1945).
"It is one of the transcendent ironies of our system of criminal justice that at sentencing, precisely the point where most is at stake, the judge is unceremoniously cut adrift from all the moorings of law and principle that restrict him at every other point in the process. He is afloat in the dark, with little to guide him, no codified set of criteria, nothing to help him with the most important decision he has to make. His conduct of a trial is circumscribed by dozens of rules, precedents, and statutes. He may comment on evidence only in carefully specified circumstances, and only in jurisdictions (such as federal courts) that permit it. He rules on the admissibility of evidence in accordance with a body of law refined through centuries of courtroom combat. His charge to a jury must hew to limits prescribed by the nature of the offense, the available options, and hallowed precedent. But in sentencing, nothing — one to fourteen, five to life, thirty days to two years, and only his mind and heart to go on.” Jackson, Judges (New York: Atheneum, 1st ed, 1974), p 360.
Const 1963, art 1, § 20.
The Sentence Review Committee commissioned by this Court on July 22, 1981, and chaired by Court of Appeals Judge Daniel F. Walsh, conducted an extensive study regarding the need for a change in the general rule that sentences within legal limits are not reviewable and concluded that these types of sentences presented problems which need to be addressed.
Const 1963, art 6, § 1.
Following the riots in May, 1981, at the State Prison of Southern Michigan, the Michigan Reformatory at Ionia, and the Marquette Branch Prison, then-Governor Milliken appointed the Special Committee on Prison Disturbances which was chaired by former Supreme Court Justice Lawrence B. Lindemer. One of the committee’s conclusions was that:
"While there may be good reason for such disparity [in sentences imposed by different trial judges for the same crime], the fact that there is no review possible of sentences and that the disparity seems to be a result of geography, tends to breed anger and frustration in prisoners which leads to behavior control problems in the institution.” Report of the Special Committee on Prison Disturbances to Governor William G. Milliken, August 4, 1981, p 37.
The committee recommended that the Supreme Court or the Legislature address the problem of disparity in sentences.
ABA Standards for Criminal Justice Relating to Appellate Review of Sentences (2d ed), Commentary to Standard 20-1.1, p 20.7.
See, e.g., Alas Stat 12.55.120; Ariz Rev Stat 13-4032 — 13-4033; Iowa Code Ann 814.20; Mont Code Ann 46-18-901; Neb Rev Stat 29-2308; NH Rev Stat Ann 651:57 — 651:61; Tenn Code Ann 40-20-111; Wis Stat Ann 974.05-974.06.
See, e.g., State v Tuttle, 21 Wis 2d 147; 124 NW2d 9 (1963); State v Johnson, 67 NJ Super 414; 170 A2d 830 (1961); Commonwealth v Green, 396 Pa 137; 151 A2d 241 (1959); State v Houston, 273 SE2d 375 (W Va, 1980).
See, e.g., Mueller and Le Poole, Appellate Review of Legal but Excessive Sentences: A Comparative Study, 21 Vand L Rev 411 (1968); Kutak and Gottschalk, In Search of a Rational Sentence: A Return to the Concept of Appellate Review, 53 Neb L Rev 463 (1974); Norris, Appellate Review of Sentencing, 53 Mich Bar J 344 (1974); Labbe, Appellate Review of Sentences: Penology on the Judicial Doorstep, 68 J Crim L & Criminology 122 (1977).
This Court recently issued Administrative Order 1983-3 which requests every judge of a circuit court and of the Recorder’s Court of the City of Detroit to use the guidelines established by the Sentencing Guidelines Advisory Committee for a period of one year, beginning May 1, 1983. The purpose of the sentencing guidelines is to ensure that sentencing decisions focus on a consistent set of legally relevant factors and to ensure that these factors are assigned equal importance for all offenders. This should result in sentences which are imposed in a predictable, coherent, and consistent manner, thus eliminating impermissible disparity in the sentences of similarly situated defendants. The use of the guidelines is not mandatory, but the judges are urged to use them and comment upon them during this experimental period.
House Bill No. 4260, introduced on March 15, 1983, would create a sentencing guidelines commission to provide for the development and dissemination of sentencing guidelines, the application of which would be mandatory. The bill would also create a sentence review panel in the Court of Appeals and require certain procedures for sentence appeals.
We also note that this holding is consistent with the spirit of MCL 769.8; MSA 28.1080, which states in relevant part:
"Before or at the time of imposing the sentence the judge shall ascertain by examination of the convict on oath, or otherwise, and by other evidence as can be obtained tending to indicate briefly the causes of the criminal character or conduct of the convict, which facts and other facts which appear to be pertinent in the case, the judge shall cause to be entered upon the minutes of the court.”
People v Cooke, Docket No. 68974, and People v Robinson, Docket No. 69972, which concern the scope of a prosecutor’s right to appeal, were heard by this Court in June, 1983. | [
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Kavanagh, J.
(for reversal). This is an appeal from an affirmance of defendant’s conviction of armed robbery and first-degree criminal sexual conduct.
We reverse and remand for a new trial.
Complainant testified that someone sprayed a substance into her face as she was getting out of her car in a Detroit parking lot. Her assailant told her that he would stab her with a knife if she did not keep quiet. A struggle ensued in the car, and the assailant took $12 from her wallet. He then directed her to drive from the scene, and they stopped at a deserted location. After a further struggle, during which she was able to scratch her assailant’s face, the assailant engaged in forcible sexual intercourse with complainant and fled. Shortly thereafter complainant was able to summon police and describe her assailant to them. The police located a wallet in her car which contained several pieces of identification belonging to the defendant.
The crime occurred during the late evening of February 22, 1978. On the basis of information in the wallet, police located defendant about 2:45 a.m. on February 23. He matched the description of the assailant given by complainant, and he had a laceration under his right eye. He was placed under arrest, and $12 found in the right breast pocket of his jacket and a nailfile in his right rear pants pocket were seized.
The defendant testified that he had met complainant when her car had become stuck in the snow. He assisted in extricating the car, and a lengthy conversation ensued in which complainant told him that she was having marital difficulties and was "tired of old men”. She agreed to drive him to a bar, but on the way they stopped at a deserted location and engaged in consensual sexual intercourse. When he told her that she "stunk”, a fight ensued, and he left her.
On appeal, the defendant asserts four errors:
I. Arrest Without a Warrant and Attendant Search and Seizure
A pretrial hearing was held on the legality of the defendant’s arrest (with the resulting seizure of articles to be suppressed, if the defendant were successful). The police had no arrest or search warrants. After checking one address for the defendant that was incorrect, the police located him at 271 Watson at about 2:45 a.m. The owner of the building opened the defendant’s apartment. The police saw someone sleeping in the bed in the one-room apartment, and the owner identified the person as the defendant. The police awakened the defendant at gunpoint and determined that he had no weapon. Since he generally fit the description of complainant’s assailant, the police arrested him. A fingernail file, $12 in cash, and a black coat were taken and later admitted at trial. Statements made by the defendant to the police after his arrest were used to impeach him at trial.
The parties agree that the arrest of defendant without a warrant in his abode was illegal unless the circumstances surrounding it were exigent. Payton v New York, 445 US 573, 589; 100 S Ct 1371; 63 L Ed 2d 639 (1980), citing United States v Reed, 572 F2d 412, 423 (CA 2, 1978). The essence of the exigency which would excuse the failure to obtain a warrant is the existence of circumstances known to the police which prevent them from taking the time to obtain a warrant because to do so would thwart the arrest. Commonwealth v Huffman, 385 Mass 122, —; 430 NE2d 1190, 1192 (1982); Latzer, Police Entries to Arrest — Payton v New York, 17 Crim L B 156, 163 (1981).
The prosecutor contends that there were exigent circumstances present at the time the officers effectuated the arrest of defendant after having entered his room without a warrant. In support of this contention, the prosecutor recites the following facts: defendant was believed to be armed with a dangerous weapon, defendant was likely to escape, and a violent crime had been committed. However, we conclude that the facts do not support a finding of such exigent circumstances as would obviate the need for an arrest warrant.
In Niro v United States, 388 F2d 535, 540 (CA 1, 1968), the first circuit held that although failure to obtain a readily available warrant is not necessarily fatal to a search or seizure made concurrent with a fully anticipated arrest, it is fatal where there are no countervailing factors. The Niro Court stated:
"Proceeding without a warrant is not to be justified, as the government suggests here, by the fact that by the time the officers act, dispatch is necessary to avoid flight or injury to person or property. Haste does not become necessary in the present sense if the need for it has been brought about by deliberate and unreasonable delay. This would allow the exception to swallow the principle.”
In United States v Houle, 603 F2d 1297 (CA 8, 1979), the police received a complaint that the defendant had made threats after he had been drinking to shoot people. Upon their arrival at the scene, at 1:50 a.m., the officers heard two shots from the defendant’s house. The police dispatcher received a phone call from the defendant threatening to shoot any officer who came into his yard and demanding that the officers leave the area or return in the morning. The police delayed acting until 6:40 a.m., and then went to the defendant’s house to arrest him. When they arrived they saw through a broken window that the defendant was sleeping on a bed. One of the officers saw a rifle and reached in through the window and seized it, whereupon the other officers kicked down the door and arrested the defendant. The police had made no attempt during the intervening four hours to obtain an arrest warrant.
The Houle Court, in an opinion antecedent to Payton, held that the Fourth Amendment did not sanction entries into a home without a warrant for the purpose of an arrest absent exigent circumstances. In rejecting the prosecution’s claim that exigent circumstances existed, the Court stated:
"This is not a case involving hot pursuit. The officers’ deliberate four hour delay from 1:50 a.m. to 6:30 a.m., indicates that the officers had no reason to believe, and did not believe, that the defendant would attempt to escape or destroy the evidence in his possession. It is undisputed that the officers made no attempt to obtain a search or arrest warrant during that period of delay. Any exigency that arose by virtue of the presence of the rifle near the bed could have been anticipated by the officers and does not excuse their earlier failure to obtain a warrant.” 603 F2d 1300.
In the case at bar, there was over a five-hour delay between the time the police were given a physical description of the complainant’s assailant and when they arrested defendant without a warrant. The prosecution has offered no explanation whatsoever as to why a warrant was not sought during this interval. Inasmuch as the prosecutor has not proffered any countervailing circumstances which justify the failure to secure a warrant, we hold that the police did not act reasonably in entering defendant’s room without a warrant, arresting him, and seizing evidence. Therefore, defendant’s motion to suppress the evidence seized as a result of the entry without a warrant should have been granted.
II. Sufficiency of the Evidence That Defendant Was Armed With a Dangerous Weapon
Before its codification in 1931, the armed robbery statute provided:
"Sec. 15. If any person shall assault another, and shall feloniously rob, steal and take from his person any money or other property, or shall feloniously assault another with intent to rob or steal any money or other property, which may be the subject of larceny, such robber being armed with a dangerous weapon, or any article used or fashioned in a manner to lead the person so assaulted to reasonably believe it to be a dangerous weapon, with intent, if resisted, to kill or maim the person robbed or assaulted, or if, being so armed, he shall wound or strike the person robbed or assaulted, he shall be punished by imprisonment in the state prison for life or any number of years.” 1927 PA 374; 1929 CL 16722.
Act 328 of the Public Acts of 1931 codified Michigan’s criminal law. Robbery armed was treated in § 529 of the act and provided:
"Sec. 529. Robbery armed — Any person who shall assault another, and shall feloniously rob, steal and take from his person, or in his presence, any money or other property, which may be the subject of larceny, such robber being armed with a dangerous weapon, or any article used or fashioned in a manner to lead the persons so assaulted to reasonably believe it to be a dangerous weapon, shall be guilty of a felony, punishable by imprisonment in the state prison for life or for any term of years.”
The 1931 amendment thus eliminated the clause beginning with the words "with intent”. We think it clear from that history that when enacted the words "dangerous weapon”, etc., contemplated that the defendant would actually have a dangerous weapon; this is implicit in the phrase "with intent, if resisted, to kill or maim”. The elimination of the "with intent” requirement reduced the prosecutor’s burden of proof, but does not provide a basis for construing the section as no longer requiring that the defendant actually have a dangerous weapon or hn article used or fashioned in a manner to lead the persons so assaulted to reasonably believe it to be a dangerous weapon.
It is not enough that the person assaulted is put in fear; a person who is subjected to an unarmed robbery may be put in fear.
To constitute armed robbery the robber must be armed with an article which is in fact a dangerous weapon — a gun, knife, bludgeon, etc., or some article harmless in itself, but used or fashioned in a manner to induce the reasonable belief that the article is a dangerous weapon.
Words or threats alone can never be dangerous weapons because the statute is concerned with weapons, not words.
To convict, the factfinder must make the determination that at the time of the robbery the assailant was in fact armed with something and not just that the victim thought he was armed. The determination must be based on the evidence.
Words or threats may be evidence of the fact of being armed and under some circumstances they alone might support a verdict of guilty. When no other evidence of the presence of the weapon is adduced, however, it is imperative that the in: structions stress the focus of the jury on the presence of the weapon or article and not the fear or belief of the victim.
Unarmed robbery is a heinous felony, and the statute’s 15-year maximum penalty shows how seriously the Legislature regards it. Michigan’s ultimate punishment — life imprisonment — for armed robbery should not be cheapened by escalating a questionable charge to allow it.
In the case at bar, the only proper evidence that the assailant was armed with a dangerous weapon at the time of the assault was the complainant’s testimony that the assailant "told me to shut up, otherwise he would use his knife and stab me”.
Because this case must be remanded for a new trial we point out that although under proper instructions a jury verdict of guilty on this evidence would not be overturned, the instructions given here would not pass muster.
The instruction given, "Ladies and gentlemen, in order to fulfill the dangerous weapon element of the charge of robbery armed, it is not necessary that a weapon be introduced at trial, nor is it necessary for the complainant to see the weapon. All that is required is that the complainant have a reasonable belief that the defendant was armed with a dangerous weapon at the time of the incident, and for you to be convinced beyond a reasonable doubt of this belief’, is patently in error.
Had this question been before us, we would have reversed on this issue, but because it was not we mention it only to obviate the problem on retrial.
What we have said about the armed element in the robbery statute has equal application to the first-degree criminal sexual conduct charge as brought herein. We note, however, that under a proper charge, inasmuch as unarmed robbery is also a felony, if that crime be proved, first-degree criminal sexual conduct under MCL 750.520b(l)(c); MSA 28.788(2)(l)(c) can be made out. People v Willie Johnson, 406 Mich 320; 279 NW2d 534 (1979).
III. Ineffective Assistance of Counsel
Before the defendant testified, outside the presence of the jury, the prosecutor informed the court that he understood that defense counsel intended to introduce evidence of defendant’s prior conviction of the felony of assault with intent to rob, not being armed. MCL 750.88; MSA 28.283. He reminded the court that only if the court determined that the offense was one involving theft, dishonesty, or false statement, or was punishable by death or imprisonment for more than one year, and that its probative effect on the issue of credibility outweighed its prejudicial effect, could the court admit it. The judge acknowledged awareness of the rule and indicated that he would admit the evidence.
Defense counsel acknowledged that he intended to introduce the evidence on direct examination of the defendant and that he was agreeable to its admission.
The defendant testified about his conviction, and the prosecutor did not cross-examine him about it.
Defendant now argues that the failure of defense counsel to try to keep out any reference to his criminal record, let alone the volunteering of it, amounted to ineffective assistance of counsel. Because of the similarity of the offense to the present charge, defendant maintains, the probative value of the evidence was clearly outweighed by its prejudicial effect and its admission constituted error. .
We are not persuaded. While we are not inclined to recommend this strategy on retrial, we are not prepared to hold it amounted to ineffective assistance of counsel.
IV. Compelling Attendance of an III Juror
As the jury was to begin its second day of deliberations, one juror was not present, having called in sick. Defense counsel objected to proceeding with 11 jurors. On the judge’s instruction, the court clerk called the juror in the presence of the judge and the prosecutor but without the presence of defense counsel. The clerk reported that the juror responded that she had a sore neck and a cold brought on by the air conditioning. The judge decided that the juror was not too ill to come in, the juror was brought to the court in a police car, and deliberations resumed. When he learned of this, defense counsel objected to the failure to involve him in the process, but neither attempted to prove nor indeed did he claim any prejudice to the defendant on account of it.
While the unilateral procedure followed here leaves much to be desired, until we are persuaded that it resulted in denying defendant a fair trial, we will not reverse.
The question we must answer is whether there is any reasonable possibility that the defendant was prejudiced. A reasonable possibility of prejudice may not rest upon the bare assumption that the prosecutor or the judge engaged in some misconduct or that the police who transported the juror attempted to influence her. Without some basis on the record for such an assumption, it is unwarranted. To make that assumption, defense counsel, either during trial or at some other point, should have buttressed this issue by questioning the police officer who transported the juror or by inquiring of the juror herself once the verdict was returned. We have no idea whether the juror was so sick that her only thought was to end the deliberations as quickly as possible. On this record we do not find error on the claim which requires reversal.
Reversed and remanded.
Williams, C.J., and Levin and Brickley, JJ., concurred with Kavanagh, J.
Neither her testimony that "he said he should have pulled out his knife and stopped me” nor the finding of the fingernail file in his pocket several hours after the assault is any evidence that he was armed at the time of the attack. | [
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Per Curiam.
We are asked to decide whether the trial court erred in refusing to instruct the jury regarding specific intent in the case of a defendant charged with endangering the lives of persons traveling on a railroad. We hold that the instruction should have been given.
I
The defendant and another man were accused of endangering lives by removing four bolts from a section of railroad track near Ubly, Michigan, on May 6, 1978. The accomplice was granted immunity and testified against the defendant at a jury trial in the Huron Circuit Court. According to the witness, he came upon a loose bolt and removed it from a rail, handing it to the defendant upon request. The defendant loosened and removed three more bolts. The two men then threw the bolts into a river.
A locomotive engineer with the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Company testified that he was alerted to a problem with the track four days later when his train lurched sideways. The next day he slowed the train to ten miles per hour as it neared the section, and he spotted a raised rail. Had the train been traveling at its normal speed, a derailment would have been likely, he said.
The defendant testified in his own behalf that he and the accomplice had been walking along the railroad tracks and drinking wine. He contended that it was the accomplice who removed the bolts and threw them into the river.
The defendant was convicted as charged and placed on probation for 36 months. He also was assessed $450 in fines and court costs. The defendant’s probation was revoked following a hearing on September 17, 1979, and he received a prison term of 30 to 60 years on the underlying charge of endangering a railroad.
The defendant argued on appeal that the offense with which he was charged requires a showing of specific intent and that the trial judge erred in not so instructing the jury. The judge based his decision partly on the fact that, under the statute, no particular person need be the target of the endangering act. The Court of Appeals affirmed the defendant’s conviction, agreeing with the trial judge that the offense at issue only requires proof of general intent. 110 Mich App 147; 312 NW2d 187 (1981).
II
This Court recently reaffirmed the validity of the general versus specific intent dichotomy in the context of the availability of an intoxication defense. People v Langworthy and its companion case People v Lundy, 416 Mich 630; 331 NW2d 171 (1982). The majority opinion reiterated that the distinction between specific intent and general intent crimes is that the former involve a particular criminal intent beyond the act done, while the latter involve merely the intent to do the physical act.
We believe that the inescapable conclusion is that the offense considered by us today is a specific intent crime and that jury instructions which do not include that element are deficient.
The statute under which Beaudin was charged, provides in pertinent part:
"If any person shall, by the placing of any impediment upon the track of any railroad, or by any other means whatsoever, throw from said track any engine or cars used thereon, or attempt so to do, whether such engine or cars be thrown from said track or not, or shall by any other means whatsoever willfully endanger or attempt to endanger the lives of persons engaged in the work of said road, or persons traveling on the engine or cars of said road, he shall be subject to imprisonment in the state prison during his natural life, or any number of years, in the discretion of the court. And it shall not be necessary for the people to allege or prove in any such case that the person thereby intended to injure or endanger the life of any particular person or persons.” MCL 466.12; MSA 22.271.
Thus, under the statute, the defendant would be guilty if he threw or tried to throw a train from the tracks or willfully endangered or tried to endanger the lives of persons working or traveling on the railroad. The information filed against the defendant charged him under the latter theory, i.e., willfully endangering lives.
Performance of the physical act proscribed in the statute is not enough to sustain a conviction. The act must be coincident with an intent to bring about the particular result the statute seeks to prohibit. In order for Beaudin to be guilty of this crime, he must have removed the bolts from the rail with the speciñc intent to endanger lives. Such an intent may be express or it may be inferred from facts and circumstances. We disagree with the trial judge that only a general intent is required by the statute because the statute does not indicate that a particular person need be the target of the endangering act. All this means is that a defendant need not intend to endanger specific persons, but may intend only to injure people in general. However, it is the nature of the intent required to violate the statute which must be examined. For the reasons outlined above, we have concluded that that intent must be a specific one.
There is no question that the jury in this case could have properly concluded from the evidence that Beaudin intentionally removed the bolts and threw them into a river. However, without the guidance of a speciñc intent instruction, the jury also could have improperly concluded that the intentional removal of the bolts was enough to convict the defendant. This potential confusion is not mere speculation. Shortly after the jurors began deliberations, they sent a note to the trial judge concerning the question of intent. The judge responded by rereading the pertinent parts of the statute under which the defendant was charged. The jurors apparently remained confused, however, as illustrated by the following exchange with the trial judge:
"Juror Adams: Well, I am still puzzled about the willful intent. In other words, by removing the bolt, or whatever obstruction, you are thereby willfully intending or do you have to prove otherwise that there is willful intent to harm?
"The Court: It is not an easy statute to understand. It doesn’t say willful intent, it says 'willfully endanger’, it says: 'Whether such engineer or cars be thrown from said track or not, or shall by any other means whatsoever, willfully endanger’, so you have to decide if the defendant did willfully endanger or attempt to endanger the lives of persons engaged in the work of the railroad or persons traveling on the engines or cars of the road.
"Juror Adams: Does that mean that he premeditatedly thought he was—
"The Court: It doesn’t say premeditated, it just says 'willfully endanger’.
"Juror Adams: In other words, he had to be thinking he was going to endanger somebody by doing it. Was it just — you know — we are just trying to decide was it just a prank with no thought given to the consequences or was there a willful desire to harm somebody.
"The Court: I think willfully endanger means that he had to have some thought in his mind, or should have had, as to what consequences would arise from what he did.”
The jury returned approximately 45 minutes later with a guilty verdict.
We conclude that the offense of endangering the lives of persons on a railroad is a specific intent crime and that the trial judge erred in not so instructing the jury.
Accordingly, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), in lieu of granting leave to appeal, we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals and remand the case to the Huron Circuit Court for a new trial at which instructions on specific intent are to be given. We do not retain jurisdiction.
Kavanagh, Levin, Ryan, Brickley, and Cavanagh, JJ., concurred.
The specific intent instruction requested by the defendant was CJI 3:1:16:
"When a certain intent is a necessary element in a crime, the crime cannot have been committed when the intent did not exist.
"Intent is a decision of the mind to knowingly do an act with a conscious [fully formed] objective of accomplishing a certain [specific] result.
"There can be no crime of_under our law where there is no intent to_, and the burden rests upon the prosecution to show beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant at the time of doing the alleged act had that wrongful intent.
"The intent with which a person does an act is known by the way in which he expresses it to others or indicates it by his conduct. The intent with which a person does an act can sometimes be determined from the manner in which it is done, the method used and all other facts and circumstances, but only if that intent is established by the evidence.
"[At this point read instructions relative to defenses which have been raised which would negate intent, i.e., intoxication, claim of right, etc.]
"If you find that the defendant, for any reason whatsoever, did not consciously and knowingly act with the intent to _, the crime cannot have been committed and you must find the defendant not guilty of the crime of__
"If from all of the evidence you have a reasonable doubt as to whether or not the defendant knowingly and consciously acted with the intent to_, then you must find the defendant not guilty of the crime of__”
MCL 466.12; MSA 22.271.
The probation revocation hearing was held in response to a petition charging the defendant with second-degree criminal sexual conduct with an eight-year-old Ubly girl. MCL 750.520c(l)(a); MSA 28.788(3)(l)(a). The judge found that the defendant had committed the offense, which carries a maximum penalty of 15 years in prison. The judge stated that the facts adduced at the hearing would have supported a conviction of first-degree criminal sexual conduct, a life offense.
The Court of Appeals granted the defendant’s application for delayed appeal. He had not appealed following his original sentence of probation, but did so after the probation was revoked and a prison term imposed.
The Court of Appeals cited two early decisions of this Court which address the statute at issue. People v Dunkel, 39 Mich 255 (1878), and People v Petheram, 64 Mich 252, 268-279; 31 NW 188 (1887) (Campbell, C.J., dissenting). The relevant language of the statute has not changed since its enactment in 1873 PA 198. Although neither opinion discusses the nature of the intent necessary for conviction, the Court of Appeals stated that the proper inference is that only a general intent is required.
While recognizing the difficulties with the dichotomy, the majority reaffirmed the unavailability of the voluntary intoxication defense to general intent crimes. Three of the four justices making up the majority concluded that the general intent-specific intent distinction is an unsatisfactory concept, but said that it was up to the Legislature to fashion reform. Justices Levin and Kavanagh, while agreeing that the issue deserves legislative consideration, dissented from the holdings in Langworthy and Lundy on the basis that second-degree murder and first-degree criminal sexual conduct ought to be considered specific intent crimes.
We limit our inquiry to a consideration of the language under which the defendant was charged and offer no opinion as to the nature of the intent necessary under the other theories of the statute. | [
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Superintending control denied.
Boyle, J., states: I would reverse the Attorney Discipline Board order of disqualification. The disqualification was based on a potential conflict of interest. In light of the original complainants’ waiver of the attorney-client privilege, no actual conflict of interest existed. In the absence of any violation of the Code of Professional Responsibility, the provision of counsel to the complainants is an appropriate activity for the Attorney Grievance Commission and the Grievance Administrator. | [
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Rehearing denied. Reported at 416 Mich 113. | [
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Williams, C.J.
In the present case, we must address three interrelated issues. First, we must decide whether certain Wayne County Sheriff’s deputies had probable cause under the Michigan Constitution to effect an arrest of defendant in his motel room without a warrant. Second, we must determine whether the federal constitutional requirement — that an arrest of a defendant in his home must be made with an arrest warrant absent exigent circumstances — extends to a motel room under the Michigan Constitution. Third, under the Michigan Constitution, we must consider whether there were exigent circumstances which justified the warrantless arrest of defendant in his motel room.
Before trial, the defendant moved to suppress all evidence seized, claiming that it was the fruit of the defendant’s arrest in his motel room without a warrant. The trial court denied the motion, stating that there was probable cause for the arrest and also exigent circumstances which justified the warrantless arrest. The Court of Appeals affirmed in an unpublished per curiam opinion.
We hold that there was probable cause to justify an arrest of the defendant. The complete record reveals that there were sufficient facts to conclude that the defendant had committed a felony.
Furthermore, we hold under the Michigan Constitution that the federal constitutional requirement — that an arrest of a defendant in his home must be made with an arrest warrant absent exigent circumstances — is equally applicable to a motel room occupied by the defendant.
Finally, we hold that a motel room itself does not create an exigent circumstance under the Michigan Constitution. Moreover, after balancing several factors, we find that there were no exigent circumstances which justified defendant’s arrest in his motel room without a warrant._
Facts
On March 1, 1978, the Wayne County Sheriffs Department received a telephone call from a Canton Township resident, Mary Mallard. She reported that she had been robbed in her house at approximately 5 p.m. on that day. When the officers arrived, she told them that she had been drying her hair in the basement when she heard glass breaking. When she went upstairs to investigate, she saw the defendant standing in her dining room, with a pair of her scissors in his hand. He threatened to kill her if she did not give him some money. He then reached over to the complainant’s counter and removed five two-dollar bills and a Vienna sausage can which contained numerous coins. She stated that the defendant then ran out of her home in the direction of the Willow Acres Motel, which was across a highway. The officers traced a set of footprints from complainant’s home to the southeast corner of the motel.
The officers then proceeded to local businesses to ask the proprietors of these establishments to watch for a slightly built young white man who was wearing a blue coat with a fleece lined collar who might be spending exceptional amounts of two-dollar bills or change. At about 7 p.m. that evening, the owner of a store alerted the sheriffs department after two men and a young woman had paid for merchandise with two-dollar bills. About 7:30 p.m., he reported the license plate numbers of a car that they were seen leaving in when one of them returned a second time.
About 9:30 p.m. that evening, the noted car was stopped by the sheriffs department. The driver informed the officers that he had picked up the defendant and his girlfriend earlier in the evening. He stated that they had stopped at a local party store, and that the defendant had attempted to pay for some merchandise with two-dollar bills and then with change. In addition, he stated that the defendant and his girlfriend were in room 10 of the Willow Acres Motel.
About 10 p.m. that same night, five officers of the sheriffs department approached and knocked on the door of room 10. A voice asked who was at the door. When the officers identified themselves, a scuffling noise was heard, and defendant opened the door. He stepped back and asked the officers if they had a warrant. The officers entered the room, arrested the defendant, seized a blue jacket, a lady’s purse, and a Vienna sausage can which were located on a table in the room.
Before trial, the defendant moved to suppress the items seized from the motel room, alleging that they were fruits of an illegal arrest. The trial judge, who had read the preliminary examination transcript, denied the defendant’s motion without an evidentiary hearing.
Thereafter, the defendant waived his right to a jury trial and presented a defense in which he claimed that he was so intoxicated at the time of the crimes that he lacked the specific intent to commit the crimes charged. Nevertheless, the defendant was convicted after a bench trial of breaking and entering an occupied dwelling with intent to commit robbery, MCL 750.110; MSA 28.305 and of felonious assault, MCL 750.82; MSA 28.277. He was sentenced to serve 4 to 15 years in prison for the breaking and entering conviction and 2 to 4 years for the felonious assault conviction.
The Court of Appeals affirmed in an unpublished per curiam opinion.
We granted leave to appeal on November 4, 1981, following the defendant’s delayed application in propria persona. 412 Mich 854.
I. Whether There Was Probable Cause
In the instant case, the defendant initially contends that the trial court erred in not suppressing the evidence arising from defendant’s warrantless arrest made in his motel room because the intrusion and arrest were effected without probable cause under the Michigan Constitution. The defendant states that the basis of the prosecutor’s assertion that the police had probable cause was information provided by an individual who was a suspect in the felonies committed by the defendant. While the defendant admits that independent corroboration of otherwise "insufficiently trustworthy information” can provide police with probable cause, he believes that "the quantum of corroboration required should be especially great where, as here, the source of the information is * * * a suspected perpetrator of the crime.” We believe, however, that the legal standards traditionally employed by appellate courts indicate that the information acted upon by the police met the requirements under the Michigan Constitution.
The first rule in determining whether an officer had probable cause to make an arrest is whether there are any facts which would lead a reasonable person to believe that the suspected person has committed a felony. E.g., People v Ward, 226 Mich 45; 196 NW 971 (1924). Secondly, a police officer’s belief that a defendant has committed a felony must be based on facts which are present at the moment of the arrest. E.g., People v Stewart, 232 Mich 670; 206 NW 337 (1925).
Thus, this Court laid down the following standard to be employed by Michigan appellate courts when applying these two rules:
"Therefore, in reviewing a claim that a police officer lacked probable cause to arrest, the reviewing court must determine whether facts available to the officer at the moment of arrest would justify a fair-minded person of average intelligence in believing that the suspected person had committed a felony. Each case must be analyzed in light of the particular facts confronting the arresting officer. People v Harper, 365 Mich 494; 113 NW2d 808 (1962).”
In undertaking this factual review, it is important to note that information indicating probable cause for an arrest must be comprised of sufficient facts to permit an independent determination that the person supplying the information is reliable and that the information is based on something more substantial than casual rumor. United States v Haynie, 637 F2d 227, 232-233 (CA 4, 1980).
In deciding that the officers had probable cause to arrest, the Court of Appeals wrote the following:
"On appeal, defendant claims that the trial court erred in denying his motion to suppress. However, review of the record convinces us that the arresting officers were provided with sufficient probable cause to effect defendant’s warrantless arrest. The testimony of the arresting officers indicated that they had received trustworthy information concerning Mrs. Mallard’s description of the incident and of defendant; that officers Cornish and Chopps traced a set of footprints from complainant’s home to the Willow Acres Motel; that the proprietor of a nearby market reported three persons buying merchandise with exceptional amounts of coins and two-dollar bills; and that the driver of the automobile with the license plate number reported by Mr. Jankowski, the storekeeper, told officers that the person who was spending the two-dollar bills and coins was at room 10 of the Willow Acres Motel. This information was sufficient to warrant a prudent person in believing that defendant had committed a felony. MCL 764.15; MSA 28.874; People v Flores, 92 Mich App 130; 284 NW2d 510 (1979); People v Langston, 57 Mich App 666, 671-673; 226 NW2d 686 (1975).”
Thus, we hold that the officers had probable cause to arrest the defendant under article 1, § 11 of the Michigan Constitution.
II. The Requirement of an Arrest Warrant
While we have found that the police in the instant case had probable cause to arrest the defendant, this conclusion alone does not make the defendant’s arrest constitutionally proper. The question becomes, under the Michigan Constitution, whether the defendant had a reasonable expectation of privacy in his motel room which required the officers to have an arrest warrant, absent exigent circumstances, before arresting the defendant in his room. See Payton v New York, 445 US 573; 100 S Ct 1371; 63 L Ed 2d 639 (1980); Katz v United States, 389 US 347; 88 S Ct 507; 19 L Ed 2d 576 (1967).
Recently, the United States Supreme Court has established the rules pertaining to the requirement of an arrest warrant. First, if probable cause exists, the police are not required to obtain a warrant before apprehending a suspected felon in a public place. United States v Watson, 423 US 411, 423-424; 96 S Ct 820; 46 L Ed 2d 598 (1976). Second, before entering a suspect’s residence to effect his arrest, the police must possess an arrest warrant absent exigent circumstances. Payton, supra, pp 602-603. Third, an arrest warrant alone is not sufficient authority for entry into the home of a third party to arrest the subject of an arrest warrant. Steagald v United States, 451 US 204; 101 S Ct 1642; 68 L Ed 2d 38 (1981).
With these rules in mind, we must focus on whether the Payton constitutional requirement— that police have an arrest warrant before effecting the arrest of a defendant in his home — should be extended to a motel room under the Michigan Constitution. No United States Supreme Court decision has held that a motel room is so different from a home, on a constitutional basis, that a defendant lacks a protected privacy interest in a rented room.
Thus, the United States Supreme Court has generally accorded Fourth Amendment protection to hotel rooms which were used by defendants. Therefore, absent exigent circumstances or consent, police officers, as agents of the state, need to meet the requirements of the Fourth Amendment before searching or seizing things or persons from such a place. E.g., Stoner v California, 376 US 483, 487-488; 84 S Ct 889; 11 L Ed 2d 856 (1964) (hotel clerk had no authority to permit search of defendant’s room); United States v Jeffers, 342 US 48, 51-52; 72 S Ct 93; 96 L Ed 59 (1951) (search of a hotel room not exclusively used by a defendant invalid absent exigent circumstances or consent); McDonald v United States, 335 US 451, 454; 69 S Ct 191; 93 L Ed 153 (1948) (no compelling reason to justify the search of a hotel room); Johnson v United States, 333 US 10, 14-15; 68 S Ct 367; 92 L Ed 436 (1948) (search of a hotel room without a warrant constitutionally invalid). Cf. Hoffa v United States, 385 US 293; 87 S Ct 408; 17 L Ed 2d 374 (1966) (no violation of Fourth Amendment where the defendant voluntarily made statements in a hotel room to a third party who then relayed the information to the government).
In addition, a number of other courts have addressed this specific issue, and most have held or indicated that the Payton requirement of an arrest warrant is equally applicable to hotel or motel rooms. In United States v Bulman, 667 F2d 1374, 1383-1384 (CA 11, 1982), that court recognized that the difference between a home and a hotel room for Fourth Amendment purposes, as it related to the applicability of Payton to a hotel room, was a distinction without constitutional significance:
"A mere recitation of the difference between the places in which an arrest occurred does not, of course, pronounce relevant Fourth Amendment distinctions. * * * The appropriate approach, rather, is to determine [the defendant’s] legitimate expectation of privacy in the motel room. * * * If we find that expectation identical to that which he would have in his home, then we must hold Payton applicable here.
"Not in all circumstances would we equate the reasonable expectation of privacy of an individual in a motel room with that of an individual in his own home. * * * Cases in which the Court has upheld a distinction, however, have depended upon occurrences of searches or seizures in the public areas of a motel. * * * The motel room was, however temporarily, equivalent to a home. Absent some applicable excéption to the warrant requirement of Payton, the warrantless invasion of the motel room by law enforcement officials violated [the defendant’s] Fourth Amendment rights.”
Likewise, this Court refuses to endorse such a shallow constitutional distinction between a home on the one hand and motel rooms on the other as it relates to the requirement of an arrest warrant. Thus, we hold that the warrantless arrest of the defendant in his motel room violated article 1, § 11 of the Michigan Constitution unless the police were authorized by an exception to the warrant requirement.
III. Whether There Was an Appropriate Warrant Exception
In the instant case, the police asserted that the warrantless arrest of defendant in his motel room was proper because it was justified by exigent circumstances. In denying defendant’s motion to suppress evidence of the items seized from the motel room, the trial court seemed to conclude, after reading the preliminary examination transcripts, that while the defendant may have had an expectation of privacy in the motel room, a motel room itself creates an exigent circumstance.
Since we have held that the warrantless arrest of the defendant was improper absent exigent circumstances, we recognize that Payton once again provides the legal basis for our decision. In Payton, the Supreme Court held that in the absence of consent or exigent circumstances the Fourth Amendment prohibits warrantless entries into private homes to make routine felony arrests. Since the trial court assumed that the defendant did not consent to the warrantless entry into his room and we agree that the defendant did not consent to this entry, the remaining issue facing us is whether the exigency exception to the warrant requirement was met in the case at bar.
The burden of justifying a warrantless entry into a constitutionally protected area is upon the government. See Vale v Louisiana, 399 US 30, 34; 90 S Ct 1969; 26 L Ed 2d 409 (1970); United States v Killebrew, 560 F2d 729, 733 (CA 6, 1977). See also People v Reed, 393 Mich 342, 362; 224 NW2d 867 (1975), cert den sub nom Reed v Michigan, 422 US 1044 (1975). The exigency exception to the warrant requirement has evolved because it is judicially recognized that some situations dictate immediate responses by police rather than waiting for the judgment of a neutral and detached magistrate.
Since the trial court’s reason for finding an exigent circumstance which justified the defendant’s warrantless arrest was the fact that the defendant was in a motel room, it would be helpful to review decisions by other courts which have considered various exigencies as they relate to a warrantless intrusion into a motel room. In United States v Roper, 681 F2d 1354, 1357, fn 1 (CA 11, 1982), the court noted that the record revealed that defendant’s arrest and the search of his motel room without a warrant was justified by exigent circumstances where (1) there were simultaneous multiple arrests at the conclusion of a drug transaction, and (2) there was a legitimate fear that the defendant would escape. However, none of the same concerns exist in the instant case since there were no multiple arrests and there was no fear of escape.
In an analogous case, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit found that there were no exigent circumstances which justified the warrantless arrest of a defendant in his motel room. In United States v Bulman, supra, federal drug agents arrested the defendant in a motel room after investigating his involvement in a conspiracy to sell drugs. The government had argued that defendant’s involvement in an ongoing conspiracy itself created an exigency. The Bulman court rejected the argument by stating that "the exigent circumstances doctrine is applicable within the narrow range of circumstances that present real danger to the police or the public or a real danger that evidence or a suspect might be lost” (emphasis added). 667 F2d 1384. In the case at bar, a similar argument that a motel room itself creates an exigency should be rejected since it does not fall into the narrow range of circumstances which would allow a warrantless intrusion. Such a broad interpretation of the exigent circumstances doctrine would eliminate the constitutional presumption against warrantless intrusions.
In addition, several state courts have also ad dressed the issue of the exigent circumstances doctrine as it relates to motel rooms. In Combs v State, 270 Ark 496, 500; 606 SW2d 61 (1980), for example, the court held that even though the police entered a defendant’s motel room without an arrest or search warrant, there was no Fourth Amendment violation where "the exigencies of the situation made that course imperative”. In that case, the police were responding to a call that a woman was being held at a motel. When the officers arrived, they saw a woman and two men standing outside a room in an apparent argument. When the three saw the officers, they entered the room where the officers heard the woman saying, "Let me go. Let me go.” Such extreme and unusual circumstances, however, did not exist in the instant case.
Conversely, in Graham v State, 406 So 2d 503 (Fla App, 1981), the court held that a warrantless arrest of a defendant in his motel room was not justified on the theory of exigent circumstances. The facts that the court looked to were: (1) there was a three-day interval between the robbery and arrest, thus the requirement of speed to apprehend a fleeing felon was not present, and (2) there was a large number of police officers executing the arrest, greatly reducing the risk that the defendant would escape. The same criteria exist in the case at bar where: (1) the police were not pursuing a fleeing felon, and (2) there were several officers executing the arrest, reducing the risk that the defendant would escape.
In a case factually analogous to the instant case, the court, in State v Holtz, 300 NW2d 888, 893 (Iowa, 1981), held that the warrantless arrest of the defendant in a motel room by the police was not justified by exigent circumstances. The Court stated that:
"Although burglary is a serious crime, the offense involved here did not suggest a danger to life. The officers had no reason to believe defendant was armed. Their contacts with him earlier in the night had been peaceful. Although they had probable cause to believe he committed the crime and strong reason to believe he was in the motel room, they had no basis for believing he would escape if not apprehended. Because they had the only door to the room under surveillance, they could act quickly to arrest defendant if he attempted to leave while a warrant was being sought.” 300 NW2d 893.
The Holtz analysis is equally applicable in the present case.
Finally, in State v Pool, 98 NM 704, 706-707; 652 P2d 254, 256-257 (1982), the court held that an officer was justified in making a warrantless arrest of the defendant in his motel room where that officer had smelled burning marijuana upon defendant’s opening the door. Thus, the officer had a good faith belief that the defendant, who had closed the door upon recognizing the officer as a policeman, would immediately attempt to dispose of the contraband. Once again, the exigencies in Pool were unlike those in the instant case because the arresting officers had no reason to believe that evidence or contraband would be immediately destroyed.
In short, the reviewed cases clearly indicate that the criteria used in finding exigent circumstances are very narrow and that a motel room itself does not create an exigency. Thus, the validity of a warrantless arrest in a motel room is not without limitations in that it depends upon the reasonableness of the officer’s response to the situation perceived as requiring immediate action. The question is whether a reasonable person would have perceived a need to immediately secure the motel room. People v Olajos, 397 Mich 629, 634; 246 NW2d 828 (1976).
A number of factors have been identified which are used in determining whether an exigency exists. In Dorman v United States, 140 US App DC 313, 320-321; 435 F2d 385 (1970), the court laid down several factors to be used in determining whether an exigency exists. The Dorman factors are as follows:
"(1) whether a serious offense, particularly a crime of violence, is involved; (2) whether the suspect is reasonably believed to be armed; (3) whether there is clear showing of probable cause; (4) whether strong reason exists to believe the suspect is in the premises being entered; (5) whether there is a likelihood that the suspect will escape if not swiftly apprehended; (6) whether the entry is forcible or peaceful; and (7) whether the entry is at night.” Vance v North Carolina, 432 F2d 984, 990 (CA 4, 1970).
The Dorman factors are not all-inclusive. In addition to these factors, there are other factors such as: (1) preventing the destruction of evidence, (2) ensuring the safety of law enforcement personnel, (3) ensuring the safety of citizens, and (4) the ability to secure a warrant. In short, all these factors weigh in allowing action without warrants by police. Each case, however, must be judged on its own facts.
In applying these factors to the case at bar, it is clear that a motel room itself is not an exigent circumstance. In addition, a balancing of these factors does not lead us to conclude that the officers acted pursuant to any exigency. The factors supporting a finding of exigency are: first, the defendant had committed a serious felony; second, there was a fairly clear showing of probable cause; and, finally, the entry by the police was peaceful. The factors not supporting a finding of exigency are: first, while the defendant had committed a serious crime, it was not "particularly a crime of violence”; second, the defendant was not reasonably believed to have been armed; third, the preliminary examination testimony of one of the arresting officers indicated that there was no reason to believe that the suspect was even in the motel room at the time of his arrest; fourth, there was no indication in the record that the suspect would have escaped if not swiftly apprehended; fifth, there was no reason to believe that defendant was about to destroy evidence; sixth, there was no reason to believe that the safety of the officers or anyone else was in jeopardy; seventh, with sufficient police to guard against the defendant leaving the room, there was no reason why one of them could not have left to secure a warrant; and, finally, the entry into defendant’s motel room was made at night.
Thus, we hold that while there was probable cause for defendant’s arrest there were no exigent circumstances to support a warrantless arrest of defendant in his motel room under the Michigan Constitution.
Since the police were not lawfully in the defendant’s room, the trial court erred in not suppressing the evidence which flowed from defendant’s unlawful arrest. The defendant’s convictions are reversed and the case is remanded to the Wayne Circuit Court for a new trial not inconsistent with this opinion.
Conclusion
We hold under the Michigan Constitution that the officers in the instant case had probable cause to arrest the defendant in that they had sufficient facts to determine that the defendant had committed a felony.
In addition, we hold that the Payton requirement of having an arrest warrant before effecting an arrest in a defendant’s home, absent exigent circumstances, is equally applicable to a motel room under the Michigan Constitution.
Finally, we find that there were no exigent circumstances to justify the defendant’s arrest in his motel room without a warrant under the Michigan Constitution.
Thus, we hold that the trial court erred in failing to suppress the evidence which flowed from the defendant’s unlawful arrest. We reverse defendant’s convictions, and we remand the case to the trial court for a new trial not inconsistent with this opinion.
Kavanagh, Levin, and Cavanagh, JJ., concurred with Williams, C.J.
The United States Supreme Court established this requirement in Payton v New York, 445 US 573; 100 S Ct 1371; 63 L Ed 2d 639 (1980), which it applied to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. See Mapp v Ohio, 367 US 643; 81 S Ct 1684; 6 L Ed 2d 1081 (1961).
Const 1963, art 1, § 11 provides that:
"The person, houses, papers and possessions of every person shall be secure from unreasonable searches and seizures. No warrant to search any place or to seize any person or things shall issue without describing them, nor without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation. The provisions of this section shall not be construed to bar from evidence in any criminal proceeding any narcotic drug, firearm, bomb, explosive or any other dangerous weapon, seized by a peace officer outside the curtilage of any dwelling house in this state.” US Const, Am IV states that:
"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.”
See, generally, Spinelli v United States, 393 US 410; 89 S Ct 584; 21 L Ed 2d 637 (1969); Aguilar v Texas, 378 US 108; 84 S Ct 1509; 12 L Ed 2d 723 (1964).
People v Summers, 407 Mich 432, 442; 286 NW2d 226 (1979), rev’d on other grounds sub nom Michigan v Summers, 452 US 692; 101 S Ct 2587; 69 L Ed 2d 340 (1981).
Justice Levin does not join in Part I because the Court’s disposition does not require a decision on whether there was probable cause.
See, generally, 2 LaFave, Search and Seizure, § 6.1.
Recently, the United States Supreme Court has held that Payton is to be given retroactive application to all cases pending on appeal. United States v Johnson, 457 US 537; 102 S Ct 2579; 73 L Ed 2d 202 (1982).
Cf. People v Blount, 101 Ill App 3d 443; 428 NE2d 621 (1981) (no Fourth Amendment violation in an arrest effected in a hotel corridor outside defendant’s room). But see People v Beachman, 98 Mich App 544; 296 NW2d 305 (1980) (constitutional protection accorded a defendant arrested in a hotel lobby). For a discussion of United States Supreme Court decisions which indicates that the Supreme Court has transformed Fourth Amendment concerns from property concepts to areas of constitutionally protected privacy, see Note, Criminal Procedure — Pen Registers Not Subject to the Requirements of the Fourth Amendment, 27 Wayne L Rev 393, 394-396 (Í980).
See United States v Jones, 696 F2d 479, 486-487 (CA 7, 1982); United States v Roper, 681 F2d 1354, 1357, fn 1 (CA 11, 1982); United States v Bulman, 667 F2d 1374, 1383-1384 (CA 11, 1982); Scroggins v State, 276 Ark 177, 182; 633 SW2d 33 (1982); Combs v State, 270 Ark 496, 500; 606 SW2d 61 (1980); Haynes v State, 269 Ark 506, 512; 602 SW2d 599 (1980); People v Eichelberger, 91 Ill 2d 359, 365; 438 NE2d 140 (1982); Graham v State, 406 So 2d 503, 505 (Fla App, 1981); State v Holtz, 300 NW2d 888, 892 (Iowa, 1981); State v Pool, 98 NM 704, 706; 652 P2d 254, 256 (1982).
See fn 2.
The trial court assumed for purposes of its holding that the defendant had not consented to the intrusion by police into his motel room. We also accept this assumption.
The trial judge stated that:
"We have the other element here which we get into sometimes when we talk about warrantless searches and warrantless issues, and that is exigent circumstances, although it is quite true that the defendant can have and does have Fourth Amendment rights in a motel room, assuming that the facts will establish that he had enough of a proprietary interest or interest in the place to have some Fourth Amendment rights. A room in a motel is certainly a place which is subject to the officer, if he waits to go and get a warrant and so on to substantiate his beliefs, to come back and find nothing there. So, under all the circumstances and considering that, your motion will be denied, Mr. Karwowski, without my elaborating any more.”
See fn 10.
In addition, the prosecutor states that:
"Thus, the danger of flight or escape coupled with the extremely likely result that the physical evidence would be destroyed or discarded, when looked at in conjunction with the time at which the information relating to defendant’s possible location was obtained (less than one-half hour before police went to the motel room * * *) established that the general criteria in [People v] Van Auker [111 Mich App 478; 314 NW2d 677 (1981)] justify the police action here. Also, the police here had no solid evidence that the defendant was even still present at the motel room, nor did they have any name or indication that he was a local resident as compared to a transient.” We address these concerns later in the opinion by concluding that there were no exigent circumstances justifying the defendant’s warrantless arrest.
Accord, United States v Killebrew, 560 F2d 729, 733-734 (CA 6, 1977) (a pre-Payton case).
Because the police were not lawfully in defendant’s room, the seizure of evidence is not justified under the plain-view doctrine. See Coolidge v New Hampshire, 403 US 443, 465-468; 91 S Ct 2022; 29 L Ed 2d 564 (1971).
In his brief, the prosecutor states that:
"Finally, here as in Van Auker, even if a Payton violation is said to exist, any such 'error’ is harmless at its worst. * * *
"In this case, this defendant took the stand on his own behalf and totally admitted the breaking and entering, the threatening of the complainant, the robbery, and the method of his leaving the scene. He corroborated beyond any reasonable contravention the testimony of the complainant, the police, the store owner and May. Any error here is absolutely harmless due to the overwhelming evidence presented. People v Robinson, 386 Mich 551; 194 NW2d 709 (1972); People v Wichman, 15 Mich App 110, 116; 166 NW2d 298 (1968); People v Lauzon, 84 Mich App 201; 269 NW2d 524 (1978); People v Jimmie McCracken, 100 Mich App 371, 378; 298 NW2d 734 (1980).”
While the prosecutor appears to have raised an arguable point, we believe that the defendant has presented an answer in his brief:
"This case has proceeded all the way through the Court of Appeals and this Court’s decision to grant leave to appeal solely on the merits of the legality of defendant’s arrest with no argument whatsoever by the prosecution that even if illegal, the admission of the evidence seized as a result thereof was harmless error. Such an argument should not now be considered by this Court. As stated under analogous circumstances in People v Tyler and People v Tompkins, 399 Mich 564, 571; 250 NW2d 467 (1977), aff'd sub nom Michigan v Tyler, 436 US 499; 98 S Ct 1942; 56 L Ed 2d 486 (1978), where the prosecution raised a standing argument for the first time in this Court:
" 'The people contend that Tompkins, who, in contrast with Tyler, did not have a leasehold interest in the burned premises, has no standing to raise the search and seizure issue. The prosecutor did not raise this issue in the Court of Appeals, and, therefore, it will not be considered.’ ”
See also People v Ford, 417 Mich 66, 105-106; 331 NW2d 878 (1982). | [
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Levin, J.
The question presented is whether persons who suffered injuries as a result of an automobile accident and who obtained a default judgment against the driver of the other automobile and an assignment of his claim against his insurer for failing to defend the action may re cover from the insurer the amount of the default judgment, albeit in excess of the policy limits.
The plaintiffs, as injured persons, have no right to recover in excess of the policy limits.
We conclude that ás assignees of the insured, the plaintiffs can recover no more than he could have recovered from the insurer. The insured’s damages are not necessarily the amount of the judgment against him but, in general, the amount of his assets not exempt from legal process. It appears that the insured in the instant case is uncollectible and suffered no damage and, therefore, the amount of the default judgment could not have been collected from his assets. He therefore had no damages collectible from the insurer, and the plaintiffs, as his assignees, have no damages collectible from the insurer.
I
This action arises out of an automobile accident involving plaintiffs, Frank and Dorothy Stockdale and Donald L. Corbett, and the garnishee defendant’s insured, Wayne Jamison. On the date of the accident, November 9, 1969, Jamison was insured under an automobile liability policy for $20,000.
Farm Bureau Insurance Group, Jamison’s insurer, was required under the terms of the policy "to defend any suit against the insured seeking damages on account of * * * bodily injury or property damage” arising out of the "ownership, maintenance or use” of the vehicle described in the policy or a vehicle which "replaces” that vehicle. On the basis of Jamison’s accident report, Farm Bureau learned that he had been driving a vehicle different from the one described in his policy. Because it thought this vehicle was not a "replacement” within the terms of the policy, Farm Bureau denied coverage.
Plaintiffs filed separate negligence actions against Jamison. Shortly thereafter plaintiffs filed an action for declaratory judgments against defendant, Farm Bureau, and against their own insurance company, contending that Jamison was uninsured and that they were entitled to take advantage of their own uninsured motorist coverage.
Farm Bureau did not defend the negligence actions, and a default was taken in November of 1972. Plaintiffs subsequently reduced the default to judgment, and damages in excess of $160,000 were awarded. No appeal was taken.
The declaratory judgment action was decided adversely to Farm Bureau in the circuit court, and reversed by the Court of Appeals. This Court reversed the decision of the Court of Appeals and reinstated the circuit court judgment, holding that the vehicle Jamison was driving had "replaced” the vehicle named in the policy.
Plaintiffs obtained assignments from Jamison of all present or future claims against Farm Bureau, and instituted garnishment proceedings against Farm Bureau in the circuit court.
The garnishment action was tried before a jury. The trial judge instructed the jury that if Farm Bureau had denied coverage in good faith, it was not liable in excess of policy limits. The jury returned a verdict for Farm Bureau._
After judgment was entered in favor of Farm Bureau, plaintiffs moved for a judgment notwithstanding the verdict. The trial judge granted plaintiffs’ motion, set aside the judgment on the jury verdict, and entered judgment in favor of plaintiffs for the full amount of the default judgments, plus attorney fees, costs, and interest. The judge reasoned that Farm Bureau had breached its duty to defend Jamison and was therefore responsible for the entire amount of the default judgment regardless of its good or bad faith. The Court of Appeals agreed with the trial judge that the question of good or bad faith was not to be considered, and affirmed his decision. We agree with the Court of Appeals that good faith is not a defense to an action for an insurer’s breach of its contractual duty to defend its insured, but reverse and remand for the reasons set forth in this opinion.
II
Farm Bureau contends that "absent a showing of bad faith, an insurer’s liability for failure to tender a defense to its insured is limited to the face amount of the policy”. Plaintiffs respond that Farm Bureau’s good or bad faith does not affect its liability for breach of its contractual obligation to defend Jamison, and that Farm Bureau owes the entire amount of the default judgments as damages for breach of that obligation.
While good faith may limit an insurer’s liability to policy limits in actions for failure to settle, it is not a defense to an action for breach of an insurer’s obligation to defend its insured. The rule subjecting an insurer to liability to its insured in excess of policy limits for failure to act in good faith in settlement negotiations recognizes that where the insurer defends the action it has a substantial measure of control in the conduct of the lawsuit and is in a position to disregard the interests of the insured and expose him to the risk of a judgment in excess of policy limits. To protect the insured’s interest, the courts have required that the insurer make reasonable efforts to settle within policy limits.
A failure on the part of the insurer to settle is not necessarily unreasonable or actionable. The law does not require the insurer to settle every case. If the insurer acts in good faith, it is protected.
The duty to defend, however, arises solely from the language of the insurance contract. A breach of that duty can be determined objectively, without reference to the good or bad faith of the insurer. If the insurer had an obligation to defend and failed to fulfill that obligation, then, like any other party who fails to perform its contractual obligations, it becomes liable for all foreseeable damages flowing from the breach. As this Court said in Kewin v Massachusetts Mutual Life Ins Co, 409 Mich 401, 420; 295 NW2d 50 (1980), holding that an insured cannot recover exemplary dam ages or damages for mental distress for breach of an insurance contract:
"In the commercial contract situation, unlike the tort and marriage contract actions, the injury which arises upon a breach is a financial one, susceptible of accurate pecuniary estimation. The wrong suffered by the plaintiff is the same, whether the breaching party acts with a completely innocent motive or in bad faith.”
Farm Bureau had a duty to defend Jamison. An insurer’s duty to defend is independent of its duty to pay, and damages for breach of that duty are not limited to the face amount of the policy. When Farm Bureau breached its duty to defend, it became liable for any damages arising "naturally from the breach or * * * in the contemplation of the parties at the time the contract was made”.
Defendant cites numerous authorities in support of the principle that, absent bad faith, an insurer’s liability for failure to defend is limited to the face amount of the policy plus the costs of defending the lawsuit. In many of these cases, the insured hired counsel who presumably represented the insured’s interests and the courts saw no reason to hold the insurer liable for the failure of counsel selected by him to obtain a less unfavorable verdict.
In some of the cited cases, the insured did not hire counsel and the same rule was applied, but it does not appear from the report that the insured was unable to hire counsel. Some of the statements are dicta. Some cases state that an insurance contract is for the payment of a specific sum of money, ignoring the separate duty to defend.
In all events, we do not see any justification for a special rule limiting the amount of damages recoverable for an insurer’s failure to defend or any reason why it should not be held to be responsible, just as any other party to a contract who fails to perform it, for all the loss arising naturally from the breach.
Ill
As Jamison’s assignees, plaintiffs are entitled to recover the same amount that Jamison would have recovered had he brought an action to recover damages for Farm Bureau’s breach.
Plaintiffs’ theory is that the default judgment against Jamison was a foreseeable result of Farm Bureau’s failure to defend. Thus plaintiffs argue that the entire amount of the default judgment is recoverable as damages for Farm Bureau’s breach. We disagree.
When plaintiffs obtained an assignment from Jamison, they did not acquire the right to recover from Farm Bureau the amount of the default judgment. What they acquired was the right to recover from Farm Bureau the amount Farm Bureau owed Jamison as damages for the breach. That amount is fixed by measuring the actual loss suffered by Jamison as a result of the breach. Thus plaintiffs are entitled to recover an amount of money equal to the actual cost to Jamison of Farm Bureau’s failure to defend, principally the loss Jamison would have suffered had plaintiffs attempted to enforce their judgments against him.
Had plaintiffs sought to enforce their judgments against Jamison, their recovery would have been limited by the amount of Jamison’s assets not exempt from legal process. If Jamison had been a wealthy man, he might have been required to pay the entire amount of the judgment. But if, as appears to be the case, Jamison is judgment-proof, plaintiffs would have recovered nothing and Jami-son would have lost nothing as a result of the breach.
We hold that ordinarily an insurer’s liability for breach of its contractual duty to defend its insured is limited to an amount equal to the insured’s assets not exempt from legal process.
IV
The parties appear to agree that Jamison is impecunious. If so, he was not monetarily damaged by the judgment entered against him, since he would not have been required to pay that judgment. If plaintiffs wish to show that Jamison had assets from which they could have recovered some portion of the judgment in excess of the policy limits, they may apply to the circuit court for a hearing thereon. Reversed and remanded for entry of judgments not inconsistent with this opinion.
Fitzgerald, C.J., and Kavanagh, Williams, and Coleman, JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
Corbett v Allstate Ins Co, 62 Mich App 557; 233 NW2d 649 (1975).
Corbett v Allstate Ins Co, 396 Mich 103; 238 NW2d 30 (1976).
Stockdale v Jamison, 99 Mich App 534; 297 NW2d 708 (1980).
Farm Bureau does not contest its liability to plaintiffs for the $20,000 policy limits.
City of Wakefield v Globe Indemnity Co, 246 Mich 645, 651; 225 NW 643 (1929).
See Keeton, Insurance Law, § 7.8(a), p 508.
Id., § 7.8(b), p 510.
State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins Co v Skaggs, 251 F2d 356 (CA 10, 1957), cited by plaintiffs, mistakenly analogizes a failure to settle and a failure to defend.
Kewin, 409 Mich 414 (citing Hadley v Baxendale, 9 Exch 341; 156 Eng Rep 145 [1854], and 5 Corbin, Contracts, § 1007, p 70).
See Outboard Marine Corp v Liberty Mutual Ins Co, 536 F2d 730 (CA 7, 1976); Seward v State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins Co, 392 F2d 723 (CA 5, 1968); Firestine v Poverman, 388 F Supp 948 (D Conn, 1975); Comunale v Traders & General Ins Co, 50 Cal 2d 654; 328 P2d 198; 68 ALR2d 883 (1958); DeGraw v State Security Ins Co, 40 Ill App 3d 26; 351 NE2d 302 (1976); Manheimer Bros v Kansas Casualty & Surety Co, 149 Minn 482; 184 NW 189 (1921); Engeldinger v State Automobile & Casualty Underwriters, 306 Minn 202; 236 NW2d 596 (1975); Gordon v Nationwide Mutual Ins Co, 30 NY2d 427; 285 NE2d 849; 334 NYS2d 601 (1972), cert den 410 US 931; 93 S Ct 1374; 35 L Ed 2d 593 (1973); 7C Appleman, Insurance Law & Practice, § 4689, pp 207-214; 14 Couch, Insurance, § 51:55, p 555; 1 Long, Law of Liability Insurance, § 5.05D, pp 5-41 through 5-42; 44 Am Jur 2d, Insurance, §§ 1416, 1417, pp 360-365.
Myers v Farm Bureau Mutual Ins Co of Michigan, 14 Mich App 277; 165 NW2d 308 (1968), Foundation Reserve Ins Co v Kelly, 388 F2d 528 (CA 10, 1968), and Transport Ins Co v Michigan Mutual Liability Ins Co, 340 F Supp 670 (ED Mich, 1972), also cited by plaintiffs, did not reach the failure to defend question, but were decided on the basis of a bad faith failure to settle.
As a practical matter, a person who has the independent means to hire counsel will ordinarily do so, and one who does not have such independent means will frequently be uncollectible. It is for this reason that we expect that in a large number of cases where an insurer wrongfully fails to defend, the insured will be unable to show any damage. But there will be cases where the insured, although unable to fund the cost of litigation, will have assets or suffer adverse consequences by reason of an uncollected judgment.
Decision in this case does not require that we consider or resolve the extent of the insured’s duty, if any, to mitigate his damages by engaging counsel to discharge the obligation which the insurer assumed and failed to discharge. Nor need we decide for what consequential damages the insured may recover and how the amount thereof shall be determined.
If, as the parties appear to agree, Jamison is uncollectible, then he has not been damaged by the unpaid judgment, and it is unnecessary to consider the question of causation.
See, e.g., McCormick, Damages, § 137, p 560; 5 Corbin, Contracts, § 992, pp 5-7.
Plaintiffs, as Jamison’s assignees as well as his judgment creditors, are in the paradoxical position of arguing that had Farm Bureau defended, the excess judgment would have been lower, but that they are nonetheless entitled to recover from Farm Bureau the full amount of that excess judgment.
Professor Keeton has suggested that this is an appropriate measure of damages for an insurer’s breach of its duty to settle. Keeton, fn 7 supra, § 7.8(f), p 516. As Professor Keeton points out, this approach has the advantage to both parties of eliminating the need for the insured (and consequently, the plaintiff) to suffer the costs of a bankruptcy proceeding in order to establish the actual amount of loss.
See also Harris v Standard Accident & Ins Co, 297 F2d 627, 632-636 (CA 2, 1961), cert den 369 US 843; 82 S Ct 875; 7 L Ed 2d 847 (1962) (no recovery for bad faith failure to settle, where insured was insolvent before the entry of an excess judgment, and bankrupt after-wards); Dumas v Hartford Accident & Indemnity Co, 92 NH 140, 141; 26 A2d 361 (1942), where the court said:
"The mere existence of an outstanding judgment, which may never be paid, is not a legal injury, for the essence of the injury in such a case is pecuniary loss. State Automobile Mutual Ins Co of Columbus, Ohio v York, 104 F2d 730, 734 (CA 4, 1939). What the plaintiff owes may reduce the appearance of his net worth on an accountant’s balance sheet, but unless he pays his debt he is not out of pocket.”
Professor Keeton did not discuss taking the same approach in the failure to defend context, possibly because he did not consider that an insurer might be liable above policy limits for a judgment against an insured who is unable to mitigate his damages by obtaining counsel. Keeton, supra, § 7.6(e), p 484.
We appreciate that Jamison might have suffered collateral damages by reason of an unpaid judgment, but the nature and amount of such damages have not been shown. | [
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Per Curiam.
The plaintiffs are owners of property in Avon Township, Oakland County, that is zoned single-family residential. They claimed that this zoning was unreasonable, but the trial judge concluded that they had failed in their burden of showing unreasonableness. The Court of Appeals reversed:
"[W]e have a definite and firm conviction that the plaintiffs have met their burden and affirmatively proved that as to their respective parcels the ordinance is arbitrary and unreasonable and that no governmental interest is advanced by the present zoning classification which is, on the contrary, confiscatory. Ed Zaag-man, Inc v City of Kentwood (consolidated with Turkish v City of Warren), 406 Mich 137 [277 NW2d 475] (1979); Tuttle v Dep’t of State Highways, 397 Mich 44 [243 NW2d 244] (1976).”
We disagree with the Court of Appeals and reinstate the circuit court judgment.
I
The plaintiffs’ parcels are adjoining ones that front on Rochester Road, a five-lane highway, between Avon and Hamlin Roads. One parcel was about 6 acres, with 337 feet of frontage and a depth of 768 feet; two homes (both rented) and a barn were on the property. The other parcel was 4.5 acres, with 250 feet of frontage and a depth of 787 feet; it was unimproved, one former residential dwelling on it having been burned and the other razed after repeated vandalism.
Rochester Road runs generally in a north-south direction. Immediately to the north of the parcels was a proposed 60-foot-wide road (Smitha Drive) leading to a residential subdivision which had received final preliminary plan approval. The next two properties to the north on Rochester Road were occupied by adjoining automobile dealers. Each parcel was about 750 feet in depth, but the rear portions were occupied only by storm water retention ponds.
Immediately to the south was an 82-foot-wide Detroit Edison right-of-way with three high-tension wires leading to a substation. Next to that was a vacant parcel owned by one of the plaintiffs. Across Rochester Road was a large vacant parcel on which residential uses were planned. North of that parcel, across from the automobile dealers, were fast-food restaurants in front of the Winchester Mall. Both the intersection of Rochester Road and Avon Road and that of Rochester Road and Hamlin Road were devoted to commercial purposes. Between the mall and Hamlin Road, vacant land had been platted for the single-family residential Avon Hills subdivision. This subdivision included proposed residences with backlots on Rochester Road.
Experts provided the trial judge with varying opinions. Howard Keating, a land developer, testified that the plaintiffs’ parcels could not be developed for single-family residences. He cited the proximity to heavily traveled Rochester Road as one reason. More significant to him, however, was that development costs would be higher since some noise protection device would be needed to nullify trafile noise.
Walter Mason, a real estate broker and appraiser, testified that the 250' X 750' parcel which housed the automobile dealership north of proposed Smitha Drive had been sold for $220,000. Mason believed that the heavy traffic, high-tension wires, and the nearby commercial development would adversely affect single-family residential development on the parcels. Mason acknowledged, however, that the same high-tension wires continued across Rochester Road and ran through a new subdivision to the west.
Max Maxim, another real estate broker, testified that the land value of the parcels as presently zoned would be $40,000 to $50,000 each. He did not believe the property was feasible for residential development because of the noise, traffic, high-tension wires, and nearby commercial uses. If the properties were rezoned to allow commercial uses, he thought that the larger would bring approximately $300,000, and the smaller $217,000.
Brandon Rogers, a community planner, said that a "natural” boundary between the commercial and the residential zones on the east side of Rochester Road should have been drawn to the south of both parcels, beyond the electric wires. Rogers termed single-family residential zoning of these parcels "spot zoning”; it would be inconsistent with good planning principles to squeeze a small subdivision onto a six- or ten-acre parcel near a regional mall. Rogers opined that if the current zoning classification were sustained the property would most likely remain dormant, unsightly, and overgrown.
James Fuller, a real estate appraiser and broker, thought that the parcels could feasibly and profitably be developed for single-family housing. A road could be constructed between the two parcels and each split into four. The land value of one would then be $29,260, and the other $26,750. Alternatively, if the parcels were developed separately, one could be platted and subdivided into 16 lots and the other split four ways. Finally, he proposed a third alternative of platting the two properties together into a 26-lot subdivision.
He said that there was a market for single-family residential development alongside an arterial highway. The houses would merely sell for less than identical houses situated in quieter surroundings. Fuller stated that he had considered the adverse factors cited by other witnesses, but that they could be met by placing the houses a substantial distance away from Rochester Road and the northerly adjoining properties.
Steve Lehoczky, a community planner, had been involved in the preparation of the master plan for Avon Township, and he described this township as the fastest growing community in the six-county Detroit metropolitan area. He stated that in planning the township’s future development an at tempt had been made to avoid strip commercial development and to cluster commercial development at major intersections. On Rochester Road between Avon and Hamlin Roads, Lehoczky said, these goals were served by drawing the residential-commercial line north of the subject property. The township had adequate acreage elsewhere planned for commercial development (416 acres in total), and in Lehoczky’s opinion, extending the line south of the parcels would defeat the township’s goals and invite further rezoning petitions.
From a community planning standpoint, he thought it would be reasonable to develop the subject parcels either separately or together for residential use. The township had asked for walls and fences to be built around the automobile dealership next to Smitha Drive and for the dealership’s lights to be shielded from any nearby residential development. Some people were said to enjoy the open space provided by easements like the Detroit Edison one. Lehoczky said that Mr. Fuller’s proposed layout maintained proper community planning concepts and represented reasonable development alternatives for the land.
Kermith Billette, another community planner, agreed that the parcels in question were suitable for single-family residential development. He gave numerous examples of single-family developments near high-tension wires and on major thoroughfares, including some low-acreage parcels. Mr. Bil-lette believed that it would be feasible to split these parcels into four lots each, that the present zoning line was reasonable, that a high-tension wire easement could be beneficial in terms of providing a permanent open area for the residents, and that strip commercial development was a phenomenon to be feared.
II
The trial judge, who viewed the parcels at the parties’ request, found that the property could be reasonably adapted for single-family residential use. He responded to each of the detrimental factors identified for him. The trafile and noise of Rochester Road would be minimized because the "parcels are deep and the property is heavily wooded, with a gentle roll resulting in a 20-foot drop”. He relied on Mr. Billette’s testimony to neutralize the effect of the Detroit Edison easement and noted that homes had been built adjoining the easement across Rochester Road. Smitha Drive would provide an appropriate buffer between the parcels and the automobile dealers; other commercial development was separated by a substantial distance. He relied on evidence supplied by Mr. Fuller as well as Mr. Billette and said he was "inclined to give little weight to [Mr. Keating’s] testimony”:
"At first blush, this case appeared to be one which favored the plaintiffs. However, upon examining the testimony presented by the plaintiffs at trial, this court found the plaintiffs’ witnesses could not withstand cross-examination nor did they meet their burden under Kropf [v Sterling Heights, 391 Mich 139; 215 NW2d 179 (1974)] of demonstrating that the township zoning was unreasonable.
"Rather, it is the conclusion of this court that the zoning of plaintiffs’ property as single-family residential is reasonable. Moreover, even with Rochester Road and its associated traffic, the Detroit Edison easement and the car dealerships, this court finds the parcels are large, heavily wooded and have enough depth off Roch ester Road to make single-family residences a reasonable use. Furthermore, this court finds based on the testimony that the subject parcels, as zoned, have reasonable economic value. Contrary to the plaintiffs’ contention the difference in value in one zoning classification as compared with another classification does not alone make the zoning unreasonable. See Ettinger v Avon Twp, 64 Mich App 529, 533 [236 NW2d 129] (1975).
"It is the opinion of this court that both plaintiffs have failed to prove the present zoning classification unreasonable under the standard affirmed in Kirk v Tyrone Twp, 398 Mich 429, 439 [247 NW2d 848] (1976).”
Ill
In Christine Building Co v City of Troy, 367 Mich 508, 518; 116 NW2d 816 (1962), we said:
"This Court, however, is inclined to give considerable weight to the findings of the trial judge in equity cases. This is primarily because the trial judge is in a better position to test the credibility of the witnesses by observing them in court and hearing them testify than is an appellate court which has no such opportunity. We do not ordinarily disturb the findings of the trial judge in an equity case unless, after an examination of the entire record, we reach the conclusion we would have arrived at a different result had we been in the position of the trial judge.”
The Court of Appeals arrived at that different result in this case:
"Specifically, we find that the court erred in understating the detrimental effects of Rochester Road traffic on single-family residential development, where the unrebutted evidence showed a five-lane (widened from two since 1974) heavily traveled commercial artery connecting the City of Rochester with the City of Troy and Avon Township. We also believe the court’s characterization of the subject property as 'deep and heavily wooded, with a gentle roll resulting in a 20' drop’ is incorrect. The property is not deep. It is no deeper than the neighboring and abutting to the north commercial development. Both parcels are relatively small, being six and four acres respectively, and the roll would have a detrimental effect on any proposed residential use.
"The trial court concluded that the Winchester Mall located across the street, car dealerships located to the north and the 83' Detroit Edison easement located to the south, were neutral if not beneficial factors. We conclude exactly the opposite. A small single-family residential development, located next to an existing automobile dealership with a retention pond at its eastern extremity, presents an uncongenial fusion of jarring disparity.
"The court relied heavily upon the testimony of James Fuller, an appraiser, who testified in favor of the defendant. We have reviewed that testimony and the testimony of Mr. Keating, a land developer who appeared as a witness on behalf of the plaintiffs, and we find Mr. Keating’s testimony the more convincing. He thought single residential development not practically feasible.
"The court found that the testimony at trial supported the township’s theory, by indicating that strip development tends to become unsightly due to the proliferation of signs and business facilities and thus adversely affects property values. The court concluded from that testimony that the proposed rezoning would result in strip development contrary to the governmental interest of the township: '[F]or one rezoning often sets precedent for more rezonings.’ This ignores the fact of the rezoned areas located in close proximity to the plaintiffs’ holdings and that the signed commercial area up and down Rochester Road dwarfs whatever minuscule governmental interest there might be in prohibiting additional signs on these two relatively small parcels.”
In coming to a different result, the Court of Appeals did not give the trial judge’s findings the weight which they are due, Christine Building. "Heavily wooded” is a relative term, for example, one on which we are willing to defer to the trial judge who actually viewed the parcels. Even though the "parcels are relatively small”, Mr. Billette testified that they were "ample to split with reference to [their] size, dimensions, the depth of any lots, the amount of trees on the property” and that it was not uncommon to find small parcels like these. Mr. Fuller also thought the two parcels could be developed for single-family dwellings. While Mr. Keating was of a different view, the trial judge chose not to give as much credence to his testimony because his experience was with large subdivisions which averaged 400 lots. Given the closeness of this case with diametrically opposed expert testimony, the admonition of Christine Building becomes determinative in the township’s favor. Our review of the record, having in mind the trial judge’s resolution of witnesses’ credibility, does not lead us to the conclusion that we would have arrived at a different result if we had been in his position. Tuttle v Dep’t of State Highways, 397 Mich 44, 46; 243 NW2d 244 (1976).
In lieu of granting leave to appeal, pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals and reinstate that of the circuit court.
Costs to the defendant.
Fitzgerald, C.J., and Williams, Coleman, and Ryan, JJ., concurred.
Levin, J.
We cannot join in the opinion of the Court because it is apparent, upon reading Mr. Fuller’s testimony, that he was not testifying as an expert from his own knowledge or experience but rather on the basis of information which he obtained by communicating with others and by reference to books and other secondary sources. Mr. Fuller simply repeated what he learned from those sources.
While Mr. Keating’s experience was in the development of large subdivisions, Mr. Fuller had no experience as a developer at all. He was a broker and real estate appraiser, but the issue was not land value.
Mr. Keating’s testimony was specific and detailed regarding the cost of subdividing and developing the land. It was his opinion that no prudent land developer would invest approximately $375,-000 in the hope of realizing a profit of about $30,000. Mr. Fuller’s testimony, in contrast, was not supported by specifics. He rather stated the percentages of the selling price which the various components should represent.
The fallacy of Mr. Fuller’s approach is manifest. The cost of installing the requisite utilities and roads and the other development costs are set by the market and thus, may be more or less than an average, median, or ideal percentage of the selling price. The per-foot cost of installing utilities and roads and other costs of development will not vary substantially between one location in the same general area and another, but obviously the percentage of the selling price that those costs represent will vary substantially, depending upon the selling price.
The selling price for a lot in a marketable location can be a number of times the selling price at a less desirable location, yet the cost of subdividing, of installing utilities and roads, is essentially the same. Mr. Fuller’s use of percentages rather than of actual costs underscores his lack of actual experience in development, his dependence on information supplied by others and his lack of expertise, and his opinion whether a prudent land developer could be found to subdivide and develop this property is not worthy of adoption.
It is not a question of credibility. Mr. Fuller and Mr. Keating are no doubt both honest men. Mr. Keating alone had experience as a land developer.
It is a separate question whether the land could be used as is without subdividing, development, and the attendant cost of land improvements. The record in that regard is not adequately developed, but it does not appear from the per curiam opinion that that is the basis of this Court’s disposition.
We would deny leave to appeal.
Kavanagh, J., concurred with Levin, J.
Riley, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
Mr. Keating included as a cost a land value of about $64,000 as is. | [
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Levin, J.
The plaintiffs, residents and voters of the City of Lansing, commenced this action against the Board of Water and Light of the City of Lansing and the Michigan Public Power Agency, claiming that contracts entered into by the BWL and the MPPA are invalid because they have not been submitted to and approved by a vote of the Lansing electorate.
The circuit judge entered a summary judgment in favor of defendants on the ground that the plaintiffs had failed to state a claim upon which relief can be granted. We granted leave to appeal prior to decision by the Court of Appeals.
The BWL is an agency of the City of Lansing. MPPA is a public corporation, created pursuant to the Michigan Energy Employment Act of 1976, composed of fifteen cities and three villages, including Lansing, which operate municipal electric systems.
MPPA has entered into a contract with the Detroit Edison Company to acquire an undivided 37.22% interest in a 650-plus megawatt coal-fired electric generating plant, Belle River 1, now under construction by Edison. MPPA has also entered into contracts with Edison and Consumers Power Company to acquire undivided ownership interests in certain transmission facilities which will enable the MPPA to transfer to the BWL and other project participants power generated at Belle River 1.
The BWL and the other project participants have entered into contracts with the MPPA to purchase from MPPA electric energy and to pay therefor from electric system revenues amounts based on their percentages of interest of the operating, maintenance, and bond principal and interest expense. The BWL’s share is 64.29% of MPPA’s 37.22% portion of Belle River 1, and the other members of MPPA share the remaining 3.5.71%.
MPPA will finance the purchase of the undivided 37.22% interest in Belle River 1 by selling $630,000,000 of revenue bonds.
As a result of these arrangements, BWL may purchase 156 megawatts; of electric energy— 64.29% of 37.22% of the 650 megawatt generating capacity of the Belle River 1 plant. The BWL currently operates three coal-fired and two hydro generating facilities with a net capacity for all five facilities of 580 megawatts.
Plaintiffs allege that the BWL intends to shut down, retire, or mothball some of its generating facilities when power is generated and commences on line from Belle River 1 sometime in 1990.
Plaintiffs claim that by participating through the MPPA in the Belle River 1 project, the BWL has "acquired” a "public utility” and that, pursuant to Const 1963, art 7, § 25, the acquisition must first be approved by three-fifths of Lansing voters. Plaintiffs further assert that by so participating in the project, the BWL has disposed of property "needed to continue the operation” of the BWL, and that the charter of the City of Lansing requires an affirmative vote of three-fifths of the electors before such disposition.
Plaintiffs’ claim that the BWL has acquired a public utility is predicated on the argument that the meaning and effect of the contract entered into between the BWL and the MPPA obligating the BWL to purchase electric energy is to vest in the BWL an undivided interest in the generating facilities of Belle River 1. The claim that the BWL has disposed of property needed to continue the operation of the BWL is based on the same argument and on a prediction that by 1992, nine years from now, the BWL will no longer use some of its present electric generating facilities.
I
While the MPPA has acquired an undivided ownership interest in the generating facilities of Belle River 1, the members of the MPPA, including the City of Lansing and its agency, the BWL, have not acquired an ownership interest in Belle River 1, but a right to purchase electric energy in accordance with contracts entered into by the participating cities and the MPPA.
The BWL has no immediate prospect of obtaining an undivided interest in the assets of the MPPA. The BWL cannot acquire an undivided interest in the assets of the MPPA before it is determined that the purposes for which the MPPA was formed have been substantially fulfilled and bonds issued and other obligations incurred have been fully paid or satisfied.
The decisions of this Court indicate that even if the BWL had acquired an undivided interest in the Belle River 1 generating facilities, the acquisition of such an interest would not be subject to voter approval because the purchase of power generating facilities which merely extend the capacity of existing utility facilities is not, for purposes of Const 1963, art 7, § 25, the acquisition of a public utility.
In White v Welsh, 291 Mich 636; 289 NW 279 (1939), this Court considered the language of the 1908 Constitution corresponding to Const 1963, art 7, § 25, which similarly provided that a city may not acquire a public utility without the affirmative vote of three-fifths of the electors. The Court concluded that the construction of a 30-mile water pipeline between Lake Michigan and Grand Rapids, including pumping and booster stations, was not the acquisition of a public utility. The Court discussed its two earlier decisions construing the language of the constitution. In Schurtz v Grand Rapids, 208 Mich 510; 175 NW 421 (1919), the Court had held that voter approval was required where the city had acquired the property and franchises of a company which had been furnishing water to a portion of the inhabitants of a city for a number of years. In Veldman v Grand Rapids, 275 Mich 100; 265 NW 790 (1936), the Court had held that voter approval was not required to purchase a power plant to be used as an auxiliary to the city pumping station and lighting plant. Justice Bushnell, who dissented in part in Veldman, wrote for the Court in White, and said of Veldman:
"This court affirmed the dismissal of plaintiffs’ bill of complaint, dividing only upon the method employed. The court was unanimous on the proposition that the purchase of the power plant was not the acquiring of a public utility but was only the extension of an existing utility. ” (Emphasis supplied.)
The opinion of the Court in White continued:
"There is no difference in principle between the acquiring of a stand-by pumping station and the building of a pipe line from Grand Rapids to Lake Michigan. The property that was to be purchased in the Schurtz Case was an entirely independent water system.
"The intake crib, pumping stations, pipe line, and increased reservoir capacity can be used only in connection with, and is but an extension of, the existing water system. ” (Emphasis supplied.)
In the instant case, the power generated by the Belle River 1 facilities will be transmitted over the lines of Edison and Consumers Power Company to the lines of the BWL, and over the lines of the BWL to persons living within the BWL service area. As in Veldman and White, the increased capacity "can be used only in connection with, and is but an extension of, the existing [electric] system”.
We conclude that the BWL has not acquired a public utility within the meaning of Const 1963, art 7, § 25.
II
The plaintiffs claim that by entering into the contracts with the MPPA, the BWL has disposed of or will dispose of assets of the BWL in violation of Lansing’s charter.
The charter restrictions, by their terms, apply only to assets "needed to continue the operation of the” BWL and do not apply to the sale of machin ery or equipment "no longer useful or which are replaced by new machinery for the operation of the” BWL.
The allegation in plaintiffs’ complaint that the "BWL has purchased its interest in Belle River 1 to replace certain of its own electric generating facilities in the future” fails to state a claim upon which relief can be granted because it is not alleged that the BWL has either disposed of or is about to dispose of any asset, or that any asset that might "in the future” be disposed of is "needed to continue the operation” of the BWL, or that any disposition of an asset will not constitute "the sale or exchange of articles of machinery or equipment of the board of water and light which are no longer useful or which are replaced by new machinery for the operation of the board of water and light.”
Our disposition makes it unnecessary to consider defendants’ argument that the Michigan Energy Employment Act of 1976 was enacted pursuant to Const 1963, art 7, § 28, empowering the Legislature to enact laws authorizing cities to enter into joint contractual undertakings or agreements, and that the act prescribes the only conditions for such joint efforts and that such joint efforts, when authorized by the Legislature, are not subject to referendum unless the Legislature so provides.
As in Bigger v Pontiac, 390 Mich 1; 210 NW2d 1 (1973), we direct that no motion for rehearing or stay will be entertained by this Court and that final process shall issue forthwith.
Affirmed.
Williams, C.J., and Kavanagh, Ryan, Brickley, Cavanagh, and Boyle, JJ., concurred with Levin, J. _
MCL 460.801 et seq.; MSA 22.189(1) et seq.
"No city or village shall acquire any public utility furnishing light, heat or power, or grant ahy public utility franchise which is not subject to revocation at the will of the city or village, unless the proposition shall first have been approved by three-fifths of the electors voting thereon. No city or village may sell any public utility unless the proposition shall first have been approved by a majority of the electors voting thereon, or a greater number if the charter shall so provide.” Const 1963, art 7, § 25.
"The board shall not, unless approved by the affirmative vote of three-fifths of the electors voting thereon at a regular or special city election, sell, exchange, lease, or in any way dispose of any property, easement, equipment, privilege, or asset needed to continue the operation of the board of water and light. The restrictions of this section shall not apply to the sale or exchange of articles of machinery or equipment of the board of water and light which are no longer useful or which are replaced by new machinery for the operation of the board of water and light, or to the exchange of property or easements for other needed property or easements.” Charter, City of Lansing, § 5-207.
"Unless approved by the affirmative vote of three-fifths of the electors voting thereon at a regular or special city election, the city shall not sell, exchange, lease, or in any way dispose- of any property, easement, equipment, privilege or asset needed to continue the operation of any municipal public utility. All contracts, grants, leases, or other forms of transfer in violation of this section shall be void and of no effect as against the city. The restrictions of this section shall not apply to the sale or exchange of machinery or equipment of any municipally owned public utility, which is no longer useful or-which is replaced by new machinery or equipment, or to the leasing of property not necessary for the operation of the utility, or to the exchange of property or easements for other needed property or easements.” Charter, City of Lansing, § 8-302.
It is asserted that the contracts between the BWL and MPPA grant MPPA control over the disposition of the BWL’s "ownership interest” in the Belle River 1 generating facilities in violation of the city’s charter.
Section 46 of the Michigan Energy Employment Act of 1976 provides that when the board of commissioners of a joint agency and the governing bodies of its member municipalities determine that "the purposes for which the joint agency was formed have been substantially fulfilled and that bonds issued and other obligations incurred by the joint agency have been fully paid or satisfied”, the board of commissioners and governing bodies "may declare the joint agency to be dissolved”, and that on the effective date of such a resolution "title to the funds and other properties” of the joint agency owned by the joint agency at the time of dissolution shall vest in the member municipalities as therein provided. MCL 460.846; MSA 22.189(46).
Const 1908, art 8, § 25.
See fn 4 and the first two paragraphs of Part I.
In their brief in opposition to defendants’ motion for accelerated and summary judgment, plaintiffs said that they had "alleged that defendant BWL will phase out certain of its antiquated generating facilities and replace its capacity with its entitlement from Belle River”. (Emphasis supplied.)
Section 42(6) of the act provides for a referendum where the full faith and credit of a municipality is pledged. MCL 460.842; MSA 22.189(42).
The resolution of the BWL approving the contract between the BWL and the MPPA was adopted on November 23, 1982, following a number of public hearings and meetings extending over the preceding year. The project was the subject of a number of newspaper articles in the Lansing State Journal. It appears that one of the plaintiffs, Alvin Eby, appeared at a July 27, 1982, meeting of the BWL and presented his views in writing to the BWL.
The MPPA adopted a resolution on January 17, 1983, authorizing the issuance of $630,000,000 of revenue bonds, and an application for approval was filed with the Michigan Municipal Finance Commission. The MPPA asserts that it expected to begin marketing the bonds at the end of March, 1983, when this action was commenced on March 24, 1983, requiring a suspension of the bond marketing plans.
Plaintiffs’ complaint, filed March 24, 1983, alleged that the MPPA. proposes to begin marketing the bonds on or about March 30, 1983, and sought to restrain the sale thereof.
In Bigger v Pontiac, 390 Mich 1; 210 NW2d 1 (1973), this Court said that those who wish to prevent, by resort to the courts, the construction of a project dependent on the sale of bonds must avail themselves of judicial processes "in a manner which facilitates an orderly process of adjudication within the given time frame”, failing which the courts may, in an appropriate case, even refuse to adjudicate on the merits the claims set forth in the complaint. | [
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Rehearing denied. Reported at 416 Mich 510.
Boyle, J., not participating.
Kavanagh, J., would grant rehearing.
Levin, J., would grant the motion for rehearing and says:
Detroit Edison has filed a motion for rehearing of this Court’s December, 1982, decision sustaining an appropriation of $23,500,000 of Detroit Edison’s capital. The motion should be granted and the case once again set down for plenary hearing and decision.
On December 22, 1975, the Michigan Public Service Commission entered an order requiring Detroit Edison to write off accumulated deferred fuel costs of approximately $26,350,000 against net income over a period of ten years. The circuit court reversed, and Detroit Edison was authorized to collect the deferred fuel costs from its customers over a 12-month period; Detroit Edison actually collected approximately $23,500,000.
In March, 1978, the Court of Appeals reversed the circuit court. In December 1982, the Court of Appeals was affirmed by an equal division in this Court. Chief Justice Fitzgerald’s opinion for affirmance was signed by Justices Williams and Ryan. I wrote for reversal and Justices Kavanagh and Coleman signed that opinion. The Detroit Edison Co v Public Service Comm, 416 Mich 510 (1982).
I
On February 4, 1974, the commission authorized Detroit Edison to add a fuel adjustment clause for domestic service, the adjustment to apply to the second billing month following the calendar month in which the fuel is burned. On July 29, 1974, Detroit Edison was authorized to set up on its balance sheet as an asset the "fuel expense” to be collected two months hence. On February 3, 1975, the commission revised the fuel adjustment clause to eliminate the two-month lag, and Detroit Edison was directed to file an application with the commission for a determination of the disposition of the accumulated fuel cost deferral.
Detroit Edison filed such an application. A hearing referee found that Detroit Edison had "experienced an increase in the cost of fuel consumed [during a part of December, 1974 and January, 1975] which exceeded by $26,349,806 the existing respective base points for fuel cost adjustment calculations, and which under the then existing procedures, would have been recoverable from and billed to customers in February and March 1975”, and that said sum is reflected by Detroit Edison in the account in which deferred fuel costs were required to be set forth by the July 29, 1974, order. The hearing referee further found that the February 3,1975, order had established a new fuel adjustment clause "that substantially eliminated the previous 'billing lag’ for fuel costs occurring after February 3, 1975, thereby vitiating the need for future accumulations of deferred fuel costs”. The hearing referee further stated:
"There is nothing in the record to support a finding that the cost of fuel should be written off against net income, and the staff’s position is asserted without any probative evidence to justify altering the premise that the applicant’s customers should pay for the cost of fuel incurred on their behalf. On the other hand, the evidence submitted by the applicant persuasively establishes that if applicant is not permitted to recover the deferred fuel costs from its customers, then the applicant must, in effect, write off an asset account of $26,349,806 against its common equity.”
The hearing referee recommended that the accumulated deferred fuel costs be billed to customers over a 12-month period.
On December 22, 1975, the commission rejected his recommendation and ordered the write-off over a ten-year period of the $26,350,-000 accumulated fuel cost deferral. The commission acknowledged that "during part of December 1974 and part of January 1975” Detroit Edison had experienced "an increase in costs of fuel consumed” and that, during that period, its "actual fuel costs exceeded the amount it was able to recover under the fuel cost adjustment clause which existed at that time by $26,349,806”.
n
Although appellees assert that Detroit Edison has recovered the deferred fuel costs, it clearly appears from the findings of the. hearing referee and the orders of the commission and it is implicit in the analysis of the opinion for affirmance in this Court that Detroit Edison did not, before the circuit court order authorizing it to do so was entered, recover the $23,500,000 from its customers.
The opinion for affirmance states that the fuel clause "was not designed to recover all past costs, but was intended only to estimate current costs on the basis of past experience”. Detroit Edison Co v Public Service Comm, supra, p 515. (Emphasis supplied.)
The opinion for affirmance begins by stating the first issue posed in this Court’s order granting leave to appeal but does not address another issue posed in that order: "If the utility is not allowed the proposed surcharge, would confiscation result?” 403 Mich 853 (1978).
A fuel clause "not designed to recover all past costs”, which, in a period of rising costs, "inherently” must fail to do so, does not constitute an appropriate exercise of the power confided to the commission. The commission failed to justify the "designing” of a fuel clause which "inherently” requires Edison to absorb and charge its stockholders, rather than its customers, for $23,500,000 of actual fuel costs.
In allowing Detroit Edison to set up as an asset on its books accumulated deferred fuel costs of $26,350,000, the commission, in effect, represented that the amount was a true asset, and not a "paper asset” as the Court of Appeals incorrectly characterized it. Surely the commission does not authorize public utilities to "display” "paper assets”. To do so would be to mislead stockholders, investors, and the public.
The opinion for affirmance states that three features of the fuel clause demonstrate that the fuel clause was intended only to "estimate” current costs on the basis of past experience. Detroit Edison asserts in its motion for rehearing that those features are generally characteristic of utility rates, billing, and collection. Detroit Edison states that there cannot be an exact match between the month of expenditure and the month of billing. Meters are read every other month, necessitating an estimate of actual usage for each month of the two-month period. Meters are read on 20 different days in each month for a total of 40 different days. The meter of only 1 customer in 20 is read on the first day of the month. It is not practical, because of the small amounts involved, to bill former customers. Detroit Edison explains further that the fuel clause did not become effective until after the test year used in the prior rate case.
It appears that utility rates and fuel clauses inevitably incorporate estimates made on the basis of past experience. But that does not gainsay that Detroit Edison is entitled to have a fuel clause designed, although it may incorporate estimates based on past experience, to recover all its actual fuel costs and that the commission may not justifiably require Detroit Edison to write off $26,500,000 of actual deferred fuel costs.
The three features relied on in the opinion for affirmance concern, Detroit Edison points out, matters upon which the record is largely silent. The argument based on the three features reflects inferences based on assumptions unsupported by an evidentiary record and untested by adversary presentation.
The orders of the commission stated that the purpose of the fuel clause was to permit Detroit Edison to recoup past costs and spoke of billing lags and deferred fuel costs. The commission should not be allowed to recharacterize the purpose and functioning of the fuel clause, and then criticize Detroit Edison for not complaining earlier, for not anticipating that the commission would adopt a new characterization.
The motion for rehearing states that the opinions from other jurisdictions relied on in the opinion for affirmance are factually and legally distinguishable because they relate to wholesale rates for sales of electricity by one utility to another utility, and fuel clauses drafted under regulatory schemes which allow the utility to draft its own clause which then may properly be construed against the drafter. Applying the same concept here, this fuel clause might properly be construed against its drafter, the commission.
In sum, the effect and result is to appropriate $23,500,000 of Detroit Edison’s capital by recharacterization by a new commission .of prior orders of the commission, and affirmance by an equal division of this Court on an analysis grounded in factual assumptions which have not been tested in the crucible of adversary presentation and decisions from other jurisdictions which may concern dissimilar factual and legal questions.
The order authorized Detroit Edison to incorporate a fuel adjustment clause for domestic electric service and approved revised rate schedules, for service rendered on and after February 5, 1974, stating that "[t]he adjustment shall apply to the second billing month following the calendar month in which the fuel is burned”.
The order states that Detroit Edison had "experienced rapid and substantial increases in fuel costs since December 1973, and expects such increases to continue”; "there is a lag of about two months in implementing revised fuel clause billing calculations for domestic and commercial customers”; "[bjecause of the lags referred to above in implementing revised fuel clause billing calculations, there is thus not a proper matching of fuel clause revenue adjustments with the corresponding changes in fuel costs”; that Detroit Edison had agreed that the proposed change in accounting treatment "shall not serve as a basis in whole or in part, directly or indirectly, for a rate base or cost of service greater than would be determined had such accounting entries, treatment and interpretation not been made or approved, all without prejudice to the right of The Detroit Edison Company to request the benefit in rate proceedings of future orders of the commission which establish accounting entries, interpretations or treatments other than'those established in this proceeding”.
The commission order further states that Detroit Edison was authorized and directed to adopt revised accounting procedures for its fuel expense so that, "[t]o the extent that costs of fuel burned in any month * * * are subject to billing in a later month, * * * such costs * * * shall be deferred until such time as they are reflected in billing adjustments made pursuant to such fuel cost adjustment clauses”. "The deferred fuel expense * * * shall be charged * * * to operations in the amount of revenue billed * * * under the applicable approved fuel clause for the particular month.” "This [accounting change] shall not cause an increase in rate base or cost of service, for ratemaking purposes.”
The order states that the fuel adjustment clause "is intended to recover all increases in fuel costs which are beyond applicant’s [Detroit Edison’s] control on a timely basis”. "The commission finds, however, that applicants currently approved [fuel adjustment clause] does not in fact achieve the goal of fully recognizing changes in fuel costs in a timely manner. Therefore the commission finds it necessary to correct the operation of the clause to reduce the existing time lag between the incurring and the reflecting of increased or decreased costs of fuel in the fuel adjustment. This lag has become a significant problem with rapidly escalating cost of fuels and with the potential assessment of proposed new taxes on these fuels.” (Emphasis supplied.)
The commission referred to its July -29, 1974, order, granting Detroit Edison permission to record increases in the cost of fuel burned for electric service “hot recovered through operation of the [fuel adjustment clause] in a balance sheet account rather than an income statement account,” and stated, "[t]his was approved since applicant was experiencing a significant lag in the recovery of higher fuel costs. * * * As a result of this accounting treatment, net income per books could no longer be adversely affected during a period of rising fuel costs by the lag contained within the [fuel adjustment clause] provision. * * * Cash flow, however, continued to be adversely affected since applicant was unable to offset a signiñcant portion of its increased fuel expense outlays with increased revenue.’’ (Emphasis supplied.)
The commission found that the fuel adjustment clause "should be modified with respect to the procedure used in determining the appropriate billing month adjustment factor so as to effectively eliminate the lag. * * * As modified, the clause will effectively eliminate any annual under-collection or over-collection of incurred costs of fuel burned by applicant while continuing to calculate the adjustment factor on the basis of actual fuel cost data.”
The findings conclude with the statement that “[s]ince this modification of the [fuel adjustment clause] effectively eliminates the lag, it also removes the need of applicant’s accounting for deferred fuel costs as directed” by the July 29, 1974, order. "As such, applicant shall file an application with the commission for a determination in a separate proceeding as to disposition of the accumulated fuel cost deferral up to the effective date of this order.”
The revised fuel adjustment clause, attached to the order, continued to provide that “[t]he fuel adjustment shall be applied to the second billing month following the calendar month in which the fuel is burned.” It further stated that "[t]o correct for the two-month lag between cost incurrence and billing adjustment, the increase or decrease in the charge per kWh as determined above shall be appropriately increased or decreased by the difference between the 'two-month lag’ adjustment factor applied in the second immediately preceding billing month and the 'two-month lag’ adjustment factor to be applied for the immediate billing month.”
The commission further acknowledged that Detroit Edison had not recovered all of its actual expenditures. Speaking of the February 3, 1975, order, which directed the elimination of the billing lag, the commission stated that it had revised Detroit Edison’s "fuel clause so that fuel expenditures and revenues from the fuel clause would occur at about the same points in time. Since fuel costs have steadily increased during the preceding period, applicant had not collected through the previous rates, including the fuel clause, all of its actual expenditures for fuel.”
The staff of the commission advanced three arguments for rejecting the hearing referee’s recommendations, all of which were rejected by the commission. The commission ruled against Detroit Edison, rather, because it was "inherent in [the fuel adjustment clause] that the full amount of fuel expenses would not be collected if fuel costs rose above the base fuel cost without at some subsequent time falling below the base cost”. The commission continued that the effect of the July 29, 1974, order authorizing Detroit Edison to set up on its balance sheet the deferred fuel expense was "to display the under-collection separately”. (Emphasis supplied.)
See fn 4.
82 Mich App 59, 76 (1978).
See fn 4.
The membership of the commission changed between February, 1975 and December, 1975.
The amount to be refunded, including accrued interest, will exceed $35,000,000. It is noteworthy that although the refund is justified in part on the basis that otherwise there would not be a precise match between usage, at the time the fuel expense was incurred some eight years ago, and billing some two months later, this refund will probably be made to a substantial number of customers who were not customers eight years ago. This, I think, substantiates that the features relied on in the opinion for affirmance are inherent in utility billing, collection, and refund and not a reason for deciding this dispute one way or another. | [
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Boyle, J.
This workers’ compensation case focuses on the interpretation of MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862), the so-called 70% provision. Specifically, we address the issue whether an employer (or its workers’ disability compensation carrier) who has paid benefits to an employee during the appeal of a workers’ compensation case may claim those payments as pre-payments or credit against the employer’s ultimate liability or, stated conversely, whether the exclusive source of the employer/carrier’s recovery, on the facts here presented, is the Second Injury Fund.
I
The plaintiff, Kurt Hiltz, was a 17-year-old minor employed by defendant Phil’s Quality Market (defendant Buckeye Union’s compensation insured). On May 10, 1974, plaintiff suffered a compensable injury to his right hand. Defendant car rier voluntarily paid compensation of $56 per week from May 11, 1974, through October 4, 1974, when plaintiff returned to work until he was laid off on December 31, 1974.
Plaintiff filed a petition for hearing on December 16, 1974. The decision of the hearing referee was rendered on August 28, 1975. Plaintiff was awarded 136 weeks of specific loss benefits at the rate of $128 per week for the loss of the industrial use of the thumb (65 weeks), index finger (38 weeks), and middle finger (33 weeks) of his right hand. See MCL 418.361(2); MSA 17.237(361X2). The award also included reimbursement of $545 rehabilitation training expense. The hearing referee further found that at the conclusion of the specific loss period, plaintiff would be entitled to partial disability benefits in accordance with MCL 418.361; MSA 17.237(361).
The employer appealed this decision to the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board. While this appeal was pending, MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862) became effective. Pursuant to its provisions, the employer paid 70% of the $128 award for specific loss benefits from August 28, 1975, through December 18, 1976. After this date, the employer continued 70% payments for partial disability benefits.
On December 6, 1977, the WCAB entered its order modifying the hearing referee’s decision. The WCAB found that plaintiff had not proven the loss of the industrial use of his thumb; thus, the award of 65 weeks of specific loss benefits was reversed. Specific loss benefits for the loss of the industrial use of the right index and middle fingers, totaling 71 weeks from the date of injury, were affirmed. Thereafter, plaintiff would receive benefits for a continuing partial disability in accordance with MCL 418.361; MSA 17.237(361). The reimbursement for rehabilitation benefits was denied.
The employer/carrier’s application for leave to appeal to the Court of Appeals was denied on March 31, 1978.
Thereafter, in its computation of benefits, the employer/carrier credited all payments made to the plaintiff against the total specific loss benefits due — $9,088.00 (71 weeks X $128). There is no dispute regarding the employer/carrier’s entitlement to a credit for the benefits voluntarily paid between May 10, 1974, and October 4, 1974; to a credit for 70% benefits paid from August 28, 1975 (the date of hearing referee’s decision^ to September 12, 1975 (the termination of the WCAB award of 71 weeks of specific loss benefits); and to a credit for 70% of the wage loss differential benefits paid from September 13, 1975, to December 6, 1977. However, credit was also claimed for the 70% benefits paid from September 19, 1975, to December 16, 1976, the 65-week period for the loss of the industrial use of the thumb to which the WCAB found plaintiff not to be entitled. Plaintiff took exception to this credit.
On May 18, 1978, the employer/carrier filed a petition for determination of rights with the Bureau of Workers’ Disability Compensation, joining the Second Injury Fund as a party._
A hearing was held on July 17, 1978, and, on October 4, 1978, the hearing referee entered a decision finding that the 70% benefits paid during the 65-week period were benefits in excess of the WCAB award. The referee found that these benefits could not be credited against the remaining compensation due but, rather, that reimbursement to the carrier must come from the Second Injury Fund. This decision was affirmed by the WCAB on October 9, 1979.
In an unpublished memorandum opinion, the Court of Appeals reversed. Docket Nos. 48272, 48273 (April 30, 1981). Adopting the reasoning of Stewart v Saginaw Osteopathic Hospital, 100 Mich App 502; 298 NW2d 911 (1980), lv den 410 Mich 916 (1981), the Court concluded that the employer/ carrier could set off payments made under the 70% statute. This Court granted leave to appeal. 414 Mich 866 (1982).
II
The controversy in this case centers on the interpretation of MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862). In resolving disputed interpretations of statutory language, it is the function of a reviewing court to effectuate the legislative intent. Aikens v Dep’t of Conservation, 387 Mich 495, 499; 198 NW2d 304 (1972). If the language used is clear, then the Legislature must have intended the meaning it has plainly expressed, and the statute must be enforced as written. In re Certified Questions, 416 Mich 558, 567; 331 NW2d 456 (1982); Dussia v Monroe County Employees Retirement System, 386 Mich 244, 249; 191 NW2d 307 (1971).
There is no disagreement regarding the meaning of the first portion of § 862 which reads as follows:
"A claim for review filed pursuant to sections 859 or 861 shall not operate as a stay of payment to the claimant of 70% of the weekly benefit required by the terms of the hearing referee’s award. Payment shall commence as of the date of the hearing referee’s award and shall continue until final determination of the appeal or for a shorter period if specified in the award. Benefits accruing prior to the referee’s award shall be withheld until final determination of the appeal.”
During the pendency of an appeal, 70% of the weekly benefits as determined by the hearing referee are to be paid to the employee from the date of the hearing referee’s award until the appeal is finally resolved.
The dispute herein involves the next three sentences of § 862 which we will address seriatim. Sentence four of § 862 states:
"If the weekly benefit is reduced or rescinded by a final determination, the carrier shall be entitled to reimbursement in a sum equal to the compensation paid pending the appeal in excess of the amount finally determined.”
This language addresses the situation in which the result of the final appeal determination is that the weekly benefit is either reduced or rescinded. In such a situation, if the amount of compensation paid by the employer pending appeal (70% benefits) is . more than the amount ultimately found to be due the employee as of the final determination date, then the employer is entitled to be reimbursed for this difference.
The controversy here focuses on the meaning of "in excess of the amount finally determined”. Plaintiff contends that the proper interpretation of this language is that, upon final determination of the appeal, the amount in "excess” is all 70% benefits which were paid for those weeks ultimately found to be weeks for which no benefits are due. The carrier must seek reimbursement for this "excess” from the Second Injury Fund. Utilizing this interpretation, the 70% benefits paid herein during the 65-week period rescinded by the WCAB award are in excess of the amount actually due for that time period and thus subject to reimbursement.
Defendants, on the other hand, contend that "in excess of the amount finally determined” refers to an excess of their total liability to the plaintiff as finally determined. Here, the total amount of specific loss benefits which the WCAB found to be due plaintiff is $9,088. Pursuant to the 70% provision, considerably less than this amount was actually paid. Since additional monies are still owed to the plaintiff under the WCAB award, defendants claim that no "excess” was realized which would be subject to reimbursement.
In our view, plaintiff’s construction strains the clear language of the statute. Plaintiff claims that the "excess” applies to those weeks during the pendency of the appeal in which 70% benefits had been paid but, in view of the final award, need not have been paid. Such an analysis is based on a fallacy because the employer/carrier is bound by §862 to pay 70% benefits throughout the entire time in which the appeal is pending. When the final award is determined, it is immaterial whether or not 70% benefits were paid for "certain weeks” now found to be weeks for which no benefits were due, because during the appeal period the employer/carrier must pay 70% benefits for each week under the hearing referee’s award.
The key question is not for what period 70% benefits need not have been paid, but, rather, what amount of benefits were not paid while the employer/carrier’s appeal was pending which were subsequently found to be owing for a given time period. If, for example, the final award is $10,000, and during the pendency of the appeal plaintiff1 had been paid $8,000, there is no "excess”, and the employer/carrier remains liable for an additional $2,000. On the other hand, if the final award is $10,000, but the 70% benefits totaled $12,000, then an "excess of the amount finally determined” does exist. The employer/carrier is entitled to a reimbursement of $2,000.
The manner in which this reimbursement is paid is explained in sentence five of § 862 which provides as follows:
"Reimbursement shall be paid upon audit and proper voucher from the second injury fund established in chapter 5.”
Clearly, liability for reimbursement rests solely with the Second Injury Fund. All parties herein agree that no matter what the final award, the employee is never liable for this reimbursement. McAvoy v H B Sherman Co, 401 Mich 419; 258 NW2d 414 (1977).
Plaintiff, however, equates "reimbursement” with the defendants’ claimed credit. Reimburse means "[t]o pay back, to make restoration, to repay that expended; to indemnify, or make whole”. Black’s Law Dictionary (5th ed), p 1157. An employee is not required by § 862 to "reimburse” or pay back to the employer any monies received, even if the final award totally abrogates the employee’s entitlement to any benefits.
The defendants’ contention that they are enti tied to credit or offset compensation benefits already paid to the employee against their total liability to the employee is an entirely different concept. Unlike "reimbursement”, offset or credit in this context does not require the employee to return monies already acquired, nor will it cause the employee to receive less benefits than those to which the employee is ultimately entitled.
Plaintiff claims that to allow defendants an offset would be in direct conflict with this Court’s holding in McAvoy. This would follow, however, only if we adopted plaintiff’s contention that "reimbursement” and "offset” are synonymous. This we cannot do.
Our clear holding in McAvoy was that reimbursement shall be paid solely by the Second Injury Fund. With this, we are in complete agreement. Defendants’ desire to be given credit for compensation paid during appeal is an entirely different issue.
Sentence six of § 862 states:
"If the award is affirmed by a final determination, the carrier shall pay all compensation which has become due under the provisions of the award, less any compensation already paid.”
This language addresses those cases in which the award of the hearing referee is affirmed. All parties herein agree that a portion of the hearing referee’s award for specific loss benefits was affirmed (71 of the 136 weeks).
Plaintiff contends that the correct interpretation of sentence six results in credit only for those 70% benefits paid during the actual 71-week time period (that portion of the award which was affirmed). Plaintiff’s interpretation adds words of limitation to the statute which do not exist.
Defendants imply that "all compensation” refers to the amount of their total liability to the plaintiff. This interpretation disregards words of limitation which are in the statute.
We are bound by the plain meaning of sentence six. The carrier is to pay all awarded compensation "which has become due” as of the final determination of the appeal, "less any compensation already paid”. In the case at bar, the total specific loss benefits awarded to the plaintiff had become due prior to the final determination date. From this total amount "any compensation already paid” by the employer/carrier must be subtracted.
The WCAB refused to allow credit for the 70% benefits which had been paid during the rescinded 65-week period because in its opinion these benefits were not "compensation”. The WCAB stated that 70% benefits paid during weeks which are ultimately rescinded "effectively change character and no longer constitute compensation, but rather a form of social payment designed to meet workers’ needs in the face of appellate delay problems”. 1979 WCABO 2617, 2620.
We cannot accept the conclusion that benefits which are "compensation” prior to the final determination on appeal may somehow change character and no longer be "compensation” subsequent to the final determination. Such an analysis finds no support in the clear language of the statute itself.
Clearly, any benefits awarded by a hearing referee are compensation, for compensation is what a hearing referee is empowered to award. The amount paid pending appeal is not an arbitrary amount to be applied in all cases. Rather, it is based on the amount of compensation awarded by the hearing referee in a particular case. Section 862 provides that while an appeal of the hearing referee’s decision is pending the employer/carrier must pay 70% of the awarded compensation. The 70% benefits are "compensation” because they are a percentage of the total compensation award.
This is not a new interpretation of § 862. In McAvoy we stated:
"[T]he 70% statute clearly does not retroactively alter existing substantive law by changing the amount of the employer’s liability. The 70% statute only effectuates a procedural change; employers and carriers are now required to make immediate payment pending the appeal. However, the substantive benefits (the '100%’ total) ultimately owed, or not owed, remain exactly the same.” 401 Mich 459.
Moreover, the Legislature refers to these 70% benefits as "compensation”. The final sentence of § 862 states:
"Payments made to the claimant during the appeal period shall be considered as accrued compensation for purposes of determining attorneys’ fees under the rules of the bureau.”
Attorney fees are not computed until after the final determination of the appeal. It is this time period to which the above-quoted sentence addresses itself, and the previously paid 70% benefits are referred to as "accrued compensation
Ill
The case at bar does not neatly fit into either of the § 862 categories: it is neither an award which is "reduced or rescinded” (sentence four), nor an award which is "affirmed” (sentence six). The situation presented herein is a hybrid of these two categories. The hearing referee’s award for 71 weeks of specific loss benefits was affirmed, whereas, the award of 65 weeks of specific loss benefits for the loss of industrial use of plaintiff’s thumb was rescinded. An attempt to force the facts of this case into a single category would lead to unreasonable consequences which we cannot condone. In the Matter of Karen Marable, 90 Mich App 7, 10; 282 NW2d 221 (1979), lv den 407 Mich 871 (1979).
Plaintiff’s construction of the statute requires that, in addition to the 70% benefits which the employer has paid during the pendency of the appeal, the employer must also pay the total amount awarded for 71 weeks of specific loss benefits. In the instant case, this construction would permit the plaintiff to retain the approximately $5,800 which he has already received and, also, allow him to recover an additional $9,088 in specific loss benefits. Clearly, this would result in double recovery which is repugnant to the very principles of workers’ compensation. Stanley v Hinchliffe & Kenner, 395 Mich 645, 657; 238 NW2d 13 (1976), reh den 396 Mich 976 (1976).
The Legislature’s intent in compelling 70% benefits to be paid pending appeal was "to provide those who had obtained a favorable decision at the hearing referee level with some immediate ongoing source of sustenance”. McAvoy, supra, p 460, fn 18. This purpose of the statute was accomplished by the employer/carrier’s payment of the 70% benefits to plaintiff during the appeal period. The purpose of § 862 was not to authorize double recovery.
Application of plaintiff’s position to a continuing award situation illustrates its unreasonableness. If a continuing award is affirmed, § 862 unequivocally states that the employer is entitled to credit for "any compensation already paid”. Thus, the employee in such a situation is entitled to the 30% compensation benefits which accumulated during the appeal period and no more, because the employee has already received 70% of the award.
Acceptance of plaintiff’s position in the present context, by comparison, would permit plaintiff to receive, in addition to the 30% accrued benefits, full payment for the closed award (specific loss benefits). Thus, the employee whose award is totally affirmed on appeal would be in a worse position than an employee, such as plaintiff, whose award is only affirmed in part. We cannot authorize such an incongruous result.
Plaintiff is concerned that if we adopt defendant’s position carriers will seek reimbursement from employees for the 70% benefits on the basis of compensation benefits previously awarded and paid prior to the present action. This fear is unfounded because, as we held in McAvoy and reaffirm, an employee is not required to pay back benefits received pending appeal. Reimbursement must come from the Second Injury Fund.
Plaintiff also expresses a concern that the carrier’s credit will extend indefinitely into the future against compensation that may become due. However, this fear is also unfounded. Any credit that an employer/carrier may take is limited by the language of § 862 itself which states that "the carrier shall pay all compensation which has become due under the provisions of the award, less any compensation already paid”. Credit may be taken only at one point (the final determination date) and only against the amount of compensation which has become due during the appeal period, ending with the final determination date. For example, no credit may be taken against plaintiff’s continuing partial disability benefits which became due after the final determination date.
We cannot accept plaintiff’s contention that defendants’ only recourse is to the Second Injury Fund. To do so would mean that plaintiff would twice receive payment for the same specific loss injury. Plaintiff is entitled to 71 weeks of specific loss benefits, and this is what he will receive. To permit the employer/carrier to offset compensation already paid will not penalize any of the parties and will comport with the plain meaning of § 862. Plaintiff will receive the total amount of specific loss benefits to which he is entitled. The employer/carrier will pay the total amount of compensation for which it is liable.
IV
We are also persuaded that the broad purpose of MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862) is not offended by the result here reached.
The objective of the appellate process is the prompt and proper determination of valid claims, irrespective of which party initiates the appeal. There is no social interest in the protection either of invalid awards to claimants or of invalid decisions favoring employers._
To the evaluation of the merit of the claim vis-ávis the cost of further review, inherent in every disappointed litigant’s decision to seek further review, the employer/carrier litigant must add the 70% benefits provided by the statute. The purpose of the provision, as recognized in McAvoy, was to ensure that workers who have been awarded presumptively valid benefits receive immediate sustenance during appellate delays and to discourage frivolous or marginal appeals by employers/carriers.
The statutory scheme provides incentives for all affected parties to seek prompt appellate relief at each juncture in the process where they perceive that the result is unacceptable. Thus, as explained by the late Justice Moody in McAvoy, supra, 401 Mich 443-445, if an initial award is appealed and terminated, the 70% benefits are terminated. If appealed and reduced, the 70% provision applies only to the new award (in the event another appeal is taken). Likewise, if a claimant appeals a vacation or modification at a lower level and obtains reinstatement, the 70% benefits resume.
If the employer/carrier’s assessment of merit in the issue is correct and the award is reduced or rescinded, it is entitled to reimbursement from the Second Injury Fund for the amount paid which exceeds its final liability. If the appellant loses and the award is affirmed, we have held here that it is liable for the amount determined below, less any payments made toward discharge of that liability. Barring recoupment of excess payments from the claimant is a constitutionally permissible cost of the system justified by the need to protect valid awards during lengthy appellate processes. While this result permits a claimant to retain sums wrongfully paid, the Legislature has expressed its judgment that this is a legitimate cost to be undertaken in the interest of providing prompt payment of valid benefits to a disabled worker.
The fact that such recoupment is not available from claimants does not impinge upon the basic statutory objective, that is, the prompt determination of valid claims, whether those of the disabled worker or the employer/carrier.
We are unable to conclude, however, that a double recovery by a claimant, on the facts presented here, would accord with the statutory purpose. No impediment to the promotion of meritorious employer appeals or the discouragement of marginal employer appeals can be found in permitting the credit here approved.
In short, nothing in the history, purpose, or language of the statute or of McAvóy supports the construction urged by plaintiff. Simply stated, it does not follow from the fact that the employer may be reimbursed where the 70% benefits paid exceed the amount finally determined to be due that he must be so reimbursed if the 70% benefits do not exceed the amount finally determined.
Conclusion
We find that under MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862), upon final determination of an appeal, if amounts in addition to the total of the 70% paid are found to be owed to plaintiff by defendant employer/carrier for the "pending appeal” period, the employer/carrier may receive credit against this amount for any benefits paid pending appeal, i.e., 70% benefits. Any benefits which become due to the plaintiff subsequent to the final determination date are not subject to the employer/carrier credit. We further reaffirm our holding in McAvoy that when an employer/carrier has paid compensation benefits during an appeal period which total more than the total amount due as of the final determination date, reimbursement of any excess must come solely from the Second Injury Fund.
The decision of the Court of Appeals is affirmed.
Williams, C.J., and Ryan, Brickley, and Cavanagh, JJ., concurred with Boyle, J.
Kavanagh, J.
(for reversal). This case involves the question whether under the 70% provision of the workers’ compensation act, MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862), a carrier may claim credit for overpayment of benefits against the reduced award for continuing benefits as finally determined, or whether such overpayment can be recovered only from the Second Injury Fund.
We hold that the carrier may not take credit as claimed, but must seek reimbursement from the Second Injury Fund.
The seventeen-year-old plaintiff injured his right hand on May 10, 1974, while attempting to clean out a meat grinder while employed by Phil’s Quality Market. He sought workers’ compensation benefits and was awarded 136 weeks of specific loss benefits for loss of the industrial use of his right thumb and the first and second fingers of his right hand, and reimbursement of $545 in rehabilitation training expense. The August 28, 1975, decision of the hearing referee further found plaintiff to be disabled in the general field of unskilled labor and entitled to double compensation under the act as an illegally employed minor.
The insurance carrier appealed the decision of the referee and paid the 70% benefits during the pendency of the appeal as required by MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862). By a decision of Decern ber 6, 1977, the WCAB modified the decision of the referee and held that plaintiff was entitled to only 71 weeks of specific loss benefits for industrial loss of the use of the right index and middle fingers. The decision further provided that the employer "have credit for all compensation voluntarily paid”. Defendants’ application for leave to appeal was denied by the Court of Appeals on March 31, 1978.
Thereafter, when the carrier, pursuant to the computation of benefits, took credit for all payments made including the payments made pursuant to MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862), plaintiff took exception and sought review. By a decision of October 4, 1978, the hearing referee found that plaintiff was entitled to keep excess 70% payments and that the carrier should seek reimbursement for excess payments from the Second Injury Fund, and not from plaintiff. The WCAB affirmed by decision of October 9, 1979.
In an unpublished memorandum opinion of April 30, 1981, the Court of Appeals reversed, adopting the reasoning of Stewart v Saginaw Osteopathic Hospital, 100 Mich App 502; 298 NW2d 911 (1980), and concluding that the employer’s carrier could use payments made under the 70% statute to reduce the amount that it was required to pay plaintiff "for the closed award preceding the 70% payment”.
The statute makes provision for credit of payments already made if an award is affirmed, and for reimbursement of the overpayment if the award is reduced or rescinded. It makes no provision for credit against the continuing payments or otherwise if the award is reduced.
In Stewart, p 509, the Court of Appeals explained its holding:
"What should be done with the remaining $1,361.09 which the WCAB found that the claimant is entitled to? Should she be permitted to retain the $5,558.10 paid but not owed by the carrier plus receive actual payment of $1,361.09 for a total of $6,919.19 when she is entitled to only $1,361.09? We hold that she should not. To hold otherwise would result in a windfall to the claimant in the amount of $5,558.10. This we will not permit.”
The idea that a court will or will not "permit” a windfall is a misperception of the proper function of a court. Whether or not to permit a windfall under particular circumstances is a policy decision within the ambit of legislative prerogative. If the statute is constitutional the legislative determination to allow the windfall should be enforced by the court whatever its reservations regarding, or disagreement with, the policy.
Admittedly, the statutory provision that recoupment of a payment subsequently determined to be excessive or not proper must be obtained from the Second Injury Fund rather than the worker who received it results in a windfall to that worker. So too the inability to credit a subsequently determined overpayment on one disability against continuing liability on another disability results in a windfall to the injured person. The Legislature certainly could have prevented such a windfall in either circumstance by appropriate provisions had it so intended. It did not do so.
The provision held to allow the windfall in the first instance provides no logical basis for a holding to disallow it in the second. There is nothing in this statutory provision which will support a conclusion of legislative intent to deny a windfall under either circumstance.
We rejected that notion in McAvoy v H B Sherman Co, 401 Mich 419; 258 NW2d 414 (1977), when we held the statute to be constitutional.
We said in McAvoy, pp 446, 449, "The clear wording of the statute provides that reimbursement for benefits paid during the pendency of an appeal, which subsequently reduces or rescinds those benefits, 'shall be paid * * * from the Second Injury Fund’.”
"The Michigan Legislature elected to provide a unitary system of reimbursement for carriers via the Second Injury Fund; this was the Legislature’s prerogative and we respect it.”
The statute provides for reimbursement — not credit — if the benefits are reduced or rescinded.
The statute here does not employ the word "credit” at all. The concept of credit comes into play only when the award is affirmed. Then the statute provides for payment of all compensation due "less any compensation already paid”. This, in a sense, is a credit.
Here the award was reduced by the final determination. The WCAB correctly held that all that was provided under the statute in this circumstance was reimbursement from the Second Injury Fund.
The judgment of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and the order of the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board is reinstated.
Levin, J., concurred with Kavanagh, J.
Section 862 provides as follows:
"A claim for review filed pursuant to sections 859 or 861 shall not operate as a stay of payment to the claimant of 70% of the weekly benefit required by the terms of the hearing referee’s award. Payment shall commence as of the date of the hearing referee’s award and shall continue until final determination of the appeal or for a shorter period if specified in the award. Benefits accruing prior to the referee’s award shall be withheld until final determination of the appeal. If the weekly benefit is reduced or rescinded by a final determination, the carrier shall be entitled to reimbursement in a sum equal to the compensation paid pending the appeal in excess of the amount finally determined. Reimbursement shall be paid upon audit and proper voucher from the second injury fund established in chapter 5. If the award is affirmed by a final determination, the carrier shall pay all compensation which has become due under the provisions of the award, less any compensation already paid. Interest shall not be paid on amounts paid pending final determination. Payments made to the claimant during the appeal period shall be considered as accrued compensation for purposes of determining attorneys’ fees under the rules of the bureau.”
The amount of compensation was figured on plaintiffs actual earnings in part-time employment, doubled because of his illegal employment as a minor. See MCL 418.161; MSA 17.237(161). A total of $1,176 was paid voluntarily.
This amount reflects double compensation because of plaintiffs status as a minor. See fn 2.
The parties are in agreement regarding the computation of the wage loss differential benefits. Payment of these benefits will be reflected in defendants’ ultimate liability to the plaintiff. These benefits will not be specifically addressed in this opinion because the controversy herein centers on the compensation payable for the specific loss benefits.
Cf. McAvoy v H B Sherman Co, 401 Mich 419, 445, fn 6; 258 NW2d 414 (1977) ("back” 70% benefits included in total accrued benefits).
See p 342, ante, for those benefits which plaintiff recognizes as credit.
Plaintiff’s claimed conflict with MCL 418.833(2); MSA 17.237(833X2) is erroneous, as we explained in McAvoy, pp 449-450, fn 11.
Other jurisdictions have also recognized an employer/carrier’s right to seek an offset in certain limited situations. See, e.g., Johnston v Tony’s Pizza Service, 232 Kan 848; 658 P2d 1047 (1983); Hicks v Fred Meyer, Inc, 57 Or App 68; 643 P2d 1311 (1982); Belam Florida Corp v Dardy, 397 So 2d 756 (Fla App, 1981). | [
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Williams, C.J.
The Michigan Judicial Tenure Commission filed and served Formal Complaint No. 24 on the Honorable Edward W. Lawrence, judge of the 43rd District Court of the City, of Madison Heights, on February 5, 1981. A supplemental complaint was filed on May 5, 1981. The complaint and supplemental complaint allege several areas of judicial misconduct as follows:
(1) improper use of a judicial office by Judge Lawrence in assigning indigent criminal cases to, and allowing appearances by, attorneys with whom he had financial ties;
(2) maintenance of an interest in a business which held a Michigan liquor license;
(3) acceptance of free legal service in personal matters from, and assignment of indigent criminal defense cases to, an attorney;
(4) improper use of a judicial office by misrepresentation to influence securing a license by a personal acquaintance; and_
(5) improper reporting and retention of campaign funds.
Respondent filed an answer to Complaint No. 24 on March 24, 1981, and an answer to the supplemental complaint on August 14, 1981. He maintains that he has not violated any disciplinary rule or canon nor has he committed misconduct in office or engaged in conduct clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice.
The Honorable George E. Bowles was appointed master on April 6, 1981, and hearings were started on August 27, 1981. The report of the master was filed and served on May 18, 1982. Objections were filed by the respondent, and hearings were held before the commission. On September 16, 1982, the commission’s decision and recommendation along with the dissent thereto were served on the parties. On September 29, 1982, the certification of the record and decision of the commission were filed with this Court. Respondent filed his petition to reject the commission’s decision and recommendation on December 6, 1982. Oral arguments were heard on April 7, 1983. We then proceeded to conduct a de novo review of the record of the proceedings. GCR 1963, 932.25. In re Somers, 384 Mich 320, 323; 182 NW2d 341 (1971); In the Matter of Hague, 412 Mich 532, 539; 315 NW2d 524 (1982), reh den 413 Mich 1106 (1982).
I. Assignment As Counsel for Indigents by, and Appearances Before, Judge Lawrence of Attorneys With Whom He Had Financial Ties
We find that the master and the commission correctly concluded that Judge Lawrence improperly allowed appearances by, and assigned indigent criminal cases to, attorneys with whom he was formerly associated and with whom he had and still has financial ties and that this constituted judicial misconduct.
"In In the Matter of Del Rio, 400 Mich 665; 256 NW2d 727 (1977), we quoted from In re Greenberg, 442 Pa 411, 416; 280 A2d 370 (1971), and Tamm, Are Courts Going the Way of the Dinosaur?, 57 ABA J 228 (March, 1971):
" 'For generations before and since it has been taught that a judge must possess the confidence of the community; that he must not only be independent and honest, but, equally important, believed by all men to be independent and honest. A cloud of witnesses testify that "justice must not only be done, it must be seen to be done.” Without the appearance as well as the fact of justice, respect for the law vanishes in a democracy.’ ” In re Bennett, 403 Mich 178, 198; 267 NW2d 914 (1978).
On January 1, 1971, respondent assumed his duties as district court judge. He had previously been a municipal judge and practiced law with Russell A. Volz, Richard D. Mintz, and Patrick M. McDonough, under the firm name of Lawrence, Volz & Mintz, P.C. Since respondent owned 99% of the shares of the professional corporation, a financial arrangement was made in which the other attorneys agreed to pay respondent $317,000 over ten years for his interest in the firm and its assets. On January 3, 1972, another series of documents was drafted and signed, making the professional corporation liable for the debt. In 1976, there was a major restructuring of the debt, and the indebtedness of Mintz and McDonough was forgiven, while Volz continued to owe respondent a substan tial sum. During this same period of time, these attorneys also leased office space on John R Road and East Twelve Mile Road in Madison Heights, the former owned by Lawrence Associates, Inc., and the latter owned by Judge Lawrence and his wife.
In sum, respondent had substantial financial ties to the attorneys in the firm of Volz, Mintz & McDonough, P.C. At the same time, these attorneys made a substantial number of appearances before respondent. They appeared five times before Judge Lawrence during 1971 and 1972 and 19 times in 1972 and 1973, 14 of which were appointments to represent indigents. During the period of 1971 to 1980, members of the firm appeared before respondent in over 270 cases, 202 of which were appointments by the court to represent indigent criminal defendants at an expenditure of $31,000 in public funds.
The totality of the circumstances must be evaluated. It is not necessary for a particular canon or disciplinary rule to be violated before disciplinary action is warranted. GCR 1963, 932.4(d). It is clear that Judge Lawrence had substantial economic ties to his former associates and that he appointed them to represent indigent criminal defendants in numerous cases before him from which they gained substantial sums of money. This action is clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice because it definitely gives the appearance of favoritism and economic self-interest.
Under the prior Canons of Judicial Ethics, respondent was in violation of Canons 4, 26, and 29. Canon 4 generally states that a judge’s official conduct should be free from impropriety and the appearance of impropriety, while Canon 26 specifically states that "[h]e should, so far as reasonably possible, refrain from all relations which would normally tend to arouse the suspicion that such relations warp or bias his judgment, or prevent his impartial attitude of mind in the administration of his judicial duties”. Canon 29 deals with self-interest and states that "[a] judge should abstain from performing or taking part in any judicial act in which his personal interests are involved”. Canons 2, 3C, and 5C(1) of the present Code of Judicial Conduct have also been violated. The extensive financial involvement with the named attorneys and the fact that there were 202 appointments to represent indigent criminal defendants definitely raise an appearance of impropriety and violation of the above canons.
II. Having an Interest in a Business Which Held a Michigan Liquor License in Direct Contravention of Statute
Upon de novo review of this matter, we find that the respondent held, directly or indirectly, an interest in a liquor license in direct contravention of MCL 436.18; MSA 18.989. Respondent has thus violated GCR 1963, 932.4.
MCL 436.18; MSA 18.989 provided as follows:
"No person who holds or whose spouse holds, either by appointment or election, any public office which involves the duty to enforce any of the penal laws of the United States of America, or the penal laws of the state, or any penal ordinance or resolution of any municipal subdivision of the state, except civil defense volunteer policemen, shall be issued any license, nor shall such a person have any interest, directly or indirectly, in any such license.”
Respondent violated this statute in that he held an interest "directly or indirectly” in a liquor license. This allegation is supported by the evidence outlined as follows. First, respondent was a shareholder and director of Groveland Valley Development Corporation which had as its primary objective the development of real estate, including a golf course. A separate corporation was organized, Groveland Valley Country Club, to facilitate the development of the golf course and country club. However, for all intents and purposes, Grove-land Valley Development Corporation maintained all control, and the entities were one and the same.
Second, when the corporations were contemplating the acquisition of a liquor license, they realized the difficulty of a public official having an interest in the liquor license. Thus, before the Liquor Control Commission approved the transfer of a resort-type liquor license to Groveland Valley Country Club, respondent purported to sell his interest to his mother in 1973. In actuality, however, respondent did not completely alienate his interest, but instead maintained an active interest in the corporation as illustrated by a letter circu lated on July 9, 1975, stating that respondent intended to exercise his pre-emptive rights, as well as by his frequent attendance at board meetings.
Third, upon dissolution of Groveland Valley Development Corporation, the assets were held successively by two different partnerships, with respondent as one of the partners. Respondent was a partner involved in the subsequent sale of the real estate and liquor license and was listed as having a share in the profits and financial investments of the business. His name appeared on the assignment of the liquor license to the purchasers. Thus, the evidence clearly supports a violation by respondent of MCL 436.18(1); MSA 18.989(1) which precludes a public official from maintaining a direct or indirect interest in a liquor license. This certainly is misconduct in office.
III. Receipt of Free Legal Services From Mr. Walter Schuller, Esq., and Appointment of That Attorney to Represent Indigents
It was alleged that Schuller represented the respondent in three personal matters, that Schuller charged no fee, and that Schuller was appointed to represent indigent criminal defendants for which he received $7,675 in public funds. Upon de novo review, the record clearly supports all three allegations.
Respondent maintains that, viewing the situation within the totality of circumstances, there was nothing wrong with having a long-time friend represent him in allegedly minor personal legal matters. We disagree. We find the acceptance of free legal representation and the failure to report such representation coupled with the subsequent assignment of Mr. Schuller to represent indigent defendants to be in violation of Canon 32 of the former Canons of Judicial Ethics, and Canons 5C(4) and 6C of the Code of Judicial Conduct. The assignment of indigent criminal defendant representation under these circumstances creates the impression of an improper quid pro quo. See In the Matter of Troy, 364 Mass 15, 73; 300 NE2d 159; 306 NE2d 203 (1973).
IV. Improper Use of Judicial Office to Influence a Licensing Agency for the Benefit of an Acquaintance
It was alleged that two letters written by respondent to the Oakland County Concealed Weapon Licensing Board in support of an applicant for a gun permit contained material misrepresentations that were influential in the decision to issue a gun permit. Upon de novo review of the record, we find the allegation to be supported by the evidence.
The letters written by respondent clearly stated that Mr. Archer, the applicant for a gun permit, was a probation officer and was required to go into the inner city of Detroit at all hours during the course of his probation duties. Such information was not true and was clearly a misrepresentation. Mr. Archer was merely a volunteer probation officer who was asked by respondent to help probationers seek employment. Furthermore, he was not seeking a gun permit to assist him in his probational duties at all, but instead for business purposes. The chairman of the licensing board testified he was influenced by the letters submitted by respondent in issuing Mr. Archer an unrestricted gun permit. At a special hearing in 1980 after the general permit was issued, Mr. Archer admitted that he never went into Detroit, and the permit was then changed to a restricted permit in relation to his business activities. This action supports the conclusion that the misrepresentations in respondent’s letters influenced the board in its initial decision.
We find the allegation to be supported by the evidence and that such conduct is clearly in viola tion of DR 1-102(A)(4) and Canon 2 of the Code of Judicial Conduct and, thus, constitutes misconduct.
V. Improper Retention of Campaign Funds
Respondent was charged with judicial misconduct for the improper retention of campaign funds in his re-election campaign in 1978. The Committee to Re-Elect Edward W. Lawrence received contributions in excess of $13,800, of which $6,200 was improperly diverted to an officeholder expense fund. Respondent made donations from his officeholder expense fund, including contributions to candidates for non-judicial office, charities, individual retirement parties, and luncheons for public officials.
Canon 7C(2) of the Code of Judicial Conduct clearly states, in pertinent part:
"(2) No judge or other person, party, committee, organization, firm-, group or entity may accept any contribution of money or of a tangible thing of value, directly or indirectly, to or for a judge’s benefit for any purpose whatever, including, but not limited to, contribution for a campaign deficit, expenses associated with judicial office, testimonial, honorarium (other than for services, subject to Canon 6) or otherwise.” (Emphasis added.)
Respondent acknowledges, this clear prohibition in the Code of Judicial Conduct, but emphasizes that this provision directly conflicts with MCL 169.249; MSA 4.1703(49), which states in pertinent part:
"(1) An elected public official may establish an officeholder expense fund. The fund may be used for expenses incidental to the person’s office. The fund may not be used to make contributions and expenditures to further the nomination or election of that public official.” (Emphasis added.)
This statute was enacted pursuant to Const 1963, art 2, § 4 which grants the Legislature authority to regulate elections. We do not dispute the fact that the Legislature has the authority to "maintain the integrity of Michigan’s election process”, Socialist Workers Party v Secretary of State, 412 Mich 571, 594; 317 NW2d 1 (1982), but we conclude that the more specific Code of Judicial Conduct authorized by Const 1963, art 6, § 4 governs respondent’s actions. Canon 7C(2) clearly prohibits the maintenance of an expense account consisting of contribution funds.
Respondent defends his actions with respect to funds contributed to his campaign principally on the basis that the Code of Judicial Conduct was superseded by MCL 169.249; MSA 4.1703(49), establishing officeholder expense funds. This is a complete misapprehension of the situation, and we do not accept respondent’s position as having any validity.
The Code of Judicial Conduct was established by this Court pursuant to the authority and responsibility imposed on it by Const 1963, art 6, § 4, providing that "[t]he Supreme Court shall have general superintending control over all courts”. The general and comprehensive nature of this authority was examined by Chief Justice Dethmers in In re Huff, 352 Mich 402, 417-418; 91 NW2d 613 (1958). This Court, as recently as 1981, in In the Matter of Probert, 411 Mich 210, 229-230; 308 NW2d 773 (1981), confirmed the continuing validity of Huff, as follows:
"As explained in In re Huff, 352 Mich 402, 418; 91 NW2d 613 (1958):
" 'The superintending control conferred by Constitution on this Court is a power separate, independent and distinct from its other original jurisdiction and appellate powers, its purpose being "to keep the courts themselves 'within bounds’ and to insure the harmonious working of our judicial system.” * * * Such power having been conferred by Constitution upon this Court, it also received all the power necessary to make that control and its implementing orders and writs effective.’ (Citations omitted.)”
Specifically, this Court has held that the supervisory power of the Court cannot be restricted or removed by legislative action. Brown v Kalamazoo Circuit Judge, 75 Mich 274, 279; 42 NW 827 (1889). The matter has most recently been reviewed in In re 1976 PA 267, 400 Mich 660, 662-663; 255 NW2d 635 (1977). This was a letter to the Governor and Legislature from this Court advising that the so-called "Sunshine Law”, 1976 PA 267, could not constitutionally be applicable to the courts even "while exercising rulemaking authority”. The import of this letter for this matter is that the legislation may not intrude upon the constitutional exercise of judicial authority in the exercise of its rulemaking function, which is what this Court was doing in this case. As a consequence, this Court will not presume that the general election law and particularly the officeholder expense fund provision was intended to intrude upon spe cific action of this Court in adopting a Code of Judicial Conduct to assure judicial integrity well within its constitutional authority.
Respondent maintains that he did not know whether the Judicial Code or the legislation controlled and that, therefore, he should not be charged with misconduct. Respondent, however, was informed of the conflict by a State Court Administrative Office memorandum transmitted by an election official "that a judge may not establish such [an officeholder’s] fund”.
The Code of Judicial Conduct clearly states what a judicial candidate is to do with campaign funds. Canon 7B(2), subds (d) and (e) provides:
"(d) If a candidate is not opposed for such judicial office, he or his committee shall return to the contributors funds raised in excess of the actual costs incurred or contribute such funds to the Client Security Fund of the State Bar of Michigan, not later than January 1 following the election.
"(e) Any candidate or his committee having funds remaining after payment of all campaign expenses shall either return such funds to the contributors thereof or donate said funds to the Client Security. Fund of the State Bar of Michigan, not later than January 1 following the election.”
Regardless of whether respondent was opposed or not (his opponent withdrew), the respondent should have either returned the funds not properly expended on his election to the contributors or donated the funds to the Client Security Fund. Respondent did donate $532 to the client fund, but $6,200 went into an officeholder expense fund. This was clearly in violation of the Code of Judicial Conduct.
Conclusion
Upon de novo review of the record in this case, we find that the allegations of misconduct found by the commission are supported by the evidence. The conduct complained of, as discussed above, constitutes misconduct in office and conduct clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice.
Const 1963, art 6, § 30(2) provides:
"(2) On recommendation of the judicial tenure commission, the supreme court may censure, suspend with or without salary, retire or remove a judge for conviction of a felony, physical or mental disability which prevents the performance of judicial duties, misconduct in office, persistent failure to perform his duties, habitual intemperance or conduct that is clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice. The supreme court shall make rules implementing this section and providing for confidentiality and privilege of proceedings.”
GCR 1963, 932.25 implements this provision and provides:
"The Supreme Court shall review the record of the proceedings on the law and facts and shall file a written opinion and judgment directing censure, removal, retirement, suspension, or other disciplinary action as it finds just and proper, or reject or modify, in whole or in part, the recommendations of the commission.”
We, therefore, pursuant to art 6, § 30(2) and GCR 1963, 932.25, adopt the recommendations of the commission (a) that respondent be publicly censured; (b) that respondent be suspended from all judicial and administrative responsibilities, without pay, for a period of nine months; (c) that respondent be ordered to pay costs; and (d) that respondent be ordered, as a condition for his rein statement, to return to the contributors or remit to the State Bar Client Security Fund the amount of $5,667.97 ($6,200 that was diverted to the officeholder expense fund minus $532 already paid to the Client Security Fund).
Kavanagh, Levin, Ryan, Brickley, Cavanagh, and Boyle, JJ., concurred with Williams, C.J.
The commission was established by Const 1963, art 6, § 30.
Respondent was also charged with violating Canon 5C of the Code of Judicial Conduct, but the master found the allegation to be unsupported and, as noted during oral arguments, the matter is not before us.
GCR 1963, 932.25 provides:
"The Supreme Court shall review the record of the proceedings on the law and facts and shall file a written opinion and judgment directing censure, removal, retirement, suspension, or other disciplinary action as it finds just and proper, or reject or modify, in whole or in part, the recommendations of the commission.”
GCR 1963, 932.4(d) provides:
"(d) Conduct in violation of the code of judicial conduct or code of professional responsibility and canons, whether the conduct complained of occurred before or after the respondent became a judge or was or was not connected with his judicial office, may constitute misconduct in office or conduct that is clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice or other cause delineated in Const 1963, art 6, § 30. The question in every case is whether the conduct complained of constitutes misconduct in office or conduct that is clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice or there is other cause delineated in Const 1963, art 6, § 30, not whether a particular canon or disciplinary rule has been violated. All the circumstances are to be considered in deciding whether action by the commission is warranted.
Respondent objects to the findings of the master and the commission that there was misconduct with regard to these appearances and appointments. He objects to the "retroactive application of ethical principles or rules” in that DCR 405.1(7) only applied to partners. DCR 405.1(7) stated:
"The judge shall be deemed disqualified to hear the action when the judge * * * (7) was a partner of a party or attorney within 2 years next preceding the hearing of the cause or any interlocutory matter therein”.
Respondent argues it was only after the amendment in 1-978 that there was any ground for disqualification. GCR 912.2(4) now states:
"A judge is disqualified when he cannot impartially hear a case, including a proceeding where the judge * * * (4) was a partner of a party, attorney for a party, or a member of a law ñrm representing a party within the preceding 2 years”. (Emphasis added.)
As noted above, we do not base our opinion relative to this section of the complaint on the narrow two-year canon, but upon the patent impropriety of giving indigent-defendant assignments to former associates with whom the judge has a financial relationship. We, however, agree with the analysis presented by the commission on this issue.
Canon 2 of the Code of Judicial Conduct, which was adopted in 1974, provides, in pertinent part:
"A. Public confidence in the judiciary is eroded by irresponsible or improper conduct by judges. A judge must avoid all impropriety and appearance of impropriety. He must expect to be the subject of constant public scrutiny. He must therefore accept restrictions on his conduct that might be viewed as burdensome by the ordinary citizen and should do so freely and willingly.
"B. A judge should respect and observe the law and should conduct himself at all times in a manner that promotes public confidence in the integrity and impartiality of the judiciary.
"C. A judge should not allow his family, social, or other relationships to influence his judicial conduct or judgment. He should not use the prestige of his office to advance the business interests of himself or others.”
Canon 3C provides:
"A judge should raise the issue of his disqualification whenever he has cause to believe that he may be disqualified under GCR 1963, 405.”
Canon 5C(1) provides:
"(1) A judge should refrain from financial and business dealings that tend to reflect adversely on his impartiality or his judicial office, interfere with the proper performance of his judicial duties, exploit his judicial position, or involve him in frequent transactions with lawyers or persons likely to come before the court on which he serves.”
Judge Lawrence claims that he was not aware of the impropriety of his actions. He was, however, ruled disqualified by Judge Clarkson in People v Brown (46th District Court Criminal Docket No. 00031, April 28, 1971), the first case in which one of respondent’s associates appeared before him. Judge Clarkson ruled that respondent was disqualified from hearing any cases brought by his former associates within two years of that disassociation. Judge Lawrence did not challenge this decision.
GCR 1963, 932.4 sets forth the standards of judicial conduct. It provides:
".4 Standards of Judicial Conduct.
"(a) A judge shall be personally responsible for his own behavior and for the proper conduct and administration of the court or tribunal in which he presides.
"(b) A judge shall be deemed guilty of misconduct in office if:
"(i) He is hereafter convicted in the United States of conduct which is punishable as a felony under the laws of Michigan or Federal law.
"(ii) He persistently fails to perform his judicial duties.
"(iii) He is habitually intemperate within the meaning of Constitution of 1963, article 6, section 30.
"(iv) His conduct is clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice.
"(v) He is persistently incompetent or neglectful in the performance of his judicial duties.
"(c) A respondent shall be removable from office for physical or mental disability which prevents the performance of his judicial duties for a substantial period of time and if it appears likely that he will not be able to resume within a reasonable period the normal performance of his duties as a judge.
"(d) Conduct in violation of the code of judicial conduct or code of professional responsibility and canons, whether the conduct complained of occurred before or after the respondent became a judge or was or was not connected with his judicial office, may constitute misconduct in office or conduct that is clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice or other cause delineated in Const 1963, art 6, § 30. The question in every case is whether the conduct complained of constitutes misconduct in office or conduct that is clearly prejudicial to the administration of justice or there is other cause delineated in Const 1963, art 6, § 30, not whether a particular canon or disciplinary rule has been violated. All the circumstances are to be considered in deciding whether action by the commission is warranted.”
MCL 436.18; MSA 18.989 was amended by 1978 PA 85, §1, and now provides as follows:
"(1) A person who holds or whose spouse holds, either by appointment or election, a public office which involves the duty to enforce any of the penal laws of the United States, or the penal laws of this state, or a penal ordinance or resolution of any municipal subdivision of the state, except civil defense volunteer policemen, mayors or council members of cities, or village presidents, or mayors of home rule cities whose law enforcement authority under the city charter is restricted to emergency situations, shall not be issued a license, or have an interest, directly or indirectly, in a license.”
There is some dispute as to whether the check issued by Virginia Lawrence, respondent’s mother, was ever negotiated. We need not decide this factual issue, however, since we find that respondent did not completely alienate his interest regardless whether the sale to his mother was actually transacted.
Canon 32 of the former Canons of Judicial Ethics provides:
"A judge should not accept any presents or favors from litigants, or from lawyers practicing before him or from others whose interests are likely to be submitted to him for judgment.”
Canon 5C(4)(c) provides:
"(4) Neither a judge nor a member of his family residing in his household should accept a gift, bequest, favor, or loan from anyone except as follows:
"(c) a judge or a member of his family residing in his household may accept any other gift, bequest, favor, or loan only if the donor is not a party or other person whose interests have come or are likely to come before him, and, if its value exceeds $100, the judge reports it in the same manner as he reports compensation in Canon 6C.”
Canon 6C provides, in pertinent part:
"A judge should report the date, place, and nature of any services for which he received compensation and the amount of remuneration received and complete detailed information of all contributions of money or of a tangible thing of value by any person, party, committee, organization, firm, group, or entity to any person, party, committee, organization, firm, group, or entity, directly or indirectly, to or for the judge’s benefit for any purpose whatever, including, but not limited to, a contribution for a judicial campaign or otherwise and of all disbursements or use of contributions, all on forms to be prescribed by the state court administrator.”
In In the Matter of Troy, the Court stated:
"He procured substantial legal services from Mr. Manzi and Mr. Carvin. He paid these lawyers nothing for their services. Further, he gave them numerous assignments as court-appointed counsel for indigent defendants for which the two lawyers were compensated at public expense. During the time when Mr. Manzi and Mr. Carvin were serving as his personal attorneys, he presided over cases in which they appeared as counsel for private litigants, and he made no disclosure of the relationship between judge and counsel. On one occasion, without disclosing his relationship to counsel, he presided over a tort case and made a substantial finding in favor of a plaintiff represented by Mr. Carvin.”
DR 1-102(A)(4) provides as follows:
"(A) A lawyer shall not:
"(4) Engage in conduct involving dishonesty, fraud, deceit, or misrepresentation.”
Respondent states that he has sought to regulate his extrajudicial conduct to minimize the risk of conflict with the Code of Judicial Ethics and the concerns of the commission. As stated in In the Matter of Laster, 404 Mich 449, 461; 274 NW2d 742 (1979),
"There is no doubt that 'good faith’ should be considered as a mitigating factor to acts of misconduct but not as an affirmative defense to charges of misconduct.” | [
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Pursuant to GCR 1963, 853.2(4), in lieu of granting leave to appeal, the case is remanded to the Attorney Discipline Board for entry of an order increasing the respondent’s 119-day suspension to a 180-day suspension, with credit for 119 days of suspension already served. The Court is persuaded that the board abused its discretion and that the discipline imposed is clearly insufficient in light of the facts and circumstances of the case.
Kavanagh and Levin, JJ., would deny the request to increase the discipline imposed.
Reconsideration denied December 1, 1983. | [
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After Remand
Beasley, J.
This matter was previously remanded to the trial court to give defendant opportunity to offer proof on a separate record relating to defendant’s motion to set aside a sale of partnership assets and to set aside the order confirming the sale. Extensive hearings have been held pursuant to the order of remand, after which both sides filed briefs with the trial court. Pursuant to request of plaintiff-appellee, the trial court then made further findings of fact over the objection of defendant-appellant, and the matter has now been returned to this Court, which retained jurisdiction.
The issue which gives rise to this portion of defendant-appellant’s appeal relates to whether the sale of partnership assets ordered by the trial court after trial included only the real property in which the partnership had an interest, or included all of the assets of the partnership, including cash and bank accounts.
The record indicates that, after trial on the merits, «both sides prepared proposed judgments purporting to give effect to the trial court’s rulings and findings. Notice was fully given to both sides, and a hearing or hearings were held after which the trial court entered a judgment. Paragraph two of that judgment, which was dated November 24, 1975, provides as follows:
"2. The partnership property shall be sold at public auction within two weeks from the date hereof and either party shall have the right to bid on said property at said auction, each being credited on the purchase price thereof with their aliquot share of the property; the proceeds thereof shall be first applied to the expenses of sale, if any; then, to the satisfaction of any creditors of said partnership and the remainder divided equally between the parties; terms of sale shall be cash or certified check provided that the bidders shall have (60) days from the date of sale to obtain any necessary financing and, in default thereof, the property shall be awarded to the next highest bidder; and the sale shall be consummated by the payment of cash or certified check * * * .”
This judgment was prepared by counsel for defendant on his stationery after the hearings heretofore referred to. The trial court was, and is, satisfied that the reference in the judgment to "partnership property” was intended to mean and to include all partnership assets and not only the real property in which the partnership had an interest. Our review of the record indicates that there was sufficient evidence to support the trial court’s conclusion in this regard.
The record, including the separate record, indicates that the notice of sale which had been requested by the sheriff or his deputy and posted by him or his deputy, described only three parcels of real property in which the partnership had an interest. For whatever the reason, the record indi cates that neither plaintiff nor its counsel objected to the failure to describe properly the partnership assets to be sold in the notice of sale. Defendant-appellant claims that a third party, or possibly other strangers to the transaction, might have bid a higher amount than that bid by plaintiff as the successful bidder if they had, in fact, known that there were to be other assets included in the public auction sale. From our review of the record, this possibility seems highly unlikely. Although the trial court ordered a public auction sale, it is clear that the parties were primarily bidding against each other as the price rose from the first bid of $850,000 to the $1,150,000, which was the ultimately successful bid of plaintiff.
We find that defendant and his attorney knew, or should have known, that there was a discrepancy between the judgment entered by the court after trial and the notice of sale. We, therefore, decline to permit the error in the notice of sale which, in any event, was apparently prepared by counsel for defendant, to serve as a basis for setting aside the sale.
Defendant also claims that it was error for the trial court to deny him an opportunity to take an opinion from his expert witness, David Bredernitz, on the separate record. Objection was made to the inquiry made of the expert, and the trial court sustained the objection on the ground that it was not relevant.
As we previously indicated, where request is made to place testimony on a separate record after objection is successfully made to admission of the testimony, there must be a sufficient reason for denial of the request. There was not any sufficient or good reason for this denial by the trial jduge; again, it was error for him to deny defendant this opportunity. However, in view of the findings that we now make, this error is harmless under the circumstances of this case.
Consistent with these findings, we, after full consideration of the testimony placed on the separate record, find that defendant’s claims of error with respect to the sale of the partnership assets are without merit.
We note the further findings of fact and conclusions of law made by the trial court and give consideration to them. We find that the findings of the trial judge were not clearly erroneous.
Affirmed, with costs.
Quinn, J., did not participate. | [
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N. J. Kaufman, P.J.
Following a jury trial held January 4 through February 17, 1977, defendant was found guilty but mentally ill of felony murder, in violation of MCL 750.316; MSA 28.548. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on March 16, 1977, and appeals as of right.
On appeal defendant raises a two-pronged legal issue of first impression: What effect, if any, have the repeal of the rape statute, formerly MCL 750.520; MSA 28.788, and the passage of the criminal sexual conduct act, MCL 750.520a et seq.; MSA 28.788(1) et seq., had upon prosecutions for murder committed in the perpetration or attempted perpetration of a rape? Defendant argues first, that there can be no conviction for felony murder-rape because "rape” is no longer a crime, and secondly, that his conviction denies him equal protection of the laws because murders committed by females in the perpetration of forcible sexual assaults are not punishable as "felony murders”.
The statute under which defendant was convicted provides in relevant part:
"All murder * * * which shall be committed in the perpetration, or attempt to perpetrate any arson, rape, robbery, burglary, larceny of any kind, extortion or kidnapping, shall be murder of the first degree * * * .” MCL 750.316; MSA 28.548. (Emphasis added.)
Prior to the passage of the criminal sexual conduct act in 1974, it was clear that the word "rape” in MCL 750.316 meant the offense which was defined in the rape statute, MCL 750.520. The rape statute made it a felony to "ravish and carnally know any female of the age of 16 years, or more, by force and against her will”, or to "unlawfully and carnally know and abuse any female under the full age of 16 years”. This statutory definition was basically a codification of common law rape, which was "the carnal knowledge of a woman by force and against her will”. People v Crosswell, 13 Mich 427, 432 (1865).
However, with the passage of the criminal sexual conduct act, the offense formerly known as rape became punishable as one form of criminal sexual conduct in the first or third degree. MCL 750.520b, MCL 750.520d; MSA 28.788(2), MSA 28.788(4). Thus, at the time defendant McDonald committed his crime, the conduct formerly known as rape was still a felony. If sexual penetration was accomplished under aggravating circumstances, such as the use of force or coercion causing personal injury to the victim, as here, the offense became first-degree criminal sexual conduct. MCL 750.520b(l)(f); MSA 28.788(2)(l)(f).
"Rape” is not the only felony within the murder statute that has undergone a change in definition from the common law. Most of the enumerated felonies of MCL 750.316 no longer retain their precise common law meanings. For instance "burglary”, at common law the breaking and entering of the dwelling house of another in the nighttime with the intent to commit a felony therein, has been recodified into several statutes, none of which includes all of the common law elements and no others. See MCL 750.110 et seq.; MSA 28.305 et seq. "Kidnapping” no longer requires movement of the victim to another country, MCL 750.349; MSA 28.581, and "extortion” may now be committed by persons who are not public officers. MCL 750.213; MSA 28.410. For purposes of felony murder, we perceive no difference between these recodifica tions of common law felonies and the recodification of "rape” as criminal sexual conduct in the first degree. See People v Gavin, 37 Mich App 335; 194 NW2d 498 (1971), lv den 387 Mich 766 (1972).
We cannot presume that the Legislature intended to abolish the crime of murder in the perpetration of a rape by its passage of the criminal sexual conduct act. Rape has been one of the enumerated felonies of the murder statute since its enactment in 1837. Just as other statutory redefinitions of felonies enumerated in the murder statute have not somehow removed these felonies from the purview of felony murder, we find that the Legislature intended the crime of felony murder-rape to continue in existence despite the passage of the criminal sexual conduct act.
Defendant’s equal protection argument is more troublesome. The issue is whether the conviction of a male for felony murder-rape is a denial of equal protection in a state which now recognizes rape as only one form of criminal sexual conduct, subject to the same penalties as other forms of forcible sexual penetration perpetrated by females. The test we use in determining the equal protection question is that of Reed v Reed, 404 US 71; 92 S Ct 251; 30 L Ed 2d 225 (1971). In order to be constitutionally valid, the classification drawn by the statutory scheme " 'must be reasonable, not arbitrary, and must rest upon some ground of difference having a fair and substantial relation to the object of the legislation, so that all persons similarly circumstanced shall be treated alike’ ”. Reed, supra, at 76, quoting from Royster Guano Co v Virginia, 253 US 412, 415; 40 S Ct 560; 64 L Ed 989 (1920).
In the case at bar the classification assailed is created by the fact that the word "rape”, rather than the words "criminal sexual conduct in the first degree”, appears in the murder statute. As we read the statute, this wording means that murder committed in the perpetration of carnal knowledge of a woman by force and against her will is felony murder, while murder committed in the perpetration of other forms of forcible sexual penetration is not felony murder. Examples are murder committed by a woman in the course of forced fellatio, cunnilingus, or insertion of an object or body part into the vagina of a woman or the rectum of a man or woman. The murder statute thus may, in some instances, create a distinction based on the sex of the actor.
The prosecutor argues that if the classification found in the felony murder statute violates equal protection, then rape laws themselves would violate equal protection. Courts in other jurisdictions have found that rape laws do not deny equal protection to males. There would be no change under the Equal Rights Amendment because rape laws are based on a physical characteristic unique to men. See Brown, Emerson, Falk and Freedman, The Equal Rights Amendment: A Constitutional Basis for Equal Rights for Women, 80 Yale LJ 871, 954-961 (1971). Courts which have considered the constitutionality of rape statutes have reasoned, first, that physiologically, only men are capable of rape. There is thus no disparate treatment of persons similarly situated. Secondly, the objectives of rape laws are to protect women from forced sexual intercourse, unwanted pregnancy, and the physical and psychological injury which often accompanies rape. Finally, rape by males is a serious social problem, while "rape” by females is not necessarily so; in addition, criminal statutes do protect against females as aiders and abettors of rapists and as perpetrators of other forms of sexual assaults. As stated by the Minnesota Supreme Court in State v Witt, 245 NW2d 612, 616-617 (1976):
" * * * in enacting the former rape law, the Minnesota Legislature presumably made a factual determination that the rape of women by men is a significant social problem, involving unique and potentially severe physiological, psychological, and social injuries and traumas, and that other forms of sexual penetration, including a woman forcing sexual intercourse upon a man, are much less serious social problems because they occur extremely infrequently or because the harms they inflict are less grave, or because of both of these factors. This sort of legislative factual determination is not subject to judicial review.” (Footnote omitted.)
In the instant case we find, consistent with the cases dealing with rape statutes, that it is not a violation of equal protection that only males can be convicted as principals of felony murder-rape. Only males can rape, and the Legislature has apparently made the determination that this particular form of sexual assault is more inherently dangerous to human life than others. This is the rationale behind felony murder. See People v Pavlic, 227 Mich 562; 199 NW 373 (1924), People v Carter, 387 Mich 397, 422; 197 NW2d 57 (1972); Commentary, II CJI pp 16-107 through 16-123. We can find no fault with this determination, any more than we could with the legislative decision not to include other serious crimes, e.g. sale of heroin, in the list of enumerated felonies. We thus find that the classification drawn by MCL 750.316 is not arbitrary or unreasonable, but in fact bears a fair and substantial relation to the object of more severely penalizing felonies which are inherently dangerous to human life. Should the Legislature wish to include other forms of first-degree criminal sexual conduct in the list of enumerated felonies, we would of course have no quarrel with such a revision of the law.
Defendant also argues that there was insufficient circumstantial evidence to show rape or attempted rape. We disagree. The body of the victim was found nude, in the backyard of Julie Fields’ Romulus residence at approximately 6 a.m. on June 27, 1976. The cause of death was numerous stab wounds, a fractured skull, and/or hemorrhaging in the brain. On the victim’s labia minora (inner lips of the vagina) were two abrasions consistent with forced sexual intercourse. The inside of Fields’ house, where the victim had been babysitting, was covered with blood and strewn with broken furniture. The victim’s 10-year-old brother, sleeping in a bedroom, was awakened around the time of the murder by sounds of banging, a girl crying, and a voice saying, "You fucking whore. You fucking bitch.” Earlier that evening, defendant had asked Julie Fields to go and make love in the defendant’s van. Fields had refused, but defendant’s girlfriend Kathy had become angry and asked to be taken home.
Defendant, the last person known to be with the victim when she was still alive, was found unconscious in a field about 1-1/2 hours after the murder, with bloodstains on his clothing and teethmarks on the back of his wrist. Defendant’s fingerprint was lifted from a broken plastic leg in the Fields’ living room, made in or by a substance appearing to be blood. He told police, "I killed her. I killed Kath. Take me out and shoot me; I deserve to die.”
We find that the above circumstantial evidence presented by the prosecution was sufficient to justify a reasonable person in concluding that all elements of rape or attempted rape were established beyond a reasonable doubt. People v Johnson, 83 Mich App 1; 268 NW2d 259 (1978).
We have considered defendant’s other allegations of error and have found them to be without merit.
Affirmed.
MCL 768.36; MSA 28.1059.
This issue was raised in another case submitted to the Court at the same time as the present case. In People v Terry, 86 Mich App 64; 272 NW2d 198 (1978), this Court rejected defendant’s argument and held that the Legislature did not intend to repeal or modify the felony murder statute in enacting the criminal sexual conduct act.
For discussions of the provisions of the criminal sexual conduct act, see Note: Criminal Law — Sexual Offenses — A Critical Analysis of Michigan’s Criminal Sexual Conduct Act, 23 Wn L Rev 203 (1976), and Note: Michigan’s Criminal Sexual Assault Law, 8 U of Mich J of L Reform 217 (1974).
LaFave & Scott, Criminal Law, § 96, p 708.
First degree criminal sexual conduct involves "sexual penetration” and is phrased in sex-neutral terms. MCL 750.520(b). "Sexual penetration” is defined as "sexual intercourse, cunnilingus, fellatio, anal intercourse, or any other intrusion, however slight, of any part of a person’s body or of any object into the genital or anal openings of another person’s body.” MCL 750.520a(h); MSA 28.788(1)(h).
Moore v Cowan, 560 F2d 1298 (CA 6, 1977), State v Kelly, 111 Ariz 181; 526 P2d 720 (1974), cert den 420 US 935; 95 S Ct 1143; 43 L Ed 2d 411 (1975), State v Ewald, 63 Wis 2d 165; 216 NW2d 213 (1974), State v Fletcher, 341 So 2d 340 (La, 1976), State v Craig, 169 Mont 150; 545 P2d 649 (1976), People v Reilly, 85 Misc 2d 702; 381 NYS2d 732 (1976), Stewart v State, 534 SW2d 875 (Tenn Cr App, 1975), Finley v State, 527 SW2d 553 (Tex Cr App, 1975), People v Medrano, 24 Ill App 3d 429; 321 NE2d 97 (1974), State v Price, 215 Kan 718; 529 P2d 85 (1974), Brooks v State, 24 Md App 334; 330 A2d 670 (1975), People v Gould, 188 Colo 113; 532 P2d 953 (1975).
We note that females who murder in the perpetration of criminal sexual conduct in the first degree are subject to life imprisonment for the criminal sexual conduct violation and also for second-degree murder. MCL 750.317, 750.520b(2); MSA 28.549, 28.788(2X2). | [
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Bashara, P.J.
This is an appeal from the Wayne Circuit Court granting defendant’s motion to quash service.
Suit for alleged damages from an auto accident was commenced in April of 1976. In August of that year, plaintiff filed a motion for substituted service, alleging that defendant had moved from his last known address so that attempted personal service had failed. Plaintiff further alleged that attempted service on an address in Iowa had been returned unserved. An order for substituted service was obtained from the Wayne County Circuit Court, ordering that service could be made on defendant by serving defendant’s insurance company in Iowa, by certified mail, return receipt requested.
An answer was filed which stated inter alia that defendant contested the jurisdiction of the court. Plaintiff moved to strike defendant’s answer and enter a default for failure to answer certain interrogatories. In return, a motion was filed by counsel for defendant’s insurance company to set aside the earlier order for substituted service and to quash service of process.
Counsel for the insurance company argued that the defendant had not been reached and that the substituted service was not reasonably calculated to give actual notice as required by due process. The trial court denied plaintiffs motion for default judgment and granted defendant’s motion to quash service, thereby vacating the court’s original order.
Plaintiff first contends that defendant’s insurance company waived any defects in the service of process by failing to raise the issue in its first responsive pleading.
GCR 1963, 116.1 and 116.2 state that the defense of lack of jurisdiction is waived unless made in the first responsive pleading or motion first filed. A review of the pleadings reveals that while defendant’s insurance company did not specify the grounds for its jurisdictional defense, it did put plaintiff on notice that jurisdiction was an issue. Clearly, the plaintiff was not prejudiced or misled. We conclude that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in considering the motion to quash service. Manufacturers Construction Co v Covenant Investment Co, 43 Mich App 123; 204 NW2d 54 (1972), lv den, 388 Mich 810 (1972).
Plaintiff also argues that the original order for substituted service was valid and should not have been disturbed by subsequent court action.
Our court rules provide that service of process upon an individual is to be effectuated byf leaving the summons and complaint with him personally or, in certain other instances, with his agent or guardian. GCR 1963, 105. However, occasions arise where the person to be served has relocated from his last known address and, after a reásonably diligent effort, cannot be found. Whether such a maneuver is intentionally designed to avoid litigation is immaterial; the result is the same. The right of an aggrieved party to litigate his claims before tíie judiciary is placed in conflict with the right of his opponent to notice of the proceeding and an opportunity to present a defense.
Reconciliation of those rights under such circumstances, consistent with procedural due process of law, entailed a recognition of alternative means to personal service for giving an adversary notice of the pendency of an action against him. See, e.g., Milliken v Meyer, 311 US 457; 61 S Ct 339; 85 L Ed 278 (1940), reh den, 312 US 712; 61 S Ct 548; 85 L Ed 1143 (1941), Wuchter v Pizzutti, 276 US 13; 48 S Ct 259; 72 L Ed 446 (1928); Hess v Pawloski, 274 US 352; 47 S Ct 632; 71 L Ed 1091 (1927). Consequently, it is now acknowledged that "within the limits of practicability notice must be such as is reasonably calculated to reach interested parties”. Mullane v Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co, 339 US 306, 318; 70 S Ct 652; 94 L Ed 865 (1950). See also Krueger v Williams (On Rehearing), 75 Mich App 1; 254 NW2d 625 (1977).
Under our court rules, when personal service of process cannot be effectuated, the trial court is endowed with discretion to permit an alternative means of service to be utilized. GCR 1963, 105.8. By the express language of that rule, the alternative method must be such as "is reasonably calculated to give him [defendant] actual notice of the proceedings and an opportunity to be heard * * * »
The fact that the substituted means of service do not, in fact, convey actual notice to the opposing party does not necessarily result in a violation of due process. The criteria for compliance with due process were succinctly summarized by the Court as follows:
"The means employed must be such as one desirous of actually informing the absentee might reasonably adopt to accomplish it. The reasonableness and hence the constitutional validity of any chosen method may be defended on the ground that it is in itself reasonably certain to inform those affected, or, where conditions do not reasonably permit such notice, that the form chosen is not substantially less likely to bring home notice than other of the feasible and customary substitutes.” Mullane, supra, at 315; 70 S Ct at 657-658; 94 L Ed at 874 (citations omitted).
In Mullane, the Court also recognized the role of notice by publication as a legitimate means of substitute service:
"This Court has not hesitated to approve of resort to publication as a customary substitute in another class of cases where it is not reasonably possible or practicable to give more adequate warning. Thus it has been recognized that, in the case of persons missing or unknown, employment of an indirect and even a probably futile means of notification is all that the situation permits and creates no constitutional bar to a final decree foreclosing their rights.” Id. at 317; 70 S Ct at 658; 94 L Ed at 875 (citations omitted).
We therefore conclude that the trial court does have discretion to effectuate substitute service in civil actions. However, we must affirm the circuit court’s order quashing service in the instant case. The order for substituted service could in no way be construed so as to give notice reasonably calculated to reach the defendant in accordance with due process requirements.
Affirmed, costs to defendants. | [
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Per Curiam.
The prosecution appeals from a pretrial order suppressing evidence seized from the person of the defendant and quashing the information charging defendant with possession of a controlled substance, methamphetamine. MCL 335.341(4)(b); MSA 18.1070(41)(4)(b). We affirm.
During the evening of September 9, 1976, two uniformed Detroit police officers were patrolling the area near the Greyhound bus terminal on foot. One of the officers noticed an individual, later identified as the defendant, park an automobile in a no-standing zone near the terminal. The officer wrote out a parking ticket but did not place it on the windshield. The officers waited for defendant to return so that the ticket could be "personally served”.
When defendant returned to the car he could not produce either a driver’s license or the registration for the automobile. He was then placed under arrest for driving without an operator’s permit in his possession. MCL 257.311; MSA 9.2011. After the arrest for this traffic offense, one of the officers conducted a pat down search "for offensive weapons”. No weapon was found, but the officer did feel two pill bottles which contained the drugs upon which this prosecution is based.
The motion to suppress was decided on the basis of the preliminary exam transcript. The officer testified at that hearing that he was searching for offensive weapons when the drugs were discovered. On cross-examination regarding the objects in defendant’s pocket and sock, the officer testified:
"Q Would you describe that container?
"A A prescription container.
"Q Was it circular?
"A Circular.
"Q About how tall?
"A Maybe two, three inches.
"Q About how wide?
"A Maybe a half inch diameter.
"Q And what weapon did you think that was?
"A I had no idea.”
The trial court granted the motion to suppress because it felt the officer could not have believed that the pill container felt like a weapon. The court relied upon People v Dixon, 392 Mich 691; 222 NW2d 749 (1974), in ruling that since there was no reason to suspect that defendant was armed, the search should not have occurred until defendant was given the opportunity to post bail under the interim bail statute.
Dixon is not strictly applicable to these facts since the discovery of narcotics in that case occurred during a search at the station house. An earlier search at the scene had revealed that defendant was not armed. The court analyzed the problem as an inventory rather than an incident to an arrest search. However, the rationale of Dixon does apply to this case.
In People v Garcia, 81 Mich App 260; 265 NW2d 115 (1978), the panel was faced with a problem factually similar to that presented here. After an extended analysis, the majority concluded that when a person is arrested for a minor motor vehicle offense and a pat down search does not give the officer reason to believe that the person is armed with a weapon that can be turned against him, no further search may occur until the individual is taken before a magistrate or given the opportunity to post bail.
We agree with the analysis and holding of Garcia. The trial court properly suppressed the drugs taken from the defendant in this case as the product of an unreasonable search and seizure. Since there was no reason to believe that defendant was armed with an offensive weapon, the officer acted unreasonably in seizing the pill containers.
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Per Curiam.
Plaintiffs appeal a partial summary judgment dismissing claims sounding in tort, conspiracy and loss of companionship.
Upon careful examination, we affirm. Concerning plaintiff Joseph Cowan’s claim of intentional infliction of emotional distress brought against defendant Federal-Mogul Corporation, Szydlowski v General Motors Corp, 397 Mich 356; 245 NW2d 26 (1976), controls. Its mandate is clear: Jurisdiction to determine the compensability of injuries arising out of and in the course of employment is reposed initially in the Workmen’s Compensation Bureau. MCL 418.841; MSA 17.237(841). Thus the trial court acted properly on this issue, although GCR 1963, 116.1(2) (lack of subject-matter jurisdiction) is the more appropriate ground for dismissal.
Plaintiff’s corresponding claim against defendant insurer also fails. The unrebutted affidavit presented by defendant demonstrated that, according to his own physician, plaintiff was not disabled for any occupation and, thus, was not entitled to the waiver of premium payments. Moreover, the affidavit revealed that defendant insurer based its demand for repayment of accident and sickness benefits on an assignment executed by plaintiff, in conformance with the policy provision excluding such benefits for injuries compensable under the Workers Disability Compensation Act. Where, as here, plaintiff did not rebut this affidavit by any evidence before the court, summary judgment is proper. Durant v Stahlin, 375 Mich 628, 638-639, 655-656; 135 NW2d 392 (1965), Rizzo v Kretschmer, 389 Mich 363, 372; 207 NW2d 316 (1973).
For similar reasons, the lower court correctly dismissed the conspiracy charge. Plaintiff failed to allege facts supportive of his claim; instead, he merely asserted bad faith and claimed that defend ants’ contradictory positions regarding the compensability of plaintiffs disability demonstrated a conspiracy. Absent allegations of supporting facts, dismissal by way of summary judgment is appropriate. Valentine v Michigan Bell Telephone Co, 388 Mich 19, 30; 199 NW2d 182 (1972), Pursell v Wolverine-Pentronix, Inc, 44 Mich App 416, 422; 205 NW2d 504 (1973). Moreover, the rule has been applied in cases alleging a conspiracy. Chilton’s, Inc v Wilmington Apartment Co, 365 Mich 242, 248-249, 250-251; 112 NW2d 434 (1961), Greer v Parks, 300 Mich 492, 497; 2 NW2d 476 (1942).
With regard to plaintiff wife’s derivative claim, we hold that aligned as it is with the unsuccessful claims of her husband, it too must fail.
Affirmed. | [
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Danhof, C.J.
Defendant was convicted after a bench trial of delivery of heroin under MCL 335.341(l)(a); MSA 18.1070(41)(l)(a) and conspiracy to deliver heroin under MCL 750.157a(a); MSA 28.354(l)(a). He was sentenced to two concurrent 5 to 20 year terms and appeals as of right.
On March 16, 1976, narcotics undercover officer Clifford DeFeyter, with police informant Tom Cadieux, visited the Bay City home of Raymond Barrientes, from whom Cadieux had bought heroin before. There with Raymond Barrientes were his brothers, Rudy and Joe, and the defendant. Officer DeFeyter discussed a heroin transaction with Raymond Barrientes in the living room of the Barrientes home, while defendant sat in an adjacent dining room through an open archway some 15 to 20 feet away. After an agreement had been reached as to price and quantity, Raymond Barrientes instructed Officer DeFeyter to place his money on a shelf in the living room and to go to an alley behind the house where he could pick up the dope and where someone would meet him. DeFeyter put $350 on the shelf and walked out of the house with Cadieux. As he approached his car, he saw defendant exit the Barrientes home with Joe and Rudy. Fearing at that point he would lose his money without obtaining the drugs, DeFeyter sought to call off the deal. Joe and Raymond reassured him the deal would be carried out as planned. Raymond pointed to the car in which defendant and Rudy were sitting and said, "They got the dope”. For insurance, Joe agreed to ride with DeFeyter. DeFeyter drove to the back alley where defendant’s car was standing and pulled along side. Defendant rolled down his window. DeFeyter walked to defendant’s car. Defendant had a metal foil package in his hand in his lap which he handed to DeFeyter. DeFeyter told defendant to stay there while he checked the package. After DeFeyter okayed the contents, Joe returned to defendant’s car and defendant drove off.
Because the investigation into drug traffic was continuing, defendant was not arrested immediately. Officers executed a warrant for his arrest the next month during a raid on another home where drugs were being sold.
To the foregoing statement of facts defendant would add that the conversation between DeFeyter and Raymond Barrientes while defendant was sitting in the dining room was in a low tone, at the time others may have been conversing in the dining room, and a record player may have been on. The state would also point out that defendant was within hearing distance of two other conversations which may have been relevant to defendant’s state of mind: one in the house between Joe Barrientes and DeFeyter, wherein Joe asked whether defendant was "coping dope” and how bad his "jones” was, and a second outside when Joe reassured DeFeyter that "everything is cool. * * * What’s the matter? * * * Let’s go back in the house and talk to Raymond * * * ”. Evidence of the discussion between Joe and DeFeyter in the Barrientes home was received over defendant’s hearsay objection, but the trial judge doubted its relevancy.
I
On appeal defendant alleges five errors by the trial judge. Three of his arguments can be dismissed summarily.
First, defendant contends his conviction should be reversed because the trial judge misconstrued the mens rea requirement for aiding and abetting, which the trial judge relied on as an alternative theory of liability on the delivery charge. Any error in the trial judge’s instructions on this point is nonreversible since he specifically found defendant guilty, both as a principal and as an accomplice. Unlike in the situation presented by a general jury verdict, see e.g., People v Gilbert, 55 Mich App 168; 222 NW2d 305 (1974), we "can say for sure” that the judgment was based on a valid alternative.
Second, defendant claims his convictions for conspiracy to deliver heroin and delivery were inferred from his single act of delivery and, therefore, constitute double punishment. A simple answer is that the double jeopardy clause does not forbid two inferences from the same evidence; it is a rule against double punishment for single acts and double prosecutions for separate acts done in a single transaction. There is ample authority that conspiracy and the crime which is the object of the conspiracy are distinct offenses. People v Tinskey, 394 Mich 108; 228 NW2d 782 (1975), People v Ormsby, 310 Mich 291; 17 NW2d 187 (1945). Even under a transactional approach to double punishment, cf., People v White, 390 Mich 245; 212 NW2d 222 (1973), which we do not now adopt, it cannot be said that a prior agreement with a third person to deliver heroin is incidental to any delivery of heroin. Finally, on the facts of this case, the inference of an agreement to deliver is supported by more than the delivery itself. It is supported as well by testimony that the seller told Officer De-Feyter to pick up his dope in an alley behind the seller’s home where someone would meet him, that defendant drove there and handed over the heroin.
Third, defendant claims it was error to admit prejudicial testimony about the circumstances of defendant’s arrest several weeks after the present offense, during an unrelated drug raid. The trial judge properly admitted this evidence on the condition that the state connect it up with the present transaction. See 8A Michigan Law & Practice, Criminal Law, § 451, p 99. The state failed to comply. If the case had been tried before a jury, it would have been the court’s duty to strike that evidence, id. p 100, and our duty to determine whether its failure to strike constituted reversible error. In reviewing a bench trial, however, we will not presume that the court considered evidence that failed to meet the court’s own conditions for admissibility. Nothing in the record affirmatively shows that evidence of the circumstances surrounding defendant’s arrest affected the court’s findings.
II
The more discussable issues raised by this appeal concern the sufficiency of evidence to support the conspiracy and delivery convictions and the factors that determined defendant’s sentence.
A. Defendant specifically objects that there was insufficient evidence that he knew the substance he delivered was heroin and that he agreed with anyone to deliver it. He argues that the prosecutor failed to negate all theories of innocence, including the plausible theory that defendant was an innocent conduit for the delivery of heroin. Further, he maintains that the inferences of knowledge and agreement were impermissibly based on other inferences, namely, the inference that he overheard the negotiations between Raymond Barrientes and Officer DeFeyter and the inference that either defendant or Rudy intended to deliver the heroin.
At trial the prosecution must prove all elements of the offense beyond a reasonable doubt. That proof may be circumstantial, but when "the people’s case is based on circumstantial evidence, the prosecution must negate every reasonable theory consistent with the defendant’s innocence of the crime charged”. People v Davenport, 39 Mich App 252, 257-258; 197 NW2d 521, 523 (1972).
Whether the state has proved its case beyond a reasonable doubt and whether the inferences of guilt from its circumstantial evidence follow as an "impelling certainty” are questions for the trier of fact. People v Howard, 50 Mich 239; 15 NW 101 (1883), People v Fuller, 395 Mich 451; 236 NW2d 58 (1975). Our role in the fact-finding process is limited:
"As to whether the evidence introduced was sufficient to sustain the charge made, we need but say that, if there was evidence tending to sustain the charge made in either of the counts, then this Court will not attempt to weigh the same and say whether the jury ought or not to have considered it sufficient. In testing this case we are not required to take that which respondent relies upon and that which would tend against him, and from a comparison thereof determine which was the stronger and better, or, deducting the one from the other, say what, if anything, was left. This would be but a weighing of the evidence and was entirely within the province of the jury. Nor are we to take the evidence in the order, question and answer, in which it was given, but finding it where we may, and putting what was most favorable to the prosecution together, and discarding all other, can this Court say it fairly tended to establish the charge made? If so, then the verdict of the jury in this Court must be considered as final. If, however, we find a total want of evidence upon any essential point, then it becomes a clear duty to sustain the exceptions taken.” People v Howard, supra, at 242-243; 15 NW at 101-102, quoted with approval in People v Palmer, 392 Mich 370, 376; 220 NW2d 393 (1974), and most recently reaffirmed by People v Dupie, 395 Mich 483; 236 NW2d 494 (1975).
Bearing on defendant’s knowledge about the substance he delivered in the instant case was testimony that he was in a position to overhear the drug deal between Raymond Barrientes and Officer DeFeyter, that he had been seen at the Barrientes home before, that the heroin was delivered in a foil package, and that heroin is usually delivered in a foil package. Also in evidence was testimony, not challenged on appeal, that defendant was in a position to overhear two other conversations between Joe Barrientes and Officer De-Feyter which circumstantially referred to the drug deal. In support of the court’s finding of an agreement was the foregoing plus testimony that defendant delivered the heroin in accord with the plan told by Raymond Barrientes to DeFeyter. Finally, in evidence were all reasonable inferences that could be drawn from this testimony.
Thus, the record provides some support for the court’s findings. Given our limited role in the factfinding process, we find that it provides "ample” support. Accord, People v Palmer, supra. To the extent that the "no inference on an inference rule” in any way increases our role in the factfinding process, see People v Atley, 392 Mich 298; 220 NW2d 465 (1974), but see People v Orsie, 83 Mich App 42; 268 NW2d 278 (1978), we find it inapplicable. The inferences of knowledge and agreement fairly and closely followed from the direct evidence as well as from other inferences.
B. Defendant lastly complains that he was illegally sentenced according to a county program of mandatory and stiff prison sentences for heroin dealers. By failing to consider his personal qualifications for probation or a lighter sentence, he reasons, the court violated the spirit of our state’s indeterminate sentencing laws and the constitutional separation of powers. To factually support his claim, he relies on sentencing transcripts from two cases tried in Saginaw County which evidence the policy there. He also cites portions of three sentencing transcripts from cases tried in Bay County, which acknowledge the Saginaw program and the obligation of Bay County judges to sentence in accordance with it, to prevent Bay County from becoming a dumping ground for heroin dealers.
Although we recognize that trial judges do have an obligation to individualize punishment, see People v Lorentzen, 387 Mich 167; 194 NW2d 827 (1972), we would have to take a very lopsided view of the present record to void defendant’s sentence on that basis. The record affirmatively shows that the sentencing judge considered that defendant did not have to be imprisoned for rehabilitation purposes, that defendant had a good job, good criminal record, no history of drug use, was married, and had children. "Rehabilitation [, however,] is not the only criterion to be used in determining the punishment to be meted out to a particular offender.” People v Van Epps, 59 Mich App 277, 286; 229 NW2d 414, 419 (1975). In People v Snow, 386 Mich 586; 194 NW2d 314 (1972), the Michigan Supreme Court approved the use of four factors in determining an appropriate sentence: "(a) the reformation of the offender, (b) protection of society, (c) the disciplining of the wrongdoer, and (d) the deterrence of others from committing like offenses.” Id. at 592; 194 NW2d at 317. The sentencing judge in this case stated that a 5 to 20 year prison term was necessary to assure the community that the criminal justice system was concerned with and was the answer to their serious crime problems, including the trafficking of heroin. He also felt that the sentence was necessary to satisfy the community’s interest in vesting vengence and retribution on those who violate the law and in warning others active in criminal participation of the seriousness and consequences of their involvement. These considerations were clearly permissible under Snow. The judge also spoke of a need to avoid sentencing disparity within the circuit and between the immediate community and other areas of the state, especially the immediately adjacent communities. His apparent thought was either that sentencing disparity based on locality would be unjust or that sentencing disparity based on locality would encourage an influx of criminals into the light sentencing community. These goals would also seem to be appropriate to the sentencing decision under Snow. See also, People v Yennior, 72 Mich App 35; 248 NW2d 680 (1976) , rev’d on other grounds, 399 Mich 892 (1977), People v Rodriguez, 61 Mich App 42; 232 NW2d 293 (1975); People v Shively, 45 Mich App 658; 206 NW2d 808 (1973). Upon reviewing all of the criteria approved by Snow, the sentencing judge found "in this case” that the community factors "overweighted] the impact on the Defendant”. On the record, therefore, we find no abuse of the judge’s sentencing discretion.
Defendant urges us to look outside the record to find a sentencing "program” in Bay County which undermines the facial balancing that took place in this case, which shows, in other words, that "individualization of sentencing [in Bay County] is a rule honored more in the breach than the observance”. People v Yennior, supra, at 49, 248 NW2d at 686 (D.C. Riley, J. dissenting). We are precluded by Michigan Supreme Court precedent from making such an investigation. In People v Snow, supra, the Court held that it was error for the Court of Appeals to roam afield from review of the case before it and to review in general the sentencing policy of an entire circuit court. 386 Mich at 594; 194 NW2d at 318.
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Danhof, C.J.
This appeal involves a family dispute over title of long standing to an 80-acre parcel of land, located in Manistee County. Both sides claim interests through a common owner, Blake Carpenter, who was seized of the property at the time of his intestate death on May 17, 1947. Coplaintiff, Kenneth Carpenter, is the son of Blake Carpenter. He claims virtually full ownership by purchase through a chain of title leading hack to a deed from the administratrix of Blake Carpenter’s estate. Defendants and counterclaimants, Joan Carpenter Mumby, Beverly Morris Smith, and Marlene Carpenter DeWitt, are also children of the late Blake Carpenter. Each seeks a 1/6 share of the Manistee property as heir to her father’s estate, arguing that the deed by the administratrix was void, because it was given by the administratrix under an illegal arrangement to purchase the property for herself. See MCL 709.27; MSA 27.3178(487).
These facts are undisputed. Blake Carpenter’s widow, Rita, was the administratrix of the estate. By license, she sold the land to her brother, at its appraised value, on September 25, 1947. One week later, the brother reconveyed it to her. Both deeds were recorded October 3, 1947. Proceeds of the sale, along with other estate assets, were distributed in November, 1947, to the widow and four children according to the laws of intestate succession.
At the time of the sale and repurchase, two of the defendant children, Joan Carpenter Mumby and Marlene Carpenter DeWitt, were minors. Upon reaching the age of majority in 1948 and 1953 respectively, each acknowledged receipt of her share of the estate assets and released Rita Carpenter as guardian.
In 1956, Rita Carpenter deeded the Manistee property to plaintiffs Kenneth Carpenter and his wife Lucille.
In 1968, plaintiffs executed an oil and gas lease to the Shell Oil Company. Subsequently, in 1973, defendants also gave oil and gas leases to Shell, after the company informed them of their possible interest in the property, due to their mother’s sale and repurchase while administratrix, which may have violated the probate code rule against self-dealing.
Shell drilled a successful well and notified plaintiffs it would place all royalties in escrow until the question of title was clarified. Plaintiffs therefore filed a quiet title action. Defendants counterclaimed to quiet title in themselves.
The trial court opined that the deeds from Rita Carpenter to her brother and back to her were void. It found that defendants were unaware of the facts until 1973, when they were contacted by Shell, which disproved any claim of ratification, acquiescence or laches. Therefore, it ordered plaintiffs to sign deeds granting defendants each a 1/ 6th interest in the land. For the reasons stated herein we reverse.
Plaintiffs apparently concede that the sale and repurchase by Rita Carpenter as administratrix in 1947 was invalid under MCL 709.27; MSA 27.3178(487). The main issue argued at trial and on appeal is whether this invalidity rendered the deeds void or merely voidable. Our holding, upon review of the controlling statute and case law, is that such a deed is voidable only, and that any interest passing through it is only voidable in the hands of a non-bona fide purchaser with knowledge of the facts rendering the sale invalid.
That was the rule at common law before enactment of the predecessor to MCL 709.27; MSA 27.3178(487). Hoffman v Harrington, 28 Mich 90, 106-107 (1873) (opinion by Graves, J.). When the Legislature first enacted the rule against self-dealing into positive law, it used the word "void” rather than "voidable.” See Mich Rev Stat of 1846, Ch 77, § 18, p 309. Yet, our Supreme Court, concurring in the position of a majority of the states, see Anno: Void or Voidable Character of Sale Made in Violation of Statute Providing that no Representative Making Sale Shall be Interested Therein, but Conñrmed by Court, 111 ALR 1362, 1366; 31 Am Jur 2d, Executors and Administrators, § 386, p 187, interpreted the statute as incorporating the common law doctrine. Houlihan v Fogarty, 162 Mich 492; 127 NW 793(1910); Otis v Kennedy, 107 Mich 312; 65 NW 219 (1895); 13 Callaghan’s Mich Pleading & Practice, § 105.28, p 258.
When the self-dealing provision was reenacted in 1939, the "void” language was retained. We do not discern a clear legislative intent in that enactment to change the law. Compare, Hoffman v Harrington, supra, at 91-99 (opinion by Christiancy, C.J.), with id. at 106-108 (opinion by Graves, J.). See also, 1A Sutherland, Statutory Construction (4th ed), § 22.33, p 191. Since the language of the present code is in pertinent part identical with its predecessor statute, see Hoffman v Harrington, supra at 95, Houlihan and Otis are authoritative interpretations of both.
Finally, we note that the common law rule is sound policy. It serves to increase the value of estate property by assuring the vigilant and cautious purchaser that his title will not be upset. See White v Iselin, 26 Minn 487; 5 NW 359 (1880).
Counterclaimants rely on Smith v Withey, 309 Mich 364; 15 NW2d 671 (1944), which decided, under the present version of the self-dealing provision, that an administratrix’s retained interest in property indirectly purchased by her while representing the estate was "in [that] instance void”. Id. 366. The Supreme Court’s use of the statutory language "void” in that case is ambiguous. The holding is not inconsistent with the rule of Houlihan and Otis. The interest in the hands of the administratrix was clearly voidable. Other interests which had passed through her deed to subse quent purchasers were not determined on appeal, those parties acquiescing in the lower court’s decree that they "be protected upon payment to plaintiffs of sufficient money to satisfy the value of their * * * interests] in the premises and thereby have their deeds validated”. Id. 367.
Whether plaintiffs’ deed is voidable in fact therefore depends on whether they qualify as bona fide purchasers without notice. It is doubtful on the record before us that they do. It is, however, unnecessary to decide that question, as we find defendants’ counterclaim is time barred.
In so ruling we reject counterclaimants’ procedural contention that plaintiffs have waived this defense by failing to plead it affirmatively in their answer to the counterclaim. See GCR 1963, 111.7. Both sides argued the issue of limitations at trial to the court. Any pleading error was thereby cured. Star Steel Supply Co v White, 4 Mich App 178; 144 NW2d 673 (1966); accord, Hornack v Young, 63 Mich App 650; 234 NW2d 746 (1975); Krager v Harold E Hedler Storage, Inc, 7 Mich App 644; 152 NW2d 708 (1967). See generally, Bigelow v Walraven, 392 Mich 566; 221 NW2d 328 (1974). While plaintiffs would have been more diligent if they had sought an amendment of their pleadings to conform to the evidence under GCR 1963, 118.3, Michner Plating Co v Davis Drilling Co, Inc, 10 Mich App 358; 159 NW2d 366 (1968), their failure to do so does not change our result. 1 Honigman & Hawkins, Mich General Court Rules Anno, p 415; see GCR 1963, 118.3.
The nature of relief sought by counterclaimants is equitable. MCL 600.2932; MSA 27A.2932. The periods of limitation prescribed by the Revised Judicature Act apply to equitable actions of their own force. MCL 600.5815; MSA 27A.5815. The limitations period for actions to recover lands claimed by another through a deed made upon sale by an administratrix is five years. MCL 600.5801(1); MSA 27A.5801(1).
Whether measured from the date of the sale, see MCL 600.5827; MSA 27A.5827, or the death of the decedent, see MCL 600.5829; MSA 27A.5829, counterclaimants’ rights of action accrued before the end of 1947. Thus, defendant Smith, who was of full age at that time, was barred from suing after 1952. Since defendants Mumby and DeWitt were minors, they had one year after reaching 21 to bring their actions, even if the statutory period had run. MCL 600.5851(1); MSA 27A.5851(1). This tolling provision did not affect Mumby’s claim since she reached the age of majority (in 1948) more than one year before the period had terminated (in 1952). The other child, DeWitt, was 21 in 1953; her claim was therefore barred after 1954.
It is not clear that this ends the matter. In addition to applying the statute of limitations to equity actions, the code provides that the "equitable doctrine of laches shall also apply in actions where equitable relief is sought”. MCL 600.5815; MSA 27A.5815. Two constructions of this language are plausible under Michigan case law.
One interpretation is that the prescribed period sets an outer limit, but an equity suit not barred under the prescribed period may nevertheless be barred by laches. This reading is consistent with this Court’s decision in Tray v Whitney, 35 Mich App 529; 192 NW2d 628 (1971), and the Supreme Court’s decision in Smith v Davidson, 40 Mich 632 (1879). The latter held that an action to set aside a conveyance under the self-dealing provision of the probate code, since it would have been barred at law, must also be barred in equity. The Court reasoned:
"The policy of the statute, which was to quiet all titles derived from such sales after five years’ peaceable possession under them, cannot be evaded by the party electing one forum rather than another for litigating the rights which he disputes; but equity by analogy will apply the limitation to his case.” 40 Mich at 633.
A subsequent Supreme Court case suggests that the doctrine of laches, under narrowly prescribed circumstances, may expand the period for bringing suit. In Sequin v Madison, 328 Mich 600; 44 NW2d 150 (1950), a unanimous Court found that "[c]ourts of equity accept the statute as fixing a proper period of repose for right in equity as well as at law and apply it unless the suit is peculiarly equitable in nature or compelling equities are shown”. (Emphasis added.) Id. at 607; 44 NW2d at 152, quoting Moross v Oakman, 257 Mich 464, 466; 241 NW 181 (1932). The Sequin Court approved a flexible rule to be controlled by the peculiar circumstances of each case.
We have found no authority deciding whether § 5815 was intended to codify the Smith or Sequin result. From a policy point of view we prefer the Smith holding; yet, until we are told otherwise by the Supreme Court, we cannot ignore the hue that Sequin casts upon the statute. Nonetheless, we find that counterclaimants have failed to show the absence of laches.
As the Sequin Court quoted:
"Where one invokes the aid of equity, after apparently sleeping on his rights for a time equal to the statutory period of limitations, he must allege facts which excuse the delay and show strong equities in his favor.” 328 Mich at 607; 44 NW2d at 153, quoting Moross v Oakman, 257 Mich 464, 466; 241 NW 181 (1932).
In this case counterclaimants apparently slept on their rights for a time far in excess of the statutory period. They did so with actual knowledge that their mother had administered Blake Carpenter’s estate and with actual or constructive knowledge that she had sold and repurchased the Manistee property. While plaintiffs do not claim prejudice, it is apparent on the record that their case was hampered by the uncertainty of recollection of the interested parties. It was crucial, for example, to find a prearrangement between Rita Carpenter and her brother to reconvey the Manistee property, as a sale to a close relative and repurchase by the fiduciary is not conclusive of self-dealing. The testimony strongly intimated and circumstantially evidenced such a secret agreement, but no one could say for sure. Rita Carpenter, who among all the witnesses would have been in the best position to know of such a deal, could not recall precisely how the transaction occurred. On these facts it would deeply contravene the policies of MCL 600.5801(1); MSA 27A.5801O) to undo the sale at this late date.
Under the circumstances, counterclaimants’ delay in bringing suit also amounts to a ratification and acquiescence in the sale. Egan v Grece, 79 Mich 629; 45 NW 74 (1890), Campau v Van Dyke, 15 Mich 371 (1867), 31 Am Jur 2d, Executors and Administrators, § 388, p 188.
Counterclaimants seek to excuse their delay on several theories.
First, they claim ignorance of their right to sue until Shell advised them in 1973. As a general rule such ignorance does not postpone the commencement of the limitations period. 51 Am Jur 2d, Limitations of Actions, § 146, p 715. An exception has been recognized when "the fact of the invasion of a right” is undiscovered. (Emphasis added.) Id. at 716. The trial court found that "defendants * * * were not aware of the [facts] until 1973”. Sequin, however, approved of the holding in Moross that an allegation by a party that he "did not discover the facts 'until lately’ is too general and indefinite to show the absence of laches.” 328 Mich at 607; 44 NW2d at 153, quoting 257 Mich at 466; 241 NW at 181. Moreover, the trial court’s finding is clearly erroneous; it is apparent from the trial transcript that counterclaimants were aware of the circumstances of the sale. Exercising reasonable viligance, they could have known long before 1973 that on these facts they had rights in the Manistee property.
Defendants next seek to excuse their delay because of the family relationship of the parties, citing Backus v Backus, 207 Mich 690; 175 NW 400 (1919). The presence of a family relationship is entitled to great weight in the laches determina tion, "not only because [relatives] may naturally and commendably be reluctant to engage in litigation, but also because they ought to be able to rely more on substantial justice being voluntarily done by a member of the family than by a stranger”. Wright v Wright, 37 Mich 55, 56 (1877). Relatives, however, cannot be excused from suing indefinitely, without making any attempt to settle the claim beforehand. Backus is distinguishable on this point. While the Court in that case gave equitable relief to a plaintiff who had delayed five years in suing his brother, it noted, in addition to the family tie, that 'plaintiff during the first three years of that period repeatedly had attempted to solve the dispute out of court. See generally, Anno: Settlement Negotiations as Estopping Reliance of Statute of Limitations, 39 ALR3d 127.
Counterclaimants also argue that any theory of limitation is inapplicable in this suit because Rita Carpenter was acting as their fiduciary. Since an administratrix by definition is a fiduciary for the heirs of the estate, counterclaimants in effect would have us read code § 5801(1) as providing: "When the defendant claims title * * * through some deed made upon the sale * * * by an * * * administrator * * * the period of limitations is five years [unless the suit is by an heir in which case no period of limitations is applicable]”. We find this position untenable. First, it is clear that our Supreme Court has applied the doctrine of limitations in suits by heirs to set aside a conveyance by an administrator. E.g., Smith v Davidson, supra. Second, the gaping hole we would have to cut into MCL 600.5801(1) to apply counterclaimants’ exception would seem to conflict with the subsection’s plain meaning. Third, the rule relied on by counterclaimants has been misstated. The statute of limitations is not inapplicable to any claim which accrues while a fiduciary relationship existed between the parties. The correct rule is that the period of limitations does not begin to run until the fiduciary relationship ends — that is, until all the fiduciary’s duties have been discharged or repudiated. See O’Toole v Hurley, 15 Mich 517, 521; 73 NW 805, 806 (1898); cf. 76 Am Jur 2d, Trusts, § 587, pp 794-795. In this instance, the fiduciary relationship ended when all affairs of the estate were wound up and the minor children released Rita Carpenter as their guardian substantially before the period of limitations had run.
Lastly, counterclaimants contend that their suit cannot be time barred because the deeds out by and back to Rita Carpenter were nullities and, therefore, never divested counterclaimants of their interest in the property. We have already answered that argument by our conclusion that the deeds did pass voidable title.
Reversed. Judgment entered for appellants. Costs to appellants.
He claims co-ownership in all but a one-half interest in the mineral rights, which he and his wife conveyed to a third party in 1973.
By those laws the widow took one-third, while each of the children took one-sixth of the estate.
Rita Carpenter had entered into a land contract to sell the property to another person in 1951, but regained it because of a default in payment.
Plaintiffs originally joined Shell as a defendant, but dismissed the company, by stipulation with defendants upon agreement to escrow the royalties.
That section of the probate code provides:
"The fiduciary making the sale shall not directly or indirectly purchase, or be interested in the purchase of any part of the property so sold, and all sales made contrary to the provisions of this section shall be void; but this section shall not prohibit any such purchase by a guardian for the benefit of his ward.”
Plaintiffs had actual knowledge of the sale by Rita Carpenter to her brother and repurchase within one week. These were also matters of record. Although a subsequent purchase by an administratrix of land previously sold under license of the probate court is not per se invalid, Ketchum v Ketchum, 177 Mich 100; 143 NW 25 (1913) (sale to mother and repurchased same day legal under circumstances); Otis v Kennedy, 107 Mich 312; 65 NW 219 (1895); 13 Callaghan’s Mich Pleading & Practice, § 105.28, pp 258-259, the proximity of the sale and repurchase should have raised a suspicion in plaintiffs’ minds about the validity of the deeds. Winter v Truax, 87 Mich 324; 49 NW 604 (1891); McKay v Williams, 67 Mich 547; 35 NW 159 (1887). But see, Otis v Kennedy, supra, at 320-322; 65 NW at 221-222 (distinguishing Truax and Williams). Plaintiffs therefore would be held to the knowledge that could have been gained by a reasonable inquiry. Otis v Kennedy, supra at 322; 65 NW at 222.
See note 6, supra.
On direct examination, plaintiffs’ attorney asked Rita Carpenter why she did not just buy the property herself. She responded, "Well, I think I couldn’t. According to the Probate Judge, I couldn’t buy it.” | [
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W. Van Valkenburg, J.
Defendant was charged with the first-degree murder of Anthony Doss, contrary to MCL 750.316; MSA 28.548, but was convicted on November 7, 1975, following an 11 day jury trial, of voluntary manslaughter. He was sentenced on December 8, 1975, to 10 to 15 years and was given credit for 420 days spent in the county jail, with the further recommendation that he should not be paroled and that he be deported from the country.
A motion for a new trial was argued on September 20, 1977, and denied on October 25, 1977. The appeal to this Court followed as of right.
The shooting, which was an outgrowth of an "eternal triangle”, occurred on October 14, 1974, and Doss died on November 5, 1974. The three principals include: the deceased, who was pictured during the lengthy trial as a brutal thug; defendant, who appeared to be psychotic and could not live with the fact that women were not attracted to him; and the necessary woman, Sally Schippers, who was characterized as a fickle jezebel who had two fiances at the same time and led each of them to believe that she would marry him.
There is some confusion concerning the events on the 14th which led up to the shooting. However, the two men confronted each other, either at the residence of Sally Schippers or at the gas station where the deceased was employed. Thereafter, defendant returned to his mother’s home, obtained a 12-gauge shotgun and headed for the station where he kidnapped Sally at gunpoint and drove off in a red car. Doss followed and finally caught up with him at the intersection of West Michigan Avenue and South Park Street in downtown Kalamazoo. At this point the deceased rammed defendant’s car several times. The latter, finding that his steering gear was jammed, shot twice through the rear window of the Doss vehicle, reloaded the gun, exited from his car and ran south on Park Street. Doss followed him in his car driving the wrong way up Park Street, a one-way street, to the vicinity of Bronson Park, which is one block south of Michigan Avenue. There is some evidence that Doss was attempting to run the defendant down, but was prevented from doing so when he collided with a lamppost. He immedi ately exited from his automobile and, while attempting to approach defendant, was shot in the stomach.
A state police firearms expert testified at trial that three 12-gauge shotgun shells were found at the scene of the crime and that the tests showed that they matched the ones later fired from the gun.
The prosecution alleged that the acts of defendant were willful, deliberate and premeditated.
Defendant, on the other hand, claimed that at the time of the shooting he was acting in self-defense out of fear of the deceased, and that his psychological makeup was such that he could not form the intent to kill anyone.
The six issues raised by the defendant on appeal will be considered seriatim.
I
This issue is divided into two parts: (A) Did the trial court err in failing to advise the jury that they could return a general verdict of not guilty? (B) Was the burden of proof shifted to defendant when the trial judge gave his instruction on malice?
There is an admission in defendant’s brief that the court did begin his instructions by saying "that if the prosecutor did not prove the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt, the jury must find him not guilty”.
This statement was followed up in the general instructions on presumption of innocence, burden of proof, and reasonable doubt as follows:
"Each and every one of you must be satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt after deliberating that the defend ant is guilty or you must find him not guilty. You must begin this trial with these principles foremost in your mind. * * * The burden of proof means that every element of the offense charged must be proven by evidence beyond a reasonable doubt. By stating that the prosecution must prove the guilt beyond a reasonable doubt I mean that there must be such evidence as causes you to have a firm conviction, amounting to a moral certainty of the defendant’s guilt. If after considering all the evidence you do not have such a certainty, then that is a reasonable doubt.”
Undoubtedly, the failure to repeat the fact that the jury could find defendant not guilty at the close of the instructions was a mere oversight. The entire panel, before any jury was selected, was advised of this basic rule. The instructions as a whole adequately informed the members of the jury that they could bring in a verdict of not guilty. Under these circumstances it cannot be concluded that the jury, which must have been composed of reasonably intelligent citizens, was misled. Furthermore, counsel did not object to the instructions.
Defendant contends that the trial court made a more serious error when it instructed the jury as follows:
"It is the law that death resulting from an assault in the absence of any proof to the contrary is presumed to be felonious either murder or manslaughter. Where the death is shown to be resulted [sic] from the use of a deadly weapon in the absence of any proof to the contrary, an absence to any testimony in relationship to that, the presumption is that the death was inflicted with malice.”
This instruction was erroneous since malice is an element of the crime of first- and second-degree murder and determination of that element must be made by a jury.
"Michigan has long ago considered malice a permissible inference to be drawn by the jury rather than a presumption of law”. People v Martin,, 392 Mich 553, 561; 221 NW2d 336 (1974).
However, voluntary manslaughter is distinguished from murder by the absence of the element of malice. People v Townes, 391 Mich 578, 589; 218 NW2d 136 (1974).
Here, the jury must have found that the killing, although intentional, was committed under the influence of passion or heat of blood produced by an adequate or reasonable provocation before reasonable time had elapsed for the blood to cool and reason to resume its habitual control. A finding of manslaughter indicates that the jury found no malice, thus the trial court’s charge to the jury, although erroneous, constituted harmless error. People v Swan, 56 Mich App 22, 31; 223 NW2d 346 (1974).
II
Did the trial court commit reversible error in excusing the prosecution from producing witness Tom Hatcher and in ruling that the people had exercised due diligence by their efforts to produce him as a witness?
Prior to the voir dire of the jury on October 22, 1975, a hearing was held to give the prosecution an opportunity to show due diligence in attempting to serve witness Tom Hatcher with a subpoena. Officer Lewandowski testified that he was aware of the fact that Mr. Hatcher had moved to Grand Rapids. He contacted Mr. Hatcher’s mother there and was advised by her that the whereabouts of her son were unknown and that according to the latest information he was in Seattle, Washington and expected to leave for other destinations very soon thereafter. The officer made two additional calls and left his address and telephone number, which would enable the mother to contact him if the location of her son became known.
The trial judge ruled that due diligence had been exercised and commented that perhaps something would be learned as to the address of the witness during the trial.
It is well established, according to both case law and statute, MCL 767.40; MSA 28.980, that the prosecutor has an affirmative duty to endorse and produce all res gestae witnesses to a crime at the time of the trial.
Application of this rule has, however, brought about different interpretations. In People v Serra, 301 Mich 124, 130; 3 NW2d 35 (1942), the Supreme Court stated:
"It is not error for the court to refuse to compel the prosecution to call witnesses whose names are indorsed on the information who are not within the State and answerable to process of the court.”
In People v Ivy, 11 Mich App 427, 431; 161 NW2d 403 (1968), the witness left for New York and the prosecutor made no further efforts whatsoever to contact him. The trial court submitted the question of due diligence to the jury and instructed the members that if they found that the prosecutor had failed to employ due diligence, "they could consider that the witness, if called, would be adverse to the people”. Apparently, the jury was satisfied since defendant was found guilty. Such a procedure was held to be permissible.
In People v Robinson, 390 Mich 629, 634; 213 NW2d 106 (1973), the Supreme Court held that before filing a brief on appeal, a motion for new trial must be made. However, no mention was made of the line of cases holding that a motion for a continuance must be made in order to save the alleged error for review on appeal. See People v Gibson, 253 Mich 476; 235 NW 225 (1931), People v Tiner, 17 Mich App 18, 20-21; 168 NW2d 911 (1969), People v McNary, 43 Mich App 134, 137; 203 NW2d 919 (1972).
In Robinson the witness was not endorsed on the information and no due diligence hearing was held. Therefore, the question remains whether that decision overruled Gibson when a situation such as the one present here exists. Counsel in this case failed to ask for a continuance or make any similar request as permitted under circumstances set out in People v Ivy, supra. Nevertheless, we will consider the issue as presented.
It is well settled that the determination of due diligence rests within the sound discretion of the trial judge. This Court in People v Riley Williams, 57 Mich App 199, 202; 225 NW2d 691 (1974), even though the Gibson rule was still followed, adopted a definition from State v Scott, 110 La 369, 375; 34 So 479 (1903), which reads:
"Due diligence in law means doing everything reasonable, not everything possible.”
In People v Bell, 74 Mich App 270, 274-275; 253 NW2d 726 (1977), this Court said:
"The question of whether due diligence has been shown is a matter for the discretion of the trial court whose decision will be overturned on appeal only where a clear abuse of discretion is shown. People v Rimson, 63 Mich App 1; 233 NW2d 867 (1975). On the basis of the record we find no abuse of discretion.”
Of course, additional efforts to locate the witness could have been made, but we hold on authority of the above cited decisions, when applied to the facts as hereinbefore delineated, that the trial court’s ruling was correct.
Furthermore, it would appear that defendant suffered no injustice because of the inability to produce this witness since there were five other disinterested witnesses in addition to Sally Schippers, an unusually large number, who observed the crime.
Ill
Was defendant denied a fair trial by the prosecution’s injection of certain information into the record concerning the release of various individuals from the Center for Forensic Psychiatry after those individuals had been found not guilty by reason of insanity?
The defense called to the stand Dr. Dennis Co-son, a psychiatrist employed at the Center for Forensic Psychiatry at Ypsilanti, in order to prove the state of defendant’s mind at the time of the shooting. During cross-examination, in an attempt to discredit the witness, the prosecutor inquired about two citizens being prematurely released from the center who later committed serious crimes.
Clearly this testimony was irrelevant and the objection to the admission thereof should have been sustained.
Generally, the extent and control of cross-exami nation in a criminal prosecution is within the discretion of the trial court. People v DeLano, 318 Mich 557; 28 NW2d 909 (1947), People v Flenon, 42 Mich App 457, 467; 202 NW2d 471 (1972).
However, an error in the admission or exclusion of evidence will result in harmless error and will not require reversal unless it results in a manifest injustice. GCR 1963, 529.1, MCL 769.26; MSA 28.1096.
A two-pronged test to determine when reversible error has been committed was articulated in People v Robinson, 386 Mich 551, 563; 194 NW2d 709 (1972):
" 'Where it is claimed that error is harmless, two inquiries are pertinent. First, is the error so offensive to the maintenance of a sound judicial process that it never can be regarded as harmless? * * * Second, if not so basic, can we declare a belief that the error was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt?’ ”
The purpose of the first step in determining whether an error is harmless is "to deter prosecutorial misconduct and to safeguard those individual rights which are so fundamental that the impact of their violation cannot be fully assessed”. People v Christensen, 64 Mich App 23, 33; 235 NW2d 50 (1975).
This was a long trial with many witnesses and a huge amount of testimony for the jury to consider. This error, when taken alone, could not have misled the jury and, therefore, would not be so fundamental as to result in a manifest injustice.
Although we do not condone the questions asked by |he prosecutor, we find that the evidence was so overwhelming that reasonable jurors could find defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt and it is not reasonable to conclude that, absent the errors now complained of, even one juror would find defendant not guilty.
IV
Was defendant denied a fair trial by the court’s ruling that his attorney could not have access to the letters written by him when they were first presented to refresh his memory?
During the cross-examination of defendant by the prosecutor, four letters allegedly written by the witness to Sally Schippers were brought to defendant’s attention.
Following a colloquy between the attorneys and the court it was decided that the letters could be used for the purpose of refreshing defendant’s memory, not for impeachment, and that counsel for defendant could not see them unless they were admitted into evidence.
When a witness testifies from memory, after being refreshed by a writing, his testimony is what is introduced into evidence and not the writing. People v Thomas, 359 Mich 251; 102 NW2d 475 (1960), People v Turner, 59 Mich App 589; 229 NW2d 861 (1975).
In the present case defense counsel was eventually allowed the right to examine the letters. After doing so, he stated that ordinarily he would have no objections to their admission into evidence, but he objected here because of notes made on the letters by the prosecutor.
Under the circumstances here present we hold that any error in initially denying defense counsel access to the letters was harmless under GCR 1963, 529.1, MCL 769.26; MSA 28.1096.
Furthermore, defendant was not prejudiced by the erroneous ruling since portions of the letters read to the jury presented nothing in addition to that which was testified to by other witnesses.
V
Did the trial court commit reversible error by preventing a defense expert witness from testifying as to his opinion, which had been formed as a result of information obtained while defendant was under the influence of sodium brevital, a so-called "truth serum” drug?
Dr. Ames Robey, former head of the center at Ypsilanti, was called as another expert by defendant in order to show the state of mind of the latter at the time of the shooting. The witness testified that in his opinion there was no wilful intent on the part of defendant to take a life, but that there was an intent to protect himself. No objections were raised to this testimony, but objections were made when there was an effort to bolster this opinion by facts obtained while defendant was under the influence of sodium brevital. The trial court sustained the objection on the ground that the witness could not "disassociate” himself from what he learned during that period.
It is argued in defendant’s brief that the "sodium brevital may or may not be admissible,” but that the facts obtained thereby should not be excluded.
The authorities in other jurisdictions are divided on this issue and up to the present time, this was a matter of first impression in Michigan. However, another panel of this Court in People v Cox, 85 Mich App 314; 271 NW2d 216 (1978), has decided the issue in a way that supports the conclusion of the trial judge and is controlling.
After considering the parallel with the admissi bility of polygraph results and decisions in other states, the writer of that opinion stated:
"The large majority of states which have applied this type of standard to truth serum evidence has found it lacking in scientific recognition and accordingly excluded it from admission. See 3 Wharton’s Criminal Evidence (13th ed), § 630, pp 249-253; Anno: Admissibility of physiological or psychological truth and deception test or its results to support physician’s testimony, 41 ALR3d 1369.
"Applying this test to the case at bar, we find that the trial judge correctly ruled that the results of the brevital sodium test, and the witness’s opinions relating to those results, were inadmissible. The psychiatrist himself admitted upon inquiry from the court that there was no medical evidence or studies on the reliability of this drug as a truth serum. Absent such evidence, the court was obligated to rule that the testimony was too uncertain to be allowed before a jury, where it would have had a potentially significant impact.” 85 Mich App at 317-318. (Footnote omitted.)
The same reasoning which was applied in People v Cox, supra, applies here and, therefore, the trial judge did not err in excluding the testimony of Dr. Robey.
VI
Was defendant denied due process of law and a fair trial when his attorney was denied access to reports regarding the deceased having a switchblade knife in his possession at the time of the shooting?
Counsel, prior to trial, filed a motion requesting the examination of the shotgun, clothing of the deceased, diagrams and reports. The court granted certain examinations, but denied access to any reports concerning a switchblade knife alleged to have been in the possession of the deceased at the time of the incident.
There are some variations among different panels of this Court as to just how an issue of this type should be disposed of.
In People v Nkomo, 75 Mich App 71, 75; 254 NW2d 657 (1977), we find this statement:
"GCR 1963, 785.1(2) expressly excludes the application of discovery rules in criminal cases. A discovery motion in a criminal case, then, is addressed to the trial court’s sound discretion.”
A similar ruling can be found in People v Ranes, 58 Mich App 268, 274; 227 NW2d 312 (1975).
The tone for more liberal thinking was sounded in People v Johnson, 356 Mich 619, 621; 97 NW2d 739 (1959):
"The legal concept of a criminal trial has changed considerably in modern times. It is seen less as an arena where 2 lawyer gladiators duel with the accused’s fate hanging on the outcome and more as an inquiry primarily directed toward the fair ascertainment of truth.”
In People v Walton, 71 Mich App 478, 481-482; 247 NW2d 378 (1976), this Court said:
"Traditionally, information sought by a defendant is discoverable when, in the sound discretion of the trial court, the object sought is admissible into evidence and the suppression of it might result in a failure of justice. * * * But, discovery has not been limited exclusively to whether the information sought was admissible at trial. Rather, the focus has shifted to whether fundamental fairness to the defendant, in preparing his defense, requires that he have access to the requested information.”
The last sentence, above quoted, appears to be the key by which the issue should be judged. From this standpoint it is difficult to understand why a report of this type should be suppressed particularly in view of the defense employed by defendant. Accordingly, we hold that the trial court abused its sound discretion in this matter.
However, we hasten to add that the error was harmless for the following reasons:
1. Defendant testified on direct examination that he saw something in the hand of the deceased, but did not know what it was.
2. Two police officers testified that a knife was taken from the right front pocket of the deceased while the latter was in the emergency ward of the hospital. Therefore, the fact that Doss had such a knife was before the jury to consider and accordingly defendant suffered no injustice as a result of the error.
As previously noted, defendant was charged with first-degree murder, but found guilty by the jury of voluntary manslaughter. That term is defined in 3 Gillespie, Michigan Criminal Law & Procedure (2d ed), § 1658, p 2002:
"Voluntary manslaughter is the killing of another intentionally, but in a sudden heat of passion, due to adequate provocation, but without malice.”
Examination of the various elements gleaned from the record after the surplusage has been removed clearly shows that the jury was justified in reaching this verdict.
The facts in support thereof are that: defendant armed himself with a shotgun following a dispute over a girl friend. Any man who does that and then returns to face the enemy is asking for trouble. Sally Schippers testified that when defendant came to the door of the gas station, he shouted: "Don’t make a move or I’ll kill you”. After his car was rammed, he fired two shots through the back window of the car owned by the deceased. He reloaded the gun in order to have it ready for immediate action if necessary. And, there were three shells found at the site of the shooting.
The intention to kill was clear from defendant’s own statement and from his actions, which speak for themselves. He was provoked by a man thought to be stealing his girl friend, which in itself would bring about the "sudden heat of passion”.
Further, it should be observed that the motion for a new trial was heard almost two years after the conviction. Such a practice, which could have been planned, is looked upon with disfavor by the courts. People v Johnson, 386 Mich 305, 310; 192 NW2d 482 (1971).
As further support for this reasoning, we quote again from 2 Gillespie, Michigan Criminal Law & Procedure (1978 rev ed), § 726, p 395:
"In such cases, if a new trial is granted, the prosecution is handicapped in presenting a new case for the people, and defendant often goes free because the long lapse of time has made it impossible to procure the attendance of witnesses against him.”
A similar statement, recently published, says:
"The granting of a motion for new trial is discretionary with the trial court, and is not granted unless it is affirmatively shown that the error complained of has resulted in a miscarriage of justice. The Michigan Court Rules list grounds for which a new trial may be granted. The combination of relevant statutes and rules has resulted in the court’s careful scrutiny of demands for new trial.” (Footnotes omitted.) Note: People v Barbara: The Admissibility of Polygraph Test Results in Support of a Motion for New Trial, 1978 Det Coll L Rev 347, 350.
All trial judges are fully cognizant of the fact that it is virtually impossible to conduct litigation of this type, especially with the dramatic overtones present here, without some errors creeping into the proceedings. After all, a person charged with a crime is entitled to a fair trial — not a perfect one. People v Williams, 11 Mich App 62, 66; 160 NW2d 599, 601 (1968).
Defendant was represented by competent counsel during the long and tedious trial. On appeal, his attorney has presented in his behalf an excellent brief in which the errors, heretofore considered, were set forth in detail.
Following a careful review of the record, the issues raised, and the entire proceedings, we find no justificable reasons why a new trial should be granted at this late date.
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Allen, J.
For many years plaintiffs provided optional, named driver exclusion provisions for its automobile insurance policies. These exclusions permitted an insured to obtain automobile insurance at rates calculated on the exclusion of a certain person. The excluded person would typically be a high-risk driver in the insured’s household, and the resultant rate without the excluded driver would be considerably less than with the high-risk driver included. The Commissioner of Insurance approved of the named driver exclusion provisions by approving the forms through which the exclusions were provided.
On March 13, 1975, defendant commissioner issued notices of withdrawal of approval of forms which contained such exclusions. After the issue had proceeded through the administrative process, defendant commissioner issued a decision and order on March 2, 1976, which declared that policy forms containing named driver exclusion clauses violated the no-fault act, MCL 500.3101 et seq.; MSA 24.13101 et seq. The circuit court subsequently found that named driver exclusions did not violate the no-fault act, and, on June 14, 1977, ordered the defendant commissioner to set aside its withdrawal of approval. Defendant commissioner now appeals from the circuit court’s deci sion. Plaintiffs cross-appeal challenging the defendant commissioner’s authority to make its decision and also challenging the constitutionality of the defendant’s interpretation.
In 1972 the Legislature passed the no-fault automobile insurance act, 1972 PA 294, MCL 500.3101 et seq; MSA 24.13101 et seq. This was a major piece of legislation constituting a fundamental change in the nature of automobile insurance in Michigan. Our Supreme Court has recognized the innovative and experimental nature of the no-fault act. Shavers v Attorney General, 402 Mich 554, 578-579, 615, 627; 267 NW2d 72 (1978).
In pertinent part the no-fault act provides:
"Sec. 3101. (1) The owner or registrant of a motor vehicle required to be registered in this state shall maintain security for payment of benefits under personal protection insurance, property protection insurance, and residual liability insurance. Security shall be in effect continuously during the period of registration of the motor vehicle.” MCL 500.3101(1); MSA 24.13101 (1).
"Sec. 3131. Residual liability insurance shall cover bodily injury and property damage which occurs within the United States, its territories and possessions or in Canada. This insurance shall afford coverage equivalent to that required as evidence of automobile liability insurance under the financial responsibility laws of the place in which the injury or damage occurs. In this state this insurance shall afford coverage for automobile liability retained by section 3135.” MCL 500.3131; MSA 24.13131.
Section 3135, MCL 500.3135; MSA 24.13.135, provides for tort liability in certain specified instances, such as noneconomic loss for death or permanent serious disfigurement, intentionally caused harm, and work loss benefits exceeding those provided elsewhere by no-fault.
It is defendant’s position that since the Legislature enacted a comprehensive, compulsory insurance scheme, it would be inconsistent to permit named driver exclusions, as this would force accident victims to obtain a recovery from the personal holdings of those responsible. Defendant contends that the Legislature would not permit a class of drivers, named excluded drivers, to drive totally uncovered by some residual liability insurance. While such a class might have existed before no-fault, that situation was remedied by the requirement of uninsured motorist coverage.
Defendant’s position is appealing until one confronts MCL 500.3009(2); MSA 24.13009(2). That statute expressly permits the exclusion from coverage of a named person, and provides that the vehicle owner and others legally responsible for the excluded person remain fully, personally liable. Section 3009(1) (which provides for minimum policy limitations) and (2) were adopted in December 1971, 1971 PA 210, less than a year before the no-fault scheme was adopted. The named driver exclusion provision was adopted by the Legislature in response to a Court decision, Allstate Ins Co v Motor State Ins Co, 33 Mich App 469; 190 NW2d 352 (1971), which in May, 1971, had held such exclusions to be contrary to public policy and void. Thus, the Legislature specifically permitted named driver exclusions. No part of § 3009 was expressly repealed by the no-fault act, and § 3009(1) is expressly referred to in § 3103 of the no-fault act.
Since the adoption of no-fault, the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act, MCL 257.1101 et seq.; MSA 9.2801 et seq. has been amended, 1975 PA 322, by the Legislature, and § 4(2), MCL 257.1104(2); MSA 9.2804(2), of this act alludes directly to named driver exclusions:
"The certificate [of insurance] shall state the name of each person named on the policy, policy declarations or declaration certificate whose operation of the vehicle causes the liability coverage to become void.”
The 1975 amendment also added a section making the act inapplicable to accidents after January 1, 1976, MCL 257.1133; MSA 9.2833, but there was no mention of repealing 3009(2).
The history of and concerning § 3009 makes defendant’s contention that § 3009(2) was impliedly repealed by the passage of no-fault difficult to accept. The passage of § 3009(2) was a legislative response of major significance and took place within a year of the passage of no-fault. Furthermore, the no-fault act, itself a major legislative undertaking, refers to § 3009(1), albeit not to § 3009(2). MCL 500.3103; MSA 24.13103.
Defendant counters with the argument that the section was retained to cover motorcyclists who were not initially covered by no-fault. This argument is somewhat weakened in light of the approval of MCL 500.3103; MSA 24.13103, in early 1976, 1975 PA 329. But it is true that § 3103 does not require residual liability coverage for motorcyclists (who have a far lower potential for incurring such liability to others than an automobile driver), and it is arguable that § 3009(2) and § 4(2) of the Motor Vehicle Accident Claims Act, MCL 257.1104(2); MSA 9.2804(2), have been retained to cover residual liability for excluded drivers of motorcycles.
Ultimately, the strongest argument defendant has to support its theory of implied repeal of § 3009(2) is based on public policy. That is, named driver exclusions are inconsistent with a policy of compulsory insurance designed to provide accident victims with assured, adequate, and prompt reparation for certain economic losses. The exclusions are intended to reduce premiums, and the excluded drivers are generally the highest risk drivers. Once excluded, these drivers would have to pay the highest rates for residual liability insurance, and this would not encourage such drivers to maintain their own insurance.
On the other hand, named driver exclusions do bring the cost of insurance down for some automobile owners and thereby make insurance feasible when it would otherwise be prohibitively expensive. Such a situation might exist where a family has a teenage driver with a poor driving record. Hence, there are countervailing policy considerations favoring named driver exclusions. In this regard the scope of the exclusion should be noted. It is an exclusion only for residual liability — personal protection insurance and property protection insurance should be provided by the victim’s own no-fault insurance. Moreover, § 3009(2) expressly makes the owner of the vehicle driven by the excluded driver personally liable, thus creating an effective constraint to the use of automobiles by noninsured, excluded drivers. In any event, even residual liability coverage has limits beyond which a victim must rely upon the personal assets of the individual responsible for the accident.
The primary rule of statutory construction is to determine and effectuate the Legislature’s intent. Shulevitz v Dept of Treasury, 78 Mich App 655; 261 NW2d 31 (1977). If a statute is ambiguous, it must be construed consistent with reason. Stover v Retirement Board of the City of St. Clair Shores Firemen and Police Pension System, 78 Mich App 409; 260 NW2d 112 (1977). Defendant’s position is especially difficult to accept in the face of the rule of construction that repeals by implication are not favored. Ottenwess v Hawkeye Security Ins Co, 84 Mich App 292, 298; 269 NW2d 570 (1978).
We find that the Legislature balanced the competing policy considerations of coverage versus lower costs by retaining within the broad coverage of no-fault the named driver exclusion provisions. Given the legislative history surrounding the statute, an express repeal or modification of § 3009(2) would otherwise be expected. Seldom is the legislative process without compromise. Defendant’s strongest argument is based on policy considerations opposed to which are other, equally weighty policy considerations. Such determinations are best left to the Legislature, and the courts will not question the wisdom of the Legislature’s determination. City of Lansing v Twp of Lansing, 356 Mich 641, 648; 97 NW2d 804 (1959), Melia v Employment Security Comm, 346 Mich 544, 561; 78 NW2d 273 (1956). The no-fault act is experimental and innovative, and in creating this scheme of insurance the Legislature was faced with difficult policy issues. The question of named driver exclusions was one such issue.
In passing we note that several cases have involved, in one way or another, consideration of § 3009(2) since the passage of no-fault. While apparently none of these cases has directly considered the issue in the instant case, all of the cases have proceeded on the unquestioned assumption that § 3009(2) remains in force. See Detroit Automobile Inter-Insurance Exchange v Van Slyke, 82 Mich App 237; 266 NW2d 771 (1978), Allstate Ins Co v DeFrain, 81 Mich App 503; 265 NW2d 392 (1978), Gurwin v Alcodray, 77 Mich App 97; 257 NW2d 665 (1977), State Farm Fire & Casualty Co v Peckham, 74 Mich App 551; 254 NW2d 575 (1977), Allstate Ins Co v Detroit Automobile Inter-Insurance Exchange, 73 Mich App 112; 251 NW2d 266 (1976), Citizens Mutual Ins Co v Central National Ins Co of Omaha, 65 Mich App 349; 237 NW2d 322 (1975).
Affirmed. Our decision makes it unnecessary to consider plaintiffs’ counterclaim. No costs, a public question being involved.
This coverage was mandated by MCL 500.3010; MSA 24.13010, which has since been repealed by the assigned claims provisions of no-fault, MCL 500.3171; MSA 24.13171, 1972 PA 345. Thus, defendant concludes that § 3009(2) was impliedly repealed by the passage of the no-fault act.
The basic no-fault provisions were approved as of October 31, 1972. 1972 PA 294. | [
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T. M. Burns, J.
We granted defendant Travelers Insurance Company’s delayed application for leave to appeal from the trial court’s denial of its motion for partial summary judgment to consider a question relating to the payment of no-fault insurance benefits under MCL 500.3107(b); MSA 24.13107(b).
From the settled record it appears that plaintiff was injured in an automobile accident on October 30, 1974. The injuries received in the accident included a broken leg. Because of this injury, plaintiff was unable to work from October 30, 1974, until April 30, 1975, and again from December 14, 1975, until February 14, 1976. Plaintiff claimed he was entitled to $1,000 per month for wages lost and reimbursement for expenses up to $20 per day for replacement services which he had actually obtained. Defendant urged in its motion for partial summary judgment that plaintiff’s total recovery in any 30-day. period for lost wages and replacement services combined was limited to $1,-000.
This difference in interpretation of § 3107(b) of the no-fault automobile insurance act presents the issue we must decide: does the maximum monthly benefit allowance under the no-fault act for "work loss” include the daily allowance for expenses incurred in obtaining ordinary and necessary services? We answer no and affirm Judge Chester Byrns’ denial of summary judgment.
Section 3107(b), which provides for the benefits and sets the limits in question, states that personal protection insurance "benefits are payable” for:
"(b) Work loss consisting of loss of income from work an injured person would have performed during the first 3 years after the date of the accident if he had not been injured and expenses not exceeding $20.00 per day, reasonably incurred in obtaining ordinary and necessary services in lieu of those that, if he had not been injured, an injured person would have performed during the first 3 years after the date of the accident, not for income but for the benefit of himself or of his dependent. * * * The benefits payable for work loss sustained in a single 30-day period and the income earned by an injured person for work during the same period together shall not exceed $1,000.00, which maximum shall apply pro rata to any lesser period of work loss.” (Emphasis added.)
The concepts of "work loss” and "replacement services loss” are both drawn from the Uniform Motor Vehicle Accident Reparations Act (UMVARA), 13 ULA (Master ed), p 349 et seq. Sections 1(a)(5)(h) and (iii) of the UMVARA provide:
"(ii) 'Work loss’ means loss of income from work the injured person would have performed if he had not been injured, and expenses reasoanbly incurred by him in obtaining services in lieu of those he would have performed for income, reduced by any income from substitute work actually performed by him or by in come he would have earned in available appropriate substitute work he was capable of performing but unreasonably failed to undertake.
"(iii) 'Replacement services loss’ means expenses reasonably incurred in obtaining ordinary and necessary services in lieu of those the injured person would have performed, not for income but for the benefit of himself or his family, if he had not been injured.”
The Legislature, in adopting § 3107(b), did not enact the second part of the UMVARA work loss concept, that is, "services in lieu of those he would have performed for income”, but only the wage, or "income from work”, component. However, we do not conclude from that fact, as does the defendant, that the reimbursement for loss of income and replacement services is subject to a single limit of $1,000 per month, i.e., that "replacement services loss” is a mere component of work loss.
As we read the act, it provides that benefits are payable for two things, work loss and replacement services, and each is subject to its own separately stated limit. We reach that conclusion based on the language of the section itself and what we perceive to be the purposes of the act.
First, the "and” in the first sentence of § 3107(b) does not relate back to the "consisting of’ and "work loss” language, but to the word "payable” which appears before the colon. Second, is the manner in which the limits are stated. The $20 per day limit is stated in the sentence granting recovery for replacement services. The $1,000 per month limit appears in a later sentence which requires that the benefits for work loss, wages or earned income from services under our construc tion, and actual income earned not exceed the limit. There is no mention of replacement services or comparable language in this sentence. The defendant’s interpretation would discourage, rather than encourage, an injured person’s incentive to return to work.
The Supreme Court read the statute in the same manner, i.e., two benefits payable each with its own limit, in Shavers v Attorney General, 402 Mich 554, 620; 267 NW2d 72 (1978). This reading is consistent with the purposes of the act which include speedy delivery of benefits and reduced litigation. If the defendant’s construction were accepted, lower first party benefits would be paid and more injured motorists would be required to seek redress under the residual liability section, MCL 500.3135(2)(c); MSA 24.13135(2)(c). Such an interpretation would be counterproductive to the goals of the act.
The trial court is affirmed and the matter remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion. No costs, construction of a statute being involved.
The case has not been tried below to determine the extent of plaintiffs work loss and replacement services loss. For purposes of this appeal, the parties have stipulated that this loss will exceed the statutory maximum.
The second period of disability resulted from the surgical removal of a pin which had been inserted to aid in the healing of the broken leg.
Throughout the opinion we use 'the $1,000 and $20 limits which appeared in the original act. The benefit level had been raised by the Commissioner of Insurance for the year of this accident. We use the figures which appeared in the original act only for purposes of clarity.
Defendant is certainly not alone in its interpretation of this particular section. The Insurance Commissioner and some writers have reached the same conclusion. See, e.g., Forkosch, 1973 Annual Survey of Michigan Law, Torts, 20 Wayne L Rev 647, 652.
We also consider the fact that the act mentions "daily” and "monthly” limits in the residual liability section, MCL 500.3135(2)(c); MSA 24.13135(2)(c), significant and supportive of our interpretation. | [
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Per Curiam.
A default judgment of divorce between the parties was filed on August 30, 1976. Custody of the parties’ two minor children was granted to defendant.
Plaintiff moved for a change of custody of one of the parties’ two children. Plaintiff also requested that the defendant be ordered to pay child support, medical and dental expenses when the change of custody became effective.
The motion for change of custody was supported by an affidavit of plaintiff’s attorney stating that the reasons and grounds stated therein were true to the best of his knowledge and that he believed the matters stated on information and belief to be true.
Defendant’s answer acknowledged that he agreed to the change in custody proposed by plaintiff. Defendant contended, however, that he was financially unable to contribute support to the child in plaintiff’s custody. He further argued that the plaintiff’s motion was not properly before the trial court because it was not signed by the plaintiff and there was no showing that the affiant, plaintiff’s attorney, had first-hand knowledge of the matter set forth therein.
The plaintiff’s motion for change of custody was referred over defendant’s objection to the Friend of the Court for a recommendation.
The plaintiff also moved the trial court to order the defendant to pay the attorney fees incurred by her while attempting to effectuate the change of custody order.
At a hearing on the motions, the trial court ordered that custody be changed and that defendant should pay $42 a week for the support of the child in plaintiff’s custody. The trial court further ordered the defendant to pay $150 in attorney fees.
On appeal, defendant contends that the plaintiff’s motion seeking change of custody and child support was not properly before the trial court because it was not verified by the oath of the plaintiff or someone having knowledge of the facts pleaded. He further argues that the trial court erred in awarding plaintiff attorney fees because she made no showing that the award was necessary to enable her to carry on the action.
A special set of court rules, GCR 1963, 721 to 731, govern domestic relations proceedings, including child custody matters. GCR 1963, 721(6). Unless otherwise specified in these special rules, the procedure in the actions enumerated in GCR 1963, 721, shall follow the general rules of procedure.
GCR 1963, 725.1 provides that all pleadings seeking affirmative relief in actions described in rule 721 shall be verified by oath. The special rules applicable to domestic relations do not, however, contain a provision specifying how a pleading may be verified by oath. Thus, according to GCR 1963, 721, the verification procedure would be governed by the general rule of procedure, GCR 1963, 114.3, which provides:
"(1) If a pleading must be verified:
"(a) it may be verified by the oath or affirmation of the party or of someone having knowledge of the facts pleaded; or
"(b) it may contain the following signed and dated declaration: T declare that the statements above are true to the best of my information, knowledge and belief.
"The matters in the pleading must be stated positively or upon information or belief, according to the fact.
"(2) A person who knowingly makes a false declaration under subrule 114.3(l)(b) is in contempt of court.”
The foregoing court rule has been effective in its present form since September 3, 1976, and was thus applicable to the case at bar.
The clear import of this rule is that a custody pleading may be verified by someone, other than a party, having knowledge of the facts pleaded; further, this knowledge may be acquired upon information and belief.
The affidavit in support of the plaintiffs motion to change custody appears to comport with GCR 1963, 114.3. Thus, the motion to amend the divorce judgment was properly before the trial court.
This Court hears an appeal in a divorce case de novo on the record and will only substitute its judgment for that of the trial court where it is clear that this Court would have reached a different result had this Court occupied the position of the trial court. Irish v Irish, 59 Mich App 635; 229 NW2d 874 (1975), Mixon v Mixon, 51 Mich App 696; 216 NW2d 625 (1974).
This guideline of appellate review is applicable where this Court is reviewing the award of attorney fees in a domestic relations action. Gove v Gove, 71 Mich App 431, 434; 248 NW2d 573 (1976).
MCL 552.13; MSA 25.93 provides in pertinent part:
"In every action brought, either for a divorce or for a separation, the court may require either party to pay alimony for the suitable maintenance of the adverse party, to pay such sums as shall be deemed proper and necessary to conserve any real or personal property owned by the parties or either of them, and to pay any sums necessary to enable the adverse party to carry on or defend the action, during its pendency. It may award costs against either party and award execution for the same, or it may direct such costs to be paid out of any property sequestered, or in the power of the court, or in the hands of a receiver.”
GCR 1963, 726.1 provides in pertinent part:
"(1) In an action for divorce, separate maintenance, annulment, or affirmation of marriage, and in subsequent petitions to modify the judgment, either party may request that the court order the other spouse to pay an attorney the sum specified as necessary to enable that party to carry on or defend the suit.
"(2) The moving party shall allege facts showing that he or she is unable to bear the expense of the action without this aid. The trial judge may require the disclosure of what attorney fees have been paid.
"(3) The court may order, in the judgment or in a separate order, that whatever sum it finds necessary and reasonable be paid to the wife’s attorney, either by the husband or out of the assets of the husband over which the court has jurisdiction.”
Attorney fees are not awarded as a matter of right but only if necessary to enable a party to carry on or defend the litigation. Mixon v Mixon, supra, at 702.
Plaintiffs motion for attorney fees failed to allege any facts which support her allegation that she was unable to bear the expense of the action without the award. Moreover, there are not sufficient facts on the record from which this Court could determine her need for an attorney fee award. Plaintiffs answers to the interrogatories submitted by defendant do indicate her wages. However, there is no indication. whether plaintiff had assets or income from sources other than wages. Further, there is no record of plaintiffs expenses. In the absence of these facts, this Court cannot make an independent determination of the plaintiffs ability to bear the expense of the action.
The trial court’s order amending the judgment of divorce is affirmed insofar as it ordered a change in child custody and payment of child support. The award of attorney fees is, however, set aside. Plaintiff is not precluded from filing a new motion in the trial court setting forth those factors which she believes require defendant to pay an attorney fee. The court shall decide the matter in accordance with the guidelines set forth in Gove v Gove, supra. No costs, neither party having prevailed in full. | [
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D. E. Holbrook, Jr., P.J.
Appellant, an inmate at the Ionia Reformatory, claims he was sexually at tacked by other inmates, resulting in physical and emotional injury. Suit was filed against the Department of Corrections and Dale Fontz alleging that plaintiffs injuries were the result of defendants’ negligence. The Department of Corrections filed its answer but did not raise the defense of governmental immunity. Such defense was raised by means of a motion for accelerated judgment approximately four months later. Thereafter plaintiff attempted to amend his complaint to include an allegation that the case fell within the public building exception to governmental immunity, MCL 691.1406; MSA 3.996(106). The motion to amend was never granted although the claims therein contained were examined by the trial court. Thereafter defendant’s motion for accelerated judgment was granted. Plaintiff appeals as of right.
Plaintiff claims that failure to raise the defense of governmental immunity in the first responsive pleading constitutes waiver. We disagree.
GCR 1963, 111.3 provides that defenses not asserted in the responsive pleading are waived, while GCR 1963, 118.1 permits amendment of pleadings by leave of the court. Affirmative defenses may be raised by amendment, even if not raised in the initial answer. Ben P. Fyke & Sons v Gunter Co, 390 Mich 649; 213 NW2d 134 (1973). Clearly, the affirmative defense of governmental immunity can only be waived when not asserted.
Defendant raised governmental immunity as a defense through a motion for accelerated judgment. Said motion not being brought within the time set by GCR 1963, 108.2, it must be considered a motion out of time. GCR 1963, 108.7(2) grants the trial court discretion to hear motions out of time. Guastello v Citizens Mutual Ins Co, 11 Mich App 120; 160 NW2d 725 (1968). This discretion applies to motions for accelerated judgment made out of time as well as other motions. Manufacturers Construction Co v Covenant Investment Co, 43 Mich App 123; 204 NW2d 54 (1972). While appellee should have proceeded by means of amendment to its answer with a hearing on the merits of the claim, as prescribed by GCR 1963, 116.3, similar results would have occurred since a defense raised by responsive pleading is treated as if raised by a motion for accelerated judgment. The trial court did not err in hearing the motion for accelerated judgment or in its determination that governmental immunity had not been waived.
Appellant contends this case falls within the defective condition exception to governmental immunity. MCL 691.1406; MSA 3.996(106). We reject this argument. The fact that an injury occurred in a public building does not in and of itself bring that injury within the defective condition exception. Cody v Southfield-Lathrup School Dist, 25 Mich App 33; 181 NW2d 81 (1970). Plaintiffs injuries were caused by inmates rather than the physical building. His allegation of defective condition is in effect a claim that the physical structure was so designed that inmates could not be adequately supervised. Plaintiff cannot invoke the defective condition exception for failure to provide adequate supervision since the thrust of the exception is to provide redress for injuries caused by structural fault or failure to properly maintain a building. Lockaby v Wayne County, 63 Mich App 185; 234 NW2d 444 (1975). Such was hot the case here.
Plaintiffs contention that the governmental immunity statute is unconstitutional is without merit. White v Detroit, 74 Mich App 545; 254 NW2d 572 (1977). See Thomas v Dept of State Highways, 398 Mich 1; 247 NW2d 530 (1976).
With respect to plaintiffs nuisance claim it is based upon maintaining and operating the Ionia Reformatory in a fashion hazardous to the inmates. This claim fails even in light of the Michigan Supreme Court’s decision in Gerzeski v Dept of State Highways, 403 Mich 149; 268 NW2d 525 (1978). Gerzeski held that the nuisance exception to governmental immunity applies to intentional but not negligent nuisances. The claim in the instant case was predicated upon negligently maintaining a nuisance.
Affirmed. No costs, interpretation of a statute involved.
W. Van Valkenburg, J., concurred. | [
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.Cynar, J.
Defendants appeal separately as of right from a decision of the Workmen’s Compensation Appeal Board granting plaintiffs application for worker’s compensation benefits for a total and permanent disability. Since the two appeals share common issues and arise out of the same fact situation, they will be disposed of in one opinion at this time.
Plaintiff was injured during the course of her employment on June 20, 1964, when she lifted a tray of chickens from under a counter. Shortly thereafter she felt pain in her back and legs, which eventually led to back surgery. Defendant A & P voluntarily commenced the payment of worker’s compensation benefits on June 21, 1964, and terminated these on April 6, 1974. Plaintiff has not worked at all since the date of her back injury.
On April 22, 1974, plaintiff brought the present claim. She alleged that she suffered a total and permanent disability by reason of incurable insanity and the loss of industrial use of both legs. A hearing was held on January 15, 1975, and consisted of plaintiffs testimony and the depositions of five doctors. Plaintiff testified that she continues to feel pain in her back and legs. She added that she also suffers from a nervous condition which arose at the time of the back injury and which has worsened with age. She testified that she had been treated by psychiatrists for some time.
On February 18, 1975, the administrative law judge ruled that plaintiff was permanently and totally disabled by reason of insanity. In so concluding, he placed heavy reliance upon this Court’s decision in Sprute v Herlihy Mid-Continent Co, 32 Mich App 574; 189 NW2d 89 (1971). He further ruled that plaintiff had not lost the industrial use of both legs "on an organic basis”. The appeal board, also relying on Sprute, affirmed in a 3 to 2 decision, holding that:
"Plaintiff herein has an employment-related emotional condition which impairs her mental processes, is totally disabling as to gainful employment, has already been of long duration, and appears likely to extend into the indefinite future.”
Defendants now appeal from the board’s determination, attacking both Sprute and the findings of fact of the appeal board.
MCL 418.361; MSA 17.237(361) provides in part:
"(2) Total and permanent disability compensation for which is provided in section 351 means:
"(a) Total and permanent loss of sight of both eyes.
"(b) Loss of both legs or both feet at or above the ankle.
"(c) Loss of both arms or both hands at or above the wrist.
"(d) Loss of any 2 of the members of faculties enumerated in (a), (b) or (c).
"(e) Permanent and complete paralysis of both legs or both arms or of 1 leg and 1 arm.
"(f) Incurable insanity or imbecility.
"(g) Permanent and total loss of industrial use of both legs or both hands or both arms or 1 leg and 1 arm; for the purpose of this subdivision such permanency shall be determined not less than 30 days before the expiration of 500 weeks from the date of injury.” (Emphasis added.)
Thus, a person who can prove the existence of work-related "incurable insanity” is entitled to recover benefits for a total and permanent disability. In Sprute v Herlihy Mid-Continent Co, 32 Mich App 574, 579; 189 NW2d 89 (1971), the Court held that one suffers from such insanity "if the occupationally-related mental or emotional illness which impairs the employee’s mental processes is of totally disabling proportions and is likely to be of long and indefinite duration, thus making gainful employment impossible”.
Defendants presently urge that we re-evaluate this definition of "incurable insanity” and adopt a more stringent test. However, in Redfern v SparksWithington Co, 403 Mich 63; 268 NW2d 28 (1978), the Supreme Court has undertaken this task for us. There, the Court re-examined the Sprute test and modified it in part. The Court rejected the requirements of Sprute that the impairment of mental processes be totally disabling, rendering gainful employment impossible. Indeed, the Court totally rejected any requirement that the mental impairment have any effect upon the employee’s wage earning capacity. Instead, the Court required that the mental impairment have a significant effect upon the employee’s personal, nonvocational life. The Court stated:
"We conclude that a worker’s mental illness is 'insanity’ if he suffers severe social dysfunction and that a worker’s intellectual impairment is 'imbecility’ if he suffers severe cognitive dysfunction. Social or cognitive dysfunction is 'severe’ if it affects the quality of the worker’s personal, nonvocational life in significant activity comparably to the loss of two members or sight of both eyes, and is incurable if it is unlikely that normal functioning can be restored.” Red fern, at 85.
This test was not applied by the appeal board in this case. Rather, the board applied the Sprute "wage-earning capacity test” in reaching its decision. Although the appeal board’s opinion strongly suggests that the Redfern test has been satisfied in the present case, no specific findings of fact have been made as to whether plaintiff suffers from a "severe social dysfunction”. Therefore, we find it necessary to reverse the decision of the appeal board and to remand this matter to the appeal board for further findings and, if necessary, for the admission of additional evidence, pursuant to MCL 418.859; MSA 17.237(859). Since further findings of fact are presently required, we decline at this time to review those factual findings previously made by the appeal board.
The decision of the board is vacated and the matter remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion. Costs to the prevailing party.
D. C. Riley, J., concurred.
However, the following comment is noteworthy:
“While evidence of dysfunction in employment is not determinative of eligibility for total and permanent disability benefits it may supplement evidence of nonemployment dysfunction.” Redfern, at 82, n 15.
The following testimony is quoted in the board’s opinion:
" 'Q Doctor, did you obtain a history from her, generally speaking?
" 'A Yes, I did.
" 'Q Would you tell us what that history was.
" 'A This woman was lifting some box or checking or something at the A & P in 1964, June of ’64 and experienced a sharp pain down her back and into her left buttock and left leg and since that time has had surgery for a ruptured disc which was subsequent to that experience. And the surgery was, I think, a year later, 1965. And since that tirrfe she’s been totally unable to do anything which takes the use of her back muscles; has pain; is very anxious and depressed about the pain that she’s suffered since that time; has been withdrawn, asocial, irritable and severely anxious and her anxiety, I think, has crystalized into a chronic anxiety state at this time.
" 'Q Is that your diagnosis?
" 'A Yes.
" 'Q Chronic anxiety state?
" 'A Yes.’ ” (Emphasis added.) | [
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D. C. Riley, P.J.
This appeal challenges the manner in which "shelter allowances” are distributed by the Michigan Department of Social Ser vices (DSS) in the administration of one segment of this state’s public welfare system.
Plaintiffs, Diane Koziarski and Tanya Sharon, single women each having one child, both receive AFDC grants. To gain the various economic benefits of a shared living arrangement, they decided to pool their individual shelter allowances ($110 per month each) and share a four bedroom, single family flat. However, the DSS refused to permit them a shelter allowance greater than the maximum allowed for a single family ($110 in Wayne County). Following an adverse administrative hearing decision, plaintiffs filed an appeal in Wayne County Circuit Court pursuant to MCL 400.37; MSA 16.437. From an order of that court affirming the decision below, they appeal as of right.
Plaintiffs do not challenge the maximum shelter grant limitation itself but rather attack the validity of the state’s policy which affords a single shelter allowance to two (or more) AFDC recipients sharing a single place of residence, contending separate allowances should be dispersed for each AFDC family living in the dwelling.
Specifically at issue is Item 322 of the Michigan Assistance Payments Manual, relied upon by the DSS and providing in pertinent part:
"APPLICATION OF SHELTER ALLOWANCE. The shelter allowance applies to the house, mobile home, room, or apartment in which the client lives and is granted for the purpose of meeting the cost of a specific living arrangement. Therefore, only one shelter allowance, up to the state shelter maximum, will be allowed for any living arrangement. When more than one client lives in the same living arrangement, the cost of the shelter requirement, up to the state maximum, may be granted to one client or divided between individual clients according to the conditions and limitations of this item.
"CLIENTS LIVING TOGETHER. When more than one client lives in the same house, mobile home, room, or apartment, a landlord-tenant relationship will not be recognized. Therefore, one client cannot pay rent to another. The cost of the shelter requirement, up to the state maximum, and the allowances for heating fuel and utilities for the combined eligible group, may be granted to one client or divided among individual clients, in whatever manner is agreeable. * * *
"An exception to this policy may exist when one client occupies a separate, identifiable unit in the home of another client, such as in a duplex or a home that has been remodeled to include multiple living arrangements. If the unit would normally be offered for rent, a shelter allowance, up to the state maximum, may be included in the client’s assistance budget.” (Emphasis added.)
It is initially alleged that the above rule violates Federal law and regulations governing the AFDC program and thus runs afoul of the Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution, art VI, § 2. Specifically, plaintiffs rely on 45 CFR 233.20(a)(1) and 45 CFR 233.20(a)(3)(viii). The former provides, with respect to all categorical assistance programs including AFDC, the state plan must:
"Provide that the determiniation of need and amount of assistance for all applicants and recipients will be made on an objective and equitable basis and all types of income will be taken into consideration in the same way except where otherwise specifically authorized by Federal statute.”
The later provision requires that the state plan must:
"Provide that payment will be based on the determination of the amount of assistance needed and that, if full individual payments are precluded by máximums or insufficient funds, adjustments will be made by methods applied uniformly statewide.”
Plaintiffs maintain present Michigan practice does not conform with these requirements due to the absence of an equitably determined need of two separate families living in one household, and further, that such a policy is not uniformly applied throughout the state. With these contentions we cannot agree. Many cases have recognized that máximums on the amount of welfare assistance are permissible due to the finite resources available and the state interest in maintaining fiscal responsibility. Dandridge v Williams, 397 US 471; 90 S Ct 1153; 25 L Ed 2d 491 (1970), stands as primary authority recognizing the considerable latitude afforded the states in determining their respective level of welfare benefits. That case concerned Maryland’s AFDC maximum grant allotment of $250 per month. Large families with a proportionately greater need, it was argued, were not treated equitably because of such a restriction. In upholding the grant limitation, the Court stated:
"In King v Smith, supra, [392 US 309; 88 S Ct 2128; 20 L Ed 2d 1118 (1968)] we stressed the States’ 'undisputed power,’ under these provisions of the Social Security Act, 'to set the level of benefits and the standard of need.’ Id., at 334. We described the AFDC enterprise as 'a scheme of cooperative federalism,’ id., at 316, and noted carefully that '[t]here is no question that States have considerable latitude in allocating their AFDC resources, since each State is free to set its own standard of need and to determine the level of benefits by the amount of funds it devotes to the program.’ Id., at 318-319.” 397 US at 478.
The Dandridge Court further recognized that both the Department of Health, Education and Welfare which administers the Social Security Act, and Congress itself had expressly approved of family grant máximums. Dandridge, supra, at 481-482. In this regard, we note that Item 322 has also been approved by HEW, having been submitted as an amendment to the state plan.
In White v Dep’t of Social Services, 20 Mich App 481; 174 NW2d 315 (1969), this Court upheld a maximum limitation on an AFDC allowance although the amount received fell short of meeting the recipients’ actual and reasonable needs, stating that " * * * the amount of assistance granted must be determined in each case according to the standards prescribed * * * within the limits established by the state department on the basis of funds available”. (Emphasis added.) 20 Mich App at 484-485.
The language of Dandridge and White are analogous to the present case. The state had determined in Assistance Payments Manual Item 322 that the level of need of two families sharing the same residence does not justify giving each a full shelter allowance. The state has, in effect, set a maximum shelter allowance for two families sharing the same living quarters. That maximum is the amount permitted to one family in the same residence. Such a policy, despite the fact each family will receive a proportionately lesser shelter grant than if they had lived separately and in their own dwelling, fully comports with the guidelines enunciated in Dandridge and White. We emphasize it is not our province to second guess the appropriateness of the manner in which scarce public welfare funds are disbursed. We are not concerned with the wisdom of state policy, but whether it conforms in this case to federal regulatory requirements. As such we find no discrepancy.
Plaintiffs further contend that Gurley v Wohlgemuth, 421 F Supp 1337 (ED Pa, 1976), applies to the present case. In Gurley plaintiff and her sister had one and two children respectively. Both were receiving AFDC income. Pennsylvania utilized a "flat grant” method of calculating assistance payments with sharply diminishing incremental amounts for each additional person in the household. Since they were living together, the assistance grant was calculated on the basis of one "assistance unit” consisting of five persons rather than as two separate units (under which plaintiff would have received greater per capita amounts). The court ruled that in reducing payments made to two or more AFDC families living together, the state considered available as income to one recipient the AFDC payment to the other without proof of actual contribution, and therefore constituted an improper presumption of available income in violation of Federal regulations. 45 CFR 233.90.
The court further observed that where there was no legal obligation of support, an assumption that income earned by unrelated persons living in the household would be available for support of the child was impermissible. See Lewis v Martin, 397 US 552; 90 S Ct 1282; 25 L Ed 2d 561 (1970), King v Smith, 392 US 309; 88 S Ct 2128; 20 L Ed 2d 1118 (1968).
We find Gurley, supra, distinguishable from the facts at hand. Unlike the flat grant method of assistance in Gurley, where the entire welfare grant amount was controlled by a particular living arrangement, Michigan employs a budget process system where specific amounts are given for each of the recipient’s needs. Plaintiffs are essentially treated as two families of two persons each and are free to use their separate grants as they see fit. Thus, the only effect of Item 322 relates to their actual shelter need. The remainder of their grant remains unaffected, whether they live together or separately. Further, there is no presumption of income contribution for an AFDC family to another. Plaintiffs are cotenants and each is legally obligated to defray one-half the rental obligation. DSS is not required to presume that one plaintiff will use half the shelter allowance to benefit the other as each has incurred a respective legal duty. Plaintiffs’ allegation that Item 322 is not uniformly applied in contravention of 45 CFR 233.20(a)(3)(viii) is also without merit. They reason uniformity is lacking because of their receipt of only one shelter allowance, where, if living separately, they would receive two rental allotments. We interpret the regulation cited as requiring that state welfare disbursements be uniform (viz. applied the same way) throughout each county of the state. The state may, upon a reasonable and non-invidious basis, give some welfare recipients more money than others, provided they do so in a geographically consistent manner. The shelter standard, thus, is consistently applied statewise as each county is required to follow Item 322.
Plaintiffs’ final argument on appeal asserts that Item 322 violates the equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution by reason of its differential treatment of AFDC families living together and those living apart. Dandridge v Williams, supra, reiterates the basic standard applicable to equal protection challenges in the social welfare area:
"In the area of economics and social welfare, a State does not violate the Equal Protection Clause merely because the classifications made by its laws are imperfect. If the classification has some 'reasonable basis,’ it does not offend the Constitution simply because the classification 'is not made with mathematical nicety or because in practice it results in some inequality.’ Lindsley v Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 U.S. 61, 78. 'The problems of government are practical ones and may justify, if they do not require, rough accomodations— illogical, it may be, and unscientific.’ Metropolis Theatre Co. v. City of Chicago, 228 U.S. 61, 69-70. 'A statutory discrimination will not be set aside if any state of facts reasonably may be conceived to justify it.’ McGowan v. Maryland, 366 U.S. 420, 426.” 397 US at 485.
We accept the lower court’s finding of several "reasonable bases” supporting the constitutional ity of Item 322, to wit, (1) the discouragement of overcrowded living conditions, accompanied by health and social hazards resulting from unrelated individuals living together under a single roof, (2) the elimination of unscrupulous landlords who might seize upon the availability of public funds to encourage multiple occupancy of rental units at an increased profit, and (3) conservation of resources which may be allocated to families totally without shelter. As was recognized in White v Dep’t of Social Services, supra, the state "has a valid interest in preserving the fiscal integrity of its programs. It may legitimately attempt to limit its expenditures, whether for public assistance, public education, or any other program”. Id., at 485, quoting Shapiro v Thompson, 394 US 618, 633; 89 S Ct 1322; 22 L Ed 2d 600 (1969).
Plaintiffs’ reliance on United States Dep’t of Agriculture v Moreno, 413 US 528; 93 S Ct 2821; 37 L Ed 2d 782 (1973), is therefore unjustified. In Moreno the provision in the Food Stamp Act which excluded from participation in the food stamp program any household containing an individual who is unrelated to any other member of the household was held to create an irrational classification in view of the stated purposes of the act. While the practical effect of Item 322 is to discourage the sharing, by welfare families, of a single residence, defendant here, unlike Moreno, provides rational reasons for such a policy.
Affirmed. No costs, a public issue being involved.
Michigan, along with other states, participates in the Federal Aid to Families With Dependent Children program (AFDC), 42 USC 601 et seq., which originated with the Social Security Act of 1935, 49 Stat 620, as amended, 42 USC 301 et seq. Michigan participates pursuant to the Social Welfare Act, MCL 400.1 et seq.; MSA 16.401 et seq. It provides grants to AFDC recipients in accordance with such actual needs, but imposes an upper limit on the amount an AFDC recipient can receive for certain portions of their grant, such as a shelter allowance.
The first section of the AFDC program, 42 USC 601, provides that the act is:
"For the purpose of encouraging the care of dependent children in their own homes or in the homes of relatives by enabling each State to furnish financial assistance and rehabilitation and other services, as far as practicable under the conditions in such State, to needy dependent children and the parents or relatives with whom they are living to help maintain and strengthen family life and to help such parents or relatives to attain or retain capability for the maximum self-support and personal independence consistent with the maintenance of continuing parental care and protection, * * * .” (Emphasis added.)
In the Amendments of 1967, Congress added to 402(a) a subsection (23):
"[The State shall] provide that by July 1, 1969, the amounts used by the State to determine the needs of individuals will have been adjusted to reflect fully changes in living costs since such amounts were established, and any máximums that the State imposes on the amount of aid paid to families will have been proportionately adjusted. ’’ 42 USC 602(a)(23). (Emphasis added.) | [
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V. J. Brennan, J.
On October 27, 1975, defendant Frederick Carmichael pled guilty before Bay County Circuit Judge John X. Theiler to two counts of larceny in a building, contrary to MCL 750. 360; MSA 28.592. Defendant was also convicted of being a third-time felony offender, contrary to MCL 769.12; MSA 28.1084. Defendant was sentenced to 7 to 16 years in prison. He appeals as of right under GCR 1963, 806.1.
The factual circumstances leading to the present convictions bear statement. Defendant was originally charged with four counts of larceny in a building. Three counts arose from thefts or attempted thefts of meat from local grocery stores. The fourth count was brought when defendant was found sleeping in a neighborhood garage. The supplemental information charging defendant as a fifth felony offender was also filed at the same time. Pursuant to plea bargain, prosecution agreed to dismiss two of the four larceny charges in exchange for defendant’s plea of guilty to the other two charges. Defendant would plead guilty as well to the supplemental information, though only as a third felony offender.
After defendant’s pleas of guilty were entered but before sentencing, motion was made to withdraw the pleas on four principal grounds. Defendant alleged that he was intoxicated at the time of the larceny committed on Saturday, October 25, 1975. Further claim was made that defendant’s pleas were coerced by comments of his attorney to the effect he would leave prison "in a pine box”. Defendant claimed he was incapacitated by alcoholic withdrawal at the point he was forced to plead guilty on Monday, October 27, 1975. Finally, defendant claims invalid charges brought in the supplemental information charging him as a fifth felony offender made his plea bargain illusory.
Pursuant to a careful and exhaustive discussion of each claim supporting withdrawal, Judge Theiler found none of defendant’s allegations persuasive and denied his motion. The principal claim of appeal which we will discuss results from this denial. We need address only this claim at any length.
We recognize that defendants moving to withdraw guilty pleas in Michigan have no absolute right to do so. People v Flanagan, 72 Mich App 613, 614; 249 NW2d 872 (1976). Nonetheless, both decisions of the Michigan Supreme Court and this Court clearly indicate that requests for withdrawal of guilty pleas based upon claims not patently frivolous which are made prior to sentencing and accompanied by an assertion of innocence should be viewed with great liberality by the trial court. People v Hayes, 70 Mich App 580; 246 NW2d 154 (1976), People v Thomas, 66 Mich App 594, 596; 239 NW2d 427 (1976), People v Lewandowski, 394 Mich 529; 232 NW2d 173 (1975), People v Bencheck, 360 Mich 430, 433; 104 NW2d 191 (1960).
In reviewing existing decisions, we find much similarity with the present case. The most recent communication from the Supreme Court is Lewandowski. The major claim made by defendant in that case parallels closely defendant’s claim in this case that withdrawal symptoms so affected him as to make his plea involuntary. In Lewandowski, where defendant pled guilty to second-degree murder in the shooting death of his wife and wounding of a subsequent pursuer, defendant later attempted to withdraw his pleas claiming he suffered amnesia at the time the pleas were taken. People v Lewandowski, 58 Mich App 18; 226 NW2d 843 (1975), on reh, 60 Mich App 455; 231 NW2d 392 (1975). In the first appeal, we required that defendant demonstrate an abuse of discretion before denial of his motion for withdrawal would be disturbed. On rehearing, we found that though defendant’s claims were not frivolous he had failed to produce the necessary evidentiary support for his allegations of amnesia. The Supreme Court reversed in a simple one page opinion, citing People v Bencheck, supra, and People v Zaleski, 375 Mich 71; 133 NW2d 175 (1965).
We see much to compare between the facts presented in Lewandowski and the claim asserted by defendant here. Defendant in Lewandowski asserted his innocence and contended that his guilty plea was not entered voluntarily. In the present case, we find defendant sufficiently asserted his innocence in the written motion to withdraw his guilty plea. In Lewandowski, defendant’s claim was made before sentencing. We find the same true here. However, whereas in Lewandowski defendant offered no factual evidentiary support for his claim of amnesia, defendant in the present matter submitted much record testimony to the effect that his plea was tainted by the effects of his withdrawal. In this regard, we find defendant’s position much stronger than that of Lewandowski. See also People v Hayes, 70 Mich App 580; 246 NW2d 154 (1976).
Consequently, we are forced to find the trial court in error for denying defendant’s motion where alcohol withdrawal was obvious and may well have made his pleas involuntary.
We will not address defendant’s other allegations of error regarding the denial of his motion. However, we will comment upon the practice which gave rise to many of defendant’s other claims. What we refer to is the Bay County Prosecutor’s penchant for overcharging defendant. We see problems in this case both as to the prosecutor’s (1) charging of this defendant under the habitual offender statute and (2) his original charging on the larceny incidents where they should have been simple larceny charges. It was not the intent of the Legislature to have the larceny in a building statute applicable in shoplifting cases.
This Court recognizes fully the intent of the Legislature regarding use of the habitual offender statute. We also recognize fully the deterrent effect the statute has on released felons. This defendant’s record goes back to 1936.
What became of charges for simple larceny with a maximum of 90 days county jail time? Why the compelling need in a case such as the present for charges involving four years maximum imprisonment for shoplifting against a person whose record clearly indicates acute alcoholism and mental problems? This Court suspects an abuse of process, and an abuse of discretion, on the part of the Bay County Prosecutor in this matter. The fact that on several occasions defendant sought to personally defend himself no doubt helped aggravate the prosecutor into these obvious overcharges. Certainly, defendant has pursued his legal options to the extreme. The record shows defendant a calculating person who has used the legal system as a vehicle and expression for his instability. However, we do not believe the prosecutor’s response to defendant’s behavior is a fair use of his office or a proper solution to remove defendant from taking undue advantage of the legal system. In fact, we are convinced the approach used by the prosecutor merely provided defendant with legitimate opportunity to imbed himself more securely in the legal machinery of this state.
The position the Bay County Prosecutor holds requires of him not only patience with defendants of this nature and their demands for certain rights, but even requires him to take certain abuses upon occasion. When we see the prosecutor becoming angry and oversensitive to such behavior to the extent that he uses his office to "teach a lesson”, subjecting defendants to four years imprisonment for offenses that should only require minimum county jail time, we perceive a need to explore the practices of that office in order to determine if this kind of abuse is common.
Consequently, we remand this case to Bay County Circuit Court with instruction that defendant’s motion to withdraw be granted and the trial court re-examine the nature of the charges in this matter.
We retain no further jurisdiction. | [
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M. F. Cavanagh, J.
On a plea of "guilty but mentally ill” defendant was convicted of first-degree criminal sexual conduct. MCL 750.520b; MSA 28.788(2). He appeals by right, seeking to have his plea set aside.
Court rule and case law have defined the procedures for taking guilty pleas and nolo contendere pleas. However, neither of these sources of authority delineates the procedures for taking the plea of guilty but mentally ill, established by the Legislature by 1975 PA 180. See MCL 768.36; MSA 28.1059. The dispositive issue in the case at bar concerns the proper procedure on taking this plea. Specifically, the issue is whether the trial judge erred by relying on the preliminary examination transcript to establish the factual basis for the plea, where the defendant claimed that, because of intoxication induced by alcohol and a controlled substance, he had no memory of the events in question.
Before accepting a plea of guilty, the court must establish support for a finding of the defendant’s guilt by personally questioning him about the crime. However, when taking a nolo contendere plea the court may rely on the preliminary examination transcript to establish the factual basis of the offense.
Defendant argues that the procedure for taking pleas of guilty but mentally ill should be the same as for guilty pleas, with the additional requirement of proving defendant’s mental illness at the time of the offense. The prosecution contends that, where the defendant asserts that he is unable to recall the alleged offense and that he was mentally ill at the time of its commission, guilty but mentally ill pleas should be treated as nolo pleas in order to give effect to the legislative purpose of the guilty but mentally ill statute.
To decide which is the appropriate practice we will consider, first, the reasons said to justify the difference in the two, and second, how those reasons apply in the context of the instant case.
In Guilty Plea Cases, 395 Mich 96, 133; 235 NW2d 132, 147 (1975), the Supreme Court stated its "preference for interrogation of the defendant by the judge and for reliance on his responses to establish a factual basis”. In an accompanying footnote, the Court quoted with approval the following, in apparent explanation of this preference:
"Direct questioning enables the judge to determine how the defendant views the facts. By the defendant’s answers to the judge’s questions, the judge, a trained observer, can himself appraise whether the plea is, indeed, a truthful plea. It permits the judge, who will be sentencing the defendant, to get the feel of the situation.
"Direct questioning of the defendant is informative; it permits the judge to satisfy himself as to the substantiality and justification for the prosecution and that it is consistent with the sound administration of justice to permit the defendant to plead guilty.” 395 Mich at 133, n 2; 235 NW2d at 147, n 2, quoting from People v Coates, 32 Mich App 52, 70; 188 NW2d 265, 273 (1971) (dissenting opinion by Levin, J.).
In People v Barrows, 358 Mich 267, 272; 99 NW2d 347, 350 (1959), the Court gave additional reasons for favoring direct questioning:
"The direct questioning of a defendant by the trial judge on plea of guilty is required by the rule for the purpose of establishing the crime and the participation therein of the person pleading guilty. This is a precaution against involuntary or induced false pleas of guilty, and against subsequent false claims of innocence.”
The plurality opinion in People v Schneff, 392 Mich 15, 26; 219 NW2d 47, 53 (1974), stated further reasons for the rule:
"This procedure also provides the best method for assurance that a defendant understands the nature of the charge to which he is. pleading. A complete recitation of facts from the defendant also provides for increased appellate certainty when reviewing challenged guilty pleas.”
In Schneff the plurality also supported the rule against use of preliminary examination transcripts with an argument that they are not trustworthy:
"The preliminary examination has for its limited purpose only the determination by a magistrate whether there is probable cause to bind the defendant over for trial; it 'is in no sense a trial to determine the guilt or innocence of an accused.’ People v McLean (1925), 230 Mich 423, 425 [202 NW 1005], and cases cited therein. In its essential nature the preliminary examination is inquisitional and to function properly a very broad scope is permitted the people in their offer of proofs sufficient to satisfy the magistrate’s inquisition as to probable cause. Not infrequently, defendant offers no proofs of his own and, indeed, may not even choose to cross-examine the witnesses offered by the people. On such testimony, no proper determination of guilty should be permitted for any purpose.”
People v Schneff, supra, 392 Mich at 25; 219 NW2d at 53, quoting from People v Zaleski, 375 Mich 71, 81-82; 133 NW2d 175, 180-181 (1965). However, in People v Chilton, 394 Mich 34, 38-39; 228 NW2d 210, 211-212 (1975), the Court, in upholding the use of a preliminary examination record in taking a nolo contendere plea, expressed a more measured distrust:
"Unquestionably the function of a preliminary examination is to determine probable cause. However, not infrequently at the preliminary examination the evidence weighs as heavily against the defendant as if that evidence were introduced at trial. It would constitute a sufficient basis for finding the defendant guilty as charged.
"Certainly a preliminary examination might establish probable cause that the defendant may have committed a crime but fail to establish that the defendant is guilty. But that determination can only be made after a review of the preliminary examination record. In this case the trial judge found that testimony sufficient to establish a factual basis for the acceptance of defendant’s plea. We cannot say he erred.”
Against this background we observe the reasons for the rule’s exception permitting use of preliminary examination transcripts for nolo pleas. See GCR 1963, 785.7(3)(b).
The guiding case is People v Chilton, 394 Mich 34; 228 NW2d 210 (1975). In Chilton the Court explained that "[a] nolo contendere plea by its nature prohibits an examining magistrate from eliciting from the defendant the requisite factual basis to support a nolo plea”; however, the magistrate must still establish the factual basis of the crime, albeit in another manner. 394 Mich at 37-38; 228 NW2d at 211.
A nolo plea cannot be accepted unless the court "state[s] why a plea of nolo contendere is appropriate”. GCR 785.7(3)(b)(i). This requirement has been equated with that of the present court rule’s predecessor, which required "that there be especial circumstances justifying departure from the norm of direct questioning of the defendant, as in a guilty plea, and acceptance of a plea of nolo contendere”. Guilty Plea Cases, supra, 395 Mich at 134; 235 NW2d at 147. See also People v Belanger, 73 Mich App 438, 455; 252 NW2d 472, 481 (1977), People v Gonzales, 70 Mich App 319; 245 NW2d 734 (1976), lv den, 402 Mich 815 (1977). A sampling of such reasons was set forth in Guilty Plea Cases, supra, 395 Mich at 134; 235 NW2d at 147:
"Among the justifying circumstances that have been suggested are (1) a reluctance on defendant’s part to relate the details of a particularly sordid crime (e.g., sexual assault on a child); (2) the defendant’s recollection of the facts may be unclear because he was intoxicated (People v Stoner, 23 Mich App 598, 608; 179 NW2d 217 [1970]) or he committed so many crimes of a like nature that he cannot differentiate one from another; and (3) because he wishes to minimize other repercussions, e.g., civil litigation. This enumeration is not meant to be exhaustive.”
See also People v Seaman, 75 Mich App 546, 550; 255 NW2d 680, 682 (1977), People v Maciejewski, 68 Mich App 1, 3; 241 NW2d 736, 737 (1976).
These reasons fall into two categories, which seem to define the "nature” of a nolo contendere plea: a means for enabling a defendant to plead to an offense where the defendant wishes to do so, but "is unable or unwilling to admit his guilt or relate the details of the alleged criminal conduct”. Guilty Plea Cases, supra, 395 Mich at 134; 235 NW2d at 147.
We turn now to the plea of guilty but mentally ill, and to consideration of how the rules and thinking regarding the procedures on other pleas apply to it.
The statute providing for the plea does not state what the judge must find with regard to the alleged criminal conduct. See MCL 768.36(2); MSA 28.1059(2). However, the statute does specify what the trier of fact must find if, after trial, a defendant is to be found guilty but mentally ill:
"(1) If the defendant asserts a defense of insanity * * * the defendant may be found 'guilty but mentally ill’ if, after trial, the trier of fact finds all of the following beyond a reasonable doubt:
"(a) That the defendant is guilty of an offense.
"(b) That the defendant was mentally ill at the time of the commission of that offense.
"(c) That the defendant was not legally insane at the time of the commission of that offense.” MCL 768.36(1); MSA 28.1059(1).
Assuming that a plea’s elements are the same as those of a jury verdict or bench trial finding, it is obvious that, with regard to the required findings, a plea of guilty but mentally ill is distinguished from a plea of guilty only by the additional element of mental illness.
Indeed, upon close inspection it appears that the label of the plea (or verdict, or finding) is somewhat of a misnomer. To a layperson, "guilty but mentally ill” may suggest that the culpability, and hence the punishment, attending the finding of "guilty” is mitigated by the finding of "mentally ill”. However, the statute explicitly provides that,
"If a defendant is found guilty but mentally ill or enters a plea to that effect which is accepted by the court, the court shall impose any sentence which could be imposed pursuant to law upon a defendant who is convicted of the same offense.” MCL 768.36(3); MSA 28.1059(3).
The statute further provides that a defendant found "guilty but mentally ill” may have continued treatment at a mental institution made a condition of parole or probation. MCL 768.36(3), (4); MSA 28.1059(3), (4). In sum, the finding of "mentally ill” can only serve to aggravate rather than mitigate the restraints on a convicted defendant’s liberty. The plea, verdict, or finding would more aptly be "guilty and mentally ill”. In its substance, and in its penal consequences, a plea of guilty but mentally ill is a guilty plea. Unlike a plea of nolo contendere, there is nothing in the nature of a guilty but mentally ill plea which is inconsistent with direct questioning of the defendant. It follows that the policies requiring direct questioning to establish the factual basis for guilty pleas are fully applicable to pleas of guilty but mentally ill. In fact, because a guilty but mentally ill plea can only be taken from a defendant for whom some showing of mental illness has been made, the policies behind direct questioning are even more applicable here. This is particularly true with regard to the need to learn whether the defendant understands the charge and how the defendant views the facts.
Nor do we see, in the purpose underlying this plea’s creation, any ground for a different result. The prosecution’s brief argues that nolo proce dures must be permitted in taking pleas of guilty but mentally ill in order to "facilitate * * * the legislative purpose of the act”. However, the prosecution’s brief does not state, within its argument on this issue, what that legislative purpose is. In its argument on another issue in this case the prosecution seems to suggest a purpose for the plea:
"Appellant points to the language in MCLA 768.36 and asserts that it mandates treatment.
"Clearly, treatment is not implicit in the guilty but mentally ill verdict. The statute provides for diagnosis and then treatment, if necessary.
"Assuming that a 'right to treatment’ exists regardless of any particular statutory authority, the provisions of MCLA 768.36 add nothing to the 'right’ as this is already specifically provided for in the Mental Health Code. MCLA 330.2000 et seq. The guilty but mentally ill verdict simply provides an alternative mechanism for identification of prospective recipients of that 'right.’
Assuming for the sake of discussion only that this is indeed the purpose of the plea, as well as the verdict, we see in it no reason for dispensing with the usual guilty plea requirement of direct questioning. Imposing this requirement will prevent defendants who cannot or will not recall the details of a crime from pleading guilty but mentally ill. However, it may be safely assumed that, unless a defendant desired psychiatric care, he would not wish to plead guilty but mentally ill. Hence, as to those defendants who do not desire psychiatric care, requiring direct questioning on pleas of guilty but mentally ill will not deter any such pleas, and therefore will not thwart the statute’s purpose.
As to those defendants who do want psychiatric care, but who cannot or will not state the facts of the alleged offense, this rule will bar pleas of guilty but mentally ill. However, such defendants may tender pleas of nolo contendere and apply to the corrections officials for psychiatric care. MCL 330.2000(3); MSA 14.800(1000)(3). Therefore, even where the rule prevents defendants from pleading guilty but mentally ill, it will not prevent them from fulfilling the plea’s alleged purpose, self-identification of prospective recipients of mental health care.
We conclude that the court erred by relying on the preliminary examination transcript to supply the factual basis for the plea of guilty but mentally ill. This raises a question as to the appropriate remedy.
Where there has been a failure to establish an element of an offense to which the defendant has pled guilty, the remedy is a remand to augment the record:
"On remand the prosecutor shall be given an opportunity to establish the missing element. If he is able to do so and there is no contrary evidence, the judgment of conviction shall be affirmed. If the prosecutor is unable to establish the missing element, the judgment of conviction shall be set aside. If contrary evidence is produced, the matter shall be treated as a motion to withdraw the guilty plea and the court shall decide the matter in the exercise of its discretion.” Guilty Plea Cases, supra, 395 Mich at 129; 235 NW2d at 145. (Citation omitted.)
While this procedure may be a fitting cure for an omission to prove but a single element of an offense, we do not think it appropriate where, as here, the defendant has denied any recollection of the offense and the preliminary examination transcript has wholly supplanted direct questioning of the defendant. In such a case a remand to establish the "missing element” is a remand to establish every element of the offense, a procedure difficult to distinguish from a repeat of the preliminary examination. If this were acceptable, then the rule requiring direct questioning, and the objectives it was meant to further, would be defeated. Therefore, defendant’s plea shall be set aside. The parties may either strike a bargain for a plea of nolo contendere, or put the case on for trial.
Our resolution of this issue makes it unnecessary to consider the others raised by this appeal.
Remanded for proceedings consistent with the views expressed herein.
GCR 1963, 785.7(3)(a); People v Schneff, 392 Mich 15, 23; 219 NW2d 47, 53-54 (1974).
However, a mere assertion of intoxication or narcosis is no bar to acceptance of a guilty plea "as long as the defendant sufficiently recalls facts and circumstances which tend to show he participated in the commission of the offense”. People v Burton, 396 Mich 238, 242; 240 NW2d 239, 241 (1976).
GCR 1963, 785.7(3)(b)(ii), People v Belanger, 73 Mich App 438, 455; 252 NW2d 472, 480-481 (1977), People v Conville, 55 Mich App 251, 254; 222 NW2d 312, 314 (1974).
People v Harper, 83 Mich App 390; 269 NW2d 470 (1978).
GCR 1963, 785.7(3)(d):
"Where a plea of nolo contendere is made the court shall not interrogate the defendant regarding his or her participation in the crime. However, the court may not accept a plea of nolo contendere unless there has been or the judge thereupon conducts a hearing establishing substantial support for a finding that the defendant is in fact guilty of the charged offense or the offense to which he is offering the plea of nolo contendere and unless the judge first states reasons for believing that the interests of the defendant and the proper administration of justice do not require interrogation of the defendant regarding his participation in the crime.”
Additional authority for diagnostic observation is provided for in MCLA 791.267.”
Appellee’s brief, at 2.
"Must defendant’s plea of guilty but mentally ill be set aside because it was induced by the unfulfilled and illusory promise that he would receive special status in prison and treatment for his mental disorder?” (Issue as stated in defendant’s brief.)
Appellee’s brief, at 5.
In another issue raised in the case at bar, defendant asserts that his plea should be set aside because he has been denied the promised care. See n 6, supra. The prosecution responds that defendant "has a remedy through a civil suit against corrections’ officials”. Appellee’s brief, at 6. (Citation omitted.) We see no reason why the existence of this remedy should exclude another. However, because the plea has been set aside for the reasons herein stated, we need not reach the merits of this issue. We express no opinion as to whether this is defendant’s sole remedy. | [
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W. Van Valkenburg, J.
Defendant was jury convicted on June 16, 1976, of two counts of first-degree murder, contrary to MCL 750.316; MSA 28.548. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on each count and appeals here as of right.
During the evening of August 22, 1975, defendant, with his girlfriend Juanita Clark (a/k/a Juanita Hunt), with whom he was living, together with the victims Arnie Davis and Leo Keenan, occupied their time at a bar in Saginaw, Michigan. Following the closing of the bar all four individuals entered Keenan’s pickup truck and drove to 516 N. Fourth Street where Juanita hoped to purchase some marijuana. She exited from the vehicle, according to her testimony, and knocked at the front door of the home. She received no answer. Feeling the need of visiting a bathroom she walked around the side of the house and behind a car. While there she heard shots being fired and upon returning to the street observed defendant walking away from both Davis and Keenan, one of whom was lying on the ground, the other in the truck.
When the police arrived, apparently having been called by someone who heard the shots, they found Keenan dead, Davis mortally wounded, their pockets empty and turned out, and the pickup truck’s keys missing.
Later, at approximately 4 a.m., a call was received at police headquarters from an anonymous caller who left his number and insisted on talking only with Captain Edward Chmielewski, chief of detectives. The latter telephoned the number left by the caller and was advised by the informant, hereinafter referred to as 1-328, that he picked up Ms. Clark, who was seen hurrying in the rain, at about 2:30 a.m. the night of the killing. Further, she advised him that her "old man Bennie” had just shot two white "dudes” and that she was looking for him. She requested transportation to her home at 1435 Gage Street, where defendant was observed sitting on the front porch.
Officers were dispatched to that address at about 10 a.m. for the purpose of arresting both Thomas and Clark. One policeman was left there as a guard until a search warrant could be obtained. Defendant on appeal has raised three issues for consideration.
I.
Did the trial court err in denying the motion to suppress the evidence which had been seized as a result of three searches?
Defendant contends that the warrant issued on August 23, 1975, was faulty since the affidavit did not provide reasonable or probable cause.
The statute, MCL 780.651; MSA 28.1259(1), provides that a magistrate shall issue a search warrant when he finds that there is reasonable or probable cause therefor. This is based,, however, on an affidavit, the requirements of which are set forth in MCL 780.653; MSA 28.1259(3):
"The magistrate’s finding of reasonable or probable cause shall be based upon all the facts related within the affidavit made before him. The affidavit may be based upon reliable information supplied to the complainant from a credible person, named or unnamed, so long as the affidavit contains affirmative allegations that the person spoke with personal knowledge of the matters contained therein.”
The basic requirements of the affidavit are summarized in 2 Gillespie, Michigan Criminal Law & Procedure (1978 rev ed), § 868, pp 712-713:
"The affidavit must contain facts within the knowledge of the affiant, as opposed to mere information and belief or conclusions of the affiant. The facts should be set forth clearly and distinctly and must be such that in law would make out a cause of complaint. It is not for the affiant to draw his own inferences. He must state matters which justify the drawing of them, since the purpose of an affidavit or complaint in support of a search warrant request is to supply the magistrate with reliable information on which the probable cause determination may be based.”
Further interpretation is promulgated in People v Rodriguez, 65 Mich App 723, 727; 238 NW2d 385 (1975):
"We read the statute as covering two types of affidavits, namely: one in which the affiant states facts, and one in which the affiant states only informant information. The latter type may be sufficient if the information is reliable, from a credible person and if the affidavit contains affirmative allegations that the informant spoke with personal knowledge of the information.”
Defendant, in his brief, relies heavily on Aguilar v Texas, 378 US 108; 84 S Ct 1509; 12 L Ed 2d 723 (1964), which does set forth the fundamental test and has been quoted by this Court on many occa sions. There the Court held that the affidavit was insufficient. However, that case was distinguished in People v Jerry Johnson, 68 Mich App 697, 704-705; 243 NW2d 715 (1976), where the facts were similar to the ones in the case at bar:
"This affidavit also differs from that in Aguilar in that the Aguilar affidavit simply stated that the information had been received from a credible person, while in the affidavit in the instant case, it was stated that the credible person was 'known to your deponent as a credible and reliable person’. Thus, in the case before us, the affiant is swearing that, by his own personal knowledge, the informant is reliable. The magistrate may choose to believe or disbelieve the affiant; similarly, he would be forced to believe or disbelieve the affiant had it been sworn that the informant had given reliable information in the past. A magistrate may require more information from certain affiants than from others before reaching a determination as to the reliability of anonymous informants in different cases, but that is a decision for the magistrates, and not for this Court. Simply because a magistrate chooses to believe an affiant who claims he has information from an informant known to him to be reliable, is no reason for this Court to conclude that the magistrate has not acted as a 'neutral and detached magistrate’ in drawing 'inferences from the facts which led to the complaint’. Aguilar, supra, 378 US 115; 84 S Ct 1514; 12 L Ed 2d 729.”
Furthermore, the affidavit in support of a search warrant, according to another line of thinking, must be viewed in a common-sense manner. People v Iaconis, 29 Mich App 443, 454; 185 NW2d 609 (1971), affirmed by the Supreme Court in People v Bercheny, 387 Mich 431; 196 NW2d 767 (1972).
This theory was continued in People v Coffey, 61 Mich App 110, 117; 232 NW2d 320 (1975), and People v Battle, 71 Mich App 136, 144; 246 NW2d 389 (1976).
Quoting further from Iaconis, supra, at 462, it was concluded that
"This Court may not substitute its judgment for that of the magistrate unless there has been a clear abuse of discretion in his determination of probable cause.” (Citations omitted.)
A warrant, issued pursuant to an affidavit, reviewed in a common-sense manner, is preferable to action taken without one. United States v Ventresca, 380 US 102; 85 S Ct 741; 13 L Ed 2d 684 (1965).
Further, the United States Supreme Court held that a finding of probable cause sufficient to justify issuance of a search warrant may rest upon evidence which is not sufficient to justify conviction and which may not be legally competent in a criminal trial because it is only the probability, and not a prima facie showing, of criminal activity that is the standard of probable cause. Draper v United States, 358 US 307, 311; 79 S Ct 329; 3 L Ed 2d 327 (1959).
Application of the above rules to the affidavit in question is now in order. Information furnished by the informant on three prior occasions had been "proven to be true and correct”. This conclusion is stated as a fact and not a mere inference. A penciled-in paragraph requested by the judge stated in substance that a "shooting” took place "in the 500 block, N Fourth Street” and that Juanita Clark was known to have been in the vicinity at the time. She was delivered to 1435 Gage Street, which residence is described in detail.
Therefore, we come to the same decision as this Court did in Iaconis, supra, at 457, where it was held:
"We conclude, upon the authority of the above cases, that the affidavit in question, viewed in a common-sense manner, afforded the magistrate sufficient probable cause to issue a search warrant in this case, and that his action was proper.”
The trial court was therefore correct in denying the motion to suppress the evidence.
II.
Did the trial court err in denying defendant’s juror challenges for cause and his motions for change of venue?
The trial judge denied the motion for a change of venue pending an attempt to impanel a jury. That action was proper according to the rule promulgated in People v Swift, 172 Mich 473, 479; 138 NW 662 (1912).
This Court in People v Collins, 43 Mich App 259, 262; 204 NW2d 290 (1972), stated:
"Since People v Swift, 172 Mich 473 (1912), it has been the rule that it is proper for a trial court to defer determination on a request for a change of venue until an attempt has been made to select a jury in the county where the crime occurred. Defendant has not cited, nor has independent research disclosed, any authority which overrules Swift. Following an established rule is not an abuse of discretion.”
Turning now to the question of juror challenges, the record shows that some 60 venirepersons were examined before the jury was sworn. At least 40 of these individuals had not heard of defendant and were not familiar with the pretrial press coverage. Many of these individuals who had read something about the charged crime stated that no opinion as to guilt had been formed. The fact that defendant had exhausted his peremptory challenges is not controlling. Swift, supra, at 482.
GCR 1963, 511.4 provides in part:
"The following are grounds for challenges for cause:
(3) that the person is biased for or against a party or attorney;
(4) that the person shows a state of mind which will prevent him from rendering a just verdict, or has formed a positive opinion on the facts of the case or as to what the outcome should be.”
Therefore, according to the rule, the finding of bias or prejudice of a challenged juror is a matter which is within the trial court’s discretion.
A litigant who challenges a prospective juror must then show that the latter "has preconceived opinions or prejudices, or such other interests or limitations as would impair his capacity to render a fair and impartial verdict”. 2 Honigman & Hawkins, Michigan Court Rules Annotated (2d ed), p 466.
A review of the record, in light of these rules, leads us to the conclusion that the trial judge did not abuse his discretion in refusing to dismiss the jurors for cause.
The entire record of this case shows a remarkable parallel to Collins, supra, and People v Ranes, 63 Mich App 498; 234 NW2d 673 (1975).
Collins was tried in Washtenaw County for a single murder following the killing of several coeds in and around Ypsilanti. It was held by this Court, in spite of the pretrial publicity surround ing these murders, that the defendant received a fair and impartial trial.
In Ranes, we have an almost exact duplicate, both as to the number of charges and the publicity, of the situation as it existed here. Ranes’ plan of operation was to rape, rob and murder his victims. In fact, two young ladies suffered their fates in one day. At the time of the trial in that case, the defendant had been convicted of second-degree murder and first-degree murder in the perpetration or attempted perpetration of rape. See People v Ranes, 58 Mich App 268; 227 NW2d 312 (1975).
We quote from the opinion in the second appeal, People v Ranes, 63 Mich App at 503:
"While either party may be granted a change of venue 'upon good cause shown’, MCLA 762.7; MSA 28.850, the denial of such motion rests in the trial court’s discretion. To set aside such a decision, a clear showing of abuse on the part of the trial court must be demonstrated.”
Accordingly we find, following a careful review of the record, that no abuse of discretion existed as to the denial of the motion for a change of venue or as to the challenges for cause.
III.
Did the trial court err by allowing the prosecutor to make prejudicial remarks to the jury and by allowing the prosecutor to establish defendant’s lack of employment at the time the charged crimes occurred?
During closing arguments, defense counsel argued that his client had repeatedly denied that he had robbed the victims. The prosecutor, in rebut tal, referred to defendant’s plea of not guilty, but pointed out that defendant’s denial of guilt was presented by defense counsel and did not come from the testimony of any witness.
It is, of course, well settled that a criminal defendant has a right to remain silent at trial and no reference or comments should be made to subvert that right. People v Balog, 56 Mich App 624, 629; 224 NW2d 725 (1974).
However, if error did occur by virtue of these remarks, it was cured by the instruction given by the trial court that defendant’s silence could not be considered for any purpose.
Also, in the closing arguments, the prosecutor made the following statements:
"The importance of a felony murder case, the importance of making a homicide complete during the course of a robbery, first-degree murder, it is not the value of the article that is stolen, it is the fact that someone’s death has occurred during the robbery.
"The Legislature has decided that they want to put high penalties, high charges on people going around committing robberies, armed robbers; and if a death follows, obviously you can’t bring that person back to life; so the Legislature is trying to make homicides committed during armed robbery in this case, that’s what we’re dealing with, homicide during the commission of an armed robbery, they’re trying to make it a very serious offense; and I think that the only reasonable inference that you can draw from the evidence in this case is that Bennie Thomas has committed a street mugging, armed robbery, on Fourth Street.”
Perhaps the making of these remarks was attributable to the fact that this was a highly emotional murder trial, and that the remarks were made in the heat of the closing hours thereof.
The conclusions of this Court in People v Wheat, 55 Mich App 559, 565; 223 NW2d 73 (1974), cover this subject:
"It is well settled that a prosecutor may not make a statement of fact to the jury which is unsupported by the evidence in the case. However, it is equally well settled that a verdict in a criminal case cannot be set aside unless it affirmatively appears that the error complained of has resulted in a miscarriage of justice. MCLA 769.26; MSA 28.1096; People v Green, 7 Mich App 346, 354; 151 NW2d 834, 838 (1967).
"A prosecuting attorney is properly held to a very high standard of performance. Nevertheless, the courts have recognized that infallibility will never be achieved:
" 'Great care should be taken by prosecuting officers and trial courts that no statement be made in the presence of jurors which would jeopardize a defendant’s right to a fair trial. But in the haste and heat of a trial it is humanly impossible to obtain absolute perfection, and of necessity some allowance must be made in determining whether impromptu remarks are to be held prejudicial. Statements should not be held prejudicial if they are made in good faith, and, when fairly construed, they do not appear to have been such as influenced the jury adversely to the rights of the accused.’ People v Burnstein, 261 Mich 534, 538; 246 NW 217, 218 (1933).”
Furthermore, "the test to be applied is not whether there were some irregularities but instead did the defendant have a fair and impartial trial”. People v Williams, 11 Mich App 62, 66; 160 NW2d 599, 601 (1968), aff'd, 383 Mich 118; 174 NW2d 564 (1970). Therefore, no reversible error was committed in the prosecutor’s argument to the jury.
Counsel for defendant, during cross-examination of Ms. Clark, elicited testimony to the effect that Arnie Davis had given her money and had promised to provide for her and her baby if she would get rid of defendant. The prosecutor, arguing that defense counsel opened the door, established that defendant was unemployed at the time the crimes occurred. The court agreed with the prosecution’s argument and allowed the evidence of unemployment to be presented.
Defense counsel objected to this questioning and on appeal maintains, relying on People v Johnson, 393 Mich 488, 496; 227 NW2d 523 (1975), that it was error to introduce the question of poverty and unemployment. Generally this would be true since it is immaterial whether a person is employed or unemployed where proof of an alleged crime is concerned.
It has been held by this Court, though, that the Michigan Supreme Court did not set out a per se rule requiring reversal where questions of a defendant’s unemployment are asked. Rather, the question to be answered in determining whether reversible error occurred in allowing such testimony is whether the trial court abused its discretion in allowing this line of questioning. People v Thomas Jones, 73 Mich App 107, 109; 251 NW2d 264 (1976).
Here, however, counsel for defendant merely brought out that he was not providing for Ms. Clark and her child, not that he was financially unable to do so because of the fact that he was unemployed. Under these circumstances, it would appear that the door was not opened for such questioning.
The application of Johnson to situations of this kind has brought about emphasis upon various factors by different panels of this Court.
In People v Jackson, 77 Mich App 392, 400; 258 NW2d 89 (1977), we find this attitude:
"Absent an express prohibition by the Supreme Court, we would hold that, with some limitations, a defendant’s need for money may be shown in order to establish a motive for a theft offense. We do not believe that People v Johnson, supra, prohibits that holding.”
See People v Henderson, 80 Mich App 447, 451; 264 NW2d 22 (1978), for a list of cases dealing with this subject.
Therefore, when we isolate Ms. Clark’s testimony in this area from the balance of the record, it would be concluded, in light of this line of cases, that the trial court abused its discretion in permitting the prosecutor to proceed as he did.
However, MCL 769.26; MSA 28.1096, provides:
"No judgment or verdict shall be set aside or reversed or a new trial be granted by any court of this state in any criminal case, on the ground of misdirection of the jury, or the improper admission or rejection of evidence, or for error as to any matter of pleading or procedure, unless in the opinion of the court, after an examination of the entire cause, it shall affirmatively appear that the error complained of has resulted in a miscarriage of justice.” (Emphasis added.)
The crucial fact, in the instant case, was whether or not defendant committed the crimes charged in the information. The jury was confronted with a huge amount of testimony concerning the incident, with only a small part thereof being taken up by the error complained of. The evidence of guilt was overwhelming. Accordingly, defendant has not shown that he suffered a "miscarriage of justice”.
In People v Martin, 75 Mich App 6, 14; 254 NW2d 628 (1977), it is stated:
"The prosecution did not mention defendant’s unemployment or station in life during closing argument and the brief reference to this fact in this lengthy trial was not prejudicial.”
Absent proof of a manifest injustice, there can be no reversal of the defendant’s conviction. MCL 769.26; MSA 28.1096.
There has been no such showing here which would justify the reversal of this conviction.
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Allen, P.J.
Can the state escape liability under governmental immunity when, during excavation of a state highway right-of-way, it disconnects a 12-inch water main on the right-of-way and either fails to reconnect it at all or replaces it with an 8- inch main, thereby cutting off or reducing the water supply necessary to combat a fire occurring on nearby private property? On May 20, 1977, the Court of Claims held yes and plaintiffs appeal of right.
On January 14, 1976, a fire severely damaged the Lemontree Apartment complex located just off of 1-94 in Van Burén Township, Wayne County. As a result of the fire, the three plaintiff insurance companies paid their policyholders some $670,430.36, taking subrogation agreements under which complaint was filed in the Court of Claims. Plaintiffs’ complaint, taken as true for purposes of this appeal, alleges that prior to the fire a 12-inch pipe which supplied water to the apartment complex was disconnected when the Department of Highways and Transportation was excavating or otherwise working on the 1-94 highway. Plaintiffs allege that the 12-inch pipe was replaced with an 8-inch pipe, thereby reducing available water supply with which to fight the fire at the insured premises. Defendant’s first responsive pleading, a motion for accelerated judgment on the basis of immunity from tort liability under 1964 PA 170, MCL 691.1407; MSA 3.996(107), was granted by the trial judge sitting in the Court of Claims.
Whether the damage was caused by insufficient water pressure or by lack of any water at all, the offensive state conduct occurred in the course of the maintenance or improvement of a highway. Such activity is clearly a governmental function. Thomas v Dep’t of State Highways, 398 Mich 1, 11, 12; 247 NW2d 530 (1976). Unless such activity falls within one of the exceptions to the immunity rule, it is conduct for which the defense of governmental immunity is available to the highway department. Thomas, supra.
Plaintiffs pled negligence and nuisance and argue that the state’s conduct falls within two of the exceptions to governmental immunity recognized by this Court in Gerzeski v Dep’t of State Highways, 68 Mich App 91, 95; 241 NW2d 771 (1976).
"In addition to the statutory exceptions, governmental immunity has been held inapplicable in two other, related instances. The first is where damage is caused by 'direct trespasses’ of an instrumentality from government owned land onto private property. See e.g. Ferris v Detroit Board of Education, 122 Mich 315; 81 NW 98 (1899), Herro v Chippewa County Road Commissioners, 368 Mich 263; 118 NW2d 271 (1962), Pound v Garden City School District, 372 Mich 499; 127 NW2d 390 (1964). In such cases, the governmental action which caused plaintiffs injuries or property damage has been considered nearly an intentional tort. The Ferris, Herró and Pound cases all involved damage caused by water escaping from government land, a traditional strict liability tort. Prosser, Torts (4th ed), § 78 p 505, 508-516. See also Robinson v Township of Wyoming, 312 Mich 14; 19 NW2d 469 (1945).
"The second non-statutory exception is the maintenance of a per se nuisance.”
We quickly reject the claim that this case falls within the direct trespass exception as in cases where accumulated ice and snow falls from the roof of a public building onto plaintiffs lands or person or where a public pond or lake is negligently constructed causing water to be discharged upon plaintiffs lands. Here, the situation is just the reverse, it being the absence or insufficiency of water discharge which causes the injury. Nor is this case similar to Buckeye Union Fire Insurance Co v Michigan, 383 Mich 630, 643; 178 NW2d 476 (1970), where fire originating on state owned lands spreads to neighboring properties causing their loss for which plaintiffs’ insurers paid and sued the state. In the instant case the fire did not start on state property. In no way may it be said that an instrumentality (fire) spread from state land to private property. Instead, the alleged offending conduct occurred within the right-of-way of state highway property and in no way can be considered a trespass. Buckeye, supra, is also distinguishable for the reason that repeated trespasses or repeated nontrespassory invasions existed. In the instant case we do not have a Buckeye type situation of repeated trespasses or repeated nontrespassory invasions. Instead we have a single act of negligence, viz: failure to replace a water pipe or replacement with a smaller gauge pipe.
For reasons occurring subsequent to oral argument in this case, plaintiffs’ argument, i.e., that defendant’s conduct is a nuisance against which the defense of immunity cannot be raised, is of first impression. We refer to the Supreme Court’s opinions, released July 24, 1978, in Gerzeski v Dep’t of State Highways, 403 Mich 149; 268 NW2d 525 (1978) and Rosario v Lansing, 403 Mich 124; 268 NW2d 230 (1978). Prior to the Supreme Court’s decision in these cases our Court had consistently held that "nuisances in fact do not survive an otherwise proper claim of governmental immunity”. Buddy v Dep’t of Natural Resources, 59 Mich App 598, 606; 229 NW2d 865 (1975), Rosario v Lansing, 66 Mich App 597; 239 NW2d 428 (1976). See also dissenting opinion of Justice Ryan in Rosario, supra. However, this Court’s interpretation of the law was reversed on appeal of Rosario to the Supreme Court. Five justices concluded that when properly pled, a nuisance in fact condition was not subject to defeat by reason of governmental immunity. However, the justices divided on the question of whether the nuisance must be created intentionally.
In Gerzeski, five justices agreed with the classification of "nuisance” as set forth in Justice Moody’s opinion:
"1. nuisances created by illegal conduct (nuisances per se);
"2. nuisances created by conduct intended to bring about conditions which, in fact, constituted a nuisance (intentional nuisances); and
"3. nuisances created by negligent conduct (negligent nuisances).
"As noted, when placed within the general nuisance categories of nuisance per se and nuisance in fact, the last two categories, intentional nuisance and negligent nuisance, are nuisances in fact requiring factual resolution by the trier of fact.”
but, as in Rosario, split 3-2 as to whether the bar of governmental immunity is inapplicable when the alleged nuisance is not intentionally created. In short, Gerzeski-Rosario hold that the defense of governmental immunity is no longer a bar to intentionally created nuisances in fact. In both cases Justice Ryan, joined by Justice Coleman, dissented on grounds that case-made exceptions to governmental immunity extend only to per se and direct trespass nuisances.
What effect do the Rosario-Gerzeski decisions have on our decision in the instant case? Before answering this question we note that in Gerzeski, a case involving a large pond created by the highway department in which three persons drowned while walking on the ice covering the pond, trial had been held in circuit court and the court had made findings of fact that the pond was an intentionally created nuisance. In Rosario, a 19-month-old child drowned when she fell into a drain whose covering was improperly secured. No trial was held since the trial court granted the city’s motion for summary judgment on grounds of governmental immunity but plaintiff’s amended complaint set forth in some detail that notice of the defect had frequently been called to the city’s attention but the city had failed to secure the covering or provide a heavier covering which could not be removed by children. In the case before us plaintiffs’ complaint on the nuisance allegation is skeletal at best.
Under no circumstances was the defective pipe in this case a nuisance per se, nor could it be made so by amendment to the complaint. A nuisance per se is defined as
"An 'absolute’ nuisance, sometimes referred to as being the same as a 'nuisance per se,’ has been defined as a nuisance, the substance of the wrong in respect of which is not negligence, which obviously exposes another to probable injury. It is a distinct civil wrong arising or resulting from the invasion of a legally protected interest * * * .” 66 CJS, Nuisances, § 1b, p 729. (Emphasis supplied.)
Here, no illegal act was committed. As defendant points out, Const 1963, art 5, § 28 and MCL 247.184, 247.185; MSA 9.264, 9.265 and MCL 247.801 et seq.; MSA 9.216(1) et seq., give defendant plenary power over highways and utilities lying in their rights of way. In Anderson v Iron Mountain Water Works, 225 Mich 574, 577; 196 NW 357 (1923), it was held that liability could not be imposed on defendant water works for fire damage to plaintiff’s property caused when water could not be furnished because one hydrant was frozen and another was covered with snow. Since plaintiffs’ insureds had no right to water for fire protection, and since the highway department’s action was not illegal, no nuisance per se existed here.
If plaintiffs are to prevail, Rosario-Gerzeski hold they must do so on a showing of a nuisance in fact which is intentionally created. Otherwise, four members of the Supreme Court hold that the defense of governmental immunity may be invoked. In the instant case, plaintiffs have not alleged an intentional act of negligence. Unlike Rosario-Gerzeski, no notice of the potential hazard is alleged. In effect, plaintiffs merely aver that a single act of negligence — failure to reconnect a hydrant or reconnection with a smaller gauge pipe —was committed. This is hardly a nuisance, much less a deliberately created nuisance. We do not read Rosario-Gerzeski as going so far as to hold that single acts of negligence may escape the defense of governmental immunity by the expedient of calling them a nuisance. Plaintiffs’ allegations are negligence pure and simple and, as such, were properly subject to the motion for summary judgment.
Affirmed, no costs, a public question being involved.
D. R. Freeman, J., concurred.
At oral argument, plaintiffs stated that subsequent investigation disclosed that the 12-inch pipe was not in fact replaced with an 8-inch pipe but was never reconnected at all and thus no water was available from the disconnected main.
The Buckeye Court quoted a portion of the decision in Thornburg v Port of Portland, 233 Or 178; 376 P2d 100 (1962), as follows:
"In summary, a taking occurs whenever government acts in such a way as substantially to deprive an owner of the useful ppssession of that which he owns, either by repeated trespasses or by repeated nontrespassory invasions called 'nuisance’.’’ (Emphasis supplied.)
The Gerzeski opinion also included Fouchia v Dep’t of State Highways. Oral argument in the case before us was held June 5, 1978.
"In conclusion, plaintiff has sufficiently pled a claim grounded upon nuisance in fact. Governmental immunity does not bar the claim. Whether or not the open drain was a nuisance was a question for the jury. Therefore, the granting of the summary judgment for the City of Lansing was improper.” Justices Fitzgerald, Kavanagh and Levin. 403 Mich at 138.
"If the trier of fact finds the existence of a nuisance in fact, the trier of fact must then determine whether the nuisance in fact was created negligently or intentionally. When the trier of fact determines that the alleged nuisance was intentional, governmental immunity is not a bar.” Justices Moody and Williams, concurring. 403 Mich at 142.
"15. That by its actions, Defendant, State of Michigan, Department of Highways and Transportation breached said duty by reducing the supply of water available to combat or otherwise contain the aforementioned fire.
"16. That said breach and actions or inactions were not only negligent but were also of such nature to render them gross and wanton misconduct, and such actions damaged Plaintiffs’ subrogors.
"17. That said breach and actions or inactions constituted a nuisance, and such nuisance damaged Plaintiffs subrogors.”
"The courts have almost uniformly held that municipalities are not bound to furnish water for fire protection.” Id. at 577. | [
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D. E. Holbrook, Jr., J.
Plaintiff appeals from the trial court’s ruling that the so-called "dormant minerals act”, MCL 554.291 et seq.; MSA 26.1163(1) et seq., violated both the Federal and state constitutions by depriving defendants of property without due process of law. Further the trial court held that the act impaired the obligation of defendants’ contract with plaintiff contrary to art I, § 10 of the Michigan Constitution of 1963 and art I, § 10 of the United States Constitution.
The case was submitted on stipulated facts and the only issue was the constitutionality of the dormant minerals act. In 1943 Nellie Gill, the owner of 40 acres of land in Kalkaska County, conveyed the parcel "excepting and reserving to herself and her heirs all of the oil and mineral rights * * * ”. The deed of conveyance was recorded on August 7, 1945. Plaintiff, H. John Van Slooten, is the successor in interest of the grantee of the deed. Ms. Gill is now deceased and the defendants are her heirs.
On June 29, 1970, one of the defendants recorded an oil and gas lease. This was the first recorded instrument affecting or asserting an interest in any of the rights reserved to heirs in the Gill deed. After the recording of this initial lease, all of the defendants or their ancestors executed oil and gas leases.
It is undisputed that neither Ms. Gill nor her heirs have recorded any written notice with the county register of deeds nor have any drilling permits been issued in the 20 year period following the recordation of the Gill deed on August 7, 1945, or in the three-year period following September 6, 1963.
The relevance of the three- and 20-year periods can be seen in the statutory sections, MCL 554.291 and 554.292; MSA 26.1163(1) and 26.1163(2).
"554.291 Oil or gas interest in land; abandonment; claim of interest; vesting in surface owner.
"Sec. 1. Any interest in oil or gas in any land owned by any person other than the owner of the surface, which has not been sold, leased, mortgaged or transfer red by instrument recorded in the register of deeds office for the county where such interest is located for a period of 20 years shall, in the absence of the issuance of a drilling permit as to such interest or the actual production or withdrawal of oil or gas from said lands, or from lands covered by a lease to which such interest is subject, or from lands pooled, unitized or included in unit operations therewith, or the use of such interest in underground gas storage operations, during such period of 20 years, be deemed abandoned, unless the owner thereof shall, within 3 years after the effective date of this act or within 20 years after the last sale, lease, mortgage or transfer of record of such interest or within 20 years after the last issuance of a drilling permit as to such interest or actual production or withdrawal of oil or gas, from said lands, or from lands covered by a lease to which such interest is subject, or from lands pooled, unitized, or included in unit operations therewith, or the use of such interest in underground gas storage operations, whichever is later, record a claim of interest as hereinafter provided. Any interest in oil or gas deemed abandoned as herein provided shall vest as of the date of such abandonment in the owner or owners of the surface in keeping with the character of the surface ownership.
"Drilling permit. The phrase 'drilling permit’ shall mean a permit to drill an oil or gas well issued by the conservation department or its successor.
"554.292 Preservation of oil or gas interest; recording of interest notice claimed
"Sec. 2. Any interest in oil or gas referred to in this act may be preserved by the recording within the period specified in this act a written notice in the register of deeds office for the county where such interest is located, which notice shall be verified by oath, describe the land and the nature of the interest claimed, give the name and address of the person or persons claiming the interest, and state that such person or persons desire to preserve the interest and do not intend to abandon same: Provided, however, That any person holding such interests for use in underground gas storage operations may preserve his inter ests, and the interests of any lessor thereof, by recording a single such written notice, defining the boundaries of the underground gas storage field or pool, and the formations included therein, within which said interests are located, without the necessity of describing each separate interest claim therein by said person. The recording of such notice shall operate to preserve such interest from the operation of this act for a period of 20 years thereafter when, if the nondormant character of the interest has not been evidenced by sale, lease, mortgage or transfer by instrument recorded in the register of deeds office for the county where such interest is located, a drilling permit issued, oil or gas actually produced or withdrawn from said lands, or from lands covered by a lease to which such interest is subject, or from lands pooled, unitized, or included in unit operations therewith, or the use of such interest in underground gas storage operations, or a like notice filed, such interest shall be deemed abandoned. In the absence of prior abandonment, such interests may be preserved indefinitely from the operation of this act by the filing of the notices as herein provided or the performance of any of the acts specified herein evidencing nondormancy of the interest within each succeeding 20 year period.
"Nonapplication of act. This act shall not apply to any interest in oil or gas owned by any governmental body or agency thereof.” 1963 PA 42, § 2, eff. Sept. 6.
Essentially the act provides that when the ownership of subsurface oil and gas interests is severed from the ownership of the surface, the owner of oil and gas rights must do some act, enumerated in the statute, to indicate ownership or the oil and gas interests are deemed abandoned and become the property of the surface owner. The trial court found this legislative scheme to be unconstitutional since it deprived the defendants of property without due process of law and impaired the obligations of contract between plaintiff and defendant. On appeal, defendants also claim the statute deprives them of equal protection of the law.
We begin by noting that there is no question that ownership of subsurface mineral interests may be severed from ownership of the surface by a reservation in a deed. Rathbun v Michigan, 284 Mich 521, 534; 280 NW2d 35 (1938). That is the situation in the instant case.
While defendants and the trial court have focused on the issue of whether the statute deprives defendants of property without due process of law, Michigan courts have held that where there is a valid exercise of the police power, the provision of the constitution declaring that property shall not be taken without due process of law is inapplicable. Wyant v Director of Agriculture, 340 Mich 602, 608; 66 NW2d 240 (1954), Grayson v Board of Accountancy, 27 Mich App 26, 30; 183 NW2d 424 (1970), People v Raub, 9 Mich App 114, 118; 155 NW2d 878 (1967). Therefore if the dormant minerals act is a valid exercise of police power, defendants have not been deprived of property without due process of law.
In determining what constitutes a valid exercise of police power, courts have remained flexible in evaluating various statutes in light of evolving social conditions. In Clements v McCabe, 210 Mich 207, 215; 177 NW 722 (1920), the Michigan Supreme Court stated,
"The governmental authority known as 'police power’ is concededly an inherent attribute of State sovereignty. * * * As generally understood it operates in a conceded sphere relating to public safety, order and morals for the protection of health, person and property, which is never questioned; but with changing conditions and requirements of our modern civilization, increasing regulatory and restrictive legislation has expanded its application to new subjects and demands presenting a debatable sphere where compulsory control borders the line of claimed constitutional rights and private freedom of action.”
In People v Raub, supra, at 119, this Court commented on the exercise of the police power,
"Courts have consistently and wisely declined to set any fixed limitations upon subjects calling for the exercise of this power. It is elastic and is exercised from time to time as varying social conditions demand correction.”
In passing on the validity of "police power” legislation, courts give great deference to the legislative judgment. The Supreme Court stated in Carolene Products Co v Thomson, 276 Mich 172, 178; 267 NW 608 (1936),
"The primary determination of public need and character of remedy in the exercise of the police power is in the legislature. Unless the remedy is palpably unreasonable and arbitrary so as needlessly to invade property or personal rights as protected by the Constitution, the act must be sustained. The presumption favors validity and, if the relation between the statute and the public welfare is debatable, the legislative judgment must be accepted.”
There is a two-step inquiry: (1) whether there is a valid public purpose, and if so, (2) is there a reasonable relationship between the remedy adopted and the public purpose?
Public Purpose. The preamble of the act indi cates what the act does but does not suggest a purpose. In Mask v Shell Oil Co, 77 Mich App 25; 257 NW2d 256 (1977), another panel recently construed the statute but they did not examine the statutory purpose nor did they pass on the constitutionality of the legislation.
We believe the clear purpose of the statute is to encourage development of valuable oil and gas reserves. The need for developing existing energy sources and creating new sources is even more crucial today than when the act was passed in 1963.
Because the surface owner can never acquire any of the severed oil or gas by adverse possession, legislation was required to prevent unknown and widely scattered heirs from preventing development of subsurface resources by inaction. The formidable task facing the surface owner in locating unknown heirs to valuable oil and gas deposits is outlined in Street, Need for Legislation to Eliminate Dormant Royalty Interests, Vol 42, No 3, Michigan Bar Journal, 49 (March 1963). At least five other states, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska and Virginia, have adopted similar legislation. In discussing the rule that prevents the surface owner from adversely possessing the subsurface rights after severance, treatise writers Williams and Meyers point out:
"While the rule appears to be sound enough from the mineral owner’s point of view, it can cause economic inconvenience to the public. Severed minerals cannot be developed until the owners consent to their development. The older the severance (and many go back to the 19th century), the greater the difficulty in locating the owners. The problem is further complicated if the severance was of small undivided mineral interests, as was common for speculation purposes in some areas in the 1920’s. Present development of such areas depends upon obtaining the consent of nearly all the mineral owners, a task that could involve locating thousands of persons.” 1 Williams & Meyers, Oil and Gas Law, Adverse Possession and Trespass, § 224.1, p —
Another commentator has analyzed the problem and has suggested legislative action.
"It is generally accepted to be sound policy for a new oil and gas producing state to facilitate the rapid development of its oil and gas resources. The most effective way such a policy can be implemented is to force the owners of severed oil and gas interest to produce or lose their rights. This policy precludes any attitude of protecting at all costs the owner of a severed oil and gas interest and requires an avowed judicial and legislative intention not to tie up the development of these resources for an indefinite period of time. Thus, in a new oil and gas producing state the public would best be served by allowing the severed oil and gas interest in addition to the surface ownership to enure to an adverse possessor of only the surface after the prescriptive or statutory period has expired.” Silver, "Mines and Minerals-Oil and Gas-What Constitutes Adverse Possession of Severed Mineral Interest by Surface Possessor,” 17 Ala L Rev 126, at 130 (1964). 1 Williams & Meyers, Oil & Gas Law, Adverse Possession and Trespass, § 224.1, fn 8.1, p 345.
It cannot be disputed that the public benefits from the development of oil and gas reserves. Likewise the public is harmed when unknown and uninterested heirs are able to frustrate oil and gas development by their inaction. As noted earlier, courts give great deference to the Legislature in determining the public need. We conclude that the dormant minerals act has a clearly valid public purpose — to encourage exploration for, and extraction of, needed oil and gas.
Relationship Between Remedy and Purpose. It is true that the operation of the statute is not exactly like, though perhaps similar to, a statute of limitation, a recording act or marketable title acts. However, the fact that the Legislature has opted for a unique remedy for a difficult problem is not fatal.
There were several complex problems facing the Legislature in divising a solution. First there was an inherent problem of how to deal with subsurface oil and gas rights which are incapable of physical possession. Of course if the owners of those rights were extracting oil and gas or transferring their rights, there would be no difficulty in ascertaining ownership. The problem arose, however, when the owner or owners of the subsurface rights had done nothing to indicate ownership and this problem was particularly acute when the owners were unknown heirs of former owners.
Essentially the act creates a rebuttable presumption that the owner of the subsurface rights has abandoned them if he or she has done nothing to indicate ownership. The presumption is rebutted by the owner doing any one of a number of acts which would indicate ownership sometime within a 20-year period. The requirements of the act place a minimal burden on the owner of the oil and gas rights to do something to indicate ownership and if the owner fails to carry that minimal burden, the law deems his rights abandoned. In essence, the act creates a statutory conclusive presumption of abandonment. Unlike a common-law presumption, which may not be "conclusive” and may be rebutted by testimony, In re Mercure Estate, 391 Mich 443, 448; 216 NW2d 914 (1974), a statutory conclusive presumption may not be rebutted by other evidence. Pearo v Mackinac Island, 307 Mich 290; 11 NW2d 893 (1943). Conclusive presumptions established by statute are reviewed under the "arbitrary or capricious” standard. In re Mercure Estate, supra at 448. We conclude that there is a rational connection between an oil and gas owner’s inaction for 20 years and the presumption of abandonment, People v Bankston, 78 Mich App 733, 736; 261 NW2d 39 (1977), and that the presumption is not arbitrary or capricious.
We hold that the dormant minerals act is a valid exercise of the police power. By failing to comply with the minimal requirements of the statute, defendants have abandoned their rights.
Defendants raise two other issues with which we deal summarily. Specifically defendants argue the act unconstitutionally impairs the obligation of contract and that the act denies equal protection of the laws.
The United States Supreme Court has stated that the constitutional limitation on a state’s power to impair the obligation of contract is not to be read with mathematical exactness and that "it is not every modification of a contractual promise that impairs the obligation of contract”. El Paso v Simmons, 379 US 497, 506-507; 85 S Ct 577; 13 L Ed 2d 446 (1965), reh den, 380 US 926; 85 S Ct 879; 13 L Ed 2d 831 (1965), Washtenaw Community College Education Ass’n v Board of Trustees of the Washtenaw Community College, 50 Mich App 467, 472; 213 NW2d 567 (1973), Michigan Transportation Co v Secretary of State, 41 Mich App 654, 663; 201 NW2d 83 (1972), lv den, 389 Mich 767 (1973). In each case where there is an alleged impairment of the obligation of contract, the state’s economic interests and sovereign right to protect the general welfare of the people must be balanced against the constitutional limitation. Washtenaw Ass’n, supra at 472, citing El Paso, supra at 508. In another United States Supreme Court case, Home Building & Loan Ass’n v Blaisdell, 290 US 398, 437; 54 S Ct 231; 78 L Ed 413 (1934), the Court stated:
"The economic interests of the State may justify the exercise of its continuing and dominant protective power notwithstanding interference with contracts.”
See Metropolitan Funeral System Ass’n v Commissioner of Insurance, 331 Mich 185, 195; 49 NW2d 131 (1951), Keefe v Oakland County Drain Commissioner, 306 Mich 503, 512-513; 11 NW2d 220 (1943), aff'd 332 US 393; 64 S Ct 1072; 88 L Ed 1346 (1944).
In another case involving a challenge to a statute which allegedly impaired the obligation of contract, this Court stated:
"Where there is a valid exercise of the state’s police power which only incidentally affects the existing contract then the state enactment is not prohibited.”
Brda v Chrysler Corp, 50 Mich App 332, 335; 213 NW2d 295 (1973).
In applying the standards set forth in the above cases, we conclude that the dormant minerals act does not unconstitutionally impair the obligations of contract. We have already concluded that the act represents a legislative judgment that encouraging oil and gas exploration is in the public welfare and that the act is a valid exercise of the state’s police power. The statute does not prevent the defendants from enforcing any contract with the plaintiff, but rather requires defendants to indicate their continuing interest in the oil and gas rights by complying with the minor registration requirements of the statute. Because the act is a valid exercise of the police power which imposes only a minimal burden on defendants, the Legislature has not unconstitutionally impaired the obligation of contract.
Although the defendants did not raise their equal protection argument at trial court level, we address it briefly on appeal. Since the act does not involve any suspect classification, the proper standard of evaluation is the “rational basis” test. Cruz v Chevrolet Grey Iron Division of General Motors Corp, 398 Mich 117, 128-129; 247 NW2d 764 (1976), Schigur v Secretary of State, 73 Mich App 239; 251 NW2d 567 (1977). The defendants argue that the act denies equal protection because it applies only to gas and oil and not other minerals. We disagree. The Legislature has placed a high priority on development of oil and gas. Perhaps in the future the need for other minerals may be as great as the current need for oil and gas and at that time special legislation may be enacted. However, the equal protection clause does not require the Legislature to choose between addressing every aspect of a problem or not addressing the problem at all. Manistee Bank & Trust Co v McGowan, 394 Mich 655, 672; 232 NW2d 636 (1975). There is a rational basis between the legislative policy of encouraging oil and gas development and the statutory scheme adopted to carry out that policy. Further the act treats all those similarly situated equally; all owners of severed oil and gas rights run the risk of abandoning their rights if they do not comply with the statutory requirements. Defendants have not been denied equal protection of the laws.
We hold the dormant minerals act, MCL 554.291 et seq.; MSA 26.1163(1) et seq., to have a legitimate public purpose, to be a valid exercise of the police power and to be constitutional. In view of our disposition we need not address the other issue raised by plaintiff.
Reversed and remanded. No costs, constitutionality of a statute being involved.
"AN ACT to provide for the termination of dormant oil and gas interests in land owned by persons other than the owners of the surface and for the vesting of title to same in the surface owners in the absence of the filing of a notice of claim of interest within a specified period of time.”
See generally, 1 Williams and Meyers, Oil and Gas Law, Adverse Possession and Trespass, § 224.1, p 344.
FSA § 704.05.
Smith-Hurd Ill Ann Stat, § 30:197-30:198.
Ind Code of 1971, § 32-5-11-1 to § 32-5-11-8.
Rev Stat Neb 1943, § 57-228 to § 57-231.
Va Code, § 55-154 to § 55-155. Held constitutional in Love v Lynchburg National Bank & Trust Co, 205 Va 860; 140 SE2d 650 (1965). | [
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D. E. Holbrook, P.J.
On June 25, 1976, plain-
tiffs, Metropolitan Council No. 23 and Local 1917, filed a complaint requesting an injunction prohibiting the defendants from cancelling the appointments of two men to permanent communications supervisor positions. On January 28, 1977, defendants and cross-plaintiffs filed a cross-claim asking the court to set aside the July 7, 1975, ruling of the 1969 PA 312 arbitration panel insofar as it relates to retroactivity of noneconomic matters. On March 11, 1977, cross-plaintiffs-appellees then brought a motion for summary judgment.
Cross-defendant-appellant, National Union of Police Officers, Local 502-M, AFL-CIO (hereafter "Local 502”) appeals from an amended order of summary judgment in favor of cross-plaintiffs-appellees, Wayne County Board of Commissioners, Wayne County Civil Service Commission and Sheriff William Lucas (hereafter "the county”) which was granted on June 8, 1977. On appeal, Local 502 challenges the circuit judge’s conclusion that the 1969 PA 312 arbitration panel (hereafter "arbitration panel”) was without authority to grant retroactive application of noneconomic terms in a labor agreement.
The facts in the instant case are not in dispute and are as follows:
On November 11, 1968, and on September 29, 1969, deputy sheriffs' Saulter and Marchand were provisionally appointed to the positions of communication supervisors in the Wayne County Sheriff’s Office. In 1974, the county wanted the positions permanently filled, however, a dispute arose regarding the criteria to be used for selecting communication supervisors.
While the parties were negotiating for a new contract, the president of Local 502 wrote a letter to the Wayne County Labor Relations Board concerning a new contract. For several months prior to August 26, 1974, the Wayne County Labor Relations Board (hereafter the "labor relations board”) attempted to negotiate a compromise with Local 502 and Metropolitan Council No. 23 and Local 1917 regarding the promotional criteria for the position of communication supervisor. The negotiations were unsuccessful and no agreement resulted. On August 26, 1974, the labor relations board instructed the Wayne County Civil Service Commission to "proceed with the examination as previously announced”.
The communication supervisor examination was announced on November 1, 1974, and administered on December 6, 1974. The announcement stated in part as follows:
"Eligible Persons
"This examination is open only to employees of the Sheriffs Office who, at the time of application, have regular status in one of the police classes and have, at least, four years of experience in the Sheriffs Department which includes two years of experience in the Communication Division. ” (Emphasis added.)
Marchand and Saulter placed number one and two on the examination and were certified to the communication supervisor positions on December 13, 1974.
During 1974, Local 502 and the county were unable to agree on the terms of a new labor agreement to replace the 1971-1974 collective bargaining agreement which expired on June 30, 1974. The matter was submitted to compulsory arbitration pursuant to the provisions of 1969 PA 312, MCL 423.231 et seq.; MSA 17.455(31) et seq., (hereafter "Act 312”). The 1971-1974 labor agreement contained no provisions regarding promotional criteria for the job classification of communication supervisor.
Subsequently, on April 1, 1975, the arbitration panel resolved the dispute and awarded a new labor agreement. The agreement contained a provision (article XV) which contained promotional criteria and examination procedures for communication supervisor.
On July 7, 1975, one of the arbitrators issued a letter of clarification wherein he and the union panelist ruled that all items in the April 1, 1975, arbitration award were retroactive with the exception of certain items not relevant to this proceeding. The employer panelist dissented on the following basis:
"In regards to the effective date of contract benefits, it was never the intention of the employer panelist to concur in transfer and promotion provisions being retroactive to July 1, 1974. That, in effect, would open to dispute the transfers and promotions made and accepted by the parties in good faith under the old contract.”
At the time the examination was given, the county was complying with the provisions of its contract covering the 1971-1974 contractual period. The qualifications and criteria specified in the April 1, 1975, arbitration award differed from those on which Marchand and Saulter had been previously promoted.
Local 502 filed a grievance on July 25, 1975, complaining that the examination was given in violation of the arbitrator’s collective bargaining agreement provisions, if given retroactive effect, which increased the number of employees who were eligible to sit for the examination. The grievance was processed to arbitration and on April 16, 1976, an arbitrator issued an award in which a new examination for communication supervisor was ordered.
Pursuant to the last arbitrator’s award, the labor relations board instructed the Wayne County Civil Service Commission to announce and administer a new examination for the position of communication supervisor. Metropolitan Council No. 23 and Local 1917, the collective bargaining representative of Saulter and Marchand, filed this action in Wayne County Circuit Court to prevent the county from administering an examination which interfered with the appointments of Marchand and Saulter.
Subsequently, the county filed a cross-claim against Local 502 on the basis that the Act 312 arbitration panel was without authority to grant retroactive application of noneconomic terms in a labor agreement. On April 13, 1977, a Wayne County Circuit Judge granted the county’s motion for summary judgment on its cross-claim. On June 8, 1977, the order was amended to reflect a final judgment. Local 502 appealed the amended order of summary judgment.
The sole issue raised on appeal is whether the trial court erred as a matter of law by ruling that the arbitration award reached pursuant to the provision of Act 312 may not be employed retroactively with respect to noneconomic issues and also as to employment.
This issue is one of first impression in Michigan and deals with the statute, MCL 423.231 et seq.; MSA 17.455(31) et seq., passed by the Michigan Legislature which provides for compulsory arbitration of labor disputes involving municipal police and fire departments. None of the statute’s sections specifically provide for retroactive application of the noneconomic provisions of arbitrated collective bargaining agreements. Thus, it becomes necessary to determine the Legislature’s intent when it enacted this legislation. By ascertaining this intent, we are able to learn whether or not the Legislature intended an Act 312 arbitration panel to have the power of granting retroactivity to noneconomic benefits. It is well settled that the construction of any statute is for the court and the purpose of the court in interpreting that statute is to give effect to the legislative intent. Aikens v Department of Conservation, 387 Mich 495, 499; 198 NW2d 304 (1972).
The statute, MCL 423.231; MSA 17.455(31), sets out the public policy of the act as follows:
"It is the public policy of this state that in public police and fire departments, where the right of employees to strike is by law prohibited, it is requisite to the high morale of such employees and the efficient operation of such departments to afford an alternate, expeditious, effective and binding procedure for the resolution of disputes, and to that end the provisions of this act, providing for compulsory arbitration, shall be liberally construed.”
Keeping this policy of the Legislature in mind, we proceed to construe the statute.
In Local 1518, American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, AFL-CIO, Michigan Council 55 v St Clair County Board of Commissioners, 43 Mich App 342, 344-345; 204 NW2d 369 (1972), the Court interpreted MCL 423.231, et seq.; MSA 17.455(31) et seq. and held that the arbitration panels were granted broad powers to settle contract disputes. However, we hold that these broad powers do not include the power to grant retroactivity to noneconomic benefits. Our decision is based on the following review of the statute.
MCL 423.240; MSA 17.455(40) is the only section of the act which mentions retroactivity. The statute provides:
"A majority decision of the arbitration panel, if supported by competent, material and substantial evidence on the whole record, shall be final and binding upon the parties, and may be enforced, at the instance of either party or of the arbitration panel in the circuit court for the county in which the dispute arose or in which a majority of the affected employees reside. The commencement of a new municipal fiscal year after the initiation of arbitration procedures under this act, but before the arbitration decision, or its enforcement, shall not be deemed to render a dispute moot, or to otherwise impair the jurisdiction or authority of the arbitration panel or its decision. Increases in rates of compensation awarded by the arbitration panel under section 10 may be effective only at the start of the ñscal year next commencing after the date of the arbitration award. If a new ñscal year has commenced since the initiation of arbitration procedures under this act, the foregoing limitation shall be inapplicable, and such awarded increases may be retroactive to the commencement of such ñscal year any other statute or charter provisions to the contrary notwithstanding. At any time the par ties, by stipulation, may amend or modify an award of arbitration.” (Emphasis added.)
The Michigan Legislature clearly states that "increases [in rates of compensation] may be retroactive”, but only back to the commencement of the fiscal year, i.e., December 1, 1974. The Legislature specifically speaks of retroactivity but only in regards to economic benefits. The Legislature was conspicuously silent on retroactivity of noneconomic benefits. We hold that had the Legislature intended for arbitration panels acting under the 1969 act to have the power to grant retroactivity to the subject noneconomic provisions, they would have so provided. This Court is constrained to hold that the intent of the Michigan Legislature was not to grant such retroactivity. The trial court properly granted the county’s motion for summary judgment on its cross-claim.
Affirmed, costs to cross-plaintiffs-appellees.
V. J. Brennan, J., concurred.
Plaintiff Council 23 is a labor organization representing "public employees” within the meaning of § 2 of the public employment relations act, MCL 423.202; MSA 17.455(2). Plaintiff Local 1917 is affiliated with Council 23 and represents certain supervisory employees, including those in the job classification of communication supervisor, in the Wayne County Sheriff’s Office for purposes of collective bargaining.
"Huey A. Ferguson, Chairman
Wayne County Labor Relations Board
728 City-County Building
Detroit, Michigan 48226
"Dear Chairman Ferguson:
"This letter is in response to your June 18 and June 26, 1974 communications informing our Union of your willingness to extend the present contract forward past the July 1, 1974 expiration date; with the understanding that all economic agreements shall be retroactive to said July 1, 1974.
"In order that there will be no misunderstanding as to our position on this matter, we fully expect all elements of the new agreement, economic and non-economic, to be fully retroactive to July 1, 1974; and the institution of Act 312 gives us said assurance.
"We put absolutely no faith in your promise to make even the economic portions of a new contract retroactive to July 1, 1974 in light of our past experience; we are more than willing to lay before you our reasons to mistrust you at the Friday, June 28, 1974 meeting.
"As previously indicated, we are more than willing to meet with your staff and preferably elected members of your Board in order to negotiate a full agreement without letting a third party do our work for us.
"Very truly yours,
"Jamil Akhtar, President”
The Board of Commissioners had established and authorized the Wayne County Labor Relations Board to represent the Board of Commissioners in collective bargaining relations.
Local 502 represents the nonsupervisory employees within the Wayne County Sheriffs office. | [
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D. C. Riley, P.J.
The present appeal concerns the constitutionality of the city charter provisions of Grosse Pointe Park setting forth requirements for persons seeking to become candidates for the office of municipal judge. Two provisions of the charter mandate that a candidate must be a two-year resident of Grosse Pointe Park and have been licensed to practice law in Michigan for five years prior to filing nominating petitions.
Plaintiff Grano attempted to file the required petitions with the city for the municipal judge primary election to be held on August 2, 1977. The defendant city clerk rejected the petitions because plaintiff did not meet either requirement of the charter. Plaintiff then instituted the present action in Wayne County Circuit Court, seeking to have the two charter provisions declared unconstitutional. Plaintiff McCloskey, a Grosse Pointe Park resident who signed Grano’s nominating petition and sought to vote for him in the primary election, was joined as a plaintiff. Plaintiffs Kienbaum and Lech, who similarly had their nominating petitions rejected by the city clerk for. failure to satisfy the charter requirements, intervened by stipulation.
Plaintiff Castner instituted a separate lawsuit after he had his petition rejected for failure to satisfy the five-year licensing requirement.
The trial judge, after holding hearings on both actions, ruled the charter provisions to be unconstitutional, and issued an order compelling the city clerk to accept the petitions and place the names of Grano, Keinbaum, Lech and Castner on the primary ballot. The present consolidated appeals are challenges by defendants to the trial court’s orders.
Before discussing the particular constitutional issues raised, we must first speak to several preliminary, nonconstitutional issues that have been variously raised by the parties. The initial such question is mootness. We will state only briefly that the present controversy is not moot, even though the primary election has since been held, since the issue raised is one that is capable of repetition yet may evade review for the reason that the time period between when nominating petitions are filed and the subsequent election held is normally too short to allow the case to progress fully through the appellate system. See Roe v Wade, 410 US 113, 124-125; 93 S Ct 705; 35 L Ed 2d 147 (1973).
The next question concerns the doctrines of res judicata and collateral estoppel. The trial court’s opinions in the present cases relied heavily on the decisions rendered in several prior circuit court cases which involved identical challenges to Grosse Pointe Park’s charter provisions. The trial court held that the city was precluded by the previous cases, under res judicata and collateral estoppel, from relitigating the validity of its candidate requirements.
Although we can sympathize with the trial court’s desire to rely on the previous decisions, we cannot agree that either res judicata or collateral estoppel barred review of the merits of the present lawsuits. In Curry v Detroit, 394 Mich 327, 331; 231 NW2d 57 (1975), the Supreme Court, discussing res judicata, stated:
"In Tucker v Rohrback, 13 Mich 73 (1864), the Court said that 'a judgment, to constitute a bar to a claim in a subsequent action, must be rendered upon the merits, upon the same matter in issue, and between the same parties or their privies’.” (Footnotes omitted.)
The mutuality of parties requirement set forth in Curry applies equally to the doctrine of collateral estoppel. Howell v Vito’s Trucking & Excavating Co, 386 Mich 37; 191 NW2d 313 (1971). In the present cases the plaintiffs are clearly not the same plaintiffs as in the 1973 cases and are not in privity to the prior parties. Even if the trial court felt obligated to follow the prior decisions, the application of res judicata and collateral estoppel to effectuate that purpose was erroneous.
Plaintiffs next argue that the city charter provisions are invalid because they conflict with state law setting forth qualifications for Michigan judges. The Michigan Constitution provides that justices and judges of any court of record must be licensed members of the bar, without mentioning any time period of licensing. Const 1963, art 6, § 19. Plaintiffs assert that the significantly stricter requirements of Grosse Pointe Park invalidly con flict with this provision of state law, contrary to MCL 117.36; MSA 5.2116:
"No provision of any city charter shall conflict with or contravene the provisions of any general law of the state.”
Even though we agree with plaintiffs that it is illogical that a potential judicial candidate must meet more rigid qualifications for election as Grosse Pointe Park municipal judge than as justice of the Supreme Court or judge of the Court of Appeals, we cannot say that the city charter in this case contravenes the state standards. The Uniform Municipal Court Act (MCL 730.501 et seq.; MSA 27.3937(1) et seq.), seemingly allows individual standards for municipal judges to be set as long as the standards meet certain minimal requirements:
"The qualifications, term of office, time and manner of election, compensation, jurisdiction, powers and duties of the judges of the municipal court of any city affected by the provisions of this act, and the practice and procedure in such municipal courts, shall be governed by the provisions of existing laws relating to justices of the peace in such cities, and to the practice and procedure in the courts of such justices of the peace, except so far as the same or any part thereof are expressly repealed by or are inconsistent with any of the provisions of this act: Provided, however, That no person shall be eligible to qualify for judge of any such court who is not a regularly licensed attorney and counselor at law licensed to practice in the state of Michigan: Provided further, That any incumbent justice at the effective date of this act who is not an attorney at law shall be eligible for re-election as municipal judge of such court: Provided further, That no municipal judge, associate municipal judge or any partner of such judge or associate judge shall practice law in the court to which he was elected or appointed.” MCL 730.508; MSA 27.3937(8). (Emphasis added.)
We also note that the Supreme Court has upheld a municipal ordinance that set stricter standards than state law on a particular subject. See Miller v Fabius Twp Board, 366 Mich 250; 114 NW2d 205 (1962).
Having resolved all of the nonconstitutional questions raised by the parties, we now turn to the primary issue of the case, that being whether the city charter requirements of two-year residence and five-year licensing violated plaintiffs’ right to equal protection of the law. US Const, Am XIV; Const 1963, art I, § 2.
In Manistee Bank & Trust Co v McGowan, 394 Mich 655; 232 NW2d 636 (1975), the Supreme Court discussed at length the appropriate tests to be applied in equal protection challenges to particular legislation. The test to be employed depends upon the nature of the individual interest affected by the legislation:
"[T]he United States Supreme Court developed a two-tiered approach to equal protection cases.
"If the interest is 'fundamenta? or the classification 'suspect’, the court applies a 'strict scrutiny’ test requiring the state to show a 'compelling’ interest which justifies the classification. Rarely have courts sustained legislation subjected to this standard of review.
"Other legislation, principally social and economic, is subjected to review under the traditional equal protection test. The burden is on the person challenging the classification to show that it is without reasonable justification. It has been said that '[a] statutory discrimination will not be set aside if any state of facts reasonably may be conceived to justify it’. A classification will stand unless it is shown to be 'essentially arbitrary’. Few statutes have been found so wanting in 'rational ity’ as to fail to satisfy the 'essentially arbitrary’ test.” (Footnotes omitted.) 394 Mich at 668.
Plaintiffs maintain that the candidate requirements burden several fundamental rights, including the right to interstate travel, the right to vote, and the right to freedom of association. Accordingly, plaintiffs assert that the present requirements must satisfy the "compelling state interest” test to survive constitutional attack. Defendants respond that the requirements do not adversely affect fundamental rights, and thus should be reviewed under the less stringent "reasonable basis” standard. Defendants further argue that the city’s rationale for the requirements will satisfy either test.
Our research has led us to several cases out of the Federal courts which have dealt with durational residence requirements imposed by various Michigan communities. These cases effectively analyze the principal arguments raised by the present parties.
In Green v McKeon, 468 F2d 883 (CA 6, 1972), the Sixth Circuit considered the validity of a two-year residency requirement for elective office in Plymouth, Michigan. The Green Court initially discussed the question of whether there was a fundamental right to run for elective office. Citing Bullock v Carter, 405 US 134; 92 S Ct 849; 31 L Ed 2d 92 (1972), the Court held that while there is no recognized constitutional right to become a candidate, the strict scrutiny or compelling state inter est test would be applied to residence requirements if it could be shown that the restrictions had "a real and appreciable impact on the exercise of the franchise”. 405 US at 144. At some point, residential prerequisites for candidates can thus be so restrictive that, because they limit the pool of candidates, they intrude upon the traditionally fundamental right to vote. Bullock v Carter, supra.
The Green Court, however, deferred ruling on whether the Plymouth two-year residency rule was so restrictive as to "trigger application of the more stringent standard”, choosing instead to base its decision on a separate ground, that being the effect of the residency rule on the right to travel:
"The durational residency requirement at issue classifies Plymouth residents on the basis of recent travel. That classification alone requires that the requirement be strictly scrutinized because it operates to penalize the exercise of the basic constitutional right to travel. Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330, 338, 92 S.Ct. 995, 31 L.Ed. 2d 274 (1972). It is not material that the classification denies new residents something that is not a constitutional right, i.e., the right to become a candidate for public office.” 468 F2d at 884.
Arguing that the two-year rule satisfies the strict scrutiny test, the city contended that the requirement was necessary to insure that potential candidates for office in Plymouth be familiar with the problems of the city and the form of the city government. The Court rejected this argument.
"We hold that the two year residence requirement is too broad for the achievement of that objective.
" 'It is not sufficient for the State to show that durational residence requirements further a very substantial state interest. In pursuing that important interest, the State cannot choose means which unnecessarily burden or restrict constitutionally protected activity. Statutes affecting constitutional rights must be drawn with "precision,” * * * and must be "tailored” to serve their legitimate objectives. * * * And if there are other, reasonable ways to to achieve those goals with a lesser burden on constitutionally protected activity, a State may not choose the way of greater interference. If it acts at all, it must choose "less drastic means.” ’ Dunn v Blumstein, supra, 405 U.S. at 343, 92 S. Ct. at 1003 (citations omitted).
"The restriction is in no way 'tailored’ to achieve the stated municipal goal. It permits a two year resident of Plymouth to hold public office regardless of his lack of knowledge of the governmental problems of the city. On the other hand, it excludes more recent arrivals who have had experience in local government elsewhere or who have made diligent efforts to become well acquainted with the municipality.” 468 F2d at 885.
The Green Court went on to state that the interest the city was seeking to protect, that candidates be informed and thereby qualified to hold office, would be insured by the elective process itself:
"Further, in our representative form of government, the voters are the arbiters of the suitability of candidates for public office. Whether a candidate has the ability to carry out the duties of a particular city office, even though he arrived in Plymouth less than two years prior to election day, is a matter for consideration by the voters in choosing between candidates running for that office. Opposing candidates undoubtedly will bring this deficiency, if it is one, to the attention of the electorate in the course of campaigning.” 468 F2d at 885.
In three cases out of Federal district courts in Michigan, durational residency requirements were held invalid for reasons substantially identical to those expressed in Green v McKeon, supra. In Alexander v Kammer, 363 F Supp 324 (ED Mich, 1973), the court invalidated the City of Pontiac’s requirement that candidates for city commissioner be residents of Pontiac for five years and residents of the particular commissioner’s district for two years. Citing Bullock, supra, and Dunn, supra, the Alexander court applied the compelling state interest test and concluded, as in Green, supra, that the city’s interest in guaranteeing knowledgeable candidates did not justify the durational residence rule:
"Even assuming that the interests asserted by the City qualify as 'compelling,’ the residency requirement in this case must fail. The fit of means to ends is far too imprecise to satisfy the 'tailoring’ standard. Were this test satisfied, it is still questionable whether the mutual familiarity between candidates and the City which Pontiac wishes to promote is sufficiently compelling to justify any significant infringement upon the right to vote. That right gives rise to a presumption that 'the voters are the arbiters of the suitability of candidates for public office.’ Green v McKeon, 468 F.2d 883, 885 (6th Cir. 1972). That freedom of choice may not lightly be restricted.” 363 F Supp at 327.
Similar results were reached in Mogk v Detroit, 335 F Supp 698 (ED Mich, 1971), and Bolanowski v Raich, 330 F Supp 724 (ED Mich, 1971). In Mogk the court struck down a three-year residency rule for candidates for the city’s charter commission. In Bolanowski, the court found invalid a three-year residence rule for the office of mayor of Warren, Michigan. The equal protection discussions in each of these cases paralleled those in Green and Alexander.
These cases concerning Michigan cities follow the majority of jurisdictions that have considered durational residence requirements. See McKinney v Kaminsky, 340 F Supp 289 (MD Ala, 1972), Draper v Phelps, 351 F Supp 677 (WD Okla, 1972), Smith v Evans, 42 Cal App 3d 154; 116 Cal Rptr 684 (1974), Cowan v Aspen, 181 Colo 342; 509 P2d 1269 (1973), and cases collected in 65 ALR3d 1048. But see Chimento v Stark, 353 F Supp 1211 (D NH, 1973), aff'd without opinion, 414 US 802; 94 S Ct 125; 38 L Ed 2d 39 (1973), Gilbert v State, 526 P2d 1131 (Alas, 1974).
Our review of the cited cases convinces us that both candidate requirements of the Grosse Pointe Park City Charter violate the guarantees of equal protection. In regard to the two-year residency rule, we find that the restriction does substantially affect the fundamental right of free travel between the states, thus requiring defendants to demonstrate that the provision serves a compelling state interest. The city’s purported justification for the residency rule, that being to insure that candidates are knowledgeable about local procedures and laws and known to the electorate, does not meet this strict standard. We agree with the decisions in Green, supra, Alexander, supra, Bolanowski, supra and Mogk, supra, that a flat residency rule is too vague and overreaching to be upheld as the least burdensome method of protecting the city’s interests. We also have confidence, as expressed in the previous opinions, that the normal processes of our elective system will sufficiently insure that only qualified and knowledgeable candidates will gain office.
The five-year licensing provision exhibits similar deficiencies. As with the residency rule, the license requirement will discriminate against formerly out-of-state attorneys who have recently moved to Grosse Pointe Park. In this manner the provision adversly affects the right to travel. The city’s argument that the license rule serves the public’s interest in having only candidates that are experienced in the law likely to be applied in the municipal court is belied by the fact, as pointed out by plaintiffs, that the charter requires only the existence of a license for five years, with no requirement that the candidate ever in fact practiced in a legal capacity. The restriction is too broad to fulfill its stated objective since it does not insure that all candidates are knowledgeable in the law. At the same time it may exclude candidates who are highly qualified and clearly capable of performing to the most exacting standards. Again, free debate between the candidates should point out any defects in a particular candidate’s legal qualifications, thereby allowing the voters to make an informed yet unfettered decision at the polls.
We hold that §§ 5.1 and 15.3 of the Grosse Pointe Park City Charter affect fundamental interests of potential candidates and, the city having failed to demonstrate that the provisions serve a compelling state interest, thus are unconstitutional as violative of equal protection. The judgments of the trial court are affirmed. No costs, a public question being involved.
Section 5.1 of the Grosse Pointe Park Charter reads in part:
"No person shall hold any elective office of the city unless he has been a resident of the city or Village for at least two years immediately prior to the last day for filing petitions for such office and is also a qualified and registered elector of the city on such day and throughout his tenure of office.
"The Municipal Judge (justice of the peace) shall, in addition, have the qualifications for that office prescribed in Section 15.3.”
Section 15.3 reads:
"The presiding officer of the Court shall meet the eligibility requirements contained in Section 5.1 and, in addition, shall have been an attorney admitted to practice law in the Supreme Court of this state for a period of five years immediately preceding the date of his appointment or election. Neither he nor his business partners or employees shall have any part in any case before this Court.”
Plaintiff Grano had become a licensed member of the Michigan Bar in 1977 and had not lived in Grosse Pointe Park for two years prior to his filing date.
In fact, the incumbent judge (who did not seek re-election) had brought a substantially identical lawsuit challenging the charter requirements in 1973. The trial court (as in the case at bar) found the requirements to be unconstitutional and ordered the petitions to be accepted, culminating in the incumbent’s eventual election victory. Urso v Clerk of the City of Grosse Pointe Park, Wayne County Circuit Court #73-240-526. The city did not appeal the 1973 case.
Urso v Clerk of the City of Grosse Pointe Park, supra, Grobbel v Clerk of the City of Grosse Pointe Park, Wayne County Circuit Court #73- 241-722 CZ.
Shapiro v Thompson, 394 US 618; 89 S Ct 1322; 22 L Ed 2d 600 (1969).
Dunn v Blumstein, 405 US 330; 92 S Ct 995; 31 L Ed 2d 274 (1972), Bullock v Carter, 405 US 134; 92 S Ct 849; 31 L Ed 2d 92 (1972).
Mancuso v Taft, 476 F2d 187 (CA 1, 1973), Headlee v Franklin County Board of Elections, 368 F Supp 999 (SD Ohio, 1973).
468 F2d at 884.
Although it is true that certain nonresident attorneys are licensed to practice law in Michigan and thus could satisfy the five-year rule immediately upon moving to Grosse Pointe Park, this fact merely decreases tjje number of persons in the excluded class by a minimal amount. The vast majority of out-of-state attorneys will be precluded from becoming candidates for some period of time up to five years. | [
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D. E. Holbrook, Jr., P.J.
Defendant appeals a jury award of $19,950 as just compensation for his property taken by plaintiff Highway Commission. Defendant landowner’s sole argument on appeal is that the trial court erred in precluding defendant from subpoenaing a State of Michigan employee and highway department appraiser so as to question him about his appraisal set forth in the statement of estimated compensation filed with the court for the sole purpose of using same as an admission against interest against the state.
The question of what use can be made of the statement of estimated compensation and its related appraisals is one of first impression in this state. Michigan’s "quick-take” condemnation law, MCL 213.361 et seq.; MSA 8.261(1) et seq., is similar to the Federal Declaration of Taking Act, 46 Stat 1421 (1931); 40 USC 258a-258e. State Hwy Comm’n v Davis, 38 Mich App 674, 678; 197 NW2d 71 (1972), lv den, 387 Mich 786 (1972). Thus, it is possible to look to the Federal courts for guidance in this area.
The Federal courts have uniformly held that a landowner may not use the condemning authority’s statement of estimated compensation, or related appraisals, as admissions by the authority of the value of the property. See e.g., United States v 2,187.43 Acres of Land, 461 F2d 938, 940 (CA 8, 1972); United States v Two Tracts of Land, 412 F2d 347, 350 (CA 2, 1969), cert den, 396 US 906; 90 S Ct 222; 24 L Ed 2d 183 (1969), United States v 9.85 Acres of Land, 183 F Supp 402, 404 (ED Va, 1959), aff'd sub nom, Tidewater Development & Sales Corp v United States, 279 F2d 890 (CA 4, 1960) .
This conclusion is based on the purpose behind the quick-take statute. In Davis, the Court quoted extensively from United States v Miller, 317 US 369, 381; 63 S Ct 276; 87 L Ed 336; 147 ALR 55 (1943), to illustrate the purpose of the Federal act.
"When the declaration is filed the amount of estimated compensation is to be deposited with the court, to be paid as the court may order 'for or on account’ of the just compensation to be awarded the owners. Thus the acquisition by the Government of title and immediate right to possession, and the deposit of the estimated compensation, occur as steps in the main proceeding.
"The purpose of the statute is two-fold. First, to give the Government immediate possession of the property and to relieve it of the burden of interest accruing on the sum deposited from the date of taking to the date of judgment in the eminent domain proceeding. Secondly, to give the former owner, if his title is clear, immediate cash compensation to the extent of the Government’s estimate of the value of the property. The Act recognizes that there may be an error in the estimate and appropriately provides that, if the judgment ultimately awarded shall be in excess of the amount deposited, the owner shall recover the excess with interest. But there is no correlative provision for repayment of any excess by the owner to the United States. The necessary result is, so the respondents say, that any sum paid them in excess of the jury’s award is their property, which the United States may not recover.
"All the provisions of the Act taken together require a contrary conclusion. The payment is of estimated compensation; it is intended as a provisional and not a final settlement with the owner; it is a payment 'on account of compensation and not a final settlement of the amount due. To hold otherwise would defeat the policy of the statute and work injustice; would be to encourage federal officials to underestimate the value of the property with the result that the Government would be saddled with interest on a larger sum from date of taking to final award, and would be to deny the owner the immediate use of cash approximating the value of his land.”
In United States v Two Tracts of Land, supra, Circuit Judge Friendly explained the rationale behind the rule excluding evidence of the estimated compensation.
"It is altogether clear, indeed claimants concede, that the 'estimated compensation’ paid into court by the United States is not admissible to contradict a lower value to which a Government witness testifies at trial. United States v 9.85 Acres of Land, etc., Hampton, Va., 183 F Supp 402, 404-405 (E.D. Va 1959), aff'd, 279 F 2d 890 (4 Cir 1960); Evans v United States, 326 F 2d 827, 829-830 (8 Cir 1964). Yet the amounts paid into court would often reflect appraisals previously obtained, as seems likely to have been true here, and if policy forbids admission of the result, it likewise forbids admission of the source. Moreover, while federal agencies have a duty to give Congress as accurate a notion of the cost of a project as they feasibly can, certainty is impossible and the agencies doubtless recognize it to be better to err on the high side rather than the low. While an error on the high side will mean only that some of the appropriation will not be used, one on the low side may involve the Government in a project that Congress would not have authorized if properly apprised of the facts. In submitting an appraisal to the appropriation committees of the Congress, the executive branch should not have to run the risk of having this used against the Government if subsequent investigation shows it to have been too high. To consider such submission an adoption sufficient to render the appraisal admissible against the United States would thus be counter to governmental policy.” 412 F2d at 350.
The estimated compensation offered by the con demning authority is merely an estimated statement of value. It may reflect not only the actual value of the property but also such intangibles as the avoidance of litigation.
Allowing such estimates to be used against the defendant in court would ultimately harm both landowners and taxpayers. The condemning authority would be forced to always underestimate the value of the land so the estimate could never be used to impeach or contradict the appraisals at trial. Such deliberate underestimation would result in the landowner getting less money initially and would result in more contested cases, thus increasing costs and delays due to litigation.
We specifically wish to point out that we do not address the issue of whether appellant could have subpoenaed the witness as his own witness to ask if he was familiar with the subject property and had an opinion as to its value. We merely hold that the witness could not be subpoenaed for the purpose of using his statement of estimated compensation as an admission against interest against the state.
Affirmed. No costs. A public question. | [
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