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Graves, J.
This proceeding is brought to quash an order of the township board reversing the laying out of an extension in Hamtramek of a street of the city of Detroit known as Lafayette street.
The only error alleged by the plaintiff in certiorari is “that notice of appeal and hearing thereof was not served upon the parties over and through whose lands the proposed highway was to pass, as required .by the statute, and that they had no knowledge that an appeal had been taken, and did not present their proofs and allegations, which will more fully appear by the records and returns of said board.”
The writ was addressed to the township board and township clerk. But nothing is returned except copies of the declarations of appeal and of the judgment order c". the board. The clerk certifies that they are true copies of the whole and all of the records in his office in relation to the action of the township board in regard to the highway named therein to the best of his knowledge.
This certificate as printed contained the words “ highway commissioner” instead of “township board,” but in the records furnished to the court the latter term is substituted.
This is noticed merely because respondent’s brief specially adverts to the circumstance that the certificate identifies the records returned as referring to the action of the commissioner and not to that of the township board.
As before mentioned, the return is confined to copies of the declarations of appeal, the final order made by the board and the clerk’s certificate. No part of the showing for the certiorari is adopted. The final order recites “due notice to the parties pursuant to the statute,” and concludes by reversing the determination of the “highway commissioner.” The record contains nothing further or different to show that notice was given to anyone, and according to the certificate of the clerk there was nothing more in his office. The statute required the clerk to give ten days’ notice of the meeting of the board to the appellants and to the commissioner whose decision was appealed against, and also to each person whose lands were to be affected thereby, and it provided expressly that the notice should be in writing, should state the time and place of meeting, and that a copy should -be delivered to the appellants, the commissioner, and to each person to be affected thereby, or left at their respective places of residence. Act 216 of 1875, Pub. Acts, p. 259.
The recital in the order of reversal that notice had been given was of no force to invest the board with authority to act upon the appeals. Notification was a prerequisite to their right to proceed and make the order, and the validity of the order cannot be presupposed for the purpose of proving by its recital that a preliminary step essential to its validity was actually taken. The record contains no proof for the purpose of this inquiry that notice was given to any one. Dupont v. Highway Com’rs of Hamtramck, 28 Mich., 362; People v. Highway Com’rs of Nankin, 14 Mich., 528, and the want of notice is fatal.
Previous to the act of 1875 notice was required to be served only on appellants and commissioners, but the law was then amended by requiring it to be also given “ to each person whose lands are to be affected thereby.”
The briefs of counsel dwell upon this provision and differ widely in regard to its meaning.
The counsel for the plaintiff contends that it requires notice to be given to all persons who are interested in the opening of the proposed highway, whilst the opposing counsel insists that such a construction would result in cutting off the right of appeal altogether in the numerous cases in which the prescribed mode of service would be impossible upon all such persons, and he contends that the real sense of the clause is that notice is to be given to each person whose lands are to be affected by the appeal, not by the highway. The provision is ambiguous and indefinite, and neither of these interpretations appears to clear it up and mark out its limits. Whether it is capable of any satisfactory exposition is uncertain. The present case does not necessitate a decision upon it. All admit that notice to somebody was indispensable, and the record in the shape in which the parties have submitted it for judgment, imports, under the construction we are compelled to put upon it, that notice was given to no one.
Another feature of the record has not escaped attention. The only ground of appeal was the award of damages. No objection was made to the establishment of the highway or to any of the steps therefor.
The eomplaint was solely that the commissioner failed to allow sufficient damages.
Now the statute appears to contemplate that the township board as an appellate body is to be confined to the ground of appeal and may not assert a jurisdiction to act upon a new and distinct ground; and hence there is room for contending that as the sole objection of appellants was that the commissioner had not awarded damages to them as he should have done the board had no right to abandon the subject of that objection and go beyond it and adjudicate upon the fact of the establishment of the highway.
The present record contains no basis for any opinion upon- the correctness of the original proceedings in lay ing out the highway, and we cannot say whether they were legal or not.
All we can now decide is that the action of the township board appears to have been unlawful and that their order must be quashed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
This bill was filed in order to rescind an •exchange of lands made in February, 1874, on account of fraud. The court decreed for complainants and the defendants appealed.
The defendants Hunt and wife formerly lived in the town of Hope in Barry county, and some time after the civil war removed to Cedar county in Missouri. In 1873 they returned to Barry county, reaching the town of Johnstown July 6th. They held a place of one hundred .acres in Cedar county, and lived upon it some time during their stay in Missouri. The title was in Mrs. Hunt. The complainants Match and wife resided in the town of Baltimore in Barry county on a farm of eighty acres, the title to which was in complainant William. This farm was a very good one, and worth from $3,000 to $4,000. It was incumbered by two mortgages made by .complainants, one December 26th, 1871, to Evaline Beaman, for $1,000, payable in five years, with interest at ten per cent.; the other December 23d, 1873, to Levi Bristol, for $242, payable in two years, with interest at ten per cent.
After some negotiation between complainants and defendants, they completed an exchange of their farms February 20th, 1874. By mutual arrangement the Barry county land was deeded to Mrs. Hunt and the Missouri land to Mrs. Match. In the trade the Barry county place was valued at $3,800 and the Missouri land at $1,800, and the former was to be taken by Mrs. Hunt subject to the mortgage debts, and the remaining difference was to be paid down by Hunt in cash. This difference was ascertained to be $736.93, and was paid.
Complainants had never seen the Missouri land, and its character and surrounding advantages were particularly explained to them on the part of defendants in a series of representations. Complainants gave defendants possession of the farm in Barry county, and, after selling off their personal effects, they proceeded to the place in Cedar county, Missouri. They reached the place about April 9th, 1874, and, after remaining a few days, returned. Very shortly afterwards complainant Match informed Hunt that the place was not as represented, and asked him what he intended to do about it, and he replied in substance that he should do nothing. In a few days this bill was filed. It set out with much particularity the representations claimed to have been made; that they were relied on and were false. As alleged they were material. The answer substantially admitted the fact' of making all the imputed representations except one relating to the nearness of a railroad station, and it was claimed that what was stated on that subject was to the effect only that when they removed from the farm the Kansas City & Memphis Railroad was nearly graded to the village of Greenville, some thirteen miles distant, and that it was thought it would soon be completed to that place and when so completed, a station would undoubtedly be placed there, as it was a village of some little importance.
The answer insisted that all the representations actually made were true. Among other things represented was the capacity of the farm for tillage and the supply of water. It was distinctly represented that the whole farm except about eight acres consisted of good tillable land, and 'that there were two springs of water and a good well. An endeavor seems to have been made by the defense to reduce this representation about the springs and well to a sense which would render it nearly meaningless. It was sought to produce an opinion that the springs were not described as perennial or the well as durable, but as affording water only when it was not very dry. The attempt failed. The case shows they were in fact referred to as durable. But if the words had not been as claimed by complainants, there could have been no question about the meaning and effect. The idea conveyed, and intended to be conveyed, could not be doubted. No play upon terms could avert the sting of the representation. The knowledge of its reception in a sense rendering it deceptive would be enough to affect the conscience of the utterer.
Now the evidence is decisive that about sixty acres of the farm are unfit for cultivation, and that it is extremely questionable to say the least whether this portion could be made fit by an outlay of more than it would be worth after being brought into condition. And it is equally clear that during the dry season there is no water. The well fails at such times, and the spots mentioned as springs furnish no water. Again, it appears' clear that the farm was represented as being within- thir teen miles of a railroad, and between three and four of a grist mill and saw mill, whilst in fact the nearest railroad is about twenty-five miles distant, if not farther, the nearest saw-mill ten, and the nearest grist-mill thirteen miles. It is true that when Hunt left the farm in Cedar county for a place some- few miles distant-there were mills within about three miles and a half; but they were abandoned before he removed from Missouri, and the statement when made concerning the close vicinity of milling accommodations was untrue and deceptive.
The ease is clear that in regard to things material and substantial the complainants were deceived by means the defendants used, and which were well fitted to cause such deception, and which they knew, or had good reason to know were actually causing it. There was ample ground for an appeal to equity. Converse v. Blumrich, 14 Mich., 109; Beebe v. Young, id., 136; Rood v. Chapin, Walk. Ch., 79; Jones v. Wing & Dean, Har. Ch., 301; Steinbach v. Hill, 25 Mich., 78; Beebe v. Knapp, 28 Mich., 53; Bristol v. Braidwood, id., 191; Stone v. Covell, 29 Mich., 359; Mizner v. Kussell, id., 229; Webster v. Bailey, 31 Mich., 36; Browne v. Moore, 32 Mich., 254; Starkweather v. Benjamin, id., 305.
On occasion of the conveyance, Mrs. Hunt delivered a written statement which contained a portion of the representations relied on, but not all. Several which had been previously communicated orally were not embraced. It is now urged as matter of law that these last were cut off by the deeds and other writings, or merged in .them. This is not so. All authority is the other way. There was room for fraudulent deception by parol or writing, or both. If in the perpetration of a cheat writing is used, it does not imply that oral statements could not concur. The right to impeach the transaction by parol on the ground of fraud is unquestionable. Whether as matter of fact any thing outside of the writings was considered as representations still standing, and was relied upon, should be decided upon a view of all the circumstances. And according to the weight of evidence the material representations not covered by the writing were understood as remaining and actually exerted influence. The point is not important, because there is enough in the written statement to sustain the bill. It was there represented that there were not to exceed eight acres of waste land in the farm. The nature and degree of proof of misrepresentations are sufficient. Watkins v. Wallace, 19 Mich., 57-77; O’Donnell v. Segar, 25 Mich., 367-378.
The ground of defense that complainants have leased the Missouri farm, and hence have deprived themselves of power to restore it in its former condition is not made out. In the course of his deposition given in August, 1874, one Edgerton deposed that he then resided on the place and had continued to reside on it from and including the previous season. He therefore began about a year before Mrs. Hunt deeded. Upon cross-examination in July, 1875, and about a year later, Mrs. Match testified as follows: “ I heard Match say while we were in Missouri, that he had rented or let Edgerton have that farm in Missouri. I don’t know how long for. He was on the land when Hunt owned it.” The phase of the defense now noticed is based on this statement. This language is not clear, and the occupancy to which it referred is left uncertain. It is very evident no pains were taken to inform Mrs. Match that the subject was of sufficient importance to require her to be explicit, or to make it needful to obtain a definite and accurate explanation.
There is nothing in this piece of testimony to show that Edgerton pccupied upon terms which could in any way interfere with a judicial rescission of the trade in question, or even any thing proving satisfactorily that Edgerton had more from Match than his permission to continue subject to Hunt’s will. Indeed, it is not too much to say, in view of the apparent indifference to Edgerton’s tenure and its derivation when Mrs. Match testified, and in view of the laxity of expression in her testimony and the fact that Edgerton went in under Hunt, that she may possibly have' meant Hunt instead of Match who had rented or let to Edgerton. She had just been speaking of Hunt. Moreover, the place had been deeded to her, and if her husband had disposed of it, it is not unreasonable to suppose she would not have been so dubious about the nature of the disposition.
It is, however, useless to speculate Upon this bit of testimony. It is too ambiguous, too unprecise to cause the effect claimed for it. Before seeking to- rest upon it the defendants should have made the fact clear. They could have had no difficulty in showing if such was the case that Edgerton was holding under Mrs. Match upon terms which precluded complainants from making a full surrender. They did not set up the fact in their answer or give the proper proof.
Finally, the defendants insist that if the transaction ought to be rescinded they should still be allowed interest on the money they paid as difference between the places, the interest on the sums paid by them on the mortgages, the cost of the improvements they have made, and their costs of the cause.
We are unable to concur in this claim.
The court ought not to assist the defendants to make a speculation out of the transaction which on account of their fraud the principles of the court compel it' to set aside; and such, we apprehend, would be the certain result of compliance with the claim now noticed.
The farm is conceded to be one of superior productiveness, and the defendants have had the use of it since the spring of 1874.' They also received with it ten acres of wheat, and they make no offer to allow anything for that crop or for the use of the place.
Complainants on the other hand were caused a considerable outlay in going to the Missouri farm.
The decree requires repayment of $736.93, being the amount paid in cash by defendants and also whatever sums may have been paid by defendants on the two mortgages which were on the farm in Barry county deeded to Mrs. Hunt. We cannot enlarge the relief to complainants, because they have acquiesced in the decree, and the wheat crop taken by defendants in the summer of 1874, and a fair occupation allowance for the farm with an additional amount by way of interest on' these items would probably exceed the claims for interest and improvements. Neblett v. Macfarland, 92 U. S., 101; Allore v. Jewell, 94 U. S., 506, 512.
Some irregularity in the construction of the decree is noticed. It orders a reference to ascertain the amounts paid by defendants on the two mortgages before mentioned, and complainants are required to repay the sums found to have been thus paid, together with the sum of $736.93, which was paid to complainants as difference between the places; and repayment of these items is made a condition precedent to reconveyance by defendants. No time, however, is fixed for this repayment. The matter is left wholly at large. The decree should provide that it be made within some proper and stated time, after confirmation of the report of the amount paid on the mortgage with interest from such confirmation, and that in case of default the bill stand dismissed out of court. In case no default is made by complainants, they should recover their costs of both courts, the same being deducted and kept back from the amount ascertained to be payable by them to defendants; and on the other hand if complainants make default the defendants should recover their costs of both courts, and have execution for the collection thereof.
The decree should be modified according to this opinion, the cause being remanded therefor, and for such other and further proceedings as shall be necessary.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Per Curiam.
In answer to an order to show.cause why he should not be compelled to pay certain ditch •orders, respondent showed there was no money in the fund on which they were drawn, and that the collection of the assessment had been judicially restrained as illegal.
Held, That such orders were not general township charges, and that although the assessment was payable into the town treasury, it still remained a separate fund, and that such orders could only be paid out of the particular assessment on the credit of which they were drawn. 1 Comp. L., § 1795, provides expressly for the keeping of such funds separate? | [
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Per Curiam.
This was an action of replevin for certain goods sold by the- plaintiff at Grand Bapids to Morton & Gale of Greenville, and which were attached by the defendant on a demand against one of tie firm of Morton & Gale, before the goods had left Grand Bapids, and while they were in the hands of a carrier for transportation. It is not denied by the plaintiff that his sale of the goods to Morton & Gale was complete, but the sale was on credit, and he insists on his right to reclaim them in transitu. But the facts make out no such right. That right is grounded on the insolvency of the vendees, unknown at the time of the sale or arising afterwards, and the circuit' judge finds in this case that insolvency was not shown. Indeed, unless it can be said that the mere fact that an attachment was sued out against one of the vendees is some evidence of the insolvency of the firm, the showing was all the other way, and it is remarkable, in view of the nature of the plaintiff’s claim, that after obtaining the goods on the writ of replevin, the plaintiff immediately sent them in Ms own name to Morton & Gale, who made payment therefor. Of course the mere suing out of an attachment is no evidence of the defendant’s insolvehcy, — much less of that of a partnership to which he belonged. It is plain, therefore, that this suit cannot be supported.
The judgment must be affirmed with costs. | [
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Campbell, C. J,
Merrill, who held the legal title to a forty-acre lot, brought replevin against Wilson for crops. Wilson was tenant of Bcbecca Merrill, a former wife of plaintiff below, who had obtained a divorce from him in 1875. These crops were raised in 1877. From the testimony on both sides the only admissible inference is that Rebecca Merrill had been in possession with plaintiff’s consent for several years. No notice to quit was ever given. And there is no testimony tending to show any occupancy which did' not cover the premises in question.
The case was put to the jury as if Mrs. Merrill was not only at best but a tenant at sufferance, but under a tenancy which was terminable by re-entry, at any time. The charge was somewhat involved, and open to criticism in several particulars pointed out on the argument. But it would be out of place to enlarge on legal propositions which were not in the case.
Mrs. Merrill was not a tenant at sufferance. She was no less at any rate than a tenant at will. Whether or not any difficulty existed in her tenure during the marriage, there could have been none after the divorce. She could not — if a tenant at will — be compellable to remove without notice, and any disturbance of her possession before notice would be unlawful.
Upon the undisputed facts there wras nothing to go to the jury, and defendant below should have had a verdict in' his favor.
The judgment must be reversed with costs, and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
Wagar brought replevin to obtain two buildings which one William Webster had erected on posts upon lots 18 and 19 of Briscoe’s subdivision of lots 64 and 65 of the subdivision of the Porter farm in the city of Detroit. And he based his right exclusively upon a title made to him by sale in proceedings taken for the Wagar Lumber Company to enforce an alleged lien for materials furnished by the company to Webster for the construction of said buildings. ■
The court directed a verdict for defendants and Wagar brought error. The record suggests many questions of importance and a number of which are noticed in the able briefs which have been submitted. There is no occasion however for considering these various topics or even for noticing several objections which occur to the lien proceedings.
October 26, 1874, Briscoe then being owner, agreed in writing to transfer his ownership of the lots to Webster on certain specified terms and not otherwise. Webster was to pay him $1900 in five equal annual installments of which the first was to be made October 26, 1875. He was likewise to pay interest at seven per cent semiannually on the first days of January and July, and discharge all taxes and assessments subsequent to the agreement. Upon payment being made as specified Briscoe agreed to convey in fee simple clear of all liens and incumbrances except such as might accrue after the agreement by or through the acts or negligence of Webster. It was also mutually agreed that Webster might have possession October 27, 1874, and should keep the property in as good condition as it was then in, until payment of the purchase price; and in case Webster should fail to perform his undertakings or any part- of them, that Briscoe should have the right thereupon to declare the contract void and to retain whatever should have been paid and all improvements and to treat Webster as tenant holding over without permission, and to enter, take possession and remove him.
Webster went into possession under this contract and paid $20 upon it: but being unable to pay more he surrendered the contract and possession to Briscoe some time in the spring of 1875. The precise time is not shown. According to the record the transaction as between Briscoe and Webster was completely effaced.
Briscoe then conveyed the lots by deed to Brow, and so far as appears neither was aware that the lumber company claimed any lien on the lots or on the erections upon them. All proceedings for creating a lien and in its prosecution were directed against Webster. Neither Briscoe nor Brow was notified.
The buildings were put up by Webster between the date of his contract of purchase, October 26, 1874, and its surrender in the spring of 1875.
Some time in the same spring, but exactly when does not appear, the Lumber Company by Ephraim C. Wagar who represented himself as being its agent, filed a petition in the circuit court for Wayne county under ch. 126 of the Bevised Statutes of 1846 and being part of Comp. L., ch. 215 to enforce an alleged lien which it claimed to have established and to hold on said lots 18 and 19 and the buildings thereon on account of materials it had furnished to Webster for said buildings under a verbal contract for such materials which "it had made with him on the 24th of October, 1874, being two days before Briscoe agreed to sell to him.
The petition charged that Webster then owned the lots; that the Company furnished the materials pursuant to the agreement of the 24th of October; that when the petition was filed, a time as already stated which does not appear, the price had been due more than sixty days and remained unpaid; that on February 15, 1875, the Company filed with the register of deeds of Wqyne county a verified certificate describing the land where the buildings were, the terms of the contract with Webster and the amount due exclusive of credits; that the certificate was recorded in such office on the same day and a verified duplicate served on Webster personally.
It then prayed a sale of the lots and buildings to satisfy the lien and for such other or further relief as might be proper. It was verified April 3d, 1875. Subsequently, but at what precise time does not appear, Webster answered. But the answer simply consisted of denials that the Company was incorporated under the laws of' this State; that Ephraim C. Wagar was its authorized agent; that he, Webster, entered into the contract specified; that there was due to the Company $864.64 or any sum from him, and that sixty days had elapsed after the coming due of such debt.
June 4th, 1875, the circuit court appears to have made a decree which after reciting that it appeared on examination of the several claims presented that there was clue from Webster to the company $894.90 principal and interest: to William Plumer, an intervening claimant, $409.33 principal and interest, and to Aaron D. Mitchell, another intervening claimant, $76.75 principal and interest; that said several sum§ were liens upon the premises mentioned and described in the petition of the Company as had been alleged in the several petitions: —proceeded to adjudge that the Company, Plumer and Mitchell were respectively entitled to the sums so appearing due from Webster, and that a lien existed upon the premises aforesaid in favor of said parties, pursuant to the statute, and that all and singular the premises described as being certain buildings on said lots 18 and 19, and all right, title and interest Webster had or might have in said lots should be sold at public auction at the court house in Detroit by James H. Pound, Jr., one of the circuit court commissioners for Wayne county, twelve days after notice of the time and place of sale given by the commissioner; that at such sale the commissioner should give the purchaser a certificate as in case of sales on execution, etc.
December 9, 1875, being more than six months after making of the decree, the court upon a stipulation to that end by the solicitors for the Company and for Webster and for the intervening claimants Plumer and Mitchell, entered a further order amending the decree as of its date so as to preclude sale of Webster’s interest in the-lots, and order sale of the buildings “separate and apart from the right, title and interest of the said defendant in and to said several lots.”
The deed given by the commissioner as printed in the record has but one correct date. It is there printed as having been given January 10, 1875, and acknowledged January 11th, 1875, upon a sale made January 4th, 1875, under an order of December 9th, 1875.
The sale may be assumed to have been made January 4th, 1876.
The deed recited that notice of the time and place of sale had been given by advertising the same for thirteen successive days once in each day in a Detroit newspaper, and that the premises were struck off to Humphrey E. Wagar, who was the highest bidder, for $1090 which was the highest bid, and then proceeded to grant the buildings on said lots 18 and 19 with all and singular the rights, titles and privileges and appurtenances to said Wagar, his assigns, executors and administrators forever.
The title claimed by Wagar under these proceedings is purely statutory, -and its validity must depend on the provisions under which it was formed and the steps taken to produce it.
In perfect agreement with the views generally maintained in the tribunals of our sister States, this court has repeatedly declared in substance that these acts are innovations upon the common law over the rights of property by permitting the institution of private charges on property without or against the owner’s assent and without any judicial or other official sanction, and by authorizing an enforcement of such charges by unusual and summary methods, and that the provisions of these enactments cannot be extended in their operation and effect beyond the plain and fair sense of the terms, and that parties asserting liens or titles resting upon them must bring themselves and their titles plainly and distinctly within these terms and affirmatively make out that a lien was originally effected regularly and thereafter kept up, and that every essential statutory step either in the creation, continuance or enforcement of the lien has been duly taken.
We have seen nothing to shake these opinions.
As already intimated, there are many points against the plaintiff’s case which might be referred to. It is only needful, however, to glance at one or two and notice another with somewhat more attention.
First. The entire proceedings in court contemplated as the only ground of lien whatever an express contract by the company with Webster and Webster alone for materials, made as the sworn petition affirmed, two days before he had acquired any legal or equitable connection whatever with the- lots in question. He was not in a situation in which by his sole and single act and without aid from some subsequent express or implied engagement or obligation he could bring an encumbrance upon the lots, or buildings thereafter attached to them.
Second. The officer who makes sale is required to “give notice of the time and place appointed therefor, in the manner prescribed in relation to the sale of real estate on executions, unless the court shall order other or different notice to be given.” Comp. -L., § 6803.
Where real estate is to be sold on execution, notice of the time and place of holding such sale shall be given by fastening up a notice in three public places in the proper locality six weeks previous to the sale and publishing a copy in the proper newspaper once in each week for six successive weeks. Comp. L., § 4629.
The “notice” to be given of the time and place of sale is composed of these different incidents and publications, and is not made and cannot be made of part of them. They must concur in order to amount to the “notice” required in execution sales. And as the decree simply required “notice” without specifying the mode and only prescribed that twelve days must elapse between notice and sale, it must be considered that the same publication by posting and advertising was demanded as the law requires on execution sales of real estate, except that it was made necessary there should be a space of twelve days between the completion of the acts of notification and the time of sale. The decree intimated no other deviation from the statutory requirements in regard to execution sales. No such “notice” was given or could be.
Only sixteen days intervened between the order of sale and the day of sale. Hence the sale was not warranted by the decree.
Third. The kind of lien in question can originate only in contract, and no one is capable of making this contract who is not the “owner, part owner or lessee of the land” to be affected, and the lien is to attach to the contractor’s entire interest in the land and its additions made by aid of the contract, but it cannot exceed the interest of the contracting party. Comp. L., § 6789. The declaration of lien for record must describe the “piece or pieces, lot or lots, of land” on which the building, etc., shall be or is to be put up, etc., and the lien is to attach, although as yet nothing has been “put up” or added. Comp. L., § 6790. The sub-contractor’s lien which rests finally on the existence of a debt owing to the original contractor, is to attach “to the land.” Comp. L., § 6792. The petition must describe the “premises” subject to the lien and pray for their sale or other disposition. § 6794. Notice is required to be given to all other creditors having a similar lien on the “same lands.” § 6795. If the “owner” resides out of the State an order of publication is authorized. § 6796. Creditors having a like lien on the “same land” may appear, etc. § 6797. The amount due each creditor who has a lien of the kind mentioned “upon the estate in question” is to be ascertained. § 6799. When “the owner of the land” makes default, the lien creditor may recover for his own part performance. § 6800. When a sale is made and it produces a surplus, the excess is to be paid to the “owner of the land.” § 6807. If “the land” is under attachment when the contract' is recorded, the lien of the attaching creditor is preferred to the extent of the value of the “land and buildings” at the time of such record. § 6808. If the procurer of the work has only a life estate or some other estate less than a fee simple in “the land” on which the work is done, or if “the land” is mortgaged when the contract is recorded or is under any other incumbrance he is yet to be considered as the “owner” to the extent of his right and interest “in the land,” and the lien will bind his whole estate and interest therein. § 6813. If the debtor “convey away his estate” the lien may be prosecuted against the holder. § 6814. When the court comes to decree in what way satisfaction of the lien shall be brought about, it may, when the same can be done justly, order sale of a distinct part of the premises separate from the balance, or order sale of the buildings or machinery separately. §§ 6801, 6802.
These references show that the thing to be subjected to the intended lien must be real estate and not separate chattels.
• Wherever referred to, the charge is contemplated as applying to land, or land and things annexed to land, and there is no warrant any where for- imposing a lien on an adjunct of the land as though it were a piece of separated personalty.
The law perceives the land and its additions in deciding on what the lien shall rest, as entire realty and not as associated or mixed lands and goods. And the same enactments show what conditions are necessary to fit one to be turned into a lien debtor; and they establish the fact that no lien can be induced on any man’s ownership except on the basis of his own indebtedness, and can then be extended no further than his ownership extends.
The proceedings of the Lumber Company to establish and enforce the lien contemplated the city lots and the buildings as entire realty liable to the lien and they also contemplated Webster as the “owner” of an entire interest in the lots and buildings regarded as one property, and in fact his interest was an equity pervading the whole and one which did not include, as a full and complete ownership would, any right to separate the buildings from the land. The legal title was in Briscoe and as against him Webster could not assert an owner-' ship of the buildings separate from the land or any' right to detach them from it. Neither could he confer upon third persons any right sufficient to enable them to work out such an ownership or to separate the buildings in opposition to Briscoe’s claims.
Conceding it was competent for the company to institute a lien against Webster and to enforce it under the statute, and still it is evident that the proceedings were required to be confined to his equity and to be subject to Briscoe’s rights. And such being the case it was not competent to order a sale of the whole of a distinct part of the property. Webster’s ownership was not of a nature to allow it. All that was in any court possible was a sale of his equitable interest in the land and buildings and subject to the rights of Briscoe.
It follows, therefore, that the amended decree ordering the buildings to be sold by themselves and under which the sale was made was unauthorized and insufficient to maintain Wagar’s claim of title.
He was not entitled to recover and the result was consequently right.
The judgment should be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
This case comes up on exceptions before judgment. The defendant was charged with the murder of Charles Kreiger in November, 1876, and on the trial, which occurred in March, 1877, he insisted that his act was justifiable self-defense. The jury after a protracted trial returned a verdict against him for manslaughter. The Attorney General virtually admits that the conviction cannot be sustained, and he declines to take the contrary position before the court. The record bears him out. A large number of exceptions were taken some of which were valid and others not.
The present attitude of the case renders many questions immaterial which under other circumstances might have a different complexion. As the case stood upon the trial there was room for questions connected with specific issues which the verdict has disposed of forever. The charge of murder is conclusively negatived, and every question merely pertinent to that charge and not relevant to the accusation or defense of manslaughter can have no future importance. As the case is situated, in view of this aspect of-it and of the fact that only one side is heard, and that it must assume a different shape on another trial, a particular discussion now would seem to be altogether inappropriate. A few words are required however. Several important facts were shown which have not been disputed.
Defendant was a farmer living about two miles and a half from Dowagiac, and the deceased had been in his service as a farm hand for about a year and a half. November 2d, 1876, defendant discharged him on the alleged ground of his habit of getting intoxicated and being unsteady. On Saturday, the 11th of that month, the parties settled, and a balance was found in favor of deceased of $10.41. Defendant paid $7 and claimed that deceased had taken and failed to return a powder flask and shot pouch worth $3.25, and observed that he would pay the balance when these articles should be restored. The deceased left shortly after and went to Dowagiac. This was before dinner. In the afternoon the defendant also visited Dowagiac on business. Whilst there he was met by deceased who appeared to be in liquor and was very violent. He complained that defendant would not pay him what he owed him and threatened personal violence, and even went so far as to menace his life. These threats were in different forms, and it was impossible not to understand them as importing a design to visit defendant with great personal harm if not an attack against his life. He was a man of superior strength and vigor, and far more powerful than defendant. His demeanor was so impressive of his purpose and ability to do great harm to defendant that the village marshal interfered and took him away, and informed him that unless he behaved he would lock him up. Subsequently, however, the deceased returned to resume his violence against defendant, and the marshal then placed him in custody of one Eummell, and instructed defendant that he had better go home, as he, the marshal, could not watch deceased all.the time, and defendant accordingly hurried home without having completed his business.
The defendant was building a new house at this time within a few feet of the old one, and one Adams, a painter, and Hess, a carpenter, were there. About five o’clock in the evening, deceased obtained a livery team at Gardner’s stable in Dowagiac to go to defendant’s place and get his trunk. Young Gardner, a son of the stable keeper, drove the team, and one Cook, a comrade of deceased, accompanied the latter. Both the latter were a good deal in liquor. When they reached defendant’s house he was at supper, and Adams and Hess and a farm hand were there. Mrs Lilly and three children and a niece were also there. Deceased and Cook entered and passed up stairs for the trunk. It was then dark. Adams and Hess went out and stood talking about ten feet from the back door of the old house when deceased and Cook emerged with the trunk and started through the passage way between the buildings for the road. Deceased returned very soon and Cook a little later. Hess and Adams had then moved off several feet, and defendant was passing in the direction of the new house. It had become very dark at this time. Deceased immediately advanced towards defendant and demanded his full pay and defendant refused until he should restore the pouch and flask. Deceased continued to approach defendant and threatened him with extreme personal violence unless he paid him “ every G — d d — n .nickel to-night.” Defendant made no movement towards deceased, but told him to “go away and let him alone;” that he “didn’t want any fuss with him.” Deceased said, “ strike me, G — d d — n you,” and defendant replied, “ I don’t want to strike you; I don’t want any fuss with you;” and then deceased said, “you will use that on me, will you, G — d d — n you.” Defendant answered “I want you to go away and let me alone; don’t put your hands upon me,” and instantly added that he must take his hands off and not strike him again. There was a struggle in the darkness accompanied by words. “Kreiger’s voice was angry; Lilly’s was excited, — his voice was that of fear.” Kreiger then and there received a mortal wound from a common pocket knife in the hand of defendant.
This outline will convey a sufficient idea of the transaction for the present purpose.
Upon the question of defendant’s being justified or excused, the judge charged these propositions among others;
“If you find that Kreiger assaulted Lilly with the intention simply to commit upon him an ordinary assault and battery, not amounting to an injury of a permanent character, and that Lilly only so apprehended, the killing would not be justifiable.
If you find that Kreiger assaulted Lilly and threatened to whip him, and that Lilly could have saved himself from all serious harm by retreating or calling for assistance, and the defendant so knew or believed, but that he did not do so; but stood his ground and resisted Kreiger, and in such resistance killed Kreiger, such killing would not be justifiable or excusable.
If Lilly believed that Kreiger came to his premises on the evening of the homicide with the intention of seeking a combat with him, and that he sought him for that purpose and the defendant so knew, then it was Lilly’s duty to have avoided Kreiger, and to have avoided such combat by all reasonable means within his power, and if he chose to stand up and resist the assault when he might have avoided it, and in such resistance killed Kreiger, such killing would not be justifiable.”
These instructions we think were improper and misleading. In the first place they suggested to the jury an opinion of the court that the facts would warrant a finding of certain matters of which we cannot say there was legitimate evidence, and especially that defendant did not make reasonable efforts to avoid deceased and avert his attack. In the second place they are objectionable on other grounds. They indicated to the jury that whilst defendant had suddenly returned to his home from Dowagiae to avoid the violence of deceased, and the latter had then repaired to defendant’s place and was again threatening defendant as he had threatened him at Dowagiae with mortal violence; and was now attacking him at night at his own door with the apparent purpose of’executing these threats, it was incumbent upon him to fly from his habitation where his wife and children were, in order to escape danger instead of resisting the aggressor. Such is not the law. The jury should have been instructed in effect that if they were satisfied that Lilly being at his own house had reason to believe and did believe from Kreiger’s previous and present language, manner and actions, and what had already taken place, that it was necessary to inflict the wounds he did inflict upon Kreiger to save his own life or to protect himself from danger of great bodily harm, he was excused. Hurd v. People, 25 Mich., 405; see also The People v. John Doe, 1 Mich., 451; Pond v. The People, 8 Mich., 150; Patten v. The People, 18 Mich., 314; Erwin v. The State, 29 Ohio St., 186.
In these cases of personal peril the party assailed not. only has the legal right to defend himself, but the law supposes it to be his duty to defend himself so far as he has personal capacity, and it does not suppose him to-lie under any obligation to remain supine and attempt to shift this duty upon other private persons. And tho legitimacy of his act done under color of this right and. duty is not made to depend on his believing or not believing at the moment that a call would bring someone else to interfere in his behalf or assume the task and. risk of his defense, however it might bear upon the fact of the reality of his belief concerning his danger and his-necessity to use the given means of defense. The charge-was inconsistent with the view here explained, and it-conveyed the idea that if help was within call and that defendant so believed, then his act was not lawful self-defense. Except in special cases no private person is-bound in law, even if called on, to defend others, and no-one when hotly assailed under circumstances indicating; an intent to take life or do grievous bodily harm is bound to withhold measures proper in self-defense in order to wait for foreign help.
It was admissible to show by Hess and Adams how Kreiger appeared and acted on the occasion of the homicide, and in connection therewith, that his appearance and conduct were then such as to awaken fear in them.
The impression actually made upon them at the time was of force to give color to their verbal descriptions and convey to the jury with greater distinctness and emphasis the way in which the aggressor' most probably appeared to the defendant. Again, Kreiger’s behavior on the way from Dowagiae to defendants was rightly provable in the case. It bore upon the representation given of his deportment and that of his comrade when they reached the residence of defendant and when he made his attack.
It is very probable that the future exigencies of the case will be fully satisfied by what has been said, and the reasons given previously explain the difficulty felt in regard to any minute examination or general discussion.
We are satisfied with the doctrine of Pond v. The People, Patten v. The People and Hurd v. The People, supra, and the case is fairly ruled by the principles laid down and recognized there.
The conviction must be set aside, and as the record reads we do not feel authorized to advise a release of the defendant without a finding by another jury.
We must therefore advise a new trial.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
The bill in this case is filed to quiet the title to certain lands in the city of Detroit. A small portion of these lands had been contracted by complainant to Eoss and Oakes, who were in possession and had erected a valuable building thereon. The remainder was unimproved, and complainant claimed to be in actual possession. Defendants had brought suit in ejectment against Eoss and Oakes, and the suit was pending when this bill was filed. The decree prayed for was one quieting the title of complainant to all the lands.
I. It is insisted on the part of defendants that equity has no jurisdiction of such a case, the questions involved being legal questions, and a suit being now pending at law in which they might be passed upon and determined. It has been stated, however, that that suit involves a small portion only of the lands, and though all the questions that arise on this record might perhaps be raised and passed upon at law, it is not a matter of course to deny relief in equity when the decision at law cannot cover the whole controversy. As to all that portion of the lands of which she was in actual possession, complainant was unquestionably entitled to file this bill, taking no notice of the remainder, and it could have been no answer to her suit that the questions involved were being tried in a suit at law against other parties as the occupants of other lands. It did not follow that because defendants had brought suit against Boss and Oakes they would follow this up with a suit against complainant, and her title might remain in dispute indefinitely had she not moved to quiet it. And having a right to file the bill, it was very proper that she should embrace the land contracted to Boss and Oakes in the decree prayed for, and thereby terminate the whole controversy. Woods v. Monroe, 17 Mich., 238. But there is a further reason why this bill was proper. The questions involved are such that if the defense at law should succeed, the title of complainant of record would still be imperfect and open to disputes; and where that is the case, it is manifest that the remedy at law cannot be fully adequate. The purpose of this suit is not only to determine the title, but to remove clouds upon it; and there is a cloud so long as by the record it is at least' questionable if the title of defendants is not prima facie better than complainant’s.
II.- Complainant claims title through two independent chains of conveyances, and also by adverse possession. One chain of conveyances is as follows: From Louis Moran, Junior, the original source of title, to Caniff and Cook by mortgages: foreclosure of these mortgages in chancery, and conveyance to Eurotas P. Hastings; Eu-rotas P. Hastings to Charles Larned by deed, and Charles Lamed to complainant by deed. The defendant also claims under Hastings, and the questions which arise on this part of the case relate to the validity and effect of the respective conveyances from Hastings; hi3 title not being disputed by defendants,
The mortgages by Moran to Caniff and Cook were of a farm called the Mullett farm, containing seventy-six acres and a fraction, with an exception of certain parcels which had previously been conveyed out of it, and which were specially mentioned. The foreclosure took place in 1828, and Hastings became the purchaser. The deed from Hastings to Larned conveys the same land, with the exception of a portion lying northwest of Jefferson avenue, and which is not involved in this controversy. The deed bears date June 1, 1834, but was not acknowledged until May 25, 1837. Before the date of acknowledgment Larned died, and there is no direct evidence of a satisfactory character that he had possession of the deed at all. It is therefore insisted by the defendants that it is not made out that the deed was ever delivered; that the date of acknowledgment is presumptive evidence that it had not been delivered previous to that time, and if so it was never delivered at all, as Larned was then deceased.
It is true it has been decided by .this court that, as deeds are usually acknowledged before they are delivered, it is to be presumed when the date of acknowledgment is subsequent to the date of the deed, that the former, rather than the latter was the date of delivery. Blanchard v. Tyler, 12 Mich., 339; Johnson v. Moore, 28 Mich., 3. This, however, is but a bare presumption, and may easily be overcome by circumstances which are inconsistent with the supposed fact. And it is difficult to conceive of a circumstance which would tend more powerfully in that direction than the coming forward of the grantor to acknowledge his conveyance at a time when, had it not been delivered previously, the ceremony would be a mere nullity. Such is the case here.
If the deed from Hastings to Larned had been delivered in the lifetime of Larned, without acknowledgment, and was found in that condition by Larned's representatives afterwards, a sufficient reason for obtaining the acknowledgment at that time is apparent. But if the deed had never been delivered, the title must have remained in Hastings, and no suggestion of a reason for an aeknowlment at that time would be consistent with reasonable and probable motives. We must' suppose the parties understood that delivery, was essential to an operative conveyance; and that they would not knowingly go through the formality of completing for record, an instrument which would still be a mere nullity. It may indeed be suggested that the transaction between Hastings and Larned was found in an unfinished state after the death of the latter, and that it was closed up by completing a deed to Larned previously drawn but not executed, as the simplest and least expensive mode of vesting title in Larned’s heirs; but as this would save to the parties nothing but the drafting of a deed, it is almost incredible that business men should have been willing to peril interests for a consideration so insignificant. It is much more reasonable to suppose that the acknowledgment was taken when it was in order to perfect for the purposes of record and evidence a conveyance in other particulars complete before.
The Larned deed, however, was not recorded until April 16, 1874. Meantime, on May 18, 1866, Hastings executed another conveyance to John, Levi and Hubbard Trowbridge, and under this deed defendant Levi Trow-bridge now claims the land. This last deed was at once placed upon record, and Levi Trowbridge claims the protection of the registry laws as a bona fide purchaser in good faith.
The questions arising under this second deed by Hastings are, First, whether it purports to convey the land in dispute; and second, whether, if it does, it is not. defeated by the notice of complainant’s title derived from her actual possession of the land. The second question becomes immaterial if the first is answered adversely to the defendants. The deed purports, in consideration of one dollar, “to grant, bargain, sell, release and forever quit claim unto the parties of the second part, and to their heirs and assigns forever, all the right, title and interest of and now remaining in the party of the first part, of, in and to all that piece or parcel of land,” etc., “known as the Mullett farm.” The deed is very short, and all that is important is above given.
The statute provides that “a deed of quit claim and release, of the form in common use, shall be sufficient to pass all the estate which the grantor could lawfully convey by a deed of bargain and sale.” Comp. L., § 4205. Under this statute this instrument was sufficient to convey what it purported to convey. But what was that? It certainly does not assume to convey a certain piece of land as the property of the grantor, but it covers only the “now remaining” interest of Hastings in the Mullett farm. At that time Hastings had no interest whatever in the premises now in controversy, because he had previously conveyed them to Lamed. How then do the Trowbridges get those premises by this conveyance ? Where a deed describes land by metes and bounds or otherwise, and purports to convey it, the grantee, if a purchaser for value without actual or constructive notice of previous conveyances, is entitled to claim what is described; but when one receives a conveyance of a “remaining” interest, the description itself limits the operative words to the interest remaining uneonveyed. The grantee purchases nothing further, and the grantor assumes to convey nothing more. The deed under the recording laws defeats no prior unrecorded conveyance, because it is not a second conveyance of anything previously conveyed. Both deeds may and do well stand together.
This conclusion renders needless any further examination of complainant’s title, as it shows her to have a better right than the defendant Levi Trowbridge can claim, deduced from the same source of title. It is immaterial whether her other claim of conveyances, or her possession, would or would not strengthen this show ing. She may safely, as against these defendants, stand upon the rights- derived from Hastings through Larned. We think, also, that she has shown a sufficient possession to entitle her to file this bill.
The decree of the court helow in favor of the complainant must he affirmed with costs.
Marston and Graves, JJ., concurred; Campbell, C. J., concurred in the result. | [
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Cooley, J.
Nelson was complained of before a justice of the peace for the larceny of property exceeding in value twenty-five dollars, and on examination by the justice was held for trial in the circuit court. Had the value of the property been found by the justice to be under twenty-five dollars, the justice could not havá sent the case to the circuit court, but must have pro> ceeded to try the accused himself. Comp. L., §§ 5526, 7860. An information having been filed against Nelson in the circuit court, he pleaded thereto “guilty of petty larceny.” This plea was informal, but was understood by the prosecution and by the court as a plea of guilty of the non-felonious larceny; that is to say, of the larceny of property of less value than twenty-five dollars; and the court proceeded to sentence him to imprisonment in the Detroit House of Correction for the period of ten months. It is assigned for error in the record that this judgment is excessive.
The general statute provides that larceny of property which shall not exceed in value twenty-five dollars shall be punished by imprisonment in the county jail not more than one year, or by fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, or by both in the discretion of the court. Comp. L., § 7569. This provision was a part of the Revised Statutes of 1846, and under those statutes as well as now, cases of non-felonious larceny might have been tried by a justice of the peace. Two years after those statutes took effect an act was' passed which provided that any person convicted ‘ under chapter 94 of the statutes — the chapter giving to justices their criminal jurisdiction — may be punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding three months, or both in the discretion of the court. It is not claimed that since this statute a justice of the peace can inflict the punishment of imprisonment for a period exceeding three months, and had Nelson been convicted before a justice of the same offense of which he has now pleaded guilty, three months must have been the maximum imprisonment that could have been imposed. The question before us is, whether the circuit and municipal courts may inflict a greater punishment than a justice is allowed to impose for the same offense.
As Nelson’s plea of guilty was accepted, it is to be assumed that the property .stolen by him was in fact under twenty-five dollars in value, and that the justice erred when he found the value to be greater. Had he not committed this error, his duty would have been to try the charge on its merits, and then,- as already stated, the imprisonment would have been restricted to three months. But can it be possible that an error of this sort on the preliminary hearing, and which is corrected on the final hearing and before judgment, can subject the accused to four times the punishment he would have been liable to had no such error been committed? If would certainly be extraordinary if that should be found to be the case; and we cannot believe such a construction of the statutes was ever intehded, or is admissible.
In Irvin’s Case, 29 Mich., 43, it was decided that when a criminal prosecution was removed by appeal from a justice to the circuit court, the latter court, on conviction, was limited in the punishment to that which might have been imposed by the justice. The ground of the decision was that by implication of law the restriction upon the punishment which governed the proceedings before the justice must accompany them to their conclusion. It is not easy to understand how the implication can be less forcible when the justice, instead of trying the case, has held the accused to trial in the circuit court for an offense which it turns out was triable before him. Holding the accused to trial undoubtedly gave the circuit court jurisdiction of the case, and it is analogous to the case of a civil action commenced in the circuit court for a demand apparently within the jurisdiction of the circuit court, but which proves on the trial to have been triable by a justice. In those cases the settled rule is, that though the circuit court may proceed to the judgment for the damages found, yet as the case should have been .commenced and tried in justice’s court, the plaintiff has no claim to costs in the circuit court, but should pay costs to the defendant. In other words, the fact that the circuit court on the face of the pleadings has jurisdiction of the case does not warrant that court in disposing of the case regardless of the jurisdiction which the Constitution and the statutes confer upon justices’ courts, but that the justice’s jurisdiction which, it turns out ought to have been involved, must be kept in view and will limit the judgment which the circuit court may impose. Strong v. Daniels, 3 Mich., 466; People v. Judge of Ingham Co., 38 Mich., 243; Dikeman v. Harrison, ante, p. 617.
In analogy to these decisions it would seem that we must hold that the circuit court must have in view in the exercise of its jurisdiction in cases, like the present, the judgment which might have been imposed in the inferior court had the trial taken place in that court. When it is plainly the contemplation of the statute that all cases like the present shall be tried in the inferior court, and they only reach the circuit court by appeal, or because of some error of fact in the examining magistrate, the conclusion that the limitation of punishment which is imposed in the justice’s court accompanies the case to its conclusion, seems irresistible. And we are of opinion that the act of 1849, Comp. L., § 5566, which restricts the punishment which-may be inflicted by the court in which the statute contemplates these cases shall be tried, has the effect to amend by implication the general law previously in existence, under which a greater punishment might have been imposed.
Campbell, C. J., concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
During the period between the summer of 1871 and the fall of 1875, the bank transacted a large amount of business in the way of discounting paper and otherwise with a concern appearing to the bank and the public and purporting to be a corporation bearing the name of “ The Charles Stone Timber Company,” and all this business was undertaken and prosecuted by the bank upon the specific understanding that the concern was contracting as a corporation and not otherwise. Indeed the bank dealt with it throughout as a corporation in fact and without any qualification or reserve, recognized it as one.
In the course of this business and in the fall of 1875 there remained a note in the hands of the bank for $4000, which the company had made to it in renewal of one previously discounted. It was signed “The Chas. Stone Timber Co., W. Livingston, Jr., Treasurer,” being the usual style. The company failing to pay, the bank sued the defendants upon -the money counts aione, and set forth a copy of the note in the usual manner with notice that the original would be given in evidence against the defendants under said money counts. The defendants were only charged as individuals. They were not described in the declaration as members of a firm. Neither was there any averment that they were sued upon any special liability or undertaking, or any undertaking made by them in any peculiar character. Hughes was not served.
Livingston pleaded discharge in bankruptcy and Stone pleaded the general issue and made affidavit denying execution of the note. The bank contended that the company was' not a corporation but was a private cd-partnership composed of defendants and on that theory endeavored to recover upon the note, against defendants in this form of proceeding.
Stone controverted the position so taken by the bank.
In view of the issue and state of facts it was incumbent upon the bank to establish that the company represented by the signature to the note, was a co-partnership ; that the defendants were the partners, and that the note was made by the firm. The style of the company was of equivocal import. It might denote a corporation or it might denote a co-partnership. The mere name then was indeterminate in that regard. By itself it gave no clue to the nature of the company as being incorporated or unincorporated. The burden of proof was on the bank to show that it was a mere private firm composed of defendants. But it was unable to make any advance towards proof of the affirmative of that issue except by showing articles of association made and filed by defendants under the law of the State for forming corporations; that the company had not assumed to act as a co-partnership, but under the name of “ The Charles Stone Timber Company,” being1 the title adopted by the articles, had assumed in fact to proceed as a corporation and for a series of years had in such name and character carried on a business not only large in amount but extensive in view of the number and variety of the transactions, and moreover had' expressly acted in such character in giving the note in question to the bank. The bank took the ground that the proceedings to incorporate were not valid; that the business carried on was not in just construction within the articles or the statute; that the company was not a corporation in point of fact, and that the defendants, who were the only members, were in consequence responsible in character of partners for the undertaking of the company. Now the proof that as matter of fact the company carried on business as a corporation in the name of “ The Charles Stone Timber Company” when the bank dealt with it, established prima facie that it was a corporation pursuant to law (Act 109 of 1871, vol. 1, p. 176) and certainly the evidence the bank adduced in regard to the operations of the company, the attitude it maintained and the character in which the two concerns dealt together showed that the company was a corporation de facto, and -so acknowledged by the bank. In short the company was prima facie a lawful corporation when the note was taken, and the bank admitted in the very transaction that it was one in fact, and that admission cannot be disputed in this collateral way in order that the bank may call in question the corporate existence of the company and charge against the individual members the precise obligation which was unequivocally accepted as a corporate one. Swartwout v. Michigan Air Line R. R. Co., 24 Mich., 389; Parker v. Northern Central Michigan R. R. Co., 33 Mich., 23; Casey v. Galli, 94 U. S., 673, 680; Dutchess Cotton Manufactory v. Davis, 14 Johns., 238; All Saints Church v. Lovett, 1 Hall, 191 [2d ed., 213]; Leonardsville Bank v. Willard, 25 N. Y., 574; Eaton v. Aspinwall, 19 N. Y., 119; Methodist Episcopal Union Church v. Pickett, id., 482; Worcester Medical Institution v. Harding, 11 Cush., 285; Dooley v. Wolcott, 4 Allen, 406; Steam Navigation Co. v. Weed, 17 Barb., 378; Palmer v. Lawrence, 3 Sandf. S. C., 161, 170; Congregational Society v. Perry, 6 N. H., 164; Newburg Petroleum Co. v. Weare, 27 Ohio St., 343; Smith v. Sheeley, 12 Wall., 358; Lessee of Frost v. Frostburg Coal Co., 24 How., 278; Bank of Salem v. Almy, 117 Mass., 476; Fay v. Noble, 7 Cush., 188; Trowbridge v. Scudder, 11 id., 83; Bennett v. Dean, 35 Mich., 306; Hawes v. Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Co., 101 Mass., 385.
Whether the defendants might or might not have been proceeded against in some other form, is a question I do not consider. According to the existing state of things, I am of opinion no case is made against them, and that the bank has no ground of complaint against the judge’s direction to find for the defendants, and that the judgment ought to be affirmed with costs.
Campbell, C. J., concurred.
Cooley, J. I concur in the result. | [
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Cooley, J.
The action in the court below was by Mrs. Vogel in replevin, to recover the vats, casks, kegs and stock of distilled and fermented liquors pertaining to a brewery and saloon which she claimed as her own property in Ludington, Michigan, and certain other articles which were made use of in and about the business. Judge was deputy sheriff, and had taken the articles as the property of Albert Vogel, the husband of Sophia Vogel, against -whom he had an execution at the suit of William Gerlach. Judge also had in his hands and claimed the protection of a chattel mortgage of the property or some part thereof, given by Albert and Sophia Vogel to Paul Vogel, dated June 28, 1876, purporting to secure $5,000, and assigned by Paul Vogel to William Gerlach, for whom Judge was acting."
It was not questioned that the property in suit had belonged to Albert Vogel, but the plaintiff below claimed that her father bought it of her husband for her, and that it was transferred to her in May, 1874. From that time she claims to have carried on the brewery and saloon which her husband had owned and carried on before; but for this purpose her husband was her agent, and it does not appear that plaintiff herself had anything to do with the business in person.
Very strong evidence was given to show that the whole transaction between Mrs. Vogel and her husband was colorable and fraudulent as to creditors, and the showing of any change of possession from Albert Vogel was very slight indeed. On the contrary, it was shown that for a year after the pretended transfer the receipts and shipments in the business were made in the name of Albert Vogel, and the goods for the price of which Gerlach recovered judgment, and which were malt and other articles which went into the manufacture of beer, were furnished by Gerlach on the order of Albert Vogel, after the pretended sale, and without any knowledge of it. Moreover, the monthly returns of the business for taxation under the internal revenue law were made by Albert Vogel in his own name, and sworn to by him. In view of this very remarkable state of facts, and especially as the only change of possession in the business which any one pretended, was from Albert Vogel as owner to Albert Vogel as agent, we think the court should have been very liberal in permitting the defendant to put in evidence of all the facts and circumstances which could have any legitimate bearing on the question of the bona fides of the transfer.
The defendant offered to show that not only were the United States taxes assessed to and paid by Albert Vogel, but that the same was true of the State tax assessed upon the business carried on in the brewery. This offer as to the State tax was overruled. The right to make the showing would seem to be the same as the right to show that the United States tax was assessed to and paid by Albert Vogel; and no reason is suggested in the brief for defendant in error why the evidence was received as to the one tax and rejected as to the other.
The tax on the business of manufacturing liquors is to be assessed to the person carrying it on. Public Laws, 1875, p. 275, § 4. In that respect it differs from a tax on real property, which if resident is to be assessed to owner or occupant, and if non-resident need not be assessed to any one. It would not, it is true, be a very significant fact if a business should be assessed to the agent instead of the owner; but when the agent appears to have been purchasing stock for the business in his own name, and the receipts and shipments were made as if he were the owner, we think the circumstance that he was also taxed as owner is not without some legitimate bearing on the question whether the ownership was not in fact colorable. The court, we think, should have admitted this evidence.
A further question arises on the chattel mortgage. Mrs. Vogel claims that this was given to secure future advances, and that none were ever made. If that was the case Paul Vogel acquired no rights in the property under the mortgage. Ladue v. Detroit & Milwaukee Ry. Co., 13 Mich., 380. On the other hand defendant introduced evidence to show that an actual indebtedness to a small amount was covered by it, but he insisted on tho whole case that if such was not' the fact the mortgage was executed and intended as a fraud upon the creditors of Albert Vogel, and to cover the property for his benefit. And the court was requested to instruct the jury that “if the mortgage was executed for fraudulent purposes, and Albert and Sophia Yogel were cognizant of and participated in such fraud, then they are estopped from . attacking such mortgage in the hands of an assignee for value.”
The fraud intended by this instruction must be understood as a fraud upon creditors, since no other fraud was suggested on the trial. The question, therefore, seems to be this: whether one who -gives a mortgage without -consideration in order to defraud creditors is estopped from disputing a full consideration when the mortgage has passed into the hands of a purchaser.
A mortgage fraudulent as against creditors may be avoided at their option; but how the intended fraud upon them can give it validity as to others is not explained in the briefs. The right of the creditors is to defeat it; but there seems to be no necessary relation between a right of one man to defeat it as a fraud upon him, and a right of another to affirm it because of the same fraud. The fraud which should give one rights must be a fraud which in some way concerns his own interest.
Had this mortgage been given without consideration and for the purpose of being sold, the mortgagor would be held estopped from disputing, as against a purchaser, that it secured a real debt. Bloomer v. Henderson, 8 Mich., 395. But when it is not shown that a sale was intended there can be no room for the application of the doctrine of estoppel in favor of a purchaser. He takes the security for what it is worth as between the original parties; if it secures no debt, he can collect nothing upon it. This rule is without qualification except where the mortgage is accompanied by negotiable paper, and such was not the case here. There was consequently no error in the court refusing the instruction prayed.
It is proper to say in this connection that though. Gerlaeh was a creditor, he can claim no greater rights as purchaser on that account. As creditor he might contest the validity of the mortgage by attaching or levying upon the goods; Fox v. Willis, 1 Mich., 821; as purchaser he gets only the right of the mortgagee.
For the error in excluding the proposed evidence regarding the taxes the judgment will be reversed with costs and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
This bill was dismissed on general demurrer and complainants appealed.
The bill is certainly anomalous. It partakes of forms adapted to several distinct heads of equity, and the chief question is whether it contains sufficient to import a ease under any one, aside from any objection founded on incompatibility of complaints. In some of its aspects it resembles a judgment creditor’s bill, but it is plain the premises are wanting for intervention under that head.
' It states the recovery of judgment in January, 1877, by complainants in the circuit court for Lenawee county against those of the defendants alleged to have been co-partners under the name of the “Adrian Car and Manufacturing Company” on their indorsement made in October, 1872; that execution issued February 9th, 1877, to the sheriff of Lenawee county returnable May first, 1877; that it has been returned to the circuit court for Lenawee county unsatisfied and that the judgment has not been paid; that complainants are informed and believe that the members of the firm were insolvent ■when the suit on the indorsement was commenced and unable to pay the firm debts and have so remained; that about March 18, 1874, the co-partnership by Henry A. Angelí and Stephen H. Angelí, two of the members, assigned all the firm property to the defendants Wilcox, Carpenter and Sword for the equal benefit of the creditors, and a copy of the assignment is set out.
The bill is wholly silent in regard to the seat or place of business of the firm and in regard to the domicil or the residence of any of the members at any time, and hence there is no information that the execution issued either to the county where the firm was seated or to a county of the residence of any member; neither is there any statement or information as to the time of the return of the execution. It is hence apparent without going further, that the requisites of a suit to reach interests not leviable are wholly wanting. The necessary data to make out that the legal remedy has been spent are wanting. Smith v. Thompson, Walk. Ch., 1; Tyler v. Peatt, 30 Mich., 63; Ocean Nat’l Bk. v. Olcott, 46 N. Y., 12; Fox v. Moyer, 54 N. Y., 125; Jones v. Green, 1 Wall., 330.
Of course there is no approach to a case to remove obstacles in the way of execution. There has been no levy nor any attempt to make one.
The bill represents that considerable real property situated in Adrian and belonging to the estate transferred by the assignment has been levied upon by several creditors and that some has been sold under' levy, and one of the prayers for relief asks that these sales be set aside; but counsel expressly abandon this position in argument as wholly untenable «upon the facts pleaded.
The assignment is not impugned. The main part of the bill implies an affirmance of it. Enforcement and not revocation is contemplated.
Complaint is made against the trustees and the court is asked to take the trusts out of their hands and exe cute them through an officer of its own. It is needful to notice the facts bearing on the claim for this relief. The property is admitted to be large and the mode given for dealing with it requires superior business judgment and peculiar qualifications. The assignment required the trustees to continue the firm business, and it made provision for express accession to it by creditors representing claims to the amount of $100,000, by signing it, and it included special terms applicable to those who should so accede and embraced particular provisions concerning the rights of such creditors and the powers and duties of the trustees in relation to them. Complainants did not make themselves parties to these stipulations, but the bill states that a body of creditors representing more than $100,000 of claims did so, whereby the regulations involving particular rights and duties as between the trustees and the subscribing creditors became operative.
The rule may be laid down as uniform that the court will not supersede a trustee whose duties contemplate the exercise of special qualifications and whose appointment originated in the choice of the author of the trust and is unequivocally acquiesced in by the bulk of the beneficiaries, except upon the clearest ground of necessity.
In most cases the reasons have reference to general fitness where the facts show that retention of the trustee will disappoint or be likely to disappoint the fundamental purposes of the trust. The end necessitates a change of .the instrumental means. The court will not be inclined to disturb the appointment made by the author of the trust on account of such- missteps and misjudgments as would not imply general unfitness and might have been looked for as incidents very possible to happen in the course of the trust.
Mere failure in the discharge of duties on account of mistake or misunderstanding, or an exercise of reposed discretion in a way less eligible than it might have been in the opinion of the court, or refusal to exercise a pure discretionary power for the advantage of the estate, is not sufficient to warrant removal. And even acts of imprudence or neglect when distinctly charged and fully proved are usually treated as reasons for making the trustee give recompense for the wrong or error rather than as ground for superseding him in his office.
When the statute undertakes to guide the court in its exercise of this jurisdiction it appears to assume that the unsuitableness of the person to execute the trust is the true ground for removal. Comp. L., § 4139.
In all such cases the substantial facts showing the person to be unsuitable, or constituting incompeteney or incapacity, must be distinctly made known on the face of the bill to give opportunity to deny or admit them, and vague general charges and equivocal or inconsequential statements touching unfitness are of no force. A contrary rule would open a door to fishing cases and all manner of impudent and impolitic intermeddling.
As stated previously, this case is not against the assignment, but in affirmance of it, and notwithstanding the assignment did not contemplate a winding up of the business, but a continuance of it, the bill sets up on information and belief that the effects have always “been available for being sold and properly disposed of for cash if there had been any proper effort to that end,” and that “ no reasonable effort and notice had been given to the end that the money might be realized for the administration of said trust further than such funds have been used by the trustees for their own use in the custody of the property and effects of the trust estate;” that the trustees have grossly neglected their duties and obligations as trustees, in suffering the before-mentioned levies to be made and sales thereunder without taking any “legitimate” steps to prevent and in not applying the property to the debts of the creditors “aforesaid.”
The foregoing comprises everything material which is set up to make out a case to warrant a decree super seding the trustees, and there is not a single specific fact to found the jurisdiction. Apart from some general expressions which by themselves are of no force in the connection in which they are used, there is really nothing to negative the observance by the trustees of every duty imposed on them in the most punctilious manner. It is unnecessary to stop and notice the respective phrases used.
There is no prayer for general relief. Complainants ask that the assignment may be carried out for their benefit; that the levies and sales mentioned be set aside; that the estate be sold under the direction of the court and the proceeds so far as sufficient be applied to ■ the payment of complainant’s judgment; that certain parties named be restrained from interfering with the .estate, and that the court appoint a receiver, etc. Some separate matters in the bill which do not appear to have any true connection with either of the main portions have not been noticed.
Complainant’s counsel does not appear to regard them as falling in with any theory of the bill, and he has very properly ignored them in giving his view of the case. We notice a large number of special interrogatories are propounded which are not warranted by any matters previously set forth.
Finally, we are unable to discover any ground for rescuing the bill from the result reached by the court below, and the decree must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
The controversy in this case arises upon the defendant’s set-off. The defendant offered as a set-off a promissory.note which he claimed under and by virtue of an assignment of a judgment rendered thereon by a justice of the peace in an action commenced by attachment, in which property was levied upon but no personal service obtained upon defendant, and no appearance made by him. An execution had been issued upon the judgment, and property levied upon but afterwards abandoned by order of the plaintiff, as the property levied upon was claimed by other parties.
In this case the court held that the note pleaded as a set-off was legally merged in the judgment referred to, and could not be pleaded as a set-off in this action in the form of a note, and rendered judgment accordingly.
In this the court efred. There being no personal service in the case commenced by attachment and no appearance, and no part of the judgment rendered therein having been satisfied under the attachment proceedings, such judgment would not bar a personal action upon the note, or an assignment thereof to a third party. Adams v. Abram, ante p. 304.
The court found that the amount of plaintiff’s claim in this action was $266.48 and the amount of defendant’s set-off was $135.83, and that a proper tender of the difference between said demands was made at the commencement of this suit and still kept good. Under this finding the plaintiff will be entitled to a judgment for $130.65, and the defendant will be entitled to recover costs in the justice’s court, the circuit and in this court, and deduct the amount thereof from the amount of the plaintiff’s judgment.
Ordered acordingly.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Per Curiam.
The issue raised by this application for leave to appeal concerns the liability of a health insurance carrier for expenses incurred after the insurer terminates the policy, but resulting from a condition (in this case pregnancy) that arose during the life of the policy. The Court of Appeals held that, in that situation, the insurer remains liable for those expenses arising from that condition that would have been covered had the policy remained in effect. We modify the result reached by the Court of Appeals to limit its application to the particular context in which this case arose — expenses resulting from a pregnancy which began during the life of the policy.
i
In October, 1980, United Fidelity Insurance Company issued a group medical insurance policy to Morrell Builders, which Russell Morrell owned. Morrell and his wife, Norah, were insured under the policy.
In May, 1982, United Fidelity notified Morrell Builders that the policy coverage would terminate as of July 1, 1982. This notice was in accordance with the thirty-day notice requirement in the policy. There is no claim that the termination was based on the particular circumstances of the Morrells or Morrell Builders. Rather, the termination appears to have been part of a general course of action by United Fidelity to cease writing this kind of insurance.
At the time the policy was terminated, Norah Morrell was pregnant. In September, 1982, she gave birth to a child at Providence Hospital. United Fidelity declined to pay the hospital expenses, relying on the previous termination of the policy. Bussell Morrell also failed to pay the bill, and as a result Providence Hospital sued Morrell in district court. Morrell filed a third-party complaint against United Fidelity.
Both Morrell and United Fidelity moved for summary judgment. The district court granted summary judgment for the insured and ultimately entered a judgment in the amount of $2,329.05, plus interest. The circuit court affirmed. The Court of Appeals granted United Fidelity’s application for leave to appeal, but ultimately affirmed in a per curiam opinion. 160 Mich App 697; 408 NW2d 521 (1987). United Fidelity has filed a delayed application for leave to appeal in this Court.
ii
This is not a case in which there is dispute about the interpretation of an insurance policy. Had it been in effect at the time Norah Morrell delivered her child, it would have provided coverage for the expenses incurred. Further, the insured does not contest United Fidelity’s characterization of this policy as an “expenses incurred” policy, which bases coverage on the time when the expense is incurred, rather than on the time when the illness or condition giving rise to the expense occurred or arose.
Similarly, the lower courts have not interpreted the policy language as providing coverage in the circumstances of this case. Rather, they have held that public policy limits the ability of the insurer to avoid liability for expenses arising from conditions that came about during the policy coverage.
The district court noted authority for a public policy limitation on the right to cancel insurance contracts. Murphy v Seed-Roberts Agency, Inc, 79 Mich App 1; 261 NW2d 198 (1977). It concluded that this was a circumstance in which coverage should remain in effect:
[T]his was a situation, as I have said earlier, where the Defendant Third Party Plaintiff was already in a circumstance whereby but only the simple passage of time there would definitely have been a claim under any set of circumstances. There was no change of circumstances, there was no unforeseen risk. Everything that was covered could have been and should have been and, in fact, was seen.
There was a period of time — and this is the Court’s Opinion — there was a period of time during that contract where the insurance company could not and did not have the unfettered right to terminate. That period commencing after the Third Party Plaintiff could not have obtained any insurance after the pregnancy was known about and only after the mere passage of time. I think it was at that time that the claim arose.
While the insurance company could cancel that policy for other purposes, if the Morrells had been in an automobile accident, that would have been a different circumstance after the attempted termination.
But for the very limited purposes of coverage of the pregnancy, I think that the insurance company could not cancel and therefore I must grant summary judgment in favor of Third Party Plaintiff.
Following affirmance by the circuit court, the Court of Appeals granted leave to appeal, but ultimately affirmed. The Court distinguished Auto-Owners Ins Co v Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Michigan, 132 Mich App 800; 349 NW2d 238 (1984), on the ground that it involved a dispute between two insurers, rather than between the insurer and the insured. It noted the authority for use of a public policy rationale for avoiding cancellation of an insurance policy, and then turned to the facts of this case.
While the policy language here was clear, the Court applied the public policy exception. Unlike the trial court, however, the Court of Appeals did not limit its holding to pregnancy-related expenses, but rather applied it to any condition existing at the time of cancellation:
Although the termination provisions of the policy at issue, as well as the provision that only those expenses incurred during the life of the policy are covered, have a clear meaning and definition in the policy, we do not believe that the public policy of this state will permit the enforcement of such a termination or cancellation clause where the effect is to render a now uninsurable person without insurance coverage for those conditions which exist at the time of termination. In the case at bar, Norah Morrell was pregnant at the time of the termination of the United Fidelity policy. An insurance company cannot assume a risk when a person is apparently healthy and, thereafter, disavow the risk when the person has developed an illness or other coverable condition.
Therefore, we hold that where, as here, an insured develops a condition during the life of a health insurance policy and that policy is subsequently cancelled or terminated by the carrier, the carrier remains liable for those expenses which arise from that condition where those expenses would be covered by the policy had it not been terminated. [160 Mich App 701-702.][ ]_
in
We agree with the Court of Appeals that public policy considerations may override insurance policy language giving the insurer the right to terminate coverage. However, we conclude that the Court of Appeals expansion of that principle beyond the pregnancy context of this case to require coverage of all conditions arising during the life of the policy was unwarranted. Unlike most conditions requiring medical treatment, pregnancy often results from the deliberate decision of the insured. This brings into play the principle of giving effect to the reasonable expectations of the insured. See, e.g., Zurich Ins Co v Rombough, 384 Mich 228, 232-233; 180 NW2d 775 (1970); State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins Co v Ruuska, 412 Mich 321; 314 NW2d 184 (1982).
Further, the Court of Appeals expansion of the prohibition on terminations to all conditions occurring during the life of the policy creates the potential for enormous expansion of liability of an insurer for payment of very expensive long-term care benefits. By contrast, the limitation of the holding of this case to pregnancy-related expenses creates such an exposure for only a finite time and involves amounts of expenditures that should be predictable. In these circumstances, it was not appropriate to expand the principle on which the district court decided the case so far beyond the scope of the issue litigated by the parties._
Accordingly, pursuant to MCR 7.302(F)(1), we affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeals insofar as it affirmed the district court’s judgment in favor of third-party plaintiff Morrell, but disavow the language of the Court of Appeals opinion that would expand the principle of the district court’s decision to conditions other than pregnancy arising during the life of the insurance policy.
Levin, Cavanagh, Boyle, and Archer, JJ., concurred.
Riley, C.J., and Brickley and Griffin, JJ. We would grant leave to appeal but would not dispose of this case summarily.
The Health Insurance Association of America and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Michigan have filed motions for leave to file briefs as amici curiae in support of the application.
The policy expressly excludes expenses incurred after termination of the policy:
INSURING CLAUSE
(1) If an Insured or a Covered Dependent, while a Covered Person under the Policy for these Major Medical Expense Benefits (called "this Insurance” hereinafter), incurs Covered Expense for the necessary medical care and treatment of injury or sickness, the Company will pay benefits at the Percentage Payable rate up to the Maximum Benefit for such Expense that is in excess of the Deductible.
EXCLUSIONS
A charge is excluded from being a Covered Expense if, or to the extent that, it is not specifically included as such pursuant to the preceding subsections "covered expenses” and "special limitations”; and, further, whether or not so included, a charge will in any case be excluded from being considered a Covered Expense if it is within any one of the following categories:
(15) Any charges incurred prior to the date on which this Insurance becomes effective with respect to the Covered Person and any charges incurred after this Insurance terminates with respect to the Covered Person except to the extent, if any, that such charges are covered pursuant to the terms and provisions of the subsection "extended benefits.” [Emphasis added.]
The provisions for extended benefits under the policy relate to continuation of coverage after termination in cases of disability, which are inapplicable to this case.
In Auto-Owners, a woman who was injured in an automobile accident had coverage under both an Auto-Owners no-fault policy and a Blue Cross group health plan through her employer. Blue Cross paid medical expenses until the injured woman was dropped from the employer’s health plan because she was unable to return to work. Auto-Owners then began making payments under the no-fault policy and brought the action against Blue Cross to recover those benefits. However, the Court of Appeals concluded that Blue Cross properly terminated coverage under the terms of its policy and was not liable for expenses incurred after termination even though they arose from an injury that occurred while the policy was in effect.
The Court made clear that it meant this ruling to apply only to disputes between the insured and the insurer. It left open the result it would reach in a case, like Auto-Owners, supra, where the action is between two insurance carriers.
See Brown v Blue Cross & Blue Shield, Inc, 427 So 2d 139 (Miss, 1983).
The reasonable expectation principle functions in a slightly different way in the present situation than in most cases. Usually, the question is the insured’s expectation as to the interpretation of what is covered by the insurance contract. Here, the kind of benefits were clearly within the scope of the policy. The expectation with which we are concerned is the insured’s belief as to whether the insurance will remain in effect in spite of the existence of the termination clause.
We express no opinion as to the result in a case in which questions regarding application of the principle to other kinds of conditions are raised and litigated. | [
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Boyle, J.
INTRODUCTION
This Court granted leave to appeal in the instant case to resolve two questions. We are asked to determine first, whether statements made by a defendant during the course of a polygraph examination should be admissible at trial as a matter of state or federal constitutional law or public policy. Secondly, we must determine whether the Court of Appeals erred in this case in imposing a duty on the trial court to hold a Walker hearing sua sponte in the presence of alerting circumstances.
We hold that neither state or federal law nor public policy requires the automatic suppression at trial of statements made by a defendant during the administration of a polygraph examination. We further hold that the facts of this case did not present an issue which required the trial court to conduct a Walker hearing sua sponte in order to determine whether the defendant made an intelligent and voluntary waiver of his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights.
I. FACTS
The defendant was convicted by a jury in the Genesee Circuit Court of arson of a dwelling. He was sentenced to serve not less than 160 months nor more than 240 months in prison.
The Court of Appeals remanded the case to the trial court for the purpose of holding a Walker hearing to determine whether the defendant had waived his Fifth Amendment right to remain silent and his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights to the presence of counsel at a postpolygraph interrogation during which defendant made an allegedly incriminating statement. The Court of Appeals ordered that if the trial court were to find on remand that there was an ineffective waiver, de fendant’s confession should be suppressed, the conviction set aside, and a new trial ordered. On a finding of a valid waiver, the defendant’s conviction is affirmed.
The Court of Appeals summarized the testimony produced at trial as follows:
The charge against defendant arose out of a fire which started in an apartment formerly occupied by two of defendant’s friends. The evidence presented at trial revealed that the fire had been intentionally set. The evidence also revealed that on the day preceding the fire, defendant had assisted his two friends in moving out of the apartment. The landlord of the apartment had evicted defendant’s friends for nonpayment of rent.
A neighbor of defendant’s friends testified that just before the fire started he observed a man flicking a butane lighter on the patio of the apartment where the fire started. The neighbor also testified that he had seen the man earlier in the day helping someone move out of the apartment. The neighbor went on to testify that he had reported his observations to the police and, in a photographic lineup conducted on the day following the fire, he had identified defendant as the man who had been flicking the lighter. As a vital part of his case, the prosecutor also offered the testimony of a state police sergeant that defendant had allegedly confessed to setting the fire, which testimony was admitted over the objection of defendant.
Defendant testified at trial. He admitted that he had been in the general area of the apartment building when the fire started, but he denied any involvement in starting the fire. Through his own testimony, defendant went on to assert an alibi defense. He claimed that he and one of his friends who had just moved out of the apartment had been driving near the apartment building when they saw the fire. Defendant testified that after he and his friend saw the fire they went to the scene to watch. Defendant also denied that he had confessed. [156 Mich App 31, 34-35; 401 NW2d 296 (1986).]
II. SHOULD STATEMENTS MADE BY A DEFENDANT DURING THE COURSE OF A POLYGRAPH TEST BE ADMISSIBLE AT TRIAL AS A MATTER OF STATE OR FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL LAW OR PUBLIC POLICY?
In People v Barbara, 400 Mich 352, 364; 255 NW2d 171 (1977), this Court held that the results of a polygraph examination are not admissible at trial. The basic rationale for the Barbara Court’s conclusion was that the polygraph technique had not received the degree of acceptance or standardization among scientists which would allow admissibility. Id. See also People v Davis, 343 Mich 348, 370; 72 NW2d 269 (1955), quoting People v Becker, 300 Mich 562, 566; 2 NW2d 503 (1942).
The judicial concern with scientific consensus regarding the procedure is because " 'the quantity [the polygraph] attempts to measure — the truthfulness of a witness — is . . . directly related to the essence of the trial process.’ ” People v Barbara, supra, p 404, quoting note, The emergence of the polygraph at trial, 73 Colum L R 1120, 1141 (1973). Thus, exclusion at trial of polygraph results rests upon the judicial estimate that the trier of fact will give disproportionate weight to the results and consider the evidence as conclusive proof of guilt or innocence. See also McCormick, Evidence (2d ed), § 207, p 507.
The question whether statements made before, during, or after the administration of a polygraph examination, as opposed to the results themselves, should be excluded from trial as a matter of law or public policy has never been specifically addressed by this Court.
The general rule in other jurisdictions is that statements are not inadmissible merely because they were made during the course of a polygraph examination. Anno: Admissibility in evidence of confession made by accused in anticipation of, during, or following polygraph examination, 89 ALR3d 230. State v Erickson, 403 NW2d 281 (Minn App, 1987). In general, a defendant will be unsuccessful in challenging the admissibility of an alleged polygraph-induced confession unless specific coercive conduct or a denial of constitutional rights can be shown, as opposed to a mere allegation that the polygraph examination improperly influenced the defendant’s confession of the crime.
The defendant argues that because the polygraph test is scientifically unsound, it should not be used by police agencies and prosecutors as an investigative technique to secure admissions or confessions.
The fact that a test has not been deemed sufficiently reliable to authorize admission of the results in evidence does not support a logical inference that the defendant’s statements made during or following the test are not reliable. The premise cannot support the defendant’s conclusion because the statements made by an examinee during a polygraph examination can be disassociated from the underlying test.
By contrast, the rationale for excluding the results of hypnotically induced testimony extends to statements made after the examination, People v Gonzales, 415 Mich 615; 329 NW2d 743 (1982). During hypnosis the subject is in a condition of altered consciousness marked by heightened suggestibility. Id., p 623. Hypnosis contributes to the formation of memories, to a belief in the truth of those memories, and to the inability of the individual or any other person to distinguish between the real, but repressed, memories and those memories induced by the hypnosis. Id. Consequently, because the process of hypnosis "is not a reliable means of accurately restoring forgotten incidents,” id., p 626, and because posthypnotic testimony would unfairly denigrate the defendant’s right to cross-examination, the testimony of witnesses is excluded. However, the use of hypnosis has not been foreclosed "as an extremely useful investigative tool,” id., p 627, and we also have held that statements made before hypnosis that are not associated with the process are not excludable. People v Nixon, 421 Mich 79; 364 NW2d 593 (1984).
The reliability of statements made during a polygraph examination does not depend on the validity of the polygraph test or the examiner’s skill in conducting the test or interpreting its results, nor does the use of such statements improperly denigrate effective cross-examination. It follows, then, that a statement may be reliable and voluntary even though it was made during the course of a polygraph examination. See State v Blosser, 221 Kan 59, 60-63; 558 P2d 105 (1976). The key inquiry is whether the statement is voluntary, and such a determination is best made on the facts of each case.
The defendant further submits that there is confusion and ambiguity concerning the admissibility of statements obtained during the administration of a polygraph examination. We recognize a potential for confusion exists in a situation where a defendant may not knowingly and intelligently waive certain rights if the distinction between results of a polygraph examination and statements made before, during, or after a poly graph examination is not adequately explained to the defendant. See, e.g., People v Leonard, 421 Mich 207; 364 NW2d 625 (1984). However, not every situation involving the administration of a polygraph examination will give rise to this potential confusion. Where the distinction is sufficiently explained and the defendant is capable of understanding the distinction, a knowing and voluntary waiver of rights is clearly a possibility. Accordingly, a claim by a defendant that such confusion prevented a knowing and voluntary waiver of his rights can only be decided on a case-by-case basis.
Therefore, we conclude, as have the overwhelming majority of jurisdictions that have considered the issue, that a blanket prohibition of polygraph use in investigative practices is not warranted. Further, we conclude that neither public policy nor federal or state law requires that statements made before, during, or after the administration of a polygraph examination are excludable per se as evidence at trial. Current procedures designed to test the voluntariness of such statements are adequate to insure that a statement that is unreliable or obtained without a knowing and intelligent waiver of a defendant’s rights will not be used at trial.
III. DID THE COURT OF APPEALS ERR IN IMPOSING A DUTY ON THE TRIAL JUDGE TO HOLD A WALKER HEARING SUA SPONTE IN THE PRESENCE OF ALERTING CIRCUMSTANCES?
In the landmark case, Jackson v Denno, 378 US 368; 84 S Ct 1774; 12 L Ed 2d 908 (1964), the United States Supreme Court held that the constitution requires that at some point during criminal proceedings a defendant have the right to object to the use of his confession and to have a fair hearing and reliable determination on the issue of voluntariness. In a later case, Wainwright v Sykes, 433 US 72; 97 S Ct 2497; 53 L Ed 2d 594 (1977), the Court further held, however, that "the Constitution does not require a voluntariness hearing absent some contemporaneous challenge to the use of the confession.” Id., p 86.
Michigan follows the so-called "orthodox” rule providing for a separate hearing outside the presence of the jury for the purpose of allowing the trial judge to determine the voluntariness of a confession. If the judge finds the confession to be involuntary, the matter ends there and the jury never considers it. If the confession is found to be voluntary, it is admitted with jury consideration limited only to weight and credibility, People v Walker (On Rehearing), 374 Mich 331; 132 NW2d 87 (1965). Michigan also requires that a defendant challenge the voluntariness of a confession before demanding that a Walker hearing be held. People v Shipp, 21 Mich App 415, 420; 175 NW2d 529 (1970); People v Hooks, 112 Mich App 477; 316 NW2d 245 (1982).
In People v Hooks, supra, p 480, Judge Riley recognized an exception to the general raise-or-waive rule where the factual situation itself raises a substantial question of voluntariness. "Alerting circumstances may be a defendant’s mental, emotional or physical condition, evidence of police threats, or other obvious forms of physical and mental duress.”
The reason for the alerting-circumstances exception is that a conviction based on an involuntary confession deprives the defendant of due process. " '[T]he proscription against the use of involuntary confessions reflects the basic societal conviction that the very integrity of the criminal justice system is compromised when it operates to take advantage of a person whose volitional capacity is seriously impaired.’ ” Hooks, supra, p 481, quoting United States v Powe, 192 US App DC 224, 232; 591 F2d 833 (1978). See also United States v Renteria, 625 F2d 1279, 1283 (CA 5, 1980); United States v Bentley, 726 F2d 1124, 1128-1129 (CA 6, 1984); United States v Taylor, 374 F2d 753, 756 (CA 7, 1967); Hizel v Sigler, 430 F2d 1398, 1400-1401 (CA 8, 1970); Jacobson v California, 431 F2d 1017, 1018-1019 (CA 9, 1970); United States v Hart, 729 F2d 662, 666 (CA 10, 1984); United States ex rel Gainer v New Jersey, 278 F Supp 127 (D NJ, 1967); Commonwealth v Harris, 371 Mass 462; 358 NE2d 982 (1976); State v Pearce, 266 NC 234; 145 SE2d 918 (1966).
In Hooks, the incriminating statement was obtained roughly eight hours after the defendant had been seriously wounded in the chest and struck on the head. At the time of the statement, he was attached to a life-support machine, had various tubes attached to his body, was in pain, under medication, and in a weakened state both physically and mentally. The defendant also testified that he had not read the officer’s transcription of his statement before he signed it and that the officer had to hold his head up so that he could see the line he was signing.
The weakened mental and physical state of the defendant was considered sufficient to present "an alerting circumstance which should have triggered the court’s sua sponte inquiry into the voluntariness of the statement.” Hooks, supra, p 482. Because the burden placed upon the trial court by this holding was "immense,” Judge Riley emphasized the necessity to rule narrowly on the basis of the extreme facts of the case.
Undoubtedly, certain alerting circumstances require the trial court to raise the issue of voluntariness on its own. We also agree that because of the heavy burden placed upon the trial court by such a rule, the Hooks rule is limited to those cases in which the evidence clearly and substantially reflects a question about the voluntary nature of a confession or implicates other due process concerns. We do not find in this case any challenge to the defendant’s statements that raise a due process issue regarding the defendant’s physical or mental capacity to make a voluntary statement, as in People v Hooks, supra, and, therefore, this exception to the general raise-or-waive rule is inapplicable. The rule of Jackson v Denno, supra, and the exception to the raise-or-waive rule is directed to those situations in which a confession might be involuntary in the traditional sense that that term was historically used in Fifth Amend ment jurisprudence. See, e.g., Payne v Arkansas, 356 US 560; 78 S Ct 844; 2 L Ed 2d 975 (1958); Haynes v Washington, 373 US 503; 83 S Ct 1336; 10 L Ed 2d 513 (1963). In this case, the Court of Appeals has extended the Hooks exception to require an additional inquiry sua sponte regarding whether the defendant made an intelligent and voluntary waiver of the prophylactic rules of Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694 (1966), and the Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Perhaps because over time the profession has come to use the term, "Walker hearing” to refer to that phase of motion practice in which all issues of admissibility of a defendant’s statements are resolved, the Court of Appeals did not distinguish the voluntariness issue from the separate and distinct concerns addressed in Miranda. The Court of Appeals decision focuses on whether the defendant’s Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights to counsel were validly waived as opposed to whether the defendant’s confession was voluntary. However, as the Supreme Court has observed, a "simple failure” to administer Miranda warnings is not in itself a violation of the Fifth Amendment. Oregon v Elstad, 470 US 298, 306, n 1; 105 S Ct 1285; 84 L Ed 2d 222 (1985).
The Miranda exclusionary rule, however, serves the Fifth Amendment and sweeps more broadly than the Fifth Amendment itself. It may be triggered even in the absence of a Fifth Amendment violation. The Fifth Amendment prohibits use by the prosecution in its case in chief only of compelled testimony. Failure to administer Miranda warnings creates a presumption of compulsion. Consequently, unwarned statements that are otherwise voluntary within the meaning of the Fifth Amendment must nevertheless be excluded from evidence under Miranda. [Id. at 306-307.]
Clearly, this is not a case involving a voluntariness issue such as Hooks. We therefore conclude that People v Hooks did not require the remand to the trial court here ordered.
IV. DID DEFENDANT WAIVE HIS CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS?
The primary grounds for the Court of Appeals decision to remand the case for a Walker hearing is an alleged ambiguity arising in the waiver form itself. The waiver form did not recite the well-established rule in Michigan that the results of a polygraph examination are not admissible at trial. People v Barbara, supra. Rather, it stated that any statements by the defendant made during the testing phase and questioning, before and after, could be used against him in a court of law. The Court of Appeals believed that these circumstances created an ambiguity in the acknowledgment portion of the waiver as to "whether any evidence would be admissible from the polygraph procedure.” 156 Mich App 44. (Emphasis added.)
We disagree with the Court of Appeals that the facts of this case raised clear and substantial questions as to whether the defendant voluntarily waived his Miranda right or his "Fifth or Sixth Amendment” rights to counsel.
The facts indicate that the defendant was arrested on October 14, 1983, approximately one month after the fire. After he was arraigned, he was released on bond. On November 10, 1983, defendant voluntarily submitted to a polygraph examination. Defendant’s counsel, Robin Wheaton, accompanied him to the Michigan State Police post in Flint where the examination was to take place.
Sergeant Bratton, who administered the interrogation and polygraph examination, testified that she read to the defendant in the presence of his attorney each of the statements in the acknowledgment and asked him if he understood his rights and was willing to waive them. The defendant replied in the affirmative, and then signed the acknowledgment included on the waiver form which included:
I understand that I have the right to remain silent and that anything that I say during the testing phase and questioning, before or after, can be used against me in a court of law. I further understand that I may exercise my right to remain silent and stop answering questions at any time. [156 Mich App 36.]_
During a separate hearing at trial, it was revealed that prior to the examination, and while in the presence of counsel, defendant signed a written waiver of his right to counsel during the examination and during the questioning immediately before and after the examination.
The waiver form was received into evidence. Also, during the separate record, Mr. Wheaton agreed with Sergeant Bratton that he had been present when the defendant was advised of his rights and waived them. He also elicited from the sergeant that these rights were not repeated immediately prior to the postexamination questioning which occurred approximately two hours after the initial warnings were given.
Sergeant Bratton was then permitted to testify at trial during the people’s case in chief that after the examination she asked the defendant a rhetorical question, that she thought he and Rod Anderson had set fire to the apartment. Defendant allegedly responded, "Right.”
Before trial, defense counsel renewed his objection in a motion to suppress the statements. Defense counsel argued that although the examining officer read the defendant Miranda warnings prior to the polygraph examination, she did not do so again after the examination which continued for a considerable length of time, thus failing to insure that the defendant understood that the same protections applied after the test as before the test.
In denying the motion to suppress the statements, the circuit judge held that nothing in the testimony pinpointed a fatal passage of time between the Miranda warnings and the statement— therefore defendant’s waiver applied to the postexamination interview. The issue thus presented on this record is whether the failure to readvise the defendant of Miranda rights at the conclusion of the examination prevents a voluntary and intelligent waiver per se.
We conclude in the circumstances of this case that it was not necessary to rewarn the defendant of his constitutional rights in the limited exchange that ensued immediately after the polygraph machine was shut off. In Wyrick v Fields, 459 US 42, 47; 103 S Ct 394; 74 L Ed 2d 214 (1982), the United States Supreme Court rejected the Eighth Circuit Court’s holding that a failure to rewarn a suspect prior to the postpolygraph interview was a violation per se of his Fifth Amendment right to have counsel present at the interview. Recognizing that we are free to formulate another test, we adopt the Wyrick interpretation and hold that the admissibility of such statements is to be resolved by a review as to whether in the "totality of circumstances” the waiver of the Fifth Amendment right could be considered knowing and voluntary.
In this case, the only circumstance intervening between the preexamination rights and postexamination questioning which was alleged to be of moment was the two-hour time period that encompassed the preinterview conversation, the test itself and the postexamination interview. In addition, the same person who had warned defendant of his rights the first time, and who conducted the polygraph examination, also conducted the postexamination questioning. Cf. United States v Gillyard, 726 F2d 1426 (CA 9, 1984). Therefore, as in Wyrick, it was not reasonable to expect a rewarning of those rights at that time. Finally, and most importantly, the defendant’s waiver expressly extended to a postexamination interview.
Further, it is clear that this is not a situation in which defendant was isolated from counsel. While free on bond, the defendant appeared voluntarily for the examination and was accompanied by counsel who remained at the police station for the duration of the examination. Counsel and defendant were informed thát counsel could not be present during the examination, yet counsel made no objection. See State v Erickson, supra. There is no allegation that the defendant wished to confer with counsel during the questioning but was not allowed to do so. Nor does the defendant contend that the questioning was beyond what was expected or agreed upon. Cf. State v Baillargeon, 124 NH 355; 470 A2d 915 (1983).
This case is distinguishable from People v Leonard, supra. In that case, a stipulation was entered into by the prosecutor and defense counsel whereby the results of the polygraph examination and opinions drawn therefrom would not be admissible in evidence. Defense counsel argued that the stipulation suppressed all evidence from questions during the examination, including any statements made by the defendant. In Leonard, it was quite clear that there was a misconception on the defendant’s part as to what was and what was not to be admitted at trial.
In this case, the examining officer specifically informed the defendant that anything he might say during the testing phase and questioning, before or after, could be used against him in a court of law. Further, counsel was present when the defendant was so informed. Unlike Leonard, the instant defendant never attacked the state ment on the ground that because it was made during the course of a polygraph examination he believed the statement would be inadmissible at trial. Rather, the objection was based solely on the fact that the officer failed to rewarn the defendant of his constitutional rights.
CONCLUSION
Clearly the issue in this case is distinguishable from that presented by People v Hooks, supra. The trial court was not obligated to conduct a further hearing to determine the voluntariness of a defendant’s waiver of his right to remain silent or his Fifth or Sixth Amendment rights to counsel during interrogation. Therefore, the Court of Appeals erred in ordering a remand. Further, we find that this defendant made a voluntary and a valid waiver of his constitutional rights. There is no question that the defendant’s rights were waivable or that on this record they were in fact waived.
Riley, C.J., and Brickley, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Boyle, J.
People v Walker (On Rehearing), 374 Mich 331; 132 NW2d 87 (1965).
The issue in this case is not whether "the Court of Appeals was within its authority in ordering an evidentiary hearing,” as the dissent suggests. Post, p 279. The issue is whether the Court of Appeals was correct in concluding that because of alerting circumstances the trial court erred in not sua sponte ordering a hearing. Defendant does not claim on appeal that trial counsel sought a hearing that was denied, nor does he make any allegations of fact that his statement was involuntary or not knowingly and understandingly made. The issue is one of law; whether the ambiguity of the form imposed a duty on the trial court to hold a hearing.
See Jackson v Denno, 378 US 368, 385-386; 84 S Ct 1774; 12 L Ed 2d 908 (1964).
The defendant does not claim that he failed to understand the advice of rights because of confusion or ambiguities in the waiver form.
Similar considerations arise when the evidence raises sufficient doubt as to defendant’s competency to stand trial. Because the conviction of a legally incompetent defendant is a deprivation of due process, evidence that raises a "bona fide” doubt as to competence obligates a sanity hearing sua sponte. Pate v Robinson, 383 US 375, 385; 86 S Ct 836; 15 L Ed 2d 815 (1966).
The United States Supreme Court has recently articulated a distinction between the interest protected by Miranda, the due process "voluntariness” inquiry, and the concerns underlying the evidentiary issue of reliability. In Colorado v Connelly, 479 US 157; 107 S Ct 515; 93 L Ed 2d 473 (1986), the Court held that coercive governmental activity was the aim of the due process voluntariness issue, that such activity is a predicate to finding that a confession is not voluntary within the meaning of the Due Process Clause, and that "Miranda protects defendants against government coercion leading them to surrender rights protected by the Fifth Amendment; it goes no further than that . . .,” supra, 479 US 170. The Court concluded that in the absence of police overreaching, the respondent’s mental condition did not preclude a finding of a voluntary waiver of Miranda rights, and that the admissibility of such statements is to be resolved by state laws governing the admission of evidence.
It is not only difficult to conclude that the circuit judge should have been alerted to a need for a Walker hearing on the basis of an alleged ambiguity in the waiver form, but since the defendant’s motion to suppress was renewed, it is even more difficult to conclude what the remand would encompass. Presumably since the defendant’s counsel did challenge the admissibility of the statement, but did not call defendant to the stand, the remand would be for this purpose. However, defendant does not claim he did not understand the waiver form or that counsel was ineffective. Although the opportunity was available to the defendant and his trial counsel at the circuit court hearing, it was not exercised. There is nothing in defendant’s pleadings to suggest that it would be exercised at the hearing on remand which the Court of Appeals has ordered.
The prosecutor assumes for the sake of this argument only that defendant was in "custody” for Miranda purposes at the time of the examination. See People v Lumley, 154 Mich App 618; 398 NW2d 474 (1986).
In Michigan v Tucker, 417 US 433; 94 S Ct 2357; 41 L Ed 2d 182 (1974), the Supreme Court recognized that there is a distinction between the Fifth Amendment privilege as such and the particular "procedural safeguards” defined in Miranda to assure that Fifth Amendment rights not be denied individuals in the context of custodial interrogation. There may also be a distinction between the adequacy of waiver required for a Fifth and a Sixth Amendment right. People v Bladel (After Remand), 421 Mich 39; 365 NW2d 56 (1984), aff'd sub nom Michigan v Jackson, 475 US 625; 106 S Ct 1404; 89 L Ed 2d 631 (1986). In view of our conclusion that defendant’s statements were properly admitted, we need not resolve this question.
The record establishes that at the preliminary examination trial counsel did not specify the reason for his objection to the admission of defendant’s statement. Indeed, it appears that both the prosecutor and the defense counsel believed that it would be improper to inject evidence of the polygraph examination before the examining magistrate. Defense counsel ultimately withdrew the objection, relieving the prosecutor of any duty to introduce the waiver form. While it was inadvertently revealed that a polygraph examination was involved, that fact was not considered by the examining magistrate in his decision to bind over the defendant. | [
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Griffin, J.
Michigan statutory law requires that an arrested person be brought before a magistrate for arraignment "without unnecessary delay.” MCL 764.13, 764.26; MSA 28.871(1), 28.885. In each of these three cases, consolidated on appeal, we must determine the effect of this statutory requirement upon the admissibility of a confession obtained during a period of prearraignment delay. We hold that "unnecessary delay” prior to arraignment is only one factor to be taken into account in evaluating the voluntariness of a confession. If the totality of the surrounding circumstances indicates that a confession was voluntarily given, it shall not be excluded from evidence solely because of prearraignment delay._
I
More than three decades ago, the United States Supreme Court addressed the evidentiary consequences of illegal prearraignment detention in two landmark cases, McNabb v United States, 318 US 332; 63 S Ct 608; 87 L Ed 819 (1943), reh den 319 US 784 (1943), and Mallory v United States, 354 US 449; 77 S Ct 1356; 1 L Ed 2d 1479 (1957). In those cases, the Court determined that the right of a suspect to prompt arraignment should be enforced by automatically excluding from evidence any incriminating statement obtained during a period of "unnecessary delay,” even though the confession was not the result of physical or psychological coercion. This rule of exclusion became known as the "McNabb-Mallory rule.”
The McNabb-Mallory rule was not applied with enthusiasm by all of the federal courts, and it became the subject of much criticism in Congress. Finally, in 1968, Congress took aim at the Mc-Nabb-Mallory rule, along with other concerns, when it enacted the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, 18 USC 3501. The act reflected a strong reaction on the part of Congress to what it regarded as illogical and unrealistic court decisions resulting from the application” of the McNabb-Mallory rule. 790th Cong (2d Sess), 1968 US Code Cong & Admin News 2124.
Since then, most federal courts have interpreted §3501 as allowing the admission of a voluntary confession even though it is given during a period of prearraignment delay — in effect, overruling McNabb-Mallory. A majority of federal courts have followed the route taken by the Ninth Circuit in United States v Halbert, 436 F2d 1226, 1231 (CA 9, 1970), wherein it explained,
[I]t is obvious that the prime purpose of Congress in the enaction of § 3501 was to ameliorate the effect of the decision in Mallory v United States (1957), 354 US 449; 77 S Ct 1356; 1 L Ed 2d 1479, to remove delay alone as a cause for rejecting admission into evidence of a confession and to make the voluntary character of the confession, the real test of its admissibility.[ ]
The Halbert court quoted from the legislative history of §3501, which reflected overwhelming congressional opinion that the admissibility of a confession should turn on its voluntariness:
"This title would restore the test for the admissi bility of confessions in criminal cases to that time-tested and well-founded standard of voluntariness. It would avoid the inflexible rule of excluding such statements solely on technical grounds such as delay or failure to warn the accused as to his rights to silence or to counsel. We have not nullified, however, the rights of defendants to the safeguards of federal law or the Constitution. On the contrary, we have provided a more reasonable rule in that the judge shall consider all the defendant’s rights (speedy arraignment, silence, counsel, knowledge of offense charged) and their possible violation in deciding as to the voluntariness of the confession and thus its admissibility.”[ ] [Id., p 1236, n 6, quoting from 1968 US Code Cong & Admin News 2282.]
The McNabb-Mallory rule was formulated by the United States Supreme Court "[i]n the exercise of its supervisory authority over the administration of criminal justice in the federal courts . . . .” McNabb, supra, 318 US 341. Because it was not constitutionally mandated, the rule was never applicable to criminal proceedings in state courts.8 However, as is true in Michigan, most states require by statute that an arrested person must be arraigned "without unnecessary delay.” In interpreting such statutes, the "vast majority of state courts [like their federal counterparts] have rejected McNabb-Mallory outright, opting instead for a traditional due process voluntariness test of the admissibility of confessions.” Johnson v State, 282 Md 314, 324; 384 A2d 709 (1978). Under the view adopted in most states, a confession obtained from a suspect in violation of his statutory right to prompt arraignment is not ipso facto inadmissible; rather, arraignment delay is taken into account as one relevant factor in evaluating the overall voluntariness of the confession. See, for example, State v Newnam, 409 NW2d 79 (ND, 1987); Ferry v State, 453 NE2d 207 (Ind, 1983); People v Goree, 115 Ill App 3d 157; 70 Ill Dec 869; 450 NE2d 342 (1983); People v Harris, 28 Cal 3d 935; 171 Cal Rptr 679; 623 P2d 240 (1981); State v Wiberg, 296 NW2d 388 (Minn, 1980); State v Wyman, 97 Idaho 486; 547 P2d 531 (1976), overruled on other grounds State v McCurdy, 100 Idaho 683; 603 P2d 1017 (1979). _
By contrast, in People v Hamilton, 359 Mich 410; 102 NW2d 738 (1960), Michigan, in 1960, became the first state to adopt the McNabb-Mallory rule.
However, a split on the issue appeared within the Court in People v Ubbes, 374 Mich 571; 132 NW2d 669 (1965). Although the Court unanimously condemned the use at trial of confessions coerced through delays in arraignments, only half of the Ubbes Court would have held the confession, obtained after a delay of sixteen and one-half hours, inadmissible on the ground that "confessions however obtained during such periods of illegal detention must be excluded from evidence in courts of law.” Id., pp 586-587 (opinion of Souris, J.). The remainder of the Court, while noting that "[m]ere lapse of time, without arraignment, can render a confession obtained during such detention illegally obtained and hence inadmissible,” id., p 577 (emphasis in original), concluded nonetheless that the proper question is one, not of delay, but of coercion:
Time of detention alone, without arraignment, is not the test. If for the same 16 Vi hours defendant had been held without appearance before a magistrate and he had been "sweated,” i.e., questioned unremittingly for the purpose of extracting a confession, we would not hesitate to strike down the practice and withhold from jury consideration his alleged confession. Here the totality of the circumstance indicates bona fide questioning to determine the immediate issue of release, or complaint, and complaint for what offense. We believe this is the meaning of the rule announced in People v Hamilton, 359 Mich 410. [Id., p 576 (opinion of O’Haka, J.).]
In People v Farmer, 380 Mich 198; 156 NW2d 504 (1968), this Court focused on a lack of coercive circumstances in holding that a seventy-two hour prearraignment delay did not render a confession inadmissible.
Then, in People v White, 392 Mich 404; 221 NW2d 357 (1974), cert den 420 US 912 (1975), this Court unanimously ruled that a confession was admissible even though it had been obtained after a thirty-four hour prearraignment delay. The Court found that the most damaging statement made by the defendant was "not the product of a police interrogation,” and held the exclusionary rule to be applicable "[o]nly when the delay has been employed as a tool to extract a statement . . . .” Id., p 424. The White Court took note of the fact that the defendant had been repeatedly warned of his constitutional rights and also had an opportunity to consult with his lawyer.
Thereafter, at least for a period of time, the Court of Appeals interpreted Hamilton and White to mean that "the question is not one of delay, but of whether the statement was voluntary or coerced.” People v Johnson, 85 Mich App 247, 251; 271 NW2d 177 (1978). See also People v Wallach, 110 Mich App 37, 59; 312 NW2d 387 (1981), vacated and remanded on other grounds 417 Mich 937 (1983); People v Dean, 110 Mich App 751, 755; 313 NW2d 100 (1981).
However, in the 1984 decision of People v Bladel (After Remand), 421 Mich 39; 365 NW2d 56 (1984), aff'd sub nom Michigan v Jackson, 475 US 625; 106 S Ct 1404; 89 L Ed 2d 631 (1986), this Court divided four to three in finding inadmissible several incriminating statements obtained by police during a twenty-six and one-half hour prearraignment delay. The majority dismissed with a footnote the argument that admissibility should turn on voluntariness or coercion:
Plaintiff suggests that even if an unnecessary prearraignment delay occurred, the ultimate test for purposes of the exclusionary rule is whether the statement obtained was voluntary or coerced. See, e.g., People v Wallach, 110 Mich App 37, 59, n 5; 312 NW2d 387 (1981), vacated and remanded on other grounds 417 Mich 937; 331 NW2d 730 (1983); People v Antonio Johnson, 85 Mich App 247, 252-253; 271 NW2d 177 (1978). Although earlier decisions of this Court could be interpreted in this manner, see, e.g., People v Farmer, 380 Mich 198; 156 NW2d 504 (1968); People v Ubbes, 374 Mich 571; 132 NW2d 669 (1965); People v Harper, 365 Mich 494; 113 NW2d 808 (1962); Hamilton, supra, an examination, of White, supra, 392 Mich 424-425, reveals that this Court now treats the question of prearraignment delay apart from the issue of voluntariness. If voluntariness were the only relevant inquiry, there would be no reason to analyze whether a prearraignment delay occurred and was used as a tool, since involuntary statements have always been held inadmissible regardless of when they are obtained. Prompt arraignment serves several important functions apart from preventing improper custodial interrogations. [Bladel, supra, p 74, n 27.][ ]
In another case, decided the same day, People v Mallory, 421 Mich 229; 365 NW2d 673 (1984), this Court expanded what it referred to as the "White exclusionary rule” beyond confessions to include physical evidence. The Court said, "If the physical evidence would not have been discovered but for the exploitation by the police of the illegal prearraignment delay, suppression is required.” Mallory, supra, p 240. It added this caveat:
Obviously, not all evidence acquired directly or indirectly from a detainee during a statutorily unlawful detention will be procured by exploiting that detention, e.g., a statement volunteered absent police prompting or questioning, White, supra, pp 424-425, a voluntary statement made shortly after a lawful arrest, People v Stinson, 113 Mich App 719, 730-731; 318 NW2d 513 (1982); People v Ricky Smith, 85 Mich App 32, 46-47; 270 NW2d 697 (1978); People v William Turner, 26 Mich App 632, 638-639; 182 NW2d 781 (1970) ... or any evidence obtained by means sufficiently distinguishable to be purged of the taint of the unlawful detention. The exclusionary rule will not bar the admission at trial of evidence which has been acquired absent exploitation of a statutorily unlawful detention. [Id., p 241. Emphasis supplied.]
Perhaps it is not surprising then that the Michigan version of the McNabb-Mallory rule, sometimes referred to as the "causation form,” has been described as a "schizophrenic rule,” i.e., "[o]n the one hand, an exclusionary rule based solely on delay is adopted, while on the other exclusion applies only when the defendant proves a causal connection between the delay and the challenged confession.” Keene, The ill-advised state court revival of the McNabb-Mallory rule, 72 J Crim L & Criminology 204, 212 (1981). Beginning with the Hamilton decision, a dichotomy has been constructed which cannot be fully harmonized — a confession is inadmissible if involuntary, but even if voluntary, a court must exclude it if it finds a causal nexus between a delay and the confession. As this Court recognized in Bladel, supra, the causal nexus standard has generated confusion, leading to contradictory appellate decisions.
In light of the history of McNabb-Mallory and recent developments in constitutional law, it has been suggested by one court that application today of the McNabb-Mallory rule has the effect of "burning the barn to get rid of the mice . . . .” Shope v State, 41 Md App 161, 171; 396 A2d 282 (1979). Concerns which troubled the McNabb Court in 1943 have been addressed and remedied for the most part by subsequent changes in constitutional doctrines. For example, Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694 (1966), reduced the significance of one basis for the Mc-Nabb decision — that a delay in an initial hearing represented a potential delay in informing a suspect of his rights by a judicial officer. Nowadays the fact of police custody triggers a number of rights, including the right to counsel, which the police dare not ignore. Miranda v Arizona, supra; Edwards v Arizona, 451 US 477; 101 S Ct 1880; 68 L Ed 2d 378 (1981); Michigan v Jackson, supra. The Supreme Court has, through the Fourth Amendment, restricted pickup for questioning. For instance, in Brown v Illinois, 422 US 590; 95 S Ct 2254; 45 L Ed 2d 416 (1975), the Court held that despite the giving of warnings required by the Miranda decision, the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments require the exclusion from evidence of statements obtained as the fruit of an illegal arrest. In Dunaway v New York, 442 US 200; 99 S Ct 2248; 60 L Ed 2d 824 (1979), custodial questioning on less than probable cause was held to be violative of the Fourth Amendment. Moreover, although a voluntary statement obtained in violation of Miranda is admissible for impeachment purposes, Harris v New York, 401 US 222, 224-226; 91 S Ct 643; 28 L Ed 2d 1 (1971), the use of an involuntary statement in a criminal trial, either for impeachment purposes or in the prosecution’s case in chief, violates due process. Mincey v Arizona, 437 US 385; 98 S Ct 2408; 57 L Ed 2d 290 (1978); Blackburn v Alabama, 361 US 199; 80 S Ct 274; 4 L Ed 2d 242 (1960).
Such constitutional developments have substantially eliminated the reasons for the McNabb-Mallory rule, thereby diminishing its significance and limiting its application to a small class of defendants:
McNabb-Mallory affects only voluntary confessions by persons arrested upon probable cause who knowingly and voluntarily waive their rights to silence and counsel after being warned of the consequences of such a waiver.
The only remaining target for the rule today is prearraignment delay by itself, unrelated to consti tutional rights of an arrestee or the validity of his confession. [72 J Crim L & Criminology, supra, pp 229, 231.][ ]
As noted above, the prompt-arraignment requirement was never elevated by the United States Supreme Court to the level of a constitutional right. The automatic application today of the McNabb-Mallory exclusionary rule to statements voluntarily given during a prearraignment delay would exact a heavy toll on our system of justice.
The raison d’étre of the exclusionary rule is the deterrence of official misconduct. United States v Janis, 428 US 433, 458-459, n 35; 96 S Ct 3021; 49 L Ed 2d 1046 (1976); Mapp v Ohio, 367 US 643, 656; 81 S Ct 1684; 6 L Ed 2d 1081 (1961). However, the United States Supreme Court recently observed that
"[jurists and scholars uniformly have recognized that the exclusionary rule imposes a substantial cost on the societal interest in law enforcement by its proscription of what concededly is relevant evidence.” United States v Janis, 428 US 433, 448-449 (1976). See also United States v Havens, 446 US 620, 627 [100 S Ct 1912; 64 L Ed 2d 559] (1980); United States v Calandra, 414 US 338 [94 S Ct 613; 38 L Ed 2d 561] (1974). . . .
We have previously cautioned against expanding "currently applicable exclusionary rules by erecting additional barriers to placing truthful and probative evidence before state juries . . . .” Lego v Twomey, 404 US 477, 488-489 [92 S Ct 619; 30 L Ed 2d 618] (1972). We abide by that counsel now. "[T]he central purpose of a criminal trial is to decide the factual question of the defendant’s guilt or innocence,” Delaware v Van Arsdall, 475 US 673, 681 [106 S Ct 1431, 1436; 89 L Ed 2d 674] (1986), and while we have previously held that exclusion of evidence may be necessary to protect constitutional guarantees, both the necessity for the collateral inquiry and the exclusion of evidence deflect a criminal trial from its basic purpose. [Colorado v Connelly, 479 US 157, 166; 107 S Ct 515; 93 L Ed 2d 473 (1986).]
We note that Michigan’s prearraignment delay statutes have never included a directive by the Legislature that failure to comply will render inadmissible a confession voluntarily given. Of course, the Legislature could provide sanctions for violations, and it could define more specifically the parameters of "unnecessary delay.”
In accordance with the approach taken by the federal courts and a majority of the states, we believe "unnecessary delay” in arraignment is only one of the factors that should be considered in evaluating the voluntariness of a confession. The test of voluntariness should be whether, considering the totality of all the surrounding circum stances, the confession is "the product of an essentially free and unconstrained choice by its maker,” or whether the accused’s "will has been overborne and his capacity for self-determination critically impaired . . . Culombe, supra, 367 US 602. The line of demarcation "is that at which governing self-direction is lost and compulsion, of whatever nature or however infused, propels or helps to propel the confession.” Id.
In determining whether a statement is voluntary, the trial court should consider, among other things, the following factors: the age of the accused; his lack of education or his intelligence level; the extent of his previous experience with the police; the repeated and prolonged nature of the questioning; the length of the detention of the accused before he gave the statement in question; the lack of any advice to the accused of his constitutional rights; whether there was an unnecessary delay in bringing him before a magistrate before he gave the confession; whether the accused was injured, intoxicated or drugged, or in ill health when he gave the statement; whether the accused was deprived of food, sleep, or medical attention; whether the accused was physically abused; and whether the suspect was threatened with abuse. See Culombe, supra; United States ex rel Mattox v Scott, 372 F Supp 304, 309-310 (ND Ill, 1974), aff'd in part and rev’d in part 507 F2d 919 (CA 7, 1974). See also Schneckloth v Bustamonte, 412 US 218; 93 S Ct 2041; 36 L Ed 2d 854 (1973).
The absence or presence of any one of these factors is not necessarily conclusive on the issue of voluntariness. The ultimate test of admissibility is whether the totality of the circumstances surrounding the making of the confession indicates that it was freely and voluntarily made. Unnecessary delay is one factor to consider in reaching this conclusion, the focus being not just on the length of delay, but rather on what occurred during the delay and its effect on the accused.
In relegating prearraignment delay to its status as one of several factors to be considered in judging the voluntariness of a confession, we do not condone the failure of the police to comply with the statutes. An arrested suspect should not be subjected to prolonged, unexplained delay prior to arraignment; and such delay should be a signal to the trial court that the voluntariness of a confession obtained during this period may have been impaired. However, we hold that an otherwise competent confession should not be excluded solely because of a delay in arraignment.
We move now to the application of these principles to the cases at hand.
ii
At issue in People v Dean is the admissibility of a confession which provided a basis for the defendant’s 1980 conviction by a jury of three counts of first-degree murder and possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony.
On November 20, 1979, the police were called to a Detroit address and discovered the bodies of two men and one woman. All three victims had been bound and shot in the head. There were no eyewitnesses to the killings. Information gathered during the next ten days, however, implicated the defendant.
A child of one of the victims described a man fitting defendant’s description who had been present in the home when she went to bed on the evening of the murders. A similar description was given by an individual who was walking by the house when the shots were fired. He observed a man with defendant’s characteristics emerge from the residence and drive off in an orange Cougar automobile. A third witness identified the defendant from photographs as being present in the house with the three victims earlier in the evening before the shootings occurred. A fourth individual, the defendant’s neighbor, identified the defendant by name, confirmed that the defendant frequently drove his girl friend’s orange Cougar, and added that he had introduced the defendant to one of the victims a few days previously for the purpose of a narcotics transaction.
At 1:00 p.m. on November 30, 1979, the defendant was arrested without a warrant while driving an orange Cougar. He was advised of his rights through the use of a standard form. Defendant indicated that he understood each right by putting his initials and signature on the form. He never indicated that he did not wish to talk to police or that he wished to speak with an attorney. The defendant was then interrogated by an investigating officer for three or four hours. The questioning ceased while the police attempted to verify his exculpatory version of events. The defendant was then interviewed by another officer for approximately two hours.
On the following morning, defendant was re-advised of his Miranda rights and questioned until 1:00 p.m. The police then took defendant before a magistrate and obtained a "reverse writ,” which purported to give the police until 2:00 p.m. the next day either to conclude the investigation or to release the defendant. Defendant was returned to the police station and advised again of his Miranda rights. He initialed and signed the rights form. Defendant was confronted with the fact that his statement was not consistent with that of a purported alibi witness. At 3:35 p.m., twenty-six hours after his arrest, the defendant gave a signed confession. In the confession, defendant admitted binding and shooting the victims as a result of a dispute over the defendant’s demand for a refund for some poor quality heroin sold to him by two of the victims.
Defendant was subsequently identified by witnesses at three separate corporeal line-ups held on the evening of December 1, 1979. On December 2, defendant was taken before a magistrate and arraigned.
A separate Walker hearing was conducted (People v Walker [On Rehearing], 374 Mich 331; 132 NW2d 87 [1965]). The lower court determined that the defendant’s confession was voluntary and admissible in his trial. The Court of Appeals affirmed his conviction by a jury, stating, in pertinent part:
[T]he sequence of events in this case indicates that defendant’s statements were voluntarily given, without threats or other oppressive police behavior, and that the delay in arraignment was not used to extract a confession. [Unpublished memorandum opinion of the Court of Appeals on remand, decided January 17, 1986 (Docket No. 87267).]
Defendant admits in his argument to this Court that his confession was voluntarily made and was not the product of coercion during the prearraignment detention. Rather, he contends that his confession should be excluded under the Search and Seizure Clause, US Const, Am IV, and Const 1963, art 1, § 11, because the confession was the product of an unlawful detention. Relying on People v Casey, 411 Mich 179; 305 NW2d 247 (1981), defendant maintains:
Quite simply, in this case the Detroit Police illegally seized the Defendant’s person (by the "reverse writ”), and as a direct result of this illegal seizure obtained incriminating evidence against the Defendant (his confession). This is a search and seizure case. It is not a case challenging the voluntariness of Defendant’s confession.
In People v Casey, supra, this Court had occasion to review what had come to be known colloquially in Detroit as a "reverse writ.” In lieu of granting leave to appeal, this Court held that such a proceeding was a "nullity. Its constitutional and statutory bases cannot be examined for it has none.” Casey, supra, p 181. The Court "held only that the reverse writ had no effect on the legality of the detention.” Mallory, supra, p 252 (dissent of Boyle, J.). The conviction in Casey was reversed because of an illegal arrest based on insufficient evidence, not because of the reverse-writ procedure. Casey merely held that the reverse writ could not be used to justify an otherwise illegal arrest and detention.
By contrast, the police in the instant case had probable cause to arrest the defendant. People v Shabaz, 424 Mich 42, 58; 378 NW2d 451 (1985); People v Oliver, 417 Mich 366, 374; 338 NW2d 167 (1983). The defendant had been identified as the last person seen with the victims. He matched the description of the suspect seen leaving the residence immediately after the shooting and driving off in an orange Cougar. Therefore, Casey is inapplicable to the present facts.
The inquiry must be whether, given the totality of the circumstances, the defendant’s confession was voluntarily given. This point has been conceded by the defendant and is supported by the evidence. Defendant, an individual whose prior record indicates an awareness of Miranda and a familiarity with police interrogation, was apprised of his rights at least twice and did not express an unwillingness to talk with the police. Upon an independent examination of the record, we do not find that the court’s determination at the Walker hearing was clearly erroneous, People v Hummel, 19 Mich App 266, 270; 172 NW2d 550 (1969). We "give deference to the trial court’s findings, especially where the demeanor of the witnesses is important, as where credibility is a major factor.” People v Terlisner, 96 Mich App 423, 431; 292 NW2d 223 (1980); People v White, supra, p 425; People v Robinson, 386 Mich 551, 557; 194 NW2d 709 (1972). We therefore confirm the admissibility of defendant’s confession and affirm his conviction.
III
Defendant Dwight Harrison appeals from his conviction, following a jury tidal, of voluntary manslaughter, MCL 750.321; MSA 28.553.
On March 17, 1981, a witness observed a Cadillac automobile parked in front of her home in Inkster, Michigan, with two men inside. She later observed the decedent lying on the ground and the Cadillac driving off at a high rate of speed. The decedent eventually died from a gunshot wound apparently inflicted at the scene.
At 5:00 p.m. on April 29, 1981, defendant was arrested by the Detroit police while driving the decedent’s car. The Inkster police were notified. Officer James Horne, a detective from Inkster in charge of the homicide case, came to Detroit. He advised defendant of his Miranda rights. Defen dant initialed and signed the rights form, and Horne proceeded to question him. Defendant told the detective he had purchased the Cadillac from his employer and that his girl friend had a copy of the receipt. At the conclusion of the interview, at approximately 1:00 or 2:00 a.m. on April 30, 1981, defendant was transported to the Inkster Police Department where he was held for "investigation of homicide.”
At 10:30 a.m. on April 30, defendant was again advised of his Miranda rights. He signed and initialed the rights form and did not request an attorney. Defendant was interviewed a second time. His girl friend was contacted, but she was unable to verify the defendant’s original statement. Defendant subsequently gave two separate exculpatory statements. The interview ended at 1:20 p.m. Detective Horne suggested that defendant take a polygraph examination because Horne "didn’t believe his statements.” Defendant agreed. Arrangements were made for a polygraph examination to be administered on the morning of Saturday, May 2, 1981, the earliest available time.
No further contact was had with defendant until he requested an audience with Detective Horne on the following day, May 1. Defendant gave the detective further information which purportedly verified his exculpatory version of events. Meanwhile, the defendant’s father had contacted an attorney. During the evening of May 1, the attorney went to the jail where he conferred with the defendant. The defendant told his attorney about the planned polygraph examination. After a brief discussion, the attorney advised his client to take the polygraph test.
On May 2, defendant was transported to the Dearborn Police Department to take the polygraph examination. Once again, he was advised of his Miranda rights. Defendant’s retained attorney was present in Dearborn prior to the polygraph examination and conferred with defendant. The attorney then left and returned after the examination was completed. Defendant failed the examination.
Defendant then gave a fourth explanation as to how he came to possess the victim’s car. In this statement, the defendant said he was hitchhiking and was picked up by the decedent. The decedent parked the car and attempted to solicit sexual favors from the defendant. When defendant resisted, the decedent produced a pistol. According to defendant, the two men struggled over the pistol and the gun discharged during the struggle.
Defendant’s attorney reviewed the written statement, and the defendant then signed it in his attorney’s presence. Defendant was arraigned the next day, ninety-six hours after his arrest.
Prior to trial, a Walker hearing was held, and the trial court found that defendant’s statements had been voluntarily made.
Defendant’s jury conviction was initially reversed by the Court of Appeals due to instructional error. However, upon rehearing, the Court of Appeals vacated its earlier order and remanded the cause to the trial court to conduct an evidentiary hearing to determine the legality of defendant’s four-day detainment. On remand, the trial court found:
The testimony presented clearly indicated that during the detainment each of the questionings of the defendant was preceded by Miranda warnings, and the testimony of the officers further indicated that defendant offered various statements to them which necessitated separate investigative pursuits.
It is the determination of this court that the delay between defendant’s arrest and arraign ments was not used to extract a confession and that the detainment was not illegal.
The Court of Appeals subsequently affirmed the trial court’s findings.
As noted above, application of the prompt-arraignment statutes to a particular situation presupposes a lawful arrest. In the instant case defendant asserts that he was arrested for "investigation of homicide” without probable cause, that his arrest was illegal, and his statements, therefore, were inadmissible under the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments.
The defendant was arrested by the Detroit police while driving the missing car of the crime victim. Within a few hours of his arrest, defendant was transferred to the custody of the Inkster police, whose sole interest in the case was the homicide. The testifying officers from the Inkster Police Department frankly admitted that they detained the defendant for "investigation of homicide” and for no other purpose.
However, the terminology used to effectuate an arrest is not determinative. See, e.g., People v Hamoud, 112 Mich App 348, 351; 315 NW2d 866 (1981); People v Cook, 153 Mich App 89, 91; 395 NW2d 16 (1986); People v Simmons, 134 Mich App 779, 783; 352 NW2d 275 (1984), lv den 421 Mich 860 (1985). An arresting officer’s subjective characterization of the circumstances surrounding an arrest does not determine its legality. Rather, probable cause to justify an arrest has always been examined under a standard of objective reasonableness without regard to the underlying intent or motivation of the officers involved. Michigan v DeFillippo, 443 US 31, 37; 99 S Ct 2627; 61 L Ed 2d 343 (1979); Beck v Ohio, 379 US 89; 85 S Ct 223; 13 L Ed 2d 142 (1964); Henry v United States, 361 US 98; 80 S Ct 168; 4 L Ed 2d 134 (1959); Brinegar v United States, 338 US 160; 69 S Ct 1302; 93 L Ed 1879 (1949).
In the present case, the record indicates, and the defendant admits, that there was probable cause for the Detroit police to arrest defendant for receiving and concealing stolen property. He was driving the decedent’s missing car, but the Cadillac bore license plates registered to a Plymouth owned by the defendant. When the Inkster police took custody of the defendant from the Detroit Police Department, they had probable cause to hold him and a second arrest was not required upon his. transfer from the Detroit police. See Garionis v Newton, 827 F2d 306, 310 (CA 8, 1987).
Moreover, the record supports the fact that the Inkster police had probable cause to hold defendant for larceny of the decedent’s automobile. Thus, the defendant was arrested for a cognizable offense, not merely for "investigation of murder.”
The question remains whether defendant’s statements were the involuntary products of his prearraignment detention.
Ninety-six hours elapsed between defendant’s arrest and his arraignment. However, "[d]elay does not mean mere passage of time; it means passage of time during which that which should and could be done is not done.” Metoyer v United States, 102 US App DC 62, 65; 250 F2d 30 (1957).
Given defendant’s association with the missing car of the crime victim and the fact that the car was observed at the scene of the murder, we begin with the premise that the Inkster police were entitled to question the defendant about the murder of the decedent. As explained by a federal court in Heideman v United States, 104 US App DC 128, 130-131; 259 F2d 943 (1958):
At the outset, the police, assuming they have probable cause for arrest, are entitled to ask the arrested suspect what he knows about a crime. If he denies knowledge, they are entitled to state to him what evidence they have and ask whether he cares to comment upon it. A strong circumstantial case which would satisfy the U.S. Commissioner, prima facie, might well be explained away by a suspect who knew what information the police relied on — hence leading to no charge being made. If the suspect continues to deny knowledge, the police are entitled to conclude the interview by saying, in effect, "Do you have anything further to tell us, or do you just want to let it stand the way it is?” . . . Such questions as these the police may ask — indeed should ask; it is only when the questioning crosses into what can be termed "grilling,” or is continued beyond the brief period allowed, that the resulting confession may be held inadmissible.
In the instant case, the Inkster police asked the defendant if he knew anything about the homicide. He quickly offered an exculpatory statement. The police immediately checked out the defendant’s version of events by talking to his girl friend and found that not only could it not be verified, but that probably it was not true. The defendant then gave two differing exculpatory statements. Suspicion escalated to the point that the police, the defendant, and his attorney agreed to a polygraph examination. Defendant failed the polygraph examination, leading to the confession which became the grounds for securing a warrant.
The ninety-six hour time period which elapsed between defendant’s arrest and his arraignment may be accounted for by the defendant’s progres sion through four different explanations as to how he came to possess the decedent’s automobile. The police correspondingly attempted to verify each statement — an entirely appropriate course of conduct.
There is not the slightest evidence that the defendant’s confession was involuntarily extracted by the police. The defendant was apprised of his rights on at least three occasions and spoke willingly with the police after waiving his rights. He was not subjected to continuous interrogation or to intimidating police misconduct. There is no evidence of coercion which would have overwhelmed the defendant’s free will. Indeed, during the period of his detention and prior to giving his incriminating statement, defendant conferred with an attorney retained by his family. His attorney reviewed the statement, and the defendant then signed it in his attorney’s presence. The defendant, who agreed following consultation with his attorney to take a polygraph examination, implicated himself in the homicide immediately after learning of the unsatisfactory results of the examination. We conclude that defendant’s statements were the products of a voluntary decision based not only on a knowledge of his constitutional rights, but also on the results of the polygraph examination. We therefore uphold the admissibility of defendant’s statements at trial and affirm his conviction.
rv
Defendant Giovani Cipriano was convicted by a jury in the Otsego Circuit Court of two counts of first-degree murder._
Defendant was tried for the shooting deaths of Robert Ellis and Doris Haskell. Defendant had lived with the decedents for some months in Detroit prior to moving to the Gaylord area. The trio then moved to a house in the country outside of Gaylord. The murders occurred at the house a few weeks after the move.
The landlady, who lived next door, testified that during the early afternoon of May 7, 1980, she heard what sounded like firecrackers. Moments later, Doris Haskell ran from her house to the landlady’s house and told the landlady that John was shooting Bob. Haskell then returned to the house. The police were called. When they arrived, defendant was apprehended fleeing from the back door. The bodies of Ellis and Haskell were found lying together on the kitchen floor.
Defendant was arraigned two days later. In the interim, defendant was interviewed several times and gave several statements. Two of these statements were taped and introduced into evidence at trial, and a third statement, which consisted of the defendant’s conversation with another jail inmate over a period of several days, was also entered into evidence.
On the day of his arrest, defendant identified himself as "John Dale.” Defendant was read his Miranda rights, but did not request an attorney and was eager to talk to the police. Defendant told the police that a person named "Rick” entered the premises looking for drugs and shot the victims, and that defendant was trying to chase him at the time he was apprehended by the police. The police terminated the interview in the evening against defendant’s wishes. Defendant wanted to resume the questioning the next day. After the session ended, the police obtained three search warrants, one for the defendant’s blood sample, one for defendant’s clothes, and one for the trunk of defendant’s car.
On the next day, May 8, 1980, the police learned the defendant’s real name, Giovani Cipriano, and conducted a forty-five minute interview with the defendant after advising him of his Miranda rights. He adhered to his story that he was chasing the killer when arrested. Cipriano was then taken to the scene of the crime, in order to provide support for his statement. Later that afternoon, defendant gave a taped statement in which he claimed that he killed Ellis in self-defense and admitted that he shot Haskell, but was not able to remember how or why. Defendant agreed to take a polygraph test.
On the third day, Thursday, May 9, the defendant was apprised of his rights and given a polygraph test. After the test, the police informed the defendant that he had not told the "complete” truth. Miranda warnings were repeated, and the defendant gave a second taped statement that was incriminating and was admitted into evidence against him. Defendant was arraigned on the afternoon of May 9, 1980, forty-six hours after his arrest.
Defendant challenged the admissibility of the statements made during the period of May 7 to May 9 on the ground that they were the product of an illegal prearraignment detention. Á Walker hearing was held during the preliminary examination. The district court judge found all of the defendant’s statements to be admissible. The defendant then filed a motion to suppress the statements in circuit court on the basis of the length of his detention before arraignment. Defense counsel did not challenge the voluntariness of the statements. After a hearing, the circuit court denied the defendant’s motion to suppress his confessions. Defendant’s subsequent convictions were affirmed by the Court of Appeals.
Defendant continues to maintain that the prearraignment detention was used to extract his incriminating statements. Defendant also asserts, for the first time, that his statements were not voluntarily made. He cites the presence of Valium in his system at the time of his arrest, an alleged suicide attempt, the fact that he never saw a lawyer during the period of interrogation, and the prolonged detention as coercive factors which precluded the exercise of independent judgment in rendering his statements.
However, the record demonstrates that defendant’s statements were voluntary. Defendant was given Miranda warnings five times between his arrest and his confession. He neither requested counsel nor refused at any time to speak with the investigating officers. On the contrary, after the initial questioning on May 7, the defendant asked the officers to return in order to "get this thing straightened out.” He was, in short, a talkative suspect. The defendant was in telephone contact with a family member during his detention. He volunteered to take a polygraph test. The fact that the defendant confessed after he was told that he had failed the polygraph test does not vitiate the voluntariness otherwise shown by the record. See Wyrick v Fields, 459 US 42, 47; 103 S Ct 394; 74 L Ed 2d 214 (1982).
The blood sample taken from the defendant on the evening following his arrest indicated only a small amount of Valium in his system. The defendant did not complain of illness or discomfort, and he was described as relaxed and coherent during the questioning. While the blood sample was being taken at the hospital, defendant requested Valium from the attending physician. The request was denied by the doctor, not the police. According to the doctor, the defendant showed no signs of drug withdrawal. Thus, defendant’s assertion that the police withheld needed medication is without basis in the record.
On the second evening of defendant’s detention, he slashed his wrists and was briefly hospitalized. This act, according to the defendant’s fellow inmate, was an attempt at escape, not suicide.
Given the absence of any factors which would indicate a coercive atmosphere during the prearraignment delay, we conclude that defendant’s statements were voluntarily made and were properly admitted at trial. Under the totality of the circumstances, we conclude that the prearraignment delay did not interfere with or critically impair the exercise of defendant’s free will during that period.
v
Accordingly, for the reasons stated, the decision of the Court of Appeals in each of these cases is affirmed.
Riley, C.J., and Brickley and Boyle, JJ., concurred with Griffin, J.
MCL 764.13; MSA 28.871(1) provides:
A peace officer who has arrested a person for an offense without a warrant shall without unnecessary delay take the person arrested before a magistrate of the judicial district in which the offense is charged to have been committed, and shall present to the magistrate a complaint stating the charge against the person arrested.
MCL 764.26; MSA 28.885 states:
Every person charged with a felony shall, without unnecessary delay after his arrest, be taken before a magistrate or other judicial officer and, after being informed as to his rights, shall be given an opportunity publicly to make any statement and answer any questions regarding the charge that he may desire to answer.
For a general discussion of the McNabb-Mallory rule, see Keene, The ill-advised state court revival of the McNabb-Mallory rule, 72 J Crim L & Criminology 204 (1981); note, 18 USC §3501 and the admissibility of confessions obtained during unnecessary prearraignment delay, 84 Mich LR 1731 (1986); 1 LaFave & Israel, Criminal Procedure, § 6.3, p 451.
See, e.g., Ruhl v United States, 148 F2d 173, 175 (CA 10, 1945); United States v Haupt, 136 F2d 661, 671 (CA 7, 1943).
See 1 Wright, Federal Practice and Procedure, § 72, p 63.
Section 3501 of the act provides:
(a) In any criminal prosecution brought by the United States or by the District of Columbia, a confession, as defined in subsection (e) hereof, shall be admissible in evidence if it is voluntarily given. Before such confession is received in evidence, the trial judge shall, out of the presence of the jury, determine any issue as to voluntariness. If the trial judge determines that the confession was voluntarily made it shall be admitted in evidence and the trial judge shall permit the jury to hear relevant evidence on the issue of voluntariness and shall instruct the jury to give such weight to the confession as the jury feels it deserves under all the circumstances.
(b) The trial judge in determining the issue of voluntariness shall take into consideration all the circumstances surrounding the giving of the confession, including (1) the time elapsing between arrest and arraignment of the defendant making the confession, if it was made after arrest and before arraignment, (2) whether such defendant knew the nature of the offense with which he was charged or of which he was suspected at the time of making the confession, (3) whether or not such defendant was advised or knew that he was not required to make any statement and that any such statement could be used against him, (4) whether or not such defendant had been advised prior to questioning of his right to the assistance of counsel; and (5) whether or not such defendant was without the assistance of counsel when questioned and when giving such confession.
The presence or absence of any of the above-mentioned factors to be taken into consideration by the judge need not be conclusive on the issue of voluntariness of the confession.
(c) In any criminal prosecution by the United States or by the District of Columbia, a confession made or given by a person who is a defendant therein, while such person was under arrest or other detention in the custody of any law-enforcement officer or law-enforcement agency, shall not be inadmissible solely because of delay in bringing such person before a magistrate or other officer empowered to commit persons charged with offenses against the laws of the United States or of the District of Columbia if such confession is found by the trial judge to have been made voluntarily and if the weight to be given the confession is left to the jury and if such confession was made or given by such person within six hours immediately following his arrest or other detention: Provided, That the time limitation contained in this subsection shall not apply in any case in which the delay in bringing such person before such magistrate or other officer beyond such six-hour period is found by the trial judge to be reasonable considering the means of transportation and the distance to be traveled to the nearest available such magistrate or other officer.
(d) Nothing contained in this section shall bar the admission in evidence of any confession made or given voluntarily by any person to any other person without interrogation by anyone, or at any time at which the person who made or gave such confession was not under arrest or other detention. [Emphasis in original.]
For instance, in Alston v United States, 121 US App DC 66; 348 F2d 72 (1965), the court held that a five-minute delay constituted an unnecessary delay; in Spriggs v United States, 118 US App DC 248; 335 F2d 283 (1964), a thirty-minute delay was held to require suppression.
See also United States v Beltran, 761 F2d 1 (CA 1, 1985); United States v Jackson, 712 F2d 1283 (CA 8, 1983); United States v Rubio, 709 F2d 146 (CA 2, 1983); United States v Manuel, 706 F2d 908 (CA 9, 1983); United States v Van Lufkins, 676 F2d 1189 (CA 8, 1982); United States v Killian, 639 F2d 206 (CA 5, 1981); United States v Gorel, 622 F2d 100 (CA 5, 1980); United States v Corral-Martinez, 592 F2d 263 (CA 5, 1979); United States v Gaines, 555 F2d 618 (CA 7, 1977); United States v Mayes, 552 F2d 729 (CA 6, 1977); United States v Edwards, 539 F2d 689 (CA 9, 1976), cert den 429 US 984 (1976); United States v Shoemaker, 542 F2d 561 (CA 10, 1976), cert den 429 US 1004 (1976); United States v Hathorn, 451 F2d 1337 (CA 5, 1971); United States v Marrero, 450 F2d 373 (CA 2, 1971), cert den 405 US 933 (1972).
A minority of federal courts has held that subsection 3501(c) establishes a limited version of the McNabb-Mallory rule, permitting the suppression of otherwise voluntary confessions & made more than six hours after arrest and during an unnecessary delay in arraignment. See, e.g., United States v Perez, 733 F2d 1026 (CA 2, 1984); United States v Fouche, 776 F2d 1398 (CA 9, 1985); United States v Khan, 625 F Supp 868 (SD NY, 1986). For an annotation discussing federal cases dealing with the interpretation of § 3501, see 12 ALR Fed 377.
In Culombe v Connecticut, 367 US 568, 600-601; 81 S Ct 1860; 6 L Ed 2d 1037 (1961), the Court observed:
The McNabb case was an innovation which derived from our concern and responsibility for fair modes of criminal proceeding in the federal courts. The States, in the large, have not adopted a similar exclusionary principle. And although we adhere unreservedly to McNabb for federal criminal cases, we have not extended its rule to state prosecutions as a requirement of the Fourteenth Amendment. [Citations omitted.]
See also Stroble v California, 343 US 181, 197; 72 S Ct 599; 96 L Ed 872 (1952). The statutory right to prompt arraignment without unnecessary delay should not be confused with the Fourth Amendment requirement of a judicial determination of probable cause as a prerequisite to extended restraint of liberty following arrest without a warrant. Gerstein v Pugh, 420 US 103, 114; 95 S Ct 854; 43 L Ed 2d 54 (1975).
For a comprehensive list of state statutes dealing with prearraignment delay, see 72 J Crim L & Criminology, n 2 supra, pp 209-210, ns 33-34.
Anno: Admissibility of confession or other statement made by defendant as affected by delay in arraignment — Modern state cases, 28 ALR4th 1121, reviews the status of the McNabb-Mallory rule on a state-by-state basis. See also Weldele-Wade, The McNabb-Mallory rule: Is the bene&t worth the burden?, 44 Mont L R 137 (1983).
The reasoning underlying this approach has been explained as follows:
Rules of evidence should aid the court in correctly determin ing the facts in the case. . . . Excluding a confession because made while the maker was in custody and not promptly taken before a magistrate would greatly hinder rather than aid the court in correctly determining the facts, for there is nothing about being in custody in the absence of coercion which would show any reason or motive for fabricating a confession. [State v Gardner, 119 Utah 579, 588-589; 230 P2d 559 (1951).]
The Hamilton Court held:
[A]n unnecessary and so unlawful delay of compliance with [the statute], when done for prolonged interrogatory purposes and without proven justification of the delay, renders involuntary and so inadmissible whatever confessional admissions the detained person may have made while so unlawfully detained. [Hamilton, supra, p 417. See also People v McCager, 367 Mich 116; 116 NW2d 205 (1962), and People v Walker, 371 Mich 599; 124 NW2d 761 (1963).]
Three of the justices (Ryan, Brickley, and Boyle) dissented from this portion of the Bladel decision:
In my judgment, it is mere appellate speculation to conclude that the failure to arraign defendant Jackson during the morning of August 1 was "unnecessary prearraignment delay and that the delay was employed as a tool to extract these statements.” That conclusion carries with it the implicit charge that the Livonia police contrived to lawlessly delay the defendant’s arraignment on the mere pretext of completing unnecessary "paperwork,” but for the actual purpose of extracting more confessions from him knowing that procedure to be improper. In my judgment, that conclusion is unsupported by the record.
It is equally plausible, on the record before us, that the officers honestly believed that they were insufficiently prepared to request and obtain a warrant in this major "murder for hire” case until the statutorily required warrant request was properly completed and approved, the previously scheduled polygraph examination was completed, and the defendant was afforded the opportunity to reconcile, if he wished to, the conflicts it revealed. See United States v Lovasco, 431 US 783, 791; 97 S Ct 2044; 52 L Ed 2d 752 (1977) .... [Id., pp 75-76.]
Only half a dozen states have adopted the McNabb-Mallory rule, some utilizing a rule of suppression which requires only that the defendant show a violation per se of the prompt arraignment statute or court rule. Commonwealth v Davenport, 471 Pa 278; 370 A2d 301 (1977); Johnson v State, 282 Md 314; 384 A2d 709 (1978). Several other states require a showing of a causal connection between the illegal delay and the challenged confession. Phillips v State, 29 Wis 2d 521; 139 NW2d 41 (1966); State v Richardson, 295 NC 309; 245 SE2d 754 (1978); People v Hamilton, supra. Yet other states employ a variation of the McNabb-Mallory rule which evaluates the "reasonableness” of the delay. Webster v State, 59 Del 54; 213 A2d 298 (1965).
A similar point of view is espoused in the discussion regarding the McNabb-Mallory rule in 44 Mont L R, n 11 supra.
Variations of the McNabb-Mallory rule which have been adopted by other state courts (see note 15) are equally deficient when put to the test of practical application. Enforcing the rule by means of a standard of "unnecessary” or "unreasonable” delay causes confusion for courts and law enforcement officials alike. These criteria are not capable of precise definition, as illustrated by Mallory v United States, supra, pp 454-455, wherein the Court held that arraignment should take place "as quickly as possible” yet also stated that “[circumstances may justify a brief delay between arrest and arraignment . . . .” Time-based standards arbitrarily dictate the behavior of the law enforcement community without regard to reasons for delay. See Johnson v State, supra, p 333 (dissent of Orth, J.).
See, generally, 72 J Crim L & Criminology, n 2 supra, pp 226-232; 1 LaFave & Israel, n 2 supra, § 6.3, p 457.
Indeed, some courts have held that a valid waiver of a suspect’s Miranda rights also constitutes a waiver of the right to arraignment without unnecessary delay. United States v Barlow, 693 F2d 954 (CA 6, 1982), cert den 461 US 945 (1983); United States v Mandley, 502 F2d 1103 (CA 9, 1974); Bliss v United States, 445 A2d 625 (DC App, 1982), and 452 A2d 172 (DC App, 1982), cert den 459 US 1117 (1983).
Moreover, a writ of habeas corpus to inquire into the cause of detention, as well as an order to show cause why the writ should not issue, may be brought on behalf of a person imprisoned "under any pretense whatsoever.” MCL 600.4307; MSA 27A.4307.
One of the ironies of McNabb-Mallory is that a rule premised upon a fear of "secret interrogation” and a solicitude for the inherent coercion of custodial interrogation, McNabb, supra, 318 US 344, provides no protection at all for the defendant who is properly arrested, and promptly arraigned, but who cannot make bail. See 1 LaFave & Israel, n 2 supra, p 452. And as Justice Boyle notes in her dissent in People v Mallory, supra, p 257, whether a given defendant "would have been able to make bail and what it would have been are matters of pure supposition . . . .”
While this Court "is certainly free to interpret the Michigan Constitution to require a higher standard for the protection of our citizens than that which the United States Constitution grants to citizens by virtue of its commands,” Mallory, supra, p 256 (dissent of Boyle, J.), and appears to have done so in the past, see, e.g., Hamilton, supra, p 411, and Mallory, supra, p 239, our decision today would be inconsistent if we on the one hand read the relevant provisions of the Michigan Constitution (Const 1963, art 1, § 17) to require enforcement of a "right” to immediate arraignment and on the other hand relegated prearraignment delay to its status as one factor to be considered in determining the voluntariness of a confession. We therefore do not give constitutional import to the statutory mandate of arraignment "without unnecessary delay.”
The effectiveness of the exclusionary rule has been the subject of debate since its inception. See, e.g., Bivens v Six Unknown Named Agents, 403 US 388, 416; 91 S Ct 1999; 29 L Ed 2d 619 (1971) (dissent of Burger, C. J.).
In People v Johnson, supra, p 250, n 5, the Court explained that a "reverse writ proceeding is informal and without any documentation. It is the local police method of seeking judicial approval for extended detention of an arrestee without benefit of a warrant.”
Of course, we do not address the civil liability implications which might be raised by a prolonged detention. See, e.g., Trejo v Perez, 693 F2d 482 (CA 5, 1982).
Defendant’s claim of ineffective assistance of counsel is not properly before this Court. People v Ginther, 390 Mich 436, 443-444; 212 NW2d 922 (1973). | [
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Campbell, C. J.
Suit being brought on guaranty of oUection the judge who tried the cause made a special finding which, while referring to a note of some kind and its guaranty, finds facts showing an apparent exhaustion of legal remedies. But the note itself is not described or identified, nor is it found that the plaintiff is still holder.
The mistake is a slip which has led to a mis-trial. The judgment must be reversed with costs and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
The plaintiffs in error were tried before a justice of the peace and a jury on a charge of assault and battery and found guilty. The justice forthwith passed and recorded sentence in these terms: “Therefore it was adjudged and determined by me that the defendants, Thomas Brownbridge and Scott Smith, pay a fine of thirty dollars each, and in default thereof to be committed to the common jail of the county for the period of thirty days each.”
The case was removed to the circuit court by statutory certiorari, and that tribunal affirmed the judgment with costs to The People and ordered that execution might issue therefor. Error was then brought. The record fails to explain whether the circuit court made, as directed by statute (Comp. L., § 5561), any order for carrying out the sentence.
The allowance of costs is admitted to be error.
The sentence which the justice passed is objected to on several grounds. It is alleged to be bad for lack of due precision and certainty and also for its departure from the provisions which define what judgment a justice may give.
The only statutes, except possibly some of mere local or special application and not pertinent to this inquiry, which liquidate the penalty a justice is empowered to inflict on persons criminally convicted of assault and battery, enable him simply and barely to impose a fine of not more than one hundred dollars, or imprisonment in the common jail of the county for a term not exceeding three months, or both, in his discretion (Comp. L., § 5566), together with such costs of prosecution as he shall order (§ 5540) and other provisions contemplate that any fine imposed may be paid during commitment as well as before. §§ 5545, 5546, 5550.
No authority is here conferred to- pass an alternative sentence; neither is there any express power to imprison as a means to coerce payment of a pecuniary mulct. There is some ground for contending that there are implications favoring this power to commit to enforce payment, and Mr. Bishop lays it down that the doctrine of the common law will justify it if the statute is silent on the subject. At the same time he maintains that where no statute is found to authorize it, an alternative sentence is bad. Crim. Proced., §§ 870, 875. He says that where there are no statutory provisions for sentences in the alternative, “the judgment should be direct and unconditional and distinctly ■ limited in its terms,” and the authorities he cites and many others fully sustain him.
The doctrine laid down by Lord Holt in the habeas corpus case of Dr. Groenvelt is clear and has always been regarded as authority not only that the exact object of the commitment, as being either by way of distinct punishment or by way of coercing, payment of the fine, should plainly appear; but as authority also that at common law it is not competent to sentence to imprisonment for a term fixed and absolute as a penal consequence of non-payment^ of a fine then imposed. The censors of the college of physicians had committed the doctor under their sentence ordering him fined twenty pounds for an offense of which they had cognizance, and to be committed to jail until he should be delivered by the said college or otherwise by due course of law. Lord Holt observed “that the sentence or judgment was too general, for the cause of commitment ought to be certain, to the end that the party may know for what he suffers, and how he may regain his liberty; if he was committed for the fine, it ought to be until he pay the fine; but if the intent of the censors was to punish him, not only by fine, but also by imprisonment, they ought to have made them two distinct parts of the judgment, by condemning him to prison so long, and from thence also until he should pay the fine.” 1 Ld. Raym., 213. To avert misapprehension it may be well to mention that where in cases of this kind the magistrate orders imprisonment to enforce payment of the fine, it is not only due to the formality of law, but also to the claims of substantial justice that the term of commitment should not be left to depend on the occurrence of payment of the fine, but the duration of the commitment should have an express and explicit limit not to be exceeded under any circumstances, so that confinement would be required to terminate certainly at the time so fixed and as much earlier as payment should be made. And the practice in this State has generally been to regard in these cases the period of three months (which has been considered as the longest time for which magistrates can commit by way of distinct punishment) as the proper limit in case of confinement for the non-payment of a fine.
The common law has always condemned vague and indefinite sentences and has not inclined to the introduction of any involving conditional punishments, and the courts have uniformly been strict in requiring that convictions by magistrates should not only be framed in words reasonably plain and certain, but should likewise appear and distinctly appear to be within and in compliance with the provisions defining, graduating and limiting the penalty. By way of illustration the following cases are referred to: Howard v. The People, 3 Mich., 207; The King v. Watson, 8 Mod., 65; The King v. Vipont, 2 Burr., 1166; The King v. Hall, 1 Cowp., 60; The King v. Patchett, 5 East, 339; Griffith v. Harries, 2 Mees. & Wels., 335; Ex parte Hyde, 5 Eng. L. & Eq., 368; The King v. Hertford, Holt, 320; The King v. Barnes, 2 Strange, 917; Washburn v. Belknap, 3 Conn., 502; In the matter of Sweatman, 1 Cow., 144; Morris v. The State, 1 Blackf., 37; Picket v. The State, 22 Ohio St., 405; Brown v. The State, 47 Ala., 47; Brock v. The State, 22 Ga., 98; State v. Bennett, 4 Dev. & B., 43, 50.
The sentence passed against the plaintiffs in error either imposed imprisonment by way of punishment as alternative to the fine, or else imposed it as a mere measure to coerce payment of the fine and not as punishment at all. If it be uncertain which, the ambiguity is error. If the imprisonment was ordered by way of alternative punishment, it is error. The- provisions under which the justice was bound to act do not authorize such a sentence. They empowered him to sentence to a fine, or to sentence to imprisonment, or to sentence to both; but not to something else, and it was not competent to sentence by way of punishment to do one thing or else suffer another. If the meaning of the sentence is that the imprisonment was to compel payment of the fine, it is still bad.
The imprisonment is not directed to be until payment of the fine and not more than thirty days, but is required to be for the whole thirty days whether the fine be or be not sooner paid. According to the terms of the sentence the parties could not accelerate their liberation an hour by malting payment, and hence could gain nothing by producing the fine after commitment.
If then the sentence were understood as intending that the imprisonment was ordered not as distinct punishment, but only to coerce payment of the fine, the want of some qualification by which payment of the fine would terminate the imprisonment would affect i^ with error. It is not claimed that Comp. L., § 7985 was applicable to the case and jurisdiction. _ But if it had .been,. the sentence could not be .justified under it. The conditional sentence - there authorized must-express a limited time for paying the fine and must provide for deferring the imprisonment to be suffered for not paying, until the lapse of such time. Here no such period of time was ascertained and expressed. It is unnecessary to notice other objections.
The judgments of both courts should be reversed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
An information charging respondents and one William H. Prinz with robbery, was filed in the Becorder’s court of the city of Detroit.
Upon the trial of respondents, Prinz, who was awaiting trial upon the same information, was called as a witness on behalf of the people and permitted to give evidence against the respondents, under objection. Was he, under such circumstances, a competent witness for the people?
This question would have been somewhat different, and might have led to a different conclusion, had Prinz been put upon trial with his co-respondents.
An accomplice is a competent witness in behalf of the prosecution, and it makes no difference whether he has been convicted or not, or whether he be joined in the same indictment with the prisoners to be tried or not, provided he be not put upon his trial at the same time. Roscoe’s Cr. Ev., 120; 1 Greenleaf Ev., § 379; Wixson v. People, 5 Parker Cr., 126; Taylor v. People, 12 Hun., 213; 1 Bishop’s Cr. Pr., §§ 1079-1080.
The respondents are husband and wife, and it is insisted the court should have instructed the jury, that under the evidence the law conclusively presumed the wife was acting under the coercion of her husband.
Upon this subject the court charged: “In regard to Mrs. Wright, the general presumption of law is, that the wife is acting under the coercion of her husband. Of course she is not to be found guilty ordinarily, but you have a right to consider all the circumstances, and if from all the circumstances you are satisfied she was not under the coercion of her husband, but acted voluntarily, she is as guilty as he.”
The charge as given was in my opinion correct. The offense charged was robbery, a felonious taking of the property of another by force. The evidence given on the trial tended to show that in the commission of the offense, Nellie Wright, the wife, “took hold of his (Kent’s) throat and told him to keep still,” while her husband and Prinz put their hands in his pockets and took what money he had. Under such circumstances the jury would be justified in finding that she was not acting under the coercion of her husband, but that she was an active participant, if not the most active, in the commission of the offense charged. 1 Russell on Crimes, 22; 3 Greenleaf Ev., § 7; Roscoe’s Cr. Ev., p. 911.
In my opinion the exceptions were not well taken, and the Becorder’s court should be advised to proceed to judgment.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
As the proceedings in this case, although nominally to inquire by virtue of what authority the respondent holds the office of supervisor, in fact are to ascertain and determine the legal existence of the township of Elk in the county of Lake, the court should scrutinize very closely the proceedings in the cause, and should not permit any apparent inadvertence of counsel to prejudice the rights of the public. And the court should also see that an apparently clear case is made out against the organization of the township, as the result of any action we may take in such a case, if against the township, must prejudicially affect the rights and interests of the. State as well as those of the county, and public corporations within the limits of the township.
The information among other things alleges that the township of Elk “has no legal existence and has had no legal existence at any time,” and so the said respondent is holding, using and exercising the office of supervisor without authority of law.
The respondent in his plea alleges that the township was legally organized by the board of supervisors on the 9th day of January, 1874, and he sets forth the territory embraced therein. He also sets forth “that previous to constituting and organizing said township by said board of supervisors, written application therefor, signed by the requisite number of freeholders, according to law, was duly made to said board of supervisors, and notice in writing of the intention to make such application, subscribed by a legal number of freeholders of the township to be affected, were posted and published as required by law, and the statutes of the State of Michigan were in all respects complied with previous to such organization and constituting of said township.” He also alleges that the board did, on the 9th day of January, 1874, legally constitute and organize said township and provide a time and place for holding an election which was held on the first Monday in April thereafter, and that since then general elections, etc., have regularly been held.
The Attorney General in his replication admits that the supervisors did take certain steps to organize said township, and for holding an election, and that one was held. He denies the legality of the proceedings, for the reason that the written application was not signed by the requisite number of freeholders, nor was proper notice given. The effect of the whole replication, as we view it, would seem not to deny the fact that an' application in proper form and purporting to be signed by the requisite number of freeholders had been presented to the board and proper notice thereof given, but that the persons signing such application were not freeholders in fact;- therefore no proper application or proper notice was ever made or given. Whether this is the particular objection sought to be raised and relied upon does not clearly appear, but it would seem to be. If it is, then it should be distinctly set forth in the replication and not left to inference, as there may be no necessity, were the particular defects clearly pointed out, of sending this case to the circuit for a finding of the facts.
If an application proper in form, and signed by the requisite number of persons claiming to be freeholders, ■\yas duly presented to the board, of which notice had been given, it may at least admit of very serious doubt whether the action of the board thereon would not be final.- It would be dangerous for courts to attempt in this manner to review their action, and to come to a conclusion other than that arrived at by the board, as to the qualifications of the applicants. That question must have been passed upon by the board, and being in the nature of a political one, relating to the proper organization of a township, their action thereon must necessarily be final. Att’y Gen’l v. Supervisors of Lake County, 33 Mich., 290.
Without farther passing upon the questions sought to be raised, we are inclined to think that an opportunity should be afforded the Attorney General to amend his; replication, if he deems it proper so to do, after what has been said.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
It must be considered as settled by the clear and undoubted weight of authority, that an insolvent corporation has the right to make a general assign-ment of its property for the benefit of its creditors, unless prohibited by its charter or a statute of the State, nor can such an assignment be held void in this State, because opposed to the policy of our statutes relating to proceedings in chancery against corporations, or providing for their voluntary dissolution. Town v. Bank of River Raisin, 2 Doug. (Mich.), 530; Burrill on Assignments, 602 et seq.
The specific objections made to the introduction of the assignment in this case were first, that the action of the board of directors in making this assignment was not authorized by the stockholders; second, that the meeting of the directors which authorized the execution of the assignment was not properly called, no proper notice having been given; and third, that the notice calling a meeting of the directors did not specify the purpose and object of the meeting.
The first objection was removed after being made, as evidence was introduced showing that nearly two-thirds of the stock was represented at the meeting and consented, if any such consent could be considered necessary.
There was evidence given tending to show that a written notice, signed by the treasurer, calling a meeting of the directors for June 23d, at one o’clock in the afternoon, for the transaction of important business pertaining to the finances of the company, was, on the morning of June 20th, sent by mail to N. W. Taylor, one of the directors, who then resided at Cleveland, Ohio, and that a person could start from Hubbardston, the place where the notice was mailed and where the meeting was to be held, go to Cleveland and get back the night of the next day. There was also evidence tending to show that this notice had been received in Cleveland and brought back to Hubbardston in time for the meeting, by a person claiming to be attorney for Mr. Taylor, but no evidence of his authority was shown. No question of want of notice was made as to the other directors, they all being present and participating in the proceedings and consenting to what was done.
The statute under which this corporation was formed provides that “a majority of the directors of every such corporation, convened according to the by-laws, shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business.” The by-laws of the corporation authorized the president or treasurer to call special meetings when in his opinion the interests of the company require it, but did not specify in what manner the notice should be given or served, or the length of time it should be served before the time fixed for the meeting.
In the absence of any provision for the length of notice, the law will require it to be given a reasonable time before the meeting is to be held, in order that the person to whom it is addressed may, if sent by mail, be presumed to have received it, and have sufficient time, traveling in the usual and customary manner, to get there. Field on Corporations, § 228; Phœnix Ins. Co. v. Allen, 11 Mich., 501. In this case sufficient time was given, and we cannot say as matter of law, therefore, that the notice was insufficient. Corporations have power, under the statute, to make specific provisions fixing the time and manner of giving notice of special meetings, and if they do not avail themselves of the power thus given, but leave the entire matter to the discretion of one of their principal officers, they have no right to complain of the insufficiency of the notice given, so long as it appears that sufficient time was given to enable the parties to be present if they so desired. In this case it is not the corporation, either by its stockholders or directors, that complain, but third parties, and that not in á direct proceeding. We are not prepared to hold the proceedings absolutely void, and it may therefore admit of some question whether under such circumstances the creditors could in this manner question the validity of the assignment authorized to be made in this manner. But upon this question we express no definite opinion, as we do not deem it necessary. See Chamberlain v. Painesville etc. R. R. Co., 15 Ohio St., 225; Edgerley v. Emerson, 23 N. H., 555; Despatch Line of Packets v. Bellamy Mfg. Co., 12 N. H., 205; Green’s Brice’s Ultra Vires, 351 and notes.
The validity of this assignment was farther questioned for the reason that the assignee was a stockholder and former treasurer of the company and resigned such position for the express purpose of becoming assignee, and the farther reason that he was insolvent.
We are of opinion that neither of these grounds, nor both combined, would be sufficient to justify us in holding the assignment absolutely void. In Pope v. Brandon, 2 Stewart (Ala.), 401, it was held that the deed of assignment was not void because the trustee was president of the institution and executed the deed as a grantor. There is nothing incompatible in Rogers’ position as a stockholder in the corporation and as an assignee for the benefit of creditors. It is his duty as assignee to proceed and dispose of the property for the benefit of the creditors. The stockholders and creditors are equally interested in having the property disposed of upon the best terms and for the largest amount of cash that can be obtained therefor; by so doing the indebtedness is extinguished or reduced, to the benefit of the corporation, and perhaps may relieve the stockholders of their individual liability. Our statutes recognize the propriety of the appointment, as receiver of an insolvent corporation, of any of the directors, trustees or any other officers of the corporation. 2 Comp. L., § 6594. These objections might well be considered by the jury, and might in some cases have a decided influence upon the minds of the jurors in determining the validity and bona fules of the transaction. The court below entertaining this view, very properly and favorably to the defendants, submitted these questions to the jury.
It may be manifestly proper in certain cases, owing to the peculiar nature of the business carried on, that the assignment should be made to a person conversant with such business rather than to a stranger, or one unfamiliar with it. That such a person would possess advantages and be likely to make more out of the prop erty than a stranger, or one having no knowledge of such business, would appear reasonable. Nor does it follow, necessarily, that a person who is insolvent would thereby be legally disqualified from accepting the position of assignee. That fact might in no way affect his honesty, business qualifications or eminent fitness in all other respects for the position. As already said, such facts were proper for consideration by the jury, but they would not per se render the assignment void.
It is also alleged as error that the court permitted evidence of the good motives of the directors in making the assignment, to be proven. Corporations act by and through officers, and it would seem clear that creditors might have shown by the directors that their motive and object in making the assignment was for the express purpose of delaying and defrauding the creditors of the corporation in the collection of their debts. The motive of a person in doing an act, or in omitting the performance of a duty, as an officer of a corporation, has been held admissible in this State.
A careful examination of the record fails . to show that any error was committed to the prejudice of the plaintiffs in error, and the judgment must therefore be affirmed with costs. •
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
This ease was before us formerly on points different from those here raised, and on facts which would not allow some of these to be presented. As now appearing, the substantial merits are these: Defendants in error, who were plaintiffs below, made a contract with the city of Detroit to pave a part of St. Antoine Street, and furnish all the material. This contract was forfeited for non-compliance with its conditions, leaving part of the street partially paved and ready for paving, and also leaving some loose sand lying within the limits of the unfinished work. The city let out the contract to other parties who used this sand, and, as the proof is said to have tended to show, were to use it, and took its value into consideration in making their bids. It is averred in the bill of exceptions that this sand was worth $696.12. It does not appear what, if any, specific allowance was made for this sand in the new contract, but it appears the new contract enabled the city to get the work done cheaper by about $1,600 than if the plaintiffs below had fulfilled their contract. We find no testimony referred to as indicating how much of this arose from the unfinished work, aside from the sand, nor whether there was any difference in the price of the work in detail under the two contracts.
The claim of plaintiffs below was never presented to the council before suit.
Charges were, among others, asked and refused:
3. “That if the jury find that the plaintiff placed, left and abandoned the sand in the street, and the same was never sold by, nor demanded of the defendant, the plaintiff cannot recover in this action.”
4. “That if the claim was never presented to the common council of the defendant for audit and allowance, as required by section 25 of chapter 4 of the charier of the city of Detroit, the plaintiff could not recover.”
And the court charged that if the jury believed the ■testimony the plaintiff was entitled to recover the sum •of $696.12 for said sand.
This last charge cannot be maintained on the evidence as reported to us. But the principal questions ■arise on the other charges.
It must be borne in mind, as stated in our former decision, that the city is very much hampered in making contracts, and that it could not have purchased this amount of sand, except upon proposals and bids. Charter, chap. 8, § 207. No action, therefore, either by the board of public works or by any other city official, could bind the city to take it or pay for it. . If there is any liability in the corporation itself, it cannot be a contract liability in the proper sense of the term. The case before us does not show very distinctly, if at all, any tortious act performed by any city authorities within their jurisdiction, or by corporate authority,.unless it is the attempt to use the sand as belonging to the city in making the new contract. The record does not show just how this was done, but for the purposes of this hearing we may assume, perhaps, that there was evidence to that effect that was legally admissible, — although we cannot, for -ourselves, determine how this was.
Unless this was clone in some way which would bind the city, the wrong was private and not corporate.
Upon what principle, then, could the city be held responsible? It could only be on one of two grounds: 1. As having authorized a tort, or 2, as having received value belonging to defendants in error.
By suing in assumpsit, the plaintiffs below affirmed the validity of the action of the city in disposing of this sand, if it was disposed of. They — under the charge which was refused — must be held, on the hypothesis there presented, to have left their sand where they had no right to leave it, and made no effort to remove it, and made no demand of it from the city. It would have been no tortious act whatever in the city or its contractors to remove this sand from the street, and it was the clear duty of defendants in error to take it out of the way. Nothing but a distinct sale, therefore, by the city, could under the facts of this case, amount to a conversion by the city. Use by the contractors on any other footing than as grantees of the city would be an independent act of their own, for which the city could not be responsible. They were not city agents, but independent contractors, receiving pay for both work and materials furnished by themselves. If the city did not sell them the sand, they got ño title to it; and if the city did not sell it, there was no municipal act that injured defendants in error at all, or that interfered with their sand. The court erred in not so charging.
But the other alleged error above referred to requires some consideration.
By § 25, chapter 4 of the city charter of Detroit, all claims against the city are required to be presented to the council for audit or allowance, accompanied by affidavit in case of contract, and it is provided that “ it shall be a sufficient bar and answer to any action or proceeding, in any court, for the collection of any demand or claim against said city, that it has never been presented to the council for audit or allowance, or if on contract, that it was presented without said affidavit, and rejected for that reason, or that the action or proceeding was brought before the council had a reasonable time to investigate and pass on it.”
A claim of the nature of that before us, being unliquidated and depending on peculiar grounds differing from any contract relations, is one which especially calls for inquiry and investigation. The statute designs, as far as possible, to avoid the bringing of lawsuits, and to require an attempt to settle as a condition precedent to suing. It does not require any plea to be put in asserting that the claim was never presented, and inasmuch as the plaintiff must always know whether or not this was done, he cannot need to be informed of it by notice. It is contrary to public policy to allow city officials to dispense with any of the safeguards provided against fraud or collusion, and it needs no great reflection to discover that if claims can be put in suit without an opportunity given to the council to look into the facts, it would not be impossible or improbable that defenses which might have been well known to some members of the council, or within their reach at the time the claim accrued, might not be known or made available by those conducting the defense.
This suit when first presented was based on a claim for compensation under a contract partly fulfilled. The compensation demanded was based on the measure provided by the contract itself, subject to any proper deductions. If such a cause of action had been held valid, the question would have remained whether it could not be audited by the city officers without applying to the council. Both parties desired the merits to be decided, and when it was held no right of action existed under the unfulfilled contract, the authority to audit such claims ceased to be important. It now stands on an entirely different ground, as a claim for property converted by the city where the assumpsit rests on a waiver of the tort, which has nothing to do with the paving contract. This of itself shows the importance of having such matters presented for allowance. The council might or might not have made an allowance such as was first sued for, — although, as previously decided, it was not a valid claim. But it is not at all probable that the city would have refused to pay for the sand, if actually appropriated and disposed of by the city. At any rate, the expenses of this litigation should not have been forced upon the city without a refusal to do justice.
We think the judgment should be reversed with costs and a new trial granted.
Marston and Graves, JJ., concurred. | [
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J. H. Gillis, P. J.
Defendant-appellant appeals by leave granted from the circuit court’s order affirming the district court’s judgment awarding plaintiff a brokerage commission. We reverse.
On June 28, 1982, plaintiff obtained a listing agreement from Doctor and Mrs. Pokorny, the land contract vendees, of the home at 80 Stillmeadow in Grosse Pointe Shores. The Pokornys agreed to pay plaintiff a seven percent commission if it sold their interest in the home. Plaintiff’s agent Paula Moore attempted to sell the home.
Defendant Michael Curis (hereinafter defendant), a licensed real estate broker, made an offer to Moore on September 30, 1982. The offer provided that plaintiff’s commission, as the selling broker, would be reduced from seven percent to three and one-half percent. Defendant, as the purchasing broker, would waive his three and one-half percent commission in order to make the offer more attractive to the seller and to reduce defendant’s cost. Defendant, who was purchasing the home with his wife, was also acting as his own broker on behalf of Curis Investment Company. Moore presented defendant’s offer to the Pokornys, who rejected it.
On October 12, 1982, defendant paid for a title search and learned that the Pokornys owed city and county taxes and had two mortgages and an attorney’s lien on the property. Defendant also learned that the land contract vendor was Doctor Joseph Sazyc.
On October 27, defendant made another offer. This offer was higher than his first offer, but its terms were similar. The Pokornys rejected defendant’s second offer.
On December 20, 1982, defendant purchased the home directly from Sazyc. He then foreclosed on the Pokornys’ land contract and, when they failed to redeem, he received the home. Plaintiff attempted to sell the property until the redemption period expired.
What occurred between the time the Pokornys rejected defendant’s second offer and defendant purchased the home is in dispute.
At trial, defendant testified that he requested a meeting with Alice Schultes, plaintiff’s manager, because he was dissatisfied with Moore’s handling of the transaction. Defendant claimed that Moore kept calling him to inform him that there were other higher offers on the home and, if he did not increase his offer, the home would be sold to someone else. Defendant then asked Ms. Schultes to handle the sale. Defendant claimed that Ms. Schultes then suggested a meeting between Sazyc, the Pokornys and defendant to see if an arrangement could be worked out where Sazyc would reduce his demands and enable the Pokornys to receive some money from the sale and, thereby, secure a sale to defendant and a commission for plaintiff. A meeting was set up; defendant did not know who arranged the meeting. Before the meeting, Moore called defendant and told him that she was bringing a commission letter for him to sign before the meeting could take place. Defendant stated that he would look the letter over. Defendant attended the meeting. The Pokornys were not present; however, their attorney was. Defendant was surprised that the Pokornys were not present. At the lunch meeting, nothing was resolved; however, Moore presented defendant with an agreement providing that he would pay plaintiff a commission if he purchased the home directly from Sazyc. Defendant read the agreement and gave it to his attorney, Paul Bringer. Because defendant had never agreed to pay a commission, the agreement was not signed. Defendant paid for the lunch. Defendant claimed that he was never asked to sign the agreement thereafter or contacted by Ms. Schultes. Defendant was contacted by Moore on the day after he signed the purchase agreement with Sazyc. At that time, she told defendant that plaintiff had received better offers for the Pokornys’ interest and that she could not represent defendant unless he signed the agreement. Defendant told Moore that he had already purchased the property.
Ms. Schultes testified that defendant asked for a meeting with her. Defendant asked her to personally handle the transaction. At that meeting, defendant also asked for her help in obtaining the home. Ms. Schultes suggested some higher prices to defendant and also suggested that they could work with Sazyc to mitigate his stance on the amount owing on the land contract. Thereafter, Moore contacted Ms. Schultes and told her that defendant wanted to meet with Sazyc because defendant could not spend more money than he had offered the Pokornys. Defendant was unable to reach Sazyc and, therefore, asked for plaintiffs help. Defendant had another meeting with Ms. Schultes. He told her "I will take care of you.” Although no amount was mentioned, Ms. Schultes claimed that it was understood that they were talking about one-half of the seven percent commission. The meeting between Sazyc and defendant took place on November 12. Prior to the meeting plaintiffs office prepared the following agreement:
It is hereby agreed that if an agreement results in a sale of property known as 80 Stillmeadow by and between Dr. Czak [sic] and Michael Curis, that a commission of 3.5% of the sale price shall be paid to Schultes Real Estate, Inc.
Dr. Czak [sic]
Michael Curis
Schultes Real Estate, Inc.
Ms. Schultes claimed that defendant asked Moore to bring the drafted agreement to the lunch meeting. Defendant agreed to sign the agreement if Sazyc appeared at the meeting. Ms. Schultes could not explain why Dr. Sazyc’s name was on the agreement even though only defendant had allegedly agreed to it. Ms. Schultes conceded that Sazyc never listed the property with plaintiff.
The next morning, Ms. Schultes found out from Moore and Bill Pratt, the Pokornys’ friend and attorney who had been present at the lunch meeting and who was also a real estate agent for plaintiff, that the agreement was unsigned. Ms. Schultes’ subsequent efforts to contact defendant or Bringer by telephone were unsuccessful and she later learned from the Pokornys that defendant had purchased the property from Sazyc. Plaintiff continued its attempts to sell the Pokornys’ interest until the redemption period was over.
Moore testified that, after the Pokornys rejected defendant’s second offer, defendant called her and asked her to set up a meeting with Sazyc. Moore obtained Safe’s unlisted telephone number from the Pokornys. Defendant suggested meeting at Paul’s Chop House but, because it was too far, the meeting was held at Pernie’s. Moore claimed that defendant promised to cover plaintiff’s commission if Moore brought Sazyc to the meeting. Moore, defendant, Bringer, Pratt and Sazyc were at the meeting. Moore represented plaintiff. Pratt, although also plaintiff’s agent, represented the Pokornys because they were unable to attend. Moore testified that she brought the agreement concerning the commission to the meeting. Moore claimed that Ms. Schultes and defendant had arranged for preparation of the document and had agreed over the telephone that defendant would sign it before the meeting. Moore asked Curis to sign the agreement two or three times. Defendant declined to do so, stating: "Don’t worry, I’ll handle it later.” Moore did not stop the meeting because Sazyc was there. After the meeting, she tried to call defendant and left messages, but he never returned her calls.
MCL 566.132(e); MSA 26.922(e) provides:
In the following cases an agreement, contract or promise shall be void, unless that agreement, contract or promise, or a note or memorandum thereof is in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith, or by a person authorized by him:
(e) An agreement, promise, or contract to pay a commission for or upon the sale of an interest in real estate.
In Thompson v Carey’s Real Estate, 335 Mich 474; 56 NW2d 255 (1953), our Supreme Court held that no written agreement concerning a commission was required where the plaintiff, a real estate agent employed by the defendant, agreed to receive as compensation a percentage of the commissions on sales originated by him. Our Court noted that the purpose of the statute was to protect real estate owners against unfounded or fraudulent claims of brokers and, therefore, compensation due from a real estate broker to his salesman-employee was not the type of commission contemplated under the statute. See also Borisoff v Schatten, 335 Mich 684; 57 NW2d 430 (1953).
In Benzos v Borisoff, 339 Mich 12; 62 NW2d 461 (1954), the plaintiff alleged that he and the defendant, another real estate broker, entered into an oral agreement whereby the defendant promised to pay the plaintiff fifty percent of the commission derived from a sale of real estate in exchange for the plaintiff’s information that the real estate was on the market. The plaintiff conveyed the information to the defendant and, thereafter, the defendant sold the property and garnered a $2,500 commission which he refused to share with the plaintiff. Our Supreme Court noted that there was no reason for the Legislature to require an agreement between brokers for services rendered for their mutual benefit to be in writing and, therefore, it held that compensation due from one real estate broker to another is not within the contemplation of the statute of frauds.
Defendant attempts to distinguish Benzos, claim ing that it involved a broker’s promise to furnish a customer in exchange for one-half of a written commission to be acquired from the landowner. Defendant claims that this case involves protection of a landowner from false claims of a commission and, therefore, he falls under the protection of the statute of frauds even though he was a real estate broker. Defendant relies on Phillippe v Shapell Industries, Inc, 207 Cal Rptr 483 (1984), where the California Court of Appeals held that the purchaser’s status as a licensed real estate broker was irrelevant because the statute of frauds protected purchasers as well as sellers of real estate from false claims of commission by real estate agents or brokers.
The district court found that defendant met with Ms. Schultes and asked her to help him buy the home. Thereafter, a meeting with Sazyc was suggested and defendant promised a commission to plaintiff if a sale was made between Sazyc and defendant. Moreover, the trial court found that defendant was acting as a broker when he made the promise and, therefore, no writing was required. The circuit court affirmed.
An appellate court will set aside the trial court’s findings of fact only when those findings are clearly erroneous. MCR 2.613(C). See also Michigan Ass’n of Psychotherapy Clinics v Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Michigan (After Remand), 118 Mich App 505, 513; 325 NW2d 471 (1982), lv den 417 Mich 1096 (1983). A finding of fact is clearly erroneous when, although there is evidence to support it, the reviewing court on the entire evidence is left with a definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been made. Michigan Ass’n of Psychotherapy Clinics, supra, p 513. In applying this rule, appellate courts should give special deference to the trial court’s findings when they are based upon its assessment of the witnesses’ credibility. MCR 2.613(C). See also In re Fritz Estate, 159 Mich App 69, 75-76; 406 NW2d 475 (1987).
We believe that the trial court’s findings of fact were clearly erroneous. First, we do not believe that defendant promised to pay plaintiffs commission in the event that he purchased the property from Sazyc. While Ms. Schultes’ and Moore’s testimony conflicted with defendant’s on this point, the fact that Pratt represented the Pokornys at this meeting supports defendant’s claim that the meeting was intended only to persuade Sazyc to reduce his demands concerning the Pokornys’ land contract so that a sale could be made between the Pokornys and defendant. If a direct sale were to be made between defendant and Sazyc, there would be no need for the Pokornys or their representative to be present.
In addition, Ms. Schultes and Moore differed in their version of why the commission agreement was prepared on November 12. While Ms. Schultes testified that Moore asked her to prepare the agreement pursuant to defendant’s instructions, Moore testified that she made no such request and that the agreement was drafted by Ms. Schultes pursuant to a prior telephone conversation Ms. Schultes had with defendant.
Furthermore, we nóte that the agreement itself provided for signature by defendant, as an individual, and Sazyc. As Ms. Schultes and Moore conceded, there was no agreement with Sazyc for a commission. Given these facts, we can only conclude that the meeting was scheduled for the purpose described by defendant. When Ms. Schultes and Moore realized that defendant and Sazyc might reach an agreement not involving a commission to be paid to plaintiff, they drafted the commission agreement which defendant refused to sign because he had not agreed to pay a commission if he purchased the home from Sazyc directly.
Assuming that defendant made such a promise, we also hold that the trial court clearly erred when it found that defendant was acting as a broker in doing so. We note that defendant was attempting to purchase the property for his own use. Ordinarily, defendant as a purchaser would not pay a commission on the sale of property he purchased; however, in making his offers to the Pokornys, defendant acted as a broker to reduce the amount of commission the Pokornys would have to pay and, thereby, reduce the cost of the home to himself. But, in defendant’s dealings with Sazyc, defendant received no commission which he could divide with plaintiff. Instead, defendant would have to pay the purchase price to Sazyc and,, then, pay a separate and additional three and one-half percent commission to plaintiff. Therefore, we conclude that defendant was acting as an individual purchaser if such a promise was made and, even though he was a licensed real estate broker, he was entitled to the protection of the statute of frauds. See Phillippe, supra. Compare Benzos, supra, where the defendant was clearly acting as a real estate agent for a commission.
Reversed.
Gribbs, J., concurred. | [
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E. M. Thomas, J.
Petitioners appeal as of right from a probate court order dismissing petitioners’ claim on the theory of res judicata. The claim was for reimbursement of the cost of caring for Anna Koernke while she was a patient at Ypsilanti State Hospital in the 1960s and early 1970s.
Anna Koernke died on August 7, 1985. Albert O. Koernke was appointed personal representative of her estate. For many years prior to her death, Anna Koernke was mentally incompetent and had a guardian, Ann Arbor Trust Company, to manage her estate. From 1960 until 1971 Anna Koernke was a patient at Ypsilanti State Hospital.
The State of Michigan filed a claim for reimbursement in 1970. In October, 1970, the probate court ordered that the Ann Arbor Trust Company pay $2,000 for past support and maintenance and that the claim be dismissed. The order did not state whether the dismissal was "with or without prejudice.”
In 1971 the State of Michigan again filed a claim for reimbursement in the probate court. The pro bate court issued an order, dated July 9, 1971, dismissing the petition when the guardian transferred the patient to a private facility. Again, this order did not state whether the dismissal was "with or without prejudice.”
After Anna Koernke died, the State of Michigan filed a claim against her estate. The probate court held that the state’s claim was barred under the principle of res judicata by the July 9, 1971, probate order. We affirm.
In order for a former judgment to be a bar, three requirements must be satisfied: (1) identity of subject matter; (2) identity of parties or their privies; and (3) a judgment on the merits. Tucker v Rohrback, 13 Mich 73, 75 (1864); Curry v Detroit, 394 Mich 327, 331; 231 NW2d 57 (1975). In the instant case there is some dispute on all three requirements but the main argument focuses on whether the July 9, 1971, dismissal was, or should be given the effect of, a judgment on the merits.
The test to be applied to determine if the subject matter of a second action is the same as that in a prior action is whether the facts are identical in both actions, or whether the same evidence would sustain both actions. If the same facts or evidence would sustain both, the two actions are considered the same for purposes of res judicata. York v Wayne Co Sheriff, 157 Mich App 417, 423; 403 NW2d 152 (1987).
Here, petitioners must establish, in both the 1971 petition and the present petition, that they have a right to be reimbursed for services rendered. There have been no new facts or changed circumstances on the issue of respondent’s liability. Therefore, the first prong of the res judicata test is met.
As to the second prerequisite, the parties in the two actions are nominally different. The previous claim was against Ann Arbor Trust Company, as guardian of the estate of Anna Koernke, mentally incompetent. The instant claim is against Albert Koernke, personal representative of the estate of Anna Koernke, deceased. However, Albert Koernke acquired his interest in the subject matter by succession after the death of Anna Koernke. Therefore, respondent Albert Koernke was a privy to the interests of the original respondent, and the second prerequisite for the application of the doctrine of res judicata was satisfied. Sloan v Madison Heights, 425 Mich 288, 295-296; 389 NW2d 418 (1986).
The last prong of the res judicata rule requires that the former adjudication must have been decided on the merits. It is undisputed that the 1971 dismissal was voluntary. A voluntary dismissal can constitute a decision on the merits. Brownridge v Michigan Mutual Ins Co, 115 Mich App 745, 748; 321 NW2d 798 (1982). However, the order in Brownridge specified that the dismissal was "with prejudice.” The order in the instant case does not specify that it was either "with prejudice” or "without prejudice.”
In 1971 the rules for the probate court were silent regarding the effect of an order which did not indicate whether it was with or without prejudice. Thus we turn to the common law and find that an order, complete on its face but silent as to "prejudice,” is presumed to be a disposition on the merits. Dalton v Mertz, 197 Mich 390; 163 NW 912 (1917). Since the July 9, 1971, probate order does not state that it was "without prejudice,” we must conclude that the order was a judgment on the merits. Consequently, res judicata bars petitioners from bringing their claim.
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Per Curiam.
This case comes to us on remand from our Supreme Court pursuant to MCR 7.302(F)(1) for consideration as on leave granted. The sole issue is whether the trial court erred in granting summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(7) in favor of defendants based on the statute of limitations. We affirm.
The instant case was the last of three proceedings commenced by plaintiff Linda Lausman based on an allegation that she involuntarily resigned from her position as a juvenile officer with the Benton Township Police Department on December 1, 1980, as a result of sex discrimination. Plaintiff first filed a complaint with the Michigan Civil Rights Commission. On August 14, 1984, the commission granted plaintiff’s request to dismiss her complaint against defendant Benton Township so that she could proceed with her sex discrimination claim in the circuit court.
Next, on January 19, 1982, plaintiff commenced a circuit court action by filing a complaint which named as defendants Benton Township, the Benton Township Police Department, Township Supervisor James Benson, Police Chief Paul Farris, Police Captain Jack Drach, and police officers Dave Nelson, Kim Fowler and Richard Davis. On October 3, 1983, that action was dismissed for lack of progress.
On August 14, 1985, plaintiff commenced the instant action in circuit court against the same defendants, alleging sex discrimination under the Michigan Civil Rights Act, MCL 37.2101 et seq.; MSA 3.548(101) et seq.
In response to the complaint, defendants Davis and Nelson filed a motion for summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(7) on the basis of the statute of limitations. The other defendants followed with a similar motion on September 4, 1985. The record of the motion hearing, held on May 27, 1986, reveals no material dispute except for the issue of how long the limitation period was tolled as a result of plaintiffs prior circuit court action which had been dismissed for lack of progress. The circuit court resolved the motions based on the parties’ briefs and their supporting proofs.
The undisputed facts were that the three-year limitation period of MCL 600.5805(8); MSA 27A.5805(8) applied to plaintiffs complaint of August 14, 1985, and that plaintiffs cause of action accrued on December 1, 1980, which was her last date of employment. Since the complaint was filed more than three years after plaintiffs cause of action accrued, it was not disputed that plaintiffs claim was barred unless the limitation period was tolled.
Relying on the tolling statute, MCL 600.5856; MSA 27A.5856, defendants argue that the limitation period was tolled commencing January 22, 1982, the date a copy of plaintiffs complaint was placed in the hands of an officer for service, until October 3, 1983, the date plaintiffs complaint was dismissed. As factual support for their motions, defendants submitted the affidavit of the officer who was given plaintiffs complaint and summons for service. Under defendants’ computation, the limitation period expired two days prior to plaintiffs commencing her present action on August 14, 1985.
By contrast, plaintiff contended that the tolling period commenced on January 19, 1982, the date she filed her prior complaint in the circuit court. Thus, under plaintiffs computation, she filed her present action one day before the limitation period expired. Plaintiff argued that the tolling statute, when read with MCR 2.101(B), the court rule establishing the filing of a complaint as the com mencement of an action, supported her position. In addition, and as factual support in opposition to defendants’ motions, plaintiff submitted evidence of defendants’ actual knowledge of her action prior to January 22, 1982.
In granting summary disposition in favor of defendants, the circuit court agreed with defendants’ interpretation of the tolling statute. On appeal, plaintiff continues to argue that the tolling period commenced on January 19, 1982. We disagree.
Tolling provisions, like statutes of limitation, are of legislative creation. Mair v Consumers Power Co, 419 Mich 74, 85; 348 NW2d 256 (1984). To toll the running of a period of limitation means to show facts removing its bar of the action. Buscaino v Rhodes, 385 Mich 474, 481; 189 NW2d 202 (1971). Tolling provisions protect a plaintiffs right to bring an action and prevent a defendant from defeating a claim by absenting himself from the jurisdiction. Frazier v Castellani, 130 Mich App 9, 14; 342 NW2d 623 (1983), lv den 419 Mich 935 (1984). By contrast, the statutes of limitation are designed to promote a plaintiffs diligence, to prevent the litigation of stale claims, and to establish a reasonable, but limited, time for bringing an action. Id., p 14. Generally, exceptions to statutes of limitation are strictly construed. Mair, supra, p 80.
Here, the tolling statute in question provides:
The statutes o,f limitations are tolled when
(1) the complaint is filed and a copy of the summons and complaint are served on the defendant, or when
(2) jurisdiction over the defendant is otherwise acquired, or when,
(3) the complaint is filed and a copy of the summons and complaint in good faith, are placed in the hands of an officer for immediate service, but in this case the statute shall not be tolled longer than 90 days thereafter. [MCL 600.5856; MSA 27A.5856.]
This provision has been liberally construed by this Court to allow the litigation of apparently valid claims of which defendant had timely notice. Affiliated Bank of Middleton v American Ins Co, 77 Mich App 376, 379; 258 NW2d 232 (1977). However, the provision deals only with prior lawsuits which have not adjudicated the merits of the action and does not come into play unless the present action was not commenced within the limitation period. Buscaino, supra, pp 481-482.
Plaintiffs contention that her prior action was commenced on the filing of her complaint may be true under MCR 2.101(B), Buscaino, supra, p 481, but the date of commencement of the prior action is immaterial. The material fact, as pointed out in Buscaino, is the period during which the statute of limitations was tolled, and tolling was not triggered under MCL 600.5856(3); MSA 27A.5856(3), as to a prior suit until "the summons and complaint in good faith, are placed in the hands of an officer for immediate service . . . .” Sanderfer v Mt Clemens General Hospital, 105 Mich App 458; 306 NW2d 322 (1981); Andrews v Allstate Ins Co, 479 F Supp 481 (ED Mich, 1979).
Accordingly, the trial court did not err in granting summary disposition in favor of defendants under MCR 2.116(C)(7). The tolling period did not commence until plaintiffs complaint and summons were placed in the hands of an officer for immediate service. MCL 600.5856(3); MSA 27A.5856(3).
Affirmed. | [
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Levin, J.
The question presented is whether a worker who has obtained an award of workers’ compensation benefits that is pending on appeal to the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board must seek to present to the wcab, during its review of the earlier award, evidence of a change in physical condition, which occurred after the award, that the worker claims supports a further and separate claim of benefits arising from the same injury in order to avoid the bar of res judicata and preserve his right to a hearing on the further and separate claim. We hold that he is not required to seek to present the evidence during the appeal.
The Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board found, in October, 1974, that Jessie Askew was injured on February 19, 1971, and affirmed a referee’s November, 1972, decision awarding her benefits for a closed period from February 20, 1971, to July 26, 1971.
Subsequently, in a separate proceeding, the wcab found that there had been a change in Askew’s physical condition which occurred after the November, 1972, hearing and award, but before the hearing and decision by the wcab on review of that award. The wcab found in that second proceeding that Askew was entitled to continuing benefits from a date in 1973, on the basis of testimony of medical experts who made a diagnosis in 1973 (i.e., before the wcab’s 1974 decision in the first proceeding) of problems arising from the 1971 injury that were not evident in 1972 when the hearing before the referee that resulted in the earlier award was held.
An order of a referee can be and is dispositive unless an appeal is taken to the wcab. Here, Askew took an appeal in the first proceeding to the wcab. It was her claim, rejected in 1974 by the wcab in that proceeding, that the record made before the referee at the first hearing in November, 1972, supported an award of benefits beyond the five-month closed period for which they were awarded.
The wcab found in the second proceeding that there was evidence of a change in physical condition commencing in 1973. That evidence, accordingly, could not have been made part of the record at the time of the first hearing in November, 1972. Askew’s employer, the Ann Arbor Public Schools, contends that because the additional evidence was available in 1973 — while the referee’s 1972 decision was still pending on appeal to the wcab— Askew should have sought to present the additional evidence during the wcab review in the first proceeding before the 1974 wcab decision in that proceeding was made.
The workers’ compensation act provided that if a claim for review by the wcab' of a referee’s decision is filed, the wcab ”may hear the parties, together with such additional evidence as it in its discretion may allow them to submit . . . .”
The Court of Appeals agreed with the Ann Arbor Public Schools that Askew should have sought to present the evidence that she was disabled from a date in 1973 to the wcab during its review in the first proceeding and held that Askew was precluded by the doctrine of res judicata from obtaining continuing benefits. The Court of Appeals observed that this Court in Gose v Monroe Auto Equip Co, 409 Mich 147, 160-161; 294 NW2d 165 (1980), had said in effect "that the doctrine of res judicata bars a claim which a plaintiff in a worker’s compensation case could have brought, but did not.”
Ann Arbor Public Schools argues that when an appeal is taken from a referee’s decision to the wcab, the decision of the wcab and not the decision of the referee is the "award” within the meaning of this Court’s repetition in Gose of its earlier statement in Hlady v Wolverine Bolt Co, 393 Mich 368, 375-376; 224 NW2d 856 (1975), " 'that a compensation award is an adjudication as to the condition of the injured workman at the time it is entered, and conclusive of all matters adjudicable at that time.’ ”
In neither Gose nor Hlady, however, did this Court focus on the question now presented, whether the "time” of the award for res judicata purposes is the date of the decision by the referee or the date of the decision by the wcab where an intervening change in physical condition may, as recognized in the passage from Hlady quoted in Gose, justify a further award of benefits or the stopping of payment on an award previously entered.
This Court’s decisions in Gose and Hlady that the doctrine of res judicata bars claims actually litigated and also those arising out of the same transaction that could have been, but were not, brought does not address the question whether a worker who has obtained a referee’s award that is pending on appeal to the wcab must seek to present, during the wcab’s review of the earlier award, evidence in support of a further and separate claim for benefits on the basis of a change in physical condition that occurred after the referee’s award arising from the same injury to avoid the bar of res judicata and preserve his right to a hearing on the further and separate claim.
Neither general res judicata doctrine nor policy requires one result in preference to the other. Requiring a worker claiming further benefits or an employer claiming that payment of benefits should be stopped to seek to present to the wcab evidence of a change in physical condition that occurs during the pendency of an appeal thereto would not be unfair as long as sufficient time remained to do so before the wcab ruled and the request to present the evidence would not unduly delay the ultimate decision. In the instant case, however, the wcab indicated that the worker or employer is not required to seek to present such evidence on appeal.
The wcab declared in the instant case that, for purposes of the application of the doctrine of res judicata, the date of the first hearing and decision before the referee, November, 1972 — and not the date of the hearing before or the decision by the wcab — was determinative. The wcab said that the November, 1972, decision was res judicata "as to plaintiffs physical condition through the date of hearing.” (Emphasis in original.)* ****** That declaration of the wcab may reflect an assessment of the frequency with which petitions to present additional evidence are granted by the wcab, the likelihood of delay if such petitions are routinely granted, or the systemic or substantive problems that might develop if the determinative date is the date of decision by the wcab (or the date of a hearing before the wcab or a date preceding the hearing).
It is clear from the language of the statute ("as it in its discretion may allow”) and well established that had Askew sought to introduce the additional evidence, the wcab would not have been obliged to hear it.* Adoption of the rule advocated by Ann Arbor Public Schools would not, unless the wcab were to routinely grant petitions to submit additional evidence, result in the economies of a single adjudication visualized by the Ann Arbor Public Schools.
If we were to adopt the rule advocated by the Ann Arbor Public Schools, it would have operative effect only in cases where the wcab chose to grant a petition to submit additional evidence and in cases where no such petition was filed. In those cases where a petition was filed and the wcab declined to receive additional evidence, the worker would clearly be entitled to a hearing before a referee regarding a further and separate claim to benefits.
Adoption of a rule making the date of hearing or award by the wcab determinative might produce a mountain of additional "protective” petitions that would be routinely denied by the wcab and become a source of considerable litigation in those cases where a petition was not filed on the question whether a protective petition was required to be filed.
1985 PA 103 provides a new administrative procedure for adjudicating contested claims for workers’ compensation. Applications for hearing filed after March 31, 1986, are to be heard by a workers’ compensation magistrate rather than a referee. An appeal from the magistrate’s decision is to be taken to the newly established workers’ compensation appellate commission in lieu of the wcab. Act 103 provides for the phasing out of the functions of the referee and the wcab. The wcab reviews a decision of a referee de novo. The findings of fact of a magistrate are to be considered conclusive by the commission if supported by competent, material, and substantial evidence on the whole record.
Under the new procedure established by Act 103, authorization for the taking of additional evidence on review to establish a change in physical condition has been eliminated. The appellate commission "may remand a matter to a worker’s compensation magistrate for purposes of supplying a complete record if it is determined that the record is insufficient for purposes of review.” The determinative date for res judicata purposes under the new procedure will be the hearing before the magistrate. The Legislature has thus enacted an administrative system for adjudicating contested claims for workers’ compensation that clearly does not contemplate the taking of additional evidence on appeal where there has been a change in physical condition. If we were to adopt the new rule advocated by the Ann Arbor Public Schools and reverse the decision of the wcab in the instant case, it would affect only those cases where a hearing was sought before April 1, 1986.
Although a referee’s decision is reviewable de novo by the wcab, it does not follow that the date of decision by the wcab is determinative for res judicata purposes. The wcab reviews the record made before the referee. The wcab decision is " 'conclusive of all matters adjudicable, [including the condition of the injured worker] at [the] time’ ” that record was made. The question here presented is whether the worker must, to prevent application of the doctrine of res judicata, seek to expand that record to include evidence of a change in physical condition that occurred after the referee’s hearing was concluded.
Adoption of a rule making the date of hearing or award by the wcab determinative could work against employers in other cases. If there has been a change in the physical condition of a worker receiving benefits pursuant to an order of a referee or the wcab, an employer may seek a stop-payment order. If we were to hold that an injured worker is required to seek to present evidence of a change in physical condition occurring between the referee’s award and the hearing before the wcab, then an employer might also be required to seek to present evidence of a change in condition justifying a stop-payment order where the employer was aware (or possibly should , have been aware) of the change in condition between the referee hearing and the wcab hearing.
Having in mind the difficulty confronting the wcab in disposing of the backlog of cases still subject to its jurisdiction, we decline to adopt a new rule that might further add to its burden and exacerbate the problem with which it is confronted by requiring injured workers and employers to file petitions seeking to present evidence of a change in physical condition, which occurs between the referee and the wcab hearings, to the wcab during its review to avoid a possible res judicata determination. Were we to adopt such a rule, the wcab could deny all such petitions. Then a decision of this Court adopting such a rule would have added more paperwork (in cases where a petition was filed and denied), created a trap for the unwary (in cases where a petition was not filed), and become a source of litigation for the magistrates, the appellate commission, and the wcab as well, who would be called upon in cases where a petition was not filed to assess whether, in particular cases, a petition to present such evidence should have been filed with the wcab.
We are not persuaded that the administration of justice would be advanced by adoption of a rule requiring the employee to present evidence of a change in physical condition, which occurred after the award, that the worker claims supports a further and separate claim of benefits, arising from the same injury in order to avoid the bar of res judicata and preserve his right to a hearing on the further and separate claim._
We emphasize that although both of Askew’s claims arose out of the same injury, Askew’s claim in the second proceeding was based on a change in physical condition that occurred after the hearing before the referee in the first proceeding had concluded which gave rise to a claim separate and distinct from her claim in the first proceeding.
We reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals and remand the cause to the wcab.
Brickley, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
On December 26, 1984. See n 2.
March 23, 1976. This award was based on a petition for benefits filed March 23, 1977. The one-year back rule, MCL 418.833; MSA 17.237(833), was applied, and that explains why benefits were awarded from March 23, 1976, rather than from the 1973 date of disability.
The referee dismissed the petition, stating that the decision of November, 1972, was res judicata. The wcab reversed in October, 1978, and remanded for a hearing on the merits. The wcab said the prior decision was res judicata "as to plaintiff’s physical condition through the date of hearing.” (Emphasis in original.) The Court of Appeals denied leave to appeal in December, 1978.
On remand, the referee entered an order denying benefits, stating that there had been no worsening or change in Askew’s condition. On appeal, the wcab, by order dated December 26, 1984, disagreed with the referee and, in a two to one decision, awarded continuing benefits from March 23, 1976.
The Court of Appeals granted leave to appeal on March 28, 1985, and reversed on June 12, 1986. We granted leave to appeal, limited to the issue of the application of the doctrine of res judicata in this case. Askew v Ann Arbor Public Schools, 428 Mich 857; 399 NW2d 397 (1987).
November, 1972.
MCL 418.851, 418.863; MSA 17.237(851), 17.237(863).
MCL 418.859; MSA 17.237(859). The statute was amended by 1985 PA 103; the quoted phrase now reads: "may hear the parties, together with such additional evidence as it may allow . . . .”
Askew v Ann Arbor Public Schools, unpublished opinion per curiam of the Court of Appeals, decided June 12, 1986 (Docket No. 82704).
" 'The general rule with respect to the effect upon the application of the principles of res judicata to decisions under workmen’s compensation acts, of a provision authorizing the modification of an award upon a showing of a change in the employee’s condition, is that a compensation award is an adjudication as to the condition of the injured workman at the time it is entered, and conclusive of all matters adjudicable at that time, but it is not an adjudication as to the claimant’s future condition and does not preclude subsequent awards or subsequent modifications of the original award upon a showing that the employee’s physical condition has changed. . . .’” Hlady v Wolverine Bolt Co, 393 Mich 368, 375-376; 224 NW2d 856 (1975) (emphasis supplied in Hlady). [Gose v Monroe Auto Equip, 409 Mich 147, 160-161; 294 NW2d 165 (1980).]
Dimensions of "Claim” for Purposes of Merger or Bar — General Rule Concerning "Splitting”
(1) When a valid and final judgment rendered in an action extinguishes the plaintiffs claim pursuant to the rules of merger or bar (see §§ 18, 19), the claim extinguished includes all rights of the plaintiff to remedies against the defendant with respect to all or any part of the transaction, or series of connected transactions, out of which the action arose.
(2) What factual grouping constitutes a "transaction,” and what groupings constitute a "series,” are to be determined pragmatically, giving weight to such considerations as whether the facts are related in time, space, origin, or motivation, whether they form a convenient trial unit, and whether their treatment as a unit conforms to the parties’ expectations or business understanding or usage. [1 Restatement Judgments, 2d, § 24, p 196.]
We recognize that the view expressed in this wcab opinion may not be shared by all members of the wcab. There is, however, no decision of the wcab to the contrary.
Ann Arbor Public Schools relies on the statement of a member of the wcab who filed a concurring opinion in another case, stating the procedure to be followed when an employer, in that case, or an employee files a new petition on the basis of a change in physical condition after an initial decision and award or denial by a referee. In this case no such petition was filed.
We regard as noteworthy that the wcab’s decision in the instant case, on the question whether a petition to take additional evidence must be filed with the wcab, during the pendency of the appeal before it, to avoid the bar of res judicata where there has been a change in physical condition during the pendency of the appeal, was written by the chairman of the wcab and signed by four other members without qualification.
See text accompanying n 5.
When the doctrine of res judicata has been invoked to bar a claim not presented, the party against whom it has been applied, generally if not invariably, has had an opportunity to present as of right the claim not presented, but failed to do so. In the instant case, Askew did not have a right to present a claim for continuing benefits during the course of her appeal to the wcab from the 1972 referee decision. While we do not predicate decision on the basis that she did not have a right to so present her claim, we do not wish to be understood as intimating that the doctrine of res judicata may be invoked in respect to a claim not presented where the claim may not be presented as of right.
See MCL 418.859; MSA 17.237(859); Kostamo v Marquette Iron Mining Co, 405 Mich 105, 135; 274 NW2d 411 (1979).
MCL 418.861a; MSA 17.237(861a). See Civil Service Comm v Dep’t of Labor, 424 Mich 571; 384 NW2d 728 (1986).
MCL 418.861a(12); MSA 17.237(861a)(12).
See n 12.
Hlady, supra, 376.
Payment of seventy percent of weekly benefits awarded by a referee is required during the pendency of an appeal to the wcab. MCL 418.862; MSA 17.237(862). | [
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Cavanagh, J.
Defendant asserts that, contrary to Estelle v Smith, 451 US 454; 101 S Ct 1866; 68 L Ed 2d 359 (1981), he was not properly informed that he had a Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination and a Sixth Amendment right to counsel at his presentence psychiatric examination. We hold that defendant’s Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights were adequately protected by the procedures followed by the trial court and the Detroit Recorder’s Court psychiatric clinic. We thus uphold the Court of Appeals affirmance of defendant’s conviction.
BACKGROUND
Following a jury trial in Recorder’s Court, defendant was convicted of second-degree murder. At the end of trial in the presence of counsel, the trial judge ordered the defendant to be examined in the Recorder’s Court psychiatric clinic prior to sentencing. Neither defendant nor his counsel objected. The examining psychologist concluded that defendant was assaultive, antisocial, and posed a high risk to the community. At sentencing, the trial judge referred to these findings and sentenced defendant to forty to seventy years’ imprisonment. In addition to other issues raised in the Court of Appeals, defendant asserted noncompliance with Estelle v Smith, supra, in which the United States Supreme Court held that when the results of a psychiatric examination are used in determining the nature and severity of a convicted defendant’s sentence, the defendant’s Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and Sixth Amendment right to counsel attach. The Court of Appeals affirmed defendant’s conviction in an unpublished opinion without discussing Estelle.
We granted leave to appeal limited to the issue whether the psychiatric examination was improperly conducted in violation of defendant’s Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. 426 Mich 864 (1986). Although not included within our order granting leave, we will also discuss the alleged violation of defendant’s Sixth Amendment right to counsel, which was briefed by both parties.
Before discussing the Estelle holding and the present issues, it is helpful to summarize the three types of psychiatric examinations which are typically performed at forensic psychiatric clinics, and the importance of the one involved here. When a defendant’s competency to stand trial is questioned, a competency examination is given to determine his mental state at the time of trial to assure that he understands the charges against him and can knowingly assist in his defense. When a defendant pleads not guilty by reason of insanity, a criminal responsibility or sanity examination is given to determine the defendant’s mental state at the time of the offense.
In Michigan, the results of competency examinations may not be used at trial as evidence of a defendant’s guilt, obviating Fifth Amendment concerns regarding self-incrimination. Also, a defendant must submit to, and participate in, a criminal responsibility examination before being allowed to present an insanity defense at trial. Statements made during that examination are not admissible on any issue other than the defendant’s mental illness or insanity at the time of the alleged offense. The Estelle Court confirmed that the Fifth Amendment right to remain silent is not implicated when the results of the competency and sanity examinations are used for their intended purposes:
[T]he interview with Dr. Grigson [the examining psychiatrist] cannot be characterized as a routine competency examination restricted to ensuring that respondent understood the charges against him and was capable of assisting in his defense. Indeed, if the application of Dr. Grigson’s findings had been confined to serving that function, no Fifth Amendment issue would have arisen.
Nor was the interview analogous to a sanity examination occasioned by a defendant’s plea of not guilty by reason of insanity at the time of his offense. When a defendant asserts the insanity defense and introduces supporting psychiatric testimony, his silence may deprive the State of the only effective means it has of controverting his proof on an issue that he interjected into the case. Accordingly, several Courts of Appeals have held that, under such circumstances, a defendant can be required to submit to a sanity éxamination conducted by the prosecution’s psychiatrist. [451 US 465.]
The third type of psychiatric examination is the postconviction presentence evaluation, which is either court-ordered or requested as part of the presentence investigative process to determine the defendant’s character traits for purposes of sentencing. In Michigan, the Legislature has expressly provided for the preparation of a presentence investigation report in § 14 of the Code of Criminal Procedure:
(1) Before sentencing any person charged with a felony, . . . the probation officer shall inquire into the antecedents, character, and circumstances of the person, and shall report in writing to the court. [MCL 771.14(1); MSA 28.1144(1).]
Implicit within § 14 is the option of having a psychiatric examination performed during the presentence investigation. MCL 771.14(7); MSA 28.1144(7). This is the type of examination which was performed in the present case.
Deciding the appropriate sentence for a convicted criminal is perhaps the most critical stage of a successful criminal prosecution. The information gathered during the state’s presentence investigation is usually heavily relied on by the sen- fencing judge, hence its importance cannot be overemphasized.
In Estelle, the Supreme Court held that the prosecution’s use of certain psychiatric testimony at the sentencing phase of the defendant’s murder trial violated his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights. In that case, the defendant was convicted of first-degree murder in Texas and was sentenced to death. At the time of the defendant’s trial, Texas law required two jury proceedings to impose the death penalty: one to decide guilt and one to determine the penalty. Following conviction in the guilt phase, the state had the burden of proof on three questions in the penalty phase. If the jury answered the questions affirmatively, the judge was bound to impose the death penalty. Of these three inquiries, the one at issue in Estelle was the defendant’s future dangerousness. The examination which produced the objectionable information was a pretrial competency examination which had been routinely ordered by the judge because the defendant faced the death penalty. The examining psychiatrist, however, was also called as a witness during the penalty phase where he testified extensively regarding the defendant’s sociopathic character and future dangerousness. The jury answered the "future dangerousness” question and the other two questions affirmatively, and the defendant was sentenced to death.
FIFTH AMENDMENT ISSUE
The Estelle Court held that because the psychiatric examination was used in determining the nature and severity of defendant’s sentence, his Fifth Amendment right attached at the examination:
The essence of this basic constitutional principle is "the requirement that the State which proposes to convict and punish an individual produce the evidence against him by the independent labor of its officers, not by the simple, cruel expedient of forcing it from his own lips.” [451 US 462.]
We agree with the defendant in the present case that he, too, had a Fifth Amendment right to remain silent at his presentence psychiatric examination. It is not relevant that the defendant’s examination occurred prior to trial in Estelle and after trial here. Both examinations were used in determining the severity of the defendant’s sentence, which was what the Estelle Court focused on:
Just as the Fifth Amendment prevents a criminal defendant from being made " 'the deluded instrument of his own conviction,’ ”... it protects him as well from being made the "deluded instrument” of his own execution.
We can discern no basis to distinguish between the guilt and penalty phases of respondent’s capital murder trial so far as the protection of the Fifth Amendment privilege is concerned. [451 US 462-463.]
The Estelle Court rejected the state’s argument that, like voice and handwriting exemplars, lineups, and blood samples, the defendant’s statements were not used for their testimonial content:
Dr. Grigson’s diagnosis, as detailed in his testimony, was not based simply on his observation of respondent. Rather, Dr. Grigson drew his conclusions largely from respondent’s account of the crime during their interview, and he placed particular emphasis on what he considered to be respondent’s lack of remorse. [451 US 464.]
As in Estelle, defendant’s statements in the present case were testimonial in nature. The examining psychologist relied on the content of defendant’s statements to draw several conclusions about him, including that he was prone to act out in an aggressive manner, and that he was a high social risk to the community. _
The Estelle Court concluded that defendant Smith’s Fifth Amendment right had not been adequately protected because the defendant was not advised that the results of the competency examination would be later used by the state in seeking the death penalty:
The state trial judge, sua sponte, ordered a psychiatric evaluation of respondent for the limited, neutral purpose of determining his competency to stand trial, but the results of that inquiry were used by the State for a much broader objective that was plainly adverse to respondent. [451 US 465.]
Under the above circumstances, the Estelle Court held that defendant should have received warnings, pursuant to Miranda v Arizona, 384 US 436; 86 S Ct 1602; 16 L Ed 2d 694 (1966), that he had a right to remain silent and that any statement he made could be used against him at a sentencing proceeding.
In Miranda, the Court was concerned with protecting a suspect’s Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination under "inherently compelling pressures,” and thus specified mandatory warnings to alert the suspect of his rights. At the time of a suspect’s arrest, he is without counsel, usually without knowledge of the precise limits of the potential charges he faces, and without knowledge of the information which the police have to implicate him in criminal activity. In these circumstances, and in light of the history showing frequent abuses of a prisoner’s rights, the Supreme Court in Miranda adopted a prophylactic rule: precise warnings of specific rights must be given and clear waivers of those rights obtained, before a prisoner can be interrogated. 384 US 475.
Relying on Miranda, the Estelle Court held:
[AJbsent other fully effective procedures, a person in custody must receive certain warnings before any official interrogation, including that he has a "right to remain silent” and that "anything said can and will be used against the individual in court.”
The considerations calling for the accused to be warned prior to custodial interrogation apply with no less force to the pretrial psychiatric examination at issue here. [451 US 466-467. Emphasis added.]
Defendant asserts that the requirements of Estelle must be strictly followed in any psychiatric examination which is considered in determining the severity of a defendant’s sentence. However, the emphasized portions of the above quotation, and the following footnote, suggest otherwise:
Of course, we do not hold that the same Fifth Amendment concerns are necessarily presented by all types of interviews and examinations that might be ordered or relied upon to inform a sentencing determination. [451 US 469, n 13.]
Defendant’s examination constituted custodial interrogation in one sense because he was being questioned while in custody. However, such questioning was not tantamount to the custodial interrogation which troubled the Miranda Court, where defendants were subjected to "incommunicado interrogation ... in a police-dominated atmosphere” without being warned of their rights to remain silent or to the assistance of counsel. 384 US 445. In the present case, defendant was questioned by the psychologist after having had the assistance of counsel throughout trial. We can presume that the defendant’s attorney had already counseled defendant and informed him of his right against self-incrimination. Similarly, the considerations which led the Estelle Court to find that "inherently compelling pressures” were at work on the defendant in that case are absent here.*
First, the information in Estelle was obtained during a competency examination. That type of examination is ordinarily not used to provide information for sentencing, and in fact the defendant in Estelle was not informed that his competency examination would be used for such purpose. Here, the information was obtained from a presentence examination which was clearly conducted to evaluate the defendant’s character exclusively for sentencing purposes. Moreover, at the examination the psychologist preceded the evaluation by reading the following information to defendant:
I am one of several examiners of the Psychiatric Clinic of Recorder’s Court who will examine and talk to you. We must give to the Court a report of our findings and possibly an option or a recommendation.
The Clinic serves only as an adviser to the Court and cannot determine the outcome of your case.
The examiner then asked defendant whether he understood what he had been told and whether he was willing to proceed. Defendant responded "Yes” to both questions. Thus, unlike the defendant in Estelle, defendant here knew as he spoke what his answers would be used for.
Second, the examination in Estelle was used by the state to prove one of the three elements required to obtain the death penalty. The Estelle Court repeatedly focused on Texas’ unique system and the fact that the defendant faced the death penalty. In the present case, the information appeared to be used generally to reach a fair prison sentence. There were no elements which the state needed to prove beyond a reasonable doubt, which the examination might have helped it do.
The real teaching of Miranda, and Estelle’s application of it, is not a rigid formula, but that the Fifth Amendment must be protected. It would exalt form over substance to say under the facts of the present case that defendant’s Fifth Amendment right was violated. The examiner’s explanation of the purpose and potential use of the examination, and the inquiry whether defendant was willing to proceed, adequately protected that right.
We emphasize that the absence of uncounseled and coercive interrogations of the kind which called for precise warnings in Miranda and Estelle does not negate the continued existence of a Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. For example, no one would deny that, under the Fifth Amendment, a defendant on trial has a right to remain silent. Yet it has never been argued that failure to give explicit Miranda warnings before he testifies would require reversal of a testifying defendant’s conviction. Therefore, while we conclude that precise Miranda warnings were not required in the present case to protect defendant’s right against self-incrimination, we nonetheless hold that such right attaches at a court-ordered psychiatric examination used for sentencing purposes.
SIXTH AMENDMENT ISSUE
As stated earlier, we did not grant leave on the Sixth Amendment issue raised by defendant. Assuming arguendo that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel recognized in Estelle applies to the present defendant, we find no violation of that right.
In Powell v Alabama, 287 US 45, 57; 53 S Ct 55; 77 L Ed 158 (1932), the United States Supreme Court held that a defendant has a Sixth Amendment right to counsel at all critical stages of criminal proceedings. The Estelle Court determined that the defendant had a Sixth Amendment right to the assistance of counsel before submitting to the psychiatric examination:
[R]espondent’s Sixth Amendment right to counsel clearly had attached when Dr. Grigson examined him at the Dallas County Jail, and their interview proved to be a "critical stage” of the aggregate proceedings against respondent. [451 US 470.]
The Court clarified in a footnote that it was not holding that the defendant had a right under the Sixth Amendment to have counsel present during the examination:
[T]he issue before us is whether a defendant’s Sixth Amendment right to the assistance of counsel is abridged when the defendant is not given prior opportunity to consult with counsel about his participation in the psychiatric examination. . . .
Respondent does not assert, and the Court of Appeals did not find, any constitutional right to have counsel actually present during the examination. In fact, the Court of Appeals recognized that "an attorney present during the psychiatric interview could contribute little and might seriously disrupt the examination.” [Smith v Estelle] 602 F2d [694], 708 [CA 5, 1979], [451 US 470, n 14. Emphasis added.]
The Estelle Court held that the defendant was not afforded his right to counsel because his attorneys were not notified in advance that the pretrial competency examination would also encompass the issue of their client’s future dangerousness:
[Respondent was denied the assistance of his attorneys in making the significant decision of [sic] whether to submit to the examination and to what end the psychiatrist’s findings could be employed. [451 US 471.]
In fact, there was some doubt that counsel had ever been informed of the competency examination itself. 451 US 471, n 15.
In the present case, defendant asserts that he and his counsel were not given sufficient notice of the presentence examination and, hence, that defendant was denied assistance of counsel prior to participating in the examination. Defendant’s claim is not supported by the record, however. The trial court ordered the examination in the presence of defendant and his counsel. The examination was held nearly two weeks later. This period of time afforded defendant ample opportunity to consult with his counsel prior to the examination. If defendant did not recognize such opportunity, it can be assumed, at the very least, that his counsel did. The facts which prompted the Estelle Court to find that the defendant’s Sixth Amendment right was violated are not presented here. Further, we decline to review defendant’s vague assertion that he had a right to have counsel present in the examining room. He relies exclusively on Estelle in asserting that right, and, as noted above, Estelle did not reach that issue.
While we affirm the Court of Appeals result, we do not adopt its rationale. Defendant’s conviction is affirmed.
Levin, Brickley, and Archer, JJ., concurred with Cavanagh, J.
Although this opinion and Estelle use the term "psychiatric” examination, our holding also applies to presentence examinations performed by psychologists and other mental health professionals.
In Michigan, see MCL 330.2020 et seq.; MSA 14.800(1020) et seq. See also MCR 6.106.
In Michigan, see MCL 768.20a; MSA 28.1043(1).
MCL 330.2028(3); MSA 14.800(1028)(3).
MCL 768.20a(4); MSA 28.1043(1)(4). See People v Martin, 386 Mich 407, 428; 192 NW2d 215 (1971). For the Sixth Circuit’s treatment of a Fifth Amendment claim under Estelle in the context of a sanity examination, see Watters v Hubbard, 725 F2d 381, 384 (CA 6, 1984).
MCL 768.20a(5); MSA 28.1043(1)(5). See, e.g., People v Jacobs, 138 Mich App 273, 276; 360 NW2d 593 (1984).
See, generally, 3 ABA Standards for Criminal Justice (2d ed), Sentencing Alternatives and Procedures, 18-5.1 to 18-5.6, pp 18-332 to 18-418.
See also People v Lee, 391 Mich 618, 635; 218 NW2d 655 (1974) (the presentence report is widely regarded as an effective method of supplying information essential to an informed sentencing decision); People v Brown, 393 Mich 174, 181; 224 NW2d 38 (1974) (a convicted felon may not waive the mandatory use of a presentence report at sentencing); People v Triplett, 407 Mich 510, 515; 287 NW2d 165 (1980) (a defendant must be resentenced when a reasonably updated presentence report is not used); People v Grier, 152 Mich App 129, 134; 393 NW2d 551 (1986), lv den 425 Mich 878 (1986) (a defendant has a right to be resentenced when his sentence is based upon inaccurate information in the presentence report); People v Harvey, 146 Mich App 631, 636; 381 NW2d 779 (1985) (a sentencing court must respond to a defendant’s allegations of inaccuracies in a presentence report); People v McKeever, 123 Mich App 533, 541; 332 NW2d 596 (1983), lv den 417 Mich 1100.9 (1983) (a defendant may not be sentenced on the basis of the presentence report prepared for another offense).
It has been suggested, in discussing pretrial evaluations, that to consider statements made during clinical evaluations to be nontestimonial is "to deny the reality of the clinical endeavor”:
Certain aspects of the clinical evaluation are clearly "nontestimonial” as that term has been defined by the Supreme Court. For example, part of the clinical assessment may consist of a physical examination. The clinical opinion may also rely, to some extent, on the defendant’s mannerisms, facial expressions, attention span, speech patterns, and other behavioral characteristics that manifest themselves during the evaluation. These physical traits are analagous [sic] to writing or voice exemplars, and compelled disclosure would probably not be considered violative of the Fifth Amendment even if they proved incriminating.
The bulk of the typical clinical assessment, however, consists of verbal communication between the evaluator and the defendant.
[E]ven when his goal is solely to reach conclusions about the defendant’s mental state, the clinician depends upon the meaning of the defendant’s statements, not upon their form. ... To use the Court’s wording in Estelle, almost every clinical evaluation relies heavily on the "substance” of the defendant’s statements. To exempt the defendant’s verbal disclosures during a pretrial clinical evaluation from Fifth Amendment scrutiny on the ground that they are nontestimonial would be to deny the reality of the clinical endeavor. [Slobogin, Estelle v Smith: The constitutional contours of the forensic evaluation, 31 Emory L J 71, 85-87 (1982).]
The above comments are even more apt regarding the type of evaluation in the present case. Examinations used to gather information which will be considered in imposing a sentence are more testimonial and potentially incriminating in nature than statements used solely to evaluate a defendant’s mental state.
384 US 467.
451 US 467.
Compare Jones v Cardwell, 686 F2d 754, 756 (CA 9, 1982).
There is no tape recording or transcript of the examination. In the appendix to its brief, the people provided a copy of the Recorder’s Court psychiatric clinic "Consent to Examination” form, which was used at defendant’s evaluation. Defendant has not challenged its accuracy.
A split of authority is developing at the federal level regarding Estelle’s applicability to noncapital sentencing proceedings. See n 6 of the dissent. The Sixth Circuit has not yet addressed that question, however. While the fact that the defendant faced the death penalty certainly heightened the Estelle Court’s concern over his Fifth Amendment right, we conclude that the right against self-incrimination recognized in Estelle also exists at noncapital sentencing evaluations. See, e.g., note, Fifth Amendment and compelled psychiatric examinations: Implications of Estelle v Smith, 50 Geo Wash L R 275, 295 (1982):
Although the Supreme Court did not venture beyond the context of a capital sentencing proceeding in Estelle, lower courts may justifiably rely upon Estelle in applying the fifth amendment to other sentencing procedures. Regardless of the crime committed, the state should be required to warn the defendant that his disclosures to the psychiatrist may lead to a longer sentence. The defendant should not be compelled to acquiesce in the psychiatric examination. Moreover, the sentencing judge should not be able to draw an adverse inference from the defendant’s failure to cooperate with the psychiatrist. This limitation on the use of psychiatric examinations is apparent from Estelle.
The warnings mandated by Miranda in themselves are not of constitutional dimensions. Michigan v Tucker, 417 US 433, 444; 94 S Ct 2357; 41 L Ed 2d 182 (1974).
Our holding today should not be read as diminishing the importance of receiving full Miranda warnings in situations which create the "inherently compelling pressures” discussed in Miranda and its progeny.
See Satterwhite v Texas, 486 US 249; 108 S Ct 1792; 100 L Ed 2d 284 (1988), where the Court adopted the harmless error rule of Chapman v California, 386 US 18; 87 S Ct 824; 17 L Ed 2d 705 (1967), for reviewing Sixth Amendment claims under Estelle.
But see, People v Martin, supra at 429, where the Court considered this question in the context of a sanity examination.
In addressing the present issues, the Court of Appeals did not cite Estelle, but simply referred to it as one of “the federal cases relied upon by defendant . . . .” The Court relied on three of its cases in contravening Estelle and holding that a psychiatric interview is not an adversarial proceeding at which a defendant’s Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights attach: People v Burton, 44 Mich App 732; 205 NW2d 873 (1973), lv den 389 Mich 795 (1973); People v Vroman, 148 Mich App 291; 384 NW2d 35 (1985); People v Murphy, 146 Mich App 724; 381 NW2d 798 (1985).
People v Burton was decided prior to Estelle, and thus the Court of Appeals reliance on it in evaluating defendant’s post-Estelle claims was of marginal value. To the extent Burton conflicts with our holding today, it is overruled.
People v Vroman does conflict with Estelle, which it fails to cite when rejecting Fifth and Sixth Amendment claims almost identical to the present ones:
As opposed to a sentencing conference, a defendant’s presentence interview is not an adversarial proceeding, but a diagnostic and rehabilitative procedure. Accordingly, the right against self-incrimination or to have counsel present does not attach. . . . Likewise, psychiatric evaluation is a diagnostic procedure to which we believe the privilege against self-incrimination is not applicable. The purpose of the privilege is to assure that no one will be convicted upon his own coerced confession. . . . We do not believe that the privilege should be extended to clinical interviews which take place after a guilty plea has been entered and which have a purpose quite different from the determination of guilt. [148 Mich App 297. Emphasis added.]
The above language from Vroman conflicts with Estelle and our present holding, and to that extent it is overruled.
People v Murphy supports the Court of Appeals result, but not its analysis. The Murphy Court did not reject the notion that a defendant is entitled to his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination at a psychiatric examination, as does the Court of Appeals here. In Murphy, the defendant was evaduated at a presentence postconviction psychiatric examination in the Recorder’s Court, where he was apparently given a consent form similar to the one used in the present case. The Murphy Court found that the Fifth Amendment rights existed, that the defendant was adequately informed of them, and that he waived them:
[D]efendant signed a waiver form and agreed to proceed with the full knowledge that the court could be informed of the results of the interview. Considering these facts, we feel that defendant voluntarily waived his rights and that the trial court properly considered the psychiatric report at sentencing. [146 Mich App 728.]
We reject that portion of Murphy which distinguished Estelle from its facts because Murphy’s psychiatric evaluation occurred after he was convicted. | [
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Levin, J.
Detroit police officers, acting with an informant, purchased heroin at a residence suspected of serving as a drug distribution site. The same day, during a thirty-minute period of surveillance, police observed seven persons make short visits to the site. On the basis of this information, the police the next day obtained a search warrant authorizing them to search the residence and "Doug,” the man who had sold the heroin.
The police knocked on the door and announced themselves. They heard someone running away and forced the door open. Inside they found seven persons, who were subjected to a Terry weapons patdown. Search of the site disclosed a locked toolbox. The police forced the box open and discovered inside a quantity of controlled substances. The police then searched the occupants for the key to the box, finding it in Arterberry’s possession. Arterberry was arrested, and the other six occupants were apparently released.
Arterberry was charged with possession with intent to deliver various controlled substances. At Arterberry’s preliminary examination, the district judge granted his motion to dismiss the charges on the basis that the search of his person for the key exceeded the scope of the warrant. The Detroit Recorder’s Court and the Court of Appeals affirmed. We reverse and remand for trial.
i
The police acted within the scope of the warrant when they opened the toolbox containing the controlled substances. Upon discovering the controlled substances, the police had probable cause to arrest all seven occupants for loitering in a place of illegal occupation or business. The police could reasonably have believed 3***that the seven occupants of this private residence knew that the residence was being operated as a site for the distribution of controlled substances. _
To be sure, the officers did not assert and may not have had in mind the offense of loitering in a place of illegal occupation or business when they searched Arterberry and the other occupants. The United States Supreme Court has said, however:
[T]he fact that the officer does not have the state of mind which is hypothecated by the reasons which provide the legal justification for the officer’s action does not invalidate the action taken as long as the circumstances, viewed objectively, justify that action. [Scott v United States, 436 US 128, 138; 98 S Ct 1717; 56 L Ed 2d 168 (1978).]
Since the officers had probable cause to arrest Arterberry and the other occupants, the search was proper: had the occupants been arrested, they could have then been searched incident to the arrest.* ** The validity of the search is not negated by the failure of the officers to arrest the occupants. Where officers have probable cause to arrest a group of persons and, instead of arresting them all, search them and then arrest only some of the group, they act properly. Those searched could have been arrested and then searched incident to the arrest. As explained in Peters v New York, 392 US 40, 77; 88 S Ct 1889; 20 L Ed 2d 917 (1968) (Harlan, J., concurring):
If the prosecution shows probable cause to arrest prior to a search of a man’s person, it has met its total burden. There is no case in which a defendant may validly say, "Although the officer had a right to arrest me at the moment when he seized me and searched my person, the search is invalid because he did not in fact arrest me until after-wards.” [Emphasis in the original.][ ]
The police acted properly in searching the seven occupants for the key.
n
The Recorder’s Court and the Court of Appeals relied on the United States Supreme Court’s decision in Ybarra v Illinois, 444 US 85; 100 S Ct 338; 62 L Ed 2d 238 (1979), in affirming the district judge’s dismissal of the charges. In Ybarra, on the basis of the information that a bartender at a public bar possessed heroin, the police obtained a warrant permitting them to search the bartender, identified as "Greg,” and the premises of the bar. The police searched "Greg” and the bar and conducted a Terry weapons patdown of everyone else in the bar. The search of the bar and of "Greg” did not disclose any illegal substances. The officers then searched one of the patrons, Ybarra, again, this time finding heroin in a cigarette packet. There was no basis for this search other than Ybarra’s presence in the bar. There was "no reason to believe that [Ybarra] had committed, was committing, or was about to commit any offense under state or federal law.” Ybarra, 444 US 91. The Court held the search invalid for lack of probable cause.
In contrast to the instant case, the police in Ybarra did not have probable cause to arrest the defendant before engaging in the challenged search. In Ybarra, the police did not, while searching pursuant to the warrant, discover controlled substances. In Ybarra, the police had no information that the bar itself was a dope house. In Ybarra, the site of the search was a public bar open to everyone, not a restricted-entry private residence. In Ybarra, no one ran away when the police announced themselves. In Ybarra, there was no reason to believe that the patrons of the bar were involved in criminal activity.
In the instant case, because the police had probable cause to arrest all the occupants, who could then have been searched incident to arrest, they acted properly in searching Arterberry for the key.
Reversed and remanded for trial.
Riley, C.J., and Brickley, Cavanagh, Boyle, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
MCL 750.167(j); MSA 28.364®. See also People v Morris, 66 Mich App 514; 239 NW2d 649 (1976).
See Hammitt v Straley, 338 Mich 587; 61 NW2d 641 (1953), and the cases quoted therein.
While the information available — that the residence was being operated as an illegal drug distribution site, that controlled substances were found in the residence, and that at least one occupant ran from the door when the police announced themselves — consti tuted probable cause to arrest the occupants for loitering in a place of illegal occupation or business, this information alone might be insufficient to convict the occupants of the offense.
People v Chapman, 425 Mich 245; 387 NW2d 835 (1986).
The California Supreme Court similarly declared in People v Simon, 45 Cal 2d 645, 648; 290 P2d 531 (1955):
Thus, if the officer is entitled to make an arrest on the basis of information available to him before he searches, and as an incident to that arrest is entitled to make a reasonable search of the person arrested . . ., there is nothing unreasonable in his conduct if he makes the search before instead of after the arrest. In fact, if the person searched is innocent and the search convinces the officer that his reasonable belief to the contrary is erroneous, it is to the advantage of the person searched not to be arrested. On the other hand, if he is not innocent or the search does not establish his innocence, the security of his persons, house, papers, or effects suffers no more from a search preceding his arrest than it would from the same search following it.
See also People v Cook, 153 Mich App 89, 92; 395 NW2d 16 (1986); see, generally, 2 LaFave, Search and Seizure (2d ed), §§ 5.4(a)-(b), pp 515-527.
Nor, because there was no reasonable belief that the patrons were armed and presently dangerous, was there a basis for the Terry weapons patdown. Ybarra, 444 US 92.
Professor LaFave observed:
Without suggesting that the probable cause required by Ybarra is inevitably present when the warrant is for private premises and the requisite notice is given prior to entry, it is fair to say that such a case does necessitate a somewhat different assessment than was permissible on the facts of Ybarra. [2 LaFave, Search and Seizure (2d ed), § 4.9(c), p 296. Emphasis in the original.] | [
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Per Curiam.
Ahearn sued defendants for not accepting certain stave bolts. It appears that he asked one of the firm what they were paying for bolts, and was answered they would take all he could make and deliver at $2 per cord. He afterwards made a lot of bolts, which he proposed to furnish, but they denied any bargain.
There was no contract made out. Ahearn did not inform defendants that he would accept or act on their order or deliver any bolts, or if any, how many. The transaction went no further than what occurs when any one asks another what he will either give or take for commodities. Such inquiries may lead to bargains, but do not make them. •
The judgment for defendants is affirmed with costs. | [
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Cooley, J.
The only question presented by this record is, whether the plaintiff in an action for false imprisonment in the circuit court, in which he recovers fifty dollars damages, is entitled to costs.
The statute provides that if the plaintiff shall recover judgment in certain specified cases he shall recover his costs. Among these are “ all actions for the recovery of any debt or damages, or for the recovery of penalties or forfeitures, in all eases where the court has exclusive or concurrent jurisdiction.” Comp. L., § 7387. The next section provides that “If the plaintiff in an action for assault and battery, or false imprisonment, or for slanderous words, or for libel, recover less than fifty dollars, such plaintiff shall recover no more costs than damages.” Comp. L., § 7388.
The declaration in this case claimed damages to the amount of five thousand dollars. This sum was within the exclusive jurisdiction of the circuit court. The recovery, however, was for a sum within the jurisdiction of a justice of the peace; and in Strong v. Daniels, 3 Mich., 466, this court decided that where a party claimed by his declaration a sum which brought his ease within the jurisdiction of the circuit court, but recovered a sum which he could only have sued for in justice’s court, costs should be awarded against him. If that case is applicable to this, the like result must follow here.
The circuit judge was of opinion that the sections of the statute which has been cited rendered the decision inapplicable; and we agree with him. As has been stated, the sum claimed in the declaration brought the case within the exclusive jurisdiction of the circuit court; and it is only when the verdict is returned that it appears the plaintiff might have had adequate redress in justice’s court. But in our opinion the statute has made all the exceptional regulation it was intended should exist in respect to costs in the actions enumerated in section 7388 when it has provided that if the plaintiff shall recover less than fifty dollars, he shall have no more costs than damages. Nothing could be more absurd than a regulation that if the plaintiff recovered less than fifty dollars damages he should recover an equal amount of costs, while if he recovered more than fifty, but not more than one hundred dollars, costs should ■ be awarded against him; it would work at least a partial defeat of the legislative intent, which manifestly was that the expense of the litigation should fall upon the plaintiff in proportion to the smallness of his recovery.
We think the implications from the statute are conclusive that the intention was to give plaintiffs in such actions their costs in all cases where they recovered damages, but to limit the costs to the amount of damages where the latter fell below fifty dollars. With this view we affirm the judgment with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
A large number of questions have been raised in this case. We do not however consider it necessary to refer to all, but only such of them as are likely to become important upon a new trial of the case.
I. The evidence of James Evans should have been admitted. The authorities are all agreed that where a witness has been sworn upon a former trial between the same parties and upon the same issue, and since the trial, has deceased, his testimony as. given upon the former trial is admissible. And while there is a conflict as to whether this rule may be extended to cases where the witness is sick or insane, or beyond the jurisdiction of the court, yet we are of opinion that upon principle the evidence should be admitted, and that there is no good ground for any such distinction. In a case like the present the witness is, to all intents and purposes, so far as these parties are concerned, legally dead. They can no more avail themselves of his personal presence in court than though he were in fact dead. The reason of_ the rule admitting his testimony in the 'one case is equally strong in the other, and we can see no good reason for recognizing any such distinction.
- II. The claimant called Catherine Evans, a daughter and heir of Joseph Pardee, and offered to prove by her the acts and declarations of John W. Pardee, showing that after Joseph Pardee died, and in 1860, John W. Pardee sold, used and converted the fat cattle and other property in question to his own use. This evidence was objected to and excluded. In support of this ruling it was argued, that although the -witness was not in the strictest sense a party to the record, yet she was a daughter of. Joseph Pardee and one of the distributees of his estate; that such a person was within the letter and spirit of the act which prohibits certain parties from testifying to facts within the knowledge of the deceased and of no other person.
In connection with this question another somewhat similar in character, relating to the offer to show by the claimant Mrs. Howard, what John had told her, and to the effect that he -was not a partner with her father. This was excluded upon the ground that she .was the “opposite party” within the statute.
By the amendment of 1875, that portion of the stat ute applicable to this case reads as follows: “That when a suit or proceeding is prosecuted or defended by the heirs, assigns, devisees, legatees, or personal representatives of a deceased person, the opposite party, if examined as a witness in his own behalf, shall not be admitted to testify at all in relation to matters which, if true, must have been equally within the' knowledge, of such deceased person.” Act No. 155, Pub. L. 1875, p. 184.
This provision was first enacted in 1861, and the only change made therein by the act of 1875 was to prevent the opposite party from being a witness where the suit is prosecuted or defended by the heirs, assigns, devisees, or legatees of a deceased person, these words not being in the act of 1861, so that as the statute was first enacted it excluded the opposite party from testifying in relation ,to certain matters where the suit was prosecuted or defended by the representatives of a deceased person. The amendment of 1875 in no way affects this question.
It is somewhat difficult to ascertain with certainty and carry out the intention of the Legislature in reference to this matter. If we give the statute a literal construction and hold that only parties to the record are rendered incompetent, the apparent intention might in some cases be evaded by an assignment of the claim, and a bringing of thé action in the name of the assignee. If we seek to ascertain and carry out the intention of the Legislature, it might become necessary to reject some important words at present contained in this statute. My brethren are of opinion that Mrs. Howard comes clearly within the words of this statute, and that her evidence was therefore properly rejected.
It appeared that Mrs. Evans had, previous to the time she was called as a witness, assigned her claim, and that she no longer was interested in the result of the case. We are of opinion therefore, that under any view which might be taken of this statute, Mrs. Evans, under the circumstances, was a competent witness, and that her proposed evidence should have been admitted. We therefore express no opinion as to-whether she would or not have been a competent witness, had it appeared she was still interested in the action, although not a party on the record.
III. As to the claim for rent, John W. and Andrew J. Pardee .were tenants off the estate of Joseph Pardee, under a lease given them by Joseph Pardee in 1859, and which was to expire in ten years from its date. Andrew bequeathed his interest in this lease to John, and died in 1864. ' John continued to occupy under the lease until August, 1869. Plaintiff in error offered to show that after the expiration of the lease John held over and continued to occupy the premises until the time of his death in October, 1872, and that said premises were worth the yearly rental of $500, which the claimant insisted she, as administratrix, was entitled to recover from the time the lease expired until John died.
This the court rejected. Joseph Pardee died intestate in the fall of 1859, leaving several children, John Pardee being one of them. No administration was taken out upon his estate until 1875, when letters were issued to the claimant as administratrix in January of that year.
In support of claimant’s view, the position taken is that in holding over, John Pardee sustained the relation of tenant to the estate of Joseph Pardee and to the administrator thereof when one should be appointed; that the rents are dioses in action till paid; as such they are personal property and go to the administratrix; that 'these rents could only pass from the estate of Joseph Pardee through an administrator, the right and title of whom thereto when appointed would relate back even to the death of the intestate. Citing Cullen v. O’Hara, 4 Mich., 132; Morton v. Preston, 18 id., 60; and Gilkey v. Hamilton, 22 id., 283.
This reasoning and the authorities cited are sound enough in a case where applicable. The difficulty in the present case is that in order to reach and adopt this conclusion, we must overlook other well settled legal principles which, when recognized are decisive of the present question.
The real estate of a deceased intestate descends to the heirs, who alone are entitled to the possession, and to the rents and profits, subject to the payment of the debts of the deceased, in the absence of any statute otherwise disposing of it. The statute, Comp. Laws (1857), § 2904, in force at the time this claim for rent accrued, did not deprive the heirs of their inheritance, or them right to the possession of the real estate. They could enter into and remain in possession and in the enjoyment of the rents and profits thereof, until. the executor or administrator took possession or claimed the right thereto under the statute. Streeter v. Paton, 7 Mich., 350. Until the administrator took or claimed possession under the statute the possession of the heirs was a rightful one, and they were not accountable to any person for the rents and profits thereof while so in possession.
Parties entitled to administration cannot, nor can an administrator when one is appointed, stand by and see the heirs in the possession and enjoyment of the real estate for a number of years, and then call them to an account for a fair rental value of the premises, more especially in a case like the present, where it does not appear that a sale of the real estate, or the rents and profits thereof, was needed in the settlement of the estate. In this case the personal property was ample without looking to the real estate. The court properly rejected the offered evidence.
IY. It was also claimed that John W. Pardee, while in possession of the real estate under this lease, and after the death of the lessor, wrongfully cut therefrom a large quantity of cord-wood and converted the same to his own use, and the claimant, plaintiff in error, sought to recover the value thereof, upon the theory that the wood when severed from the realty, became personal property to which the administratrix became entitled.
The cutting of the timber into cord-wood under the existing circumstances in this case was clearly waste, for which the parties entitled to the reversion would have a remedy. The injury is one done to the inheritance, and the administratrix could not, upon the theory that a severance of the timber and cutting it into cord-wood thereby changed it into personal property, recover the value thereof in this manner. The parties entitled to the reversion might have sued and recovered upon this theory, but the claimant in this case could not. 1 Washburn on Eeal Property, 125, et seep It has been held that the trees when severed from the freehold become the absolute and sole property of the reversioner, and that trespass would lie in his favor against any person removing them, even though it be the tenant himself. Lane v. Thompson, 43 N. H., 324.
There was no error in rejecting the offered testimony relating to this subject.
Y. Exceptions were taken to the cross-examination of the claimant and Mrs. Evans, as a foundation for impeachment, as to what they had told certain persons they were to receive by allowance from their father, and what they did receive in full of their claims in the estate of their father Joseph W. Pardee; also to the testimony introduced thereafter by way of impeachment of these witnesses, and then using the evidence introduced ■ by way of impeachment as primary evidence of the facts enquired about.
The difficulty in this part of the case must have grown out of the fact that the administratrix was one of the children and heirs of Joseph W. Pardee, and therefore a distributee of the estate. This cannot in and of itself make any difference: this ease must be treated as though the administratrix was an entire stranger and had no interest in the estate except in her official capacity. Whether these parties, the claimant and Mrs. Evans, had received a certain amount in satisfaction of their claims against the estate or not, could make no sort of difference, as this was not the proper place to settle and dispose of that question. Such a question properly arises when a distribution of the estate is. attempted to be made. Even if such evidence could have, been properly admitted in this case, it could only prevent a recovery pro tanto. There were other children besides these, and a settlement by these two could in no way affect or prejudice the rights of others, or prevent the administratrix from recovering their full share of the estate. All of this evidence should have been rejected. The cases of Cullen v. O’Hara, Morton v. Preston and Gilkey v. Hamilton, are decisive.
It was also error to permit this impeaching testimony to be rrsed in argument or considered by the jury, as tending to establish the facts enquired about. It had no such tendency. Impeaching testimony goes only to the contradiction of the witness. Its whole force is spent in the effort to contradict and it has no effect beyond this. It may destroy the testimony of the witness sought to be impeached, but it cannot go beyond this and be used to establish any essential fact in the case. A moment’s consideration of the-true import and character of impeaching evidence should satisfy any one of the correctness of these views.
VI. Testimony had been introduced by the defendant tending to show that a portion of the crops claimed in this case were raised upon lands owned by John W. and Andrew J. Pardee, and for this purpose thfey offered two. deeds of certain lands from Joseph W, Pardee, one to John and one to Andrew, dated in 1855, and recorded July 30th, 1859. Eor the purpose for which these deeds, were offered they were clearly admissible. It may be that it was not material who held the fee to these lands,— that the material question was, to whom did the crops belong, — but as important evidence bearing upon that. question, it was proper that the deeds should be introduced and considered by the jury under proper instructions as to the effect and presumptions arising therefrom. Had it been shown, as claimed, that these deeds had never been delivered, their effect would thereby have been destroyed. The law however would not presume the non-delivery of a deed signed, acknowledged and recorded, from the fact that the grantor had remained' in possession of the premises . for several months after the record of the deed. Nor would evidence tending to show that these deeds were not to be delivered or take effect until after the death of the grantor, prevent their taking effect upon the happening of that contingency. See Thatcher v. Wardens etc. of St. Andrews Church, 37 Mich., 269, and cases there cited.
YIL The defendant introduced evidence tending to prove a co-partnership existing between Joseph Pardee and 3ohn W. Pardee from 1854 to' 1859, and that John W. during this time kept the accounts relating to the business.
He then offered in evidence a certain book of accounts in the handwriting of John W., which purported to relate to the partnership business, some of the entries in which had been made in the presence of Joseph Pardee. This book was admitted, although objected to.
We are of opinion that in connection with the evidence given relating to co-partnership matters, this book was properly admitted, as tending not only to prove a partnership in fact, but the condition of the co-partnership accounts. We discover no error in reference thereto.
We do not consider it necessary to examine in detail the several parts of the charge complained of. We have already disposed of the material questions likely to arise upon a new trial. Some portions of the charge may not be quite so clear as it is desired a charge should be, but all such doubtful matters can easily be disposed of and avoided hereafter.
There was evidence in this case ‘tending to show that a co-partnership existed between Joseph Pardee and John W. Pardee, and the jury under the charge of the court and the verdict which they rendered, must have found that such a co-partnership did in fact exist. Should the jury under a new trial find such to be the fact, then as to all property properly pertaining thereto the claimant in this case would have no right to recover, as she is not proceeding upon the theory of closing up a co-partnership matter, and the charge of the court and finding of the jury upon this fact renders it unnecessary to consider several of the questions raised.
Whether the widow of Joseph Pardee could be entitled to the possession of any particular part of the household furniture and property of Joseph Pardee her husband, without an order of the probate court setting apart the same to her, would, under the facts in this case, be wholly immaterial. If she did take possession of any part, and John W. did not have possession or assume control over the same, he could not be held liable as for a conversion thereof. There was no error in the charge of the court upon this question of which the plaintiff in error can complain.
For the errors noticed the judgment must be reversed with costs and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
The bill in this case was filed to correct a mistake in a deed made by an ancestor of defendants to a person claimed to be a remote grantor of complainant. All the defendants were non-residents and brought in by advertising. Clark and Edward Davis appeared by counsel, but were defaulted for not answering. The other defendant, who is, an infant, had a guardian appointed, but there is a serious question of the regularity of this appointment. Proofs were taken at which all the parties were represented and appeared, and a decree was entered in favor of complainant correcting the deed, on the 24th of June, 1876, from which all the defendants ultimately appealed. Previous to this a stipulation had been made that an answer, to which it was attached, should be filed nunc pro tunc as of June 1, 1876, a day anterior to the proceedings to take testimony.
The case is technically open to appeal, although there is reason to suppose the complainant was not aware of the position it had been made to take, and no doubt was under the belief that he was not compelled to make full proof as against the adult defendants.
As to the infant, it is well settled that no decree can be made against him without full proofs in all cases, and no one can give away or lose his rights. Thayer v. Lane, Walk. Ch., 200; Chandler v. McKinney, 6 Mich., 217; Smith v. Smith, 13 Mich., 258.
The testimony entirely fails to trace title into complainant; and as this is essential to his recovery, he must fail on this record. None of the deeds in his chain of title appear. It seems to have been taken for granted that the only proof required was the identification of the premises described in the bill. But unless complainant shows that he holds under the deed sought to be reformed, he makes no showing of equities.
So far as the infant is concerned, he cannot be held responsible- for any errors or misunderstandings that may have arisen in the cause, and is not in fault for them. He has a right to have the present decree reversed and set aside with costs. But while the decree must also be reversed as to the other defendants, we think complainant has some reason to insist that they obtained an undue advantage in getting leave to file their answer without saving him some of the advantages concerning proof that he would have had before.
It would also be unjust on such a record to make an absolute dismissal of the bill. It is plain the parties have acted unadvisedly, and it would not be right to leave the case where any part of the heirs of the grantor should be separated from the rest in the duty to correct a mistake if one existed.
We therefore shall reverse the decree and dismiss the bill without prejudice, with costs of both courts in favor of the infant defendant against complainant, leaving the other parties to pay their own costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
This is an appeal from a final decree in partition of certain lands between these parties. An important question is presented at the outset as to what may properly be considered upon this appeal.
The bill was filed in November, 1866, proofs were taken, a hearing had, and a decree rendered upon the 13th day of June, 1868. By this decree it was ordered, adjudged and decreed that “the legal estate and rights of the several parties in this cause to the premises described in the bill of complaint are as follows”:
That Elisha Shepherd was seized and entitled to an estate in fee of an undivided two thirds of the premises; that Hannah Eice was entitled to a right of dower in all the premises, to be set ont according to the value of the premises April 3d, 1851; that Malvina McCammon was entitled to the remission in fee in such parcel as should be set up for the dower of Hannah Eice, and that Elisha Shepherd’s two thirds should be construed to be all of said premises, except such as should be set out for the dower of Hannah Eice; and that Huldah E. Shepherd had such interest only as results from her being the wife of complainant.
The decree then proceeded to order a partition of the premises to be made according to the rights thus declared. It was farther ordered and decreed that it be referred to a commissioner to inquire into and report the situation of the premises, and whether they could be partitioned without prejudice to the owners, and all farther directions were reserved until the coming in of the report.
On the 19th day of' March, 1870, the commissioner reported that the premises could be divided. June 24th, 1870, another decree was entered ratifying and confirming the commissioner’s report and appointing commissioners to make partition in pursuance of the decree of June 13th, 1868.
May 16th, 1871, the commissioners appointed to make partition made their report. This report was by a final decree filed May 8lst, 1877, ratified and confirmed. From this last decree an appeal was taken.
It seems to me very clear that the decree of June 13th, 1868, was an absolute decree which settled the rights of the parties. The statute declares that such shall be the effect of the decree. § 6285. It related directly to the merits of the controversy, and was a decision made upon the proofs and issues in the cause. All'farther proceedings thereafter taken in pursuance of this decree in order to carry it out — and this was all that was afterwards done — were but in execution of it. That an appeal could have been taken from this decree there can be no possible doubt. Damouth v. Klock, 28 Mich., 168; see also Lewis v. Campau, 14 Mich., 460; Kingsbury v. Kingsbury, 20 Mich., 214; Barry v. Briggs, 22 Mich., 204.
The entire merits of this controversy were determined by-this first decree and it is too late now to examine into the -merits of the case. And the brief of counsel makes no complaint other than those going to the merits, except that the costs should be charged upon the parties in proportion to their respective rights in partition cases. Phelps v. Green, 3 Johns. Ch., 302; Tibbits v. Tibbits, 7 Paige, 204. The court should in accordance with the provisions of § 6333 have adjudged and deéreed what proportion of the costs and charges should be paid • by each defendant, and the cause may be remanded for such purpose. In all other respects the decree to stand with costs to complainant.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
Plaintiff in error brought an action of trover against the defendant in error for the conversion of certain personal property.
The defendant, who was sheriff, to justify the taking of the property, offered and introduced in evidence what purported to be a warrant issued by the county treasurer of Yan Burén county, directed to the defendant as such sheriff, under which he claimed to have seized and sold the property. This warrant was issued under and in accordance with the provisions of section 8 of Act No. 228 of the session laws of 1875. The warrant, if fair upon its face, would be a sufficient protection to the officer in an action like the present where he is proceeded against as a tort feasor.
It was said that the warrant was not fair on its face in that it recited that the assessment was made on the 24th day of May — which was the second day of review,— and that it was an assessment for a full year’s tax, and not a pro rata tax for the unexpired portion of a year. It was also said that it contained no recital of a legal assessment, or allegation that a warrant had been issued by the assessor to the county treasurer, or that opportunity had been afforded the plaintiff to pay the tax. Also that the return of the sheriff did not show that he had made demand for the tax before making a levy.
None of these objections were well taken. The assessor had authority to add to the assessment roll, during the days fixed by law for a review thereof, the name of any person liable to be taxed under the provisions of the act, and it was not necessary that any notice should be given the person whose name was so added. Such an assessment would be made in accordance with the provisions of section five of the act and would be for a full year’s tax. Nor is this warrant open to the objection that it does not contain the necessary recitals; it contains all the recitals required by section eight of the act under Which it was issued.
The officer need not in his return set forth the fact that he had made a demand for the tax before making his levy. If such a demand was an essential pre-requisite before making the levy, the fact thereof might be shown by parol, and in the absence of any showing to the contrary the presumption would be that the officer had performed his duty.
Judgment affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
May 3d, 1873, these parties agreed in writing as follows:
'‘‘The said Green for and in consideration of the promises on the part of the said McFarlan and McCreery hereinafter contained hereby agrees to start for the woods in the district of Bayfield, Wisconsin, and select and secure the entry at the U. S. land office or at the land office of the State of Wisconsin all the choice pine timbered lands he may be able to find subject to entry, not to exceed the amount of ten thousand acres (or more if the said McFarlan and McCreery so determine), which he may be able to find before the first day of December next; the said Green to serve no other interest in looking lands up to said date. Said lands so selected and located to cut at the rate of one hundred and fifty thousand feet to each forty acre lot of U. S. lands located within what is known as the ten-mile railroad limits, and one hundred thousand feet and upwards to each forty acres of ten shilling lands; all of said lands to be within five miles of a navigable stream, but a portion of said lands where the pine timber is of excellent quality, and estimated to cut three hundred thousand feet and upwards to the forty-acre lot, may be located at a distance of not exceeding eight miles from a navigable stream.
The said McFarlan and McCreery agree to furnish the money with which to locate; said lands to be examined and selected by said Green as soon as the descriptions are from time to time obtained; said lands to be located in the names of said McFarlan and McCreery, the said Green being authorized to draw his draft on demand on the said McFarlan and McCreery for all said lands so located as aforesaid.
The said McFarlan and McCreery also agree to advance to said Green, from time to time, as he may require, the money necessary to defray his expenses in looking up said lands, which advance for looking up said lands is to be returned to said McFarlan and McCreery with interest at ten per cent, per annum, as soon as said lands or any portion of them may be sold, or sooner if the said Green may desire, and whenever said money so advanced, together with interest as aforesaid, is repaid to the said McFarlan and McCreery, they are to convey to said Green by good and sufficient warranty deed an undivided one-fifth of all of said lands so located by >nm in their said names; but in case the lands are not deeded to said Green until after the same become taxable, and in the event also that the said McFarlan and McCreery pay the taxes assessed against said land, then the said Green is to pay them the undivided one-fifth part of all taxes so paid with interest at ten per cent, per annum the same as provided for other advances made.”
Soon after this contract Green went to Bayfield and proceeded to select lands and plaintiffs in error provided funds. These were not always kept ready and there were some short intervals of delay. By the last of September Green had selected and noted about 6,473 96-100 acres, of which all but about 3,000 had been paid for and duly entered. Funds had been supplied by drafts, but were exhausted, and hence the means were not at hand to pay for this last body. All the lands selected were those of the United States, and the price was $2.50 per acre. Green made a demand draft on plaintiffs in error for a little less than $6,000. Meanwhile the memorable money panic of that year sprang up and swept over the country. It caught this enterprise and the two projectors bound to furnish capital. They immediately wrote Green that they could not obtain funds to locate any more lands and could not meet drafts for more than his personal expenses, and that he was at liberty to locate for others. The business stopped. The draft went to protest and Green returned. This was in the fall of 1873. From time to time until May following the parties negotiated and exchanged views concerning their adventure, and at that time Green went again to Bayfield supplied by plaintiffs in error with $6,000 to be applied as far as it would reach in paying for lands so selected and not paid for the year before. This money was so applied and it was the last provided for taking lands under the contract. The quantity which had been bought was 5,473 96-100 acres, leaving unobtained of the 10,000 acres specified some 4,526 acres and a fraction, and of which one-fifth, or Green’s share, was 905 acres.
In Tune, 1875, the 5,473 acres and a fraction were sold and conveyed by the concurrence of all the parties to a gentleman in Ontario for $4.50 per acre, $6,000 being paid down and the balance being secured by mortgage. ’ The advances for expenses and taxes with the interest were settled and Green’s share in the lands sold was arranged as he desired. He subsequently advanced claims on the foot of his transactions with plaintiffs in error which they refused to recognize, and after some ineffectual efforts to agree upon terms, this suit was brought. He set up two demands. By the first he claimed the full market value which one-fifth of the unobtained balance of 10,000 acres would have borne if such balance had been acquired. By the second he maintained that it was agreed between him and the plaintiffs in error that in case he made a sale of the purchased land they would give him five per cent, commissions on the sale price of their four-fifths, and that the sale which occurred was made by him in the sense of this arrangement, and hence that he was entitled to the specified commissions.
The plaintiffs in error claimed and insisted that when they treated with Green in May, 1874,. and provided $6,000 to be consumed in paying for lands he had previously selected, it was distinctly understood and agreed that no demand should be made against them, on account of their previous failure to supply funds, and that no further demand should be urged against them for funds to enter the residue of the 10,000 acres. They contended that the $6,000 was supplied upon the faith and only upon the faith of such understanding. They also positively denied making any agreement to pay commissions to Green for bringing about a sale of .the common property. The verbal testimony was confined to the parties, and on the points here mentioned they were directly opposed.
There was also wide difference of opinion as to the measure of the damages proper to be allowed for the breach of contract in not providing funds to get the balance of the 10,000 acres in case that ground of action should not be found to have been adjusted.
The defendant in error contended he was entitled to the full value of the one-fifth of the unobtained residuum; and which value as he urged was at least, as shown by the sale of the quantity secured under the contract, $4.50 per acre, less the expense of selecting and noting what had not been already selected and noted. On the other hand the plaintiffs in error maintained that no satisfactory data were obtainable for getting at the value of unselected lands coming within the scope of the conditions and requirements of the contract and further, that under the rules of law applicable to the state of the case it was improper to go beyond allowing what would have been a reasonable compensation for selecting and noting an amount equal to Green’s share, or 905 acres.
The circuit judge'in terms assumed to discard both of these methods, and he instructed the jury that in case they should not find this ground of action to have been settled and closed, to allow upon one-fifth of what had been previously selected and noted for entry, of the balance of the 10,000 acres, the full cost or value as shown by the government selling price, namely $2.50 per acre, and upon one-fifth of what had not been previously ‘selected and noted for entry of said balance, the same amount per acre, less however the fair expense of selecting and noting, and then to add to the total of these amounts interest thereon from the summer of 1874 when all further steps to take more land under the' contract ceased, and this scheme was thought to be recommended not only on account of its being plain and practical, but likewise for being fair, since, as the case itself imported, the defendant in error might have procured the 905 acres for the principal sum indicated and been in the same situation as though the land had been obtained under the contract.
In regard to the claim for commissions, a charge was requested by plaintiffs in error that no recovery could be had unless defendant in error had proved a contract on the part of both to pay him commissions for selling the property, and further, unless it was found that the sale was effected by Green, and not by McCreery and McFarlan.
Instead of charging in these terms, the judge explained the relations of the parties and the conflict in their testimony and that Green was as much interested as plaintiffs in error in a sale, and proceeded to instruct the jury that they would have to look at the surroundings of the case and decide whether it appeared by a preponderance of evidence that an arrangement was made by which a commission was to be paid for the sale of the land; and in case they should find that plaintiffs in ■error promised Green a commission of five per cent, for the sale of this land, he would then be entitled to it, and that it was a simple question of fact for them to determine.
January 26th, 1877, the jury found in Green’s favor for $3,672.50, and McFarlan and McCreery brought error.
1. The measure of redress the judge allowed for the breach in not providing money to buy the rest of the 10,000 acres, was as favorable to plaintiffs in error as any they could rightly urge.
The relation into which the parties were brought by the written contract above recited was not strictly and exclusively that of principal and agent, or master and ■servant, or of vendor and purchaser. The transaction was a joint adventure upon mutual views of speculation, and it contemplated that the plaintiffs in error should supply capital and that defendant in error should give bis personal efforts and attention and certain acquired knowledge, and that the lands obtained pursuant -to the ■scheme should be divided between the-adventurers, the ■plaintiffs in error receiving four-fifths and defendant in error one-fifth.
The occurrence of the panic which suddenly spread through the country and for a time pretty generally prevented the obtainment of money for ordinary business, and more particularly for speculative activities, was not foreseen and not provided against by the contract; and it was not an event which in law in the absence of stip ulation the plaintiffs in error were authorized to urge either to justify or excuse their not going on or as adequate to mitigate their liability. Harmony v. Bingham, 2 Kern., 99; Booth v. Spuyten Duyvil Rolling Mill Co., 60 N. Y., 487; Tompkins v. Dudley, 25 N. Y.. 272; School District No. 1 v. Dauchy, 25 Conn., 530; Wareham Bank v. Burt, 5 Allen, 113; Phillips v. Stevens, 16 Mass., 238; Beebe v. Johnson, 19 Wend., 500; Atkinson v. Ritchie, 10 East, 530; Taylor v. Caldwell, 3 Best & S., 826-833; Dermott v. Jones, 2 Wall., 1; Niblo v. Binsse, 1 Keyes, 476; Delaware, L. & W. R. R. Co. v. Bowns, 58 N Y., 573; Lock v. Furze, L. R. 1 C. P., 441; Driggs v. Dwight, 17 Wend., 71.
It was needful that the charge should be adapted to the case as it was and not as it might have been possibly, and it would have been irregular to have assumed or implied that items of evidence had been given which had not been given, or that certain facts were in dispute which had not been disputed at all. By the terms of the contract Green had until December first to make up the 10,000 acres, and his judgment was to decide between twenty shilling and ten shilling lands. There was no-evidence, however, that ten shilling lands which would meet the defined conditions could be obtained, and hence no evidence of a state of things permitting choice and no ground for framing any part of the charge as though such lands were reasonably procurable. The defendant in error swore, and it was not disputed, that plaintiffs! in error caused some delay before the last interruption in the season of 1873, and still there was no evidence that he might not easily have made up the whole quantity in twenty shilling land by December first if the' plaintiffs in error had kept "their promise. Their default and suspension amounted to a prevention of performance on his part. Blanchard v. The Inhabitants of Blackstone, 102 Mass., 343; Niblo v. Binsse, supra; Phil. Wil. & Balt. R. R. Co. v. Howard, 13 How., 307; Myers v. York & Cumberland R. R. Co., 2 Curt. C. C. Rep., 28; Master- ton v. The Mayor, 7 Hill, 61; Exposito v. Bowden, 30 E. L. & E., 336; Burrell v. N. Y. & Sag. Solar Salt Co., 14 Mich., 34; Rider v. Pease, 119 Mass., 492; Revere v. Boston Copper Co., 15 Pick., 351; Howard v. Daly, 61 N. Y., 362. And since there was no fact of which the judge eould take notice, or any evidence adduced to show that defendant in error might not or could not have obtained the full quantity if the plaintiffs in error had performed, he was entitled to say, in view of their having arrested his action and virtually stopped him when he was going on regularly, that it should be taken as prima facie true that he would have procured the whole 10,000 .acres in due season in case the plaintiffs in error had made no default.
The point is made that the rule generally applied where persons in good faith contract to sell lands and are unable to perform on arrival of the time, is the proper rule here, and Hammond v. Hannin, 21 Mich., 374, and Conger v. Weaver, 20 N. Y., 140, are cited, with other decisions, to show that under that rule the damages must have been not much if any more than nominal. Whatever analogy may be claimed to exist between the case at bar and a class of cases brought on agreements to sell land, it is quite clear that those cited have no application. If the plaintiffs in error insist on being regarded as in the situation of vendors unable to perform, they surely cannot ignore a part of the facts pertaining to their actual position and necessarily serving to qualify it; Why were they not able to perform ? Simply because,' by their own default they prevented Green from getting for them, pursuant to the agreement, the very land which by the same agreement they were to convey to him. In other words they disabled themselves, and “ all the cases admit” says Lord Alvanley in Touteng v. Hubbard, 3 B. & P., 302, “that where a party has been disabled from performing his contract by his own default, it is not competent to him to allege the circumstances by which he was prevented as an excuse for his omission;” and “if a man binds himself to do certain acts which he afterwards renders himself unable to perform, he thereby dispenses with the performance of conditions precedent to the act which he has so rendered himself unable to perform.” Hotham v. E. Ind. Co., 1 T. R., 638; Moses v. Bierling, 31 N. Y., 462; Kock v. Emmerling, 22 How., 69. The cases of Hammond v. Hannin and Conger v. Weaver belong to a class where the vendor sells in the reasonable belief that he can perform, and where in good faith he endeavors to perform, and not to cases where he disables himself or where he agrees to sell what he knows at the time he has no power to sell. This last distinction is pointed out in Pumpelly v. Phelps, 40 N. Y., 59, and the court refer to Conger v. Weaver and kindred decisions, and after observing that they only authorize nominal damages, proceed to say: “The rule is otherwise, however, where a party contracts to sell lands which he knows at the time he has not the power to sell and convey; and if he violates his contract in the latter case he should be held to make good to the vendee the loss of his bargain; and it does not excuse the vendor that he may have acted in good faith and believed when he entered into the contract that he should be able to procure a good title for his purchaser.” A large number of authorities are cited to the proposition. Now, so far as recourse may be had to cases upon agreements to sell lands, for the principle which should govern in the present action, it must be to those of the class last named and not to the class to which Hammond v. Hannin and Conger v. Weaver belong.
"When the plaintiffs in error entered into their contract it was well understood of course on both sides that the land Green was to have was not only not yet purchased, but not identified, and both parties considered that such lands were certainly worth at least the government price, with the necessary expense of selection and entering added, and there was no evidence that they were mistaken or that the government asked too much. On the contrary, the presumptions were the other way. Besides, we have the admissions of all the parties that the whole tract which had been taken under the contract was actually sold the fore 'part of the summer of 1875 for f 4.50 per acre, or between one and two dollars in advance of cost. It was hence quite just for the judge to presume upon the state of the case that the lands not taken would have been worth at least the amount supposed by the charge, and that Green could have obtained that or more át once. See Brigham v. Evans, 113 Mass., 538.
The mass of adjudications bearing upon the question .of damages as presented by the facts in this record would allow a recovery by the plaintiff to the extent of what he would have gained if he had been permitted to complete the contract, providing however, such damages would be proximate and a natural consequence of defendants’ breach and made to appear by sufficient reasonably certain data. Several of these authorities have been cited. They demonstrate that the allowance of the government price for what had been selected, and the same price less the expense of selection for what had not been selected, with the interest by way of damages, was certainly no more than the facts justified. There is no occasion for saying whether or not the judge ought to have gone further. The defendant in error acquiesced in the rule laid down in the charge. Among other authorities see Myers v. The R. R. Co.; R. R. Co. v. Howard; Masterton v. The Mayor; Lock v. Furze; Driggs v. Dwight; Revere v. Boston Copper Co., supra; Dyer v. Rich, 1 Met., 180; Clark v. Marsiglia, 1 Denio., 317; Brincherhoff v. Phelps, 24 Barb., 100; Howard v. Daly, supra. That an item of the amount to be given was allowed under the name of interest was not important. Edwards v. Sanborn, 6 Mich., 348; Kelly v. Waters, 31 Mich., 404; Brinckerhoff v. Phelps, supra; Van Rensselaer v. Jewett, 2 Comst., 135; Sargent v. Franklin Ins. Co., 8 Pick., 90; Holmes v.Misroon, 1 Const. [S. C.], 21; Hull v. Caldwell, 6 J. J. Marsh., 208; 3 Parsons on Cont. [6 ed.], 105; Selleck v. French, 1 Conn., 32.
2. It is alleged as error that the charge respecting the claim made for commissions did not pursue the request and inform the jury that before they could find for defendant in error for that cause they must be satisfied “that the sale was effected by the plaintiff and not by the defendants.”
If the sense probably' intended by this passage had been unobjectionable, its language not explained or qualified would have been calculated to mislead.
All the parties were interested as proprietors and no terms had been previously settled, and it was never claimed or imagined that defendant in error was or had been empowered to make the entire bargain and by himself transact a complete sale. All were to be consulted and to confer together in regard to the terms offered and to be proposed and upon the acceptance of any given proposition, and no sale could be entirely “effected” without the act of each and the concurrence of all. Hence • no sale in the sense of a binding consummated agreement or in the sense of an executed conveyance was contemplated. The supposition of such a meaning would be absurd. All knew very well that defendant in error could do nothing of the kind, and the minds of the parties must be supposed to have agreed upon what was reasonable and consistent. The request, however, was so worded as to be extremely liable to lead the jury to understand that the right to commissions depended on its appearing that defendant in error made ' the sale entirely by himself and thereby passed the right to the property to the purchaser; or, in other words, on his having done what nobody contemplated he should do, and what was not legally possible for him to do in the state of things in which he was to act. But if the request was improper by reason of the misleading tendency of its expressions, it was also objectionable on the ground that it was in substance an incorrect exposition of the legal sense of Green’s undertaking. Considering how the parties were situated, and that they were jointly interested in the property and were to unite upon the terms of sale and respectively assent to the fact of sale itself, it is evident that what was meant was no more than that defendant in error should be “the procuring cause of the salethat he should find a purchaser in a situation and ready and willing to complete the purchase on terms acceptable to the parties, and not that he should work out by himself a definite and complete bargain, or a sale executed. Fraser v. Wyckoff, 63 N. Y., 445; Smith v. McGovern, 65 N. Y., 574; Rice v. Mayo, 107 Mass., 550; Pearson v. Mason, 120 Mass., 53; Bornstein v. Lans, 104 Mass., 214; McGavock v. Woodlief, 20 How., 221; Coleman's Ex’r v. Mead, 13 Bush (Ky.), 358; Kock v. Emmerling, supra. The allowance of interest was not unlawful. If the commissions were earned the amount was reduced to a sum certain and the plaintiffs in error were at once indebted therefor. It is a general rule here that a failure to pay money promised when by law it ought to be paid authorizes the allowance of interest in the nature of damages for the improper detention of the sum so promised. • Upon thorough examination it seems plain that the charge was favorable to plaintiffs in error, and that if the result was not just to them they have no reasonable cause for complaint against the directions to the jury.
3. There are several allegations of error relative to evidence. One is not supported by any exception; in others no ground of objection was stated, and others still .are subject to what has been said already.
In view of the rule of damages laid down by the judge, and which as we have seen the plaintiffs in error cannot complain of, it is very apparent that it was necessary to inquire into the expense of selecting and noting lands to meet the requirements of the contract. Moreover, the position of plaintiffs in error that such expense so far as it had been incurred might be recoverable in addition to nominal damages to be given for the techni cal breach, conceded the propriety of evidence of such expense so far as it had actually arisen.
Complaint is made that defendant in error was allowed to read to the jury from a memorandum he had copied recently from originals he had made some time before. When the objection was made, the judge observed that “ he supposed he' could read from any paper he knew to be correct for the purpose of refreshing his recollection.”
Error is not to be intended. It must be made to appear on the face of the record. The party who alleges it, is required to prove it, and it is incumbent upon him to see that the record is so shaped as to make it distinctly manifest. Now it does not appear that the memorandum mentioned was read from at all after the objection. Findley v. The State, 5 Blackf., 576. If it had appeared, however, it is not certain that the ruling would have been erroneous. Beaubien v. Cicotte, 12 Mich., 459, 486. See also Insurance Co. v. Weides, 14 Wall., 375; Bank v. Culver, 2 Hill, 531; Guy v. Mead, 22 N. Y., 466; Lewis v. Ingersoll, 1 Keyes, 347, 358; Van Dyne v. Thayre, 19 Wend., 162; Yale v. Comstock, 112 Mass., 267; Watts v. Sawyer, 55 N. H., 38; Taylor v. Stringer, 1 Hilton, 377.
It is objected that it was improper for defendant in error to give the statement made in 1874 by the Keceiver of the land office to him that a large amount of the lands selected the year before and not entered had been taken by others. No ground of objection was stated, and the answer was not injurious. It is now contended that the statement was hearsay. It was part of a conversation between defendant in error and the Keceiver relative to indulgence sought of him by plaintiffs in error ' through defendant in error as to the time of forwarding funds to enter lands selected the summer previous, and it was part of the specific transaction and constituted information obtained of the Receiver on a mutual reference by the parties to him therefor. It was hence not hearsay, but original evidence between the parties.
The defendant in error identified an itemized account which he had made of certain of his expenses, and being offered in evidence it was objected to, but no ground of objection was stated. The court admitted it as part of Green’s evidence and in connection with his oral evidence on the same subject. The record is blind in regard to this point, and the writing itself does not appear in the bill of exceptions. So far as the ruling finds explanation in the record it does not seem to have been improper.
In the course of his cross-examination, MeFarlan was asked in regard to the intention in his own mind up to the alleged settlement in May, 1874, as to taking up any of the lands selected but not entered the year previous, and he proceeded to make reply, but was interrupted in the midst of his answer by his counsel, who objected to what he intended. The judge remarked that he could proceed, but the matter was dropped and the answer left unfinished. The counsel for defendant in error submitted to the objection. The exception is without force. Kershaw v. Wright, 115 Mass., 361.
During the same cross-examination, and shortly after-wards, MeFarlan was asked in substance to give the terms of settlement they proposed to defendant in error at the interview at McCreery’s office in May, 1874, and he specified them. He was then asked, “What did he. [Green] say to that?” and MeFarlan answered, “I could not say what he replied to it; it appeared to be all sat-, isfactory and he assented to it.” The last sentence, which embodied McFarlan’s inference, was stricken out on motion of the cross-examining counsel on the ground that it was not responsive to his question. This was entirely proper. The remark was most obviously uncalled for by the question, and quite irresponsive. If it were, admitted that a party or ordinary witness even might thrust into the case on cross-examination any inference or notion of his own, however foreign to any inquiry made of him, and compel the cross-examining party to submit to its introduction, no one would dare to interrogate his adversary’s witness, and cross-examination would cease to be practiced. The right to interrogate implies the right to exact responsive answers, and the entire sense of the proceeding is repugnant to the idea that the witness is to control in regard to what is to be stated.
It was not error to allow Green to adduce evidence to show that he might have procured the whole 10,000 acres if the plaintiffs in error had kept their agreement; although as we have seen, the unquestioned facts imported prima facie as between these parties in this action that such was the case. The extent of his injury by the breach of contract committed by plaintiffs in error depended on whether he might or might not have obtained the full complement of 10,000 acres.
Several matters were objected to upon the alleged ground that no recovery could be had for gains or profits. None of the evidence thus objected to was of much significance towards making out any case on that theory. But whatever possible bearing it might have had in -that way was entirely obviated and repelled by the charge of the court. The rule of damages laid down and the finding by the jury demonstrate that it worked no harm to plaintiffs in error. It is only necessary to analyze the verdict under the evidence and the judge’s charge to see that nothing was allowed but the commissions, the cost price of the land at $2.50 per acre less the cost of selection for that not selected, and interest.
This disposes of all points, and the result is that the judgment should be affirmed with costs.
Campbell, C. J., and Cooley, J., concurred. Marston, J., did not sit in this case. | [
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Graves, J.
This is an application to compel respondents to audit and allow at relator’s instance a large amount of charges he claims to be due from the county to the city of Grand Eapids by force of the act of 1878, as amended in 1875, to establish and organize a police court in that city. 3 Sess. L. 1873, p. 189; Local Acts 1875, p. 742.
Among many other objections the board insist that relator, who is the police justice of the city, is not competent to call them to account and prosecute this proceeding here by mandamus in his name, and I am satisfied the point is well taken. He has no interest in the controversy beyond that possessed by other citizens and inhabitants of the city, and does not profess to have, and the ground of action is essentially private.
The city, relying upon the Police Act referred to, claims of the county the fees prescribed by the general laws for items of service performed by him and other salaried city officers in executing what the city regards as general State enactments against crime, and his appearance upon the record in the character of relator is not grounded upon any right or interest of his in these fees or upon any assumption that the cause of action is such as to authorize a mere citizen to intervene, but solely upon the claim that section eight of the Police Act, as amended in 1875, is to be so interpreted as to make it his duty ex officio to collect these fees of the county for the benefit of the city.
This is the full extent of the claim set up to show that he is qualified to move here in his own person for a writ to coerce the board of supervisors to perform a legal duty they owe the city of Grand Eapids.
Let it be conceded for the present that the Legislature intended that he should receive from the county and pay over to the city the class of fees in question,' and moreover should “ collect ” from the county for the benefit of the city, and still the consequence drawn is wholly unwarranted.
His relation to the city would be then merely that of servant, agent or attorney. He would not be master or principal and could n.ot sue in his own name. The courts could not recognize him as identical with the city. He would be compelled to hold the subordinate and very distinct position of attorney or agent, and the city would have to be plaintiff. Such must be the result even though the provision mentioned is deemed a warrant of attorney to him. As the court observed in Bates v. The Overseers of the Poor of Plymouth, “in no form of process can a mere servant or agent be permitted to enforce, in his own name, the rights of his principal or master.” 14 Gray, 163. A law ordering that a cause of action arising to a city against a county should be sued or be suable in the individual name of the city police justice would be an anomaly, and the terms would have to be clear and explicit to authorize any tribunal to impute such a purpose to the Legislature, and surely the provisions in question do not require it. The respondents are entitled to insist that they shall not be drawn into litigation through unauthorized intermeddling or be deprived of the responsibility which the presence of the real proper party on the. records would assume. People ex rel. Drake v. The Regents, 4 Mich., 98; People ex rel. Russell v. Inspectors and Agent of State Prison, id., 187; Bates v. Overseers etc., supra; Ex parte Fleming, 2 Wall., 759; Hagadorn v. Raux, 72 N. Y., 583.
But I think the Legislature have not attempted to devolve the power and duty on the police justice to pursue the county in any mode either in his own name or in that of the city or in court or out of court for the fees arising to the city, and that the opposite construction is unreasonable. The title of the law does not favor the position, and the terms-made use of in regard to collecting costs may be entirely satisfied without stretching them so as to comprehend this function which is foreign to the office and distinct from the scheme of the law.
It must be obvious to all that there can be nothing in common between the duties proper to a police justice and the business of collecting claims for the city against the county, and there is no possible ground for contending that fitness for the one would necessarily imply fitness for the other. Certainly there is nothing in our experience concerning the compatibility of duties and the connection of aptitudes for .different affairs sufficient to afford any grounds for thinking the Legislature may have assumed that the man who might at any time be chosen to fill the office of police justice would be the proper one ex officio to enforce these city claims against the county.
The city charter had provided for an attorney and counsellor and his functions would naturally include the business of collecting city demands against other corporations, and hence there is no room for saying no other provision was made. Indeed some surprise would naturally be felt if it were really found, that this officer, who, on every' consideration of the fitness of means to ends, is 'conspicuously pointed out as the proper one, had been' ignored and that the agency and duty had been devolved upon an office not prima facie suitable.
Now the construction contended for necessitates the assumption that the Legislature in this specific instance meant to deviate from the usual course and assign an important duty to an inappropriate agency rather than an appropriate one, and moreover to commit the duty under such provisions that even the common council should not be able to intervene and control. At the same time no reason is suggested for distinguishing this class of claims by regulations so exceptive and extraordinary. The purpose ought not to be imputed to the Legislature except upon the clearest evidence.
That the power attributed to the justice is not germane to the office and is one purely civil in its nature must, I conceive, be admitted. And if this position is correct there appears to be good ground for urging that the Legislature have distinctly indicated their sense that the words supposed to convey to the justice the power in question were not used with, that intent. I refer to section two, where after defining the jurisdiction and without embracing this power so apparently inapt for a criminal magistrate, the Legislature say, “but said police justice shall exercise no civil jurisdiction whatever, except as hereinbefore provided.”
In connection with these considerations and without noticing the objections made to the validity of the act, it seems proper to refer somewhat more particularly to those provisions which have the most bearing on the question we are considering.
It is too plain to be disputed and has therefore been hitherto assumed that the scheme.of the act contemplated that the police justice and the members of the police force should not be remunerated by fees or itemized pay, but should have stated general allowances from the city, and payable monthly, for all their services; and that as to certain of their services among those rendered in executing general state laws against alleged penal offenders, and for which they would be compensated • by the gen eral allowance from the city, the same fees should nevertheless be allowed against the county for the benefit of the city as are given for the like services under the general laws of the state to justices of the peace, sheriffs, turnkeys and constables, and should be paid by the county to the city. And it is essential to bear this peculiar feature of the act in xnind when the provisions for the collection of fees are read.
The seventh section has not been amended, and the first branch imperatively requires that the complaining witness, when a non-resident, shall in all cases give security for costs before process, but in other cases remits it to the discretion of the justice to require such security or not and as well after as before process. The other branch of the section provides that in case the accused is discharged on examination or acquitted on trial, and the justice certifies on his record that it is just and equitable that the complainant pay the costs, that then the justice shall enter a judgment for costs against the surety and the complaining witness, either or both of them, which shall be of like force and effect, and shall be collected on execution, as any other judgment rendered by a justice of the peace.” 3 Session Laws, 1873, p. 192.
It is seen that this section contemplates collection of the costs from complainants and sureties in a portion of the class of cases where the prosecution fails, and contemplates that the justice and officers properly entrusted with any executions shall be the agencies to effect collection. It is also not unworthy of notice that no provision is here made for getting costs from any source in those cases where the prosecution fails, and either no judgment is given for costs, or if given, is proved to be uncollectible by execution.
We now come to the section relied upon as conferring power on the police justice not merely to collect of the individuals liable -therefor the fees specifically incurred before him, but to collect the same in mass with others- from the county, for the benefit of the city. It is section eight as amended in 1875. Local Acts, 1875, pp. 743, 744. It embraces several distinct regulations.
First. It ordains, that all first and all final process issued by the police justice shall be directed to and served by some member of the police force; but that all other-writs or process issued by him may be executed by any member of such force or by any constable of the city.
Second. That in each ease examined, or tried and determined before him for a violation of the charter or of an ordinance or by-law, he shall tax for his services therein $2.50, and for services therein by a member of the police force the further sum of $2.50, and for services by a constable not a member of such force, such fees as are given by law in criminal cases for the like services, — the latter “when collected” to be paid to the constable for “ his own use.”
Third. That in all cases for offenses against the criminal laws of the state and made triable before the police justice, and in all cases examinable • and bailable but not triable before him for alleged violations of the criminal laws of the state, he shall tax for services performed by him therein the same fees as are given by law to justices of the peace for like services; and shall also tax for any services therein by members of the police force such sum or sums as are allowed by law to constables, sheriffs and turnkeys for like services; and for the services of any constable not being a member of such force such fees as are given by law for like services, the latter to “be paid to said constable, when collected, to his own use.”
Fourth. In all cases commenced before the police justice to recover fines, penalties or forfeitures; and in all cases of offenses against the criminal laws of the state and triable before him, if the defendant pleads guilty or is found guilty on trial, there shall be judgment “for costs accruing in the case,” “against and paid by said defendant, in addition to the fine, penalty, or forfeiture imposed.”
Fifth. In all eases of examination of offenders by said justice for offenses against the criminal laws of the state, and where he has power only to examine and hold to bail and not to try, the fees given by law for such examination “ shall be audited by the board of supervisors of the county of Kent and paid out of the treasury of said county.”
Sixth. “And in case the costs aforesaid, taxed against the defendant in any sentence imposed by such justice in suits tried and determined by him, for a violation of the criminal laws of this State, shall not be paid by said defendant, the same shall be audited by the board of supervisors aforesaid, and paid out of the treasury of said county.”
Seventh. “It shall be the duty of said justice to collect such costs and pay the same to the treasurer of said city at the close of each month, taking his receipt therefor (except the .costs payable to such constable performing services as aforesaid), and shall report the same to the common council of said city, at its first regular meeting in each month.”
By section 15 as amended (Local Acts, 1875, p. 745), the justice is required to report to the common council in writing at the first regular meeting in each month, the names of those brought before him subsequent to the first regular meeting of the preceding month, “for examination or trial, the disposition of each case, and the amount of the fine, penalty, or forfeiture, and the amount of the costs adjudged and imposed in each ease separately, and the amount thereof collected; and if no judgment has been rendered or punishment imposed the same shall be stated in said report.”
Now the position that the justice is deputed to collect from the county the costs going to the city, is based entirely on the general expression in section eight above quoted under the seventh head, and it would seem too- plain from the hundred provisions and immediate context to warrant discussion, that the whole purpose was to enjoin upon the justice the duty, closely connected with his office and harmonizing with his range of duties as justice, namely, to collect from individuals all “such costs” as they should be condemned before him to pay; and not to require him to step beyond or outside of his official sphere to exercise an independent and not congruous agency.
It will not escape notice that wherever the language is at all specific in regard to his collecting costs, it points invariably to instances where either the defendant, or the complaining witness and his surety or one of these shall be condemned by the justice to pay the costs and in no instance to cases where the costs are left to be borne exclusively by the county, and under the circumstances this significantly tends to show the sense meant to be conveyed by the passage the relator rests upon.
Again, in such intimate connection with this requirement to collect the costs that it cannot be separated is the command to pay the “same” costs (except those going to constables), to the city treasurer at the close of each month.
It is hence evident that his agency in collecting has exclusive reference to items expected to accrue and become collectible day by day during each month, and up to the “ close ” of the month; a state of things wholly incompatible with any idea of collection from the county. The construction claimed would necessitate a session of the board of supervisors at some seasonable hour or hours, at or about the close of each month in the year in order to audit and adjust the claims preferred by the justice for the' benefit of the city and enable the justice to draw the money and pay it over to the city treasurer. And surely it cannot be seriously urged that the legislature had such action in contemplation. Had it been their will to confer upon this criminal magistrate the power in question and to require -these regular and repeated meetings of the board of supervisors year after year, the intent would not have been left to be gathered from this one general expression, but distinct and explicit terms would have been used to make known not only to the justice and the city, but to the board of supervisors, the extraordinary duties enjoined. Further discussion does not appear to be called for. It seems scarcely necessary to add that it is not intended to question the personal fitness of the gentleman now in the office, and appearing as relator, to be a statutory special agent of the city to make collections of the county. The reasoning is general and does not proceed upon any idea of the actual qualifications of a particular person. The object has been to show that the legislature has not appended to the office of police justice an authority and duty foreign to it, or confided a trust to a given official who could not be presumed a fit and proper object of it.
In my judgment the police act confers no power upon the justice to officiate as agent of the city in making collections of the county as claimed, and that the application for mandamus should be denied.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
Gilbert sued Fowler for slander, and recovered a verdict of $600. The declaration contained several counts. These charged Fowler with accusing Gilbert in various forms of words, of having burned his property to defraud insurers. One count charged the accusation that he was a “damned thief.” In one of the counts in connection with the charge concerning the fraud on insurers there was an accusation of “swindling” set forth. As the court charged that this as a distinct and separate charge was not ground of action, it becomes immaterial.
Some assignments of error which were directed against the exclusion of evidence to show acts asserted to have been dishonest- and swindling, may in this connection be disposed of as entirely outside of the issue, and without any force on that account.
We are compelled to refer (as we have found ourselves in several other cases required to do so) to the needless multiplication of assignments of error, several of which are of no importance. In this case there are sixty-eight assignments, and this number is, under the record as presented, much beyond reason. Whatever may be the necessity of saving points in the hurry of a trial, there can be no such necessity after the interval of reflection occupied in preparing exceptions and maturing the cause for argument. No assignments should be fairly made unless counsel has at least some plausible ground for insisting on them.
It is also to be regretted that in such a multitude of assignments no means have been taken either on the record or in the brief by proper references, to enable the court to find the rulings complained of except by rummaging in each instance through the whole record, which we have been forced to do at a needless expense of time. We are not disposed to censure the counsel in this case for not doing what other counsel have too often failed to do. But we wish to have it understood that the practice is one which ought to be mended.
Several complaints are made concerning the sweeping character of some of the charges, as covering the entire declaration, and not discriminating between the counts and separate averments, but informing the jury that all the charges except swindling were actionable. We do no’t think there was any error in this, if such was the real state of the pleadings. No demurrer was interposed, and the case was proved substantially as alleged. We need not consider whether there was any technical defect in setting out colloquies and innuendoes, for the language used would to any ordinary mind indicate an intention to slander the plaintiff below in the way complained of, and if any more formal averments were needed, the counts should have been demurred to.
It was also urged under certain assignments of error that there should have been an averment and proof that plaintiff had an actual insurance, inasmuch as he could not defraud insurers when not really insured. But it certainly cannot mitigate a slander that it contains two falsehoods instead of one. If a man is not insured, it is as much a slander to charge him with burning his property to defraud insurers as if he were. • The charge involves the fact of insurance as well as the fraudulent burning.
Many of the questions in this cause were disposed of in Leonard v. Pope, 27 Mich., 145, and need no further discussion. The repetition of the same charges was there held admissible in aggravation. And it has never been doubted that any evidence of actual malice is receivable for the same purpose. Charges made to plaintiff himself of the same slanderous nature are admissible, whether made to him alone or in presence of others. This is a doctrine which needs no citation of authorities. And an admission by defendant that a story would not have been started, if plaintiff had dealt with him differently, was not only admissible, but very significant proof of malice.
The court below rightly excluded proof of alleged frauds of plaintiff against third persons concerning agreements regarding insurance. They had no bearing on the issue, and he could not be prepared to meet any such irrelevant facts. Plaintiff in error now claims this proof might have shown that in calling Gilbert a thief he meant to use that term in a milder sense. But there was no attempt to show any such application in the language or context, nor any explanation by Fowler himself. The question what the term means must be solved by the intent of the person uttering the slander, and he must be supposed to mean what he says unless explained.
Neither was it improper to exclude evidence of the statements of a witness to her husband, in corroboration of her testimony charging plaintiff with having burned Ms own property. There was no plea of justification, and the slander was therefore admitted to be false. Her testimony itself was, when received, improper testimony, and if there was any error it was in receiving it at all. We do not see how the method of corroboration was proper. But if proper, its exclusion cannot be complained of.
It was certainly proper for the court when it had inadvertently admitted evidence of the truth of the slander to allow it to be answered; but no proof could do any harm to defendant which did not go beyond his admissions; and no question being raised on the charge which could affect any matter of damages in this connection, there are no assigned errors which need discussion upon this subject.
The court below also properly rejected the offer to ■prove by one Alfred Miller, a deputy sheriff, what opinion he as a public officer entertained concerning the '•occasion of the fife. If the opinions of officers and ’detectives are to be received as probable cause of guilt, 'or as furnishing any ground for action, we fear there would be no great security for character or liberty. The proposition is preposterous.
It was also proper to confine the effect of public rumors against the plaintiff on the subject of the slander to mitigation of damages. They certainly could have no tendency to prove its truth even if it had been justified.
The court, in regard to special damages for words not in themselves actionable, directed the jury there could be no recovery if plaintiff had failed to prove them. There is nothing in the record showing there was no such proof, and the charge on the question was in response to a request by defendant, asserting that plaintiff had failed to prove them. It must he assumed there was testimony warranting the submission.
There is also a criticism that in giving a charge the' court left out a clause inserted in defendant’s request, requiring the jury to find the words spoken in the manner and sense charged. We do not discover in the charge given any thing which would lead the jury astray. It is sufficiently guarded to prevent any mistake, even if the slander was not actionable in itself, which it clearly was; and it does not appear that any attempt was made to show the words were used in any but their usual sense.
Neither have we found in the record anything to indicate that the slanders could have been in any way privi- - leged. We are somewhat at a loss to discover what the court referred to by such a suggestion. But there was nothing said which could injure plaintiff in error.
After a careful search we have found no assignments not manifestly groundless which are not covered by what we have already discussed. We find no error, and the judgment must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
This is an action of assumpsit for goods sold brought before a justice and appealed by Mrs. Altman, the defendant, to the circuit, where judgment was also rendered against her. She brings error.
On the trial upon the merits, as appears from the record, several questions came up which will be presently considered. We do not understand how the denial of a motion to dismiss an appeal can be made the ground of an exception, and we shall not consider that question.
Several questions were asked Mrs.. Altman and her husband on cross-examination concerning their habit .of purchasing and doing business. As the chief issue related to Mrs. Altman’s being concerned in business, and her purchase of these goods sued for was denied, we think a proper discretion was exercised by the circuit judge in allowing full inquiry into these dealings.
As we are not informed why the reading of the justice’s return was objected to, we are unable to say it was incompetent. It was part of the record.
A witness (Benfey) was asked whether certain goods were identical with those mentioned in the bill on file. As the identity of the goods was in issue, we can see no reason why this was not a proper course, and the objection does not seem to be relied on upon the argument filed.
The alleged errors in the judge’s finding were not excepted to.
There is no error in the record, and the judgment must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
In 1867 James E. De Bow being indebted to complainant in the sum of $1278 executed and delivered to him as security therefor a mortgage of eighty acres of land in Plomer, Calhoun county, and in 1868 a further indebtedness of $300 having arisen, a second mortgage' was given, covering the same lands, and also certain lots in the village of Homer. These mortgages remained unpaid until March 27, 1876, when the parties entered into an arrangement under which complainant was to take the eighty-acre lot in satisfaction of his demands, and discharge the mortgages. This arrangement was carried out by the execution of the proper conveyances, and by the discharge of the mortgages of record. All this was done in the full belief on the part of complainant that the title to the lands he was thereby acquiring from De Bow was unincumbered, and not until some time in the early part of 1877 did he ascertain that defendant Stone, in the year 1870, had sued out of the circuit court for Calhoun county an attachment against the property of De Bow, and caused the same to be levied on the lands described in the mortgages. A certified copy of the attachment was duly filed by the sheriff in the office of the register of deeds of the county, immediately after it was levied, but nothing further was done in the attachment suit until December 1876, when Stone proceeded to judgment therein, and in January following caused an execution on the judgment to be levied on the same lands. When the attachment proceedings came to the knowledge of the complainant he at once filed a bill in equity, setting forth the facts above recited, charging De Bow with fraud in procuring the discharge, praying that the discharge be set aside, and that the lien of his mortgages be restored and established as if the discharge had never been given. He also prayed for foreclosure and sale.
The case was heard on pleadings and proofs in the court below, and decree entered for complainant in accordance with the prayer of his bill. Very little controversy is made over the facts. No fraud is made out against De Bow, but it is very satisfactorily shown that complainant had no knowledge of the attachment proceedings when the discharge was given. Many objections are taken to the decree, and we shall notice all that seem to us to require special attention.
1. It is said that complainant has no equities because, by the filing of the proper papers in the office of the register of deeds, he and all other persons were duly notified of the attachment, and he must therefore be deemed to have acted with full knowledge of the attachment lien when he gave the discharge.
This objection depends for its force upon the answer to the question whether the filing of the attachment papers is constructive notice. Upon that subject the statute is silent. It provides only that “Beal estate shall be bound, and the attachment shall be a lien thereon, from the time when it was attached, if a certified copy of the attachment, with a description of such real estate, shall be deposited in the office of the register of deeds in the county where the same is situated, within three days after such real estate was attached, otherwise such attachment shall be a lien thereon only from the time when such certified copy shall be so deposited.” Comp. L., § 6406. This does not make the copy filed notice to third parties. Columbia Bank v. Jacobs, 10 Mich., 349; and the case must consequently be disposed of on the assumption that complainant had no notice of the attachment proceedings, actual or constructive, when the discharge of the mortgages was given.
2. Defendant Stone insists that whether complainant ■had notice of the attachment or not is really immaterial in this proceeding, inasmuch as the levy of execution was made while the mortgages remained undischarged, and thereby new rights were acquired in which he is entitled to be protected as being rights superior to any which complainant can have to the restoration of a lien not in existence when the levy was made. But it was held in Columbia Bank v. Jacobs, supra, that a mere levy did not give to the creditor any rights analogous to those of a bona fide purchaser, and the same principle has been recognized at the.present term in Michigan Panelling, etc. Co. v. Parsell, ante, 475. The creditor, when he makes sale on his execution and becomes the purchaser, may thereby acquire new equities.; but until that time he stands in the rights of his debtor, and the levy may be defeated by equities which the debtor is unable to resist.
3. Beliance is placed on Bennett v. Nichols, 12 Mich., 22, as authority for the doctrine that equity is incompetent to create a lien upon land. . That doctrine has no application here, A lien discharged by mistake is in contemplation of equity still in existence, and the decree only declares and enforces it.
4. What has already been said would seem to dispose of the argument .that Stone, by his levy has acquired vested rights of which he cannot be constitutionally deprived. We may concede to the fullest extent the doctrine that the legislature cannot take away a statutory lien (Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall., 610), and the question only recurs whether this defendant ever had any lien as against the equities of the complainant. If he did not, then no question of vested rights is involved. It has been shown that only through mistake of fact did complainant divest himself of his own previous liens; and it is contrary to equity for defendant to attempt to take advantage of that mistake. But it has well been said that “ courts do not regard rights as vested contrary to the justice and equity of the case.” State v. Newark, 3 Dutch., 197. Constitutional principles would be a mockery of justice if they might .be seized upon to protect an accidental legal right to the destruction of substantial equities. It is a misuse of terms to call the action of the court below the depriving of this defendant of rights: all it did or assumed to do was to adjust between these parties their respective equities; and-this it did in the exercise of an undoubted jurisdiction, and without in the least venturing upon doubtful ground.
5. The decree undertook to restore the complainant' to his position, as mortgagee of the lands previous to the discharge being given, and a sale of the mortgaged premises was ordered, to satisfy the amount due on the mortgages, unless the amount due and costs should be paid within five months. Some formal objections are made to the decree which we think not tenable. The objection that complainant, who had for a time been in possession of the eighty-acre lot, should have been required to account for rents and profits might have had force if the pleadings had brought it to the attention of the court below, but they did not.
The decree should be affirmed with costs against the appellant.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
The plaintiffs are publishers of a newspaper in the village of Sturgis, and they bring suit against the village for the amount of a printing bill. The bill was for publishing marshal’s notices to taxpayers, village ordinances and sidewalk notices, and amounted to $215.25. The amount was made up by charging seventy cents per folio for the first insertion, and thirty-five cents per folio for each subsequent insertion. The folios were not counted, but were estimated, according to the testimony of one of the plaintiffs, as follows: “In making my estimate of the space occupied by a folio, I took a hundred words out of a solid place, and then measured the whole space without allowing for blank spaces: I counted every inch one hundred words, whether it had one hundred words in it or not.” The village board allowed the bill at $105.25, which the plaintiffs seem to have declined to accept. The evidence showed that there never was any order of the village board directing the publication to be made, but it was shown that some of the city officers took notices to the plaintiffs for publication. How the time of publication was fixed, or by whom directed, did not appear on the trial.
The circuit judge charged the jury; in substance, that if the plaintiffs performed services for the defendant, from which a benefit had been received,-a promise to pay therefor may be implied. Also that if they rendered services for the legitimate purposes of the village, and which had been accepted and appropriated by.the village, they have a lawful claim against the village for compensation. Under this charge the plaintiffs had a verdict for $209.65.
These instructions were misleading. -Under them the jury might have returned the verdict they did even though they had been convinced that the publication was without any warrant of law. Suppose a village newspaper to perform for the village the service of publishing the proceedings of the village board without reguest from any source, and suppose a jury to be satisfied that the village was benefited thereby; will it be said that the village may be compelled by law to pay full legal rates for such publication? And if there is benefit in such publication, how can the village avoid accepting and appropriating it ? The law gives to the village authorities no power to interfere with the management of the paper, and the publishers will publish what they please. But contracts, express or implied, are not to be made by action of one party alone, where the other party has no control, and no authority to interfere.
And we are of opinion that this case stands as it would had the action of the plaintiffs been purely voluntary. There was no authority for charging the village for such publication unless it emanated from the village board, and it does not appear that any village officer had been empowered to give directions for the purpose. The authority certainly did not pertain to .any particular village officer; and the village attorney, clerk and marshal, if either had claimed it, might have had his right disputed by the other. If there are any exceptions to this statement, they must relate to the marshal’s notices and the sidewalk notices; but the charges for these only aggregated $5.25; the remainder of the bill was for publishing the ordinances; and there can be no doubt that the publication of these must be ordered by the village legislative body, which would have authority not only to select the paper in which the publication should be made, but also to fix the time that the publication should continue. In respect to time, there was room for the exercise of a large discretion; and no mere ministerial officer could exercise this, at least without express authority.
We are of opinion, therefore, that the court erred in giving the instructions. The village might perhaps have paid the bill or compromised it; but no question arises here upon the offer which was made. The judge correctly instructed the jury that a legal folio was one hundred words. Comp. L., § 7459. Some further questions of interest are made by the record, but we prefer to leave them until a decision becomes important.
The judgment must be reversed with costs, and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
Mrs. Hodgeboom as assignee of her father brought this suit upon the common counts against Tolan for the value of certain wheat her father had raised on shares, and which Tolan, on the claim of having purchased of one Richards, seized and consumed. The evidence is that Tolan made no transfer of any of the wheat and never received any thing for it. He used part of it for seed and applied the rest to domestic uses. If Mrs. Hodgeboom owned it, he was liable for the value-in trespass or trover. He never promised her to pay for it. He based his interference upon his purchase from Richards. The court charged in substance that if the wheat belonged to Mrs. Hodgeboom, and being aware of her rights, Tolan either used or sowed the wheat, he was liable in this action.
I am unable to distinguish this ease from Watson v. Stever, 25 Mich., 386, and we there held that assumpsit was not maintainable. That case contained no evidence that the defendant had sold the property, but there was evidence tending to show he had retained and used it, and the judge instructed the jury the plaintiff might recover in that form of action if his assignor owned the property and the defendant “used” it without his consent. In passing upon the point, the opinion of the court said : “ If one has taken possession of property, and sold or disposed of it, and received money or money’s worth therefor, the owner is not compellable to treat him as a wrong-doer, but may affirm the sale as made on his behalf and demand in this form of action the benefit of the transaction. But we cannot safely say the law will go very much further than this in implying a promise, where the circumstances repel all implication of a promise in fact. Damages for a trespass are not in general recoverable in assumpsit; and in the case of the taking of personal property, it is generally held essential that a sale by the defendant should be shown.” The other questions become immaterial.
The judgment must be reversed with costs and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
Wilkinson brought suit in the Superior Court of Detroit upon a note for nine hundred dollars, made by Bobinson, and payable to the order of James N. B. Wilkinson. The note was not endorsed, and the plaintiff claimed a right to recover upon it by showing a’ verbal assignment of it by the payee to herself for value.
It is not pretended that such a suit could have been maintained at the common law, but reliance is placed upon the statute (Comp. L., § 5775), which provides that “ the assignee of any bond, note or other chose in action, not negotiable under existing laws, which has been or may be hereafter assigned, may sue and recover the same in his own name,” etc. The view of this statute taken by the plaintiff is, that it is intended to confer upon assignees of dioses in action the right to maintain suits in their own name in all cases; that while a note in the form of the one before the court is in a certain sense negotiable, yet that it is not fully and for all purposes such until after endorsement by the payee, and is therefore within the intent of this statute and must be con sidered not negotiable until it is put in position to pass from hand to hand by mere delivery. And it is said with some force there could be no reason for leaving this particular class of paper subject to the common-law rule which required suit to be brought in the name of .the payee, when on all other contracts the assignee is permitted to sue in his own name.
The question, however, is one of statutory construction, and not of the sufficiency of the reasons for making the statute what it is. There is no doubt that such paper is negotiable according to the sense of that word as it is employed in mercantile law. Bills of exchange and notes payable to order or to bearer are equally considered negotiable, though the ceremony of indorsement is required in the one case and not in the other. It is true that paper payable to order and not yet endorsed is sometimes said not to be negotiable until the endorsement is made, but by this is meant only that the endorsement is a necessary ceremony of the process of negotiating it. The term negotiable is one of classification, and does not of necessity imply anything more than that the paper possesses the negotiable quality.
The statute referred to is an enabling statute, and we cannot enlarge it. Probably in enacting it the Legislature went as far as it was supposed there was any necessity for going, namely, to provide for cases in which under common law rules the assignee could not, by the act of the parties, be empowered to sue in his own name. It was not supposable that any similar enactment was needed for the case of negotiable paper, as the mere act of endorsement, which it is customary to perform in assigning such paper, was all that would be needed. Redmond v. Stansbury, 24 Mich., 447.
We think the court erred in giving judgment for the plaintiff, and that the judgment must be reversed, with costs, and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
Mrs. Heisel sued the railroad company in ease, for an injury suffered by her as owner of a lot situated on West Division, formerly Seward street, in the city of. Grand Eapids. The injury complained of was one resulting from an occupation of the street in front of plaintiff’s premises by the main track of the railroad, and also by a side-track upon which cars were often left standing. Plaintiff occupied the lot as a homestead, and special- damages were -claimed not only for the inconvenience of access to the lot caused by the running and keeping of ears in the street, but also for the discomfort occasioned by the smoke, dust, noise, etc., from the engines and carriages. Mrs. Iieisel bought the land in 1868, after the railroad track had been laid in the street, but before the side track had been put in. The description in her conveyance was as follows:
“ The following described piece or parcel of land lying and being situate in the city of Grand Eapids, Kent county, and State of Michigan, to-wit: Commencing at a point where the continuation of the north line of Second street of Scribner and Turner’s addition to the city of Grand Eapids would intersect the east line of Seward street, thence running north on the line of said Seward street one hundred feet, thence east parallel to said line of Second street one hundred feet, thence south parallel to the line of Seward street one hundred feet to the north line of said Second street, thence west along the line of Second street one hundred feet to the place of beginning.”
Upon the trial the plaintiff gave evidence tending to show that she was specially incommoded by the running of the cars in the street, and particularly by cars being left standing on the side track; that the smoke, noise, smells, etc., made the neighborhood unhealthy and unpleasant ; that her own health received injury therefrom; and that the market value of her premises was greatly decreased in consequence of the use of the street by the railroad company.' The defendants gave evidence of a permission which had been granted to them by the city to lay their tracks in the street, and it is not questioned here that that permission was lawfully given, but a question arises upon it which will be considered further on. The defendants also claimed that the plaintiff had r_j title to the lands embraced within the limits of the street, but the circuit judge held that whether she had or not was immaterial. He also instructed the jury in respect to damages as follows:
“The plaintiff claims that by reason of the injury she has lost certain rental of the lot' which had a house on it as claimed; and, second, it is claimed that the plaintiff has been injured in health, and has been annoyed by the running of trains and standing of cattle ears on the side-track, for which trouble and annoyance she claims to recover some damages; and, third, the decreased value of the premises by reason of the road and side-track are claimed as damages. In my judgment the plaintiff may recover upon all three of these claims for damages, provided that you find as a fact that such damages have been actually sustained by the plaintiff.”
One question which it becomes necessary to notice in the case relates to the permission which was given by the city authorities for the occupation of the street with railroad tracks. Under the general railroad law now in force a railroad company with such permission is not allowed to construct their road in a public street until “damages and compensation be made” to the adjoining owners (General Railroad law, 1 Sess. L., 1873, p. 505; Act 198, Art. II., See. 9, subd. 5). The track of the company was lkid in the street in 1868, before the plaintiff became owner of her lot. No formal permission for the occupation of the street was given by the city authorities until 1873, which was after the plaintiff had purchased and gone into occupation. No compensation has been made by defendant to the adjoining owners, but as no statute made such compensation a condition precedent to the occupancy of the street, at the time it began, and as the city then imposed no conditions, I cannot see how that fact can make the occupation which was tacitly permitted illegal. Nevertheless the right of the plaintiff to recover compensation in some form, if she was ever entitled to any, is not affected by what has taken place: if she has rights in the street which are property rights, or if as respects the enjoyment of her lot she suffers any deprivation of right through the occupation of the street by the railroad company, she is, I think, entitled to recover compensation by suit, to the same extent that she would have been entitled to demand it had she been owner before the track was laid and demanded it in advance. Her right, however, must be tested by common law rules; the statute does not undertake to prescribe for what the adjoining owners shall be compensated, nor, as we understand it, to enlarge their common law rights.
What rights the adjoining owner has in the public streets is then the question; and I cannot resist the conclusion that the circuit judge was in error when he instructed the jury that it is immaterial in this controversy whether the plaintiff’s ownership extended to the center of the street or was restricted to the limits actually included in the boundaries given in her deed: in other words, that it is immaterial whether the railroad company has actually appropriated her land, or has only interfered with her enjoyment of the public easement.
It is, to my mind at least, doubtful whether it is competent for the public authorities to bind the interests of individuals by any consent they may give to the occupation for railroad purposes of a public highway, when the land over which the highway is laid is owned by private parties. If the railroad were only a city railway constituting a mere local convenience, and calculated to relieve the pressure of traffic and travel upon the street, the question of course would be different. There are cases which hold it to be competent under proper legislative authority, to permit a street railway track to be laid, regardless of the consent or of the wishes of abutting proprietors who may own the soil of the street. A street railway for local purposes, so far from constituting a new burden, is supposed to be permitted because it constitutes a relief to the street; it is in furtherance of the purpose for which the street is established, and relieves the pressure of local business and local travel instead of constituting an embarrass ment. It is for this reason that the owners of lands over which a city street is laid are denied compensation if a street railway is subsequently authorized within it: if they were compensated for the taking of their land originally, they are supposed to be compensated for all possible losses they may suffer from its being put to proper uses as an avenue of local trade and passage, and if without compensation they dedicated it to the public, they are supposed to have contemplated and assented to all such uses. They have therefore no ground for complaint when the new convenience is brought into use; and I apprehend one would not be permitted to show that in his particular case the street railway was an injury rather than a benefit. It is enough that the use of the street for a city railway is a proper use, and therefore a lawful use; being such, it can give rights of action to no one. Such appear to be the conclusions of the courts: Brooklyn City etc. R. R. Co. v. Coney Island etc. R. R. Co., 35 Barb., 364; Brooklyn Central etc. R. R. Co. v. Brooklyn City etc. R. R. Co., 33 Barb., 420; People v. Kerr, 27 N. Y., 188; New Albany & Salem R. R. Co. v. O’Daily, 12 Ind., 551; Brown v. Duplessis, 14 La. Ann., 842; Elliott v. Fair Haven etc. R. R. Co., 32 Conn., 579; Hobart v. Milwaukee City R. R. Co., 27 Wis., 194.
But we cannot say the same in the case of the ordinary railroad. It is not usual for such a road to be laid in one of the public highways, and the cases in which it is permitted are exceptional. For that reason, therefore, if for no other, the owner whose land is taken for a highway, whether in town or country, cannot be understood to have assented to its being appropriated, ■either wholly or in part to railway purposes at the discretion of the public authorities, and to have been compensated for such appropriation. Neither can the use of the highway for the ordinary railway be in furtherance ■of the purpose for which the highway is established, and a relief to the local business and travel upon it: the two uses, on the other hand, come seriously in conflict; the railroad constitutes a perpetual embarrassment to the ordinary use, which is greater or less in proportion to the business that is done upon it and the frequency of trains. When, therefore, the country highway or the city street is taken for the purposes of a railroad company engaged in the business of transporting persons and property between distant points, the owner of the soil in the highway is entitled to compensation, because a new burden has been imposed upon his estate, which affects him differently from the original easement, and may be specially injurious. “ The right of way, the road bed and the carriages propelled thereon are owned by private individuals, and not by the public. Fares are charged for travel thereon for the exclusive benefit of the parties owning the road. They are constructed and equipped in the interest of private speculation, but at the same time they are intended to subserve the public good. The travel on them bears no analogy to our notions of travel on an ordinary street or highway, where every one travels at pleasure in his own conveyance, without paying tolls or fares. The uses are totally different and even inconsistent.” Indianapolis etc. R. R. Co. v. Hartley, 67 Ill., 439, 444, per Scott, J., following and repeating to some extent Shaw, Ch. J., in Springfield v. Conn. R. R. R. Co., 4 Cush., 63; to the same effect see Cox v. Louisville etc. R. R. Co., 48 Ind., 178, 189, per Downey, J. The following cases sustain and illustrate the same view: Presbyterian Society v. Auburn etc. R. R. Co., 3 Hill, 567; Williams v. New York Central R. R. Co., 16 N. Y., 97; Wager v. Troy etc. R. R. Co., 25 N. Y., 526; Nicholson v. N. Y. & N. H. R. R. Co., 22 Conn., 83; Imlay v. Union Branch R. R. Co., 26 Conn., 249; Mahon v. N. Y. Central R. R. Co., 24 N. Y., 658; Haynes v. Thomas, 7 Ind., 39; Tate v. O. & M. R. R. Co., id., 480; Kimball v. Kenosha, 4 Wis., 321; Ford v. Chicago etc. R. R. Co., 14 Wis., 609; Pomeroy v. Milwaukee etc. R. R. Co., 16 Wis., 640; Hegar v. Chicago etc. R. W. Co., 26 Wis., 624; Sherman v. Milwaukee etc. R. R. Co., 40 Wis., 645.
In such a case it cannot be questioned that the laying of the railroad track in the highway without first legally appropriating the land for the purpose, and without making compensation, is a legal wrong to the adjacent owner: the track as to him is wrongfully laid: and whether he proceeds to have compensation assessed/ in the manner provided by law when lands are appropriated under the right of eminent domain, — if provision is made that meets the case — or brings a common law action, he is entitled to recover such damages as he can show he has suffered by reason of the appropriation. And in such a case his injury is not confined to the inconvenience he is put to in making use of the public easement: but as the railroad wrongfully encumbers his freehold, he may recover for any injury the encumbrance causes. The decrease in rental value and in the market value of his lot are legitimate items of damage in such a case; and so are the annoyances to business or to family occupation which the operations of the railroad company may cause. Mix v. Lafayette etc. R. R. Co., 67 Ill., 319. Indeed the general principles on which damages would be assessed in such á case would be the same that they would have been had no highway previously existed, and the existence of the highway would only be a circumstance tending to diminish the recovery.
But other principles must be applied when the abutting owner is not the owner of the soil in the street. In that case his freehold is not appropriated, and the mere laying of the track in the street — in the absence of any statute giving him redress therefor — is no wrong to him whatever. He is not wronged until the use of a street becomes a nuisance to him, or specially incommodes him in the enjoyment of the public easement. He is entitled to no assessment of damages, because none of his land is taken, and lie has no action at the common law unless upon such grounds as would enable one land proprietor to sue an adjoining proprietor for failing to observe the maxim that every one must so use his own property as not unreasonably to incommode his neighbor. The damage establishes the wrong, and must be shown in every case.
An adjoining proprietor can never be entitled to recover from a railroad company for the depreciation in the rental or sale value of his premises, because of the location of the track in the street, except upon the assumption that the location is of itself unlawful. As already stated, it is unlawful as to him if he owns the soil in the street; but if he does not, -and the placing of the track there is permitted by competent authority, the incidental injuries he may suffer from, the location of the track and from the proper and reasonable conduct of the business of the railroad company upon it can afford no ground of action unless the statute gives one. In that particular he is on the same footing with all the rest of the community; he may have the incidental benefits without compensation, and he must submit to the incidental losses without redress. The railroad is not a public nuisance, and no right of action can arise against the company until by negligence or improper management they do or suffer to be done something injurious to the abutting proprietor which the permission to occupy the street would not justify. The general principle here stated has been recognized in the following cases: Moses v. Pittsburg etc. R. R. Co., 21 Ill., 516; Murphy v. Chicago, 29 Ill., 279; Stetson v. Chicago etc. R. R. Co., 75 Ill., 74; Chicago etc. R. R. Co. v. McGinnis, Id Ill., 269; Elizabethtown etc. R. R. Co. v. Combs, 10 Bush, 382; Carson v. Central R. R. Co., 85 Cal., 325; Porter v. North Missouri R. R. Co., 83 Mo., 128. It is a legal solecism to call that a public nuisance which is permitted to competent authority; Harris v. Thompson, 9 Barb., 350; Danville etc. R. R. Co. v. Commonwealth, 73 Penn. St., 29, and cases cited. The nuisance, whether it be public or private, must be found in the subsequent misconduct of the railroad company, and not in their acceptance of the permission to occupy the highway.
But every lot owner has “ a peculiar interest in the adjacent street which neither the local nor the general public can pretend to claim; á private right in the nature of an incorporeal hereditament legally attached to his contiguous ground; an incidental title to certain facilities and franchises,” which is in the nature of property, and which can no more be appropriated against his will than any tangible property of which he may be owner. Lexington etc. R. R. Co. v. Applegate, 8 Dana, 294; Elizabethtown etc. R. R. Co. v. Combs, 10 Bush., 382; Haynes v. Thomas, 7 Ind., 88; Protzman v. Indianapolis etc. R. R. Co., 9 Ind., 467; Stone v. Fairbury etc. R. R. Co., 68 Ill., 394. A railroad company with its trade in the street may injure the lot owners by ways innumerable: by acts of omission and of commission; and some such acts are charged against the defendant in this case. To leave its ears standing in front of the plaintiff’s premises for an unreasonable time is a plain violation of her rights; and so might be unnecessary noises, and the running of trains at an unwarrantable speed. As the principles which would govern the case are the same which must be applied in the case of nuisances in general, it is quite unnecessary to attempt any catalogue of acts which might constitute legal grievances: the attempt could be but imperfectly carried out because of the impossibility of anticipating all the ways in which one person may unlawfully annoy another. But in no action grounded upon such an injury could the diminution in the value of the plaintiff’s estate constitute a measure of damages. The reason is obvious. In so far as that diminution has been occasioned by the placing of the track in the street, it is damnum absque injuria; and in so far as it comes from an abuse of railroad privileges in the street, it cannot be regarded as permanent in its nature, because it cannot be assumed that the abuses will be permanent. The defendant may indeed repeat them, notwithstanding a recovery for wrongs already done; but the repetition only gives rise to a new cause of action; in advance it cannot be assumed as matter of legal certainty that it will take place. It is clear therefore, that the principles governing the recovery must be quite different -when the plaintiff’s freehold is appropriated and when it is not.
I am inclined to the opinion that a correct interpretation of the plaintiff’s deed must confine the land granted within the boundaries given and exclude the street altogether. The general rule which carries a grant hounded on a highway to the center line thereof is familiar and is not questioned; but the terms of this grant ■appear to indicate an intent that the general rule shall not apply. In Smith v. Slocomb, 9 Gray, 36, a very similar description, beginning and terminating in one of the side lines of a highway was held not to embrace any .part of the land over which the highway was laid. Like decisions were made in Sibley v. Holden, 10 Pick., 249, and Phillips v. Bowers, 7 Gray, 21; Hughes v. Providence etc. R. R. Co., 2 R. I., 508; Hoboken Land Co. v. Kerrigan, 31 N. J. Law, 13; Anderson v. James, 4 Robert., (N. Y.), 35. In Morrow v. Willard, 30 Vt., 118, 120, it is said that “if the deed bounds the grantee on a highway, and there is nothing in the deed which can control the general boundary, it carries the grantee to the center of the highway; such being its legal construction. If, however, the boundary had been the north line of the highway, the construction would have been otherwise.” Similar language is used in Moody v. Palmer, 50 Cal., 31. In Starr v. Child, 5 Denio, 599, a like rule was applied to a conveyance of land bounded on the bank of a stream, and this decision is followed in Halsey v. McCormick, 13 N. Y., 296. And see Nickerson v. Crawford, 16 Me., 245; Rockwell v. Baldwin, 53 Ill., 19. In the very important ease of Howard v. Ingersoll, 13 How., 381, a like view is taken of a boundary on a stream.
I do not consider it important in this case to examine into the nature of the fee which is to be vested in the county when under our statute the proprietor of lands lays out a town plat. That subject has been considered somewhat in Wayne County v. Miller, 31 Mich., 447, and Paul v. Detroit, 32 Mich., 108, but is unimportant to this case, first, because no platting is shown, and second, because, as I think, the terms of the plaintiff’s deed exclude the highway.
I think the judgment should be reversed, with costs, and a new trial ordered.
Campbell, C. J., and Graves, J., concurred. Marston, J., did not sit in this case. | [
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Graves, J.
This is an ejectment for a piece of land in the county of Van Buren. The action was originally brought by Jay R. Monroe (senior) against the plaintiffs in error and one James R. Southard. The death of Jay R. Monroe (senior) was suggested and the cause was allowed to be prosecuted in the names of defendants in error as his heirs-at-law, and thereafter the death of defendant Southard was shown and the action proceeded against the remaining defendants. The only intimation in the case of the time when the suit was commenced appears in the judge’s charge and it is mentioned there as being December 30th, 1875. The jury returned a verdict for the plaintiffs, and the defendants sued out a writ of error and now claim a review of rulings at the trial on bill of exceptions.
The view the nature of the case prompts relieves several matters noticed by counsel of all present importance and they will not be referred to.
Although somewhat out of the. order of proceeding, a question which came up during the course of the defense may properly be disposed of here. Both brevity and clearness will be favored.
The court did not err in refusing defendant’s offer of the register’s entry of what purported to be a deed made in New York by Allen, the patentee, to Elliott in January, 1S38; nor in refusing their offer of the record of what purported to be a quit claim deed made in December, 1875, by Elliott’s heirs to Van Auken. Both were offered to prove title in defendants, and that alone, and they were the only offers of proof of title by the defense except the patent which was proved to have been issued to Allen.in September, 1838. According to the record offered, the supposed deed to Elliott in January, 1838, and given in New York, was attested by only one witness, and being subject to our act of 1827, the proof was clearly inadmissible under our previous decisions. Galpin v. Abbott, 6 Mich., 17; Crane v. Reeder, 21 Mich., 24; Brown v. Cady, 11 Mich., 535; Brown v. McCormick, 28 Mich., 215.
The other record was not supported by any proof or any legitimate offer of proof connecting Elliott, the supposed purchaser from the patentee, with the title, nor supported by proof, or any offer to prove, facts needful to make out that the grantors, as the instrument assumed, were his heirs. True it was stated in a deposition that they were his children. But no proof was made or tendered that they were the issue of any marriage or that their mother ever became his wife. These matters having been properly ruled out, the case as to them stood subject to the maxim that a state of things not made to appear must be taken as not existing. 2 Poth. (Evan’s ed.), § 14, p. 280; Broom’s Max., 164; Wharton’s Max., No. 39. Putting them aside, the ease comes to be considered in a shape which will permit it to be disposed of without much difficulty and on a single ground. December, 1843, the Auditor General deeded to Monroe for the tax of 1839, and also in November, 1844, for the tax of 1840. March, 1847, he again deeded to Monroe pursuant to a sale made in October, 1844, for the taxes of 1842. After suit was commenced three more deeds were issued to him by the Auditor General for taxes of other years, and it appeared that he paid the taxes from 1843 to 1875 inclusive, except for years covered by ihe tax-deeds.
Prior to the summer of 1846 no one seems to have occupied, but at that time Monroe exercised acts of ownership and proceeded to occupy, and this he continued in one form or another without any long intervals, and so far as appears, without interference and without controversy concerning the right, up to December, 1875, when defendants entered. Previous to this last date the place had been without any sort of dwelling, and Monroe’s occupancy in person and through others had not been by living there, but in clearing off timber, tilling, and in various other ways.
The deed of 1847 by the Auditor General prima facie conferred legal title, and one which overrode or extinguished the original title derived from the United States, and whatever equities if any existed against him as actual possessor of the legal title and actual occupant. The deed of 1847 and his open peaceable possession for years and at the time of defendants’ entry constituted badges of exclusive legal right sufficient to keep out trespassers and intruders, and the entry of defendants appears to have been by stealth and without right. They moved a small house to a point convenient for the purpose, and during the night hurried it upon the land and immediately occupied it. The act as against Monroe was wholly aggressive.
The modern doctrine of the law will not encourage parties to decline resort to judicial remedies and to assume to do themselves justice or grasp advantage through stealth .or violence, and it is positive in generally refusing to accord to such means the benefit which would naturally accrue from fair and peaceful measures, and the principle of this politic doctrine applies to the course pursued by plaintiffs in error.
Monroe’s possession of the land, along with the fact of his being grantee in the tax deed of 1847, gave him a positive and material advantage of which it was not competent for the plaintiffs in error to deprive him by their nocturnal invasion.
Their entry was forcible and irregular and did not amount to a possession which entitled them to draw into question the legal sufficiency of Monroe’s right to the land or to set up an outstanding title in another.
The authorities which bear upon the question are very numerous. A number will be referred to.
In Harrington v. Scott, a case of forcible entry and detainer, the court in remarking upon the plaintiff’s possession, which had been gained by force and retained but a short time, observed that a party could not make a possession thus acquired “the ground work of an action.” 1 Mich., 17.
Doe v. Dyball was ejectment for part of a house. The case was tried in 1829. The lessor of plaintiff proved a conveyance back in 1818 and then proved that he had public possession from 1826 till November, 1827, when the defendant and several others came about three o’clock in the night and took forcible possession. Defendant’s counsel objected that this showing of possession for the short period from 1826 to November, 1827, was no evidence of possession under the deed dated back'in 1818, and Lord Tenterden, before whom the case was being tried, immediately disposed of the objection and also of the case in these terms: “ Suppose there had been no deed - at all put in. We find that, in 1826, a tenant of the lessor of the plaintiff had the key delivered to him, when he went in, and that he had peaceable possession of this room, till the defendant came in November, 1827. That is sufficient proof of title as against a man who comes and takes forcible possession at three o’clock in the morning. The plaintiff is entitled to a verdict.” 3 C. & P., 610: s. c., Mood. & M., 346.
In Asher v. Whitlock, L. R., 1 Q. B., 1, which was ejectment founded on the plaintiff’s prior possession and an adverse holding by defendant, Chief Justice Cockburn, after referring to Doe v. Dyball, as sound law, and saying there were other authorities to the same effect, observed as follows: “ Suppose "the person who originally enclosed the land had been expelled by the defendant, or the defendant had obtained possession without force, by simply walking in at the open door in the absence of the then possessor, and were to say to him — ‘You have no more title than I have; my possession is as good as yours’ — surely ejectment could have been maintained by the original possessor against the defendant.”
In Christy v. Scott, 14 How., 282, Mr. Justice Curtis, speaking for. the whole court, said: “ The plaintiff says he was seised in fee, and the defendant ejected him from the possession. The defendant, not denying this, answers that if the plaintiff had any paper title, it was under a certain grant which was not valid. He shows no title whatever in himself.. But a mere intruder cannot enter on a person actually seised, and eject him, and then question his title, or set up an outstanding title in another. The maxim that the plaintiff must recover on the strength of his own title, and not on the weakness of the defendant’s, is applicable to all actions for the recovery of property. But if the plaintiff had actual prior possession of the land, this is strong enough to enable him to recover it from a mere trespasser, who entered without any title. He may do so by a writ of entry, where that remedy is still practised, or by an ejectment, or he may maintain trespass.”
The same doctrine was declared in substance by Chief Justice Kent in Jackson v. Harder, 4 Johns., 202, and it has been repeated often in different terms, .See also McFarlane v. Ray, 14 Mich., 465; Davison v. Gent, 33 E. L. & E., 469; Ward v. McIntosh, 12 Ohio St., 231; Lessee of Fowler v. Whiteman, 2 Ohio St., 270, 285; Lessee of Holt’s Heirs v. Hemphill’s Heirs, 3 Ohio (Hammond) 232, 236; Lessee of Ludlow’s Heirs v. McBride, id., 240; Robinoe v. Doe, 6 Blackf., 85; People v. Leonard, 11 Johns., 504, 509; Whitney v. Wright, 15 Wend., 172; Hill v. Draper, 10 Barb., 454; Ford v. Belmont, 69 N. Y., 567; Wendell v. Blanchard, 2 N H., 456; Hubbard v. Little, 9 Cush., 475; Nichols v. Todd, 2 Gray, 568; Hawkins v. County Com’rs, 2 Allen, 254; Hutchins v. Erickson, 1 Harr. & McHen., 339; Maltonner v. Dimmick, 4 Barb., 566; 1 Cow. and H. notes, 353; 1 Spence Eq. Jur., 225; Buller’s N. P., 103, 2 Greenleaf Ev., § 311; 2 Phil. Ev., 282; 1 Poth. Ob., 467, marg.
If Monroe’s right under the tax deed, of 1847, and his holding of possession were subject to any qualifications of an equitable nature in consequence of some relation or duty to Allen or Elliott the plaintiffs in error ’were not in a position which permitted them to urge it. Moreover it cannot be certainly admitted that any such equitable consideration could be made available for any body in ejectment. Ryder v. Flanders, 30 Mich., 336; Crane v. Reeder, 25 Mich., 303. However, the point requires no decision now.
If the view presented is correct, the defendants in error were entitled to a verdict on any admissible construction of the ease described in the record and the result ought not to be affected by any of the objections insisted on.
The judgment should be affirmed with costs and the cause remanded for any further legitimate proceedings which may be desired.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
Suit was brought by Mrs. Huntley impersonal injuries suffered on the 5th day of November, 1874, by reason of an accident caused by a passenger car being thrown from the track and upset. The testimony showed that the mischief was caused by the breaking of an axle containing a large flaw, within the wheel or near its edge. Those witnesses who made any actual examination found the flaw entirely within the axle, and covered by a small thickness of sound metal. The suit was tried in April, 1877, about two years and a half after the accident. Mrs. Huntley was injured in the shoulder, and claimed that the injury was permanent.
Testimony was introduced bearing upon the condition of the cars and track, and the speed of the train, as well as concerning the character of the injury. The principal questions arise-upon the medical testimony and upon the charge; although some other points are presented.
We do not consider it necessary to dwell minutely on the testimony of speed. It was held in D. & M. Rw. Co. v. Van Steinberg, 17 Mich., 99, that questions touching the speed of trains were not properly scientific inquiries, and were not beyond the competency of ordinary witnesses who had means and habits of observation. In this case it may be doubted whether the witnesses were all near enough to observe, and some of them gave no such data as to indicate what the speed was except as to its comparison with ordinary rates. It would be going too far to hold that any increase over ordinary speed was evidence of danger or of negligence. The testimony should at least show approximately what the real rate was, and that it was faster than safety warranted, before the case should be allowed to go to the jury on such a point. The well known liability of all common observers to be deceived as to the rate of speed of heavy trains, renders it necessary to guard as far as possible against vague testimony, which cannot be directly met or corroborated by the proof of persons having actual knowledge on the subject. Testimony of actual speed is tangible, whatever may be the value of the opinions of particular observers; but opinions on relative speed, without some standard of rapidity are of no value by themselves. In regard to opinions of persons riding in the cars, and not observing from the outside, we are not prepared to say they may not be received, but we think they should be excluded unless the witnesses first show such extended experience and observation as to qualify them for forming such opinions as would be reliable. It is not presumable that ordinary railway travelers usually form such habits.
We are also of opinion that no defects in the track could be relied on to show negligence contributing to the accident except those existing where the track was injured or displaced, and that testimony as to the condition of the road away from the scene of the injury was improper to make out a cause of action, and could only tend to raise false issues. The testimony should be confined to the time as well as place of the accident.
We think there was no error in excluding testimony of the cost of Pullman cars and other stock. The law will not allow negligence to be presumed without proof of actual negligence'. All speculations as to the antecedent probabilities must yield to the facts; and if such speculations can be indulged in, there would be no end to inquiry. It is easy to imagine a great variety of circumstances which might induce some persons to take more care than they would under others; but it would be a very strained presumption that carriers of passengers must be expected to care more for the safety of cars, expensive or inexpensive, than for the lives and limbs of those who travel on their trains.
The fitness of ties for use is a matter which a conductor of several years’ standing must be presumed to understand. His position is a very responsible one, and if he has not familiarized himself with such things as are customary in railway construction, he can hardly have used his eyes to much purpose.
The nature of the injury which Mrs. Huntley suffered became a leading subject of discussion. There was no apparent dispute concerning the original suffering of a slight wound on the head and the dislocation of a shoulder, which was at once set. The chief dispute was whether this dislocation involved any permanent injury, and also whether there was any injury to the spinal column which led to lasting trouble.
Dr. Turner attended her a short time after the injury, and about ten days, after which she was left in charge of Dr. Ball. He visited her again about the time suit was begun, for the purpose of making an examination, and again about three weeks before the trial or more than a year after the second visit. In each of the two latter visits he and another physician, Dr. Ball, with Dr. Andrews, examined her without removing the cloth ing from her back or shoulder and, as the testimony seems to show, made the examination by measuring the arm and shoulder in different positions and pressing on the spine at various points. He asked no question about the spine, but she made complaint of pain above the shoulders.
Upon this testimony of examinations Dr. Turner was allowed to state what in his opinion ailed Mrs. Huntley, and whether it was permanent. His conclusion was that she received a spinal injury at the time of the accident by a sprain — such a concussion as produced laceration and effusion of blood, resulting in a pressure on the spinal cord interfering with the functions of the nerve fluid, and preventing the assimilation of food. That she had a good appetite but could not digest her food, which results in emaciation; that she had urinary difficulties which is always the case, and that was the condition he thought the woman was in. That the difficulty was permanent.
There is probably some error in taking down some parts of the testimony, which as it reads on the record is rather blind and incoherent. But we have stated it as it was evidently designed to appear.
We think this testimony was inadmissible. No portion of it was the result of the witness’ conclusions from his own examination, which, according to his statement on the stand, was p'urely superficial and without inquiry as to any of the injuries or maladies beyond the local injury. He was not her attending physician for purposes of treatment, nor counseling physician for any such purpose, nor did he examine her for purposes of treatment, but merely as auxiliary to a law-suit. The case shows very fully from his own statement that he had no means of knowing or suspecting from any treatment or examination whether there was any spinal, or dyspeptic, or urinary difficulty, or of what nature, or when discovered or originating, or how caused. He does not state on what he based his conclusions, but he does show that he had no knowledge to base them on. They are not scientific opinions — which can only be founded on established facts. They do not purport to be hypothetical, and were not given in answer to any hypothesis ‘founded on evidence. There is no testimony set forth in the record bearing on them at all. As the case stands his views are mere guesses upon no basis of facts. They are also objectionable as covering disputed facts on which it was for the jury and not for experts to decide.
Nr. Ball, who was present with Turner on both of the latter examinations testifies that he was not desired to make and did not make any examination beyond the shoulder, and knew of no further examination. He was asked and allowed to answer what expression Mrs. Huntley made at the last examination, three weeks before trial, and answered that she complained of pain, and that it hurt her. He also swore that the examination, was for the purpose of giving testimony. His evidence further was not very strongly corroborative of Dr. Turner’s view.
The question is raised on this whether the expressions of pain were admissible as proof of actual suffering.
It has been held several times by this court that statements of pain and of its locality were exceptions to the rule excluding hearsay evidence. Hyatt v. Adams, 16 Mich., 180; Johnson v. McKee, 27 Mich., 471; Elliott v. Van Buren, 33 Mich., 49.
These statements are admitted only upon the ground that they are the natural and ordinary accompaniments, and expressions of suffering. It would be impossible in most cases to know of the existence or extent or character of pain without them. They are received therefore as a6ts rather than declarations, and admitted from. necessity. The rule which admits declarations of present suffering has never been extended so as to include declarations either of past suffering or of the causes in the past of such suffering, so as to make such statements proof of the facts. Declarations concerning the past are narratives and not acts. Exclamations of suffering may be, and if honest are, parts of the occurrence itself.
It is difficult to lay down any very clear line of admission or exclusion where the exclamation refers to the feelings of the moment. But we think it would not be safe to receive such testimony in any case where it is not the natural and ordinary expression of pain, called out without purpose, or in the course of medical treatment. The unstudied expressions of daily life, or the statements on which a medical adviser is expected to act, and which if feigned he should have skill enough to subject to some test of truth, stand on a footing which removes them in general from suspicion.
But we cannot think it safe to receive such statements which are made for the very purpose of getting up testimony, and not under ordinary circumstances. The physicians here were not called in to aid or give medical treatment. The case had been relinquished long before as requiring no further attendance. They were sent for merely to enable the plaintiff below to prove her case. The whole course of the plaintiff was taken to no other end. She had in her mind just what expressions her cause required. They were therefore made under a strong temptation to feign suffering if dishonest, and a hardly less strong tendency if honest to imagine or exaggerate it. The purpose of the examination removed the ordinary safeguards which furnish the only reason for receiving declarations which bear in a party’s own favor.
The general rule in regard to other classes of hearsay evidence and statements admitted upon the same principle is that they must have been made ante litem motam, which is interpreted to mean not merely before suit brought, but before the controversy exists upon the facts. Stockton v. Williams, Walker’s Ch., 120: 1 Doug. (Mich.), 546 (citing the Berkeley Peerage Case, 4 Campb., 401; Rickards v. Bassett, 10 B. & C., 657; Doe d. Tilman v. Tarver, R. & M., 141; Monkton v. At. Gen., 2 Russ. & Myl., 160; Whitelocke v. Baker, 13 Ves., 514). The language of Lord Eldon in Whitelocke v. Baker has met with general acquiescence. He’says: “All are admitted upon the principle, that they are the natural effusions of a party, who must know the truth; and who speaks upon an occasion, when his mind stands in an even position, without any temptation to exceed or fall short of the truth.”' p. 514.
' It is not necessary to consider whether there may not be properly received in some cases the natural and usual expressions of pain made under circumstances free from suspicion, even post litem motam. The case must at least be a very plain one which will permit this. The present controversy presents no such difficulty. The physicians were called in, not to give medical aid but to make up medical testimony; and the declarations were made to them while engaged in that work. It would be difficult to find a case more plainly within the. ■mischief of the excluding rule.
The principal remaining questions arise out of the rules of liability established by the charge.
The primary cause of the accident was the broken axle. Borne stress seems also to have been laid on the condition of the track and the rate of speed. So far as appears upon the record, we have not discovered any proper evidence to authorize these matters to be considered. There is no testimony from such persons as are qualified to give opinions on the subject that either the condition of the road or the speed indicated negligence. Whether the structure of a road is such as to warrant fast travel is not a question which usually belongs to ordinary witnesses, and’it would be dangerous to allow a jury to act on its own suspicions or prejudices in such a matter. The road, if in such a condition as would be regarded as safe by railroad men of usual intelligence and experience, could not be complained of for any possible deficiencies which would not be regarded by com petent persons as existing, nor could the rate of speed be properly held excessive without similar evidence from men of experience. It is a matter of daily occurrence in many parts of the country, and of occasional occurrence everywhere, for cars to be run at very high rates of speed on railway tracks. No particular 'rate can be assumed, without proof, to be dangerous.
The main question, however, relates to responsibility for the condition of the axle. It was held by the court below that no diligence or care in the railroad company could exempt them from want of care in the manufacturers of the cars and axles.
• This doctrine is we think entirely incorrect. Carriers of freight are liable whether careful or not, for any act or damage not caused by the act of God or of the public enemy. Their liability, therefore, does not arise from negligence or want of care. It arises from their failure to make an absolutely safe carriage and delivery, which they insure by their undertaking. The analogies of carriers of freight have nothing to do with passenger carriers. These are liable only when there has been actual negligence of themselves or their servants. If they exercise their functions in the same way with prudent railway companies generally, and furnish their road and run it in the customary manner which is generally found and believed to be safe and prudent, they do all that is incumbent upon them. M. C. R. R. v. Coleman, 28 Mich., 440; G. R. & I. R. R. v. Judson, 34 Mich., 506; Ft. Wayne, J. & S. R. R. v. Gildersleeve, 33 Mich., 133; M. C. R. R. v. Dolan, 32 Mich., 510. This general doctrine the court below laid down very clearly, but qualified it so as to make them absolutely responsible for the omissions or lack of skill or attention of the manufacturers from whom they made their purchases of stock, however high in standing and reputation as reliable persons.
There is no principle of law which places such manufacturers in the position of agents or servants of their customers. The law does not contemplate that railroad companies will in general make their own cars or engines, and • they purchase them in the market, of persons supposed to be competent dealers, just as they buy their other articles. All that they can reasonably be expected to do is to purchase such cars and other necessaries as they have reason to believe will be safe and proper, giving them- such inspection as is usual and practicable as-they buy them. When they make such an examination, and discover no defects, they do all that is practicable, and" it is no neglect to omit attempting what is impracticable. They have a right to assume that a dealer of good repute has also used such care as was incumbent on him, and that the articles purchased of him which seem right are right in fact. Any other rule would make them liable for what is not negligence, and put them practically on the footing of insurers. The law has never attempted to hold passenger carriers for anything which they could not avoid by their own diligence.
The ease of Richardson v. Great Eastern Railway Co., L. R. 1 C. P. Div. 342 (Court of Appeals), is quite in point and establishes the doctrine as it has been fixed by the general understanding since the carrying of passengers has been the subject of legal discussion. That was a passenger case, depending on the doctrine of negligence as applied to defective trucks. The axle of a truck belonging to another company, brought on the line of the respondents to be forwarded, was broken by reason of a flaw which might have been discovered by a minute •examination, but which was not discovered in fact by' such an examination as was customary and reasonably practicable. It was held no negligence could be imputed for not making a more minute examination than was made. In that case the court also held that it was not within the province of a jury to lay down rules after -their own opinion, which imposed - duties beyond the usual practice of prudent railways. See also Daniel v. Metropolitan Railway Co., L. R. 5 H. of L., 45, upon the right of a railway company to assume there is no negligence in others over whom they exercise no control.
The injustice and illegality of holding passenger carriers to anything like a warranty of their carriages was very fully discussed and asserted in Readhead v. Midland Rw. Co., L. R. 4 Q. B., 879. The New York cases which were relied on upon the argument of the present cause were considered in the light of a large number of decisions, and disapproved, as we think correctly. They entirely ignore the true ground of responsibility as depending on the actual negligence of the carrier. There is no such thing as implied negligence, when there is none in fact.
We think the judgment erroneous, and it must be reversed with costs and a new trial be granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Per Curiam.
Suit was brought by Bradford against Ball to recover damages for an injury caused by a collision of defendant’s express wagon with his buggy.
The court found that the injury was caused by defendant’s negligence, and gave judgment for damages.
We think the facts — which it is hardly necessary to detail — justified the conclusion.
The judgment is affirmed with costs. | [
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Cooley, J.
The questions involved in this case relate to the validity of proceedings taken for the sale of lands belonging to the estate of Horace Fuller for the satisfaction of claims against the estate.- The plaintiff is one of the heirs at law of Horace Fuller, and has purchased and received conveyances from the other heirs. The defendant claims the lands as grantee of the purchaser at administrator’s sale. Several defects are pointed out in the administrator’s proceedings, and it is claimed that the evidence introduced to prove the sale and the steps leading to it was incompetent.
The lands sold were situated in the county of Eaton, and the administration proceedings were had in that county and began in 1854. The record book of orders made by the court for the period covered by the administration, was not found. Ezra D. Burr was at that time judge of probate, and he produced a minute book of short entries made by him of the following proceedings taken in relation to that estate:
Jan. 3, 1854. Petition for appointment of administrator, and order for hearing February 7, 1854. On the day last named hearing had and J. Gallery appointed administrator. Appraisers and commissioners also appointed. March 7, 1854, administrator returns inventory. Petition for license to sell real estate. Hearing ordered May 2, 1854, at 10 A. M. May 2, 1854, hearing had and administrator licensed to sell real estate. October 21, 1854, administrator’s report of sale of real estate confirmed. Hearing for final settlement ordered Nov. 6, at 10 A. M. Nov. 6, 1854, hearing continued to Dec. 1, 1854. Jan. 2, 1855, administrator presents final report, and settled with.
Judge Burr was examined as a witness in the case and testified that all these proceedings took place and the orders were entered. There was also other evidence that the usual letters of administration were issued to Mr. Gallery, and that they were destroyed by fire. The original petition for license to sell was produced, and appears to have been in due form. It showed the existence of debts to the amount of $300, and estimated the charges of administration at $50. The personal property was stated to be $75.25, and the administrator prayed leave to sell the lands, valued at $750, to enable him to pay the debts and charges. A printed copy of the order for hearing on this petition, with proof of publication of the same, was produced in evidence, and also a printed notice, of the sale with like proof of publication. It was also shown that the administrator took the oath required by the statute to be taken by him before making the sale. Comp. L., § 4566.
The evidence of Judge Burr and all other parol evidence was objected to. It was truly said that the probate court is a court of record, and it was insisted that proof of its proceedings must be made by record and not otherwise. If by this is meant that parol evidence is not to be given of the contents of a lost record, the position is so plainly untenable as to merit no attention. A rule of law that should make every man’s rights depend upon the preservation of records in their integrity, would be intolerable, because it would not only render losses by casualty irretrievable in many cases, but it would leave him at the mercy of any one interested in destroying the records, and sufficiently bold and reckless to make way with them. Such a state of the law would be a direct invitation to unscrupulous men to tamper with the public records.
But it is said, if parol evidence is receivable at the common law, the statute which provides for restoring-lost files and records dispenses with the necessity of resorting to it, except for the purposes of that proceeding; and that the record must first be restored, and then proved by itself. It is true that the statute (Comp. L., §§ 6055-6059) makes full provisions for restoring lost records and files, and it is very proper to resort to it where the case is such that the benefit of its proceedings can be had. But we do not understand that this statute is imperative, and that it now points out the only method in which proof may be made of a lost or defective record. There are many cases in which a record may be satisfactorily proved, and yet might not be restored. To restore a record one must be in a position to supply eopies of whatever may be lacking; and it often happens that this is impossible, though the substance is well known and easily provable. In this case the evidence of Judge Burr showed very clearly the substance of all the proceedings, but it is quite probable he might not have been able to give copies of some of the most important. The statute for the restoring lost files, etc., takes away no common law right, and alters no common law rule of evidence. It only provides a method by which lost record evidence may again be restored and perpetuated, wherever that is practicable. And it may be remarked that as parties interested are always entitled to notice of proceedings to restore lost records and files, this is peculiarly difficult in probate cases where the parties in interest are likely to be numerous, and not always accessible or even known. The evidence of the proceedings in this case was very full and satisfactory. It remains to be seen whether any substantial defect is discoverable in them.
The statute (§ 4596) provides that an administrator’s sale shall not be avoided at the instance of the heirs, provided it shall appear:
First. That the administrator was licensed to make the sale by the probate court having jurisdiction.
Second. That he gave a bond which was approved-by the judge of probate, in case a bond was required upon granting a license.
Third. That he took the oath required by the statute.
Fourth. That he gave notice of the time and place of sale, as by the statute is required.
Fifth. . That the premises were sold accordingly, and the sale confirmed, and that they are held by one who purchased them in good faith.
There is no ground for asserting that any of these requisites fail to appear except the second; and it is a question in this case whether or not any bond was required. It has been seen that the customary administrator’s bond was given; but the statute provides that when the sale is for more than is necessary to pay debts, the administrator shall give bond before the sale, to account for the proceeds after the payment of debts and charges, and to dispose of the same according to law. No such bond appears to have been required by the judge in this case, and none was given. The argument that it was “required” depends upon the fact that in the petition the value of the lands was given at $750, and the debts and charges were estimated at $350 only. This, it is said, shows plainly that a sale was authorized' of more than was necessary to pay the debts.
We are strongly inclined to the opinion that when the statute speaks of the bond as being “required,” it intends a requirement by the judge of probate when granting the license; and that if none was directed by him to be given, the failure to give one cannot be a fatal defect. But in this case it is not necessary to so hold.
The land in fact did not bring any more than was needed to pay debts and charges, and there is no reason to suppose it was expected to, or that the sale was authorized for any further purpose. The estimated value placed upon it is no indication that so much was expected to be realized from it, and as the land appears to have been subject to a homestead, right, a sale much below the full value must have been anticipated.
The homestead right presents the last question for our consideration. It appears that at Mr. Fuller’s death his family were left residing upon the land, and for that reason it is claimed it could not be sold for the payment of debts. But the statute does not exempt the fee in the land as a homestead; it exempts the land only while it is occupied as a homestead by the widow and minor children. Subject to the homestead right, therefore, the lands are assets when needed for the payment of demands against the estate. In this case the widow became the purchaser; and when she sold and left the land — if she did so, as we must infer from this record that she did— we do not see how any one was in position to raise the question of a homestead. We are not informed when the children came of age, but it clearly appears they were so when this suit was brought; and that is all it is important for us to know on that subject.
No error appears in the record, and the judgment must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
The plaintiff brought ejectment and on trial of the case before the court without a jury, judgment was given for the defendant and the plaintiff brought error. Kelley claimed the land as original grantee and Edwards deduced title from a sale made during Kelley’s minority by his father, who acted as his guardian.
The sale so made by the elder Kelley occurred on the 12th of February, 1855, and when the plaintiff was about ten years old, and this suit was commenced in August, 1875, at which time he was about thirty-one years old. The judge finds that some one holding under the title made by this sale has been in possession most of the time since 1856, and that from the spring of 1866 to the time of the trial a continuous occupation had been kept up by the defendant, the fore part of the period under the holders of that title, and the latter part of it as grantee of it.
The only question of any importance in the case relates to particular proceedings in the court of probate.
The title being in the plaintiff and he being a minor under fourteen, his father made application in the court of probate for Allegan county, that being the county in which the land was situated, to be appointed guardian. This was on October 18th, 1854. The judge of probate had recently died and no successor had been elected or appointed, and Henry C, Stoughton, circuit court commissioner for the county, was performing the duties of judge of probate under § 16 of chapter 91 of the Revised Statutes of 1846, which was then in force. Mr. Stoughton entertained the application of the elder Kelley and ordered that a hearing should be had upon it on Saturday, November 26th, and directed publication of notice for three successive weeks previous to the day of hearing. The notice was published, but it happened that the 26th day of November was Sunday instead of Saturday, and in consequence of this mistake the matter was called up on Saturday, November 25th, and Mr. Stoughton still sitting in probate formally appointed and licensed the father of plaintiff as guardian and the latter entered immediately upon the trust. On the same day he applied for leave to sell the land in question and thereupon Mr. Stoughton, who was acting still, received the petition and ordered a hearing upon it on the 25th of the ensuing December. He also directed the giving of proper notice. But before the appointed time Mr. E. B. Bassett was duly commissioned as successor of the deceased judge and he at once superseded Mr. Stoughton. The remainder of the proceedings were under his administration of the office. He recognized what had been done as valid and regular and took up the business where Mr. Stoughton left it, and there is no objection worthy of notice to such of the proceedings as occurred after his accession. The circumstance that the appointment, of guardian was made on the 25th of November, when the order and notice named the 26th, is of no importance.
It was not essential to the validity of the proceeding to appoint guardian that a future day should be set for hearing or that notice should be published. It was within the power of the court of probate to grant letters at once, and when the direction for a hearing on the 26th of November was disregarded and an appointment was made on the day preceding the 26th, no error was committed.
The plaintiff urges that the provision in the Eevised Statutes of 1846 under which Mr. Stoughton assumed to act and conduct the business of the probate court, was unconstitutional and void and consequently that the appointment of the elder Iielley and the order for hearing on the petition for leave to sell and the subsequent proceedings were all void.
This is supposed to be a necessary consequence of the force of the provisions of the constitution which prescribe the terms and mode of choosing the probate judge and ordain in what way vacancies must be filled. The provision concerning vacancies is the only one which can give any countenance to the position taken. It is § 14 of article VI., and reads as follows: “When a vacancy occurs in the office of judge of the supreme court, circuit or probate court, it shall be filled by appointment of the Governor, which shall continue until a successor is elected and qualified. When elected such successor shall hold his office the residue of the unexpired term.”
It will be observed that this section makes provision for filling the office with some degree of permanency when there is a vacancy, but does not provide at all for those temporary emergencies which occur when the judge happens to be disqualified by interest or relationship or the like, or when he is sick or absent. The occasions are numerous when the service of a judge is indispensa ble and urgent and no vacancy exists, and yet he is either disqualified or so situated that he cannot act.
It is likewise manifest that many cases are likely to occur of actual vacancy by death, removal or resignation, and where it is in the highest degree important that some one shall be found authorized to step in and act without any delay until an appointment or election, in order to satisfy all necessary calls which may be made from day to day on the jurisdiction, and also to preserve unbroken the continuity of 'pending proceedings.
These emergencies were not, in my judgment, intended to be provided for directly by the constitution, but were left to be legitimately prpvided for by the wisdom of the legislature. This is a reasonable view, — one favorable to the public interest and in no manner inconsistent with the provision cited for filling vacancies, and it is not perceived that there was any thing to preclude the temporary imposition of the duties upon the circuit court commissioner. If this view is correct, the case is disposed of. The proceedings were initiated without any jurisdictional defect,, and whatever faults there were, if any, were mere errors or irregularities which cannot prejudice the defense in this case, and the action was barred. Comp. L., §§ 4594, 4595, 4621.
It may be well to add that in taking this view of the case we do not intend it shall be implied that the objections to the defense might not receive a conclusive answer upon other grounds.
It has been deemed best under all the circumstances ‘to meet the objection to the constitutionality of the provision in the Eevised Statutes of 1846 directly, and to attempt no examination of the objections to the defense on a different theory.
The judgment should be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Per Curiam.
The petition shows that the petitioner was convicted, and so far as appears, regularly convicted of arson and sentenced to the State Prison. This writ is applied for on the ground that by § 8165 of the Compiled Laws, all women convicted of offenses punishable theretofore in the State prison (except murder) should be sentenced to confinement in the Detroit house of correction for such term of years as the court should deem just.
This is a common law proceeding and does not come under the statute, which in certain cases makes the writ of habeas corpus a writ demandable of right. It is not usual to make this writ perform the duty of a writ of error, and it should not be allowed to have that effect where the ends of justice would be endangered by it.
As the conviction in this case was in due course of law, it is a question involving very serious consideration whether the sentence is one which cannot be rectified by a new sentence, in case it is found that the statute has the effect of annulling the first sentence, which is also a question not to be lightly passed upon.
If the applicant should be finally found entitled to go at large, it will be upon an error founded on no meritorious ground. Upon habeas corpus, if it should turn out there is no valid sentence, we could not render any judgment which would operate directly upon the judgment below. We shall not pass, therefore, upon its validity until we have it before us on writ of error, when every consideration can be examined properly, and complete justice done so far as the law will enable us 4o do it.
Petition refused. | [
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Marston, J.
The plaintiff in error was arraigned upon an information charging him with feloniously breaking and entering a store with intent the goods and chattels then and there being found, to take, steal and carry away contrary to the statute.
On the day assigned for the trial, and after the jury had been called, but before being sworn, the counsel for the respondent orally challenged the array, for the reason that the jury was not a part of the original panel, and the jurors were not drawn in accordance with section 6001 of the Compiled Laws as amended by act number 125 of the session laws of 1877, p. 115, but in accordance with the provisions of said section before it was so amended.
In The People v. John Doe, 1 Mich., 453, it was held that a challenge to the array must be in writing. This is decisive of the present case, and does away with all necessity for any farther examination or discussion of the questions sought to be raised.
«The judgment must stand affirmed.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
July 26, 1875, the plaintiff brought ejectment for the N. E. ¿ of the N. E. ¿ of section 35, T. 3 N., R. 2 W., and in October last the circuit judge, sitting without a jury, heard the case and made a speciaj finding of the facts, and awarded judgment upon them for the defendant. The plaintiff claims the facts so-found do not support the judgment.
The judge found there was a regular claim of conveyances from the United States to the plaintiff, and' that the defendant was in adverse possession when the suit was commenced.
The defendant gave in evidence five tax-title deeds, which will be more particularly referred to hereafter, and the judge found them all invalid. He held, however, that the action was barred under the second clause of section one of the act of 1863 (Sess. L. 1863, p. 388: 2 Comp. L., p. 1973), upon the ground that a continuous adverse possession had been kept up under the tax-titles for ten years next preceding the commencement of the suit.
He found as matter of fact that the Auditor General had given the following deeds of the E. J of the N. E. J of section 35, the premises in question being the north half of this lot: First, to John Raynor, December 26, 1862, for the tax of 1860; January 4, 1864, for the tax of 1861; January 21, 1865, for the tax of 1862. Secondr to Samuel B. Colwell, January 9, 1866, for the tax of 1863, and December 19, 1866, for the tax of 1864.
He further found a conveyance from Colwell to Bay-nor, and from Baynor and wife to defendant January 4, 1866, and that on receipt of this conveyance the latter went at once into actual possession of the parcel in controversy, and has since continued therein; that prior to that grant, and in the spring of 1865, Baynor verbally permitted one Turner to enter upon the lot covered by the tax-deeds, and which lot, as before mentioned, included the premises in question; that the lot was then uninclosed woodland in a state of nature, and that the per mission to Turner in entering was to clear off and cultivate such portions as he chose, subject to the understanding that, in case of sale to a third party, Eaynor would pay the value of the improvements after deducting the value of the use of the land through its cultivation; that in accordance with this arrangement “Turner soon after chopped and cleared off about an one acre of the E. J of the N. E. ¿, inclosed it with a fence of brush, logs and rails, plowed the ground and grew a crop of ‘bagas,’ which were harvested and removed in October or November following. No other use was made of the land until the conveyance from Eaynor to the defendant,” January 4th, 1866.
The briefs moot questions in regard to the construction and application of the. statute of 1863, which are not material to a decision on this record.
The defense is based on a continuous adverse possession under the tax-deeds for ten years next preceding July 26th, 1875, when the suit was instituted.
The finding is distinct as to such possession from that event back to January 4th, 1866, when defendant received his deed. But the difficulty appears when we come to the interval between that date and July, 1865, a space of time required to make out the ten years.
Admitting, for the purpose of the question, that the fact as found in regard to Turner’s entry and occupancy is sufficient for the time covered by it, that is from the spring of 1865 until October or November of that year, and still there is a considerable space left between July, 1865, and the commencement of defendant’s possession, January 4, 1866. As the finding reads, the premises were vacant from the time Turner took off his little crop of turnips in October or November, 1865, to the entry of defendant in the succeeding January, and during this period there seems to have been no adverse possession and no obstacle to an entry by the plaintiff.
The finding therefore not only fails to show ten years’ possession under the tax deeds next preceding the com mencement of the action, but on the contrary shows affirmatively that the possession was for a shorter period.
The judgment is, therefore, not supported by the facts, and must be reversed.
Under ordinary circumstances this conclusion would require the entry of judgment here for the plaintiff, with the costs of both courts, and a remand of the case to enable proceedings to be taken under the statute allowing new trials in ejectment. But the present case is attended by incidents which seem to necessitate a deviation. In the court below the parties claimed and obtained valuations under the occupying claimant law, and as judgment is to be given for the plaintiff, they become important. The regulations concerning them seem hardly compatible with the course of proceeding in this court, and therefore it is expedient, after reversal here with costs, to remit the case with instructions that the plaintiff is entitled to recover, and that the judgment which the court ought to have given under the finding and in accordance with the statute, it will now proceed to award, saving however, the right to proceedings for new trial under the statute.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
The only question presented by this record is, whether, where a chattel mortgage is given for a sum named, but really to secure future advances, and none have been made, but the mortgagee assigns it to one who supposes it to be given for an actual indebtedness, the assignee, if he takes it-in good faith and for value, is entitled to hold it as a security for the sum named in it. The circuit judge ruled that he would have in it no rights superior to those of the mortgagee.
We cannot see how this conclusion can be questioned. It is only a new application of the rule laid down in Ladue v. Detroit & Milwaukee Ry. Co., 13 Mich., 380. It is true- it has been held in this State that if a mortgage is given to secure negotiable paper, the assignee of this paper and of the mortgage, if he becomes such in good faith for value and before maturity, may hold them discharged of pre-existing equities; Reeves v. Scully, Walk. Ch., 248; Dutton v. Ives, 5 Mich., 515: but where it does not secure negotiable paper, the rule is the other way. Russell v. Waite, Walk. Ch., 31; Nichols v. Lee, 10 Mich., 526. There was no such paper in this case.
The judgment must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
Although a large number of errors are assigned upon the record in this case, yet we are satisfied that plaintiffs in error have no just cause of complaint.
The plaintiffs declared specially charging the defendants as agents, and also generally upon the common counts.
The real controversy between the parties grows out of a certain machine manufactured and shipped by plaintiffs to defendants and by them sold to one Stevens. It was not claimed upon the argument, nor could it well have been, that any relation, other than that of principal and agent, ever existed between these parties. The defendants acting as agents sold this machine to Stevens, with a warranty, upon which they were personally bound, receiving from Stevens a time note for the machine. This machine was tested by Stevens and not proving satisfactory, efforts were made by defendants to repair it and put it in good working order, but failing to do this they received it back. It was injured somewhat at this time and defendants proceeded to repair it in accordance with instructions received from plaintiffs. The knowledge which plaintiffs had as to the repairs required and to what extent they authorized repairs was in dispute, but that in no way affects this question. After the repairs had been made the plaintiffs, on account of a dispute or misunderstanding, peremptorily ordered defendants to ship this machine, and other unsold property to them at once, which was done. The plaintiffs received the machine in its repaired condition, accepted and retained it, crediting defendants with one-half its original cost price, and in this suit they sought to charge them with the balance. It would seem too clear to require argument that they could not order, take back and retain this machine and yet charge their agents with one-half its cost price. The remainder of the controversy related to the expenses charged by defendants in endeavoring to make this machine work while in Stevens’ possession, and to the repairs made thereon afterwards. This branch of the case was fairly submitted to the jury and their conclusion must be accepted as final.
The judgment must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cavanagh, J.
The sole issue presented here is the extent to which the Michigan Department of Education may suppress decisions of the State Tenure Commission under exemption (l)(d) of § 13 of the Michigan Freedom of Information Act. MCL 15.243(l)(d); MSA 4.1801(13)(l)(d). We hold that tenure commission decisions may only be withheld during the administrative stage of a teacher’s appeal. After this point in the review process, the commission decisions may be released in their entirety. We reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals and reinstate the circuit court order requiring defendants to release the requested decisions to plaintiffs.
i
On November 3, 1982, plaintiff George Hagen, superintendent of the Bedford School District, on behalf of plaintiffs Bedford Public Schools and Bedford Board of Education, made a Michigan Freedom of Information Act request to the director of the State Tenure Commission for a copy of a certain commission decision. Plaintiffs had a matter pending before the tenure commission, and they wanted to determine if the commission had rendered a decision which would affect it. Mr. Hagen did not indicate in his request whether a redacted version of the decision would be satisfactory. Defendant Phillip Runkel, Superintendent of Public Instruction, denied the request, reasoning that the teacher in the case had opted for a private hearing, that the commission decision was part of the private hearing, and that it did not have to be released until the teacher exhausted the appellate process.
Plaintiffs made a subsequent foia request on December 6, 1982, for copies of all tenure commission decisions issued in the previous year in which a closed hearing had been demanded. Counsel for the plaintiffs expressly stated in the request that if the commission was not going to release unredacted copies of the decisions, it would be satisfactory if identifiable information were struck from them. Runkel responded that in the previous twelve months the commission had issued eleven decisions in which a private hearing had been requested. He released three of those decisions in their entirety because the appellate processes had already been exhausted. Runkel denied plaintiffs’ request as to the remaining eight commission decisions because the appellate processes had not been exhausted.
Plaintiffs filed a complaint for declaratory judgment and writ of mandamus in the circuit court, naming Runkel, the Michigan Department of Education, and the State Board of Education as defendants. Plaintiffs sought release of the requested decisions either in their complete form, or with personally identifiable information deleted. Intervening plaintiff Michigan Education Association joined the litigation at that point.
On September 24, 1984, the circuit court granted plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment, and ordered defendants to release complete and unexpurgated copies of the documents sought by plaintiffs. The circuit court also granted a stay of its order pending defendants’ appeal, directing defendants to provide plaintiffs with copies of the requested decisions with proper nouns stricken.
The Court of Appeals reversed the decision of the circuit court, using reasoning similar to defendant Runkel’s. 154 Mich App 662; 398 NW2d 485 (1986). We granted leave to appeal, limited to the issue stated above. 428 Mich 909 (1987).
n
Plaintiffs made their requests for the tenure commission decisions pursuant to the Michigan Freedom of Information Act. MCL 15.231 et seq.; MSA 4.1801(1) et seq. The requests must therefore be granted or denied pursuant to that statute. The foia requires a public body to disclose all public records which are not specifically exempt from disclosure under the act:
Upon an oral or written request which describes the public record sufficiently to enable the public body to find the public record, a person has a right to inspect, copy, or receive copies of a public record of a public body, except as otherwise expressly provided by section 13. [MCL 15.233(1); MSA 4.1801(3X1).]
This Court has consistently recognized that the thrust of the foia is a policy of full and complete disclosure, as expressed in the act’s statement of public policy:
It is the public policy of this state that all persons are entitled to full and complete information regarding the affairs of government and the official acts of those who represent them as public officials and public employees, consistent with this act. The people shall be informed so that they may fully participate in the democratic process. [MCL 15.231(2); MSA 4.1801(1X2).]
See, e.g., Kestenbaum v Michigan State Univ, 414 Mich 510, 521; 327 NW2d 783 (1982), reh den 417 Mich 1103 (1983); State Employees Ass’n v Dep’t of Management & Budget, 428 Mich 104, 109; 404 NW2d 606 (1987).
The foia "presumes records are disclosable,” and a public body may deny a request only upon a showing that the requested information falls within one of the exemptions in § 13 of the act. The exemptions must be narrowly construed. State Employees Ass’n, supra, p 110.
The State Tenure Commission, as part of the Michigan Department of Education, is a public body subject to the disclosure requirements of the foia. MCL 15.232(b)(i); MSA 4.1801(2)(b)(i). The tenure act itself acknowledges that the tenure commission is bound by the requirements of the foia:
A writing prepared, owned, used in the possession of, or retained by the commission in the performance of an official function shall be made available to the public in compliance with Act No. 442 of the Public Acts of 1976, being sections 15.231 to 15.246 of the Michigan Compiled Laws. [MCL 38.139(2); MSA 15.2039(2).]
Further, there is no dispute that the tenure commission’s written decisions are public records as defined in the foia. MCL 15.232(c); MSA 4.1801(2)(c).
Defendant Runkel denied both of plaintiffs’ requests on the basis of exception (l)(d) of § 13 of the foia, which allows nondisclosure of public records which another statute specifically exempts from disclosure. _
A public body may exempt from disclosure as a public record under this act:
(d) Records or information specifically described and exempted from disclosure by statute. [MCL 15.243(l)(d); MSA 4.1801(13)(l)(d).]
The statute which Runkel claimed exempted the tenure commission decisions from disclosure is art IV, § 4 of the teacher tenure act, which permits a teacher facing discharge or demotion to opt for a private, rather than a public, hearing before the local board of education. The relevant portions of § 4 provide:
a. The hearing shall be public or private at the option of the teacher affected.
f. Any hearing held for the dismissal or demotion of a teacher, as provided in this act, must be concluded by a decision in writing, within 15 days after the termination of the hearing. A copy of such decision shall be furnished the teacher affected within 5 days after the decision is rendered. [MCL 38.104; MSA 15.2004.]
Article IV, § 4, while referring to a local school board’s initial review, also applies to a subsequent review by the State Tenure Commission, pursuant to art VI, § 1 of the tenure act. MCL 38.121; MSA 15.2021.
Defendants and the Court of Appeals interpreted "hearing” as used in § 4(f) as encompassing the written decision, because the hearing must be "concluded by” the decision. According to that interpretation, a decision rendered following a private hearing is part of that hearing and is also private, pursuant to art IV, § 4 of the tenure act. That provision, in turn, qualifies it as a statutory exemption from disclosure for purposes of the foia. The Court of Appeals thus held:
If article IV, § 4, of the tenure act is to be interpreted as including within the meaning of the word "hearing” the rendering of a decision with the right to a private hearing, then the decision as a whole, and not just the personal identifying information in the decision, must be found to be exempt from disclosure. Consequently, no part of the decision of the commission, where a private hearing has been requested and the appellate process has not yet been exhausted, is subject to disclosure under the foia. [154 Mich App 673.]
Plaintiffs contend that the defendants and the Court of Appeals have misconstrued the plain meaning of art IV, § 4. Plaintiffs assert that while a hearing before the tenure commission may be private, the decision rendered after a private hearing is not part of it, and hence is not exempt from disclosure under the foia.
We find it unnecessary to answer the narrow question whether, in art IV, § 4(f), the Legislature intended to incorporate "decision” within the term "hearing.” The correct reading of § 4(f) is not dispositive of the present issue. Rather, the spirit of art IV, § 4, to provide teachers with the option of a private hearing, can only be maintained by keeping the decisions private also. Thus, on the basis of art IV, § 4, when a private hearing has been requested, the decisions of the local board and the tenure commission are exempt from disclosure under the statutory exemption in the foia.
Such exemption, however, allows nondisclosure only to the extent that a private hearing is statutorily provided for. Under art IV, § 4 of the tenure act, a teacher is entitled to a private hearing only before the local board of education and, pursuant to art VI, § 1, before the State Tenure Commission. There is no assertion, for example, that a teacher who exercises the right to circuit court review of a commission decision has a statutory right to a closed proceeding at the circuit court level. Nor is there a suggestion that such a right exists if further review is granted by the Court of Appeals or this Court. The statutory right to a private hearing in tenure proceedings exists only at the administrative level. Therefore, beyond this phase of the review process, there is no basis under the statutory exemption in the foia for withholding a tenure commission decision, and a request for disclosure of a decision must be honored. This holding applies to any commission decision, regardless of whether the teacher seeks judicial review of the commission ruling. Further, absent an exception to justify nondisclosure, the commission decisions are subject to "full and complete” disclosure under the foia. Hence, the circuit court in the present case properly ordered the release of unexpurgated copies of the decisions.
Finally, defendants’ reliance on the foia to support the withholding of tenure commission decisions which are under judicial review is improper. The foia excludes the judiciary from the act’s definition of a "public body.” MCL 15.232(b)(v); MSA 4.1801(2)(b)(v)._
III
Defendant Runkel and the Court of Appeals relied on Royal Oak School Dist v Schulman, 68 Mich App 589; 243 NW2d 673 (1976), in finding that tenure commission decisions following a private hearing must be withheld throughout the administrative and judicial appeal process. In Schulman, the appellant tenured teacher, facing charges of unsatisfactory performance, exercised his right under the teacher tenure act and requested a private hearing before the appellee’s school board. After the hearing, the board issued a decision dismissing the teacher. He appealed to the State Tenure Commission, alleging that the board erroneously failed to render its decision at a public meeting, as required under § 561 of the School Code of 1955, MCL 340.561; MSA 15.3561. The tenure commission agreed that the decision did not satisfy the public notice requirements, but the circuit court reversed, finding that once the teacher elected a private hearing, that hearing encompassed the decision also, and it did not have to be rendered publicly. The Court of Appeals affirmed:
We hold that where a teacher elects a private hearing the board of education’s decision to dismiss or demote may be kept private until the teacher has exhausted the appellate processes. [68 Mich App 593.]
We find Schulman’s novel interpretation of art IV, § 4 unpersuasive for the reasons discussed in section ii. In addition, there are several differences between Schulman and the present case which undermine Schulman’s relevance.
The Schulman plaintiff alleged error under the public board meetings act (repealed and replaced by the Open Meetings Act). Plaintiffs here allege error under the foia. The motive behind each plaintiff’s case is different. Plaintiffs in the present case sought copies of decisions of the Teacher Tenure Commission. The plaintiff in Schulman was not concerned with obtaining a decision, but instead wanted to somehow attack the decision rendered. He did so by claiming it should have been released at a public meeting. Thus, the focus of the Court of Appeals analysis in each case was different.
Significantly, Schulman predates the April, 1977, effective date of Michigan’s foia. After the foia was enacted, the teacher tenure act was amended to include MCL 38.139(2); MSA 15.2039(2), which states that the tenure commission is subject to the disclosure requirements of the foia. It is unlikely the Schulman panel would have reached the same result in light of the foia, and the tenure act’s statutory acknowledgment of it.
Other than the present Court of Appeals opinion, Schulman is the only Michigan case which deals with the present issue. An Attorney General opinion also addressed a similar question, however. In 1 PAG, 1959-1960, No 3296, p 177 (September 1, 1959), the Attorney General framed the issue as follows:
When a teacher requests a private hearing under the Tenure of Teachers Act, what matters, if any, of the proceedings taken before either the school board or tenure commission can be revealed as public information?
The statement of the issue readily indicates that the case only involved part of the present issue: the extent of privacy at the administrative level, i.e., before the local school board and the tenure commission. The case did not pose the additional question presented here: whether the tenure commission decision in a private hearing remains confidential in the judicial stage of the appeal process.
The Attorney General’s resolution of the more narrow question it addressed does not contradict the present holding:
[I]t is clear that the legislature itself has continued the protection through the appeal process to include the hearing before the tenure commission, at the election of the teacher. It follows that if the teacher elects to have a private hearing on appeal, both procedures are in that event protected by the statute.
Summing up, then, a private hearing remains private throughout the hearing and decision process, until a final decision is reached. The text of the decision becomes public when the decision becomes final, and no appeal lies. [Id., pp 178-179.]
When read in isolation, the last sentence of the above quotation seems to support defendants’ argument that the decision should remain confidential throughout the judicial review process also. However, considered in the context of the entire quotation and the analysis which precedes it, it is clear that the Attorney General was not even addressing that broader question. When he referred to the "final decision,” he was referring to the decision of the tenure commission, which he had previously discussed.
We reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals and reinstate the circuit court order granting summary judgment for plaintiffs. The order’s requirement that defendants fully disclose the requested decisions is limited, for the reasons previously stated, to those final decisions of the tenure commission in which the appeal period of the Administrative Procedures Act has run.
Riley, C.J., and Archer and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Cavanagh, J.
UPGWA v Dep’t of State Police, 422 Mich 432, 441; 373 NW2d 713 (1985) (opinion by Levin, J.).
In his denial of plaintiffs’ first request, defendant Runkel also mentioned the privacy exemption of the foia as a basis for nondisclosure. MCL 15.243(l)(a); MSA 4.1801(13)(l)(a). Defendants abandoned this defense in circuit court, and the Court of Appeals based its decision solely on exemption (l)(d) without discussing the privacy exemption.
Nestell v Bridgeport-Spaulding Bd of Ed, 138 Mich App 401, 404; 360 NW2d 200 (1984), clarified that judicial review of a tenure commission decision is properly sought under MCL 24.302; MSA 3.560(202), since the teacher tenure act does not specifically provide for judicial review.
Specifically, a tenure commission decision following a private hearing is subject to disclosure after the expiration of the sixty-day limit established for filing a motion for rehearing before the commission. 1979 AC, R 38.158. Of course, if rehearing is granted, the administrative process is not complete and the decision is not yet subject to disclosure.
The School Code of 1955 has been replaced by the School Code of 1976, which contains a parallel "public meetings” section. MCL 380.1201; MSA 15.41201. Likewise, the public board meetings act, MCL 15.251 et seq.; MSA 4.1800(1) et seq., which governed the boards’ notice requirements for such meetings, was replaced in 1977 by the Open Meetings Act. MCL 15.261 et seq.; MSA 4.1800(11) et seq.
In fact, the Schulman Court may have used the wrong analysis in addressing the plaintiff’s claim. The Court accepted the plaintiff’s premise that the decision, which is required to be in writing, would normally have to be rendered at a public meeting. Since the plaintiff had opted for a private hearing, however, the Court deemed the requirement inapplicable. Instead, the logical approach would seem to have been to hold that the requirement of an open meeting does not apply to the release of a written decision, whether the teacher chose a public or private hearing. | [
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Boyle, J.
This Court granted leave to consider the issue whether the judgment against the individual defendant should be reversed on the basis of the doctrine of qualified immunity under 42 USC 1983.
This appeal requires the Court to address 1) the substantive law of qualified immunity, and 2) the procedural problems which arise in framing and resolving claims of immunity in civil rights actions against police officers. We hold that the judgment against the defendant should not be reversed on the basis of the defense of qualified immunity.
The trial court correctly determined that the defendant was not entitled to a qualified immunity jury instruction. The trial court’s instructions were responsive to the defendant’s actual theory of the case. In addition, the defendant failed to preserve the trial court’s denial of the motion for directed verdict on qualified immunity grounds, having contended that the use of force was not excessive, rather than that qualified immunity required judgment for the defendant as a matter of law.
The Court of Appeals affirmed the judgment against the defendant. While we affirm the result reached by the Court of Appeals, we do so on different grounds and reject the analysis of the Court of Appeals.
i
Defendant Ronald Smith was a Detroit police officer assigned to a four-member cruiser unit of the Thirteenth Precinct. On April 20, 1978, defendant Smith’s cruiser unit responded to a police radio run: a "priority one” call to "1145 Hague, two Black males, b & e, the rear door.” The cruiser drove into the alley adjacent to 1125 Hague.
The officers saw two men coming down the steps of the house carrying items of personal property. The two men were Jeffrey Neely and the plaintiff, Terrance Guider. When the plaintiff and Neely saw the police car, they dropped the items they were carrying and began to run through the back yard. The defendant jumped out of the car and ordered the two men to stop, yelling, "Halt, police.” Officer Sparrow, the driver of the police car, also yelled, "Stop, police,” as he got out of the car.
As the defendant got to the back yard, he saw Neely running straight ahead and the plaintiff going over the fence. The defendant pursued the plaintiff to the front of the house and again yelled, "Halt, police.” He continued to pursue the fleeing plaintiff, who was running toward the freeway, and for the third time, yelled, "Halt, police.” The plaintiff kept running and, concluding that all possibilities of capture were exhausted, defendant Smith then fired one shot at the plaintiff. The bullet struck the plaintiff in the back of the neck causing serious injuries.
The defendant did not testify that he believed the plaintiff was armed, only that the plaintiff would have escaped if he had reached the freeway. The plaintiff claimed that, at the time of the incident, he thought he was carrying Neely’s belongings from a house that Neely claimed to share with a girl friend. The plaintiff was arraigned on May 16, 1978, and eventually placed in a youthful offender diversion program.
On August 11, 1980, the plaintiff filed a complaint in Wayne Circuit Court against Detroit police officer Ronald Smith. The plaintiff alleged that the defendant violated his federal civil rights and sought damages pursuant to 42 USC 1983. The plaintiff contended that defendant Smith’s use of force was excessive and unnecessary to make the arrest of the plaintiff and thus amounted to a deprivation of plaintiffs constitutional rights to due process, equal protection, and freedom from cruel and unusual punishment.
In response to the complaint, the defendant raised the defense of immunity. A jury trial commenced on September 12, 1983. At the close of plaintiffs proofs, the defendant moved for a directed verdict on the grounds that no constitutional violation occurred and, alternatively, that he was entitled to qualified immunity. The trial court denied the defendant’s motion, reasoning that disputed issues of fact remained whether defendant violated the constitutional rights of the plaintiff. The defendant’s request for jury instruction regarding a good-faith defense was also denied. The jury returned a verdict in favor of the plaintiff and awarded $472,000 in compensatory damages.
The Court of Appeals affirmed, also reasoning that the defendant was not entitled to a jury instruction regarding qualified immunity. However, the Court of Appeals reasoned that the de fendant was not entitled to a qualified immunity instruction because he failed to testify that he believed that the shooting was a legal act at the time of the incident. We granted leave to appeal to consider the sole issue whether the judgment against the individual defendant should be reversed on the basis of the doctrine of qualified immunity under 42 USC 1983.
ii
The proper test regarding claims of qualified or "good faith” immunity under 42 USC 1983 actions can be found in Harlow v Fitzgerald, 457 US 800; 102 S Ct 1717; 73 L Ed 2d 396 (1982): In Harlow, the United States Supreme Court altered the substantive law of qualified immunity and established a procedural goal for implementing the defense. Note, Quick termination of insubstantial civil rights claims: Qualiñed immunity and procedural fairness, 38 Vand LR 1543, 1547 (1985). The Court held that a government official performing discretionary functions is entitled to immunity from damages "insofar as [his] conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.” Harlow, supra, p 818.
To understand the effect of Harlow, it is necessary to examine the development of the qualified immunity doctrine in civil rights litigation. Prior to Harlow, under Pierson v Ray, 386 US 547; 87 S Ct 1213; 18 L Ed 2d 288 (1967), police officers were entitled to raise an affirmative defense of good faith and probable cause to claims of unconstitutional arrests. This qualified immunity defense to liability, for purposes of § 1983 claims, was the equivalent of those previously recognized defenses which could be raised at trial under common law. See 2 Restatement Torts, 2d, § 895D, pp 411-420. Prosser & Keeton, Torts (5th ed), § 132, pp 1056-1060. The defense thus assumed a violation of plaintiffs rights which was excusable.
In Scheuer v Rhodes, 416 US 232; 94 S Ct 1683; 40 L Ed 2d 90 (1974), the Court further developed the notion of a qualified, or "good faith” immunity as a defense to liability. The Scheuer Court addressed the issue whether the trial court had properly dismissed claims against certain executive officials on the basis that the officials were absolutely immune from suit. The Court rejected the claim of absolute immunity in favor of a qualified immunity standard and held that the qualified immunity defense depended upon a finding of reasonable grounds for a good-faith belief of the public official in the action taken, formed at the time of the incident in question in light of all the circumstances. Id., pp 247-248. Thus, the Court concluded that dismissal was improper because the lower courts had erroneously accepted as a fact the good faith of the executive, and "[tjhere was no evidence before the courts from which such a finding of good faith could be properly made . . . .” Id., p 250.
In Wood v Strickland, 420 US 308; 95 S Ct 992; 43 L Ed 2d 214 (1975), reh den 421 US 921 (1975), the Court dealt with the immunity issue in the context of a jury trial, again rejecting the defendant’s claims of absolute immunity in favor of qualified immunity. The Court held that the appropriate standard to use in deciding whether an official was entitled to qualified immunity encompasses both subjective and objec tive factors. Id., p 321. The Court concluded that an officer would not be entitled to immunity if
he knew or reasonably should have known that the action he took within his sphere of official responsibility would violate the constitutional rights of the student affected, or if he took the action with the malicious intention to cause a deprivation of constitutional rights or other injury to the student. [Id., p 322.]
While the Court rejected absolute immunity from liability for executive officials in Pierson, Scheuer, and Wood, supra, the Court also suggested that damage suits, alleging constitutional violations need not proceed to trial, but could be terminated by motion on the basis of qualified immunity. Butz v Economou, 438 US 478, 508; 98 S Ct 2894; 57 L Ed 2d 895 (1978). Thus, the Court emphasized that a "firm application of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure will ensure that federal officials are not harassed by frivolous lawsuits.” Id.
However, despite this admonition, in actual practice subjective good faith prevented early disposition of litigation because trial courts frequently deemed the subjective component of the defense a question of fact that required resolution by a jury. Balcerzak, Qualiñed immunity for government officials: The problem of unconstitutional purpose in civil rights litigation, 95 Yale L J 126, 132 (1985).
Fifteen years after Pierson v Ray, the United States Supreme Court recognized that the Wood test for qualified immunity had become disruptive of effective government due to "the costs of trial or the burdens of broad-reaching discovery.” Harlow, supra, pp 817-818. The Court’s response in Harlow was to narrowly limit the "subjective element of the good-faith defense,” id., p 815, and to redefine the defense. No longer could qualified immunity be defeated by a bare claim that the defendant acted with the malicious intention to cause injury. Under Harlow, government officials are liable for damages only if their conduct violates "clearly established” statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known. If the law governing their actions was not "clearly established,” the officers are protected from liability.
Thus, in addressing the qualified immunity question as redefined in Harlow, trial courts must consider: 1) whether the alleged conduct establishes a constitutional violation, and 2) whether the constitutional standard was clearly established at the time in question. Id., p 818. If the undisputed facts show that the defendant’s conduct violated no clearly established constitutional standards, qualified immunity applies as a matter of law. However, if the law was clearly established, the immunity defense ordinarily would fail unless the oficial demonstrates extraordinary circumstances, and can prove he neither knew nor should have known the relevant legal standard, in which case the defense should be sustained. Id., p 819. By initially defining the limits of qualified immunity essentially in objective terms, the Harlow Court proposed to "avoid excessive disruption of government and permit the resolution of many insubstantial claims on summary judgment.” Id., p 818. Under this new standard, in appropriate circumstances, the defense of qualified immunity functions as an immunity from suit as well as an affirmative defense to ultimate liability.
iii
The Court of Appeals determined that the defendant was not entitled to a jury instruction regarding a qualified immunity defense under 42 USC 1983.* **** This decision was based upon the erroneous belief that a defendant’s subjective belief in the legality of his actions at the time of the incident is necessary to support a good-faith defense. The Court of Appeals further erred in assuming that the issue of qualified immunity was an issue appropriate for a jury determination.
The Court of Appeals focused on the facts that "the testimony [of the defendant] did not establish that the defendant believed that shooting the plaintiff was lawful,” and that "there was no testimony to show it was reasonable for him to believe this.” On this basis the Court concluded that the "defendant was not entitled to good-faith immunity instruction.” 157 Mich App 101. That focus is subjective and incorrect under Harlow, supra. Assuming that there was a violation of a clearly established constitutional right, the next inquiry under the Harlow standard is whether a reasonable man in the defendant’s position could have believed his actions were consistent with the law.
We recognize that the subjective faith of a public official in a claim under § 1983 yet may be relevant in the situation in which the controlling substantive law makes an official’s state of mind an essential element of the plaintiff’s constitutional claim. See Martin v Dist of Columbia Metropolitan Police Dep't, 259 US App DC 31; 812 F2d 1425 (1987). The lawfulness of a challenged act may be dependent upon the actor’s motive or intent, and, therefore, the purpose for which the act was undertaken must be analyzed. Gutierrez v Municipal Court of Southeast Judicial Dist, 838 F2d 1031, 1051 (CA 9, 1988). In these cases, intent, such as purposeful racial discrimination, is an element of the plaintiff’s cause of action. Turner v Dammon, 848 F2d 440, 445, n 3 (CA 4, 1988).
Here, however, the defendant’s motivation or intent is not an essential element of the challenged conduct. It is therefore irrelevant to this plaintiff’s claim. Further, while in some instances the defendant’s motive or intent may be relevant to a plaintiff’s cause of action, it will rarely be relevant to a defendant’s claim of qualified immunity under the Harlow standard. What the defendant believed at the time of the incident and the failure of the defendant to testify as to his belief is irrelevant to a determination of the threshold question whether the defendant’s undisputed conduct violated clearly established law. Further, except in extraordinary circumstances, actual knowledge is irrelevant to a determination whether the defendant was entitled to a qualified immunity defense under 42 USC 1983.
The defendant did not argue that extraordinary circumstances existed to demonstrate he neither knew nor should have known of the relevant legal standard. Thus, the Court of Appeals erred in its decision that the defendant’s subjective belief in the legality of the shooting was necessary to support a qualified immunity defense.
Although the application of the defense of qualified immunity has not been fully clarified, it is clear that the defense of qualified immunity is ordinarily not an appropriate issue for the jury.* In instances where the. right is clear, if the defendant alleges extraordinary circumstances justifying his failure to follow the law, Harlow suggests there could be an issue for the jury. However, since the extraordinary circumstances must be such that the defendant neither knew nor should have known the relevant legal standard, even this exception would turn primarily on objective factors. Harlow, supra, p 819.
Again, we recognize that if there is a factual dispute (i.e., a genuine issue of material fact) involving an issue on which immunity turns, such that it cannot be determined before trial what the defendants’ acts were, or whether exceptional circumstances existed, the case will proceed to trial. However, it does not follow that any entitlement to a qualified immunity defense was lost when the defendant failed to move for summary judgment. While the failure to plead qualified immunity in the answer results in a waiver of the defense, Boyd v Carroll, 624 F2d 730 (CA 5, 1980), a defendant who properly pleads qualified immunity may raise the issue of a qualified immunity defense prior to, during, or after trial. The threshold test of a clearly established violation is one of law and always will be an issue for the court to decide.
The defense of qualified immunity assumes the occurrence of a violation of a constitutional right. A determination by a jury that a police officer did not have probable cause to arrest or that excessive force was used in effectuating an arrest would not resolve a qualified immunity question. Sevigny v Dicksey, 846 F2d 953, 956 (CA 4, 1988).
A court addressing the issue of qualified immunity must first determine whether the conduct of the police officer violated a plaintiff’s rights under the constitution. Then the court must address the issue whether the constitutional standards of the right in question were clearly established. A determination by the court that the alleged conduct of a police officer was a violation of a clearly established right would defeat a defendant’s motion for summary disposition on qualified immunity grounds. In appropriate circumstances, the same issue could be raised by a motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict subsequent to a finding by the jury that, as in the present case, the police officer used excessive force.
Regardless of the stage at which the issue of qualified immunity is addressed, the defense will turn primarily on objective factors, Harlow, supra, pp 818-819. Thus, the Court of Appeals discussion of qualified immunity which focused on the defendant’s subjective belief is incorrect under Harlow.
iv
The narrow issues before this Court are whether the trial court erred in denying the motion for a directed verdict in regard to the defendant police officer, and whether the jury instructions given by the lower court constituted prejudicial error.
In pertinent part, the plaintiff alleged that the use of excessive force by the defendant amounted to a deprivation of constitutional rights to due process, equal protection, and freedom from cruel and unusual punishment. In moving for a directed verdict, defense counsel claimed that there was no violation of a constitutional right. In addition, counsel claimed the defendant was entitled to the directed verdict on the basis of good-faith immunity since a constitutional right to be free from the use of excessive force had not been clearly established at the time of the incident. The trial judge ruled that there may have been a violation of due process if the police officer did not have probable cause or if the force he used was not reasonable under the circumstances.
The trial judge denied the defendant’s motion for a directed verdict, explaining that disputed factual issues existed. The trial court believed that disputed factual issues were created by the testimony and evidence presented by the plaintiff regarding both the plaintiff’s theory of probable cause and his theory of excessive force. On appeal, the defendant challenges only the denial of the directed verdict on excessive force grounds.
Although the United States Supreme Court had not addressed this issue, it appears that the law was clearly established that the use of excessive force violates the Fourteenth Amendment, Wilson v BeeBe, 770 F2d 578 (CA 6, 1985) (en banc). Because there remained disputed questions regarding whether the violation occurred, the defendant was not entitled to a directed verdict on the basis of immunity, and the trial court correctly denied the motion. Moreover, the defendant did not appeal the denial of defendant’s motion for a directed verdict on qualified immunity grounds, arguing instead that the force used was not excessive and therefore there was no constitutional violation. Finding no manifest injustice, we decline to depart from our traditional rule that a party waives claims not properly presented for review. See Napier v Jacobs, 429 Mich 222; 414 NW2d 862 (1987).
Nor can we agree that the trial court’s jury instructions amounted to error requiring reversal. Because defense counsel did not submit proposed instructions, it is unclear whether she believed that defendant’s good faith was irrelevant on the proofs submitted or irrelevant on the merits after Harlow. While it was error to submit the question of good faith to the jury, the instruction given here imposed the burden of proof on the plaintiff to prove that the defendant did not act in good faith. This instruction may have been inappropriate, yet the party harmed was not the defendant but, rather, the plaintiff. The jury found that the defendant’s use of deadly force was unreasonable, and the verdict is supported by the evidence.
v
CONCLUSION
Under Harlow, a police officer performing discretionary functions is entitled to the defense of qualified immunity when his conduct does not violate clearly established constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known. If the law was clearly established, the immunity defense will be sustained only if the officer demonstrates extraordinary circumstances and can prove he neither knew nor should have known the relevant legal standard.
We hold that the defendant in this case was not entitled to a defense of qualified immunity. We therefore affirm the judgment of the trial court and the decision of the Court of Appeals.
Riley, C.J., and Brickley, Cavanagh, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Boyle, J.
Levin, J. I concur in part iv of the opinion of the Court.
The original complaint included the City of Detroit as a defendant on the theories 1) that the defendant city’s policy to allow the use of deadly force to apprehend a fleeing, breaking and entering suspect was unconstitutional, and 2) that the defendant city was reckless or grossly negligent in training the defendant police officer. At the close of plaintiffs proofs, the trial court granted the city’s motion for a directed verdict.
The court decided that fact issues had been raised whether there was probable cause that the defendant would believe the plaintiff was a felon who was fleeing and whether the force used by the defendant was reasonable and necessary under the circumstances.
Guider v Smith, 157 Mich App 92; 403 NW2d 505 (1987).
Guider v Smith, 429 Mich 858 (1987).
We recognize that Harlow and Anderson v Creighton, 483 US 635; 107 S Ct 3034; 97 L Ed 2d 523 (1987), have been criticized as unduly expanding the scope of the qualified immunity defense. We must emphasize that our responsibility when resolving claims brought under § 1983 is to adhere to the federal standard.
As illustrated in Anderson v Creighton, n 5 supra, 483 US 644, the meaning of Harlow was to make the liability issue more susceptible to summary disposition. The relevant inquiry would be whether viewing the facts in the light most favorable to the plaintiffs, a reasonable official in the defendant’s position could have believed his conduct to be lawful considering the state of the law as it existed when the defendant took his challenged actions. An affirmative answer would entitle the defendant to dismissal of the claims, but a negative answer would not foreclose summary disposition if the defendant could establish through discovery that the actions he took were different than those alleged and that his actions were reasonable. Justices Stevens, Brennan, and Marshall accused the Court of creating a rule that "stunningly restricts the constitutional accountability of the police/’ id., 483 US 647. The Supreme Court, 1986 term: Leading cases, 101 Harv LR 119, 224 (1987).
The defendant did not preserve the directed verdict motion on qualified immunity grounds. The only directed verdict argument the defendant ever made in the Court of Appeals was that the uncontroverted facts showed no constitutional violation had occurred.
We assume, arguendo, that Harlow is applicable in this cause of action. The United States Supreme Court did not apply the Harlow objective reasonableness standard to police officers under 42 USC 1983 until Malley v Briggs, 475 US 335; 106 S Ct 1092; 89 L Ed 2d 271 (1986).
In addition, plaintiffs should be afforded an opportunity to overcome an asserted defense of immunity with offers of proof of an unconstitutional motive. As the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit recognized in Poe v Haydon, 853 F2d 418, 431 (CA 6, 1988), under Harlow it is impermissible to inquire whether the defendant official actually knew that his conduct was unlawful. In this instance, however, the Court noted that "the relevance of motive or intent is especially applicable to Poe’s claim of sex discrimination in violation of the equal protection clause” and, as a result, "in deciding whether the appellants violated clearly established rights, there must be an inquiry sensitive to their individual motivations.” Id., p 432. Subsequently, findings of a genuine issue of material fact concerning a defendant’s motivation for a decision and direct evidence that a defendant was motivated by plaintiff’s gender would necessitate a trial in order to determine whether the alleged conduct established a constitutional violation. Further, the test is still "the objective reasonableness of an official’s conduct.” Id., p 430.
A subjective inquiry may become relevant where a defendant claims that there were exceptional circumstances which justified his failure to know the clearly settled law. For example, a defendant may claim reliance on advice of counsel, and therefore an inquiry whether there was such reliance would be proper. Nahmod, Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Litigation: The Law of Section 1983 (2d ed), § 8.15, p 508.
The circumstances in which an instruction on good faith would be used seem to be relatively rare. For example, such an instruction would be appropriate in circumstances where a search warrant, albeit an invalid one, is being used. 3 Devitt, Blackmar & Wolff, Federal Jury Practice & Instructions (4th ed), § 103.90, p 30 (1988 Supp).
It is apparent that the knowledge of the defendant is relevant in extraordinary circumstances. In Hobson v Wilson, 237 US App DC 219, 244-245; 737 F2d 1 (1984), the court described the appropriate inquiry as follows:
[A]ssume plaintiff alleges that defendant violated Right x, and defendant moves for summary judgment on grounds of qualified immunity, claiming Right x was not well-established when the alleged acts were committed and, alternatively, that extraordinary circumstances prevented him both from knowing and having reason to know the relevant legal standard. If the district court judge determines as a matter of law that Right x was well-established, a question of fact might still remain as to whether defendant reasonably neither knew nor should have known of it. The first issue is purely legal and should be susceptible to initial determination on the complaint and summary judgment papers. The latter is potentially an issue for trial, depending on the unique circumstances of each case.
The Court need not (and should not) resolve any disputed questions of material fact. "However, if there are issues of disputed fact upon which the question of immunity turns, . . . the case must proceed to trial.” Green v Carlson, 826 F2d 647, 652 (CA 7, 1987). Thus, although the immunity issue will frequently be resolved in motion practice, lower federal courts recognize that the qualified immunity defense may be presented in a motion for directed verdict and in a motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict, i.e., "even after a trial.” Benson v Allphin, 786 F2d 268, 277, n 19 (CA 7, 1986), cert den 479 US 848; 107 S Ct 172; 93 L Ed 2d 109 (1986) (partial directed verdict and judgment notwithstanding the verdict on qualified immunity grounds); Saldana v Graza, 684 F2d 1159 (CA 5, 1982) (directed verdict). See Bates v Jean, 745 F2d 1146, 1152 (CA 7, 1984).
The purpose of a "raise or waive” rule is to give the opposing party notice of the defense and an opportunity to argue why the claim should not be barred since an affirmative defense may defeat the opposing party’s claim. 5 Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure: Civil (Í987 Supp), § 1270, p 69. However, once the defense has pled and the plaintiff is on notice that the issue will be raised, sound policy does not dictate the unique "raise or waive” rule created in the concurring opinion.
The concurring opinion misperceives the language of Mitchell v Forsyth, 472 US 511, 526; 105 S Ct 2806; 86 L Ed 2d 411 (1985). When the Court stated that the right "is effectively lost if a case is erroneously permitted to go to trial,” it meant that under certain circumstances qualified immunity functions as an immunity from suit, the effectiveness of which is lost if the defendant must go through the time and expense of having to defend insubstantial claims. In concluding that the issue of qualified immunity is immediately appeal-able, the Court explained the dual nature of qualified immunity as not only "a mere defense to liability” but also "an immunity from suit.” Id. Thus, the Court’s language indicates that the entitlement to immunity from standing trial (as opposed to immunity from liability) would be, as a practical matter, forfeited if appeal on the former issue was delayed until at or after trial on the merits. Nowhere has the Supreme Court stated or implied that immunity from liability must be preserved by way of a summary disposition motion.
As the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit has observed, Mitchell counsels trial courts to consider three different and relatively independent aspects of immunity: at a motion to dismiss, on motion for summary judgment, and in defense of liability. In Kennedy v City of Cleveland, 797 F2d 297, 300 (CA 6, 1986), the court stated:
Mitchell makes it clear that immunity doctrines’ protections against liability and against the various burdens of litigating insubstantial claims are conceptually distinct (citation omitted). Consequently, decisions with respect to dismissal or summary judgment, if adverse, do not preclude the interposition of the defense of immunity as a defense ....
Under the Anderson test, then, if, on objective assessment of the circumstances, an officer situated as the defendant reasonably could have believed that the force used was necessary, the defendant would be granted immunity. In the instant case we must not be concerned with the plaintiffs conduct as this particular defendant perceived it, but as a police officer acting reasonably under the circumstances should have perceived it. Sevigny v Dicksey, supra, p 956.
The constitutional provision upon which most courts ground a § 1983 claim alleging excessive force is the Fourteenth Amendment— the use of force is treated as a potential deprivation of liberty without due process of law. See Johnson v Glick, 481 F2d 1028 (CA 2, 1973) (employing a Fourteenth Amendment substantive due process analysis to analyze an excessive force claim).
Despite the large number of excessive force cases, the Supreme Court has decided only two excessive force cases brought under § 1983. Freyermuth, Rethinking excessive force, 1987 Duke L J 692. In Tennessee v Garner, 471 US 1; 105 S Ct 1964; 85 L Ed 2d 1 (1985), the Court held that the use of deadly force is a seizure subject to the reasonableness requirements of the Fourth Amendment. In Whitley v Albers, 475 US 312; 106 S Ct 1078; 89 L Ed 2d 251 (1986), the Court developed a standard to determine whether the shooting of a prisoner violated the Eighth Amendment. The adherence of circuit courts to substantive due process factors to excessive force cases has been viewed as creating an abstract constitutional right to be free of excessive force.
The trial judge noted, "[tjhere are a lot of fact issues that have been reused during the testimony on both the issue of whether or not there was probable cause that Sergeant Smith would believe that plaintiff was a felon who was fleeing the scene, and, secondly, was the force of Sergeant Smith reasonable force under the circumstances.” The trial judge incorrectly determined that a disputed factual issue existed as to probable cause. However, the defendant has not appealed the denial of his motion on that ground.
The trial judge noted that there were questions regarding the distance between the plaintiff and the defendant, the number of police officers at the scene, the layout of the area, and the way in which the plaintiff could have escaped.
We take no position on whether plaintiff’s alternate theory presented factual issues which were properly submitted to the jury.
The United States Supreme Court has failed to clarify whether only its own pronouncements can clearly establish a constitutional right, or whether lower court decisions will have the same effect. The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, however, has held that in order to be clearly established, a right must be decided by the highest court in the state where the case arose, by a United States Court of Appeals, and by the Supreme Court. Robinson v Bibb, 840 F2d 349 (CA 6, 1988).
This is not the right recognized in Tennessee v Garner, n 17 supra, as Judge Kelly noted below, 157 Mich App 92, 114; 403 NW2d 505 (1987). The Gamer Court did not establish a constitutional right to be free from the use of excessive force, but simply recognized that the application of force implicated a specific Fourth Amendment right and applied the standard developed to protect that right. To the extent that Judge Simon’s opinion suggests that Tennessee v Garner applies to the question of defendant Smith’s liability, we express no opinion on the merits of that question.
We assume, arguendo, that Harlow immunity applies, while noting that in Johnson v Glick, n 17 supra, Judge Friendly set forth four factors for courts to apply, including good faith or a malicious or sadistic purpose.
The defendant did not properly allege or establish that extraordinary circumstances existed to demonstrate that he neither knew nor should have known of the relevant legal standard. Thus, it was not appropriate to submit this question to the jury.
The trial judge recited the following instructions:
Plaintiff has the burden of proof to prove by a preponderance of the evidence that either the Defendant Ronald Smith did not have probable cause to believe that the crime of breaking and entering an occupied dwelling was committed by the Plaintiff, Terrance Guider, or, that the Defendant Ronald Smith did not honestly believe that the deadly force was necessary to prevent the escape of the Plaintiff Terrance Guider, or if he (fid honestly believe it, then this belief was unreasonable given the totality of the circumstances — the facts and circumstances the Defendant Ronald Smith was aware of or reasonably should have been aware of at that time.
See Gomez v Toledo, 446 US 635; 100 S Ct 1920; 64 L Ed 2d 572 (1980). | [
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Per Curiam.
The defendant pled guilty of breaking and entering an occupied dwelling with intent to commit larceny and possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony. On appeal, he challenged the felony-firearm conviction on the ground that the factual basis at the plea proceeding was inadequate. However, the Court of Appeals affirmed the decision of the trial court, holding that the plea waived the right to contest whether there was a factual basis for the charge and that, in any event, the factual basis was adequate. We disagree with both conclusions, and reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals.
i
The information charged defendant with breaking and entering an occupied dwelling with intent to commit larceny and with possession of a firearm during the commission of a felony. The only record of the facts regarding the offenses is the transcript of the defendant’s guilty-plea proceeding. For the purpose of this appeal, the critical statement came in the first exchange between the court and defendant about the factual basis:
The Court: All right, tell the Court what happened on March the 9th of 1986, at 13303 Pembroke, involving you and this house and the gun.
The Defendant: I was walking down Pembroke and I walked in to see if anybody — normally in the winter-time people don’t just leave their door open, the door was wide open and I walked in to see if somebody was hurt or something, okay, and I didn’t see nobody [sic] in the house. The gun was laying [sic] on the table and I picked the gun up—
The Court: Was the door wide open, you didn’t even have to open it?_
The Defendant: Yes, Sir.
The Court: You got through without touching a thing?
The Defendant: Yes, Sir.
The Court: Well there’s no breaking and entering. [Emphasis added.]
After further discussions between the defendant and the court, defendant admitted that he had forced the door open. There was no further mention of the gun.
The plea was accepted, and the trial court ultimately sentenced the defendant pursuant to the sentence bargain to three to fifteen years in prison for the breaking and entering, consecutive to the mandatory two-year term for felony-firearm.
Defendant moved to withdraw his plea, raising the factual-basis issue, but the trial court denied the motion.
ii
On appeal, the defendant claimed that the factual basis was inadequate because it showed that defendant did not obtain the firearm until after completion of the breaking and entering. Thus, he did not have possession of the firearm "during the commission of” the breaking and entering. In an unpublished opinion per curiam, the Court of Appeals rejected this reasoning on two grounds. First, it found the issue to have been waived by the guilty plea:
By pleading guilty, defendant has waived the right to contest the factual basis of the charge. People v New, 427 Mich 482, 491; 398 NW2d 358 (1986).
Second, the Court said that even if there was no waiver, the factual basis was adequate:
The fact that defendant did not possess the firearm until he was inside the dwelling does not negate the crime. See People v White, 143 Mich App 229, 230-231; 371 NW2d 919 (1985); People v Mahone, 97 Mich App 192, 194; 293 NW2d 618 (1980).
The defendant seeks leave to appeal in this Court.
hi
The Court of Appeals relied on People v New, supra, for its waiver analysis. New involved two cases. In one, the defendant pled guilty and then sought to raise on appeal the claim that the trial court erred in denying his motion to suppress incriminating statements he had made. In the other case, the defendant pled nolo contendere and then sought to raise in the Court of Appeals an issue regarding an alleged illegal seizure of evidence from his hotel room.
We held that the pleas waived the right to raise those issues on appeal:
Today, we hold that a defendant, after pleading guilty, may raise on appeal only those defenses and rights which would preclude the state from obtaining a valid conviction against the defendant. Such rights and defenses "reach beyond the factual determination of defendant’s guilt and implicate the very authority of the state to bring a defendant to trial . . . .” [People v] White, 411 Mich [366] 398 [308 NW2d 128 (1981)] (Moody, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). In such cases, the state has no legitimate interest in securing a conviction. On the other hand, where the defense or right asserted by defendant relates solely to the capacity of the state to prove defen dant’s factual guilt, it is subsumed by defendant’s guilty plea. [427 Mich 491. Emphasis added.]* *3*[ ]
We think the Court of Appeals has misinterpreted People v New. Implicit in that decision is the understanding that in order to waive such issues there must be a valid plea taken in accordance with appropriate procedures such as those in MCR 6.101(F), including the establishment of a factual basis for the plea.
Where the statements by a defendant at the plea procedure do not establish grounds for a finding that the defendant committed the crime charged, the factual basis for the plea-based conviction is lacking.
Thus, we conclude that defendant is not precluded from challenging the compliance with MCR 6.101(F)(3)(a). To hold otherwise would amount to a complete abrogation of the factual-basis requirement — the same analysis as used by the Court of Appeals in this case would apply to any case in which the factual basis was not established.
IV
The alternative basis for the Court of Appeals decision was its conclusion that the defendant’s admissions at the plea proceeding provided an adequate basis for finding that he had committed the felony-firearm offense. The Court relied on two cases.
In People v Mahone, supra, the defendant chased the victim while armed only with a rake. The victim drew a gun, and the defendant wrestled it away. The defendant then fatally shot the victim. The Court held that these facts established the felony-firearm offense.
People v White, supra, 143 Mich App 229, presented facts very similar to those in the instant case. The defendant pled guilty of breaking and entering a store and stealing firearms. The Court found the theft of the guns adequate to establish a factual basis for possession of a firearm during the commission of the breaking and entering.
Obviously, People v Mahone is distinguishable from the instant situation since at the time the defendant committed the homicide he had possession of a firearm and used it to kill the victim. People v White, on the other hand, is indistinguishable. However, we disagree with the reasoning of the Court of Appeals in White and in the instant case. We do not view a conviction on these facts as consonant with the legislative purpose underlying the felony-firearm statute.
Accordingly, pursuant to MCR 7.302(F)(1), in lieu of granting leave to appeal, we reverse in part the judgment of the Court of Appeals because the guilty plea did not waive the right to contest the factual basis and because the factual basis stated at the plea proceeding did not provide grounds for concluding that defendant possessed a firearm in the commission of the breaking and entering. The case is remanded to the Recorder’s Court of the City of Detroit. On remand the prosecutor shall be given an opportunity to establish that the defendant was in possession of a firearm during the commission of the breaking and entering. If the prosecutor is able to do so and there is no contrary evidence both convictions shall stand. If the prosecutor is unable to establish that the offense was committed, the trial court shall set aside both convictions. If contrary evidence is produced, the matter shall be treated as a motion to withdraw the guilty pleas, and the court shall decide the matter in the exercise of its discretion. MCR 6.101(F)(6). If the motion is granted, the court shall set aside both convictions. In all other respects, leave to appeal is denied. We do not retain jurisdiction.
Riley, C.J., and Levin, Beickley, Cavanagh, Boyle, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred.
MCL 750.110; MSA 28.305.
MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2).
The breaking and entering was listed as the underlying felony.
Defendant waived examination.
In addition, New continued to recognize the "conditional” plea procedure under which the right to raise such issues can be preserved despite a guilty plea. See People v Reid, 420 Mich 326; 362 NW2d 655 (1984).
MCR 6.101(F)(3):
(3) An Accurate Plea.
(a) If the defendant pleads guilty, the court, by questioning him or her, shall establish support for a finding that he or she is guilty of the offense charged or the offense to which he or she is pleading.
(b) If the defendant pleads nolo contendere, the court shall not question him or her about his or her participation in the crime. The court shall:
(i) state why a plea of nolo contendere is appropriate; and
(ii) conduct a hearing, unless there has been one, that establishes support for a finding that the defendant is guilty of the offense charged or the offense to which the defendant is pleading.
See Guilty Plea Cases, 395 Mich 96, 129; 235 NW2d 132 (1975). | [
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Levin, J.
The double jeopardy provisions of the Michigan and federal constitutions protect an accused from being twice put in jeopardy for the same offense. "Being twice put in jeopardy” includes being subjected to a retrial after the initial prosecution ends in a mistrial. An exception to the double jeopardy bar has been made, and retrials allowed, where the prosecutorial or judicial errors requiring the mistrial appear to have been innocent or were beyond the prosecutor’s control. A general exception has also been made where the mistrial was granted on the defendant’s motion or with his consent. Where prosecutorial conduct provoked the defendant’s motion for mistrial, however, the Double Jeopardy Clause has sometimes been held to bar retrial.
This appeal presents the question when, where the court finds that prosecutorial conduct provoked a defendant’s motion for mistrial, the double jeopardy provision bars retrial. We adopt the federal standard and hold that retrial is barred where the prosecutor intended to goad the defendant into moving for a mistrial.
In this case, counsel for the people conceded at oral argument in this Court that the trial prosecutor intended to bring about a mistrial. But for such concession, we would remand to the trial court for a factual determination. We affirm the result arrived at by the Court of Appeals reversing Robert Dawson’s conviction.
i
Dawson was charged with assault with intent to commit sexual penetration. The crime was alleged to have occurred early in the morning of June 28, 1981, in Kalamazoo. The prosecutor alleged that Dawson lured complainant Mark Nelson to Dawson’s home and that, when Nelson became uneasy and left, Dawson forced him at knife point to a small park near Dawson’s home, where Dawson attempted to force Nelson to submit to anal intercourse. According to the prosecution, Nelson managed to struggle free and escape to a nearby street, where he was first struck by a truck and then taken to a hospital by passers-by. The prosecution’s only evidence that Dawson assaulted Nelson was Nelson’s testimony.
Dawson denied assaulting Nelson. He claimed that Nelson paid him to submit to sexual contact, and that Nelson suggested using the park. When Dawson was unable to complete the act, Nelson became hysterical and ran away.
The prosecutor first called Terry Sweeney, who had accompanied Dawson earlier in the evening in question. There was no substantive direct or cross-examination. The prosecutor then called Detective Robert Gay of the Kalamazoo police. Again there was no direct examination. On cross-examination, Detective Gay stated that he had found no signs of any struggle when searching the area where Nelson claimed he had struggled with Dawson. On redirect examination, Detective Gay stated, to the prosecutor’s apparent surprise, that he had not recovered any evidence at all from the park.
The prosecutor next called Nelson. Nelson was twenty-three years old at the time of the original trial, twenty-two at the time of the alleged assault. Nelson testified that on the evening in question he was sitting alone watching television in his girl friend’s ground floor apartment. Two men came to the door. Nelson testified that one, Dawson, said that they had been walking by and had seen the gymnastic photos which Nelson’s girl friend had on the walls of her apartment. Nelson said that he invited them inside. Nelson said that they remained for a total of fifteen minutes, that each of the three men drank one or two beers, and that they talked generally of their work and of sports. Nelson testified that he and Dawson then left together. _
Nelson testified that he left with Dawson because he had run out of beer, and that Dawson had suggested that they go to the house of a friend of Dawson’s, obtain some beer there, and return to Nelson’s girl friend’s apartment. Nelson agreed. With his right leg encased in a cast from ankle to hip, Nelson proceeded on crutches to what he thought was Dawson’s friend’s house, which was approximately a ten-minute walk from the apartment.
Nelson said that Dawson unlocked the door and went inside, with Nelson following. Dawson then went down into the basement for several minutes. When he returned he asked Nelson if he wanted to see the basement. Nelson said no and further told Dawson that he was going back to the apartment. Nelson testified that he then walked out of the door.
According to Nelson, after he had taken just several steps (still using his crutches) Dawson "grabbed [him] by the back of [his] collar and had [a] knife in [his] back and said 'Keep walking and shut up.’ ” Nelson said that he then dropped his crutches and hobbled along in front of Dawson.
The two proceeded alongside some railroad tracks. Along one side of the tracks was a creek. Nelson testified that he thought that if he could reach the creek, he could break his cast and run away from Dawson. Nelson said that he struggled with Dawson, who still had hold of his collar and had a knife stuck into his back, escaped and ran into the creek. Dawson was right behind. Nelson said that his cast did break at the ankle and knee.
Nelson said that he and Dawson struggled in the creek. Dawson choked Nelson and told him that if he made any noise, Dawson would kill him. Nelson said that while Dawson was choking him he was also cutting Nelson with the knife. Nelson testified that he was cut on his thumb, neck, and back. Nelson said that Dawson was also trying to get Nelson’s pants off. Nelson repeatedly testified that Dawson did not say why he wanted to get Nelson’s pants off.
Nelson testified that he then grabbed the knife (which had ended up in the weeds) and "grabbed a hold [sic] of this tree and pushed away from [Dawson] and took off from [Dawson].” Nelson ran across a little field toward a street. Dawson "took a dive” at Nelson, but Nelson rolled away and went into the street to try and wave someone down. Nelson said that he tried waving down a truck, but the truck did not stop. Nelson fell back against the curb, and the truck ran over his cast. A young man and young woman driving home from a late-night date saw Nelson, offered help, and took him to the hospital.
Defense counsel then began his cross-examination. Nelson said that Dawson came to the door of the apartment at approximately 8:00 p.m. Nelson then said that, contrary to his earlier testimony, both Dawson and Dawson’s friend (Terry Sweeney) stayed for some fifteen minutes in the apartment. Dawson and his friend were "jumping around doing something,” putting on some kind of a play fight. Dawson’s friend then left, and just Nelson and Dawson drank beer. Nelson then reasserted that the only reason he agreed to go on crutches over to what he thought was Dawson’s friend’s house was to obtain some more beer. Nelson acknowledged that there was a store selling beer directly across the street from the apartment.
Nelson said that approximately a half-hour to forty minutes elapsed between meeting Dawson and being taken to the hospital. After pressing by defense counsel, he expanded this estimate to an hour.
Nelson made a number of denials. He denied that he initiated contact with Dawson. He denied that Dawson and his friend left the apartment, bought some beer, and then returned. He first denied that Dawson returned after leaving with his friend, but then said that Dawson did leave with his friend and then returned alone. He denied paying Dawson for sexual contact.
Nelson stated for the first time that his girl friend had returned to the apartment while Dawson was still there. Nelson maintained his original version that he had been cut a number of times on the neck, even though the photograph taken at the hospital did not show such cuts.
On redirect examination, Nelson returned to his direct examination testimony that Dawson did not leave the apartment and then return, but rather that Dawson and his friend arrived, the friend left, and then Nelson left with Dawson. Nelson for the first time said that when Dawson was trying to pull Nelson’s pants down, Dawson told Nelson that the reason he wanted to do so was to force Nelson into having anal intercourse. Nelson was then excused.
After calling Officer Cristopher Sorrentino of the Kalamazoo Police, who gave no substantive testimony, the prosecution called Toni Hramika, Nelson’s girl friend and the tenant of the apartment where Nelson and Dawson met. Hramika worked at a restaurant near her apartment. The night of the alleged assault, she returned home between 7:00 and 9:00 p.m. Nelson was there, sitting outside the front door drinking beer with Dawson. Hramika said, contrary to Nelson’s testimony, that Nelson and Dawson went across the street, bought beer at the store there, and then returned to the apartment. Hramika overheard them discussing going over to Dawson’s house. Contrary to Nelson’s testimony that the only reason he left with Dawson was to obtain some beer, Hramika testified that she heard Nelson and Dawson discussing going over to Dawson’s house to obtain marijuana.
Nelson said that he would be back in fifteen minutes, but he was not. Hramika had made plans to spend the night at a girl friend’s apartment. She waited for Nelson for half an hour and then left. She repeatedly called her apartment from her girl friend’s, and Nelson finally answered between 11:15 and 11:45 p.m. Hramika said Nelson sounded "very shaken up.” She said that Nelson accused Dawson of trying to rape him.
On cross-examination, Hramika admitted that several days after the alleged assault she had told Detective Gay that on the evening in question she had arrived home between 11:30 p.m. and midnight, not between 7:00 and 9:00 p.m. Hramika also testified that, contrary to Nelson’s assertion that Dawson had stuck the knife into his back, she had seen no cuts on his back. She was not sure whether there were cuts on his neck.
The prosecutor then called Angela Hosek. She and Scott Courtney were driving home from a date and had stopped at the intersection where Nelson testified he had tried to wave down a truck. Hosek said she saw Nelson fall off the side of a van. Hosek said that Courtney then rolled down his window, asked Nelson if he needed help, and went out to help him. Hosek also went over to Nelson. Nelson told them that somebody had tried to rape him. They took him to the hospital.
On cross-examination, Hosek confirmed that she did not see Nelson standing in the street trying to wave someone down. Rather, she saw him fall off the side of a van. Furthermore, she said that this occurred at 1:00 a.m., four hours later than the time to which Nelson testified.
Courtney, the next witness, while generally corroborating Hosek’s testimony, testified that Nelson related an account to him that was entirely different from Nelson’s testimony in court. Nelson told Courtney that
he was walking home or he was on crutches at that time because the leg was broken previously and a man offered him a ride so he accepted it. He waundered [sic] back to his apartment and that’s when he [sic] tried to sexually assault him and he broke away and then he went on to say that his arms and his hands hurt and that he used a knife that was about that [six to eight inches] big.
On cross-examination, Courtney confirmed Hosek’s statement that 1:00 a.m. was the time they first saw Nelson. Courtney affirmed that Nelson told him that he had been walking home, was offered a ride by someone, accepted it and ended up at this person’s apartment. Courtney said that Nelson told him that Nelson knew where his assailant lived and was going to "get” him. Nelson did not complain of being stabbed in the back or cut on the neck. When Courtney first saw Nelson in the street, Nelson had no shirt and his pants were down about his knees.
On redirect examination, the prosecutor questioned Courtney’s report. Courtney again confirmed that Nelson told him he accepted an offer of a ride from someone who took him to an apartment. The judge, finding that the subject had been adequately covered, then repeatedly sustained objections to the prosecutor’s questions. The prosecutor then rested.
The defense first called Terry Sweeney, who had accompanied Dawson during the early portion of the evening in question. Sweeney and Dawson were acquaintances. That evening they met at a mutual friend’s home and then went to Dawson’s sister’s home, leaving there at 7:15 p.m. On the way to Dawson’s house, they passed by the apartment where Nelson was staying. Sweeney had never seen Nelson before. Nelson was standing in the doorway, and he and Dawson began talking. Sweeney said that he and Dawson, after staying for several minutes, went to the convenience store across the street and then returned to the apartment. Sweeney said that they remained there with Nelson for approximately one hour.
Sweeney and Dawson then left Nelson and went to Dawson’s house, arriving there around 8:00 p.m. Sweeney stayed for five minutes and then returned to his house to change clothes in preparation for going out with Dawson, Dawson’s girl friend, and Dawson’s sister later that night. Sweeney returned to Dawson’s home between 9:00 and 10:00 p.m. Sweeney said that Dawson was talking with Nelson in the kitchen. Sweeney testified that he went into another room, and that after about fifteen minutes Dawson and Nelson left. Dawson said he would return. Sweeney then went outside and saw Dawson’s girl friend coming up the driveway. Sweeney called to Dawson, who was then walking with Nelson along the railroad tracks, to tell him, but apparently Dawson did not hear. Sweeney did not see Nelson walking in front of Dawson. Rather, Sweeney said that Nelson had his arm around Dawson’s shoulder. Sweeney waited at Dawson’s house for approximately forty-five minutes and then left, leaving a note for Dawson. Sweeney did not see Dawson again that night.
Dawson testified next. Dawson agreed with Sweeney’s testimony as to how the evening began. When walking from Dawson’s sister’s house to Dawson’s house, Dawson and Sweeney passed the apartment where Nelson was staying. Nelson was standing in the doorway, began talking to them, and invited them in. Dawson and Sweeney had some beer, and then went across the street to buy some more beer, which they brought back to the apartment. They stayed for approximately one hour, and then Dawson and Sweeney left for Dawson’s house. Dawson said that Nelson invited him to return later.
Dawson testified that approximately half an hour after leaving, he returned to the apartment where Nelson was staying. Dawson said that Nelson propositioned him, offering him drinks, marijuana, and money to let Nelson perform oral sex upon Dawson. Dawson agreed. Toni Hramika then returned to the apartment. Dawson said that he and Nelson then went to the convenience store across the street, bought some beer, and at Nelson’s suggestion left it at Toni’s apartment, so that she would think that he was coming right back.
Dawson said that he and Nelson then walked over to Dawson’s house. Sweeney came back and walked into the living room, while Dawson and Nelson stayed in the kitchen. Dawson’s housemate was downstairs in the basement with his girl friend. With his housemate and Sweeney present, Dawson testified that he did not see how he and Nelson could complete their deal at Dawson’s house. Nelson, however, said that he wanted to do "something” that night. Dawson testified that he did not want to return the $37~$40 which Nelson had given him, and agreed to walk Nelson home.
Dawson testified that he and Nelson walked down the railroad tracks to a small park. Nelson suggested that they complete their deal in the park. Dawson assented, and Nelson unzipped Dawson’s pants. Dawson said that he was unable to become sexually aroused. Dawson testified that when he told Nelson that they may as well forget the agreement, Nelson stood up and took off running toward his house. Dawson then returned home.
Dawson denied using a knife or making any attempt to force sexual contact. When asked whether he had "ever assaulted anybody in [his] life,” Dawson answered no.
On cross-examination, the prosecutor suggested that Dawson had made a number of sexual approaches to other males. Dawson denied attempting to have such "homosexual encounters.” One of Dawson’s prior jobs had been as a counselor in a juvenile home, and the prosecutor began naming teen-aged boys who had resided at the juvenile home while Dawson was a counselor and asking Dawson if he had not attempted to solicit sexual contact with them. Dawson admitted that he knew the young men but denied soliciting sexual contact. After defense counsel objected to this line of questioning, the prosecutor stated that he would prove that Dawson had made such solicitations. After a brief redirect examination, Dawson was excused.
The last defense witness was Detective Gay. He testified that had there been visible injuries to Nelson’s back or neck, as Nelson had testified, the police department would have photographed them.
The prosecutor then began his rebuttal. The prosecutor sought to introduce evidence supporting his suggestions that Dawson had made a number of sexual approaches to other males. The first witness, Michael Cornell, was a former resident of the juvenile home who had known Dawson. Cornell testified that after he had been placed in a foster home, Dawson visited and took Cornell fishing. He also bought Cornell some rum. Cornell said that when he offered to pay Dawson for the rum, Dawson told him that "you can pay me in another way.” Cornell testified that he took this as "faggoty.” Cornell did not testify to any further "incidents.”
The prosecutor next called Ray Brown, another former juvenile home resident. Brown testified that at one point when he and Dawson were fighting, Dawson "asked me if we could get along better if he gave me a couple blows.” When asked how he took Dawson’s statement, Brown said "Offensively.” "Before I started thinking about it, I was getting angry. It could have meant hit me, it could have meant anything else. I took it angrily and it was over.” The prosecutor then attempted to impeach Brown, implying that Brown had earlier stated that Dawson explicitly referred to sexual contact. The judge sustained defense objections to a number of questions. In an ensuing sidebar, the judge stated that he would not allow impeachment on a collateral matter.
The prosecutor, noting that it was then 4:30 p.m., requested a recess until the following Tuesday. The judge refused. The prosecutor, stating that he probably had "another three or four hours of direct examination,” then began asking Brown questions like "can you tell us the very first day or time it was that you met Mr. Dawson or what that occasion was?” and "How many floors are there in the Juvenile Home please?” Defense counsel objected on relevancy grounds and the judge sustained the objections. After repeated rounds of such questions and sustained objections, the prosecutor asked the following question: "Can you tell us how many times Mr. Dawson offered you a blow job?” Defense counsel objected and moved for a mistrial. The prosecutor, when asked if he had any response, replied "Nope.” The court granted the mistrial.
Defense counsel subsequently moved to bar any retrial on the basis of double jeopardy. The prosecutor successfully argued that any such motion must be filed and the prosecutor given four days’ notice.
Defense counsel filed his motion and argued it the first day of Dawson’s retrial. A different judge was presiding. Defense counsel had not requested a transcript of Dawson’s original trial, and no such transcript was available. The judge, relying on People v Benton, 402 Mich 47; 260 NW2d 77 (1977), denied the motion. The judge read Benton as holding that where the defendant "retained] primary control over the course to be followed” in the original trial, double jeopardy would not bar a retrial. The judge found that here the defendant had exercised "primary control” because it was defense counsel who moved for the mistrial.
Dawson was convicted on retrial. The Court of Appeals reversed on the basis of the Double Jeopardy Clause. We affirm the Court of Appeals decision, but adopt a different double jeopardy analysis.
ii
The Michigan and federal constitutions provide that no person shall twice be put in jeopardy for the same offense. The purpose of the double jeopardy prohibition is to limit the state to having generally only one attempt at obtaining a conviction. Otherwise, the state could repeatedly prosecute persons for the same crime, transforming the trial process itself into a punishment and effectively punishing the accused without his having been adjudged guilty of an offense meriting punish ment. Further, because the state can devote its resources to improving the presentation of its case, the probability of a conviction may increase with each retrial. As the United States Supreme Court said in Green v United States, 355 US 184, 187-188; 78 S Ct 221; 2 L Ed 2d 199 (1957):
The underlying idea, one that is deeply ingrained in at least the Anglo-American system of jurisprudence, is that the State with all its resources and power should not be allowed to make repeated attempts to convict an individual for an alleged offense, thereby subjecting him to embarrassment, expense and ordeal and compelling him to live in a continuing state of anxiety and insecurity, as well as enhancing the possibility that even though innocent he may be found guilty.[ ]
An accused is placed in jeopardy as soon as the jury is selected and sworn. Hence, double jeopardy protection attaches before the conclusion of the trial. Where the trial ends before a verdict— where a mistrial is declared — the Double Jeopardy Clause may bar a retrial.
The Double Jeopardy Clause does not bar all retrials. The Supreme Court of the United States has held that the charged offense may be retried where the mistrial was declared because of a hung jury. The Court has fashioned a balancing test focusing on the cause prompting the mistrial. The thrust of the Court’s decisions is that the Double Jeopardy Clause does not bar retrial where the prosecutor or judge made an innocent error or where the cause prompting the mistrial was outside their control. Where the motion for mistrial is made by the prosecutor, or by the judge sua sponte, retrial will be allowed if declaration of the mistrial was "manifest[ly] necess[ary]”:
[T]he law has invested Courts of justice with the authority to discharge a jury from giving any verdict, whenever, in their opinion, taking all the circumstances into consideration, there is a manifest necessity for the act, or the ends of public justice would otherwise be defeated. [United States v Perez, 22 US (9 Wheat) 579, 580; 6 L Ed 165 (1824).][ ]_
Where the motion for mistrial was made by defense counsel, or with his consent, and the mistrial was caused by innocent conduct of the prosecutor or judge, or by factors beyond their control, or by defense counsel himself, retrial is also generally allowed, on the premise that by making or consenting to the motion the defendant waives a double jeopardy claim.
Where a defendant’s motion for mistrial is prompted by intentional prosecutorial conduct, however, the defendant may not, by moving for a mistrial, have waived double jeopardy protection. The United States Supreme Court has held that the Double Jeopardy Clause bars retrial where prosecutorial conduct was intended to provoke the defendant into moving for a mistrial. Oregon v Kennedy, 456 US 667; 102 S Ct 2083; 72 L Ed 2d 416 (1982).
Justice Powell, who provided the majority’s fifth vote in Oregon v Kennedy, wrote in a special concurrence, "[b]ecause 'subjective’ intent often may be unknowable,” a "court — in considering a double jeopardy motion — should rely primarily on the objective facts and circumstances of the particular case.” Id., pp 679-680. Justice Powell did not find intent in Kennedy because there was "no sequence of overreaching,” because "the prosecutor not only resisted, but also was surprised by, the defendant’s motion for a mistrial,” and because "the prosecutor testified — and the trial court found as a fact and the appellate court agreed— that there was no 'intention ... to cause a mistrial.” Id.
Two state supreme courts, perceiving the wording of the Kennedy standard as too narrow, have adopted their own formulations. See State v Kennedy, 295 Or 260; 666 P2d 1316 (1983), and Pool v Superior Court, 139 Ariz 98; 677 P2d 261 (1984).
in
The Court of Appeals adopted the Arizona test set forth in Pool, supra. People v Dawson, 154 Mich App 260, 267; 397 NW2d 277 (1986). The Court of Appeals said that while the prosecutor’s conduct at Dawson’s original trial did not rise to the "intended to provoke a mistrial” standard of Oregon v Kennedy, supra, it did qualify under the Pool approach as conduct that the prosecutor "knew [was] improper, and that he [engaged in] with indiiference, if not a specific intent, to create unfair prejudice.” Dawson, supra, p 273.
At oral argument before this Court, counsel for the people conceded that the trial prosecutor’s conduct was improper under the Oregon v Kennedy standard. The prosecutor urged this Court to follow the Oregon v Kennedy standard and to reject the Pool formulation adopted by the Court of Appeals. In light of the prosecutor’s concession that the trial prosecutor’s conduct was improper under the Oregon v Kennedy standard, there is no need in the instant case to decide whether this Court should go further than the federal standard.
Retrials are an exception to the general double jeopardy bar. Where a mistrial results from apparently innocent or even negligent prosecutorial error, or from factors beyond his control, the public interest in allowing a retrial outweighs the double jeopardy bar. The balance tilts, however, where the judge finds, on the basis of the "objective facts and circumstances of the particular case,” that the prosecutor intended to goad the defendant into moving for a mistrial. _
IV
Ordinarily a trial judge will determine whether the prosecutor intended to goad the defendant into moving for a mistrial. The judge’s findings are subject to appellate review under the "clearly erroneous” standard. In the instant case, counsel for the people conceded during oral argument that the trial prosecutor intended to cause a mistrial. But for such concession, we would remand to the trial court for a factual determination.
The prosecutor’s case was going badly. The police had not recovered any evidence from the scene of the crime. The only evidence, implicating Dawson was the testimony of Nelson, the complaining witness, who had contradicted himself on at least one crucial matter — first stating that Dawson never said why he wanted Nelson to take off Nelson’s pants, and then saying that Dawson said that he wanted to have anal intercourse with Nelson. Nelson’s testimony was also confused con cerning the times and events leading up to the alleged assault. One of the state’s corroborating witnesses then testified that Nelson had provided him with a completely different account — that he was attacked not near the railroad tracks, but rather in an apartment by a man who offered him a lift home. Nelson’s girl friend apparently surprised the prosecutor, and discredited Nelson, by stating that Nelson went with Dawson not to obtain beer, as Nelson had testified, but rather to obtain marijuana.
The testimony of the prosecutor’s rebuttal witness did not support the prosecutor’s allegations of prior sexual solicitations. The prosecutor’s last rebuttal witness left the building before testifying. The prosecutor appeared to be stalling for time, apparently hoping that the court would declare a recess and thereby enable the prosecutor to marshal his forces over the weekend. When a recess appeared unlikely, the prosecutor asked, "Can you tell us how many times Mr. Dawson offered you a blow job?” which he clearly knew was improper. Finally, the prosecutor neither appeared surprised by nor argued against the mistrial motion. When asked whether he had any response to defense counsel’s request for a mistrial, the prosecutor responded, "Nope.”
We affirm the result arrived at by the Court of Appeals, and hold that Dawson’s retrial is barred by the Double Jeopardy Clause.
Riley, C.J., and Brickley, Cavanagh, Boyle, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
Const 1963, art 1, § 15.
US Const, Am V. The federal provision applies to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment." Benton v Maryland, 395 US 784; 89 S Ct 2056; 23 L Ed 2d 707 (1969).
The accused is placed in jeopardy once a jury has been selected and sworn. People v Barker, 60 Mich 277, 290; 27 NW 539 (1886). See also Crist v Bretz, 437 US 28; 98 S Ct 2156; 57 L Ed 2d 24 (1978).
For example, an error in drafting an indictment. See Illinois v Somerville, 410 US 458; 93 S Ct 1066; 35 L Ed 2d 425 (1973).
For example, where a mistrial is declared because of a juror’s misconduct, or his illness, disability, or death. See Thompson v United States, 155 US 271; 15 S Ct 73; 39 L Ed 146 (1894); Simmons v United States, 142 US 148; 12 S Ct 171; 35 L Ed 968 (1891); People v Grimmett, 388 Mich 590, 598; 202 NW2d 278 (1972), rev’d on other grounds People v White, 390 Mich 245; 212 NW2d 222 (1973); People v Hutchings, 137 Mich 527; 100 NW 753 (1904).
People v Grimmett, n 5 supra.
See, e.g., United States v Martin, 561 F2d 135 (CA 8, 1977); United States v Kessler, 530 F2d 1246 (CA 5, 1976).
MCL 750.520g(l); MSA 28.788(7X1).
There was some confusion whether the alleged crime occurred late in the evening of the 27th or early in the morning of the 28th. The prosecutor at the original trial claimed that the initial contact between Nelson and Dawson and the assault itself occurred on June 28. The prosecutor at retrial (not the original prosecutor) asserted that the preliminary events occurred on the 27th, with only the assault itself occurring on the 28th. Defense counsel did not contest this assertion.
The prosecutor asked the question twice.
Q. Can you tell me what, if anything, you found?
A. Nothing.
Q. Absolutely nothing?
A. Nothing.
At the original trial no witness testified to recovering any evidence from the scene of the alleged assault. At the retrial, Officer John Shubnell of the Kalamazoo Police, who was not called at the original trial, testified to visiting the scene with Nelson in the early morning hours after the assault was alleged to have occurred, and recovering a pair of crutches and a shirt which Nelson identified as his.
When asked what had happened to Dawson’s friend, Terry Swee ney, Nelson said that in fact he had left "maybe a minute” after arriving, and had apparently not had any beer or talked with the other two.
Nelson had broken his ankle while performing gymnastics.
Nelson testified that he thought that since Dawson had a key to the house it was really Dawson’s house, and not his "friend’s.”
Nelson made no mention of Terry Sweeney arriving at the house.
When asked by the prosecutor whether the knife was actually stuck in his back or just pressed against it, Nelson repeated that it was "in [his] back.”
Dawson held a black belt in karate.
Nelson told the prosecutor that Dawson’s choking did not leave any marks on his neck. This statement contradicted the prosecutor’s assertion in his opening statement that the jury would see photographs of the bruises on Nelson’s neck caused by the choking.
So that assuming, as Nelson said, he first met Dawson at 8:00 p.m., the assault would have been over by 9:00 p.m.
This denial was consistent with his direct testimony.
The photograph showed only the front of Nelson’s neck. After viewing the photograph, Nelson said that the cuts were on the back of his neck. He admitted, however, that the only purpose of the photograph was to record his injuries.
Prior to redirect examination there had been a consultation between counsel and the judge and a short recess. During the consultation the judge pointed out to the prosecutor that Nelson’s direct testimony failed to establish an element of the charged crime — that Dawson intended to sexually assault Nelson. During the subsequent recess, the prosecutor talked with Nelson. Nelson denied that the prosecutor told him what to say.
Hramika made no mention of their discussing going to Dawson’s "friend’s” house.
She was sure it was a van and not a truck.
Apparently Nelson related this version to Courtney before Hosek arrived.
Courtney also testified at Dawson’s retrial. This testimony as to Nelson’s telling Courtney that he was picked up and assaulted by someone offering him a ride on his way home did not come out on Courtney’s direct testimony during the prosecution’s case in chief, and defense counsel did not attempt to elicit this testimony.
Courtney consistently used the term "apartment,” not "house,” in relating what Nelson had told him.
In refusing defense counsel’s request for a directed verdict, the judge declared, "It’s obvious from the record that there has [sic] been some inconsistencies from [sic] the testimony, but that’s for the jury to decide.”
Apparently they went to the store to buy beer.
On cross-examination, Sweeney testified that he had seen Dawson just several times "at the store” since that night. Dawson never told Sweeney that he had been arrested, and Sweeney still was not sure why Dawson had been arrested. Sweeney could not be specific about exactly when the events to which he had testified took place. It could have been anytime in June or July.
Dawson said that he had been out of work for seven to eight months, was drinking heavily, and needed the money.
For example, the prosecutor asked, "Isn’t it true that you said to Don Allen, 'How about a blow job? You’ll get points easier?’ ” With regard to another former resident, the prosecutor asked, "In fact, you had contact and you said to him something to the effect of, 'You and I could get along a lot better if you gave me some blow jobs.’ Isn’t that what you said?”
The trial judge ruled that the "similar acts” exception, MRE 404(b), allowed the prosecutor to ask these questions. This question was not briefed on appeal, and we do not in this opinion address the propriety of this use of the "similar acts” exception.
when asked why he took it as "faggoty,” Cornell said that that was the only way he saw of taking it.
The judge further indicated that he was dissatisfied with the evidence produced by the prosecution to support the suggestions that Dawson had previously solicited sexual contact with other males.
[T]he criteria that must be applied to that evidence when it’s brought in to show previous similar acts, the mandates of our Appellate Court decisions require that testimony must be clear, explicit, plain[,] unequivocal, words to that effect. That certainly is not the nature of the testimony thus far both as to the previous incident with Mr. Cornell and both [sic] as to this Witness ....
Defense counsel noted that the prosecutor had planned to call three witnesses in rebuttal. As the judge indicated, the two who had already testified had not supported the prosecutor’s suggestion that Dawson had solicited male juveniles for sexual contact. Defense counsel noted that the third witness had left the building and obviously did not want to be present. Defense counsel suggested that the request for a recess was simply a delaying tactic.
March 23, 1982.
The prosecutor argued that the motion was not timely. The prosecutor noted that a jury had already been selected, and that several of the prosecution’s witnesses had come from out of state.
Const 1963, art 1, § 15.
US Const, Am V.
[Society’s awareness of the heavy personal strain which a criminal trial represents for the individual defendant is manifested in the willingness to limit the Government to a single criminal proceeding to vindicate its very vital interest in enforcement of criminal laws. [United States v Jorn, 400 US 470, 479; 91 S Ct 547; 27 L Ed 2d 543 (1971) (plurality opinion).]
For discussion of the policies underlying the Double Jeopardy Clause, see Findlater, Retrial after a hung jury: The double jeopardy problem, 129 UPaLR 701 (1981); Kessler, Prosecutorial misconduct —No double jeopardy absent an intent to provoke a mistrial, 12 Golden Gate ULR 115 (1982); Klarman, Mistrials arising from prosecutorial error: Double jeopardy protection, 34 Stan L R 1061 (1982); Ponsoldt, When guilt should be irrelevant: Government overreaching as a bar to reprosecution under the Double Jeopardy Clause añer Oregon v Kennedy, 69 Cornell L R 76, 80-81 (1983).
See n 3 supra.
See People v Thompson, 424 Mich 118; 379 NW2d 49 (1985).
See Oregon v Kennedy, 456 US 667, 682; 102 S Ct 2083; 72 L Ed 2d 416 (1982) (Stevens, J., concurring) ("The defendant’s interest in finality is not confined to final judgments; he also has a protected interest in having his guilt or innocence decided in one proceeding. That interest must be balanced against society’s interest in affording the prosecutor one full and fair opportunity to present his evidence to the jury. Our decisions in the mistrial setting accordingly have accommodated the defendant’s double jeopardy interests with legitimate prosecutorial interests.”); United States v Jorn, n 40 supra, p 480 ("[I]t becomes readily apparent that a mechanical rule prohibiting retrial whenever circumstances compel the discharge of a jury without the defendant’s consent would be too high a price to pay for the added assurance of personal security and freedom from governmental harassment which such a mechanical rule would provide.”); Wade v Hunter, 336 US 684, 688-690; 69 S Ct 834; 93 L Ed 974 (1949).
See n 4 supra. Where a mistrial is declared because of defense counsel’s misconduct, the Double Jeopardy Clause will not bar retrial. See People v Anderson, 409 Mich 474, 485; 295 NW2d 482 (1980).
See n 5 supra.
Where a reviewing court holds that the mistrial was not mani festly necessary, the double jeopardy prohibition bars retrial. See, e.g., People v Benton, 402 Mich 47; 260 NW2d 77 (1977).
See People v Benton, n 47 supra.
Other courts have held that the apparently intentional or grossly negligent misconduct of other court officials and of the state’s witnesses may be attributed to the prosecutor. See, e.g., State v Rathburn, 37 Or App 259; 586 P2d 1136 (1978). See also State v Kennedy, 295 Or 260, 274-275; 666 P2d 1316 (1983).
The conduct at issue in Kennedy was a question asked of an expert witness for the state on redirect examination. Defense counsel, questioning the expert on cross-examination and apparently attempting to establish bias, had asked the witness if he had filed a criminal complaint against the defendant. The witness stated that he had. On redirect examination, when the prosecutor attempted to elicit the reasons why the witness had filed the complaint, the trial judge sustained a series of objections. The Court noted that the Oregon appellate court "later explained that [defendant’s] 'objections were not well taken, and the judge’s rulings were probably wrong.” Oregon v Kennedy, supra, 456 US 669, n 1, quoting 49 Or App 415, 417; 619 P2d 948 (1980). The following exchange then occurred:
"Prosecutor: Have you ever done business with [defendant]?
"Witness: No, I have not.
"Prosecutor: Is that because he is a crook?” [Kennedy, 456 US 669.]
The trial judge then granted defendant’s motion for a mistrial, and found that the prosecutor, by asking "Is that because he is a crook?” did not intend to cause a mistrial. The Court did not disturb the trial judge’s finding.
While the Court was unanimous in holding that on these facts the federal double jeopardy provision did not bar retrial, four justices disagreed with the majority’s analysis, urging instead adoption of a standard that they perceived as providing greater double jeopardy protection.
The Oregon Supreme Court, following remand by the United States Supreme Court, in State v Kennedy, 295 Or 260; 666 P2d 1316 (1983), perceived two deficiencies in the federal approach. First, the federal test focused solely on prosecutorial conduct, "[b]ut prosecutors are not the only officials whose conduct may cause a mistrial or a reversal.” Id., p 275. Other court officials, such as the bailiff, may be equally guilty of misconduct requiring a mistrial. Second, finding that the prosecutor intended to cause a mistrial means finding that the prosecutor acted in contempt of court and violated professional ethical standards. Id. Such a finding may carry consequences for the prosecutor — consequences so severe that judges may attempt to avoid making such a finding. "[This finding] places too heavy a burden on the inference that a defendant must ask a judge to draw from the objective conduct and circumstances.” Id., p 276.
Because of these perceived problems the Oregon court adopted a different approach. The Oregon double jeopardy provision bars retrial
when improper official conduct is so prejudicial to the defendant that it cannot be cured by means short of a mistrial, and if the official knows that the conduct is improper and prejudicial and either intends or is indifferent to the resulting mistrial or reversal. [Id.]
Barring retrial in such cases is appropriate, said the Court, because
[w]hen this occurs, it is clear that the burden of a second trial is not attributable to the defendant’s preference for a new trial over completing the trial infected by an error. Rather, it results from the state’s readiness, though perhaps not calculated intent, to force the defendant to such a choice. [Id.]
Like the United States Supreme Court, the Oregon Supreme Court agreed with the trial judge’s finding that the prosecutor’s misconduct was not intentional, or made in bad faith, or even grossly negligent. The court affirmed the defendant’s conviction on retrial.
The Arizona Supreme Court in Pool v Superior Court, 139 Ariz 98; 677 P2d 261 (1984), also adopted a different formulation. Pool concerned
the cumulative effect of a line of questioning in which the prosecutor posed numerous improper questions resulting in at least two bench conferences and one court admonishment. The trial judge granted a mistrial on grounds of improper conduct. [Pool, supra, p 106.]
The trial judge found that the prosecutor did not intend to provoke a mistrial.
Reviewing the record, the court held that "[t]he conduct of the prosecutor was egregiously incorrect to the extent that we must infer that the questions were asked with knowledge that they were improper.” Id., p 107. The prosecutor could have engaged in improper conduct for several reasons. He may have intended to force the defendant to seek a mistrial, or
[h]e may have sought to avoid a serious danger of acquittal by using whatever method was available to convict, proper or improper. He may have intended to harass the defendant without thought of the risk of mistrial because of anger at either defendant or defense counsel. He may have simply intended to retaliate for what he perceived as improper conduct of defense counsel, no matter what the risk of mistrial. [Id.]
It developed at trial that the prosecutor had mischarged Pool. If Pool moved for a mistrial, "the prosecution could procure a new indictment with correct charges.” Id. Regardless of the prosecutor’s motivation, his conduct violated the double jeopardy prohibition.
In such a situation, the State has intentionally exposed the defendant to multiple trials for the same crime and has destroyed his expectation of completing the proceeding before the original tribunal. This is exactly what the double jeopardy provision was intended to prevent. [Id., p 109.]
The court held that Arizona’s double jeopardy prohibition barred retrial where the following three conditions were met:
1. Mistrial is granted because of improper conduct or actions by the prosecutor; and
2. such conduct is not merely the result of legal error, negligence, mistake, or insignificant impropriety, but, taken as a whole, amounts to intentional conduct which the prosecutor knows to be improper and prejudicial, and which he pursues for any improper purpose with indifference to a significant resulting danger of mistrial or reversal; and
3. the conduct causes prejudice to the defendant which cannot be cured by means short of a mistrial. [Id., pp 108-109.]
The court in a footnote stated that the judge was to infer the prosecutor’s knowledge and intent from an objective reading of the record. Id., pp 108-109, n 9.
Applying this standard to the case before it, the court inferred, from the "egregiously improper” nature of the prosecutor’s conduct at trial, that the prosecutor intentionally engaged in misconduct. The court further inferred that the prosecutor’s purpose "was, at best, to avoid the significant danger of acquittal which had arisen, prejudice the jury and obtain a conviction no matter what the danger of mistrial or reversal.” Id., p 109. The court held that Arizona’s double jeopardy prohibition barred Pool’s retrial.
Counsel for the people said:
I think that this is a perfect example of the transcript that you can use and apply the Kennedy standard to. ... I think based on the record that this, if you’re ever going to get a record where you can apply the Kennedy test this is it.
See United States v Thomas, 728 F2d 313, 318 (CA 6, 1984).
See Oregon v Kennedy, supra, pp 675-676:
[A] standard that examines the intent of the prosecutor, though certainly not entirely free from practical difficulties, is a manageable standard to apply. It merely calls for the court to make a finding of fact. Inferring the existence or nonexistence of intent from objective facts and circumstances is a familiar process in our criminal justice system. When it is remembered that resolution of double jeopardy questions by state trial courts are reviewable not only within the state court system, but in the federal court system on habeas corpus as well, the desirability of an easily applied principle is apparent.
Prosecutorial conduct that might be viewed as harassment or overreaching, even if sufficient to justify a mistrial on defendant’s motion, therefore, does not bar retrial absent intent on the part of the prosecutor to subvert the protections afforded by the Double Jeopardy Clause. A defendant’s motion for a mistrial constitutes "a deliberate election on his part to forgo his valued right to have his guilt or innocence determined before the first trier of fact.” United States v Scott, 437 US 82, 93 [98 S Ct 2187; 57 L Ed 2d 65] (1978). Where prosecutorial error even of a degree sufficient to warrant a mistrial has occurred, "[t]he important consideration, for purposes of the Double Jeopardy Clause, is that the defendant retain primary control over the course to be followed in the event of such error.” United States v Dinitz, [424 US 600, 609; 96 S Ct 1075; 47 L Ed 2d 267 (1976)]. Only where the governmental conduct in question is intended to ’’goad” the defendant into moving for a mistrial may a defendant raise the bar of double jeopardy to a second trial after having succeeded in aborting the first on his own motion. [Emphasis supplied.]
See also United States v Sanchez, 806 F2d 7, 9 (CA 1, 1986); United States v Posner, 764 F2d 1535 (CA 11, 1985).
The "goad the defendant into moving for a mistrial” standard "calls for a finding of fact by the court . . ., an inquiry for which the trial court is best suited.” United States v Posner, n 56 supra, p 1539.
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Griffin, J.
In this case we are asked to determine whether the phrase "weekly compensation rate” in § 352(1) of the Workers’ Disability Compensation Act, as amended, refers (1) to the amount of weekly compensation payable as the obligation of the employer under §351(1) to a disabled employee, or (2) to the total of such weekly compensation payable by the employer plus the amount of "differential” benefits payable weekly by the Second Injury Fund under § 521(2), where an employee is totally and permanently disabled. We hold that the phrase refers only to the amount of the employer’s obligation, and thus we reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals.
i
Dennis Kincaid was injured on January 12, 1970, in the course of his employment with the Detroit Mutual Insurance Company. On December 31, 1975, a hearing referee found Kincaid to be totally and permanently disabled. In addition to compensation payable weekly as the obligation of his employer pursuant to § 351(1), it was determined that Kincaid was entitled to "differential” benefits payable weekly as the obligation of the Second Injury Fund pursuant to § 521(2). Both awards were affirmed by the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board, and no appeal was taken.
As of January 1, 1982, Kincaid was receiving compensation from his employer in the amount of $80 a week, and a "differential” benefit from the Second Injury Fund in the amount of $86.67 a week. That was the effective date of § 352(1) which, as part of 1980 PA 357, established a new entitlement to "supplemental” benefits, intended as a cost-of-living adjustment for eligible employees with injury dates between September 1, 1965, and December 31,1979.
In accordance with an interpretation of § 352(1) issued through the Compensation Supplement Fund (CSF) by the Director of the Bureau of Workers’ Disability Compensation, Kincaid’s employer determined that Kincaid was not entitled to a supplement. Section 352(1), as amended by 1982 PA 32, provides that "[t]he supplement shall be computed as a percentage of the weekly compensation rate” which the employee is receiving on January 1, 1982. Furthermore, § 352(5) provides that "the supplement [shall be] reduced by the amount of the differential payments” which the employee is receiving.
The parties agree that in calculating the amount of an employee’s "supplemental” benefit, the inflation factor to be applied under the statute in the case of this employee injured in the year 1970 is seventy-one percent (0.71). However, there is disagreement as to how the calculation should be made.
In accordance with the csf’s interpretation, the employer calculated Kincaid’s supplement by multiplying the amount of his weekly compensation payable by the employer ($80) by the inflation factor (0.71), which produced a preliminary supplement of $57 per week. However, when Kincaid’s weekly differential benefit of ($86.67) was then subtracted from $57, as required by § 352(5), the negative result indicated that Kincaid was not entitled to a supplement.
Kincaid filed a petition, contesting the interpretation. He argued that the inflation factor (0.71) should be applied to $166.67, the total of the weekly amount paid by his employer ($80) plus the differential benefit paid by the Second Injury Fund ($86.67). From that product, $118, he would then deduct $86.67, his differential benefit, resulting in a supplemental benefit of $31.33 per week. On the basis of Kincaid’s interpretation of the phrase "weekly compensation rate,” he would be entitled to receive $80 from his employer, $86.67 from the Second Injury Fund, and $31.33 from the csf, or a total of $198 per week.
In a decision mailed July 12, 1983, a hearing referee agreed with the plaintiff’s interpretation. However, upon appeal, the wcab reversed, stating:
[W]e . . . find it was the intent of the Legislature in enacting Section 352(1) that the calculation of supplemental benefits should be based exclusively upon the weekly compensation rate paid by the employer, in this case, and not the sum total of the weekly compensation rate plus the differential benefits paid by the Second Injury Fund. [Emphasis in original.]
Thereafter, the Court of Appeals reversed the decision of the wcab. 160 Mich App 580; 408 NW2d 820 (1987). We granted leave to appeal limited to the issue how the phrase "weekly compensation rate” in § 352(1) should be interpreted.
ii
The dispute in this appeal centers on the question: What was the purpose and intent of the Legislature when, by adopting 1982 PA 32, it modified the phrase, "basic compensation rate” as it had appeared in § 352(1) of 1980 PA 357, to read "weekly compensation rate”?
Plaintiff concedes that the phrase, "basic compensation rate,” in the earlier version had referred only to that compensation which is the obligation of the employer. However, he argues that by amending the phrase, the Legislature manifested an intent to broaden its meaning so as to include the differential benefits he also received from the SIF.
On the other hand, the csf contends that several amendments of § 352(1) made by 1982 PA 32, including the modification of "basic compensation rate” to "weekly compensation rate” were adopted for clarification purposes only, and that there was no intent on the part of the Legislature to change the meaning of § 352(1) in any respect. The csf asserts that in the context of § 352(1) and the workers’ compensation act as a whole the phrase "weekly compensation rate” is restrictive rather than expansive.
Agreeing with the position of the plaintiff, the Court of Appeals held:
We hold that the differential benefits are not to be excluded from the calculation of the supplement, but are to be subtracted from the supplement after it has been calculated and before it is paid. We rely heavily on the amending language of § 352 which excluded the more narrow term "basic compensation” in favor of the broader term "weekly compensation.” We find that the statute evidences an intent to include differential benefits within the meaning of weekly compensation. [160 Mich App 586-587. Emphasis in original.]
As we said in In re Petition of State Hwy Comm, 383 Mich 709, 714-715; 178 NW2d 923 (1970):
The fundamental rule of construction of statutes is to ascertain and give effect to the intention of the Legislature; courts are bound, whenever possible, so to construe statutes as to give them validity and a reasonable construction; seeming inconsistencies in the various provisions of a statue should be reconciled, if possible, so as to arrive at a meaning which gives effect to all parts of the statute; a construction leading to an absurd consequence should be avoided.
Since we find the phrase "weekly compensation rate” on its face to be ambiguous, it is appropriate that we look beyond the statute to its history and the circumstances surrounding its enactment. Lakehead Pipe Line Co, Inc v Dehn, 340 Mich 25; 64 NW2d 903 (1954).
hi
Enactment of § 352(1) which established the "supplement” to weekly compensation was not an isolated occurrence. Rather, it was an integral part of a comprehensive effort to "reform” the workers’ compensation system in Michigan. In a report delivered in 1975 to Governor Milliken, a Governor’s Workmen’s Compensation Advisory Commission, chaired by Professor Theodore St. Antoine, reviewed a number of problems and abuses relating to the system. The report included the following:
Finally, there is the question of inflation. The continued erosion of the purchasing power of fixed benefits has made a mockery of prior efforts to maintain the dignity of the disabled worker. Even though fault need not be attributed to any part of the compensation system, the system has, nonetheless, failed to fulfill its promise to workers whose disabilities have continued from years ago to the present. So too, unless basic changes are enacted or unless inflation is miraculously halted, the system will fail to fulfill its promise to workers disabled today whose disabilities continue forward.
The magnitude of inflation in the future cannot be accurately forecast, but it is possible to identify potential sources of the additional funds to main tain the purchasing power of benefits. The three most likely sources are the general ñmd, each particular carrier, or carriers in general. [Emphasis supplied.]
A study by Dr. H. Allan Hunt, referred to by the wcab in its opinion, included this historical perspective:
During inflationary times like the present, the passage of just a few years with double-digit inflation can have a devastating impact on the standard of living of a disabled worker. This concern is reflected in the following statement by William Marshall, President of the Michigan AFL-CIO, concerning the Michigan workers’ compensation system:
"Perhaps the most inequitable part of our present law insofar as benefits is [sic] concerned, is the lack of a cost-of-living provision for injured workers. In this age where inflation is a fact of life, our current law fixes benefits as of the date of injury and condemns the disabled to an erosion of their purchasing power and in the final result to welfare.”
Hunt, Inflation Protection for Workers’ Compensation Claimants in Michigan (Kalamazoo: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research 1981), P 1.
However, as the wcab opinion makes clear, the concern prior to 1980 PA 357 about the effects of inflation focused principally upon the plight of the long-term totally disabled who received no inflation adjustments, rather than the totally and permanently disabled who, since 1969, had been receiving a "differential” benefit as an inflation offset. As Dr. Hunt pointed out, by providing "differential” benefits to the totally and permanently disabled, Michigan was one of a few states then providing any inflation relief to workers’ compensation recipients. However, Dr. Hunt concluded that this was not enough since "[t]he result is that a total of less than 1,500 of the roughly 25,000 cases in active payment status were receiving such inflation adjustment payments as of late 1979.” Hunt, supra, p 4.
On December 30, 1980, a breakthrough in the reform effort occurred when the Legislature passed, and the Governor signed 1980 PA 357, the first in a series of public acts which have revised the Workers’ Disability Compensation Act. The 1980 reform act addressed a number of problems and concerns; however, one of the most significant provisions was § 352(1) providing for the "supplemental” benefit.
The legislation also created the Compensation Supplement Fund, an agency of the State of Michigan funded by legislative appropriations,* 12*** which bears the ultimate obligation for payment of the "supplemental” benefit. As the csf points out, this step represented a sharp change in public policy because prior thereto, from the inception of the system, the burden of financing workers’ compensation benefits had been placed by the Legislature upon the employer or the industry which occasioned the employee’s injury. See Andrejwski v Wolverine Coal Co, 182 Mich 298; 148 NW 684 (1914). Accordingly, enactment of § 352(1) created for the first time a workers’ compensation benefit that is wholly funded through taxes paid by the public at large.
By contrast, it may be noted that while the Second Injury Fund is also a state agency, its obligation to pay "differential” benefits to totally and permanently disabled employees is funded through assessments against self-insured employers and workers’ compensation insurance carriers.
In the light of that background, we now examine more closely the Legislature’s use of the words, "weekly compensation rate,” in the context of § 352(1) and in the workers’ compensation act as a whole.
IV
As amended by 1982 PA 32, § 352(1) provides:
Beginning January 1, 1982, an employee receiving or entitled to receive benefits equal to the maximum payable to that employee under section 351 or the dependent of a deceased employee receiving or entitled to receive benefits under section 321 whose benefits are based on a date of personal injury between September 1, 1965, and December 31, 1979, shall be entitled to a supplement to weekly compensation. The supplement shall be computed using the total annual percentage change in the state average weekly wage, rounded to the nearest Vio of 1%, as determined under section 355.[ ] The supplement shall be computed as a percentage of the weekly compensation rate which the employee or the dependent of a deceased employee is receiving or is entitled to receive on January 1, 1982 had the employee been receiving benefits at that time, rounded to the nearest dollar. The supplement shall not exceed 5% compounded for each calendar year in the adjustment period. The percentage change for purposes of the adjustment shall be computed from the base year through December 31, 1981. A supplement shall not be paid retroactively for any period of disability before January 1, 1982. [Emphasis added.]
As the text makes clear, § 352(1) limits its application to those employees who receive benefits pursuant to §§ 321 and 351.
Section 321* 123****** provides benefits for the depen dents of a deceased employee. While the instant case does not relate to such benefits, a review of § 321 is nevertheless useful. It demonstrates on its face that the use in § 321 of the term "weekly compensation,” as well as "weekly payments,” refers solely to compensation for which the employer is obligated. Accordingly, the wording and obvious meaning of §321 provide no support for plaintiffs argument that "weekly compensation rate” includes differential benefits, an obligation of the sif.
We turn now to § 351(1) which provides:
While the incapacity for work resulting from a personal injury is total, the employer shall pay, or cause to be paid as provided in this section, to the injured employee, a weekly compensation of 80% of the employee’s after-tax average weekly wage, but not more than the maximum weekly rate of compensation, as determined under section 355. Compensation shall be paid for the duration of the disability. The conclusive presumption of total and permanent disability shall not extend beyond 800 weeks from the date of injury and thereafter the question of permanent and total disability shall be determined in accordance with the fact, as the fact may be at that time. [MCL 418.351(1); MSA 17.237(351X1). Emphasis supplied.]_
While §351(1) applies to all eligible employees whose incapacity for work is total, it should be kept in mind that some are totally incapacitated for a period of time, while others are totally and permanently disabled. It is clear that the "weekly compensation” referred to in § 351(1) is the basic or general compensation that is the obligation of the employer and which is received by all eligible employees who are totally incapacitated. As already indicated, a totally and permanently disabled employee, such as the plaintiff, may also receive "differential” benefits. However, his entitlement to "differential” benefits is not based on § 351; rather, it is based on § 521, to which no reference is made in § 351.
Although the words "basic compensation rate,” in §352(1), as it originally appeared in 1980 PA 357, were later modified by 1982 PA 32 to read "weekly compensation rate,” we do not find, as plaintiff contends, that the modification was made for the purpose of changing or broadening the meaning of the term. Furthermore, plaintiff has been able to point to no legislative history which would support such an interpretation.
On the other hand, we believe the relationship of those words to other words within § 352(1), as well as to lánguage used in other provisions of the act, points to the conclusion that the Legislature intended to clarify, rather than to expand, the meaning of the words.
As the csf has pointed out, the term, "basic compensation,” in the 1980 version of § 352(1), was a new term without definition which appeared nowhere else in the act. If the term had not been modified, there would have been a question whether "basic compensation” in the third sentence of § 352(1) referred to "weekly compensa tion” as used in the first sentence of the same section.
Furthermore, a review of the act reveals that the term "weekly compensation” and slight variations thereof are used in various sections throughout the act to refer to that compensation which is the obligation of the employer. It is our conclusion that the words "basic compensation” were changed to "weekly compensation” merely for the purpose of conforming and making more consistent the wording within § 352(1) and in its relation to other sections of the act.
After a careful examination of § 352(1) as well as §§ 321 and 351, we conclude that the wcab was correct when it said:
The Legislature’s use [in § 352(1)] of the term "weekly compensation rate” was employed as a shorthand abbreviation of the employer’s obligation as spelled out in detail in Section 351 to pay disability and that if it had intended to include differential beneffts it had the opportunity to use a much broader term when writing the statute. [Emphasis in original.]
We also take note of the fact that 1982 PA 32 made several other changes in § 352(1) which were clarifying in nature. For example, by inserting the words "equal to the maximum payable to that employee” in the first sentence, it appears that the Legislature sought to reinforce its intent that the new "supplemental” benefit would be paid only to employees receiving benefits under §§ 321 and 351. Furthermore, the penultimate sentence of § 352(1) was changed to delete "to 1982” and insert "through December 31, 1981.” While the director might have administered the provision in the same way without such an amendment, it served to provide clarification.
Plaintiff cites Van Dorpel v Haven-Busch Co, 350 Mich 135; 85 NW2d 97 (1957), for the proposition that doubt as to the construction of a provision in the workers’ compensation act should be resolved in favor of the worker. However, that proposition is counterbalanced in this case by the maxim that statutes granting the power to expend public funds are to be narrowly construed. 3 Sands, Sutherland Statutory Construction (4th ed), § 65.02, p 222. Furthermore, such doubt as may have existed is resolved upon a close examination of the context in which the phrase "weekly compensation rate” is used.
In the light of those considerations as well as the legislative history, we conclude that when it enacted § 352(1), the Legislature’s principal purpose was to provide the supplemental benefit as inflation relief for the long-term totally disabled who previously had received no inflation adjustments. However, the Legislature also provided that those totally and permanently disabled who previously had been receiving inflation adjustments in the form of differential benefits would receive the supplement if, and only to the extent that, it exceeded the differential benefit in a particular case.
v
Accordingly, we hold that the words, "weekly compensation rate” in the third sentence of § 352(1), MCL 418.352(1); MSA 17.237(352X1), refer only to the amount of weekly compensation pay able as the obligation of the employer, and the words do not refer to or include the amount of differential benefits payable pursuant to § 521, MCL 418.521; MSA 17.237(521), as the obligation of the Second Injury Fund.
We reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals and reinstate the order of the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board.
Riley, C.J., and Levin and Brickley, JJ., concurred with Griffin, J.
MCL 418.352(1); MSA 17.237(352X1).
MCL 418.101 et seq.; MSA 17.237(101) et seq.
MCL 418.521(2); MSA 17.237(521X2).
1982 PA 32 amended the phrase "basic compensation rate” in the third sentence of § 352(1) to read "weekly compensation rate.” MCL 418.352(1); MSA 17.237(352X1).
Kincaid died on February 8, 1983, and Ms widow, Violet Kincaid, was substituted as plaintiff. Accordingly, insofar as the plaintiff in this case is concerned, our decision will determine the extent of Kincaid’s entitlement to supplemental benefits between January 1, 1982, and February 8, 1983.
MCL 418.391; MSA 17.237(391) provides in part:
(1) The compensation supplement fund is created as a separate fund in the state treasury. The fund shall be administered by the state treasurer pursuant to this section. The legislature shall appropriate to the compensation supplement fund from the general fund the amounts necessary to meet the obligations of the compensation supplement fund under section 352, and the administrative costs incurred by the bureau under this section.
(2) The director shall promulgate rules pursuant to Act No. 306 of the Public Acts of 1969, as amended, being sections 24.201 to 24.315 of the Michigan Compiled Laws, that prescribe the conditions under which the money in the compensation supplement fund shall be expended pursuant to section 352 and this section.
MCL 418.521(2); MSA 17.237(521X2).
MCL 418.551; MSA 17.237(551).
MCL 418.355; MSA 17.237(355) provides:
(1) The maximum weekly rate shall be adjusted once each year in accordance with the increase or decrease in the average weekly wage in covered employment, as determined by the Michigan employment security commission.
(2) Effective January 1, 1982, and each January 1 thereafter, the maximum weekly rate of compensation for injuries occurring within that year shall be established as 90% of the state average weekly wage as of the prior June 30, adjusted to the next higher multiple of $1.00.
(3) For the purpose of computing the supplemental benefit under section 352, the state average weekly wage for any injury year shall be the average weekly wage in covered employment determined by the Michigan employment security commission for the 12 months ending June 30 of the preceding year.
MCL 418.321; MSA 17.237(321) provides:
If death results from the personal injury of an employee, the employer shall pay, or cause to be paid, subject to section 375, in 1 of the methods provided in this section, to the dependents of the employee who were wholly dependent upon the employee’s earnings for support at the time of the injury, a weekly payment equal to 80% of the employee’s after-tax average weekly wage, subject to the maximum and minimum rates of compensation under this act, for a period of 500 weeks from the date of death. If at the expiration of the 500-week period any such wholly or partially dependent person is less than 21 years of age, a hearing referee or worker’s compensation magistrate, as applicable, may order the employer to continue to pay the weekly compensation or some portion thereof until such wholly or partially dependent person reaches the age of 21. If the employee leaves dependents only partially dependent upon his or her earnings for support at the time of injury, the weekly compensation to be paid shall be equal to the same proportion of the weekly payments for the benefit of persons wholly dependent as 80% of the amount contributed by the employee to such partial dependents bears to the annual earnings of the deceased at the time of injury. [Emphasis added.]
For example, see §§301(5)(b); 301(10); 321; 335; 351(1); 361(1); 371(1), (2); 372(l)(a), (b).
See Maglothin v Tryco Steel Corp, 137 Mich App 640; 357 NW2d 914 (1984), wherein the amount of the supplemental benefit available under § 352(1) was determined by the parties on the basis of the amount of compensation payable by the employer. | [
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Brickley, J.
We granted leave in these two cases limited to three issues. First, whether a search warrant or an evidentiary hearing is necessary prior to a trial court’s order of a blood test in a paternity case. Second, whether a defendant father in a paternity case may be held in contempt where he refuses to submit to a blood test. Third, whether a default judgment may be entered in favor of a plaintiff mother in a paternity case where the defendant refuses to submit to a blood test.
We hold that where the mother of a child files a verified complaint in accordance with § 4 of the Paternity Act, neither a search warrant nor an evidentiary hearing is required prior to ordering blood tests. We further hold that a contempt citation is a permissible sanction where the alleged father refuses to submit to the testing, but, that the use of a default judgment conflicts with the Paternity Act.
i
In Bowerman v MacDonald, the plaintiff filed a verified paternity complaint and subsequently filed a motion for blood or tissue tests which the court granted. At a pretrial conference, the defendant’s attorney notified the court that MacDonald would not submit to the testing. The trial court tentatively ruled that defendant would be held in contempt and would be jailed for thirty days or until he agreed to submit to the tests, whichever occurred first. After a challenge from the defendant and briefing on the issue, the trial judge concluded that contempt was an appropriate sanction, and issued an order to that effect after giving defendant another forty-eight hours to submit to the testing. On appeal, the Court of Appeals did not reach the question of the propriety of the contempt order, since it reversed the trial court’s original order that defendant submit to the blood tests. Plaintiff appeals from that decision.
In Moon v Ballinger, defendant also refused to submit to blood testing, and the trial court conditionally entered a default judgment in plaintiff’s favor pursuant to Michigan Court Rules 2.311 and 2.313. The Court of Appeals affirmed the judgment, and defendant appealed in this Court._
n
The nature of paternity actions has undergone considerable evolution since the passage of the original Bastardy Act of 1846. With minor exceptions, the civil aspects of the action, as defined by statute and case law have steadily increased while those aspects reflecting principles of criminal procedure have been reduced or eliminated altogether. Indeed, the Legislature’s explicit purpose in passing the 1986 amendment of the Paternity Act was to "make[ ] it finally clear that paternity is a civil issue.” In addition, the relevant technology has, over time, developed so as to allow blood and tissue testing to play an increasingly important and probative role in such cases.
At common law, a father had no duty to care for his child born out of wedlock. State v Lindskog, 175 Minn 533; 221 NW 911 (1928). In 1846, the Legislature enacted the Bastardy Act to define such a duty and provide a statutory mechanism by which he could be required to fulfill it. The act was said to have two purposes: to require the child’s father to provide support, and to protect society from having to provide that support in his stead. Cross v People, 8 Mich 113 (1860). Even under this early statute, however, punishment of the father was never among its purposes, and the act did not provide for criminal penalties. Moreover, as is described below, the cases decided pursuant to the Bastardy Act tended to apply civil rules, absent specific statutory instruction to the contrary.
Nevertheless, the proceeding was considered "quasi-criminal,” in light of the many aspects of criminal procedure present in the statute. The 1846 statute provided that the mother was to bring her complaint to a justice of the peace in order to "institute a prosecution,” following which the justice of the peace was to "take her accusation and examination, in writing, under oath, respecting the person accused, the time when and place where the complainant was begotten with child, and such other circumstances as the said justice shall deem necessary, for the discovery of the truth of such accusation.” A warrant was then to be issued for the defendant’s arrest. No provision was made for any means of service other than arrest. Upon the delivery of the defendant, the justice of the peace was to "hear[] him in his defence” and could then require him to supply a bond or be jailed until trial if he did not supply the bond. The trial was to be by jury, and the verdict was to be in the form of "guilty or not guilty.” In addition, the mother of the child was not referred to as "plaintiff” in the statute (she was instead termed "the complainant”), while the alleged father was termed, "the defendant.” The action was accordingly instituted in the name of "the people” and representation was by the local prosecutor.
This Court evaluated the Bastardy Act on many occasions. In spite of the numerous aspects of criminal procedure provided for in the act itself, we applied rules of civil procedure in the great majority of cases where the act was silent. We held that the burden of proof was "preponderance of [the] evidence” rather than "beyond a reason able doubt,” that extradition could not be had in a bastardy case, that jurisdiction did not lie in a court having a purely criminal jurisdiction, that the paternity defendant need not enter a plea,* that any detention of the defendant had to take place in a jail rather than in a prison, that the mother may employ her own attorney, that reversal was not required where there was instructional error which would have required reversal in a criminal case, and that offers to compromise would be treated as they would in a civil matter.
At the same time, a small number of cases did apply rules more associated with criminal procedure. The result in most of these cases, however, was mandated by statute. For example, in Cady v St Clair Circuit Judge, 139 Mich 618; 102 NW 1025 (1905), we held that a bastardy defendant could be arrested even though he was immune from civil process. That holding rested upon the fact that the act required that the defendant be arrested and did not permit the use of civil process. Similarly, in People v Kaminsky, 73 Mich 637; 41 NW 833 (1889), we found that the police courts had jurisdiction to bind over bastardy defendants. However, that decision was mandated by the court’s jurisdictional statute.
The only two cases in which we applied criminal rules to Bastardy Act cases, absent a statutory imperative, were People v Stoeckl, 347 Mich 1; 78 NW2d 640 (1956), and People v McFadden, 347 Mich 357; 79 NW2d 869 (1956). In the former, we held that it constituted error requiring reversal for the prosecutor to comment on a defendant’s refusal to testify. In the latter, we held that a bastardy defendant must give notice of an alibi defense.
In 1956, the Legislature passed the Paternity Act, MCL 722.711 et seq.; MSA 25.491 et seq., which in a number of respects decriminalized the procedure governing bastardy cases. Most important, it eliminated the requirement of the issuance of an arrest warrant unless the purported father failed to respond to notice by summons. While warrants were still permitted, the court, in its discretion, could use a summons instead of a warrant. MCL 722.714(c); MSA 25.494(c). Even where a warrant was issued, the statute barred the fingerprinting or the photographing of the alleged father, or the listing of his name on any criminal record. MCL 722.714(e); MSA 25.494(e).
The statute also adopted the civil approach to jury trials. Rather than providing for the right to a jury, it instead required that the defendant demand a trial by jury, should he want one. MCL 722.715(a); MSA 25.495(a). In 1966, the statute was amended so as to fully accord with general civil procedure by stating that "[ejither party may demand a trial by jury.” In addition, the Paternity Act eliminated the requirement of a preliminary hearing and required instead that the complaint be verified by oath or affirmation of the complainant. MCL 722.714(c); MSA 25.494(c). Consistent with these provisions for civil procedure, the Paternity Act also included a provision allowing for default in paternity actions. MCL 722.717(a); MSA 25.497(a)._
The Paternity Act also made it possible to sue a defendant residing in Michigan even though the mother and child resided out of state. This change indicates a stronger emphasis on the protection of the mother and child, i.e., private parties to the suit, rather than the state, since no state funds could, in such a setting, have been sought for the support of the child.
In the same vein, while the Bastardy Act had referred to "the defendant,” the Paternity Act refers to "the alleged father,” and all actions after the passage of the act were taken in the name of the mother rather than the people.
Perhaps in recognition of the fact that a purported father could still face arrest and incarceration under the Paternity Act, the Legislature also provided that he had a right to refuse to testify.
Lastly, the act reflected the technological developments of the times. Blood typing more and more had become a common component of paternity cases, and the act included a provision which gave the purported father the right to request blood typing of the mother and child. This provision reflected our holding in People v Nichols, 341 Mich 311; 67 NW2d 230 (1954). In that case, we held that the results of blood testing could be introduced in paternity cases only to prove nonpaternity. The use of blood testing to check for the possibility of paternity was only a few years old at that time, and the plaintiff had introduced evidence of nonexclusion. This Court, focusing essentially on the state of the technology, held that evidence of exclusion was admissible, but that evidence of nonexclusion was not, since it "had not the slightest probative value or tendency to prove defendant’s paternity.” Id. at 331. The technology of the day was such that if the defendant was not excluded, he remained in a very large population of possible fathers. Comment, Proving paternity by means of serological testing: Should it be admitted as evidence by the courts?, 1981 Det CLR 47. Pursuant to the Paternity Act, if the mother refused testing, the fact of her refusal would be made known to the jury. MCL 722.716(a); MSA 25.496(a).
The Paternity Act was, in numerous respects, a significant break from its predecessor statute. It introduced the use of a new and often dispositive type of evidence, and, in nearly all respects, it directed the judiciary to apply rules of civil procedure.
Prior to any decisions of record under the new act, the General Court Rules of 1963 were adopted. They contained a special rule, GCR 1963, 730, for paternity cases. GCR 1963, 730.1 stated the general rule of procedure for such cases:
The procedure in actions under the Paternity Act shall be in accordance with Rule 730, and the general court rules which are not in conflict with the provisions of the Paternity Act.[ ]
The adoption of this rule went a long way to resolve arguments as to the nature of the pater nity action. Since its adoption, every Court of Appeals decision has applied the general rules of civil procedure to paternity cases, providing they did not contradict the Paternity Act or Rule 730. The first three decisions of the Court of Appeals clearly reflected this approach. In Houfek v Shafer, 7 Mich App 161; 151 NW2d 385 (1967), the Court of Appeals applied the general court rule as to pretrial conferences. In Romain v Peters, 9 Mich App 60; 155 NW2d 700 (1967), the Court held that, unlike criminal trials, paternity cases do not require that the jury’s verdict be unanimous. In Butler v Cann, 62 Mich App 663; 233 NW2d 827 (1975) , the Court of Appeals held that a default judgment may be entered against a paternity defendant when he fails to appear for trial.
After these three Court of Appeals decisions, this Court decided the only case in which we have addressed the Paternity Act. In Artibee v Cheboygan Circuit Judge, 397 Mich 54; 243 NW2d 248 (1976) , we held that Paternity Act defendants have a right to appointed counsel pursuant to the due process provision of the Michigan Constitution, art 1, § 17. The Court observed that
the interests of the individuals affected are substantial, and the nature of the proceedings is sufficiently complex so as to require counsel to insure a fair trial. [Id. at 57.]
Of primary importance to the Court was the fact that, if the mother was unable to afford an attorney, the county would pursue the action for her. We stated that
[t]he Legislature has expressed its opinion that the complainant and her child would not receive a fair trial without benefit of counsel. The same consider ation of fundamental fairness should apply to the defendant .... [Id. at 59.]
We also noted that unlike divorce proceedings, paternity cases involve sharply contested questions of fact and their purpose is to "determine with finality the obligation of support, and not merely ... an appropriate level of support.” Id. at 58. In other words, the Court was concerned with an indigent purported father’s ability to defend himself in a complex matter which would create financial obligations lasting until the child attained majority. For example, "[a]n unrepresented paternity defendant . . . may be unaware of his statutory right to demand blood tests or unable to analyze the legal implications of the results.” Id. The Court also noted the remaining element of criminal procedure in paternity cases, i.e., the fact that the purported father could be arrested rather than served by civil process.
The Court of Appeals has consistently interpreted Artibee in a narrow manner and correctly so. The asymmetry of providing an indigent plaintiff with an attorney, while denying the same to an indigent defendant, presents obvious problems of fundamental fairness. In addition, the importance of representation by counsel is heightened where the question is one regarding parental and custodial responsibilities. See Reist v Bay Circuit Judge, 396 Mich 326; 241 NW2d 55 (1976). It would be erroneous to conclude that the application of this particular and clearly demarcated right was intended to suggest that the full panoply of criminal procedural rights were to be afforded.
This has been recognized by the Court of Appeals which continues to approach paternity cases as essentially civil, and, in accordance with GCR 1963, 730.1, has applied the rules of civil procedure. Indeed, the Court has refused numerous opportunities to extend Artibee beyond its facts. In People v Marshall, 82 Mich App 92; 266 NW2d 678 (1978), it held that a showing of indigency for purposes of obtaining appointed counsel did not, in and of itself, entitle a defendant to blood testing and a jury trial at county expense. The Court stated that "[w]e cannot say that a paternity action is a 'criminal prosecution’ for purposes of the constitutional jury trial guarantee.” Id. at 96. In Covington v Cox, 82 Mich App 644; 267 NW2d 469 (1978), lv den 405 Mich 826 (1979), the Court of Appeals confirmed that view, holding that a defendant must demand a jury. Moreover, the Covington panel held that a paternity defendant who receives ineffective assistance of counsel may not seek reversal on that basis. His only remedy in such a case is a malpractice suit. The Court stated:
There are pertinent distinctions between a criminal action and a paternity proceeding that obviate the necessity for vacating an order of filiation granted because of a serious mistake made by defense counsel. First . . . the consequences of such an order are not so severe as to mandate reversal in the interests of the integrity of the judicial system. Second, insofar as the consequences of a filiation and support order are mone tary, an action for malpractice provides an adequate remedy for incompetent representation; whereas, such an action obviously would be ineffectual to compensate a wrongfully convicted criminal defendant. [Id. at 651.]
Shortly thereafter, another panel of the Court of Appeals held that Artibee did not overrule Semon v People, 42 Mich 141; 3 NW 304 (1879), which had held that the standard of proof in a paternity case is "preponderance of the evidence.” Huggins v Rahfeldt, 83 Mich App 740; 269 NW2d 286 (1972).
In the most recent set of cases, the Court of Appeals has carefully adhered to the requirements of the court rules. In Elmore v Ellis, 115 Mich App 609; 321 NW2d 744 (1982), the Court of Appeals, finding no contradiction in GCR 1963, 710 or the act itself, applied the civil rule governing witness lists. In Hoffman v Campbell, 129 Mich App 114; 341 NW2d 246 (1983), the Court held that a voluntary dismissal of a paternity case did not bar a subsequent action, since GCR 1963, 504.1(2) so provided for civil cases and there was no contradictory provision in GCR 1963, 730 or in the Paternity Act. Pridemore v Williams, 90 Mich App 483; 282 NW2d 363 (1979), was the only case in which the Court of Appeals did not apply the relevant rule of civil procedure. However, in that case the panel held that GCR 1963, 309 and 313, which would have required the defendant to answer interrogatories, were contradicted by the Paternity Act provision which permits a paternity defendant to refuse to testify. Indeed, the Court based its conclusion that the act must control on the language of GCR 1963, 730 itself. In that sense, the court rules controlled in even this case.
While the judiciary has continued to stress the primarily civil nature of paternity actions, the Legislature recently acted to eliminate virtually all remaining vestiges of criminal procedure. In 1986, an amendment was enacted which eliminated all provisions permitting arrest of a paternity defendant or requiring that he post bond prior to trial. Instead, the amendment requires that service be accomplished only by summons "served in the same manner as is provided by court rules for the service of process in civil actions.” MCL 722.714(5); MSA 25.494(5). In the Senate Legislative Analysis of the amendments, it is stated:
The bill goes a long way toward completing changes in the act that were begun in 1956. Though the act at that time was amended to decriminalize the determination of paternity, some of the criminal procedures were retained, leaving the law quasi-criminal. . . . The bill makes it finally clear that paternity is a civil issue. [Senate Bill Analysis, SB 225 (June 20, 1986).][ ]
These amendments are consistent as well with the amendment adopted in 1982, which recognized the evolution of blood testing technology. The 1982 amendment provides that blood test results may be introduced, not only to exclude an alleged father from paternity, but also, if he is not excluded, to determine the likelihood that he is, in fact, the father. MCL 722.716(4); MSA 25.496(4). This amendment reflects the development of a technological ability to determine the probability of paternity with great precision through blood and tissue typing tests.
In sum, while we recognize that paternity actions are a "special legislative creation,” Artibee at 68 (Coleman, J., dissenting), we conclude that they are fundamentally civil in nature. The aspects of the action which led courts to define it as "quasi-criminal” have consistently been limited since the enactment of the Bastardy Act. Accordingly, procedure in paternity cases is controlled by MCR 3.212, which corresponds to GCR 1963, 730.
With this understanding of the nature of the paternity action, we can move to the cases at bar.
iii
The first question presented in Bowerman v MacDonald is what, if any, level of proof, beyond the information contained in a verified complaint, is required prior to an issuance of an order for blood tests.
In reversing the order that defendant submit to a blood test, the Court of Appeals noted that in Schmerber v California, 384 US 757; 86 S Ct 1826; 16 L Ed 2d 908 (1966), a drunk driving case, the United States Supreme Court held that a blood test constitutes a search. It then stated:
Thus, because a blood test is a search which should not be conducted unless justified under the circumstances, we hold that a trial court may not order a blood test until a plaintiff has presented proofs to support the allegations in the complaint. Once a showing of paternity has been presented, a blood test is justified because of the great importance to society that parents care for their children.
We wish to reiterate that we are not requiring a finding of probable cause. A paternity case is only quasi-criminal, Artibee v Cheboygan Circuit Judge, 397 Mich 54, 57; 243 NW2d 248 (1976), and a defendant is not afforded a full panoply of criminal procedural protections, Smith v Robbins, 91 Mich App 284, 292; 283 NW2d 725 (1979), lv den 408 Mich 853 (1980). For instance, the standard of proof in a paternity trial is not proof beyond a reasonable doubt, but rather the lesser burden of proof by a preponderance of the evidence. Therefore, because a paternity case is only quasi-criminal, we decline defendant’s invitation to use probable cause or reasonable grounds as the test. However, something more than filing a complaint alleging paternity is needed when the answer filed denies paternity. While we are not suggesting extensive proofs, at least sworn testimony by the complainant should be considered. [157 Mich App 373-374.]
In essence, the Court of Appeals said that since the action is quasi-criminal, it requires a showing of "quasi-probable cause” or "quasi-reasonableness.” It did not, beyond requiring sworn testimony from the plaintiff, attempt to define such a standard. In our view, the Court of Appeals opinion is flawed both in its view of the nature of paternity cases and in its conclusion that more than a sworn complaint is required to provide a sufficient basis for the testing. The paternity case is essentially a civil case controlled by MCR 3.212, and therefore there is no reason to define a "quasi-criminal” requirement of a "quasi-probable cause” hearing. Moreover, to the degree that a paternity action is, in fact, a "special legislative creation” with some vestiges of a criminal action, the requirement that the mother file a sworn complaint indicating when and where she was impregnated, as well as naming the defendant as the father, is sufficient to provide reasonable grounds to order the tests, and it is therefore unnecessary to hold a hearing.
Consistent with the Court of Appeals approach, defendant argues that the procedure defined by the statute barring driving while intoxicated, MCL 257.625 et seq.; MSA 9.2325 et seq., should serve as a model for blood testing procedures in paternity cases. MCL 257.625a(5); MSA 9.2325(1X5) requires that a police officer have "reasonable grounds” before administering a chemical test and that if the person charged refuses to take the test, it may not be given without court order.
We do not agree that this statute sets forth procedures appropriate to paternity cases. Initially we note that driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor, unlike fathering a child out of wedlock, is a punishable offense. Further, where a police officer stops a driver and seeks to administer a test, it may be that no reasonable grounds for the test exist. The person may have been driving normally. Therefore, once there has been a refusal, the statute requires a court order in order to administer the test. In the paternity setting, the order is initially given by a neutral judge, and he already has before him the sworn complaint of plaintiff. Nothing more is necessary to determine the "reasonableness” of the test. The mother has, as required by § 4 of the act, stated under oath or affirmation when and where she became pregnant and that she believes that the defendant is the father. This, in and of itself, constitutes "probable cause” insofar as such a standard is relevant here.
In a similarly flawed argument, defendant posits that the Fourth Amendment limits the use of blood tests in paternity cases, even if they are considered civil cases, and that the amendment is violated unless a search warrant is obtained or an evidentiary hearing is held prior to issuance of an order. He argues that the blood test in a paternity case implicates the Fourth Amendment since it involves state action, which he finds in the fact that the blood test is ordered by a court pursuant to statute. In his words,
the Plaintiff-Appellant is requesting the State, through the judicial branch of government, to coerce the Defendant into submitting to the blood test. . . . The Defendant contends that once the State, through its Court system, becomes involved in this process then the Defendant’s Fourth Amendment rights ... is [sic] triggered ....
The defendant has not cited, nor has our research revealed, any cases in which otherwise properly constituted discovery in a civil action has been held to constitute a violation of the Fourth Amendment. Assuming, nevertheless, that the Fourth Amendment is implicated, the search involved in the blood testing is, as we just described, a reasonable one. The plaintiff has filed a sworn complaint indicating when and where she became impregnated and her belief that the defendant is the father of her child. The statute accordingly requires that the court, on a motion of either party or on its own motion, order the testing. Such a complaint clearly places the relationship of the child’s and parties’ blood and tissue types squarely in controversy and provides good cause for the motion. In addition, the decision to order the testing, i.e., engage in a search, was not made by a law enforcement officer or other nonjudicial officer of the state. It was made by a neutral judge, pursuant to a closely circumscribed statute which focuses upon a particular kind of evidence critical to all parties and perhaps, more importantly, to the child. The Legislature’s decision to require the provision of this evidence was based on an obvious rationale, and the requirement was, in this case, triggered by a verified complaint reviewed by a judge. To require a separate probable cause or quasi-probable cause determination would be repetitious, and to require sworn testimony as to information not required to be provided for in the verified complaint would place a burden greater than a showing of probable cause on the plaintiff. In addition, requiring such a hearing would burden the courts without reason and make determinations of paternity, particularly in the case of out-of-state mothers, all the more difficult.
Lastly, the defendant argues that there is a statutory and case law prohibition against using civil discovery in paternity cases. He observes that Pridemore v Williams, supra, held that a paternity defendant cannot be required to answer written interrogatories, since he has a statutory right to refuse to testify. Defendant thus argues that Pride-more demonstrated that the Paternity Act bars all discovery from a paternity defendant. However, the Paternity Act itself states:
In a proceeding under this act before trial, the court, upon application made by or on behalf of either party, or on its own motion, shall order that the mother, child, and alleged father submit to blood or tissue typing tests .... [MCL 722.716(1); MSA 25.496(1).][ ]
In light of this explicit requirement of the Paternity Act, any reliance upon it to limit blood testing is mistaken.
Finding no basis to require more than a sworn complaint upon which to base a blood test order in paternity cases, we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals in Bowerman and reinstate the trial court order requiring defendant to submit to blood and tissue typing tests.
iv
The remaining question in Bowérman is whether defendant may be held in contempt for refusing to submit to a blood test. This question bears a close resemblance to the one raised in Moon v Ballinger, in which defendant argues that a court may not enter a default judgment in plaintiffs favor where a paternity defendant refuses blood testing. However, the language of the applicable statutory provisions mandates differing answers to these two questions.
The trial court in Moon entered the default judgment in plaintiffs favor pursuant to MCR 2.311 and 2.313. MCR 2.311 is captioned, "Physical and Mental Examination of Persons,” and it reads in pertinent part:
(A) Order for Examination. When the mental or physical condition (including the blood group) of a party ... is in controversy, the court in which the action is pending may order the party to submit to a physical or mental or blood examination .... [Emphasis added.]_
This provision is then referred to in MCR 2.313, which is captioned, "Failure to Provide or to Permit Discovery; Sanctions,” and provides in subsection (B)(2):
Sanctions by Court in Which Action is Pending. If a party . . . fails to obey an order to provide or permit discovery, including an order entered under subrule (A) of this rule or under MCR 2.311, the court in which the action is pending may order such sanctions as are just, including, but not limited to the following:
(c) an order striking pleadings or parts of pleadings, staying further proceedings until the order is obeyed, dismissing the action or proceeding or a part of it, or rendering a judgment by default against the disobedient party. [Emphasis added.]
The trial court in Bowerman held defendant in contempt for refusal to submit to the test pursuant to MCR 2.313(B)(2)(d) which provides that a refusal to submit to discovery provided for in MCR 2.311 may be sanctioned by
an order treating as a contempt of court the failure to obey an order, except an order to submit to a physical or mental examination.[ ]
Ballinger argues that the default sanction may not be used in a paternity case because § 6(a) of the Paternity Act states:_
If the court orders any blood or tissue typing test to be taken and any party refuses to submit to the test, in addition to any other remedies available, the fact of the refusal shall be disclosed at the trial unless good cause is shown for not disclosing the fact of refusal. [MCL 722.716(a); MSA 25.496(a).][ ]
Plaintiff Moon refers to the same statute, but instead emphasizes the phrase "in addition to any other remedies available,” suggesting that while disclosure is mandatory where there is a trial, it does not require that the case actually reach the trial. In other words, plaintiff suggests that where the "other remedy” of default is appropriate, no trial is required.
In our view, the proper interpretation of this statute is made apparent in the contrast between the use of the contempt sanction and the use of the default sanction. Contempt can be applied in addition to the disclosure of the refusal at trial. Default, if applied, obviates the need for a trial and cannot therefore be said to be used in addition to the disclosure at trial. Unlike the use of the contempt sanction, if a default judgment is entered, the very remedy which the statute mandates cannot be applied. We therefore conclude that while a contempt order may be used to sanction a refusal to submit to a blood test, a default sanction may not.
This conclusion is further supported by reference to another section of the statute. MCL 722.717(a); MSA 25.497(a) states:_
If the finding of the court or verdict be against the defendant, or if the defendant acknowledges paternity orally to the court or by the filing in the case of his written acknowledgment of paternity, or if he is served with summons or a warrant and a default is duly taken against him, the court shall make an order of filiation declaring paternity and for the support and education of the child. [Emphasis added.]
In this section the Legislature listed those events after which an order of filiation may be issued, i.e., a finding or verdict against the defendant, acknowledgment of paternity by the defendant, and a default due to a failure to appear. See Butler v Cann, supra. In doing so, the Legislature’s events expressed its intention to limit the grounds for a judgment of filiation to only those events listed. Therefore, the Paternity Act conflicts with the Michigan Court Rules insofar as they provide for a default judgment and thus an order of filiation, for failure to submit to a blood test. Indeed, to allow a default judgment to enter would contradict the clear and specific language of the statute.
We therefore vacate the default judgment in Moon v Ballinger and remand to the circuit court for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
v
We conclude that a plaintiff mother’s verified complaint is sufficient ground upon which to order blood and tissue tests. Paternity actions are in essence civil actions and procedure in such actions is controlled by the Michigan Court Rules, absent contradiction in the Paternity Act. We therefore also conclude that a defendant father’s refusal to submit to such tests may be sanctioned by the use of the contempt power. However, while MCR 2.313(B)(2) provides that a trial court may enter a judgment by default against a party who disobeys a discovery order, in light of a conflicting provision in the Paternity Act, we hold that entry of a default judgment may not be used to sanction a defendant father for refusing to submit to testing.
Riley, C.J., and Levin, Cavanagh, Boyle, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Brickley, J.
MCL 722.711 et seq.; MSA 25.491 et seq.
Bowerman v MacDonald, 157 Mich App 368; 403 NW2d 140 (1987).
The defendant did not cross appeal on the issue of the propriety of the contempt order. However, in light of the similarity to the default issue in Moon v Ballinger, we ordered it briefed. Rather than remand this question for Court of Appeals consideration, we resolve it now in the interests of judicial economy.
Moon v Ballinger, 157 Mich App 676; 403 NW2d 194 (1987).
1846 RS, ch 42.
Senate Bill Analysis, SB 225 (June 20,1986).
For a discussion of these technological developments, see, e.g., Kolins, The role of paternity testing in cases of disputed parentage, 63 Mich BJ 1169 (1984); comment, Proving paternity by means of serological testing: Should it be admitted as evidence by the courts?, 1981 Det CLR 47; Joint AMA-ABA guidelines: Present status of serologic testing in problems of disputed parentage, 10 Family L Q 247 (1976).
Semon v People, 42 Mich 141, 142; 3 NW 304 (1879).
In re Cannon, 47 Mich 481; 11 NW 280 (1882).
People v Harty, 49 Mich 490; 13 NW 829 (1882).
Pangborn v Smith, 65 Mich 1; 31 NW 599 (1887).
In re Kaminsky, 70 Mich 653; 38 NW 659 (1888).
Harley v Ionia Circuit Judge, 140 Mich 642; 104 NW 21 (1905).
People v Oppenheimer, 170 Mich 595; 136 NW 399 (1912).
People v Gill, 247 Mich 479; 226 NW 214 (1929).
McFadden was later distinguished in Skidmore v Czapiga, 82 Mich App 689; 267 NW2d 150 (1978), in light of a revision in the statute governing notice of alibi defenses.
Shortly after the passage of the Paternity Act, two Attorney General opinions were issued which specifically analyzed its nature. OAG, 1957, No 2883, 160, 162 (April 12, 1957), stated that paternity proceedings "are to be viewed ... as primarily civil in nature.” In a subsequent opinion, the Attorney General stated that it was not necessary for the mother to be examined by the court prior to issuance of the summons and concluded that the "proceedings under the act would be civil proceedings.” OAG, 1957, No 3020, 495, 497 (November 1,1957).
The remaining two subsections of the rule dealt specifically with procedure concerning jury demands and blood testing in paternity cases. GCR 1963, 730.2 originally stated that the alleged father may demand a jury trial. In 1967 this was amended to allow either party to demand a jury, as permitted by the 1966 amendment to the Paternity Act. GCR 1963, 730.3 defined the time limits for requesting blood tests.
The 1986 amendments of the Paternity Act eliminated any possibility that a paternity defendant will be arrested. At the same time that it deleted the arrest provision of the Paternity Act, it added a new provision which states:
The amendatory act which added this subsection shall not be construed to affect the rights of an indigent defendant in proceedings under this act as established by decisions of the courts of this state before the effective date of that amendatory act. [MCL 722.714(9); MSA 25.494(9).]
The only previously determined judicial protection for an indigent defendant in a paternity case was the right to counsel defined in Artibee.
The two cases now before us both arose prior to the passage of the 1986 amendments, and, therefore, we do not rely upon the amendments for the conclusions that we reach in these cases. However, as the Legislative Analysis of the amendments indicate, reference to the amendments is helpful in achieving a complete understanding of the development of the paternity cause of action. In addition, the defendants in these cases were served by civil process, and, therefore, they were not subjected to the arrest provisions repealed by the 1986 amendments.
The United States Supreme Court recently observed that "Congress [has] . . . recognized that increasingly sophisticated tests for genetic markers permit the exclusion of over 99% of those who might be accused of paternity .... H.R. Rep No. 98-527, p 38 (1983).” Clark v Jeter, 486 US 456, —; 108 S Ct 1910, 1916; 100 L Ed 2d 465 (1988). See also n 7.
Where the Michigan Department of Social Services acts as plaintiff, it files its complaints on the basis of information and belief. Therefore, it may be that, where the dss files the complaint, a sworn statement from the mother indicating where, when, and by whom she became pregnant should be required prior to blood testing. However, that question is not now before us.
Indeed, the United States Supreme Court found that the federal rule of civil procedure governing the ordering of blood tests was "free of constitutional difficulty . . . .” Schlagenhauf v Holder, 379 US 104, 114; 85 S Ct 234; 13 L Ed 2d 152 (1964).
The 1986 amendments of the act left this provision unchanged. However, the amendment reorganized the section, and the provision is now listed as MCL 722.716(1); MSA 25.496(1).
In this context, a "physical examination” does not include a blood test. This is apparent from the fact that until 1984 the court rule explicitly listed an order of a blood examination along with mental and physical examinations as an order which could not be enforced by a contempt citation. With the adoption of the Michigan Court Rules in 1985, the reference to blood examinations was deleted, thus allowing contempt to be used as a sanction where a party refuses to take a blood test.
See n 24.
"[T]he entire act must be read, and the interpretation to be given to a particular word in one section arrived at after due consideration of every other section so as to produce, if possible, a harmonious and consistent enactment as a whole.” [Dussia v Monroe Co Employees, 386 Mich 244, 248; 197 NW2d 307 (1974) (quoting Grand Rapids v Crocker, 219 Mich 178, 182; 189 NW 221 (1922). State Treasurer v Wilson, 423 Mich 138; 377 NW2d 703 (1985).]
The words of a statute, however, should not be construed in the void but must be read together to effectuate the intention of the legislature. [Dussia, supra, 248.] | [
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Cavanagh, J.
This case presents the issue whether an administrative adjudication of disqualification for unemployment compensation benefits may be used to preclude the litigation of issues in a subsequent civil suit for wrongful discharge or breach of employment contract. We conclude that the application of collateral estoppel to the administrative determinations of the mesc would be contrary to legislative intent and considerations of public policy. An mesc proceeding designed to determine eligibility for unemployment benefits is not an adequate substitute for full access to the circuit court with the full range of remedies available. Consequently, issue preclusion is not available for determinations of the mesc.
facts
William Storey was employed by defendant as the manager of a gas station located at defendant’s store in Battle Creek. One of the duties connected with his employment was to check the price of gas and other products at competing gas stations in the area. Storey used his personal vehicle for this purpose, and he was reimbursed for the mileage driven in order to complete this task. In June, 1982, defendant discharged Storey from his employment for allegedly having submitted expense account vouchers claiming reimbursement for more mileage than was actually driven.
Storey applied for unemployment compensation benefits the day after he was discharged. The mesc determined that he was ineligible for benefits under MCL 421.29(l)(j); MSA 17.531(1)0*) because he had been discharged for theft connected with his work. After a redetermination by the mesc affirming that decision, Storey appealed the denial of benefits to a hearing referee.
A hearing was held on December 2, 1982, and plaintiff appeared with counsel. In direct contrast to both the initial determination and the redetermination by the mesc, the referee concluded that plaintiff’s failure to complete his expense vouchers according to the proper procedures established by defendant was a good-faith error in judgment. The referee found insufficient evidence on the record to' establish that plaintiff sought reimbursement for expenses that were not legitimate. He concluded that neither employee theft nor misconduct had been established.
The defendant employer appealed this decision to the Board of Review. The board reversed the referee’s determination as to benefit rights and found that plaintiff was ineligible for benefits because of employee theft. After the board denied plaintiff’s application for rehearing, plaintiff filed an appeal in the circuit court. The circuit court affirmed the decision of the board, and the Court of Appeals denied plaintiff’s application for leave to appeal.
On February 2, 1984, while the case was pending before the Board of Review, plaintiff filed the present wrongful discharge action in the circuit court. After the board’s finding of disqualification for employee theft was affirmed, the employer filed a motion for summary disposition on the ground that collateral estoppel barred plaintiff from relitigating the issue whether his discharge was for employee theft. MCR 2.116(C)(7). Meijer alleged there was no genuine issue of fact regarding whether it had just cause to terminate plaintiff’s employment, since the finding of employee theft had been fully adjudicated in the administrative proceeding and had been reviewed by the circuit court. The circuit court granted defendant’s motion, and plaintiff’s claim was dismissed.
The Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal of plaintiff’s claim and held that a factual determination of the mesc collaterally estops a party from relitigating that factual issue in a subsequent circuit court action. Storey v Meijer, Inc, 160 Mich App 589, 591; 408 NW2d 510 (1987). We granted leave to consider this issue of first impression.
ANALYSIS
The doctrine of collateral estoppel must be applied so as to strike a balance between the need to eliminate repetitious and needless litigation and the interest in affording litigants a full and fair adjudication of the issues involved in their claims. Howell v Vito's Trucking & Excavating Co, 386 Mich 37, 48; 191 NW2d 313 (1971). The extent to which the doctrine is applied is also dependent upon the nature of the forum in which the initial determination was rendered. We have previously determined that when the rendering forum is an administrative agency, the general principles of collateral estoppel are to be applied only when the procedures are adjudicatory in nature, when a method of appeal is provided, and when it is clear that the Legislature intended to make the determination final in the absence of an appeal. Senior Accountants, Analysts & Appraisers Ass'n v Detroit, 399 Mich 449, 457-458; 249 NW2d 121 (1976); Roman Cleanser Co v Murphy, 386 Mich 698, 703-704; 194 NW2d 704 (1972).
Our analysis begins with an examination of the governing statute in order to determine whether the Legislature intended the determinations of the mesc to be conclusive in subsequent civil litigation. It is this inquiry which has led to a conflict in the Court of Appeals.
The parties have focused on § 11(b)(1) of the Employment Security Act which provides in part:
Information obtained from any employing unit or individual pursuant to the administration of this act, and determinations as to the benefit rights of any individual shall be held confidential and shall not be disclosed or open to public inspection other than to public employees in the performance of their official duties pursuant to this act in any manner revealing the individual’s or the employing unit’s identity. However, any information in the commission’s possession that may affect a claim for benefits or a charge to an employer’s rating account shall be available to interested parties. Except as provided in this act, such information and determinations shall not be used in any action or proceeding before any court or administrative tribunal unless the commission is a party to or a complainant in the action or proceeding, or unless used for the prosecution of fraud, civil proceeding, or other legal proceeding pursuant to subdivision (2). Any report or statement, written or verbal, made by any person to the commission, any member of the commission, or to any person engaged in administering this law shall be a privileged communication, and a person, firm, or corporation shall not be held liable for slander or libel on account of a report or statement. Such records and reports in the custody of the commission shall be available for examination by the employer or employee affected. [Emphasis added. MCL 421.11(b)(1); MSA 17.511(b)(1).]
The Court of Appeals in the present case dismissed § 11(b)(1) as inapplicable, reasoning that the present defendant did not seek to use the mesc determination of ineligibility for unemployment benefits but, instead, sought to use the mesc’s finding of fact that plaintiffs discharge was due to employee theft.
In Moody v Westin Renaissance Co, 162 Mich App 743, 748; 413 NW2d 96 (1987), however, another panel of the Court of Appeals expressly rejected that analysis and concluded that § 11(b)(1) is a clear and unambiguous expression of the Legislature’s intent "to isolate mesc determinations within the narrow confines of eligibility for benefits, leaving resolution of labor disputes, civil rights violations and contract disputes to forums more uniquely adapted to resolution of those disputes.”
The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit has also considered this issue. In Polk v Yellow Freight System, Inc, 801 F2d 190 (CA 6, 1986), the court held that an mesc determination that the employee was ineligible for unemployment benefits because she was discharged for misconduct precluded her subsequent action in circuit court for breach of contract. The court rejected the employee’s statutory argument in a footnote, and concluded that § 11(b)(1) refers only to internal determinations. The court found support for this conclusion in MCL 421.33(3), 421.36(3); MSA 17.535(3), 17.538(3) which mandate compliance with Michigan’s Freedom of Information Act, and reasoned that "no presumption of confidentiality, such as that found in section 421.11(b)(1), attaches to decisions by mesc referees or the review board.” 801 F2d 194, n 6.
We disagree with the Sixth Circuit’s conclusion that § 11(b)(1) refers only to "internal determinations.” As the Moody Court stated, "[w]e do not see the word internal in the statute . . . 162 Mich App 749. We also note that the Sixth Circuit failed to cite its earlier decision in Herman Bros Pet Supply, Inc v NLRB, 360 F2d 176 (CA 6, 1966), in which it upheld the quashing of a subpoena duces tecum served on the mesc to obtain records of unemployment compensation claims. The court relied on § 11(b), even though the predecessor statute in effect at the time made no specific reference to legal proceedings. The court noted that the Michigan Legislature had amended the statute so as to prohibit the use of information and determinations " 'in any action or proceeding before any court or administrative tribunal unless the commission is a party or claimant therein.’ ” 360 F2d 180. The court then concluded that this amendment made the statute "crystal clear for the future . . . .” Id. at 180.
We agree with this conclusion of the Herman Bros court and with the statutory analysis of the Court of Appeals in Moody. When construing statutory provisions, the task of this Court is to discover and give effect to the intent of the Legislature. State Treasurer v Wilson, 423 Mich 138, 143; 377 NW2d 703 (1985); Karl v Bryant Air Conditioning, 416 Mich 558, 567; 331 NW2d 456 (1982). Legislative intent is to be derived from the actual language of the statute, and when the language is clear and unambiguous, no further interpretation is necessary. Hiltz v Phil’s Quality Market, 417 Mich 335, 343; 337 NW2d 237 (1983). We find that § 11(b)(1) clearly and unambiguously prohibits the use of mesc information and determinations in subsequent civil proceedings unless the mesc is a party or complainant in the action.
Furthermore, our decision in this case advances the legislative purpose of the unemployment compensation system and is supported by considerations of public policy that underlie the exceptions to the application of collateral estoppel. Whether or not the rules of claim or issue preclusion should be given their ordinary effect when the adjudicative determination is made by an administrative tribunal is the subject of 2 Restatement Judgments, 2d, § 83, p 267, which provides in part:
(4) An adjudicative determination of an issue by an administrative tribunal does not preclude relitigation of that issue in another tribunal if according preclusive effect to determination of the issue would be incompatible with a legislative policy that:
(a) The determination of the tribunal adjudicating the issue is not to be accorded conclusive effect in subsequent proceedings; or
(b) The tribunal in which the issue subsequently arises be free to make an independent determination of the issue in question.
The Employment Security Act was intended to provide relief from the hardship caused by involuntary unemployment and is entitled to liberal interpretation. Noblit v The Marmon Group, 386 Mich 652; 194 NW2d 324 (1972); MCL 421.2; MSA 17.502. The system is designed to get "money into the pocket of the unemployed worker at the earliest point that is administratively feasible.” California Dep’t of Human Resources Development v Java, 402 US 121, 135; 91 S Ct 1347; 28 L Ed 2d 666 (1971). According preclusive effect to determinations made in this forum would be incompatible with this legislative policy.
Due to the full range of remedies available in a civil action, the parties have a greater incentive to fully litigate the civil claim than the claim for unemployment benefits. If collateral estoppel is applied to determinations of the mesc, both claimants and employers will be forced to fully litigate the administrative claim, potentially delaying the determination of benefit rights and burdening the unemployment compensation system.
The authors of the Restatement addressed this consideration, stating:
The scheme of remedies may intend that the proceedings in an administrative tribunal be determinative only for the purposes of the controversy immediately before the agency. For example, the scheme may contemplate that the agency proceedings be as expeditious as possible. One aspect of assuring expeditiousness is to confine the stakes to the matter immediately in controversy. Thus, issue preclusion may be withheld so that the parties will not be induced to dispute the administrative proceeding in anticipation of its effect in another proceeding. [2 Restatement Judgments, 2d, § 83, comment h, pp 279-280.]
There is also a substantial risk that the potential application of collateral estoppel will cause a qualified claimant to forego a claim for unemployment compensation in order to protect the right to pursue a civil claim with its full range of benefits. Conversely, the application of collateral estoppel may penalize an unemployed worker who, un aware of the consequences arid perhaps not represented by counsel, pursued a claim for unemployment benefits. This would unquestionably frustrate the legislative purpose of the act. As we stated in Reed v Employment Security Comm, 364 Mich 395, 397; 110 NW2d 907 (1961), "[t]he purpose of the act is to benefit unemployed in financial straits, not to penalize them for being in that condition.”
CONCLUSION
Accordingly, to give effect to the Legislature’s intent as expressed in §§ 11(b)(1) and to further the purposes of the Employment Security Act, we hold that mesc determinations are not to be used to collaterally estop the litigation of issues in a subsequent civil suit. Determinations made by the mesc are limited to the purpose of determining a claimant’s eligibility for benefits.
The decision of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and this case is remanded to the circuit court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
Riley, C.J., and Levin, Brickley, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Cavanagh, J.
429 Mich 885 (1987).
We also granted leave in Moody v Westin Renaissance Co, 162 Mich App 743; 413 NW2d 96 (1987), lv gtd 429 Mich 886 (1987), to consider whether a determination made by the mesc on a claim for wrongful discharge is binding upon the parties in a subsequent suit alleging employment discrimination. Moody and the present case were to be argued and submitted together to resolve a conflict in the Court of Appeals. However, the Moody case was dismissed on a stipulation of the parties on April 11, 1988.
See, generally, The preclusive effect of unemployment decisions in subsequent litigation, 4 Labor Lawyer 69 (1988); 4 Davis, Administrative Law (2d ed), §§ 21:1-21:5, pp 47-68.
For collateral estoppel to apply, a question of fact essential to the judgment must have been actually litigated and determined by a valid and final judgment. In addition, the same parties must have had a full opportunity to litigate the issue, and there must be mutuality of estoppel. See Senior Accountants, Analysts & Appraisers Ass’n v Detroit, 399 Mich 449, 458; 249 NW2d 121 (1976); Howell v Vito’s Trucking & Excavating Co, 386 Mich 37, 41-42; 191 NW2d 313 (1971).
See also United States v Utah Construction & Mining Co, 384 US 394, 422; 86 S Ct 1545; 16 L Ed 2d 642 (1966), wherein the Supreme Court held that collateral estoppel may be applied to administrative decisions when the administrative agency (1) acts in a judicial capacity; (2) resolves disputed issues of fact properly before it; and (3) affords the parties a full and fair opportunity to litigate.
See also Pilarowski v Macomb Co Health Dep’t, 841 F2d 1281 (CA 6, 1988).
MCL 15.231 et seq.; MSA 4.1801(1) et seq.
Another panel of the Court of Appeals recently adopted this reasoning in Weiler v New Century Bank, 168 Mich App 354; 423 NW2d 664 (1988). The extent to which provisions of the foia and § 11(b)(1) interact is not presently before this Court. We note, however, that the availability of public information under the foia is not without limitation. See MCL 15.243; MSA 4.1801(13); Kestenbaum v Michigan State Univ, 414 Mich 510; 327 NW2d 783 (1982). Furthermore, facilitating public access to information cannot be equated with according preclusive effect to administrative findings in subsequent civil litigation.
See also Wojciechowski v General Motors Corp, 151 Mich App 399, 407; 390 NW2d 727 (1986).
See Nathan v Rowan, 651 F2d 1223, 1226 (CA 6, 1981) ("Res judicata is applied if it does not offend public policy or result in manifest injustice.”); Garner v Giarrusso, 571 F2d 1330, 1336 (CA 5, 1978), reh den 575 F2d 300 (CA 5, 1978) ("Even when the prior decision is made in a judicial, rather than an administrative, forum neither res judicata nor collateral estoppel is rigidly applied. Both defenses must be qualified or rejected when their use would contravene an overriding public policy or result in manifest injustice.”).
See Mack v South Bay Beer Distributors, 798 F2d 1279, 1284 (CA 9, 1986); Ferris v Hawkins, 135 Ariz 329, 333; 660 P2d 1256 (1983); McClanahan v Remington Freight Lines, 517 NE2d 390, 395 (Ind, 1988); 4 Labor Lawyer, n 2 supra, pp 71-74. | [
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Levin, J.
The question presented is whether the mayor and the treasurer of a home-rule city are absolutely immune from tort liability pursuant to Ross v Consumers Power Co (On Rehearing), 420 Mich 567; 363 NW2d 641 (1984). The trial court granted summary disposition for defendant elected municipal officials on plaintiff’s claims alleging tortious conduct. The Court of Appeals affirmed. We reverse because the plaintiff alleged conduct that, if true, may not have been within defendants’ executive authority.
i
Plaintiff W. Thomas Marrocco, Jr., was examined on deposition at considerable length. That was the only evidence presented to the trial court by either the plaintiff or the defendants before the court granted summary disposition. We therefore address the legal issues on the basis of the facts Marrocco alleges. The factual record is greatly limited because this case has not been tried. The statement of facts that follows synthesizes Marrocco’s allegations in his pleadings and during his depositions.
Marrocco was an assistant city attorney of Warren from 1972 to 1975, when he was appointed city attorney by Mayor Ted Bates. Marrocco asserts that he applied for and was granted a leave of absence by the Civil Service Board from his civil service position as an assistant city attorney. Defendant Lillian Dannis was elected treasurer of Warren in 1979, and defendant James Randlett was elected mayor of Warren in 1981.
Antecedents of this controversy are described in City of Warren v Dannis, 136 Mich App 651, 654; 357 NW2d 731 (1984), where the Court of Appeals referred to a treasurer who preceded Dannis and "made some extremely questionable and completely inappropriate investments which ended in the city’s losing large sums of money.” These included certain arbitrage transactions. The Securities and Exchange Commission had been holding hearings regarding such transactions engaged in by the City of Ann Arbor and became interested in similar transactions by Warren. The Warren City Council followed Ann Arbor’s lead in establishing an Investment Policy Commission (ipc) to set investment policy and oversee city investments. An advisory opinion of the Attorney General agreed that the city council had not unlawfully delegated its authority in setting up the ipc. Marrocco was involved in the formation of the Warren ipc.
After her election as treasurer in 1979, Dannis refused to follow the investment policy. Marrocco’s office brought an action for mandamus on behalf of the city to require compliance. Among the irregularities the city asserted in Dannis’ behavior as treasurer was exceeding the limit on the amount of funds the city could deposit in one bank — in this instance the Bank of Warren — as a percentage of the bank’s net worth. Subsequently, the court granted the city’s motion to dismiss a show cause hearing — which had been scheduled for May, 1980 —and to allow it to amend the complaint to ask for a declaratory judgment. Marrocco said that Dannis altered her behavior so as to be in "substantial compliance” with the ordinance for two weeks, but then she again was out of compliance. The city did not seek a preliminary injunction. Two months after the city commenced the mandamus action, the city council adopted the investment policy as an ordinance, in an effort, according to Marrocco, to obtain Dannis’ compliance without further litigation.
Marrocco alleges that Dannis and Randlett received consideration in the form of loans and high interest on personal accounts from the Warren Bank in return for the city’s low interest deposits on which the bank earned high interest. Marrocco asserts that a bank officer funded one-third of Dannis’ election campaign to influence her judgment as a public official.
On November 9, 1981, the Monday after Randlett was elected mayor, Randlett asked Marrocco to leave his position as city attorney. Randlett said that he realized that Marrocco, expecting to leave after the election, had already sought civil service reinstatement to his former position, but Randlett then stated that he did not recognize the reinstatement and that Marrocco’s services would no longer be required in any capacity in the city attorney’s office. Marrocco said that he desired to stay at least until the following June so that his pension would vest and that the mayor’s actions would compel him to bring an action in circuit court. Thomas Barwin, the mayor’s assistant, said that they would ruin his reputation or ruin him if he did. Marrocco gathered his things and left his office that day. Also, either that Monday or the prior Friday, Dannis told Marrocco: "I believe you’re the most honest City Attorney this City ever had, but I want you to pack your pencils and get out of town.” From November 9, 1981, until Marrocco’s ultimate reinstatement in 1983, he was deprived of the opportunity to work as an assistant city attorney in Warren.
Marrocco pursued administrative remedies in January and February, 1982, in an effort to be reinstated. The Civil Service Board had earlier reinstated him as an assistant city attorney. However, Randlett replaced at least two members of the board, and, after reconsidering the issue, it declined to take any action regarding Marrocco’s reinstatement.
Marrocco then commenced a civil action, pursuing this course from February to April, 1982. In April, the circuit court ordered Marrocco reinstated as an assistant city attorney. On the first day he reported for work, however, city attorney David Griem, Marrocco’s successor, told him that the mayor’s office was pressuring Griem to fire him. Marrocco states that Griem told him he would note that Marrocco reported for work, but that he should leave because the mayor and Bar-win were going to have him thrown out. Marrocco left and that month accepted a position in the Macomb County Prosecutor’s office. He informed his supervisor at his new job that he would return to his Warren job when able to do so.
Within three weeks of Marrocco’s April, 1982, start at the prosecutor’s office, two supervisors, Paris and Lord, told Marrocco that both Randlett and Dannis were pressuring them to fire him. Griem also told Marrocco that he knew Randlett and Dannis had contacted Paris’ office. After two months’ work, Marrocco resigned his position handling paternity cases — which Marrocco says he was told was a "back shelf position where nobody can get you” — primarily because he was aware of what his presence might be doing to Paris’ career.
In the ensuing months, Griem’s refusal to fire Marrocco for cause, his request that Randlett put in writing his instruction to do so, and his continuing to pursue the lawsuit that was the subject of City of Warren v Dannis, despite pressure from Randlett not to, led to Griem’s resignation in September or October, 1982.
Marrocco experienced further harassment. He sought to enter Warren City Hall a number of times before and after his court-ordered reinstatement as an assistant city attorney. In May or June, 1983, Marrocco entered city hall on crutches after an accident. He perused campaign paraphernalia for Randlett’s reelection on a table outside the mayor’s office and made a tongue-in-cheek remark about the "mayor cleaning up corruption.” Barwin told him to remove himself or be thrown out. Marrocco also states that persons in and out of city hall were afraid to talk to him. At one point he sought to aid assistant city attorney Servitto with a motion in a case and learned that Randlett threatened Servitto with dismissal if Servitto accepted Marrocco’s aid. Servitto was later fired.
Marrocco also alleges that Dannis harassed him by raising the tax assessment on his house so he could not afford it and had to sell, and that subsequently the assessment was reduced.
ii
In Ross v Consumers Power Co (On Rehearing), 420 Mich 567, 592; 363 NW2d 641 (1984), this Court stated:
Judges, legislators, and the highest executive officials of all levels of government are absolutely immune from all tort liability whenever they are acting within their respective judicial, legislative, and executive authority.[ ]
The parties concede that Randlett and Dannis are among the highest elective officials of Warren government. The question presented is thus whether there is a genuine issue of material fact whether defendants acted "within their . . . executive authority.”4
No decision of this Court defines "within their . . . executive authority.” In Smith v Dep’t of Public Health, 428 Mich 540, 544, 611; 410 NW2d 749 (1987), this Court said that there was no " 'intentional tort’ exception to governmental immunity” and thus intentional torts are immune if committed within the scope of a governmental function. It was emphasized, however, that "the intentional use or misuse of a badge of governmen tal authority for a purpose unauthorized by law is not the exercise of a governmental function.”* ****
Ross establishes a framework for analysis in its methodology for answering the analogous question whether acts of lower level officials or governmental units are "governmental functions.” The analysis is to look at the statutes (ordinances) to determine whether the act is in an area in which the governmental unit is authorized to function. The analogous approach in the instant case would be to examine the powers of the offices of mayor and treasurer.
Plaintiff refers to sections of the Code of Ordinances of the City of Warren defining the duties of the mayor and treasurer. The Warren Code outlines but does not specifically enumerate their responsibilities. Upon examination of other chapters, however, it is possible to say that some acts are not within their executive authority.
Marrocco alleges that he was granted a leave of absence from his civil service position of assistant city attorney by the Civil Service Board when he was appointed Warren city attorney and that upon leaving that position he was entitled to and did receive reinstatement as an assistant city attorney. He alleges that Randlett interfered with his reinstatement. If Marrocco had the right to reinstatement, the mayor most likely had no right to interfere with Marrocco’s return to the position of assistant city attorney.
The Warren Code provides that the position of city attorney is exempt from the operation of the civil service system, and that the city attorney "shall serve at the will of the appointing authority.” The code provides:
[I]f any city employee shall be appointed to any position exempted by this article [such as city attorney], such employee shall, upon written application therefor, receive a leave of absence for the period of time that such employee shall serve in such exempted position and such city employees who have been appointed shall, upon discontinuance of employment in such exempted position, be reinstated to the employment and duties classification held by such person at the time of acceptance of such exempted position.[ ] [Emphasis added.]
It thus appears that Marrocco, as assistant city attorney, was entitled to obtain a leave of absence during his service as city attorney and to reinstatement as assistant city attorney upon completing his duties as city attorney. Assuming that the mayor had the authority to hire and fire the city attorney, he nevertheless had no authority to interfere with a city attorney’s resumption of employment as an assistant city attorney, a civil service position not subject to the mayor’s appointive power.
While the mayor may appoint and remove Civil Service Board members, that does not authorize him to interfere with the leave of absence and reinstatement process described in the Warren Code. Such interference would not be "within [his] executive authority,” and Randlett would not be entitled to the defense of immunity.
The mayor allegedly sought to have Marrocco fired from the Macomb County Prosecutor’s office. It is questionable whether such an act is within the mayor’s executive authority.
Turning to Marrocco’s allegation that Dannis improperly raised the tax assessment on Marrocco’s home so that he was forced to sell it, and that thereafter Dannis reduced the assessment, it is questionable whether those acts were within her authority.
Because we address these issues without benefit of factual development, we limit ourselves to the three alleged acts discussed. This does not, however, preclude a finding that other acts of Randlett or Dannis were not within their executive authority.
hi
We hold that the highest executive officials of local government are not immune from tort liability for acts not within their executive authority. The determination whether particular acts are within their authority depends on a number of factors, including the nature of the specific acts alleged, the position held by the official alleged to have performed the acts, the charter, ordinances, or other local law defining the official’s authority, and the structure and allocation of powers in the particular level of government. It is not our intention now to rule with specificity concerning the authority of officials under the Warren Code. The trial court is the proper forum for an initial determination.
The decision of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and the cause is remanded to the trial court for proceedings consistent with this opinion.
Riley, C.J., and Brickley, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
MCR 2.116(C)(8).
Marrocco v Randlett, unpublished opinion per curiam of the Court of Appeals, decided October 30, 1986 (Docket No. 87357). We granted leave to appeal, 428 Mich 873; 402 NW2d 469 (1987).
Unpublished opinion of the Attorney General (Senator Art Miller, Jr.), April 20, 1980.
The Court continued:
Lower level officers, employees, and agents are immune from tort liability only when they are
a) acting during the course of their employment and are acting, or reasonably believe they are acting, within the scope of their authority;
b) acting in good faith; and
c) performing discretionary-decisional, as opposed to ministerial-operational, acts.
"Discretionary-decisional” acts are those which involve significant decision-making that entails personal deliberation, decision, and judgment. "Ministerial-operational” acts involve the execution or implementation of a decision and entail only minor decision-making, [id.]
We need not examine whether the alleged acts are discretionarydecisional or ministerial-operational. "Within . . . executive authority” refers to all authorized acts — both discretionary-decisional and ministerial-operational — and an official is subject to liability for discretionary-decisional acts not "within [his] executive authority.”
Id. at 592.
In Harlow v Fitzgerald, 457 US 800, 818-819; 102 S Ct 2727; 73 L Ed 2d 396 (1982), the United States Supreme Court held that federal "government officials performing discretionary functions” are not absolutely immune from personal liability, but they are generally shielded by a "qualified immunity” that protects them "from liability for civil damages insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.”
This Court held:
[A] governmental function is an activity which is expressly or impliedly mandated or authorized by constitution, statute, or other law. . . . Whenever a governmental agency engages in an activity which is not expressly or impliedly mandated or authorized by constitution, statute, or other law (i.e., an ultra vires activity), it is not engaging in the exercise or discharge of a governmental function. The agency is therefore liable for any injuries or damages incurred as a result of its tortious conduct. [Id. at 620.]
See also Hyde v Univ of Michigan Bd of Regents, 426 Mich 223, 243; 393 NW2d 847 (1986).
This is the approach employed by the Washington Supreme Court:
This court adheres to the rule that officers of municipalities have only such powers and duties as are conferred upon them expressly or by necessary implication in the applicable statutes. [State v O’Connell, 83 Wash 2d 797, 824; 523 P2d 872 (1974). Citation omitted.]
Sections 7.3 and 7.12 of the Charter of the City of Warren.
Warren Code, § 25-23(a).
Warren Code, § 25-23(b).
Warren Code, §§ 25-37 and 25-41.
Warren Code, § 25-23(b). | [
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Boyle, J.
This Court granted leave to appeal to resolve two questions. We are asked to determine, first, whether the telephone hearing procedures are inconsistent with existing rules promulgated by the Department of Social Services. Second, we must determine whether the telephone hearing policy of the Department of Social Services violates the rule-making provisions of the Administrative Procedures Act. We hold that the telephone hearing procedures of the Department of Social Services are inconsistent with promulgated rules. We further hold that the telephone hearing policy of the Department of Social Services violates the rule-making provisions of the Administrative Procedures Act. Therefore, the decision of the Court of Appeals is reversed.
i
The plaintiffs consist of two groups. The first is the recipients of benefits (clients) under programs administered by the Michigan Department of Social Services, and the second is the advocacy organizations which represent them.
Pursuant to statute, administrative hearings are provided to clients whose benefits have been denied, reduced, or terminated. MCL 400.8-400.9; MSA 16.408-Í6.409. Since 1980, the welfare recipient or applicant has had a choice of an in-person hearing or a telephone hearing. In 1984, the dss issued a policy bulletin stating that effective October 1, 1984, telephone hearings would be routinely conducted in cases involving applicants for or recipients of public assistance who are challenging the denial or reduction of public assistance.
On September 18, 1984, before this policy could be effected, three of the plaintiffs filed an original action for mandamus in the Court of Appeals and obtained a stay prohibiting implementation of this policy. This stay was lifted in Goode v Dep’t of Social Services, 143 Mich App 756; 373 NW2d 210 (1985), lv den 424 Mich 882 (1986), with the Court holding that the policy did not violate the Open Meetings Act, MCL 15.261 et seq.; MSA 4.1800(11) et seq.
On September 26, 1984, this case was commenced in the Ingham Circuit Court. The plaintiffs are seeking injunctive or declaratory relief, or, in the alternative, a writ of mandamus or superintending control to prevent the defendants from implementing the policy. The plaintiffs contend that the policy is in contravention of promulgated rules of the nss and violates the rule-making process of the Administrative Procedures Act, 1969 PA 306, ch 3, §§ 31-64, MCL 24.231-24.264; MSA 3.560(131)-3.560(164). The plaintiffs were granted an ex parte temporary restraining order prohibiting the implementation of the policy until further order of the circuit court. Both the defendants and the plaintiffs filed motions for summary disposition, and oral arguments on the instant parties’ motions were heard by the circuit court on July 30, 1985. The plaintiffs did not assert that the dss’ policy violated any clients’ due process or other constitutional rights. The trial court held that so long as telephone hearings were constitutionally fair, they violated no requirement of law. The court determined that the policy change did not constitute a change in or a violation of dss rules and concluded that the dss did not need to promulgate a rule under the apa to implement the policy. Accordingly, the trial court granted summary disposition on behalf of the defendants and dissolved the temporary restraining order. The plaintiffs appealed.
The Court of Appeals affirmed the trial court’s decision.
ii
The dss is required to conduct administrative hearings for individuals who contest the denial or reduction of public assistance. MCL 400.8-400.9; MSA 16.408-16.409. Michigan law also requires the dss to promulgate rules which must provide adequate procedures by which to conduct the hearings. MCL 400.9(1); MSA 16.409(1):
[T]he director shall promulgate rules for the conduct of hearings within the state department. The rules shall provide adequate procedure for a fair hearing of appeals and complaints, when requested in writing by an applicant for or recipient of assistance or service, financed in whole or in part by federal funds. [Emphasis added.]
Since the adoption of a rule by an agency has the force and effect of law and may have serious consequences of law for many people, the Legislature has proscribed an elaborate procedure for rule promulgation. As set forth in the apa, 1969 PA 306, ch 3, §§ 31-64, MCL 24.231-24.264; MSA 3.560(131)-3.560(164), that process requires public hearings, public participation, notice, approval by the joint committee on administrative rules, and preparation of statements, with intervals between each process.
This action was taken because, in recent years, legislative bodies have delegated to administrative agencies increasing authority to make public policy and, consequently, have recognized a need to "ensure that none of the essential functions of the legislative process are lost in the course of the performance by agencies of many law-making functions once performed by our legislatures.” Bonfield, State Administrative Rule Making, § 1.1.1, p 4. Thus, the question whether the policy may be adopted without compliance with the apa is more than a question of notice and hearing requirements. It is a question of the allocation of decision-making authority.
The rules promulgated by the dss for the conduct of hearings are found in 1979 AC, R 400.901-400.922. Two rules are applicable here. 1979 AC, R 400.907 provides that hearings be held at "a reasonable time, date, and place which normally shall be in the county where a claimant resides.” Second, 1979 AC, R 400.912 provides that a party to a dss hearing is guaranteed six specific rights for prehearing and hearing procedures.
Prior to 1980, administrative hearings for clients whose benefits had been denied, reduced, or terminated were conducted before a hearing officer at the dss office of a client’s county of residence. Between 1980 and 1984, an applicant for or recipient of benefits had the option of appearing in-person at a hearing at a local dss office or permit ting a hearing referee to hear the case by telephone. In an in-person hearing, the hearing referee traveled to the local office and had an opportunity to view all the witnesses and evidence. In a telephone hearing, the claimant, any witnesses, and the local dss worker were in the local office, and the hearing referee was in either the department’s Lansing or Detroit office. The hearing was conducted by speakerphones in each office.
In 1984, the dss issued the policy bulletin which presents the issue in this case, Program Policy Bulletin No. 84-16, to provide for a telephone hearing using the same procedure in effect since 1980 or for a modified face-to-face hearing on written request. Program Policy Bulletin No. 84-16; Assistance Payments Manual, Item 630, p 6. Under the "modified in-person hearing” a claimant could travel to one of four hearing sites (Detroit, Escanaba, Grayling, or Lansing) and be present in the same room with the hearing referee, and the department representative would remain in the local office and participate by speakerphone. The case file would remain in the local office. The policy provides that, upon request, the department could schedule an in-person hearing in the county where the client lives if the client has an impairment which is in issue or which makes travel to one of the four sites impossible or impractical.
HI
The plaintiffs maintain that Program Policy Bulletin No. 84-16 is inconsistent with and alters the existing rules. Specifically, plaintiffs contend that the policy conflicts with Rule 400.907 which states that hearings shall be conducted at "a reasonable time, date, and place which normally shall be in the county where a claimant resides.” (Emphasis added.) The plaintiffs submit that Rule 400.907 provides public assistance claimants who request a hearing with the right to have their appeal heard and conducted in the county where the claimant resides, and that the policy bulletin provides only for telephone hearings conducted outside the referee’s presence or for regional hearings in the presence of the hearing referee, but without the presence of the department representative.
The defendants reply that when the hearing is conducted by telephone, it actually takes place at both the place where the claimant is present and the place where the hearing referee is present. The defendants thus contend that the hearing contemplated by the policy bulletin is consistent with Rule 400.907 because it is conducted in the county where the plaintiff resides.
The defendants rely on the Court of Appeals holding in Goode v Dep’t of Social Services, supra, that telephone hearings take place both at the place where the hearing referee is located and at the local office where the claimant attends. The decision in Goode has no applicability to the instant case. In Goode, the Court held that the telephone hearing procedure does not violate the Open Meetings Act, MCL 15.261 et seq.; MSA 4.1800(11) et seq., which requires that the performance of a necessary governmental function be open to the public. The Court of Appeals held that teleconference calls, which could be heard through speakerphones to all in a room, and the subsequent release of a written opinion announcing the hearing officer’s decision, were sufficient to meet this requirement.
We find persuasive the approach of the Illinois appellate court to the definition of "hearing.” Sleeth v Illinois Dep’t of Public Aid, 125 Ill App 3d 847; 466 NE2d 703 (1984). In Sleeth, the court invalidated a telephone hearing procedure on the ground that the procedure violated 111 Rev Stat, ch 23, ¶ 11-8.2 which requires that hearings "shall be heard in the county where the appellant resides.” The court determined the situs of the telephone hearing to be where the hearing referee is located:
The essence of a hearing is the opportunity to be heard by the listener. One can be heard by written affidavit, by closed circuit television, by video tape recording, by telephone or by actual appearance. Each method offers an opportunity to be heard, but only with the last mentioned method is the situs of the hearing — is the place where the listener hears — in the actual presence of the speaker.
In the instant case, the listener was not one of the local office personnel in Peoria, but the officer or officers located in Chicago. The speakers were the plaintiffs, and under the procedures followed by the [Illinois Department of Public Aid] the plaintiffs were not present at the situs of the hearing. It follows then that the hearing was not conducted in the county of the plaintiffs’ residence. We must conclude that the procedures utilized by the idpa for telephone conference hearings failed to meet statutory requirements of the Illinois Public Aid Code. [Sleeth, supra, p 852. Emphasis added.]
The Illinois appellate court revisited this issue in Padlo v Illinois Dep’t of Public Aid, 131 Ill App 3d 430; 475 NE2d 1068 (1985), and held:
We agree that an appeal conducted by a teleconference phone call to a hearing officer located in a different county is not conducted "in person” or ”in the county where the appellant resides” as required by sections 11 — 8.1 and 11 — 8.2 of the Illinois Public Aid Code (111 Rev Stat 1983, ch 23, pars 11 — 8.1, 11 — 8.2). We, therefore, affirm the circuit court’s order remanding the matter to the Department for a new hearing. [Id., p 433. Emphasis supplied.]
We are persuaded that Rule 400.907 likewise contemplates a hearing at which the plaintiffs are present at the place where the decisionmaker is observing, considering, and evaluating the evidence. For purposes of Rule 400.907, we reject defendants’ argument that the location of the telephone hearing is in two places simultaneously and hold that the hearing is considered and conducted at the place where the hearing referee is present. Therefore, telephone hearings or the modified face-to-face hearings which are the options available to claimants under the 1984 policy revision do not take place "in the county” in which the claimant resides.
A policy mandating telephone hearing procedures would mean that as a rule the hearings will not take place in the county in which a claimant resides, and therefore does not meet the statutory requirement of 1979 AC, R 400.907 that the hearing be held at "a reasonable time, date, and place which normally shall be in the county where a claimant resides.” Contrary to defendants’ charac terization, the policy mandating telephone hearings or modified in-person hearings represents a modification of the manner in which fair hearings are conducted and thus is inconsistent with the existing rules.
IV
The dss is subject to the rule-promulgation requirements of the Administrative Procedures Act, MCL 24.201 et seq.; MSA 3.560(101) et seq.
It is undisputed that the policy bulletin at issue here was not issued pursuant to the requirements for promulgation of an agency rule. A rule that does not comply with the procedural requirements of the apa is invalid under Michigan law. See MCL 24.243, 24.245; MSA 3.560(143), 3.560(145); Pharris v Secretary of State, 117 Mich App 202; 323 NW2d 652 (1982) (guidelines for Secretary of State hearing examiners published in an internal policy manual were not binding because they were not promulgated pursuant to the apa).
The Legislature has defined "rule” broadly so as to defeat the inclination of "agencies to label as 'bulletins,’ 'announcements,’ 'guides,’ 'interpretive bulletins,’ . . . which, in legal operation and effect, really amount to rules . . . .” Cooper, 1 State Administrative Law, p 108.
"Rule” means an agency regulation, statement, standard, policy, ruling or instruction of general applicability, which implements or applies law enforced or administered by the agency, or which prescribes the organization, procedure or practice of the agency, including the amendment, suspension or rescission thereof .... [MCL 24.207; MSA 3.560(107). Emphasis added.]
The second portion of the definition of "rule” is a series of specific exclusions from the broader concept. The classes of rules which are exempt from the rule-making requirements represent an effort to strike a fair balance between the need for adequate procedures to govern the proposal, adoption, and effectiveness of rules on the one hand, and the conflicting need for workable, efficient, economical, and effective government on the other. Bonfield, supra, p 399.
We are unable to accept the Court of Appeals conclusion that the telephone hearing procedure is excepted from the apa pursuant to subsection (h) of MCL 24.207; MSA 3.560(107):
"Rule” means . . . but does not include the following:
(h) A form with instructions, an interpretive statement, a guideline, an informational pamphlet or other material which in itself does not have the force and effect of law but is merely explanatory.
This exception has been narrowly construed and requires that the interpretive statement at issue be merely explanatory. For example, in Michigan Farm Bureau v Bureau of Workmen’s Compensation, 408 Mich 141, 159; 289 NW2d 699 (1980), the Court held that letters from the director in which he computed maximum and minimum workers’ compensation weekly benefits were announce ments of the interpretation of an opinion of the Court of Appeals and consequently were interpretive statements within the meaning of the apa.
This construction follows from the principle that the preferred method of policymaking is by promulgation of rules. When action taken by an agency alters the status quo, those who will be affected by its future application should have the opportunity to be heard and to participate in the decisionmaking. See Metromedia v Taxation Div, 97 NJ 313; 478 A2d 742 (1984).
In construing administrative rules, courts apply principles of statutory construction. General Motors Corp v Bureau of Safety & Regulation, 133 Mich App 284; 349 NW2d 157 (1984). In addition, § 32(1) of the apa provides that any statutory definitions of words, phrases, or rules of construction made applicable to all statutes also apply to pules unless it is clear that such definition or construction was not intended. MCL 24.232; MSA 3.560(132).
The general rule when interpreting the language of a statute is to construe it according to its plain meaning. A fair interpretation of Rule 400.907 would be that at the time the rule was promulgated a fair hearing was a hearing which must generally take place in the county in which the claimant resides. It is clear that the rule as stated did not envision telephone hearings. Rather, it clearly contemplated a hearing in which all parties and the hearing referee were in attendance at one site, generally the place where the claimant resided.
The program bulletin issued by the dss mandating telephone hearings modifies the existing administrative rules and cannot be considered an interpretive statement that only explains the un derlying rules. The drafters could have adopted an in-person-only hearing rule similar to the Illinois statute or, see Sleeth, supra, a rule which required only that a hearing be held at a reasonable date, time, and place within the dss’ discretion. Instead, the unavoidable inference is that the drafters of Rules 400.907 and 400.912 contemplated that a hearing with all participants would usually be held in the county in which the claimant resides so as to insure that individual easy access to the decisionmaker, and that the word "normally” was inserted to allow exceptions to be made when necessary. The rule which mandates telephone hearings or modified in-person hearings is simply too broad to be deemed an interpretation of the rules, the language of which does not so much as hint at hearings which would usually not be held in the claimant’s county.
The defendants also contend that the telephone hearing procedures are exempt from the rule-making requirements of the apa pursuant to subsection O') of MCL 24.207; MSA 3.560(107), another exception to the definition of a rule: "(j) A decision by an agency to exercise or not to exercise a permissive statutory power, although private rights or interests are affected.” The defendants rely on the department’s statutory authority to administer its public assistance programs. MCL 400.10, 400.14; MSA 16.410, 16.414.
The situations in which courts have recognized decisions of the dss as being within the §7(j) exception are those in which explicit or implicit authorization for the actions in question has been found. For example, in Colombini v DSS, 93 Mich App 157; 286 NW2d 77 (1979), the Court held the dss’ adoption of a client reporting system (crs) in eleven Michigan counties came within the § 7(j) exception. In this case, the Legislature included a provision in the annual dss appropriation act, 1977 PA 105, which required the department to provide proof of the cost effectiveness of the crs and obtain approval from the Senate and House appropriations committees if it wished to continue the program beyond December 1, 1977, thereby recognizing the implementation of the crs.
Similarly, in Hinderer v DSS, 95 Mich App 716, 719; 291 NW2d 672 (1980), the Court held the department’s decision to implement a "lag budgeting system” in making monthly payments under its Aid to Families of Dependent Children program was an exercise of the budgetary authority pursuant to applicable federal law and regulations.
The attempt to implement a mandatory telephone hearing policy is not an exercise of permissive statutory authority. The only relevant statutory provision mandates that the department conduct hearings pursuant to promulgated rules. MCL 400.9(1); MSA 16.409(1).
The agency’s label is not dispositive and the inquiry must focus on the "actual action undertaken by the directive, to see whether the policy being implemented has the effect of being a rule.” Schinzel v Dep’t of Corrections, 124 Mich App 217, 219; 333 NW2d 519 (1983).
The telephone hearing procedures are binding and affect the rights of the public to administrative hearings and the conduct of those hearings. The new procedures are not merely mechanical details for the conduct of hearings, but, rather, represent substantial changes in the detailed requirements for the conduct of fair hearings to determine claimants’ rights under the Social Welfare Act and applicable federal law. The rules are extensive and were adopted, without notice and comment from the general public and interested parties and consideration by a joint committee, as rules which would provide "adequate procedure for a fair hearing.” MCL 400.9(1); MSA 16.409(1). An agency is under a duty to follow its own rules. Rand v Civil Service Comm, 71 Mich App 581; 248 NW2d 624 (1976). This policy bulletin represents an alteration of the present rules and therefore must be promulgated as a rule under the proper procedures set out by the apa.
In sum, the telephone hearing policy is inconsistent with the existing rules and therefore cannot be implemented without benefit of rulemaking. The telephone hearing procedure has the full force and effect of law and represents an alteration or change from the rule. The department’s effort to change substantially the manner in which it conducts its hearings solely through an internal policy bulletin and manual revision undermines the fundamental purpose of the apa:
[B]ecause the adoption of a rule by an agency has the force and effect of law and may have serious consequences for many people, the legislature prescribed an elaborate procedure for rule promulgation in Chapter 3 of the Michigan Administrative Procedures Act .... These provisions are calculated to invite public participation in the rule-making process, prevent precipitous action by the agency, prevent the adoption of rules that are illegal or that may be beyond the legislative intent, notify affected and interested persons of the existence of the rules, and make the rules readily accessible after adoption. [Bienenfeld, Michigan Administrative Law, p 4-1.]
In the absence of rulemaking then, appellants have been deprived of rights under the apa 1) to receive notice of the telephone hearing policy as a proposed rule, 2) to comment on the rule at public hearings, and 3) to review the rule through the joint committee on administrative rules of the Michigan Legislature.
The telephone hearing policy adopted by the Department of Social Services was not promulgated as a rule within the meaning of the apa and therefore, absent full compliance with the rule-making provisions of the apa, the policy cannot be implemented because it is without legal authority or effect under Michigan law.
v
The defendants contend that what plaintiffs believed might have happened when the revised procedures were implemented was purely speculative and without a factual basis. Further, defendants claim that since the policy change at issue was not yet implemented when the lawsuit was started, none of the plaintiffs had been prejudiced by the new procedures.
This attempt by the dss to apply a policy that will govern the future conduct of administrative hearings without adopting the policy as a rule deprived the plaintiffs of important rights to participate in the promulgation of the agency’s policy. The dss failed to follow procedural requirements required by statute, and the plaintiffs, whose interests were intended to be protected or regulated through the procedures, are the proper parties to challenge the conduct of the dss, i.e., noncompliance with the provisions of the apa.
In this context, declaratory judgment is appropriate. MCR 2.605(A) provides that a Michigan court may grant declaratory relief "[i]n a case of actual controversy within its jurisdiction . . . .” The controversy is whether the dss was under a duty to comply with the notice and public-hearing requirements of §§41 and 42 of the apa before issuing the directive mandating the telephone hearings.
The purpose of a declaratory judgment is to enable the parties to obtain an adjudication of their rights before actual injuries or losses have occurred. Shavers v Attorney General, 402 Mich 554; 267 NW2d 72 (1978). Further, the "declaratory judgment rule was intended and has been liberally construed to provide a broad, flexible remedy with a view to making the courts more accessible to the people.” Id., p 588. See 2 Honigman & Hawkins, Michigan Court Rules Annotated (2d ed), pp 682-708. What is essential to an actual controversy is that plaintiffs plead and prove facts which indicate an adverse interest assuring the sharpening of the issues raised. _
The policy bulletin issued by the dss was, in effect, a rule and, had the plaintiffs not filed the suit, would be binding as of October 1, 1984. Section 63 of the apa authorizes an agency to issue a declaratory ruling on how a statute administered by the agency or a rule or order of the agency may apply to an actual state of facts. Section 64 provides that no one may commence an action for a declaratory judgment to test the validity or applicability of a rule without first requesting a declaratory ruling. This declaratory ruling, or the refusal to issue one, is then subject to judicial review.
The plaintiffs are persons who have a distinct individual interest separate from that of the general public that will be affected by agency policy and have been denied the opportunity to participate in that process.
In this context it is clear that there is sufficient adversity of positions to make the issue justiciable. The decision of the Court of Appeals which affirmed the. trial court’s dismissal of plaintiffs’ complaint is reversed. Program Policy Bulletin No. 84-16 is inconsistent with the existing rules governing administrative hearings and, unless promulgated pursuant to the rule-making procedures of the apa, the dss cannot implement a mandatory telephone hearing policy.
Riley, C.J., and Levin, Brickley, Cavanagh, Archer, and Griffin, JJ., concurred with Boyle, J.
The telephone hearing procedure was voluntary in the sense that any claimant who desired an in-person hearing could receive one if requested in a timely fashion. Further, the defendants maintain that eighty percent of claimants chose the telephone hearings. This is misleading. Only twenty percent of the claimants exercised their option for an in-person hearing.
Defendant claims that Sleeth, supra, is not applicable to this discussion because the Illinois statute also mandated "in-person” hearings. The court in Sleeth addressed the requirements of "in-person” and "in the county where claimant resides” separately.
Defendants note that every court that has addressed the question has held that telephone hearings do not violate due process. In Casey v O’Bannon, 536 F Supp 350 (ED Pa, 1982), the plaintiffs claimed that having to travel to one of the six regional sites in order to have a face-to-face hearing violated their due process rights. Id., p 351. In Casey, the court held that due process does not require that the examiner be able to see the witnesses as they testify. The same conclusion was reached in New Mexico ex rel Human Services Dep’t v Gomez, 99 NM 261; 657 P2d 117 (1983). These cases are inapplicable to this discussion since plaintiffs do not contend that the telephone hearings violate due process.
In Spruytte v Walters, 753 F2d 498 (CA 6, 1985), the court determined that a policy directive prohibiting inmates from receiving books except from publishers was invalid because it conflicted with the state rule allowing inmates to receive books that did not threaten security. Regularly, in response to the argument that the policy directive was simply a legitimate interpretation of the administrative rule the court concluded, "The exception created by the Policy Directive' is simply too broad to be deemed an interpretation of the Administrative Rule.” Id., p 504.
The Court of Appeals did not reach this issue, having found the telephone hearing procedure not to be a rule in accordance with MCL 24.207(h); MSA 3.560(107)(h).
The state department is designated as the state agency to cooperate with the federal government in the administration of the social security act . . . including title 4, title 6, title 16, and title 19 and any amendments thereto or supplemental thereof. The state department may administer the food stamp act of 1964, as amended, . . . and any other law which the governor or the legislature of the state may designate. The department may cooperate with the proper departments or agencies of the federal government and with all other departments or agencies of the state and local governments, and supervise the administration by local governmental departments or agencies of any plans established by the state in cooperation with the federal government under these provisions and the rules promulgated pursuant thereto. . . .
The director, with the approval of the governor, may cooperate with the federal government, or any of its agencies or instrumentalities, in handling the welfare and relief problems and needs of the people of this state, to the extent authorized by the laws of this state.
The director may adopt any plan required or desirable to participate in the distribution of federal moneys or the assistance of the federal government, and may accept on behalf of the state any allotment of federal moneys. . . . The director may promulgate rules and enter into any agreement or agreements with federal, state, or local units ....
For the purpose of assuring full federal approval of the activities of the department and local departments with respect to the operation of a plan, the director may do all things reasonable and proper to conform with federal requirements pertaining to methods and standards of administration. [MCL 400.10; MSA 16.410.]
The state department shall have and be vested with the following additional powers and duties:
(b) To distribute, as provided in this act, subject to federal rules and regulations, and in accordance with the rules promulgated by the director, money appropriated by the legislature or received from the federal government for the granting of aid to dependent children . . . and for other relief or welfare services provided by law. [MCL 400.14(l)(b); MSA 16.414(l)(b).]
MCL 400.14(l)(b); MSA 16.414(l)(b) authorized the department to distribute funds under the afdc program pursuant to federal statutes and regulations.
Enforcement of the substantial-compliance standard "even at the insistence of a person who could not show personal prejudice, 'will encourage agency adherence to the statutory procedure and further the . . . purpose of increasing agency accountability Bonfield, supra, p 366.
Ample authority supports the proposition that denial of a procedural opportunity to challenge agency action can give rise to standing regardless of the likelihood of success on the merits. 13 Wright & Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure (2d ed), § 3531.4, pp 433-434. See, also, Nat’l Conservative PAC v Federal Election Comm, 200 US App DC 89; 626 F2d 953 (1980); Committee for Full Employment v Blumenthal, 196 US App DC 155, 158; 606 F2d 1062 (1979); Gardner v FCC, 174 US App DC 234; 530 F2d 1086 (1976).
For example, see Crawford v Secretary of State, 160 Mich App 88; 408 NW2d 112 (1987).
The defendants issued the policy bulletin and refused to issue a declaratory ruling in response to plaintiffs’ request.
Plaintiffs-claimants threatened with termination of benefits have submitted affidavits detailing the specific problems they would experience with the mandatory hearings which were scheduled for them under Program Policy Bulletin No. 84-16 and, in addition, noted a willingness and desire to participate in the rule-making procedure through public hearings. For example, a claimant sanctioned by the dss for alleged noncooperation in connection with a paternity action noted the inability of the hearing referee to observe behavior would he detrimental because credibility would be the key issue in that hearing. Another individual, since there was an important factual dispute with the caseworker, needed an in-person hearing and witnesses present to properly plead his case. Neither the claimant nor the witnesses could afford the costs or the time to travel to Lansing. | [
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Cavanagh, J.
Several times this Court has determined whether § 3109(1) of the no-fault insurance act requires various state and federal government benefits to be subtracted from no-fault benefits. In this case we must determine whether § 3109(1) applies to the benefits plaintiff received but was later required to refund under the Federal Employees’ Compensation Act (feca), 5 USC 8101 et seq. We hold that because plaintiff was required by law to refund the benefits he had received, those benefits were not "provided or required to be provided” and therefore should not be subtracted from the personal protection insurance benefits otherwise available to plaintiff under the no-fault insurance act.
i
The facts in this case were submitted to the trial court by the parties in a stipulated "Statement of Facts,” which is summarized in the Court of Appeals opinion:
On August 15, 1978, plaintiff was injured in an automobile accident during the course of his employment with the United States Postal Service. On the date of the accident, plaintiff was the owner of an automobile insured by defendant. That automobile was not involved in the accident.
Plaintiff filed a workers’ compensation claim against the federal government under the Federal Employees’ Compensation Act (feca). 5 USC 8101 et seq. The claim was honored and plaintiff was ultimately paid $17,221.87 by the federal government, representing all of his medical expenses and three-fourths of his lost wages.
Plaintiff had also filed a claim with defendant for no-fault benefits. Defendant honored the claim, but, pursuant to § 3109 of the no-fault act, deducted from the no-fault benefits otherwise payable the benefits plaintiff received pursuant to feca. Defendant ultimately paid $14,498.68, which represented lost wages not reimbursed under feca.
Plaintiff also pursued a tort claim for noneconomic damages against the owner and driver of the other vehicle involved in the accident. See MCL 500.3135; MSA 24.13135. Plaintiff settled the claim for $32,500. Thereafter, the U. S. Department of Labor, Office of Workers’ Compensation, demanded reimbursement of benefits paid under feca from the amount received by plaintiff from the tort claim settlement. The department sought reimbursement under 5 USC 8132, which provides in pertinent part as follows:
"If an injury or death for which compensation is payable under this subchapter is caused under circumstances creating a legal liability in a person other than the United States to pay damages, and a beneficiary entitled to compensation from the United States for that injury or death receives money or other property in satisfaction of that liability as the result of suit or settlement by him or in his behalf, the beneficiary, after deducting therefrom the costs of suit and a reasonable attorney’s fee, shall refund to the United States the amount of compensation paid by the United States and credit any surplus on future payments of compensation payable to him for the same injury.”
On August 31, 1983, plaintiff repaid the Department of Labor the principal sum of $12,186.69 plus interest of $2,195.60. Thereafter, plaintiff sought reimbursement of this payment from defendant. Defendant denied the claim and this litigation ensued. The parties filed cross-motions for summary disposition and, on August 23, 1985, summary disposition was granted in favor of defendant. [156 Mich App 519, 521-522; 402 NW2d 51 (1986).]
The Court of Appeals affirmed, finding no reason to treat feca benefits differently from state workers’ compensation benefits and holding that plaintiff’s feca benefits had been properly set off against his no-fault benefits.
We granted plaintiff’s application for leave to appeal. 428 Mich 910 (1987).
ii
Section 3109(1) of the no-fault insurance act provides that certain benefits must be subtracted from personal protection insurance benefits available under the act:
Benefits provided or required to be provided under the laws of any state or the federal government shall be subtracted from the personal protection insurance benefits otherwise payable for the injury. [MCL 500.3109(1); MSA 24.13109(1).]
The purpose of § 3109(1) is to reduce the basic cost of insurance by requiring a setoff of those government benefits that duplicate no-fault benefits and coordinating those benefits a victim may receive. The focus of the analysis is whether the benefits are duplicative. Thus, "not all '[benefits provided or required to be provided under the laws of any state or the federal government’ must be subtracted from no-fault personal protection insurance benefits otherwise due.” _
This Court formulated a test to determine whether particular benefits must be set off from no-fault benefits in Jarosz v DAIIE, 418 Mich 565, 577; 345 NW2d 563 (1984):
We conclude that the correct test is: state or federal benefits "provided or required to be provided” must be deducted from no-fault benefits under § 3109(1) if they:
1) Serve the same purpose as the no-fault benefits, and
2) Are provided or are required to be provided as a result of the same accident.
Unfortunately, the Jarosz test did not really anticipate the question presented by these facts. We are confronted here with legislation conferring on the payor of workers’ compensation benefits a right of complete recovery out of the worker’s tort recovery — a situation not specifically dealt with or contemplated by our Legislature when it crafted our no-fault scheme.
The primary underlying theme of the automobile no-fault act is that the automobile insurer pays without any right of reimbursement out of any tort recovery. It is an important, but secondary, concept that where benefits are provided from other sources pursuant to state or federal law, the amount paid by the other source reduces the automobile insurer’s responsibility. But to the extent that the reduction in the automobile insurer’s responsibility is from a source that retrieves reimbursement from the injured person’s tort recovery, the amount so retrieved should not be deemed "benefits provided” within the meaning of the automobile no-fault act relieving the primarily liable automobile insurer of its primary responsibility to pay full benefits without reduction by reason of any tort recovery. Were it to be other wise, the worker’s tort recovery, contrary to the spirit of the automobile no-fault act, would be used, in effect, to reimburse the alternative source (the federal government) of the other "benefits provided” that substituted for automobile no-fault benefits.
Because the reimbursement here is provided for by federal law, which preempts state law, we cannot, as in Great American Ins v Queen, 410 Mich 73; 300 NW2d 895 (1980), bar the alternative source (the federal government) from recovering against and from the tort recovery what it paid the injured worker. In fairness, however, in order to prevent a worker injured in an automobile accident from, in effect, paying for his own work loss/medical benefits, we can require the automobile no-fault insurer to repay benefits to that extent, in order to effectuate the underlying policies of the automobile no-fault act.
We are persuaded that when the automobile no-fault act speaks of benefits "provided,” it means benefits permanently provided. To the extent that benefits paid are retrieved by the alternative source provider out of the worker’s tort recovery, they at that point cease to be "benefits provided” within the meaning of § 3109(1) relieving the automobile no-fault insurer of liability to the extent of "benefits provided” by alternative sources pursuant to state or federal law.
Because plaintiff was ultimately required to refund the feca benefits he had received, he was left without that compensation for his medical services and lost wages. Therefore, his only recourse for economic damages was to seek payment from his no-fault carrier. Because, in fact, only single recovery was available to plaintiff, there was no duplicative recovery.
We find that § 3109(1) of the no-fault act does not apply in this case. Therefore, the amount plaintiff initially received in feca benefits should not be subtracted from the personal protection insurance benefits otherwise available to plaintiff under the no-fault insurance act. Plaintiff is entitled to personal protection benefits plus interest. We therefore reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals and remand this case to the circuit court for entry of an order consistent with this opinion.
Riley, C.J., and Levin, Brickley, Boyle, Archer, and Griffin, JJ, concurred with Cav-ANAGH, J.
MCL 500.3101 et seq.; MSA 24.13101 et seq.
See Tebo v Havlik, 418 Mich 350, 367; 343 NW2d 181 (1984); O’Donnell v State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins Co, 404 Mich 524, 544; 273 NW2d 829 (1979).
Jarosz v DAIIE, 418 Mich 565, 577; 345 NW2d 563 (1984).
Id., p 573.
It is most unlikely that the Legislature intended that all persons injured in automobile accidents would receive full work loss and medical benefits without any reduction of any tort recovery they might obtain, excepting only those relatively small number of persons injured in an automobile accident in their employment by the federal government.
See Perez v State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins Co, 418 Mich 634, 641; 344 NW2d 773 (1984). | [
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AFTER REMAND
Griffin, J.
We granted leave in these workers’ compensation cases to resolve a conflict among panels of the Court of Appeals concerning the application of Gusler v Fairview Tubular Products, 412 Mich 270; 315 NW2d 388 (1981), reh gtd 414 Mich 1102 (1982), app dis 414 Mich 1102 (1983). Overruling Jolliff v American Advertising Distributors, Inc, 49 Mich App 1; 211 NW2d 260 (1973), we held in Gusler that the adjustment provisions of § 355 of the Workers’ Disability Compensation Act 3apply only to the maximum, and not to the minimum, weekly rates established in § 351(1) of the act.
Taking into account the reliance on Jolliff during an interim of more than eight years, this Court determined that its ruling in Gusler should be implemented as follows:
In the interest of fairness we do not believe our holding should affect any disability compensation payments already made. Consequently, no recipient will be obligated to repay sums already received by reason of the erroneous computation formula we have nullified today. However, any benefits due and not yet paid or to be awarded after the date of this opinion shall be in accord with this ruling. [Id. at 298.]
The principal issue raised is whether the directed correction of JolliiFs error with respect to "benefits due and not yet paid” after Gusler is precluded by the doctrine of res judicata. We conclude that res judicata is not a bar. We further hold that Gusler applies to all benefits due or paid after December 30, 1981, the date of our opinion in that case, including benefits paid pursuant to awards entered prior to that date.
i
Before turning to a discussion of the issues, we shall examine the facts and the interrelated procedural history of these cases.
A. RILEY
On October 6, 1981, a referee awarded the plain tiff compensation of $119 per week on the basis of a rate determined in accordance with Jolliff. No appeal was taken. Two months later, this Court decided Gusler, and defendant petitioned for a reduction in plaintiffs compensation in accordance with Gusler, which the referee granted.
Thereafter, the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board reversed, and its decision was affirmed by the Court of Appeals, but on the ground that this Court’s decision in Gusler is not binding precedent. The Riley panel noted that, after filing and entering its opinion in Gusler, this Court granted a motion for rehearing and thereafter dismissed the appeal upon stipulation. It was the conclusion of the Riley panel that our Gusler opinion had never been "issued” in accordance with then GCR 1963, 866. Riley v Northland Geriatric Center, 140 Mich App 72; 362 NW2d 894 (1985).
On appeal, this Court reversed on that point and held that our opinion in Gusler became binding precedent when it was filed on December 30, 1981, notwithstanding the subsequent grant of rehearing and dismissal. In addition, we remanded the case to the Court of Appeals for consideration of res judicata and retroactivity issues which had not been addressed in the earlier appeal. Riley v Northland Geriatric Center, 425 Mich 668; 391 NW2d 331 (1986).
On remand, the Court of Appeals held that res judicata barred a reduction of plaintiffs benefits. Riley v Northland Geriatric Center (On Remand), 160 Mich App 507; 408 NW2d 489 (1987). We then granted leave to appeal. 429 Mich 885 (1987).
B. JUNCAJ
In Juncaj, plaintiff was awarded benefits of $79 per week on the basis of Jolliff, and the award was not appealed. Thereafter this Court decided Gusler, and defendant’s insurer reduced plaintiffs level of benefits. Plaintiff then requested a hearing and argued that res judicata barred such a reduction. The referee denied relief, finding the reduction proper under Gusler. On appeal, however, the wcab reversed, relying on the Court of Appeals decision in Riley that Gusler is not binding precedent.
After the Court of Appeals denied leave to appeal, defendant applied to this Court, and we ordered the case held in abeyance pending our decision in Riley. Once we had decided Riley, we remanded the case to the Court of Appeals for consideration of res judicata and retroactivity issues raised by plaintiff. On remand, the Juncaj panel held, contrary to the Court of Appeals decision in Riley (On Remand), that res judicata is not a bar and that Gusler applies to all payments after December 30, 1981, the date of our opinion in that case. Juncaj v C & H Industries, 161 Mich App 724; 411 NW2d 839 (1987). We granted plaintiffs application for leave to appeal. 429 Mich 885 (1987).
C. MOORE
On March 26, 1981, a referee awarded plaintiff Moore $108 per week, the rate applicable under Jolliff. While defendant’s appeal to the wcab was pending, this Court decided Gusler, and the wcab then granted defendant’s motion to reduce plaintiff’s benefits in accordance with Gusler. However, the Court of Appeals thereafter held in Riley, that Gusler is not binding precedent. The wcab then affirmed a decision by the referee which reinstated the original award to plaintiff.
While a second appeal to the Court of Appeals was pending, this Court held in Riley that our December 30, 1981, decision in Gusler is binding precedent. The Court of Appeals then reversed the wcab and ordered a reduction in plaintiffs benefit rate in accordance with Gusler. Moore v Detroit Bd of Ed, unpublished opinion of the Court of Appeals, decided December 3, 1986 (Docket No. 86579).
On appeal, we remanded the case to the Court of Appeals with instructions to consider whether Gusler should be given retroactive effect. Thereafter, the Moore panel opined that Gusler applies to all payments made after December 30, 1981 (the date of Gusler), even though a case may have been decided prior to that date, relying on the implementing language set forth in our Gusler opinion. Moore v Detroit Bd of Ed (On Remand), 163 Mich App 130; 414 NW2d 160 (1987). After the Moore panel certified a conflict with the decision of the Riley remand panel, we granted leave to appeal. 429 Mich 885 (1987).
ii
In Riley and Juncaj, plaintiffs point out that their compensation rates were set prior to Gusler by decisions that were not appealed, and they argue that any post-Gusler reduction in benefits is barred by res judicata.
The applicability of res judicata principles in workers’ compensation cases has been recognized. See Hlady v Wolverine Bolt Co, 393 Mich 368, 375; 224 NW2d 856 (1975); Theodore v Packing Materials, Inc, 396 Mich 152, 158; 240 NW2d 255 (1976); Gose v Monroe Auto Equip Co, 409 Mich 147, 161; 294 NW2d 165 (1980).
Nevertheless, in considering how res judicata is to be applied in that context, we have not overlooked that there is a fundamental difference between the lump-sum judgment in a tort action and the award of continuing weekly benefits in a workers’ compensation case. This difference was noted by Justice Levin who wrote, concurring, in Hlady, supra at 391:
Workmen’s compensation disability benefits, like social security and unemployment compensation benefits, are a form of income maintenance for persons whose wage-earning capacity has been suspended or terminated. A claimant’s entitlement to such benefits depends on the circumstances at the time of application and payment.
Res judicata is a judicially created doctrine which reflects appropriate concern for the use of judicial resources and the finality of litigation. However, it is not an inflexible doctrine, and its applicability depends in part upon the legal context in which a determination is made.
In a wide variety of circumstances, an employee’s future rate of workers’ compensation benefits is subject to change. Events in the future may operate to increase or decrease the amount of benefits to which he is entitled. For example, as a consequence of 1980 PA 357, certain employees injured between September 1, 1965, and December 31, 1979, became entitled after January 1, 1982, to receive a supplemental benefit under § 352 to offset increases in the cost of living. Furthermore, if a disabled worker recovers, or later works at a less lucrative job, the amount of his compensation is subject to adjustment, and res judicata is not a bar.
Recently, in Pike v City of Wyoming, 431 Mich 589; 433 NW2d 768 (1988), this Court faced a question similar in important respects to the issue presented in the cases now before us. In Pike, the amount of plaintiffs award was increased because his wife was conclusively presumed to be a dependent under one provision of the Workers’ Disability Compensation Act, and there was no appeal from that determination. Thereafter, this Court declared unconstitutional a similar gender-based presumption for widows under a different provision* of the act. The defendant in Pike then sought a reduction in the level of plaintiff’s benefits, alleging that plaintiffs wife was not in fact dependent. The plaintiff argued that res judicata barred any redetermination of his award. We held that res judicata did not preclude an adjustment in the amount of the employee’s benefit:
Because the amount of an employee’s award is never final, res judicata principles do not apply to a change in the amount of benefits the claimant receives. This is consistent with the flexible nature of the workers’ compensation system which permits redetermination of the amount of a claimant’s benefits. [Pike, p 602.]
As in Pike, a new determination in these cases made on the basis of Gusler would affect only the amount of plaintiffs’ benefits and not their eligibility for workers’ compensation. As in Pike, we conclude that res judicata does not bar a redetermination of the amount of benefits to which plaintiffs are entitled.
Furthermore, we doubt that the Legislature could have intended the unfairness that would result if the position urged by plaintiffs in the instant cases were to be adopted. Under plaintiffs’ theory, many employees whose Jolliff-based rates were paid voluntarily by their employers before Gusler would be subject to post-Gusler reductions, while other employees whose employers happened to contest the rate before Gusler would not be affected.
We are satisfied that this Court was conscious of such considerations when it wrote, "In the interest of fairness we do not believe our holding should affect any disability compensation payments already made. . . . However, any benefits due and not yet paid or to be awarded after the date of this opinion shall be in accord with this ruling.” Gusler, supra at 298 (emphasis added). Likewise, if the effect of Gusler had been to increase benefits from and after the date of the opinion, res judicata would not have precluded plaintiffs from obtaining the increase.
We conclude that, by directing that its "new rule” was to apply to any benefits due and not yet paid, the Gusler Court implicitly stated that res judicata would not preclude adjustment of benefits after the date of its opinion. In so concluding, we are in agreement with Justice Levin’s separate statement in Riley, 425 Mich 690:
Were this Court to give preclusive effect to a prior adjudication that was based on Jolliff as to payments of workers’ compensation benefits after Gusler it would perpetuate, in the name of a judicial doctrine, a judicial error in construing a statute that thwarts legislative intent.
Accordingly, we conclude that post-Gusler adjustment of compensation rates as directed in Gusler is not barred by res judicata.
HI
We next consider how the change of law announced in Gusler is to be applied in the instant cases.
Sometimes a court which announces a change of law will refrain from going the next step to indicate how its new rule is to be applied. See Ross v Consumers Power Co (On Rehearing), 420 Mich 567; 363 NW2d 641 (1984), Day v W A Foote Memorial Hosp, 412 Mich 698; 316 NW2d 712 (1982), and Parker v Highland Park, 404 Mich 183; 273 NW2d 413 (1978). In such a situation, the prospective-retroactive issue is left for decision in a later case.
In Gusler, however, we did not delay that decision. This Court proceeded to provide specific and precise directions concerning the applicability of the "new rule,” stating:
Although our holding is based on what we perceive to have been the intent of the Legislature at the time of enactment of the provisions discussed, in practical effect, given the contrary interpretations of the law by the Director of the Bureau of Workers’ Compensation and the bureau’s subdivisions, the Workers’ Compensation Appeal Board and its hearing referees, and the Court of Appeals, today’s holding is not unlike the announcement of a new rule of law. Its application therefore should be treated accordingly. See Whetro v Awkerman, 383 Mich 235; 174 NW2d 783 (1970); Parker v Port Huron Hospital, 361 Mich 1; 105 NW2d 1 (1960); Bricker v Green, 313 Mich 218; 21 NW2d 105 (1946).
In the interest of fairness we do not believe our holding should affect any disability compensation payments already made. Consequently, no recipient will be obligated to repay sums already received by reason of the erroneous computation formula we have nullified today. However, any benefits due and not yet paid or to be awarded after the date of this opinion shall be in accord with this ruling. [Id. at 298.]
In Great Northern R Co v Sunburst Oil & Refining Co, 287 US 358; 53 S Ct 145; 77 L Ed 360 (1932), the United States Supreme Court made clear that state courts are not precluded by the federal constitution from determining whether their own law-changing decisions should be applied retroactively or prospectively. The Court stated:
We think the federal constitution has no voice upon the subject. A state in defining the limits of adherence to precedent may make a choice for itself between the principle of forward operation and that of relation backward. It may say that decisions of its highest court, though later overruled, are law none the less for intermediate transactions. . . . On the other hand, it may hold to the ancient dogma that the law declared by its courts had a Platonic or ideal existence before the act of declaration, in which event the discredited declaration will be viewed as if it had never been, and the reconsidered declaration as law from the beginning. . . . The alternative is the same whether the subject of the new decision is common law ... or statute. . . . The choice for any state may be determined by the juristic philosophy of the judges of her courts, their conceptions of law, its origin and nature. We review not the wisdom of their philosophies, but the legality of their acts. [Id. at 364-365.]
Courts have acknowledged that resolution of the retrospective-prospective issue ultimately turns on considerations of fairness and public policy. Peter son v Superior Court, 31 Cal 3d 147, 152; 181 Cal Rptr 784; 624 P2d 1305 (1982). In Placek v Sterling Heights, 405 Mich 638, 665; 275 NW2d 511 (1979), reh den 406 Mich 1119 (1979), this Court said:
This Court has overruled prior precedent many times in the past. In each such instance the Court must take into account the total situation confronting it and seek a just and realistic solution of the problems occasioned by the change.
We believe fairness requires that Gusler be applied to workers’ compensation awards made after December 30, 1981, the date Gusler was decided, and to all benefits due and not yet paid after that date where the award preceded the date of the opinion. Such a holding is fair because it allows employers to reduce their payments in accordance with the Legislature’s intent while protecting employees with respect to payments received before Gusler.
While fairness is a goal, certain rules or principles have evolved which provide guidance in resolving the retroactive-prospective dilemma. In People v Hampton, 384 Mich 669, 674; 187 NW2d 404 (1971), this Court adopted the three-part test set forth in Linkletter v Walker, 381 US 618; 85 S Ct 1731; 14 L Ed 2d 601 (1965). In Linkletter the United States Supreme Court ruled that its decision in Mapp v Ohio, 367 US 643; 81 S Ct 1684; 6 L Ed 2d 1081 (1961) (requiring states to exclude evidence seized in violation of the Fourth Amendment) should not be applied retroactively. In reaching that result, the Court weighed (1) the purpose to be served by the new rulé, (2) the extent of reliance on the old rule, and (3) the effect of retroactivity on the administration of justice.
Application of the Linkletter test, also leads to the conclusion that Gusler be applied to awards made after December 30, 1981, and benefits due and not yet paid after December 30, 1981. Under Linkletter, we look first to the purpose of the "new rule” laid down in Gusler. It was to correct a serious error in the interpretation of a statute under which employees were being paid benefits in excess of the rate intended by the Legislature. We believe this purpose would best be furthered by applying Gusler only to payments made after the opinion’s date.
Second, we take account of the fact that employees and employers relied for more than eight years on the Jolliff holding that minimum as well as maximum rates were adjustable under § 355. Gusler’s implementing language appropriately recognizes that reliance, and it safeguards employees by not requiring repayment of any portion of benefits received prior to Gusler.
Finally, by applying the new rule only to payments after December 30, 1981, Gusler was designed to have a minimum effect upon the administration of justice. Cf. People v Auer, 393 Mich 667, 677; 227 NW2d 528 (1975), reh den 394 Mich 944 (1975).
In Riley and Moore plaintiffs claim that by citing Whetro, Parker, and Bricker, supra, the Gusler Court indicated an intent that Gusler should apply only to cases commenced after December 30, 1981, and to cases pending on that date in the Bureau of Workers’ Disability Compensation, the wcab, or the Court of Appeals in which the minimum rate adjustment issue was raised. Plaintiff in Juncaj argues that Gusler should apply only to cases in which the injury occurred after December 30, 1981. We are not persuaded that the citations were for that purpose.
In Whetro, wherein this Court adopted the "positional risk” rule in workers’ compensation cases, we determined that the new rule would apply to claims arising after the date of that decision but would not apply to pending cases other than the case then at bar. Likewise, in Parker, this Court held that a new rule abolishing charitable immunity would apply only to that case and to cases arising after the opinion’s date. However, in Bricker, this Court stated that its law change abrogating imputed negligence was to apply to "pending” as well as to "future” cases.
We believe the Whetro, Parker, and Bricker decisions were cited to demonstrate that this Court has not always applied the general rule that law changing judicial decisions are to be given complete retroactive effect. Obviously, the three cases did not follow the same pattern. Accordingly, we conclude that the Court’s reference to the three cases was for a general purpose and not the specific purpose for which plaintiffs contend._
Furthermore, our interpretation is justified and required by the clear and unambiguous implementing language which this Court provided in the concluding paragraph of our Gusler opinion. As Justice Levin wrote in Riley, supra, 425 Mich 688-689:
There is nothing unfair in applying the rule stated in Gusler, which appears to have been reaffirmed today on varying analyses, from and after the date of the announcement of the opinions of the justices in Gusler.
The statement in the . . . concluding paragraph of the majority opinion in Gusler was surely adequate notice to the workers’ compensation department, the wcab, bench and bar, that Jolliif should no longer be followed. ... It would not be "unfair” to hold in the instant case that, as declared in Gusler, "any benefits due and not yet paid or to be awarded after the date of [the Gusler opinion] shall be in accord with th[e] ruling” stated in Gusler that the minimum rates are not subject to adjustment.
If we were to accept the interpretation urged by plaintiffs, we would effectively nullify that part of the implementing language which states that any benefits due and not yet paid after the date of Gusler shall be paid in accord with Gusler. Contrary to the argument advanced by plaintiffs, this Court did not limit its holding to cases commenced after December 30, 1981, and to cases pending on that date in the Bureau of Workers’ Disability, the wcab, or an appellate court in which the minimum rate adjustment issue was raised. Rather, Gusler clearly stated that its holding "not unlike ... a new rule of law,” was to apply to "any beneñts due and not yet paid or to be awarded after the date [that Gusler was decided] . . . Id. at 298 (emphasis added).
We conclude that the implementing language means what it says, and that payments after December 30, 1981, are to be adjusted in accord with Gusler, whether the award was made before or after Gusler.
IV
Although plaintiffs encourage us to reconsider and overturn our decision in Gusler, we decline the invitation to do so. We remain convinced that Gusler was correctly decided.
v
In Riley, we reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals. In Juncaj and Moore, we affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeals.
Riley, C.J., and Levin, J., concurred with Griffin, J.
MCL 418.355; MSA 17.237(355).
MCL 418.101 et seq.; MSA 17.237(101) et seq.
MCL 418.351(1); MSA 17.237(351X1).
Riley died after commencement of this action and her son, Melvin King, personal representative of her estate, has been substituted as plaintiff.
In Moore there is no res judicata issue, as there has been no final award. Gusler was decided by this Court while defendant’s appeal to the wcab was pending.
MCL 418.353(l)(a)(i); MSA 17.237(353)(l)(a)(i).
MCL 418.331(l)(a); MSA 17.237(331)(l)(a).
In a civil case, Chevron Oil Co v Huson, 404 US 97, 106-107; 92 S Ct 399; 30 L Ed 2d 296 (1971), the Court applied essentially the same test with the addition of a threshold question: Does the decision clearly establish a new principle of law?
In Auer, this Court addressed the retroactivity of the then recently adopted objective test of entrapment. In holding that the new rule was to be prospective, this Court expressed concern about the effect retroactive application would have on the administration of justice, noting that "retrospective application would require in many cases new trials with the tremendous obstacle of reassembling now stale evidence.” Id. at 677.
See Martin v White Pine Copper Co, 378 Mich 37, 44; 142 NW2d 681 (1966). While this is the general rule for judicial decisions which make a substantive change in preexisting law, legislative changes in preexisting law are generally held to be prospective, unless a contrary legislative intent is clearly manifested, or unless the statute is procedural or remedial. Selk v Detroit Plastic Products, 419 Mich 1, 9-10; 345 NW2d 184 (1984).
In view of our holding concerning the applicability of Gusler, we find no merit in the argument advanced that defendant in Moore waived its right to relief because it did not raise the rate adjustment issue prior to December 30, 1981. As noted in n 5, defendant’s appeal from the referee’s decision in Moore was pending before the wcab when this Court decided Gusler. Furthermore, defendant moved promptly after Gusler for relief in accordance with its holding. We also note that both the wcab and the Court of Appeals addressed the rate adjustment issue in Moore. | [
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Levin, J.
Paul Dye was convicted on retrial of two counts of first-degree murder and two counts of possession of a firearm during commission of a felony. Dye’s first trial was declared a mistrial, with the jury voting eleven to one to acquit him on the first-degree murder charges. At the first trial the testimony of three witnesses — fellow members of a motorcycle club — provided the only evidence that Dye was the killer. At Dye’s retrial the prosecution did not produce these three witnesses. The trial court allowed assistant prosecutors to read the witnesses’ earlier testimony to the jury.
This appeal presents two questions. The first is whether the prosecution showed due diligence in attempting to produce the three witnesses for the second trial. The three witnesses were in protective custody immediately preceding and until they completed their testimony at the first trial, and were then released. Subsequent efforts to locate the witnesses for the second trial were tardy and incomplete. We reverse and remand for a new trial.
The second question concerns evidentiary issues. The prosecution in its case in chief elicited testimony from the three witnesses and Richard Troher that Dye had not accused anyone else of committing the killings and had failed to make a statement to the police. On retrial the prosecution may not in its case in chief ask Troher whether Dye accused another of the killings, or inquire on direct examination whether Dye made a statement to the police.
i
Early in the morning of August 29, 1982, two women were killed in the clubhouse of the Forbidden Wheels Motorcycle Club. They had each been shot through the head. Their bodies were dumped on the curb of a residential street and discovered there by early morning commuters.
Four club members were in the clubhouse at the time of the murders. Dye, Bruce Seidel, James Dawson, and Steve Stever all admitted to helping clean up the clubhouse after the killings. Seidel, the prosecution’s chief witness, accused Dye of killing the women. Dye accused Seidel of being the killer. Dawson and Stever, who had been in an upstairs apartment apparently asleep at the time of the killings, testified that Seidel walked upstairs, awakened them, and told them that Dye had just killed two women. Seidel, Dawson, and Stever further testified that after Seidel and Dye dumped the bodies, all four met in Stever’s garage, where Dye admitted to the killings.
Seidel, Dawson, and Stever testified under a limited grant of immunity. All three left the state after the killings, and returned to Michigan to testify at the first trial. Upon their return they were kept in protective custody until after they completed their testimony to prevent other "bikers” from harming them. The prosecution failed to produce any of the three to testify at the second trial.
II
A
The Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution, and art 1, § 20 of the Michigan Constitution of 1963, provide in part that in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall "be confronted with the witnesses against him . . . .” The United States Supreme Court has emphasized that the purpose of the Confrontation Clause is to provide for a face-to-face confrontation between a defendant and his accusers at trial. 9This confrontation is an important right of the defendant because it enables the trier of fact to judge the witnesses’ demeanors. The Court in Ohio v Roberts, 448 US 56, 63-64; 100 S Ct 2531; 65 L Ed 2d 597 (1980), declared:
[T]he Clause envisions "a personal examination and cross-examination of the witness in which the accused has an opportunity, not only of testing the recollection and sifting the conscience of the witness, but of compelling him to stand face to face with the jury in order that they may look at him, and judge by his demeanor upon the stand and the manner in which he gives his testimony whether he is worthy of belief. ”[ ]
Demeanor evidence is important. As the Third Circuit Court of Appeals noted in Virgin Islands v Aquino, 378 F2d 540, 548 (CA 3, 1967):
Demeanor is of the utmost importance in the determination of the credibility of a witness. The innumerable telltale indications which fall from a witness during the course of his examination are often much more of an indication to judge or jury of his credibility and the reliability of his evidence than is the literal meaning of his words. Even beyond the precise words themselves lies the unexpressed indication of his alignment with one side or the other in the trial. It is indeed rarely that a cross-examiner succeeds in compelling a witness to retract testimony which is harmful to his client, but it is not infrequently that he leads a hostile witness to reveal by his demeanor — his tone of voice, the evidence of fear which grips him at the height of cross-examination, or even his defiance— that his evidence is not to be accepted as true, either because of partiality or overzealousness or inaccuracy, as well as outright untruthfulness. The demeanor of a witness, as Judge Frank said, is "wordless language.” Broadcast Music, Inc v Havana Madrid Restaurant Corp, 175 F2d 77, 80 (CA 2, 1949).
A transcript of prior testimony may nevertheless be offered in evidence upon a showing that the witness is unavailable and that the testimony bears satisfactory indicia of reliability. _
To establish the witness’ unavailability, the proponent* must establish that he has made a diligent, good-faith effort to obtain the witness’ presence at trial. This is a substantial requirement. "[I]f there is a possibility, albeit remote, that affirmative measures might produce the declarant, the obligation of good faith may demand their effectuation.”
In Motes v United States, 178 US 458; 20 S Ct 993; 44 L Ed 1150 (1900), the United States Supreme Court held that police negligence barred a finding of good-faith diligent effort. A codefendant in a murder prosecution had provided the primary evidence against the other defendants in testimony at a preliminary examination. Prior to trial he escaped due to the negligence of the police. At trial the judge admitted the preliminary examination testimony as substantive evidence against the remaining defendants. The United States Supreme Court reversed, stating:
We are unwilling to hold it to be consistent with the constitutional requirement that an accused shall be confronted with the witnesses against him, to permit the deposition or statement of an absent witness (taken at an examining trial) to be read at the final trial when it does not appear that the witness was absent by the suggestion, connivance or procurement of the accused, but does appear that his absence was due to the negligence of the prosecution. [178 US 474.]
B
Whether the prosecution made a diligent, good-faith effort to produce missing witnesses is an evaluation that depends on the particular facts of each case. The record in the instant case indicates that, in the circumstances of this case, the prosecution failed to make such a diligent, good-faith effort to produce Seidel, Dawson, and Stever.
Seidel, Dawson, and Stever had been difficult to locate for the first trial. The officer in charge, Kuhnlein, testified that when the three were released, he knew that each was going out of state. All three had an incentive to go into hiding. They were in protective custody during the first trial to prevent other "bikers” from harming them for testifying against Dye. This threat remained after their release. Additionally, the witnesses may have feared prosecution; they had been given only limited immunity. All three were admitted accomplices after the fact in the murders. Stever and Dawson were suspects in a related firebombing.
The mistrial was declared on March 17, 1983. On May 13, 1983, the court set Dye’s retrial for August 22, 1983. As of May 13, the witnesses had been released for approximately two months. During this two-month period, the prosecution had made no effort to relocate Seidel, Dawson, or Stever even though the prosecution knew that the witnesses were needed, they had expressed an intention to leave the state, and had incentives to go into hiding. And once the prosecution learned of the retrial date, its efforts to produce the witnesses were, in the circumstances of this case, tardy and incomplete. These efforts are detailed below.
l
An assistant prosecutor testified that during March, April, and early May of 1983, Dawson repeatedly telephoned to ask whether and when Dye was going to be released on bond. Because Dawson had testified against Dye, he may have feared Dye would seek revenge. Dye was released on June 17, 1983. The prosecution did not attempt to communicate with Dawson until four weeks after Dye’s release. The prosecution telephoned Dawson on July 12 and learned that his telephone line had been disconnected. No investigation into Dawson’s whereabouts, however, was conducted until August 5 — three weeks later, and just seventeen days before the retrial date — when the prosecution attempted to serve a subpoena on Dawson at a Detroit address.
The woman answering the door reported that she had purchased the house from Dawson three weeks before and that she had no idea where he was. It does not appear that any effort was made to communicate with the lawyer, real estate agent, or bank involved in the house sale. Had the prosecution investigated immediately upon learning on July 12 that Dawson’s phone had been disconnected, they would — according to the date given by the woman who purchased the house — have arrived at the house before the sale was completed and while Dawson might have still been in the area.
Dawson’s wife was a postal employee. Through her employer the prosecution obtained a forwarding address in Cucamonga, California. On August 5, 1983 — -just seventeen days before Dye’s retrial— the prosecution mailed to the California district attorney for Cucamonga a certificate under the uniform act to secure the attendance of witnesses from without a state in criminal proceedings, requesting that the prosecutor serve and arrest Dawson. The assistant prosecutor did not communicate with the California district attorney again until August 16 — less than a week before Dye’s retrial — when he learned that the California district attorney had received the certificate but had not yet served Dawson. The record does not indicate that the California district attorney had even begun looking for Dawson. Also on August 16, the assistant prosecutor mailed a photograph of Dawson to the California district attorney. On August 18, four days before Dye’s retrial, the California district attorney telephoned and said that while Dawson had apparently been living at the Cucamonga address, he was not there at the time the investigators visited. They thought that Dawson had a job lead in the area and said they were going to continue trying to locate him. There is no evidence of any further efforts by the California authorities or of further communication between the prosecution and the California district attorney after the August 18 phone call.
It thus appears that although both Dawson and his wife were living at an identified address in California, the only effort of record to locate him was a single visit by California investigators to that address. The record does not indicate on what day or at what time that visit occurred. There is no reason to conclude that further efforts to locate Dawson or his wife at that address would have been of no avail.
2
The prosecution did not attempt to communicate with Seidel, the sole eyewitness, until June 2— almost three months after Seidel’s release and almost a month after the date for Dye’s retrial had been set — when it sent a request for information to the police department of Mason City, Iowa, where Seidel had previously lived with his mother.
The Mason City police telephoned Seidel’s mother and reported that, according to his mother, Seidel was working out of town and that when he returned his mother would give him the message to call the assistant prosecutor. This request was apparently repeated on June 22, and the assistant prosecutor apparently received the same response. On July 7, the prosecution telephoned Mrs. Seidel directly. She made the same response she had made to the Mason City police.
Although it had clearly been established by July 7 that Seidel was missing, there was no further communication with his mother or any visit to his mother’s home until approximately six weeks later —about August 16, less than one week before Dye’s retrial — when the prosecution apparently called the district attorney for Mason City and learned that he had received a certificate forwarded by the prosecution on August 5 under the uniform act for Seidel. Some time after receipt of the certificate members of the Mason City police visited the house, and it appears that they believed that Seidel was living there.
Also on August 16, the prosecution mailed a photograph of Seidel to the local district attorney. There is no evidence of any further communication between the prosecution and the local district attorney.
It does not appear that the Mason City police made more than one visit to the Seidel home. Seidel was the prosecution’s most important witness. Yet the prosecution did not send an investigator to Mason City or ask the Mason City police to exert further efforts to locate him.
The prosecution did not suggest checking, nor did the local police — as to Seidel, Dawson, or Stever — check, locales frequented by bikers. Seidel was in fact arrested by Iowa police on another charge one week after Dye’s retrial ended.
3
Stever apparently left the state several days after being released. The prosecution did not attempt to locate Stever until August 1 — four and a half months after the mistrial was declared and just three weeks before Dye’s retrial was scheduled to begin — when Officer Kuhnlein attempted to serve Stever with a subpoena at a local home address. The man who answered the door was renting the house, said that he had not seen Stever for some time, and thought that he had gone either to Wisconsin, Tennessee, or California. The tenant was about to leave because he had learned that the house was to be repossessed.
On August 5, seventeen days before Dye’s retrial, the prosecution mailed to the Livingston, Tennessee, district attorney a certificate under the uniform act for Stever. Stever had traveled from Livingston to Detroit to testify at the first trial, but there was little or no reason to believe that he had returned to Livingston. Dawson’s mother told Kuhnlein that Stever almost certainly had not returned to Tennessee.
On August 16 the assistant prosecutor telephoned the Livingston district attorney and learned that he had received the certificate, but had not yet served Stever. The record does not indicate that the Livingston district attorney had begun looking for Stever. There is no evidence of any further communication between the prosecution and the local district attorney.
On August 22, during the afternoon session of the due diligence hearing, Officer Kuhnlein testified that after his direct testimony that morning, he telephoned Detroit Edison and learned that Stever had been receiving electrical service at bis Michigan address under the name of "Donald” Stever. There is no evidence that the prosecution relayed this information to the Livingston district attorney or followed up on it in any other way.
There is no evidence that the prosecution communicated with the repossessing bank to determine if it had any forwarding addresses or could provide other leads to persons who may have known Stever’s whereabouts. The tenant said that his previous month’s rent was collected by a person who he thought was a member of Stever’s family. There is no evidence of an effort to locate this person.
The prosecution had not obtained the names or addresses of any of Stever’s relatives other than the address of his mother. And, although it had Stever’s mother’s address, it did not attempt to communicate with her. The prosecution had the name of Stever’s girl friend — who had reportedly left with him — but there is no evidence of any attempt to communicate with her friends and relatives.
c
The Illinois Court of Appeals in People v Payne, 30 Ill App 3d 624; 332 NE2d 745 (1975), determined that the prosecution had failed to exercise good-faith diligence in attempting to locate a missing witness. Jerome Payne was tried for robbing Oscar Fallin. A mistrial was declared because the jury was unable to agree. On retrial, Payne was convicted. Fallin testified at the first trial, but did not appear at the retrial. The transcript of his previous testimony was read to the jury.
The prosecution made numerous attempts to locate Fallin. The chief investigator noted that he made "20 to 25 attempts” to locate him before Payne’s retrial. After detailing the prosecution’s substantial efforts, the court declared that they were insufficient. Not only had the prosecution been tardy and incomplete in its efforts to find Fallin after the first trial, it had known that Fallin had been difficult to find for the first trial and yet had taken no measures to assure his return for the retrial. "The State was aware that Fallin had been a difficult witness to locate for the first trial, but took no steps to insure his appearance later even though it knew that his testimony was essential to a conviction and that the case would be tried again.” Payne, supra, p 629. The prosecution’s failure to take adequate measures to assure that a vital witness against the defendant would appear at a retrial barred a finding of good-faith due diligence.
People v Schepps, 217 Mich 406; 186 NW 508 (1922), describes the sort of thorough efforts that constitute due diligence. The issue at trial was whether Schepps was one of a group of robbers. The preliminary examination testimony of Florence Earl, although neither conclusive nor the sole evidence identifying Schepps as one of the robbers, was highly convincing. Earl was subpoenaed but did not appear at trial. The court continued Schepps’ trial a number of times (for an unknown number of weeks) while the prosecution attempted to find her. Officers searched Detroit and followed up rumors that she had moved to Canada, searching Windsor and interviewing her parents in Ontario, and her two sisters "found living elsewhere.”
This Court held that these efforts were sufficient to enable the prosecution to use Earl’s preliminary examination testimony at trial. In contrast with the instant case, the trial was continued a number of times and the prosecution promptly followed all leads, traveling itself to a foreign jurisdiction to look for the witness.
D
Here, as in Payne, the prosecution knew that Seidel, Dawson, and Stever had been difficult to locate for the first trial, that they had left the state and had an incentive to go into hiding.
Subsequent belated and incomplete efforts did not rise to the level of good-faith due diligence. The efforts to locate each should have begun earlier. The prosecution knew on May 13 that Dye’s retrial was set for August 22, but did not attempt to locate Seidel until one month later, did not attempt to locate Dawson until two months later, and did not attempt to locate Stever until almost three months later. The initial attempts all failed, yet the prosecution did not increase its efforts.
The prosecution relied on the local Cucamonga, Mason City, and Livingston police to do the investigatory work, but was tardy in providing the local police with sufficient information and did not follow up and press the local police to act. Photographs of the witnesses were mailed less than a week before the retrial.
Certificates were sent under the uniform act, but in themselves these did not obligate the local police to undertake a diligent search. The uniform act is a mechanism for the production of witnesses; it does not oblige local police to search for a missing witness. Invocation of the uniform act’s mechanism would have become important had Dawson, Seidel, or Stever been found out of state. The act would then have enabled the local police to produce the witness for the prosecutor in Michigan. Invocation of the uniform act’s production mechanism, however, is not a substitute in itself for a diligent effort to find the witnesses.
The prosecution’s obligation to make a diligent good-faith effort is nondelegable. If the prosecution relies on out-of-state police to follow particular leads, and they make a diligent good-faith effort to find and produce the witness, then their efforts may discharge the prosecution’s obligation. In the instant case, however, there is no evidence that the out-of-state police made diligent good-faith efforts. The Mason City police believed Seidel was living at home with his mother, but apparently only visited the home once. The Cucamonga police believed Dawson was living and working in the area, yet apparently made only one visit to his suspected residence and did not attempt to find where his employment lead may have led. The efforts did not constitute good-faith due diligence.
The prosecution should have begun the searches earlier, pressed local officers to engage in the searches, and perhaps, as in Schepps — in light of the inadequate efforts of the local police — sent its own investigator. The prosecution undertook none of these steps. Such "affirmative measures” may well have produced the witnesses.
hi
Dye asserts that two lines of inquiry by the prosecution in its case in chief were improper. The first was questions put to Seidel, Dawson, Stever, and Richard Troher whether Dye had in their presence accused anyone else of committing the killings. The second was questions put to these four witnesses whether Dye had accompanied them to make a statement to the police.
We agree with Dye that questioning Troher whether Dye had accused anyone else of the killings, and questioning all four witnesses whether Dye had made a statement to the police, was improper. It would not have been "natural,” within the meaning of People v Collier, 426 Mich 23; 393 NW2d 346 (1986), for Dye to have made such accusation in Troher’s presence or to have made a statement to the police. On remand, these questions should not be asked during the prosecution’s case in chief.
Questioning Seidel, Dawson, and Stever whether Dye accused anyone else of the killings, however, was not improper. Their testimony that Dye failed to accuse anyone else of the killings correlated with their testimony that Dye had confessed the killings to them. This questioning may be allowed on remand.
A
Dye testified that he did not kill the two women. He said that Seidel killed the women, and that he had been sleeping and was awakened by the shots. By his own admission, however, Dye was an accessory after the fact. He participated with Seidel, Dawson, and Stever in cleaning up the clubhouse and joined Seidel in disposing of the bodies.
Prior to his arrest, Dye did not speak with the police of his involvement in the killings. Dye did not tell police that Seidel was the killer.
B
In People v Collier, supra, this Court adopted the evidentiary standard set forth in Commonwealth v Nickerson, 386 Mass 54; 434 NE2d 992; 35 ALR4th 722 (1982). As a general rule, the prosecution cannot impeach a defendant on the basis of his prearrest silence. "Allowing impeachment with prearrest silence suggests that a defendant has a duty to incriminate himself and burdens his right to testify on his own behalf.” Collier, supra, p 34. This is inappropriate because " 'it is a generally held notion that one does not have to say anything to the police and that what one does say may be used against him.’ ” Id.
In Collier, this Court held that the prosecution’s impeachment of defendant Collier’s prearrest silence was proper. Collier, according to his testimony, had acted in self-defense. He "testified that he was in fact the victim of an armed robbery rather than a perpetrator of an assault.” Id., p 34. The Court concluded that it would have been natural for Collier to contact the police:
[W]e believe it is entirely natural and expected that one who has been robbed under the circumstances related by the defendant would report the crime to the police. Defendant knew the identity of the robber and the location of the robbery. It would have been natural for him to report the crime to the police, to have the assailant arrested, and to retrieve his property. [Id., pp 34-35.]
Where it would not have been natural for the defendant to contact the police — where doing so may have resulted in the defendant incriminating himself — -the prosecution cannot properly comment on the defendant’s failure to contact the police.
We conclude that it would not have been natural for Dye to have made a statement to the police because if he had done so such a statement would have tended to incriminate him as an accessory after the fact.
c
Nor would it have been natural for Dye to have accused someone else in Troher’s presence. According to Dye, he was an accomplice after the fact; hence an accusation of Seidel would also have incriminated Dye. Further, there was no apparent incentive for Dye to have, in Troher’s presence, accused Seidel. An accusation of Seidel by Dye in Troher’s presence would not have aided Dye.
Questioning Seidel, Dawson, and Stever concerning Dye’s failure to accuse anyone else of the killings, however, was not improper. In contrast to Troher, Seidel, Dawson, and Stever testified that Dye had confessed to them that he had committed the killings. Their further testimony that Dye had not accused anyone else of the killings correlated with their testimony concerning his confession. If Dye had in fact confessed to Seidel, Dawson, and Stever that he was the killer, he would not have accused anyone else of the offenses. This questioning merely restated in a different form the properly admitted testimony concerning Dye’s confession.
D
Questioning the three witnesses concerning Dye’s failure to make a statement to the police, however, did not reciprocate their testimony that Dye had confessed. Applying the Collier analysis, it would not have been natural for Dye to have made a statement to the police for the reasons set forth above: Dye, according to his own testimony, was an accomplice after the fact, and any statement that he made would have incriminated him.
Because it would not have been "natural” for Dye to have made a statement to the police, on remand the prosecution should not in its case in chief ask questions concerning or adverting to Dye’s failure to make a statement to the police.
E
Dye on direct examination testified that he did not make a statement to the police because his attorney advised him not to do so. The prosecution asserts that because Dye offered this testimony, the prosecution could have subsequently offered impeaching testimony, and therefore — even if the prosecution improperly included the testimony in its case in chief — any error was harmless. On these facts, the prosecution’s argument is circular.
In all events, on remand Dye should be able to avoid misunderstanding concerning his intentions by an affirmative statement in limine whether he intends, absent inquiry by the prosecution in its case in chief, either to claim that his prearrest conduct tended to indicate his innocence, or to explain why he did not make a statement to the police, or to refer to his statement to the arson investigators.
We reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals and remand for a new trial.
Cavanagh and Archer, JJ., concurred with Levin, J.
MCL 750.316; MSA 28.548.
MCL 750.227b; MSA 28.424(2).
In the retrial, the jury twice asked the trial judge to declare a hung jury. Each time the judge told the jury to continue their deliberations.
Dye and Seidel spent the evening together in a bar and then came to the clubhouse. Shortly after they arrived, the two victims rang the doorbell and were admitted. Dye, Seidel, and the two women drank and played pool for some time. Neither Dye nor Seidel had previously known either woman.
According to Seidel, after some time Dye began betting one of the victims that before the night was over she would perform oral sex upon him. At this point, Dye and Seidel were on the service side of the club’s bar, and the two women were seated on the customers’ side. Seidel said that when this "betting” began, he withdrew from the conversation and went to the other end of the bar. According to Seidel the "betting” talk became increasingly heated, with Dye finally exclaiming that she would perform oral sex. According to Seidel, Dye then pulled a revolver from the waistband at the small of his back, racked a shell into the chamber, placed the muzzle against her forehead, and pulled the trigger. According to Seidel, the back of her head exploded and she fell off the barstool and onto the floor. Seidel said that he then turned away. He said that he heard the second victim say that she did not believe what was happening, heard Dye say "I do,” and then heard a second shot. When he turned back the second victim lay dead on the floor.
According to Dye, Seidel was serving the women drinks and Dye was observing when Dawson and Stever burst in out of breath and exclaimed that they had just firebombed the house of the mother of a former president of the Forbidden Wheels Club. (The house had in fact been firebombed and a police dog tracked a scent to within 100 feet of the clubhouse.) Dawson and Stever approached Dye, Seidel, and the two women and began relating their story. Seidel objected, indicating that they should not discuss this in front of the two women. Dawson and Stever then went upstairs to "watch the smoke” and see if they could see some flames. Dye then decided to go home. He called his wife, who after learning that Dye had been drinking told him to stay at the club. (Dye’s wife corroborated receipt of the phone call and the substance of the conversation.) Dye then lay down on a couch and asked Seidel to wake him at about 6:00 a.m. Dye was awakened by a loud noise, and then heard another loud noise and a thump. Dye then stood, approached the bar, and saw Seidel standing over the two bodies.
Dye denied confessing.
Their own testimony could not be used in any prosecution against them.
The Sixth Amendment applies to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Pointer v Texas, 380 US 400; 85 S Ct 1065; 13 L Ed 2d 923 (1965).
See, e.g., Ohio v Roberts, 448 US 56; 100 S Ct 2531; 65 L Ed 2d 597 (1980); Mattox v United States, 156 US 237; 15 S Ct 337; 39 L Ed 409 (1895).
Quoting Mattox v United States, n 8 supra, pp 242-243. See also Pointer v Texas, n 7 supra, p 405. ("There are few subjects, perhaps, upon which this Court and other courts have been more nearly unanimous than in their expressions of belief that the right of confrontation and cross-examination is an essential and fundamental requirement for the kind of fair trial which is this country’s constitutional goal.”)
See Ohio v Roberts, n 8 supra; People v Schepps, 217 Mich 406; 186 NW 508 (1922). MCL 768.26; MSA 28.1049 provides:
Testimony taken at an examination, preliminary hearing, or at a former trial of the case, or taken by deposition at the instance of the defendant, may be used by the prosecution whenever the witness giving such testimony can not, for any reason, be produced at the trial, or whenever the witness has, since giving such testimony become insane or otherwise mentally incapacitated to testify.
This Court noted in People v McIntosh, 389 Mich 82, 87; 204 NW2d 135 (1973), that the statute must be construed in a manner consistent with prevailing constitutional authority.
The level of diligence required may vary depending upon the nature of the action and the proponent’s identity. It has been said that the prosecutor is held to a higher standard sis the proponent than is a criminal defendant or parties in a civil action. McCormick, Evidence (3d ed), § 253, pp 756-757.
Ohio v Roberts, n 8 supra, p 60, quoting Barber v Page, 390 US 719, 724-725; 88 S Ct 1318; 20 L Ed 2d 255 (1968); People v McIntosh, n 10 supra, p 86. ("[T]he prosecution must show due diligence in their efforts to produce such [allegedly unavailable] witnesses.”)
Ohio v Roberts, n 8 supra, p 74 (emphasis in original).
See n 4.
The assistant prosecutor testified that during this period Dawson repeatedly telephoned him to learn whether and when Dye would be released on bond. All these contacts appear to have been initiated by Dawson, not the prosecution.
It does not appear that the prosecution made any efforts to communicate with the wife’s relatives or friends.
MCL 767.91 et seq.; MSA 28.1023(191) et seq.
Officer Kuhnlein telephoned the jails, hospitals, and morgues in Oakland, Macomb, and Wayne counties. He also checked with the Department of Social Services. The record does not indicate when these inquiries were made.
See n 17.
According to Dawson’s mother.
The opinion does not indicate whether there were any other witnesses or other evidence implicating Payne.
This Court’s most recent opinions on the prosecution’s duty to produce witnesses at trial indicate that the prosecution’s efforts in this case failed to rise to the level of good-faith due diligence. In People v Pearson, 404 Mich 698; 273 NW2d 856 (1979), this Court evaluated the prosecution’s efforts to produce res gestae witnesses in four consolidated cases. In Willie Pearson and Lindsay Pearson, this Court held that the alleged res gestae witness was not in fact a res gestae witness. In Schwartz and Wynn, this Court held that the prosecution’s efforts to produce the missing res gestae witness did not rise to the level of due diligence.
We note first that the prosecution’s duty to produce res gestae witnesses might be less strict than its duty under the Confrontation Clause to produce witnesses whose testimony is offered against the defendant.
Schwartz was convicted of delivery of heroin. The police officer making the arrest was introduced to Schwartz by one Don Cager, an informant who was present during the sale. Cager was endorsed on the information but was not produced at trial.
The last time that the prosecution had seen Cager was six months before Schwartz’ trial. In the five weeks before Schwartz’ trial, the prosecution made several attempts to find Cager, including going to his home and speaking to a local police officer. During trial the prosecution again checked his residence, a boathouse, a firehouse, a pool hall, two bars, and two restaurants.
This Court held that the appropriate standard was due diligence, not just good faith. Even though "[i]t was clear that [the witness] was a res gestae witness who would have to be produced,” the prosecution made only belated attempts to find Cager. As in the present case, "[o]f particular concern to this Court, however, is that no serious effort was made sufficiently in advance of trial to allow for the difficulties which occurred.” Pearson, supra, p 717.
Willie Wynn was convicted of assault with intent to do great bodily harm less than murder. James Moore was one of a number of witnesses to the assault. Moore, a friend of Wynn’s, was not endorsed prior to trial, but in response to a defense motion the trial court ordered Moore endorsed and produced at trial. The prosecution did not attempt to serve Moore with a subpoena and made no other efforts to find him. Moore did not appear at Wynn’s trial. The trial court found that this lack of effort did not meet the due diligence requirement. This Court affirmed.
In People v McIntosh, 389 Mich 82; 204 NW2d 135 (1973), this Court applied the due diligence standard to the prosecution’s efforts to locate a witness whose preliminary examination testimony was used against the defendants at trial. Franklin McIntosh was prosecuted for burglarizing a gas station. At McIntosh’s preliminary examination, Jerry Wrenn, an employee at the station, testified that he found McIntosh inside the office. McIntosh told Wrenn that he was returning the washroom key and left, driving off with a companion. Wrenn subsequently discovered that the bag containing the day’s receipts was missing and telephoned the state police, who found the bag under the front seat of McIntosh’s automobile. Wrenn also testified that when he entered the office he noticed that the back of McIntosh’s sweater "was bunched as if something bulky was being carried underneath it,” and that McIntosh, upon leaving the station, leaned into the front-seat area of his car where the money was found.
Wrenn was apparently the only witness who testified that McIntosh, and not his companion, was the thief. The prosecution learned after the preliminary examination that Wrenn had left the state and was either in a North Carolina prison, or living on Webb Avenue in Burlington, North Carolina, possibly under the alias "Danny Hill.” The prosecution took the following steps to locate Wrenn: It checked his local home and employer. It telephoned information for Burlington and learned that no Wrenn or Hill was listed on Webb Avenue. It communicated with Burlington police and asked them to check on Wrenn’s whereabouts. No reply was ever received. The prosecution did not communicate with North Carolina prison authorities.
Applying the decision of the United States Supreme Court in Barber v Page, n 12 supra, which this Court read as establishing a due diligence standard, this Court held that the prosecution’s efforts failed to rise to the level of due diligence. The prosecution should have sought to locate Wrenn in Burlington and should have communicated with North Carolina prison authorities. "The fact that an attempt may prove unsuccessful does not justify the prosecution’s failure to make that attempt, Barber, supra.”McIntosh, supra, p 87.
Where a witness is beyond a court’s jurisdiction, use of the uniform act may be required in all cases. See Barber v Page, n 12 supra, p 723 (while the fact that the witness was outside the court’s jurisdiction may at one time have excused the prosecution from producing him, because of developments like the uniform act, "it is clear that at the present time increased cooperation between the States themselves and between the States and the Federal Government” now requires the prosecution to engage in diligent efforts to produce witnesses who may be beyond the court’s jurisdiction); People v Gaffney, 51 Mich App 526; 215 NW2d 587 (1974) (distinguishing People v Serra, 301 Mich 124; 3 NW2d 35 [1942], and holding that the prosecution’s failure to utilize the uniform act barred a finding of good-faith diligence).
Other states that have considered the matter agree that use of the uniform act is required in at least some circumstances. See State v Kaufman, 304 So 2d 300, 303 (La, 1974); State v Kirk, 211 Kan 165, 170-171; 505 P2d 619 (1973).
In People v Serra, supra, this Court said that the prosecution’s failure to produce at trial an indorsed res gestae witness who had moved to Buffalo, New York, did not bar a finding of due diligence. There was no question of using any prior testimony against the defendant.
In People v Hunley, 313 Mich 688; 21 NW2d 923 (1946), the prosecution offered the preliminary examination testimony of a witness who had subsequently been inducted into the Army and sent to Kentucky. The witness was not vital to the prosecution’s case. This Court emphasized that the witness’ "testimony was corroborated in almost every detail by other witnesses.” Hunley, supra, p 692. This Court also observed that the defendant did not in her brief assert that the prosecution should have utilized the uniform act, and that no showing had been made that Kentucky had enacted a reciprocal provision, which the act requires before it can be utilized.
Troher was a member of the Forbidden Wheels, but was not in the clubhouse at the time of the killings.
Wilfred David’s testimony, adverted to in the opinion to affirm, was not adverted to in Dye’s brief in this Court.
For a more complete factual summary, see n 4.
Quoting Nickerson, supra, 386 Mass 61.
See also Farley v State, 717 P2d 111 (Okla Crim App, 1986) (evidence of prearrest silence is more prejudicial than probative of a defendant’s guilt); State v Sabbah, 13 Ohio App 3d 124, 136; 468 NE2d 718 (1982) ("Persuasively reasoned authority supports the proposition that all pretrial silence is usually so prejudicial in disproportion to its probative worth that exclusion is warranted in all but exceptional cases” [emphasis in original]); People v Conyers, 52 NY2d 454; 420 NE2d 933 (1981) (state rules of evidence generally preclude the use of a defendant’s pretrial silence to impeach his trial testimony).
See n 29.
The opinion to affirm states:
The prosecution did not make any inquiry in its case in chief regarding Dye’s prearrest failure to make a statement, Dye’s failure to make a postarrest statement to the homicide investigator, or his postarrest statement to the arson investigators. [Post, p 112.]
During the prosecution’s case in chief, the following questions were put to and responses elicited from Troher:
Q. To your knowledge, did there come a time when Mr. Dye was arrested?
A. Yes.
Q. Before that arrest, had you turned yourself in, so to speak, or had you gone down to the police, let me use it that way.
A. I believe so.
Q. Mr. Dye did not go down with you to the police?
A. No.
The prosecution, during its case in chief, also elicited testimony from Seidel, Dawson, and Stever that although Dye did not want them to consult an attorney, they did so and made statements to the police. The purpose of this testimony was to emphasize Dye’s prearrest failure to make a statement to the police even though he knew that others were making such statements: "In effect, the prosecutor asked the question 'Is it natural to expect the defendant to go to the police and report his version of the offense knowing of the similar inclination of the other witnesses?’ ”
The opinion to affirm would "hold that the evidentiary errors alleged by the defendant did not result in a miscarriage of justice.” Post, pp 116-117.
The opinion refers to Doyle v Ohio, 426 US 610; 96 S Ct 2240; 49 L Ed 2d 91 (1976), and states that the United States Supreme Court there "held that use of postarrest, post-Miranda warning silence for impeachment was 'fundamentally unfair and a deprivation of due process . . . .’ Id. at 618.” Post, p 107.
The opinion further states:
For the purpose of deciding the remaining claims of error concerning the testimony of David and Troher, we assume arguendo under People v Collier, 426 Mich 23; 393 NW2d 346 (1986), that the trial judge erred in permitting the prosecutor to question these witnesses concerning defendant’s prearrest conduct. [Post, p 114.]
The opinion to affirm does not state that Dye’s prearrest silence was admissible under Collier. | [
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Boyle, J.
In this case we are asked to consider whether an award of future pension benefits in a wrongful discharge claim under Michigan law is precluded by the preemption provision of § 514 of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act, 29 USC 1144(a). We conclude that the erisa does not expressly preempt Michigan law in this area. We therefore reverse the decision of the Court of Appeals and reinstate that portion of the trial court’s amended judgment awarding future pension benefits.
i
The plaintiff was first employed by defendant Park West Galleries on August 1, 1976, at the age of forty-four. She was initially hired as a part-time bookkeeper but was given a full-time position after two months. In 1978, the plaintiff was promoted to executive assistant and instructed by the owner of Park West Galleries, Albert Scaglione, to hire an assistant to perform her former bookkeeping functions. In subsequent years, as the business grew, the plaintiff was given the position of director of marketing, auction, and sales. Albert Scaglione assured the plaintiff at various times during her employment that her position was a secure one which would be available for her lifetime if she continued to perform well. In 1980, the plaintiff qualified for participation in Park West Galleries defined benefit pension plan. On June 19, 1981, at the age of forty-nine, the plaintiff was discharged from her employment at Park West Galleries.
The plaintiff filed a claim in circuit court on July 27, 1982, alleging, inter alia, that she had been wrongfully discharged in violation of her contract of employment. The plaintiff claimed damages in the nature of past and future compensation, including future pension benefits. The plaintiff’s claims were tried before a jury on January 17-26, 1984. At the close of proofs, the defendants moved for a directed verdict on the claim for pension benefits, citing the preemption provision of the erisa, 29 USC 1144(a). The trial court denied the motion but submitted the question of pension benefits to the jury for a special verdict. The jury returned a verdict for the plaintiff, finding damages for lost pension benefits in a present value amount of $89,220. The trial court subsequently denied the defendants’ alternative motions for judgment notwithstanding the verdict or a new trial on the same erisa preemption ground.
The defendants appealed the trial court’s ruling in the Michigan Court of Appeals, raising the single issue of preemption. In a decision dated July 22, 1986, the Court of Appeals reversed, ruling that the erisa preempted the award of damages for lost pension benefits. We granted leave to appeal in an order dated March 24, 1987._
II
A. THE STATUTE
The erisa, as explained by the United States Senate Committee on Finance,
[i]s designed to make pension profit-sharing, and stock bonus plans more effective in providing retirement income for employees who have spent their careers in useful and socially productive work. It encourages provision for the retirement needs of many millions of individuals. At the same time, the committee recognized that private retirement plans are voluntary on the part of the employer, and, therefore, it has carefully weighed the additional costs to the employer and minimized them to the extent consistent with minimum standards for retirement benefits.
In broad outline, the bill is designed—
(1) to increase the number of individuals participating in retirement plans;
(2) to make sure that those who do participate in such plans do not lose their benefits as a result of unduly restrictive forfeiture provisions or failure of the plan to accumulate and retain sufficient funds to meet its obligations; and
(3) to make the tax laws relating to such plans fairer by providing greater equality of treatment under such plans for the different taxpaying groups involved. [93d Cong (2d Sess), 1974 US Code Cong & Admin News, p 4890.]
To accomplish these goals, the statute imposes participation, funding, and vesting requirements on pension plans. It also sets various uniform standards for reporting, disclosure, and fiduciary responsibility under both pension and welfare plans. However, the erisa does not mandate that employers provide any particular benefits. Shaw v Delta Air Lines, Inc, 463 US 85, 91; 103 S Ct 2890; 77 L Ed 2d 490 (1983).
Of principal interest in this appeal is the preemption provision of the erisa in which Congress declared:
[T]he provisions of this title and title IV shall supersede any and all State laws insofar as they may now or hereafter relate to any employee benefit plan described in section 4(a) and not exempt under section 4(b). [88 Stat 897.]
The issue we address is the scope of this provision. The remedies available to the plaintiff under Michigan contract law appear to "relate to” her defined benefit pension plan. On the other hand, in the United States Supreme Court’s rulings on the erisa preemption provision, it is presumed that Congress did not intend to preempt areas of traditional state regulation. See, e.g., Metropolitan Life Ins Co v Massachusetts, 471 US 724, 740; 105 S Ct 2380; 85 L Ed 2d 728 (1985). Thus, we must determine more precisely what related areas of state law are preempted by the erisa and whether the plaintiff’s claims fall within one or more of those areas.
B. THE FEDERAL DECISIONS
In Alessi v Rayhestos-Manhattan, Inc, 451 US 504; 101 S Ct 1895; 68 L Ed 2d 402 (1981), the United States Supreme Court first considered the scope of the erisa’s preemption provision. The state law at issue was a section of New Jersey’s workers’ compensation act prohibiting a setoff of workers’ compensation benefits against employee retirement pension benefits. Id., pp 507-508. The New Jersey set-off provision precluded a reduction in workers’ compensation payments, not pension payments. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court held that the New Jersey provision was preempted because it ultimately affected the administration of pension funds by indirectly interfering with the integration method for calculating benefits. Id., p 524. Unfortunately for our purposes, the Alessi Court declined an invitation to determine the outer boundaries of erisa preemption. Id., pp 524-525.
Erisa preemption was next considered by the United States Supreme Court in the context of New York statutes forbidding discrimination in employment, including discrimination in employee benefit plans on the basis of pregnancy. Shaw v Delta Air Lines, Inc, supra, p 88. The Shaw Court unanimously held that New York law was preempted by the erisa. The Court reasoned that the words "relate to” were used by Congress in a broad sense, including laws which directly regulated employee benefit plans as well as those affecting employee benefit plans by implication. Id., pp 96-99. Since the obvious implication of the New York statutes was to require disbursements under employee benefit plans for otherwise noncompensable, pregnancy-related disability, the state law did fall within the general erisa preemption provision. The Shaw Court was careful to note, however, that_
[s]ome state actions may affect employee benefit plans in too tenuous, remote, or peripheral a manner to warrant a finding that the law "relates to” the plan. Cf. American Telephone and Telegraph Co v Merry, 592 F2d 118, 121 (CA 2, 1979) (state garnishment of a spouse’s pension income to enforce alimony and support orders is not preempted). [Shaw, supra, p 100, n 21.]
Two years later, in Metropolitan Life, supra, a Massachusetts statute, requiring certain minimum mental health care benefits in general health insurance policies, was upheld in a challenge under the erisa preemption provision. Again, the United States Supreme Court had no difficulty in finding that the statute fell within the general preemption provision of the erisa, 29 USC 1144(a), in that the state law did "relate to” employee benefit plans. However, the Court also found an exception for insurance regulation to be applicable. See 29 USC 1144(b)(2)(A). The Metropolitan Life Court acknowledged that certain "disuniformities” from state to state would result from its ruling, but concluded that these inevitably flowed from the decision of Congress to preserve local insurance regulation. Id., p 747.
In Pilot Life Ins Co v Dedeaux, 481 US 41; 107 S Ct 1549; 95 L Ed 2d 39 (1987), a complaint was filed for tortious breach of contract, breach of fiduciary duties, and fraud in the inducement on the basis of Pilot Life’s termination of Dedeaux’s long-term disability benefits under a group plan. Pilot Life was both the insurer and administrator of the plan. Id., pp 43-44. All of Dedeaux’s claims were based upon an allegedly improper processing of its claims under the plan. Dedeaux’s complaint stated causes of action only under state law. None of the causes of action available under the erisa was asserted by Dedeaux against Pilot Life. See 29 USC 1132. The unanimous Pilot Life Court held that Dedeaux’s complaint did "relate to” an employee benefit plan and did not fall within any erisa preemption exception. The Court concluded that the erisa’s civil enforcement provisions were Dedeaux’s exclusive remedy against the plan and its fiduciaries. Id., p 57.
In the companion case of Metropolitan Life Ins Co v Taylor, 481 US 58; 107 S Ct 1542; 95 L Ed 2d 55 (1987), the United States Supreme Court considered the more specific, procedural question of removal jurisdiction under the erisa in cases alleging improper administration of employee benefit plans. Taylor had filed common-law claims for breach of contract and "mental anguish” against Metropolitan Life as the administrator of his group disability plan. Taylor joined those claims with additional claims against his employer, General Motors, for wrongful termination and failure to promote on the basis of the alleged, disability. The claims against both defendants were originally filed in state court. Metropolitan Life and General Motors petitioned for removal to federal court, alleging federal question jurisdiction over the disability benefits claims and pendent jurisdiction over the remaining claims. The United States Supreme Court upheld the removal, ruling that the erisa preempted Taylor’s common-law claims and also displaced them with the erisa’s own civil enforcement provisions. See 29 USC 1132. It is important to note, however, that the Taylor Court was not required to address the question of erisa preemption of the claims against the employer, since removal jurisdiction was not based upon those claims. See Taylor v General Motors Corp, 826 F2d 452 (CA 6, 1987) (addressing the pendent claims on remand).
Most recently, in the watershed opinion of Fort Halifax Packing Co, Inc v Coyne, 482 US 1; 107 S Ct 2211; 96 L Ed 2d 1 (1987), the United States Supreme Court rejected an erisa preemption challenge to a Maine statute requiring a one-time severance payment to employees in the event of a plant closing. Fort Halifax is particularly significant for two reasons. First, it is the first United States Supreme Court opinion in which a statute survived an express erisa preemption challenge without reference to a specific erisa preemption exception and therefore represents the first United States Supreme Court opinion defining the outer boundaries of the general erisa preemption provision. Second, Fort Halifax contains the most detailed and explicit United States Supreme Court discussion of the purposes underlying the erisa preemption provision.
The Fort Halifax Court emphasized that an erisa preemption analysis must be guided by respect for the separate spheres of governmental authority preserved in our federal system. Fort Halifax, supra, 482 US 19. Citing Alessi, supra, the Court explained the federal interest as follows:
Erisa’s preemption provision was prompted by recognition that employers establishing and maintaining employee benefit plans are faced with the task of coordinating complex administrative activities. A patch-work scheme of regulation would introduce considerable inefficiencies in benefit program operation, which might lead those employers with existing plans to reduce benefits, and those without such plans to refrain from adopting them. Preemption ensures that the administrative practices of a benefit plan will be governed by only a single set of regulations. See, e.g., HR Rep No. 93-533, p 12 (1973) ("[A] fiduciary standard embodied in Federal legislation is considered desirable because it will bring a measure of uniformity in an area where decisions under the same set of facts may differ from state to state”). [Fort Halifax, supra, 482 US 11.]
On the other hand, the Court also noted a state interest in the serious economic consequences of plant closings. Id., 482 US 19, n 13.
The Fort Halifax Court found that federal and state interests were properly reconciled in the Maine statute, explaining:
Fort Halifax found no need to respond to passage of the Maine statute by setting up an administrative scheme to meet its contingent statutory obligation, any more than it would find it necessary to set up an ongoing scheme to deal with the obligations it might face in the event that some day it might go bankrupt. The company makes no contention that its statutory duty has in any way hindered its ability to operate its retirement plan in uniform fashion, a plan that pays retirement, death, and permanent and total disability benefits on an ongoing basis. . . . The obligation imposed by the Maine statute thus differs radically in impact from a requirement that an employer pay ongoing benefits on a continuous basis.
The Maine statute therefore creates no impediment to an employer’s adoption of a uniform benefit administrative scheme. Neither the possibility of a one-time payment in the future, nor the act of making such a payment, in any way creates the potential for the type of conflicting regulation of benefit plans that erisa preemption was intended to prevent. As a result, preemption of the Maine law would not serve the purpose for which erisa’s preemption provision was enacted. [Fort Halifax, supra, 482 US 14-15.]
From the foregoing authority we conclude that a preemptive relationship to an erisa plan is established when state law interferes with a plan by: 1) altering the level of benefits which would be paid out under a given plan from state to state, 2) altering the terms of a plan, such as the requirements for eligibility, or 3) subjecting the fiduciaries of a plan to claims other than those provided for in the erisa itself. Thus, in Alessi, the New Jersey set-off preclusion for workers’ compensation benefits was preempted by the erisa because it altered the level of benefits which would be paid to a beneficiary under a plan in New Jersey. The New York law in Shaw was preempted because it had the effect of altering the terms of a disability plan to include coverage for pregnancies. Finally, in Pilot Life and Metropolitan Life Ins Co, the common-law claims were preempted because they subjected the fiduciaries of the plans to liability apart from that expressly created by the erisa.
Our conclusion that the boundaries of the erisa’s express preemption are demarcated by these relations is consistent with both the purpose and method of Congress in creating the erisa. The purpose, as noted in the United States Senate Finance Committee’s report, was to encourage the development of employee benefit plans. However, the method chosen by Congress was not a direct requirement that employers provide certain benefits, Shaw, supra, p 91, but the creation of a uniform national body of law regulating such plans. Id., p 99, quoting 120 Cong Rec 29197, 29933. With these purposes and methods in mind, we turn to the question whether' the erisa preempted this plaintiff’s claim for future pension benefits as damages in her wrongful discharge claim.
C. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOST FUTURE PENSION BENEFITS IN A WRONGFUL DISCHARGE CLAIM AND THE ERISA
Defendants Park West Galleries and Albert Scaglione initially argue that the award of future pension benefits in the plaintiff’s wrongful discharge claim does "relate to” the Park West pension plan because the damages represent future pension benefits which would have accrued to the plaintiff under the plan. In fact, according to the defendants, the amended judgment entered in this case specifically identifies this portion of the plaintiff’s award as "for the pension.”
The defendants’ argument would be compelling if the award of future pension benefits had been against Park West Galleries, Inc., Defined Benefit Pension Plan. There is, however, no danger of such an award in this case. The plan itself is not and never has been a party to this action. Furthermore, no trustee or administrator of the plan has been joined in a capacity as administrator or trustee. In short, the simple fact that the damage award was based in part on the terms of the plan does not place any fiscal or administrative burden upon the plan itself. This relationship to the plan is, in the words of the Shaw Court, too "peripheral” to trigger erisa preemption. Shaw, supra, p 100, n 21.
The defendants also argue that the award of future pension benefits relates to the pension plan because the plan itself provides a remedy for the loss of future benefits in circumstances of this kind. Article VI, § 5 of the plan does provide for vested credits when an employee’s employment is terminated "for any reason.” The defendants additionally assert that the erisa regulations, specifically 29 CFR 2530.200a-2530.200b-3, are incorporated in the Park West plan by law and would provide for the accrual of future pension credits in addition to vested credits upon the basis of a successful claim for lost wages. _
Assuming, arguendo, that the defendants’ interpretations of the plan and relevant erisa regulations are correct, we are nevertheless forced to conclude that the erisa preemption provision is inapplicable. The question of express erisa preemption does not turn upon whether an alternative remedy is offered under the plan or under the erisa. Indeed, the Shaw Court implicitly ac knowledged that, apart from the New York statutes, no law would preclude plan administrators from discriminating against pregnancy-related disability prior to the effective date of the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, 42 USC 2000e(k). Id., p 89. Erisa preemption instead, as discussed above, turns upon whether state law places any fiscal, administrative, or legal burdens upon the plan. In our view, the fact that the plaintiff may have had additional remedies available under the plan does not indicate that pursuit of her remedy against her employer creates a fiscal, administrative, or legal burden upon the plan itself. Viewed in this light, the defendants’ second argument is merely a more sophisticated version of the earlier argument that the accrual of future pension benefits relates to the plan because the award was calculated on the basis of the terms of the plan. Again, we can only conclude that this relationship is too peripheral to trigger erisa preemption. Shaw, supra.
Finally, we reject the Court of Appeals reasoning that sound policy requires erisa preemption of these damages because:
The prospect of jury awards under state law for lost pension benefits is a severe disincentive to the establishment of private pension plans and inconsistent with erisa’s express preemption of all state laws that "relate to” plans under its coverage. [153 Mich App 520, 527; 396 NW2d 210 (1986).][ ]
In our view, it is an equally plausible microeconomic hypothesis that employers "buy” labor at market rates and therefore would be required to substitute other, recoverable forms of compensation in the event that they elect to discontinue pension contributions. Moreover, even assuming that the economic analysis of the Court of Appeals is correct, we would find the relationship too remote to trigger erisa preemption. Shaw, supra, p 100, n 21. Our reading of the erisa preemption provision indicates that there must be a real, if only indirect, relationship between the challenged state law and an employee benefit plan. The relationship posited in the Court of Appeals analysis is merely hypothetical. It might similarly be posited, for example, that an increase in Michigan’s minimum wage would discourage the creation of pension funds by simultaneously reducing the amount of an employer’s income allocable to pensions and increasing the level of benefits specified under a pension plan, yet we would be loath to rule that state minimum wage law is preempted by the erisa. Such a relationship is, in the language of the Shaw Court, simply too "remote” to trigger erisa preemption. Shaw, supra.
We agree with the conclusion of the dissent that this wrongful discharge claim has some relationship to the Park West Defined Benefit Pension Plan. However, as made clear by the decisions of the United States Supreme Court, proper analysis of the scope of the erisa preemption provision requires more than an inquiry as to whether state law is logically related to an erisa plan. We reject an all-encompassing view of this legislation which would subordinate the sovereign powers of this state to the limited authority of the federal government. As the United States Supreme Court has explained:_
Erisa preemption analysis "must be guided by respect for the separate spheres of governmental authority preserved in our federalist system.” Alessi v Raybestos-Manhattan, Inc, 451 US [504] 522 [68 L Ed 2d 402; 101 S Ct 1895 (1981)]. [Fort Halifax Packing Co, supra, 482 US 19.]
In sum, our review of the defendants’ arguments and the record in this case fails to show that the award of future benefits imposes an administrative, fiscal, or legal burden upon the employee benefit plan. We therefore conclude that the award of future pension benefits is not preempted under the erisa. Finding no merit in the remaining issue raised by the defendants, we decline to discuss it in this appeal.
hi
CONCLUSION
Recent federal law establishes that state law is preempted under the erisa, 29 USC 1144(a) when the state law "relates to” an employee benefit plan by; 1) altering the level of benefits which would be paid out under a given plan from state to state, 2) altering the terms of the plan such as requirements for eligibility, or 3) subjecting the fiduciaries of a plan to claims other than those provided in the erisa itself. Furthermore, even state law which relates to an employee benefit plan by imposing a fiscal, administrative, or legal burden upon the employee benefit plan may not be preempted by the erisa if the relationship is so remote as to constitute merely a hypothetical possibility. Since the award of future pension benefits in this wrongful discharge claim was against the employer, rather than the pension plan or an administrator or a fiduciary of the plan, it does not relate to a pension plan within the meaning of the erisa. The decision of the Court of Appeals is reversed and the judgment of the circuit court is reinstated.
Brickley, Cavanagh, and Archer, JJ., concurred with Boyle, J.
See n 15.
We view the Court of Appeals decision as affirming the balance of the amended judgment entered by the trial court.
The claim for pension benefits was for future benefits, excluding those for which the plaintiff was already vested under the plan at the time of her discharge.
The jury also found damages in the amount of $14,660.80 for front and back pay as well as $500 for slander per se, although those damages are not at issue in this appeal.
A contrary conclusion was reached by another Court of Appeals panel in Sepanske v Bendix Corp, 147 Mich App 819; 384 NW2d 54 (1985).
For the purposes of erisa’s preemption provision, the word "law” is defined so as to include case law. 29 USC 1144(c)(1).
Presumably, the New Jersey statute actually would have increased the resources available to the pension fund for integration and thus was not a financial burden on pension funds. However, the New Jersey law did impose a significant administrative burden because it required a distinct method for the calculation of benefits under the plan for New Jersey workers.
Shaw involved two New York statutes, the Human Rights Law, NY Exec Law, §§ 290-301 (McKinney), and the Disability Benefits Law, NY Work Comp Law, §§ 200-242 (McKinney). In addition to holding that these statutes fell within the general erisa preemption provision by virtue of their relation to employee benefit plans, the Shaw Court also considered the statutes under the erisa preemption exceptions, 29 USC 1144, which are not at issue in this appeal. Shaw ultimately held that the New York Human Rights Law is preempted by the erisa insofar as it renders the activities of a plan unlawful which are not unlawful under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, 42 USC 2000e et seq. Shaw also held that the New York Disability Benefits Law is preempted insofar as it regulates benefits under a multibenefit plan, but exempt from erisa preemption insofar as it regulates separately administered disability benefit plans.
The Massachusetts statute was also upheld under a National Labor Relations Act preemption challenge.
The plaintiff in this appeal does not assert that any statutory exception to erisa preemption is applicable.
We acknowledge that, in Morningstar v Meijer, Inc, 662 F Supp 555 (ED Mich, 1987), the Taylor holding was viewed as a ruling that the retaliatory discharge claim against the employer was preempted by the erisa and supplanted by the erisa’s civil-enforcement provisions. See 29 USC 1132, 1140. While we decline to embrace this view, we do note that it is consistent with our holding. The plaintiff herein, like Morningstar, has not alleged a retaliatory discharge and would therefore not be subject to erisa preemption.
As the concurring opinion of Chief Justice Riley notes, the sole basis for the plaintiff’s claim of wrongful discharge is a traditional area of Michigan common law. The rights and duties of these litigants have their genesis in a contract of employment. The fact that damages were calculated with reference to the plan does not change the nature of this cause of action. See Lingle v Norge Div of Magic Chef, Inc, 486 US 399; 108 S Ct 1877; 100 L Ed 2d 410 (1988) (the fact that additional, substantive rights are provided to an employee who is the victim of a retaliatory discharge for claiming workers’ compensation benefits does not inextricably link the cause of action to similar rights under the employee’s collective bargaining agreement, nor does it invoke federal preemption under §301 of the Labor Management Relations Act, 29 USC 185). But see also Metropolitan Life Ins Co v Massachusetts, 471 US 724, 747; 105 S Ct 2380; 85 L Ed 2d 728 (1985) (unlike erisa, the nlra contains no statutory preemption provision), and see n 15.
Again we must note that the claim for pension benefits was for future benefits, excluding those for which the plaintiff was already vested under the plan. The parties have agreed that the present value of those vested benefits which were excluded from damages was approximately $5,000.
It is alleged by the defendants and amicus curiae Michigan Manufacturers Association that these erisa regulations would allow the plaintiff to obtain additional accruals under the plan upon the basis of the jury’s award of front and back pay. See n 4. Actually, additional accruals are allowed by regulation only for back pay. 29 CFR 2530.200b-2(a)(3). In addition, no more than 501 hours of service are required to be credited by regulation, 29 CFR 2530.200b-2(a)(2)(i), although a particular plan may require that additional hours of back pay "service” be credited. 29 CFR 2530.200a-2. We are apprised of no provision in the Park West Galleries defined pension plan which requires accruals in excess of 501 hours of back pay. The record does not disclose whether the jury considered these regulations in awarding pension benefits, although the record also fails to disclose any attempt by the defendants to have the jury instructed in this regard.
As we have noted above, the erisa does contain its own civil enforcement mechanism. 29 USC 1132. While it may be asserted that creation of this mechanism carries with it an implied preemption, the question is largely rendered academic by the fact that actions under §1132 generally "relate to” plans in that they impose a fiscal, administrative, or legal burden upon plans. One possible exception to this rule would be retaliatory discharges which are proscribed under 29 USC 1140 and made actionable under 29 USC 1132a(3)(B)(ii), although in our view, even this cause of action carries a high probability of imposing fiscal, administrative, or legal burdens upon a plan. We need not address this issue, since the plaintiff has not pled a cause of action under 29 USC 1132, nor have the defendants argued or briefed the issue of implied preemption. However, we observe no inconsistency between the remedies provided in 29 CFR 2530 and Michigan law in this case. See n 11. Thus, to the extent that the defendants’ argument suggests implied preemption, state law must be treated far more deferentially. As one commentator has explained:
[Wjhere Congress legislates "in a field which the States have traditionally occupied ... we start with the assumption that the historic police powers of the States [are] not to be [ousted] by the Federal Act unless that was the clear and manifest purpose of Congress.” Because this test looks to the nature of the subject regulated rather than the character of the federal regulatory scheme, the standards upon which it relies closely parallel those that would be applied if the state regulation or taxation were challenged under the commerce clause. If, under the Cooley doctrine, [Cooley v Bd of Wardens of the Port of Philadelphia, 53 US (12 How) 299; 13 L Ed 996 (1851)], the activity or interest affected by a challenged state action is regarded as "local,” and if the state action contravenes no other commerce clause requirement, then total federal preemption will not be inferred in the absence of an obvious congres sional intent to bar state action over the same subject matter. On this basis, the Court ruled in Huron Portland Cement Co v City of Detroit, [362 US 440; 80 S Ct 813; 4 L Ed 2d 852 (1960)], that a municipality may enforce its smoke abatement ordinance against a federally licensed steamship engaged in interstate commerce, even though structural modification of the vessel was required to bring it into compliance with the antipollution statute. Similarly, while federal occupation of the field defined by direct regulation of safety designs for nuclear power plants had been made clear in Pacific Gas & Electric Co [v State Energy Resources Conservation & Development Comm, 461 US 190; 103 S Ct 1713; 75 L Ed 2d 52 (1983)], the Court in Silkwood v Kerr-McGee Corp, [464 US 238; 104 S Ct 615; 78 L Ed 2d 443 (1984)], held that state law providing for compensatory and punitive damages for tort victims, including victims of radiation injuries, was outside the occupied field and therefore not preempted. In reaching this conclusion, the Court was clearly influenced by the long tradition of state concern with the compensation of victims of negligently, recklessly, or intentionally inflicted injury.
On the other hand, if the field is one that is traditionally deemed "national,” the Court is more vigilant in striking down state incursions into subjects that Congress may have reserved to itself. It was not surprising, therefore, that the Court invalidated the state alien registration law in Hines v Davidowitz, [312 US 52; 61 S Ct 399; 85 L Ed 581 (1941)]; the Court was extremely solicitous of the paramount federal interest in matters germane to foreign affairs. [Tribe, American Constitutional Law (2d ed), pp 499-500. Emphasis in the original.]
In our view, the field of individual employment contracts is one which states have traditionally occupied. Since we find no clear and manifest purpose within § 1132 to oust states from this field, we would be reluctant to find a § 1132 remedy exclusive under a theory of implied preemption.
Although the imposition of an administrative burden might suggest preemption, not every state law which imposes an administrative burden upon an erisa plan is preempted. See Mackey v Lanier Collections Agency & Service, Inc, 486 US —; 108 S Ct 2182; 100 L Ed 2d 836 (1988) (state law allowing the garnishment of employee erisa welfare plan benefits not preempted).
To the extent that the argument also implies a duplication of recovery, we hasten to add that this was a question of proofs which might have been submitted in the trial court. In fact, it appears from the record that the future pension benefits awarded to the plaintiff were reduced by her vested amount under the plan.
We are aware that the Court of Appeals analysis in this case was rendered without the benefit of Fort Halifax.
See MCL 408.381 et seq.; MSA 17.255(1) et seq.
In art VI, § 1 of the Park West Galleries, Inc., defined benefit pension plan, for example, the amount of the benefit is directly proportional to wages paid during the years of service.
In Gilbert v Burlington Industries, Inc, 765 F2d 320, 327 (CA 2, 1985), aff'd sub nom Roberts v Burlington Industries, Inc, 477 US 901; 106 S Ct 3267; 91 L Ed 2d 558 (1986), it was explained that when a state statute of general application does not affect the structure, the administration, or the type of benefits provided by an erisa plan, the mere fact that the statute has some economic effect does not require that the statute be invalidated.
The defendants have argued alternatively that a loss of future pension benefits was too remote or speculative to recover as damages for a breach of employment contract. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
Nancy Bigelow sued for dower in lands aliened by her husband in 1838. He died in 1851. These suits were brought in 1876.
The two principal questions presented are 1, whether her marriage was proven by legal evidence; and 2, whether dower is governed by the statutes of limitation.
The marriage was proved by her son’s testimony, showing that she and his father lived together and brought up a large family, treated each other on all occasions as husband and wife, were so reputed in the family and by others, addressed each other as such, and jointly signed papers in that relation.
We know of no authority which requires any better proof of marriage, unless in criminal prosecutions and eases of seduction. There is no rule of law making marriage records the best evidence in any case, and even where they exist some parol evidence is usually necessary to identify the parties, in case of any controversy. In most cases where the right to property is to be made out by proof of a marriage, the witnesses who were present are not living or attainable. One or both of the married persons must die before any inheritance or dower can exist. It would be impossible in a majority of such cases to prove a marriage by any better testimony than conduct and reputation. The general presumption in favor of legality has led to more liberal rules instead of stricter ones in modern times, as more just and reasonable. 1 Starkie Ev., 45; Hutchins v. Kimmell, 31 Mich., 126; 2 Greenleaf’s Ev., § 462; 3 Edwards’ Edition of Phillip’s Ev., 599 and cases.
The question whether the statute of limitations applies to rights of dower is supposed to be decided in the negative by the case of May v. Rumney, 1 Mich., 1.
In that case the facts showed that James May, the husband of the demandant, died in January, 1829, having aliened the land in dispute in 1807. On the 5th of November, 1829, a law was passed providing a short period of limitations of ten years for all real and possessory actions where the right of action had then accrued; and it was held Mrs. May’s right did not come within the statute.
At the time of Judge May’s death there had been no new remedy for the recovery of dower adopted, and it was left to the common-law remedies. The opinion in May v. Rumney discusses these fully, and points out that the remedy by writ of dower was not a possessory action, but only determined the right, which, when determined, could afterwards be enforced by ejectment. Of course, under these circumstances it would, if the views of the court were correct, preclude the operation of the short law of 1829, and no other statute was in question under the issue. The first statute passed providing a speedier remedy for dower was “An act for the speedy assignment of dower, and for the preventing of strip and waste by tenants therein,” approved October 29, 1829. This act was passed six days before the short statute of limitations. It provided for proceedings by writ of dower, but also gave a writ of seizin, which rendered a supplemental ejectment unnecessary. But this statute required a demand of one month before any action could be brought, and thus rendered it impossible for Mrs. May to sue before the 5th of November.
The Revised Statutes of 1838 seem to have made provision for two remedies. One was the writ of dower, which might be brought after one month and within one year from demand, under which she could recover possession and damages for detention. Revised Stat. of 1838, pt. 3, tit. 3, ch. 3. The other was the new statutory action of ejectment, in substance like our present statutes, and superseding the ancient action of ejectment previously used. Revised Stat., pt. 3, tit. 3, ch. 2. This new action of ejectment differed from the old one in making the judgment conclusive after a certain period, but allowing two new trials.' No provision was made for any new trial in the action of writ of dower, which seems to have been an action of right with some of the remedies belonging to possessory actions.
This anomalous state of things was ended by the revision of 1846, still in force, which abolished all other actions but ejectment, and imposes no conditions on its commencement to recover dower.
There is no reason that we can discover why a stale claim of dower in lands aliened by the husband deserves any more consideration than any other claim. Every principle of justice and policy is against favoring ancient and dormant claims. These dower claims are often, if not generally, unknown until presented, and it is very difficult in many cases to find out whether they exist or not. The courts under the common law system of procedure appear to have felt themselves bound, for reasons which we do not altogether appreciate, to give to statutes of repose a technical construction whereby they excluded writs of dower because not mentioned, and not in all respects identical with any other form of action. But under our statutes, inasmuch as we have but one form of action, which is statutory ejectment, to reach dower in the same way with other landed interests, we should be obliged, in order to except rights of dower from the operation of the limitation acts, to disregard their language altogether. The words of the statute in force in 1851 are that “No person shall commence an action for the recovery of any lands, nor make any entry thereupon, unless within twenty years after the right to make such entry or bring such action first accrued.” Revised Stat., 1846, ch. 139, § 1. These terms are free from ambiguity. If Mrs. Bigelow could have brought an action of ejectment in 1851 (and it is not pretended she could not have done so) she comes within the plain terms of the statute. We ■ are not called upon to discuss the propriety of the old decisions, which certainly strained the law very much to favor dower. The forms of remedy under which that over-nice casuistry was adopted, have been changed into a single and universal remedy which will not permit any different treatment of suitors. All must be governed by the same regulations.
We think, therefore, that the plaintiff in error in each of these cases is entitled to have judgment reversed, and a new judgment rendered in his favor with costs of both courts.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
My brethren are of the opinion that the recorder erred in his rulings in the reception of evidence in two particulars:
First, When he overruled the question put to the witness Webb, on cross-examination, whether he had not had some transactions with the defendant, wherein he had put in some false swearing for him or for the parties ; and,
Second, When he excluded the evidence sought from the witness, Dunnebacke, to show that there was nothing unusual or necessarily suspicious in defendant’s being where he was seen in company with Moylan.
Webb was an important and necessary witness in the case, and the conviction of defendant must, so far as we can understand from this record, have depended upon the belief of the jury in his evidence to conversations had with the defendant. That evidence was open to unfavorable inferences; and without saying that such inferences should have been drawn, my brethren think the recorder should have permitted very searching cross-examination under the circumstances. If he testified truly, he was apparently conniving at and assisting in the crime charged; and though he may have done this, as he says, not by way of enticing defendant into crime, but only by allowing him the opportunity he sought and requested, yet it placed him in an equivocal position, and the jury ought to have had the benefit of all the light the former dealings of the parties would have thrown upon the transaction. And although a question to the witness which implied rascality in the defendant himself as well as the witness seems extraordinary, yet it may have tested the credibility of the witness as well as any other; and his credibility in the case was quite as much involved as the defendant’s guilt.
The purpose of Dunnebacke’s evidence was to remove the unfavorable impressions which might be drawn from defendant and Moylan being seen together at a particular spot near the place of the burglary' and but a little while before. It is said on behalf of the prosecution that no importance was attached to the place of their meeting, but my brethren think the jury would have been likely to attach importance to it, and that evidence showing that there was nothing unusual in his being there, might have been useful to him and should have been received.
This being the view of the majority of the court, the judgment will be reversed and a new trial ordered. .
Graves, J., concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
Defendants are sued for the seizure on attachment of certain property as belonging to the husband of plaintiff which she claims to have taken from him in payment of an antecedent debt. The defense rests on a claim that the sale was fraudulent.
Plaintiff introduced testimony which, if true, showed conclusively a valid title. She proved that her husband’s business had been set up on money which she had advanced to him out of her own estate, and that his books had shown from the beginning that she was credited with these advances as a loan, and also that some time before any suit was commenced against him he transferred the property to her, and she removed it to a store rented by herself and opened a new set of books, putting her husband and a former clerk in charge of the business on her account.
While 'the record contains several questions closely connected with each other, the real questions were narrow, and presented but two issues, viz.: first, whether the husband was honestly indebted to the wife; and second, whether he transferred the property to apply on that debt. If these two conditions existed, he had a right to sell and she had a right to buy, and such a transaction cannot be complained of by other creditors, although it may hinder and delay or even entirely defeat the collection of their debts. Whatever may be their remedy in the bankrupt courts, such preferences are lawful under the State laws: this doctrine was so fully discussed and settled in Hill v. Bowman, 35 Mich., 191, that we need not elaborate it. That case was not reported in the regular series of reports when this cause was tried in the circuit court.
The hindrance and delay complained of were the withdrawal of the property in question from liability to seizure for other debts. If Mrs. Jordan was not herself a creditor, she had no case, as she did not claim to be a purchaser for new payments. If she was such a creditor and took the goods upon her debt, her rights were clear.
Charges were asked in two or three different forms, which presented her claims in the precise form indicated as giving them validity. As this was the only matter really in controversy (for she had no rights on any other theory) she was entitled to have the points clearly and plainly presented. The court refused to give the charges asked. She claims that this refusal was not corrected by the charges given.
We think the charges given did not present these questions without such qualifications as tended to create a wrong impression. The general effect of the charge is to create the idea that a wife cannot deal with her husband in obtaining payment of her debts due from him, on the same terms which would be allowable to other creditors. And in giving the charge on the particular question involved, the court appended conditions which were likely to do her wrong.
The charge was “she would have a perfect right, then, to purchase the entire stock of goods owned by him at that time, provided it was not done to injure some 'third party. And he would have a perfect right to sell to her, and the sale would be lawful under the laws of this State, though she was his wife, provided it was not done with the intent to injure any person. But a sale made to hinder, delay, or defraud the creditors of a party is fraudulent, and if the buyer has notice of the intent of the seller to defraud his creditors, and buys with that notice to aid and assist him in carrying out that purpose or plea, then such sale is fraudulent and void as to the creditors of that party.”
This doctrine is entirely true as to purchasers who are not creditors, and whose purchase, even though for value, may enable a debtor to convert his means into a shape which may prevent his creditors from reaching them. Sales on long time, or in exchange for assets not readily convertible, and not subject to levy, or in any other way preventive of practicable redress, may come within the mischief of the law, because they are equally injurious to all his creditors, and unjust to all alike.
But where property goes to pay an honest debt, that use 'of it is lawful, although it may cut off the redress of all others, and although intended so to do. And all the qualifications of delay ■ and hindrance in such a case will not make the act fraudulent. The jury must have understood from the charge that an intentional delay and hindrance was always fraudulent. The language will bear no other meaning, and the circuit judge probably entertained the same view held in the circuit court in Hill v. Bowman, which was reversed in this court. If this was not so, there was no reason for refusing to charge, as he was requested, that there was no fraud if the property was actually made to pay a debt justly due plaintiff.
The court below also made a statement to the jury in which, probably through inadvertence, an important fact was asserted wdiieh was not admitted, but which was directly controverted by all the testimony given on the subject. Among other circumstances to which he called their attention as badges of fraud, was the fact “ that no memorandum or account of the money claimed to have been loaned was kept,” and “that no evidence of the indebtedness was taken by the plaintiff.” What may have been the fact as to proof of any evidence taken by the plaintiff is not set out. But the evidence of Mr. Cooney, the partner of Jordan when he first entered into business, is positive that the capital put into the business was credited to Mrs. Jordan on the books of the firm. No attempt was made to contradict this, and there is no statement that there was any evidence inconsistent with it. The manner in which this was laid before the jury as a circumstance which might authorize an inference of fraud, was calculated to bias them unduly, and was unjust to plaintiff.
The great body of the record relates to questions which possess no materiality except upon the theory that the transaction was entirely fictitious, and we need not consider it. If there was no debt due plaintiff, it all becomes immaterial, as she set up no other consideration. If there was such a debt, and the property was taken in payment, then its effect on other creditors could not destroy her rights. There is no occasion, therefore, to examine the questions belonging to any other theory.
The judgment should be reversed with costs and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, J.
Snover sued Cool in the circuit court to recover the value of personal property sold and delivered. The case was heard by a referee, whose report was confirmed by the circuit court, and it is before us on exceptions taken to the referee’s rulings.
The first exception was to the ruling of the referee permitting the plaintiff to take the bill of particulars filed in the case, and to answer the question whether the list of ■articles therein given was a correct list of those sold by him to the defendant. The list embraced a large number of items, and no person could have been expected to remember them so as to be able to state them in detail without the aid of some memorandum made by himself or under his direction. We have no doubt of the right of the referee in his discretion to allow the liberty he did in this case. This exception was followed by others to rulings permitting the plaintiff to testify to the value of certain of the articles. These seem to us to require no. comment.
The defendant offered to show that a portion of the articles bought by her were afterwards taken away from her on a writ of replevin sued out by plaintiff’s wife. This offer was at first rejected, but the evidence was subsequently received, and the facts were fully shown. This obviated any error that had previously been committed in that regard.
Several questions were afterwards propounded by the defendant the purpose of which was to show that the sale of the property was made by the plaintiff for the sole purpose of cheating and defrauding his wife out of alimony in a suit commenced by her against him for a divorce. The referee could perceive no relevancy in these questions. Neither can we. The sale might have been fraudulent as to the wife and yet perfectly good as between these parties; and the referee had no occasion to inquire further.
The defendant offered to show that one Mrs. Freeman claimed a portion of the articles mentioned in the bill of particulars, and took them away, and for that reason defendant never received them. The offer was objected to, and the objection sustained. It was not proposed to show that. the plaintiff was in any way connected with Mrs. Freeman’s claim, or that plaintiff had failed to do all that was required of him in the delivery of the goods, or that Mrs. Freeman’s claim was well founded. It was consistent with the offer that the claim might have been wholly unfounded, and the defendant in fault in yielding to it. There was no error in this ruling.
The defendant then offered to show the negotiations of purchase between the parties, and the whole conversation relative to the sale of the goods in question; that they “were sold for the agreed price of seventeen dollars which was then and there paid, to show that it was a fraudulent contract between plaintiff and defendant; also as a part of the res gestes, and to construe the contract in the light of the surrounding circumstances, to show the whole contract.” So far as by this offer it was proposed to show that the transaction was a fraudulent one, the offer evidently had regard to the alleged fraud upon Mrs. Snover, and the plaintiff objected to it, and it was overruled. No objection was taken to the defendant showing the negotiations, and the price agreed upon if any, but he did not attempt to do so. We must assume that the purpose of the offer was the same with that previously overruled, namely to show that the transaction was a fraud upon Mrs. Snover. As we have already stated, that question must be left to be raised by Mrs. Snover herself.
It is true that where parties engage in an illegal transaction in the course of which one of them takes advantage of the other to wrong him, the law will not usually interfere in his behalf, but will leave him to take the consequences of his disregard of the law. But the principle has no application to the case the defendant proposed to show. The plaintiff might lawfully sell his property to the defendant for any price that pleased him, and there was no illegality in his doing so. Only as some creditor or other third person could show he was injured, would the illegality be made apparent; and that illegality could concern only the person injured, and might be waived by him, and would be waived if he took no proceedings to obtain redress. Nobody who was not concerned could insist upon objections which the party concerned refused or neglected to make. This is familiar doctrine, and is acted upon constantly where sales are made which are supposed to be frauds upon creditors. Hess v. Final, 32 Mich., 515.
An exception was taken to the ruling of the court excluding evidence that one Carrie Baker had not performed services for the defendant while boarding with her. The object appears to have been to support a charge of set-off against the plaintiff for the board by defendant of Carrie Baker at his request; but the record does not show how the proposed evidence became material, and we cannot say that the referee erred in oyerruling it. It is true that the circuit court was requested, when the case was pending there on the referee’s report, to send back the bill of exceptions for amendment; but as no defects were pointed out, the court properly denied the motion. If the bill failed to show all the facts which were material to a decision upon the exceptions taken, the fact should have been made to appear by affidavit, and it ought also to have been shown that the attention of the referee was seasonably called to the defect, or an excuse given for the failure to do so.
We find no error in this record, and the judgment must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
The only question in thi3 case is whether the court below erred in admitting evidence under the general issue that the plaintiff below did not own the note sued on when suit was brought. The note was payable to bearer.
It was decided in Hovey v. Sebring, 24 Mich., 232, that such a defense would defeat the action, and we can conceive no reason why it does not go to a direct denial of the allegations in the declaration averring ownership and contract relations between the parties. It is not matter in avoidance, and goes to the very foundation of the action.
The judgment below must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, C. J.
Plaintiff sued defendant before a justice upon an implied covenant in a deed, and obtained judgment which was reversed on certiorari. She brings error on the reversal.
Plaintiff held a mortgage in her own name against Eobert Le Eoy and wife, who conveyed the mortgaged premises to McGarry by deed with the following clause: “The above premises are conveyed subject to a mortgage given by the parties of the first part to Austin Wakeman for the sum of six hundred dollars, which the said party of the second part assumes and agrees to pay.”
There was no mortgage given to or ever held by Wakeman, but he had acted for plaintiff in collecting money on her mortgage. The mortgage was foreclosed by advertisement, and a balance remained unpaid, for which this suit was brought.
If this deed had properly referred to the mortgage, so as to identify it, we have held that in a foreclosure proceeding in equity, the mortgagee might, where as in this case the mortgage was included in the purchase money, be so far subrogated to the mortgagor as to have the benefit -of such an obligation. The reasons for this are peculiar to equity and are explained in Crawford v. Edwards, 33 Mich., 354, and Miller v. Thompson, 34 Mich., 10. The case of Higman v. Stewart, ante, p. 513, decided at this term, shows what conditions must exist to uphold a decree for such a liability.
But we have held in Pipp v. Reynolds, 20 Mich., 88, and Turner v. McCarty, 22 Mich., 265, that no action at law will lie by a third person against a promisor who has promised to pay an obligation from a debtor of such person, but who has had no dealings with the creditor. McGarry was only responsible immediately to Le Eoy his grantor, and the equities cannot be worked out in an action at law by the mortgagee against him alone. He never made any contract with plaintiff even assuming that she identifies herself with tHe mortgage, and. cannot, therefore be sued by her in assumpsit or covenant upon an agreement to which she was no party.
The judgment must be affirmed with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
If we adopt the views expressed in the opinion delivered in The People v. The Supervisors of Ingham County, 20 Mich., 101, as a correct construction of the powers conferred by Comp. L., §§ 1271 and 1272, upon the Board of Supervisors, in reference to establishing and discontinuing state roads, no doubt can exist as to the validity of the action of the board in this case. We need not go so far in this case, as we are of opinion there is a safer and better ground upon which the proceedings may be sustained.
A majority of the court are of opinion that if the board, by a proper petition being presented to them, acquired jurisdiction to act in this particular case, and did not, in their final determination of the matter, exceed their jurisdiction, then that any defects or irregularities that might be found in their proceedings, would not render their conclusion,illegal or be subject to review in this manner. Their action in the premises is legislative in its character, and we cannot therefore apply the same rules thereto that we would to judicial proceedings.
The petition filed and presented to the board, while open to some of the criticisms urged against it, yet does set forth certain facts fairly tending to show that it would be for the interest of the public to have the road discontinued. It sets forth in substance that this road was at one time a necessity, but that other roads- and lines of communication have been established and made available, taking the bulk of the travel, leaving-this road not much to do, and compelling the continued maintenance of so much extra road. These facts having been set forth in the petition and presented to the board, which considered them sufficient, we cannot question the correctness of their judgment in that respect.
There was sufficient evidence before the board that this was a State road.
It but remains to notice the objection urged that the board never determined that it was for the interest of the public to have this highway discontinued. It was admitted that no express declaration to this effect was necessary, — that such would be the presumption where the contrary did not appear, but it was claimed that in this case the minority report of the committee expressly showed that the discontinuance was not for the public, but for individual benefit. It is true there is much in this report that will bear no other construction than the one urged against it, but there are also certain facts set forth therein showing that it would lessen expense and benefit the public to have this road discontinued. We need not, however, rest the case upon this alone. It does not necessarily follow that the acceptance of this report by the board was a concurrence in all the statements therein contained. The resolution which was adopted vacating this road, did not set forth any reasons therefor, and as we view the whole case we do not .see that the board exceeded its powers.
The certiorari must be quashed, but without costs.
The other Justices concurred.
(1271.) Section 1. Be it enacted, etc., 'That the board of supervisors of the several counties within this State are hereby authorized and empowered to cause to be laid out, established, altered, discontinued, or opened, all State and territorial roads heretofore or now laid out or hereafter to be laid through or within their respective counties, whenever they may deem it for the interest of the public.
(1272.) Sec. 2. Whenever the board of supervisors of any county are petitioned to by at least twelve freeholders of each of the townships through which any such road or roads may pass, they shall, upon such petition, authorize the commissioners of highways of such, townships to cause the line of said road or roads within their respective townships to be surveyed and located therein, and such commissioners shall report such survey and location to the board of supervisors of their county, and upon examination of said survey and report, said board may . declare such road or roads duly laid out, established, discontinued,' opened, or altered, as the ease may be: Provided, That said board shall deem the laying out, establishing, altering, discontinuing, or opening said road or roads for the interest of the public. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
The defendant has been convicted on an information which charges that “Heretofore, to wit, on the 28th day of February, A. D. 1876, at the township of Huron, in said county of Wayne, one William Bonker, late of said township, being then and there a justice of the peace of said township, and in and for said county, .unlawfully did undertake to join in marriage Frank Bogart and Ann Eliza Davis, she the said Ann Eliza Davis being then and there a female under the age of sixteen years, to wit: of the age of thirteen years, and not capable in law of contracting marriage; and the age of the said Ann Eliza Davis being then and there a legal impediment to the said proposed marriage; he, the said William Bonker, then and therfe and at the time he undertook to join the. said Frank Bogart and the said Ann Eliza Davis in marriage, well knowing that the said Ann Eliza Davis was then and there a female under the age of sixteen years, contrary to the form of the statute,” etc.
On the trial the main facts appear to have been undisputed. The girl was the daughter of one Daniel T. Davis who lived in the same township with defendant, and the two had known each other for three or four years, and had had some business dealings of no great importance. A part of that time they resided within a mile of each other, and the girls .of the two families seem to have been acquainted. The girl testified that she had known defendant about four years, and the record does not show that this fact was disputed by him. At the time of the marriage she was in the employ of one Hemstock, about forty rods from and in sight of her father’s house. An arrangement was fixed up between Mr. and Mrs. Hemstock and Bogart for the marriage of the latter to the girl, and the defendant coming along in the road with one Now! and, Bogart went out and called him in to marry them. When he came in he asked the girl how old she was, and she replied, sixteen. Her testimony was that she made this statement under the instructions of the Hemstocks and Bogart, but they denied this. She was in fact but thirteen years of age. Without taking any precautions beyond this simple inquiry, and without the presence or knowledge of any of the girl’s family, the defendant proceeded with the marriage ceremony. These facts, it must be conceded, make out a very gross case of abuse of official authority, and it remains to see whether any of the exceptions taken to the conviction can be supported.
I. It is claimed that the information makes out no case under the statute. The information was filed under § 4729 of the Compiled Laws, which provides that “If any person shall undertake to join others in marriage, knowing that he is not lawfully authorized so to do, or knowing of any legal impediment to the proposed marriage, he shall be deemed guilty,” etc. The argument on .the part of the defendant is, tbat an “impediment” is that only which absolutely precludes a marriage being formed; such as relationship within the prohibited degrees, or a previous marriage not dissolved ; and that as the marriage of a party under the age of consent would not be void, but only voidable, the want of age could not constitute an impediment. This argument would apply equally well to a marriage accomplished by force or fraud, — such marriages being voidable only, — and would protect the magistrate though the facts were all known to him. We doubt the validity of the argument, and should be inclined to hold that whatever is in the way of a valid marriage must be understood to constitute such an impediment as the statute has in view. The statute authorizes certain marriages, and does not authorize others; it points out what shall prevent or impede them. But it is not necessary to rest the case upon this view, for when the statute does not authorize a certain marriage, a magistrate cannot be “'authorized” to join the-persons in marriage. The age of consent in a female is, by the statute, fixed at sixteen years; and though the law, in view of the serious consequences that might follow from treating all marriages as void where one of the parties is under the age of consent, holds them to be voidable only, it nevertheless does not authorize them. Like a fraudulent marriage they are unauthorized., for consent is the first requisite in marriage, and in these cases the capacity to consent is withheld by law.
II. Exception was taken to the admission of evidence to show that the families of defendant and Davis were acquainted, and that at the time of the ceremony defendant made no inquiry for the girl’s parents. This evidence bore strongly on the probability of defendant’s knowledge that his act was unwarranted, and we have no doubt was properly received. It tended to show that he must have had some knowledge of the girl’s age, and it put before the jury the extremely suspicious circumstance that in the immediate vicinity of her father’s house he was willing, without the presence, and so far as he knew, the knowledge of her parents, to join in marriage a girl who, even if she were sixteen, would be unfit to act in so important a matter upon her own judgment.
III. The third exception was to the refusal of the court to. require the prosecution to put upon the stand as witnesses for the people Mr. and Mrs. Iiemstock, Bogart and Mow-land. There was nothing in the case to indicate that Nowland could have given material evidence; it only appeared that he was in the road with defendant when the latter was called in; and that was no part of the res gestee. The record discloses no fact that renders it at all material that defendant was. called in by one person rather than by another", or what was said in calling him in, or how he came to be present. The res gestee began with his presence in the house. Evidence as to how or why ho came to be there was proper as introductory or explanatory, but nothing depended on it. The claim that the others should have been called by the prosecution is made in reliance upon Maher v. People, 10 Mich., 212, and Hurd v. People, 25 Mich., 405. One of those cases was an information for murder, and the other for assault with intent to commit murder, and the principle deducible from them is'"that “ the prosecutor in a criminal case is not at liberty, like a plaintiff in a civil case, to select out a part of an entire transaction which makes against the defendant, and then to put the defendant to the proof of the other part, so long as, it appears at all probable from the evidence that there may be any other part of the transaction undisclosed; especially if it appears to the court that the evidence of the other portion is attainable,” “If the facts stated by [the witnesses] who are called, show prima facie, or even probable reason for believing that there are other parts of the transaction to which they have not testified, and which are likely to be known by other witnesses present at the transaction, then such other witnesses should be called by the prosecution if attainable.” — 25 Mich., 416, 417. These cases are really aimed at a suppression of evidence by management, and they do not decide, as is claimed, that all the witnesses to a transaction must necessarily be called by the prosecution: the justice of requiring this must depend upon circumstances, and it would seldom be as manifest in cases of mere misdemeanor as in cases of higher offences, especially those accomplished by violence. But in this case there was no reason to suppose that the prosecution had failed to put all parts of the transaction before the jury by its evidence; and the testimony of other by-standers could only have been cumulative. Moreover the connection of the Hemstocks and Bogart with the affair was such as fairly to excuse their being called. They must liaye known a great wrong was being perpetrated, and they ,were .assisting and one of them a, principal in it. Had it been .a crime of violence their connection with it was such as would have justified the State in making them parties defendant; and though this statute does not provide for punishing them, we cannot say that the court erred in not requiring the prosecution to give credit to their testimony by calling them. They were present in court, and the defendant had the benefit of their testimony af ter wards; and if the court had any discretion in the premises, as we think it had, the 'discretion was not abused.
IV. A further question arises upon the instructions to ■the jury. One of them was “If you think from the appearance of the girl, and from the testimony in the case, that the defendant, although he could not have known positively what her age was, but if he had good reason to believe from •all these facts that she was under the age of sixteen, then their verdict must be guilty.” And again, that, if in the exercise of a reasonable discretion he had reason to believe •she was not sixteen, then he must be deemed to have united them in marriage knowing there was a legal impediment. ‘These charges are objected to as in effect making negligence the equivalent of guilty knowledge.
No doubt where guilty knowledge is an ingredient in the ■offense, the knowledge must be found; but actual, positive knowledge is not usually required. In many cases to require this would be to nullify the penal laws. The case of knowingly passing counterfeit money is an illustration; very 'often the guilty party has no actual knowledge of the spuri ous character of the paper, but he is put upon his guard by circumstances which, with felonious intent, he disregards. Another illustration is the case of receiving stolen goods knowing -them to be stolen: the guilt is made out by cir- ■ cumstauces which fall short of bringing home to the defendant actual knowledge. He buys perhaps of a notorious thief, under circumstances of secrecy and at a nominal price; and the jury rightfully hold that these circumstances apprise him that a felony must have been committed. Andrews v. People, 60 Ill., 354; Schriedley v. State, 23 Ohio St., 130. If by the statute now under construction actual personal knowledge 'is required, the statute may as well bo repealed; for it can seldom be established even in the grossest cases. How many justices are likely to know the exact age of all the girls in their township approaching the 'age of consent? or even of all those in their immediate neighborhood, except as they rely upon reputation or family report? Or in how many can they testify of their own knowledge that a young man and young woman living as inmates of the same family and recognized as brother and sister, do in fact bear that relation to each other? or that one who comes to be married has not a wife living from whom he is not divorced? Indeed, in the great majority of cases one must obtain his knowledge as to the existence of legal impediments from common report; from the statements of third parties; from any sources, in fact, upon which individuals would rely in investigating for their own protection into such facts; and he would justly be deemed inexcusable if he should persistently shut his eyes to such facts, as were apparent to every body else.-
We think there is no doubt that in this case the jury would have been warranted in finding, on the facts which appear, that the defendant had knowledge of the impediment, had the instructions been such as the defendant, insists they should be. One fact not hitherto stated would have been regarded as very significant, namely: that the-defendant, although required by statute to examine one of' the parties on oath, neglected to do so. — Comp. L., § 4726.. This, in view of the extreme youth of the girl, was a very- significant fact, and looks like a careful avoidance of the proper means of information. Had he taken the proper evidence under oath and been deceived, perhaps he would have been justified, even though he had had reason to believe the age of consent had not been reached; but where he neglects the testimony which he is required to take, and pretends to rely upon the less satisfactory oral statement, which he is not required to take, the neglect may well be imputed to illegal intent.
But the question whether on the evidence the jury ought to have found that the defendant had guilty knowledge is not the same as the question presented here; We are not agreed that the charge of the circuit judge can be supported, though some of our number are inclined to think it may be. The better course unquestionably would have been for the circuit judge to have submitted all the facts to the jury, and to have allowed them to draw their own conclusions regarding the knowledge of the defendant that he was proceeding unlawfully. It is to be presumed that the jury would have dealt intelligently with the facts, and not permitted a reckless official to have set at naught with impunity the provisions of a statute which has for its object the prevention of unfit, immoral and scandalous marriages.
The circuit court will be advised to grant a new trial.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
This action was brought to charge the ■defendant, plaintiff in error, for an indebtedness of the Michigan Iron Company, contracted while the defendant was a director thereof, because the directors of such corporation had failed to file certain reports as required by a general law of the State, relating to mining and manufacturing corporations.
A brief statement of facts will better enable us to comprehend the several questions raised in this case.
During the years 1873 and 1874 the corporation purchased from Lindauer, Levy & Co., and their successors, Lindauer Bros. & Co. of Chicago, certain goods, and the same not having been paid for, the corporation, June 10th, 1874, executed and delivered to plaintiffs its three notes, each for the sum of $1,202.85, payable in 30, 60 and 90 days respectively, leaving a balance at that date still unprovided for. August 3d, 1874, the corporation purchased another bill of goods amounting to $127.50, and on the 12th day of August it gave another note for this new bill and the amount of the old bills not included in the three notes previously .given. This last note was given for the sum of $1,322.44, and was dated June 4th, 1874. Hpon the same day, August 12th, two of the first three notes were taken up, and a new note for the amount thereof given. Each note drew ten per cent, interest.
The defendant, Breitnng, was a stockholder and attended and presided over the annual meeting- of the stockholders-of the corporation in 1872. He was also present at the annual meeting held July 29th, 1874, but it did not appear that he attended either the stockholders’ or directors’ meetings intermediate- those dates. It also appears that he was elected a director at the annual meeting held in June 1872, and held the position of director, haying been regularly elected a director again in 1873 and 1874, until July 29th, 1874. The directors failed to make and' filé a report as required by section five of chapter 25 of the Compiled Laws, during the years 1872 or 1873, and until July 29th, 1874, when a report was filed. All this appears from the finding of the court. The court also found that “the only excuses; bearing upon the causes of the neglect aforesaid, to file the reports required by section five, are those given by a majority of the directors in their testimony, which were that they did not think of it; that they had no active intention to violate the law; that the general management ivas left with the secretary and treasurer, H. J. Colwell, and the-directors usually interfered only when the general manager asked their advice. The same excuses were given in the testimony of this defendant for his neglect. The court in its finding farther says, “I find that the directors did forget to file the reports mentioned, and also find that the-subject of filing these reports during the time of the neglect mentioned did not occur to the majority of the direct-tors, including this defendant.” Also “I find that forgetfulness of duty or an impression that another will discharge-a duty which the law devolves on both alike, or a quiescent reserved intent to do nothing wrong, will not excuse from an active incumbent duty.” And again, “I find that under the statute the neglect or refusal was an intentional one.” Of course, these last are conclusions of law from the facts previously found, and are not finding of facts, although so called. The court also came to the conclusion that the company’s promissory notes having been given for the merchandise, and judgments afterwards obtained upon such notes against the company, and no explanatory evi dence having been introduced with reference thereto, it must therefore be considered that the notes paid for the merchandise, and that the indebtedness was contracted when the notes were given, and upon this view excluded the note of August 12th given for $2,431.29 but allowed the others, except the amount of $127.50 for goods purchased in August, which was excluded. We are of opinion that the court ■erred in excluding the note given August 12th for $2,431.29, to take up the two notes of June 10th, 1874, which were given for goods previously purchased. The general and well settled rule in this. State is, that acceptance of the note of the debtor is not a payment, unless so agreed to by the parties, of the indebtedness existing and for which the note may be given, and there is nothing in the finding of the court to make this case an exception. As the case now ■stands it is not important to pursue this subject, or to determine what effect, 'if any, an extension of the time, by the ■delivery and acceptance of a note, would have in an action brought against directors liable at the time the goods were purchased, but who had ceased to be directors at the time the note was given.
We are also of opinion that from the facts found the conclusion arrived at “that under the statute the neglect or refusal was an intentional one,” was erroneous. This provision of the statute making directors of a corporation liable where they intentionally neglect to make and file a certain report, cannot be construed as though the word “intentionally” was omitted, and yet such in effect was the construction given it by the court below in the conclusion .arrived at. In Van Etten v. Eaton, 19 Mich., 394, this court held that it was not necessary for Eaton in the first instance to show that the neglect imputed to the directors was intentional, but that in view of the fact that the directors must be presumed to be acquainted with the requirement of their charter to make and file reports of the con•dition of the company, and in the absence of all explanation or countervailing proof of the omission by the directors to file it, the jury would be warranted in finding that the neglect was intentional. In that case Van Etten, although guilty of no personal neglect, was under the statute held liable, because of an intentional neglect of a majority of the directors. In this case we are not at liberty to draw any inference, as to the intention of the directors, from the fact that no report was made. The court does not leave this question to be determined upon presumptions arising from the omission to report, but finds the facts to be that the directors had no active intention to violate the law; that they did not think of it; that the subject of filing these reports did not occur to them or to a majority of them, including this defendant. It may be that difficulty will be encountered in showing an intentional neglect, where the directors deny any such intention. Their denial would not be conclusive and the court or jury might be warranted in finding, from the surrounding circumstances, the neglect to have been intentional, even although denied by the directors. The difficulties in this direction, however, more properly pertain to the legislative department.
Another and perhaps more important question remains to be considered.
At the time the debt which this action was brought to recover was contracted, sections five, eighteen and nineteen of chapter ninety-five, relating to mining and manufacturing companies, required certain reports to be made by the corporation in July of each year, to be signed by a majority of the directors, and filed as therein directed; and section twenty-three made the directors of any such company who should intentionally neglect or refuse to comply with the provisions of these sections, jointly and severally liable, in an action founded on the statute, for all the debts of such corporation contracted during the period of such neglect or refusal, and such of them as were present and acting as such directors at any time during such neglect or refusal, were to be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof, subject to fine or imprisonment or both in the discretion of the court. In 1875, which was previous to the commencement of this suit, section twenty-three was amended by striking out the personal liability clause, cliang ing the fine and imprisonment, and adding a per diem penalty during the period of such neglect. The defendant claims that the effect of this amendment leaves the creditors of the corporation without any remedy against the directors; that the liability imposed upon them before the amendment was in the nature of a penalty which they are relieved from by a repeal of the statute. This position is unquestionably correct, and is so conceded by counsel, if the liability was purely penal in its nature, but it is insisted that this section before its repeal, created contract relations between the creditors of -the corporation and the directors, which the Legislature could not constitutionally disturb, as any attempt to deprive the creditors of this remedy would be to impair the obligation of their contract. The important question presented for consideration is, what was the nature of the liability created by section 23 prior to its amendment?
Counsel for defendants in error, to sustain their view, have forcibly argued that under this section prior to its amendment a civil liability was created against all the directors during the period of neglect, and a criminal liability against those present and participating in the business of the corporation during the same period, the civil liability being for the sole benefit of the creditors of the corporation, and the other intended as a punishment for disobedience of official duty; that the civil liability must be considered as an undertaking on the part of each director to answer and pay the debts incurred during the period of their default; that the directors by accepting such position assent and agree thereby to all the terms and conditions imposed upon them by the act under which the corporation was organized and which constitutes the charter of the company; that parties dealing with the corporation contract on the faith of this personal liability of the directors; that such liability entered into and became a part of the seller’s contract and constituted a part of his security; that the directors are therefore principals and co-debtors Avith the corporation; that in this respect their liability is like that of stockholders Avho are made individually liable for certain debts of the corporation; that it has been universally held that the lia bility of the stockholder is not in the nature of a penalty, and that the same conclusion therefore must be reached in this ease.
We think it has been very generally if not universally held, under constitutional and statutory provisions such as exist in this State, making stockholders personally liable, that such liability was not penal in its nature; that the relation created between the stockholder and creditor was a contract relation, and the only real question in dispute in that class of cases was, whether the liability was primary in its nature or not, — whether the stockholder was from the inception of the debt a principal or merely a surety. If therefore we could assume and determine the nature of the liability of .the director in this case to be like that of the stockholder in the class referred to, this whole controversy would be disposed of. We may assume that the directors assent and agree to the terms, conditions and liabilities imposed upon them by the act, but this assumption cannot be carried so far as to prevent the Legislature from relieving them from a portion of their responsibilities, or in assuming that when so relieved they could not thereafter take advantage thereof. They assent to and are bound by the terms of their charter so long as they remain in force. And had there been no repeal in this case no question could have arisen. Was this liability clause in section 23 for the sole benefit of parties dealing with the corporation?
As was said in Van Etten v. Eaton, this provision in § 23 making the directors personally liable, must be taken distributively, and be applied according to the nature of the corporation involved in the duty required, as the duties required to be performed by sections 3, 5, 18 and 19 are not all applicable to mining corporations. And in that case Van Etten was held liable because no report was found on file in the clerk’s office as required by § 19; and the effect of the omission to comply with section five was not determined.
The report required by section five, until the amendment of that section in 1861, was not required to be placed on file in any public office. The statute required such a report to be made and was specific as to what it should contain, but a failure to file the same in the clerk’s or auy other public office, other than the office of the corporation, would not have rendered the directors liable, as no such duty was enjoined upon them. Previous then to 1867 parties about to deal with the corporation, and who desired, from an examination of their report, to ascertain the financial condition of the corporation, had to resort to the office of the company. The report required by section 18 from mining companies, and from manufacturing' companies under section 19 would not show the financial condition or the solvency or insolvency of the corporation reporting. Section 18 was applicable only to mining companies and required them in their report to “state the amount of copper, iron or other mineral which such company 'may have mined within the past year.” And § 19, which related only to manufacturing companies, required them in their report to “state the amount of capital actually paid in, and the amount borrowed by such company, and remaining unpaid in whole or in part.” Neither of these reports could inform a creditor or person contemplating dealings with the corporation of its financial standing. If the profits of a corporation could be determined from a knowledge alone of the amount of minerals which the company may have mined during any one year, then perhaps such a report would be sufficient, but a knowledge of the profits per ton, or a basis from which such knowledge could be ascertained, we think would be found essential. If without this knowledge a person should from the quantity mined alone undertake to determine the profits, he might afterwards ascertain to his dismay that he was calculating in the wrong direction and that the greater the quantity mined the greater the loss which the corporation sustained. And this is true also of manufacturing corporations. A report showing “the amount of capital actually paid in, and the amount borrowed by such company and remaining unpaid in whole or in part,” would be far from giving an intelligent person the information he would desire before determining what credit he could safely extend to the corporation. And yet we have seen that a failure to file one of these reports, which could not give the information desired, upon which the creditor could not have relied, and whom the omission to file could not therefore have materially injured, rendered the directors liable. Van Etten v. Eaton, 19 Mich., 194. These reports required by sections 18 ■and 19 were not intended to give any such full and complete information; they were designed for another and different purpose; they were to be filed in the office of the ■clerk of the county in which the business of such corporation was carried on, and a duplicate thereof in the office of the Auditor General. The primary object in view in requiring reports to be made as required by §§ 18 and 19 was for •purposes of taxation. Section 19 required all corporations formed for the purpose of mining to pay a specific tax upon each ton of mineral obtained. And manufacturing companies by § 21 were required to pay a specific tax (ion the amount of their capital stock paid in, and also money borrowed, which for this purpose shall be considered as capital ■stock of such corporations.” Section 5 required a specific report containing 1. the amount of capital actually paid in; 2. the amount invested in real estate; 3. the amount of personal estate; 4. the amount of their debts and credits as near as may be; and 5. the name of each stockholder, and the number of shares held by him at the date of such report. This report if made and on file in the office of the company would give creditors and others the desired information, and after the amendment of 1867 which required such report to be filed in the office of the Secretary of State, and with the clerk of the county where the miue was situated, there could be no object in requiring ■another, containing but a part of the information set forth in the report required in section five, to be at the same time made, and filed in the same office for the information ■of the public generally. But still farther suppose that ■under the amendment of 1867 the report required by section 5 was made and filed in the Secretary of State’s and ■county clerk’s office, and that the report required by § 18, ■if a mining company, and by § 19, if a manufacturing ■company, was not filed as therein required. Certainly here the creditor could obtain all the information he desired. The other reports if on file could give him no additional information of any value. How then could the failure, the neglect or refusal to file them, injure him? Why under such circumstances should the directors be held personally liable for their neglect or refusal to comply with §§ 18 and 19? What good reason could a creditor set up for insisting upon such a liability? There would be but one, — the positive' provision of the statute creating the liability. There would in such a case be absolutely no equity whatever upon which the creditor could stand. Indeed this clause in § 23 creating the liability does not proceed upon the theory of injury sustained by the creditor in consequence of a failure to report. The liability is the same whether the corporation is solvent or insolvent at the time the debt is contracted, or at the time it becomes due or the creditor attempts to collect it. Indeed he is not required in the first instance to make any effort to collect from the corporation. He may proceed directly and in the first instance against the directors, and if they are obliged to pay a liability created and growing out of their own wrong in an intentional neglect to perform a duty enjoined upon them by a public statute, it may certainly admit of very serious: doubt whether they would have any remedy over against the corporation. It has been held that they would not.
The fact that the creditor of the corporation may, before the debt was created, have examined and ascertained that no report was on file, and that he therefore sold the goods relying upon this statutory liability of the directors, can not make much if any difference whatever in the construction to be given this statute. If the liability was limited to the damage or injury sustained by the creditor in consequence of no report having been made and filed, there would be some reason for giving prominence to such a fact. Take the case of a person or firm, in contemplation of doing business with a corporation, making an examination, and finding no report upon file, selling goods relying upon the statutory liability of the directors. Suppose-that in such a case after the examination was made, but before the “debt was contracted” by a completion of the sale, and delivery of the goods when the latter was necessary, a report should be placed on file. Here the creditor would have no remedy against the directors, although the goods were sold and delivered to the corporation in reliance upon this liability. It is only for debts “contracted during the period of such neglect or refusal” that the directors are liable. The reliance of the creditor, therefore, one way or the other, — the fact that he may or may not be injured because of a failure to make and file this report,— the fact that the corporation may be solvent or insolvent, or that the creditor at the time he dealt with the corporation had actual knowledge of the financial condition of the corporation, will not affect the liability created by this statute. Yet these are all important' considerations in ascertaining the nature of the liability. Business men generally rely upon their, ability to enforce payment of their claims by proceedings at law against their debtors and a sale of their property upon execution, and they • very frequently before giving credit, ascertain what property their debtor has liable to seizure and sale upon execution. Yet the right of the State to increase exemptions and make the same applicable to contracts previously entered into is unquestioned; so although the law at the time the contract is entered into permits the creditor to take the body of his debtor in execution, yet the legislature' may take away this right, leaving the creditor to pursue his remedy against property alone.
Are directors primarily liable under this statute ? I think not. It cannot be claimed that this defendant is individually liable for the amount of plaintiffs’ claim against the corporation from any thing contained in the act under which the cprporation was organized. Neither his position as a stockholder or as a director, nor both combined, renders him liable, nor does his liability attach as a necessary result of the contract entered into. The debt was one against the corporation only; the relation of debtor and creditor arose and existed between the plaintiffs and the corporation, and the directors are not, nor is the. defendant as a director or stockholder, made liable for the debts of the corporation, either in whole or in part. His liability is imposed by the statute for a violation of its provisions, by the directors or a majority of them intentionally neglecting or refusing to make and file a report as therein directed. It is intended as a punishment for a breach on the part of the officers of their clear statutory duty, and is wholly independent of any injuries which creditors of the corporation may have sustained in consequence of such neglect. This liability depends solely upon the positive provisions of a public statute founded on considerations of public policy, and when in the opinion of the Legislature such considerations cease to exist, the law may be repealed. Such repeal in no way impairs the rights, privileges or franchises of the corporation, nor of the individuals dealing with such corporation. Their rights and remedies against it are in no way affected or impairedthey remain as they were when the contract was entered into, and so long as they have not .obtained a judgment against the director they have, no such vested right to this remedy against him as would be beyond the power of the Legislature to take away. We are of opinion that this liability must be considered in the nature of a penalty, and that part of the statute having been repealed without any saving clause, such penalty cannot now be recovered. Engle v. Shurts, 1 Mich., 150; Tivey v. People, 8 Mich., 128; Derrickson v. Smith, 3 Butcher, 166; Gray v. Coffin et al., 9 Cush., 192; Stebbins v. Edmands, 12 Gray, 203; Shaler etc. Co. v. Bliss, 34 Barb., 309; s. c., 27 N. Y., 297; Bird v. Hayden, 1 Robert., 383; Garrison v. Howe, 17 N. Y., 458; Boughton v. Otis, 21 N. Y., 261; Corning v. McCullough, 1 Comst., 47; Merchants’ Bank v. Bliss, 35 N. Y., 412; Miller v. White, 50 N. Y., 139; Hill v. Frazier, 22 Pa. St., 320; Middletown Bank v. Magill, 5 Conn., 28; Kritzer v. Woodson, 19 Mo., 327; Cable v. McCune, 26 Mo., 380; Halsey v. McLean, 12 Allen, 441; Bay City, etc., R. R. Co. v. Austin, 21 Mich., 390; Gregory v. The German Bank of Denver, 5 Cent. Law Journal, 196.
There is another class of cases already referred to which have been relied upon but which in our opinion are clearly distinguishable from cases like the present. Hawthorne v. Calef, 2 Wall., 10, may be considered as one of the leading cases of that class. The State of Maine incorporated a railroad company and the charter provided that the shares of the individual stockholders should be liable for the debts of the corporation, if there was a deficiency of corporate assets. The court held that the case came within the principle of Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How., 190, where the charter of the bank provided that the bills and notes of the institution should be received in all payments of debts due the State, and Gurran v. State, 15 How., 304, where the charter of the bank contained a pledge or assurance that certain funds deposited therein should be devoted to the payment of its debts, and in Hawthorne v. Galef, the court by Nelson, J., said “Now, it is quite clear that the personal liability clause in the charter, in the present case, pledges the liability or guarantee of the stockholders, to the extent of their stock, to the creditors of the company, and to which pledge or guarantee the stockholders, by subscribing for stock and becoming members of it, have assented. They thereby virtually agree to become security to the creditors for the payment of the debts of the company, which, have been contracted upon the faith of this liability.”
We should have no hesitation in following the doctrine of these cases if the present was at all like them. These are all cases of contract clearly. Congress solemnly pledged the faith of the Hnited States to the payment in coin or its equivalent of all the obligations of the Hnited States, not bearing interest, known as Hnited States notes, except as otherwise provided by law. Would any doubt but that this pledge was in the nature of a contract? Could it by any possibility be considered penal in its nature? Yet wherein does this pledge differ from that in Gurran v. State?
Hnder an act of Congress “national currency” so called is receivable at par in all parts of the Hnited States in payment of all taxes and excises and all other dues to the Hnited States, except duties, etc. No one ever supposed this provision was in the nature of a penalty; it is as clearly an agreement as could possibly be made in such a manner, yet wherein does it differ from the case of Woodruff v. Trapnall f This currency is secured by bonds of the United States deposited with the United States treasurer at Washington. That parties receive this currency upon the faith of this pledge, and that it would be a breach of good faith and of a contract obligation to attempt to appropriate such securities to any other purpose would be disputed by none, yet wherein lies the difference between the pledge in’ this case of United States bonds, and the pledge in Curran v. State, that certain funds deposited in the bank should be devoted to the payment of its debts? And so in the case of Hawthorne v. Calef the charter of the corporation pledged the shares of the individual stockholders for the debts of the corporation in case of a deficiency of corporate assets. Each stockholder at once and without any farther or other act .of his became liable to this extent. His liability in no way depended upon any act of omission or commission on his pari. By becoming a stockholder he assented to this pledge and was bound by it. Not so in this case. There was no pledge that the directors should be personally responsible for the debts of the corporation either-in whole or in part, as principals or as sureties. They were required by law to make certain reports, one for the information of the public, another for the purpose of fixing the amount of taxes to be paid by the corporation. And upon a failure in either respect, whether any one was injured in consequence of such failure or not, they were made jointly and severally liable, not for the debts of the corporation after its assets had been exhausted, — not for the debts of the corporation to the amount or value of shares held by them, nor for the damages sustained by persons on account of such failure to report, — but for all the debts of the corporation contracted during the period of such neglect. If the corporation was solvent the creditor was not injured by the neglect; he was not therefore benefited by the remedy so much as would be the stockholders of the corporation by having its debts paid by its delinquent officers. Besides all this the liability was several as well as joint. The report must be made and signed by a majority of the board of directors. If a majority neglected or refused, the minority who were anxious and willing to report were equally liable civilly with those who were not. Indeed, the liability might be thus created by the wrongful act not of the party himself hut of his associates, over whom in this respect he had no control. It surely cannot be said that a liability thus created partakes of the nature of a contract between the creditor of the corporation and the director. If any question can he considered settled by authority, we think this question has, by the courts of the several ¡States, so far as we have been able to discover, uniformly agreeing in holding the liability thus created to he a penalty and not a contract. And we have not been referred to any decision of the Supreme Court of the X^nited States holding a contrary doctrine. The cases referred to in that court are all cases where we should have no hesitation in holding the liability created as partaking of the nature of a contract and protected as such.
Another question discussed might here be referred to. It was insisted that the amendment of section 5 in 1867, which in itself provided a punishment for a failure to comply with its provisions, thereby operated as a repeal by implication of section 23 so far as the latter had provided a penalty for a failure to report as provided in section 5.
In so far as a criminal punishment was concerned this would undoubtedly be so, but as repeals by implication are not favored, we are not satisfied that the amendment of 1867 would have the whole force contended for. The rule is that the latter act operates to the extent of the repugnancy, as a repeal of the first, or, if the two acts are not in express terms repugnant, yet if the latter covers the whole sxihject of the first, and contains new provisions showing that it was intended as a substitute, it will operate as a repeal. U. S. v. Tynen, 11 Wall., 92. But as this question is not essential to a full disposition of this case at present, we need not fully examine or pass upon it.
We are of opinion that the defendant is not liable and that the judgment must be reversed with costs of both courts. No new trial will be ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Marston, J.
Plaintiff in error, December 15, 1874, issued a policy of insurance to Walsh and Engle. The property insured was destroyed by fire August 2, 1875. On the following day Walsh and Engle assigned to Albert Chandler their interest under said policy, and he, on the 23d day •of ’November, 1875, assigned his interest therein to defendant in error, who brought suit thereon and recovered a judgment.
This policy contained, among other things, a clause rendering it void in case any other insurance had been or •■should be made, on the property insured or any part thereof, without the consent of the company written thereon, After the issuing of this policy, and before the fire, the insured procured’additional insurance. It is not claimed that plaintiff in error ever consented thereto, either orally or in writing, or had any notice of such additional insurance, except iis^ appeared from a,letter written by the agents of the plaintiff in error to the insured, in reply to one received by them, and which was as follows:
“Allemania Fire Insurance Co. of Pittsburgh, Agency at Jackson, March 31, 1875.
Messrs. Walsh & Engle, Union City, Mich.:
Gentlemen : Your favor of the 30tli insfc. at hand
and noted. "Ye will, of course, allow other concurrent insurance with the Allemania policy, and will also place you more insurance at same rate that we charged you before, and do it in ‘A 1’ company or companies. Our Mr. Bussey is at present in the western part of the state on special work. Trusting to hear from you at your earliest convenience, we remain,
Yours truly,-
Owen Grover, Jr., & Co.”
This letter clearly did not amount to a consent to any specific additional insurance. True, it expressed a willing-ness to permit additional insurance, and offered to place additional insurance upon the same property, and at rates similar'to those charged before. No such .insurance was, however, herein consented to, the agents inviting and of course expecting to hear farther from the insured upon the subject. The insured were in no way obliged to procure additional insurance. And although they had undoubtedly expressed a desire or intention to procure additional insurance,’yet they might have changed their minds, and the agents not having heard from them afterwards^ either in asking for insurance or notifying them that additional insurance had been obtained, might well have -concluded that the insured had abandoned all intention of procuring farther insurance upon the property. The correspondence between the parties would not take the place of the consent required by the terms of the policy, and the policy of insurance issued by the plaintiff in error became absolutely void at once upon the obtaining of the additional insurance without consent. New York Central Insurance Co. v. Watson, 23 Mich., 486, and cases there cited. Under this view we 'do not consider it necessary to consider the other questions raised.
The judgment must be reversed, with costs, and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Cooley, C. J.
This is a suit to foreclose a mortgage given by Moses Mudgett and Polly Ann Mudgett his wife to the complainant. The mortgage bears date July 24, 1871, and was given for the amount of two prior mortgages on the same premises, one to William S. Gilbert and the other to Thomas Phibbs, which complainant had paid on an understanding that a new mortgage should be given to her for the amount. Mrs. Mudgett at this time had a mortgage on the same premises, dated January 4, 1868, and duly recorded. Whether complainant knew of this last mortgage when she took the one to herself is in dispute; but it was mentioned in the Phibbs mortgage which she took up; so that she had constructive notice of it not merely by the record, but by the Phibbs mortgage also. - The land covered by the mortgages constituted the homestead of Moses Mudgett. The mortgage to complainant was not in any respect peculiar, unless the fact that it contained a personal covenant on the part of the mortgagors to pay the debt can be considered as making it so. This statement of facts will be sufficient for an understanding of most of the legal questions.
The controversy is one of priority between the mortgages of complainant and Mrs. Mudgett. The latter is seen to be first in time, and first upon the record; but it is urged on the part of the complainant that the facts stated entitle her mortgage to priority over the lien of the other. For this several reasons are assigned, as follows:
1. That Mrs. Mudgett being personally obligated to pay complainant’s debt, her mortgage should be postponed if for nothing more than to avoid circuity of suits. This reason fails if she was not 'personally liable for its payment, and we.think she was not. If liable at all it could only have-been as surety for her husband; and we have held heretofore that she could contract no such liability. DeVries v. Conklin, 22 Mich., 255; West v. Laraway, 28 Mich., 464. A wife’s covenant in her husband’s deed is a mere nullity;; the statute not empowering her to make contracts generally, but only in respect to her own property. Comp. L., § 4803.
2. That by uniting in the mortgage to complainant Mrs. Mudgett transferred her own mortgage interest, and subjected it to the lien of the mortgage she signed. To support this proposition several cases are cited in which it has-been held that a quit-claim deed will pass a mortgage interest. Niles v. Ransford, 1 Mich., 338; Thayer v. McGee,. 20 Mich., 195. But such cases are very different. The-quit-claim, as the name of the instrument imports, is intended as a transfer of any interest the grantor or releasormay have in the lands, whatever its nature; but the execution by the wife of her husband’s deed of any sort implies no such intent. It implies, on the other hand, that she-executes it for the purposes for which the statute makes her joining with him important to the giving of full effect to' his deed; and these are, the releasing of her contingent, right of dower, and the consenting to the deed when it. affects the homestead. It is for one or the other of these-purposes that the wife unites in her husband’s deed; and if the intent is to affect any independent interest of her own, it is reasonable to expect some special provision, in the instrument which shows specifically in what manner and how far her separate interests wore intended to be affected. Cases like Williams v. Thorn, 11 Paige, 459, in which it was decided that a mortgagor of lands cannot set up a prior mortgage owned by himself against the mortgage he gave, can have no application to a case where the owner of the prior mortgage is not the principal in the second, but only unites in it in order that the contract of the principal may have an effect which otherwise the law withholds from it. More reliance is placed by complainant on Gregory v. Gregory, 16 Ohio St., 560. In that case the wife had united with her husband in a deed of conveyance of the husband’s lands, on which she held a mortgage; and this was held to cut off the mortgage. The wife in that deed joined in the operative words of conveyance, and in a special clause released her right of dower. The court say of it: “The deed seems to have been made in strict conformity to the provisions of the statute of this State regulating the conveyance of a wife’s interest in lands, and to the authoritative decisions under it. She joined in the granting part of the deed, containing apt words to convey whatever title or interest she had in the entire farm or in any part thereof; and in the testatum clause she released her inchoate right of dower in the whole.” On this statement of the case, the decision would seem to be immaterial here. Our statutes prescribe in what manner a married woman shall consent to a release of dower and tó a mortgage of the homestead; and their provisions have been followed in this instance: they leave the wife at liberty to convey her separate interests in lands as any other person might; but where the deed she executes is proper and suitable for the release of dower and as a consent to the mortgaging of the homestead, and is such as she would be expected to execute if she had no independent interest, we cannot suppose she had any further purpose in becoming a party to it.
3. That complainant is entitled to be subrogated to the rights of Gilbert and Phibbs, whose mortgages she took up. It is said, with great show of reason, that complainant would never have taken up those mortgages had she not supposed she was to have a first lien; for the land was then worth only about the amount of the three mortgages. Now this may be true, and still it may be equally true that if she has taken a mortgage negligently on land covered by another she can have no relief. Now complainant was notified by the record and by the Phibbs mortgage that Mrs. Mudgett also held one on the same lands; yet it is not claimed that she required Mrs. Mudgett to release hers or to postpone the lien. How can the court know that Mrs. Mudgett would have consented to release or postpone if it had been required of her? And how can the court compel her to do that which, with competent authority to assent to or reject, she might perhaps at that time have rejected?
It will be conceded that the complainant might have bought up the Gilbert and Phibbs mortgages and held them as prior liens, and that if she has caused them to be discharged under circumstances which render it equitable that she should retain the priority, she may still retain it. Mattison v. Marks, 31 Mich., 421. But the question whether or not it is equitable is altogether dependent on whether Mrs. Mudgett has consented to waive her priority, or has been guilty of any fraud or deception to the prejudice of complainant. Neither the one nor the other is shown. Complainant has paid off and discharged the Gilbert and Phibbs mortgages on the receipt of a new one, which in point of fact is subsequent to Mrs. Mudgett’s. If she did not intend to take a second mortgage, and would have refused to do so had all the facts been known to her, then thp fault is her own. But for gross negligence she would have known what the facts were, and we cannot relieve her to the prejudice of another party who was not in fault.
■ 4. Mr. Mudgett having deceased, and his wife having subsequently occupied the premises, it is suggested that she should account for the rents and profits. We think not. She was entitled as his widow to remain in possession.
The decree should be affirmed, with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
A bill was filed by four infants of tender-years by a next friend, to vacate a divorce granted to their mother, Margaret Baugh, against their father, John B. Baugh, and bringing in as co-defendants their father and mother and their father’s second wife. The ground of interference is alleged collusion between their father and mother. The bill is not sworn to. A demurrer was put-in by the defendants John and Addie Baugh and the bill was dismissed. An appeal is brought to this court.
The jurisdiction over divorce is purely statutory, and the legislative authority has not seen fit to allow any but the-parties to intervene in such suits. The husband and wife are the only persons recognized as parties.
It is true that the interests of children are in some important respects more nearly affected by such proceedings than by those which merely concern rights of property. So-far as maintenance is concerned it is certainly never permissible for children, whether infants or adults, to interfere with their parents in the use or disposal of their property; and considerations of that sort do not add any force to the other allegations. Their personal custody has been made dependent on the will of their parents subject to some oversight by the courts upon proper occasion. But no court in this country has any power to compel discordant husbands and wives to live together, and we do not perceive that any legal rights of these infants have been invaded, however much they may have been affected otherwise.
It is for the Legislature to determine to what extent public policy requires the power of intervention to be vested in any but the parties to divorce suits. There are certainly some reasons why it might be wise to have children represented, but whether their ultimate prosperity would be furthered by permitting strangers to intervene in their behalf between parents, is a question which would probably be considered very carefully before any action is taken to permit it. In the mean time the courts have no right to sanction any such intervention. It is expected of all divorce courts that they will be vigilant in examining the circumstances of all cases before them, and not allow any decree without a full scrutiny. The means furnished for this purpose are adequate for most cases. In the best circumstances justice will sometimes miscarry, but this is not peculiar to divorce cases, and it will not do to resort to unauthorized measures to redress legal misfortunes or wrongs. It would not be desirable, in order to get rid of some unjust judgments, to destroy the force of judgments generally, and allow them to be attacked by third parties where the legal rules which have been established to determine their effect have not permitted it. Where the judgment is only voidable and not void, it cannot be attacked by strangers to the record. And where it is absolutely void it needs no proceedings to set it aside. In either case such a bill is inadmissible.
We are constrained to say further that the bill before us, which is filed on behalf of very young infants by a person who seems to be a mere volunteer and does not make oath even on information and belief to the facts, and which upon the most vital facts of fraud is not put in issuable shape, and suppresses the names of the actors, is not such a pleading as is usually required where an attempt is made to disturb'a judgment.
It is not at all likely that any action which may be had in the direction of haying infants represented will allow any one who chooses to assume to manage their interests.
The decree must be affirmed, with costs.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
This bill is filed to obtain the specific performance of a parol contract made in 1866, whereby Webster was to select swamp lands and furnish descriptions of them to Gray, who had a road contract with the state on which he proposed to reserve and apply such lands; and Webster was to have an interest of one-fourth in the lands so obtained of the state.
The first selection was made in the spring of 1866, and about 2,000 acres entered under it. In the fall of that year nearly the same amount of other lands was selected, but not finally secured.
In July, 1866, Gray signed a paper agreeing to sell Webster two eighty-acre lots for $150, which he afterwards conveyed in due form. The same paper contained the following statement: “Also he [Webster] has an undivided one-fourth interest in all of the following lands that I may be able to reserve at Lansing, to-wit, the minutes of which he left with me June 27, to-wit: about 1,800 acres, in towns as follows: T. 14, N. R. 15; T. 15 N. R. 15; T. 16 N. R. 15.”
It is not claimed that this paper constituted a contract, but only that it was a recognition of one. But inasmuch as it contains no explanation whatever of the mutual rights and obligations of the parties, it is of no special importance in the case. The contract by parol is not stated quite alike by the parties, but they do not differ substantially. The statute of frauds is relied on as a defense.
It appears from the case that during the various negotiations it was ultimately if not originally understood that Gray might sell land and account to Webster for his share of the proceeds.
The entire liability accrued in 1866, and the bill was filed in September 1873, and avers that the legal remedy is barred by the statute of limitations.
If such a contract could be specifically enforced at all, it can only be enforced when verbal, upon the ground that there has been such a part performance by complainant that without complete enforcement he will be defrauded beyond any reasonably adequate remedy.
It has never been deemed proper to grant redress on a parol contract for a part performance capable of full pecuniary measurement. Generally there must have been a change of possession of the land in controversy, which is always regarded as involving considerations not easily estimated in damages. There are very few other cases where parties are placed in any such predicament as to require protection to save them from being defrauded.
It is not the policy of courts of equity to enlarge the exceptions to the Statute of Frauds. Where parties see fit to neglect the means it provides for putting their agreements into a form which will prevent disputes, they must usually be content to trust to each other’s promises, and not ask the courts to relieve them against the consequences of their own carelessness.
All that Webster did or agreed to do was to perform certain exploring work which he had before done for compensation, and which could readily be estimated according to its actual value. A suit at law to recover compensation would produce ample redress. The employment placed him in no position from which he could not be extricated, and subjected him to no frauds or perils. He was merely working for phy, the pay being due in land instead of in money.
This is not such a part performance as is required to take a case out of the statute. The loss of his legal remedy by allowing it to become outlawed, furnishes complainant no ground of relief in equity; and it may be questionable whether on such a contract as this the lapse of time would not render the equitable claim, if one existed, stale. It is very certain that the effect of the delay has been to bring about the sale to third parties of large portions of the lands in which the complainant’s interest, if valid, could have been saved by earlier proceedings. But we think the case has not been taken out of the statute, and that the contract is invalid.
We have not attempted to discuss the terms of the agreement, or to determine whether, if written, it would have been subject to specific enforcement. It would present some difficulties not usually arising, and would require much consideration. But we need not examine this.
The decree must be reversed, and the bill dismissed with costs of both courts.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Graves, J.
Catón sued Bath for entering upon his land by trespass and cutting and taking away timber, and under the charge of the court the jury awarded damages. Bath complains that the court made erroneous rulings to his prejudice. There was no dispute as to the fact of trespass.
The case hinged upon the question whether Bath was so situated in reference to the transaction or was so connected with it as to cause him to be liable in the action of trespass. Upon this the parties differed and their difference related to the facts and also to the legal effect of the facts.
The St. Clair Mining Company, a corporation organized under our general law (Comp. L., ch. 95) and engaged in mining at the time in question in Keweenaw county, owned and occupied lands adjoining the land belonging to Catón, where the trespass was committed, and workmen for this company getting wood and timber for the company on its land worked over the lino and cut and took away Oaton’s timber, and in this the trespass consisted. Bath was general agent of this company, and its mining operations were under his supervision. A surface captain' and other workmen were subordinate. The company office was in Boston and there all the officers resided except Bath. His powers were such as are usually possessed by such agents, including authority to direct, the mining operations and direct and control the workmen. He hired the surface captain and workmen for the company and they were under his direction and control.
There was evidence for Catón that Bath knew where the line was; that he was on Oaton’s land several times whilst the acts of trespass were going on; that he had admitted having caused the chopping which was done on Catón’s land and claimed to have been deceived as to the dividing line by the surface captain. There was also evidence that the surface captain had not deceived him as claimed. It is not indispensable to specify all the items of evidence adduced on the part of Catón.
There was evidence for Bath that hé as agent of the company ordered the surface captain to cut and get out wood and timber for the company; that he meant it should be cut on the company’s land, and believed the surface captain, who had long been in the employment of the company, knew where the boundary was; “ that the alleged trespass was committed in carrying out such orders by the surface captain and laborers acting under his directions in the employ of the company, by the negligence of such surface captain.” The record states that Bath gave no other instructions to the surface captain or any of said workmen as to where to cut; that no evidence was given unless found in the foregoing tending to show he gave any instructions to the surface captain on what land to cut; that no evidence was given tending to show he took any precautions to point out the line to the surface captain or to any of the workmen; that unless what has been mentioned should be deemed such, there was no evidence that Bath in employing the surface captain and workmen, or in being superintendent over them, acted in any other capacity than that of agent of the company.
The judge laid down three propositions for the guidance of the jury, and in view of the state of facts exhibited, the effect of the two first of these propositions was to allow the jury to find Bath guilty of the trespass if satisfied that the surface captain and his workmen committed it, and that Bath in his character of managing agent of the company was director and controller of the business in which it was committed. This was error. Brown v. Lent, 20 Vt., 529; Stone v. Cartwright, 6 T. R., 411; Milligan v. Wedge, 12 Ad. & El., 737; Broom’s Com., on C. L., 690 to 693, top; Wood on Master and Servant, §§ 281, 304; Story on Agency, §§ 314, 315, 313, etc. His being managing agent of the company and the trespass on Catón’s land being in a course of business under his authority as agent, could not of themselves make the trespass so committed his trespass. It could not be regarded as done for him or in his interest. Neither could the surface captain and the workmen in committing the trespass be considered as standing in his shoes and representing him. It is not enough in such a case that there exists the relation of superior and subordinate. There must be something more. The relation must be such that the subordinate is the servant or agent of the superior in the particular course of business or sphere of action in which the wrong is done. Such was not the case here. In short the requisite conditions to authorize the application of the doctrine of respondeat superior against Bath were not present. To apply it against him would imply that the company could not be held liable, a position which cannot be admitted.
An acquiescence in the principle of the charge would introduce a new and dangerous element into the law of master and servant and principal and agent and impose risks on intermediate agencies both inappropriate and embarrassing. There are cases which rest on peculiar grounds and are exceptional. The most important are maritime. There are none, however, which can influence the present case.
The foregoing consideration is of course intended for the case in that aspect of it in which it is sought to fix Bath on the exclusive ground of his relation as managing superior to the actual trespassers, and it is not addressed to any claim of Bath’s liability as co-trespasser. The ground of liability is very different in the case of actual participation, direction or adoption from what it is where the connection is constructive rather than actual and consists in the relation of the defendant as master or principal of the actual wrong doers.
The third proposition allowed Bath to be convicted of the trespass in cáse the jury should find he was guilty of negligence in not preventing the surface captain and workmen from “ignorantly trespassing upon the adjoining land of the plaintiff.”
This charge, if its intent is understood, was objectionable on account of its obscurity. And on the other hand, if the court is misled as to its meaning, it is fair to suppose the jury were. But it is hardly necessary to take up time in criticism of this kind. The vital element contained in this instruction is perceived to be that the jury might regard Bath’s omission as something involving him in the very act of trespass committed by the surface captain and the workmen. Of course this charge contemplated the.state of facts concerning the relation Bath actually held to the surface captain and the laborers, and it is needless to repeat the observations already made touching the bearing and consequence of that relation.
Granting that there was evidence tending to show that the surface captain and the men under him were ignorant of the line between the plaintiff’s land and that of the company, and that in consequence of this ignorance they .blundered into trespass and committed the wrong by mistake, and moreover that their being in ignorance of the line and committing the trespass through sufeh ignorance was in consequence of Bath’s neglecting to give information, and conceding further that such neglect rendered him liable in point of law for the damage, a proposition not free from question (Broughton v. Whallon, 8 Wend., 414), and still his liability would be in case for the negligence and not in trespass for the act of force committed by others. The ■damage by the trespassers might give the measure of the amount recoverable of him, but his being liable through his negligence alone for the damages consequent on the trespass of the others could not confound the ground of his liability with that of theirs. His wrong would not be theirs. His non-feasance, his bare omission to keep others from .future trespassing would be distinct from their act of trespass and not of the same actionable nature. The fact of his being liable, if he was liable, could not make the direct act of force of the surface captain and workmen his direct act of force, and hence his trespass. Sharrod v. The London & N. W. R. Co., 4 Exch., 580. The distinction is obvious and is recognized wherever . common law remedies are not lost sight of. 3 Bl. Com., 123; 3 Stephens’ Com., 460, 461, 462; 1 Chitty’s Pl., 151; Shapcott v. Mugford, 1 Ld. Ray., 187; Huggett v. Montgomery, 2 New R., 446. Admitting for this case, therefore, all that can be fairly ■claimed, and still the conditions of fact do not answer the requirements of the action of trespass quare clausunu To hold otherwise would be to disregard the substantial distinctions the law has drawn between actions, and ignore the ■separating marks, such as the locality of the place of trial and the like.
Bath’s counsel presented five special questions to be answered by the jury. Three were submitted and answered, but submission of the other two was refused. As however no exception was taken to this refusal no question arises on it. The answers returned to those submitted do not obviate •the objections to the charge under which the finding was made. The refused requests were not accurate, but it is not necessary or prudent to extend the discussion. The whole evidence is not returned and we have no reason to .-suppose the case may 'not assume a different shape on another trial.
The judgment should be reversed with costs and a new trial granted.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Campbell, J.
In this case Aldrich sued Smith as maker and Glue and Hackley as joint endorsers of two notes which he had discounted for Smith purporting to be payable to the endorsers jointly, but which in fact when endorsed were payable only to the order of William Glue, the first endorser.
Smith had requested a discount from Aldrich on Glue’s endorsement of his paper for the amount of these two notes some days before this paper was executed, which was declined. He then offered to procure Hackley’s endorsement, and plaintiff agreed to make the discount. The parties all lived at Muskegon.
On the 23d of December, 1875, Smith drew up and signed these notes payable to Glue’s order, and between this and the 25th Glue endorsed them. On the 25th Hackley endorsed them by signing his name under Glue’s, with no knowledge of their destination except a supposition that they were to be discounted. On the 25th of December Smith without the knowledge of either endorser inserted Hackley’s name after Glue’s in the body of the notes, thus making them payable to the order of Glue and Hackley in the same blank space of the printed notes, which were all in his handwriting, and in this form negotiated them to Aldrich on the 27th of December.
Smith acted on the supposition that he was only supplying an oversight of Hackley’s, and with no dishonest purpose. Neither endorser knew of the change till after the protest of the first note.
Hpon this the court below held the endorsers discharged.
"We have been strongly pressed with plaintiff’s equities, but we are unable to distinguish this case from any others where the paper sued upon is not the paper which defendants signed. They were not parties personally to any dealing which made it wrongful or negligent conduct not to inform themselves that their contract had not been altered. It was complete when they signed it, and they had no reason to suppose it would be changed. All legal as well as business presumptions are that paper will not be tampered with, and plaintiff is in fio worse condition from an honest than from a dishonest alteration made without his knowledge. Every one who takes negotiable paper in any shape whatever trusts to the express or implied assurance of genuineness given by the person from whom he receives it. That is one of the risks of dealing in such paper, and there is no reason whatever why he should be preferred to other persons who have done nothing to mislead him. He is bound to satisfy himself whether he can safely rely on the party with whom he deals, and if he does so without further inquiry, he must do it at such risk as may arise of being misled by his confidence. He has no superior equities to those whose contracts have been altered without their fault.
The case comes within the principle of Bradley v. Mann, ante, p. 1, and the judgment must be affirmed with costs.
Cooley, C. J., and Graves, J., concurred.
Marston, J., did not sit in this case. | [
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Per Curiam.
Our statute which renders males of the age of eighteen and females of the age of sixteen competent to “contract marriage,” makes the marriages actually entered into by them valid, but it does not empower such persons, while under the age of twenty-one, to make valid executory contracts of marriage for breach of which suits may be brought. By contracting marriage, under the statute, is to be understood the actual forming of the marriage relation. | [
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Per Curiam.
Motion to dismiss a case made on the ground that only questions of evidence were involved, and this court could not review cases on the facts. It appeared however that there were exceptions to the rulings of the court on the admission aud rejection of evidence.
Held that these were as properly reviewable on case made as on bill of exceptions.
Motion denied.
Trespass on the case. The facts are in the opinion.
Albert G. Bay for plaintiff.
The doctrine that an assignment for the benefit of creditors can only be attacked by judgment creditors (Millar v. Babcock, 29 Mich., 526; Hastings v. Belknap, 1 Den., 190-8; Henriques v. Hone, 2 Edw. Ch., 120-5; Lawton v. Levy, Id., 197-200) applies to creditors who have secured a valid judgment. Beach v. Botsford, 1 Doug. (Mich.), 199. But an assignee for the benefit of creditors may attack the judgment' on which a creditor relies. Nichols v. Kribs, 10 Wis., 76. One whose right is affected by a wrong judgment which he cannot bring error to reverse, may prove it erroneous ot void in any suit in which its validity is questioned. Pond v. Makepeace, 2 Met., 116; Pierce v. Strickland, 26 Me., 277; Sargent v. Salmond, 27 Me., 541; Hess v. Cole, 3 Zab., 116; Central Bk. of Georgia v. Gibson, 11 Ga., 453; Steen v. Steen, 25 Miss., 518; Towns v. Springer, 9 Ga., 130; Mobley v. Mobley, 9 Ga., 247; Beverly v. Burke, 9 Ga., 440; Vose v. Morton, 4 Cush., 27; Sherrard v. Nevius, 2 Cart. (Ind.), 241; Camden v. Mulford, 2 Dutch., 49; Thatcher v. Powell, 6 Wheat., 119. A judgment obtained on a warrant of attorney signed by one partner in the firm name and in the absence and without the knowledge of his co-partner,, is absolutely void. Remington v. Cummings, 5 Wis., 138; North v. Mudge, 13 Ia., 496; Shedd v. Bk. of Brattleboro, 32 Vt., 709; Christy v. Sherman, 10 Ia., 535; Edwards v. Pitzer, 12 Ia., 607; Crane v. French, 1 Wend., 311; Collyer on Partnership, § 469, n. 4 and cases. But a partner’s infancy does not make his assignment fraudulent and void as to creditors. Yates v. Lyon, 61 N. Y., 344; Holmes v. Blogg, 4 Eng. C. L., 252; 2 Eden, 72; Wilmot’s Notes, 226.
Gray & Luton for defendant.
One partner cannot make a valid general assignment without his co-partner’s consent if he is present and can be consulted. Kirby v. Ingersoll, Har. Ch., 172; 1 Doug. (Mich.), 477; Welles v. March, 30 N Y., 351. An assignment is not valid if it does not place the creditor’s right beyond the future control of the assignors. Pierson v. Manning, 2 Mich., 455; Sheldon v. Dodge, 4 Den., 217; Hyslop v. Clarke, 14 Johns., 458; Wakeman v. Grover, 4 Paige, 41; 11 Wend., 187. Therefore an infant partner’s assignment is void. Fox v. Heath, 21 How. Pr., 384; Yates v. Lyon, 61 Barb., 205: reversed, 61 N. Y., 344; Bump’s Fraud. Conv., 355. An infant’s conveyance, if against his interest, is void. Wellborn v. Rogers, 24 Ga., 558; Ridgeley v. Crandall, 4 Md., 435. So is his power of attorney to sell land, Fonda v. Van Horne, 15 Wend., 636; Lawrence v. McArter, 10 Ohio, 42; Pyle v. Cravens, 4 Littell, 21; and his warrant of attorney (Knox v. Flack, 22 Penn. St., 337) acts done under which cannot be legalized by ratification. Wapples v. Hastings, 3 Harr. (Del.), 403; Tyler on Infancy, 48. An assignment cannot be revoked by the assignor even with the assignee’s consent. Hall v. Denison, 17 Vt., 310; Ward v. Lewis, 4 Pick., 522.
Cooley, C. J.
The plaintiff in this case brings trespass for the taking by defendant of certain personal chattels from, his possession and control. It seems to be conceded that these chattels had formerly belonged to the firm of Garter & Minkler, composed of Charles K. Carter and Asa E. Minkler. The plaintiff claimed them under an assignment made to him by the firm of Carter & Minkler in trust for the benefit of creditors, and he appears to have obtained full possession of them under this assignment. The defendant claimed to hold them under an attachment sued out of the circuit court for the county of Newaygo against the property of Carter & Minkler as fraudulent debtors, by virtue of which the goods were taken from plaintiff’s possession. The assignment bore date May 22, 1875, and there was evidence tending to show that Minkler was then an infant, and did not become of age until August 4, 1875. The circuit judge ordered judgment for defendant, on the ground that the assignment was void because of Minkler’s infancy.
We should, say that it was very plain the assignment could not be held absolutely void because of the infancy. If not entirely valid, it would at most only be voidable, and could be avoided only by the infant, or by some one entitled to stand upon his rights. If plaintiff was in possession of the goods by authority of the infant, he would be entitled to protect the possession against the action of any mere wrong-doer. This is too plain for argument. Only one who has rights in or to property can lawfully disturb the peaceful possession of another.
It seems therefore necessary to consider whether defendant established any rights under the attachment. The writ was issued June 4, 1875. It is not shown that it was personally served. On the fourteenth day of June, 1875, Carter, in the name of Carter & Minkler, signed a paper entitled in the attachment cause, in the following words: “We the above named defendants hereby authorize James Barton our attorney herein,' to consent to the taking of a judgment herein by the plaintiff, for the sum of two thousand one hundred and fifty-seven and 60-100 dollars.” It will be seen that the date of this instrument was previous to the time Minkler is said to have come of age. Judgment was subsequently taken in the cause, and this paper, so far as the record shows, was the only authority upon which it was taken, and the judgment is the only evidence of indebtedness.
On this evidence it must be held that no defense whatever was made out. The infancy of Minkler, instead of being a bar to the plaintiff’s action, tended, on the other hand, to defeat the defense. An infant cannot in his own name confess a judgment; Saunderson v. Marr, 1 H. Bl., 75; Ashlin v. Langton, 4 Moore & Scott, 719; Bennett v. Davis, 6 Cow., 393; Knox v. Flack, 22 Penn. St., 337. Still less could any implied authority arising from the relation of partnership warrant another in confessing it. But partners who are adults have no such implied authority to confess judgment for each other. Freem'an on Judgments, § 545 and cases cited. It follows that whether the judgment was void or only voidable, as against the parties to it, it could be no evidence of an indebtedness by Minkler, and therefore no protection to the defendant in disturbing a possession which was perfectly good as against any one who could not show a better right than that which Minkler, by giving quiet possession, could confer. And we doubt if-the authority by Garter to confess judgment would be sufficient evidence that he was indebted as against one to whom he had previously assigned. We do not decide this, however, as the parties have not been heard upon it.
The judgment must be reversed, with costs, and a new trial ordered.
The other Justices concurred. | [
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Dethmers, J.
Plaintiff appeals from judgment of no cause for action in its suit for balance claimed due on a fire loss under an insurance policy written by ■defendant on plaintiff’s stock in trade.. Involved -is a so-called reporting form excess insurance policy for which the premium is figured at the end of the •year on the basis of the average value of the merchandise covered for the year as determined from monthly reports of such.value made by.the insured to the insurer. The policy provides that in case of •underreporting, such value in the last monthly report prior to a loss, liability of the insurer is limited to that proportion of the loss covered which the reported value bore to actual value. Because such underreporting admittedly occurred in this case, defendant insisted, in settlement negotiations, upon application of this limitation clause. . Plaintiff contended that it constituted a coinsurance clause and that it was void under CL 1948, §§ 532.6a-532.15, inclusive (Stat Ann and Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp §§ 24.422 [1]-24.431, inclusive) because there had been no written application by plaintiff for such insurance. . Plaintiff also claimed that defendant’s agent was responsible for the underreporting. There was disagreement between them as to the total value of merchandise on the last reporting date prior to loss and on the date of fire. All these were points of dispute between the parties. Negotiations were concluded by defendant’s payment of an agreed sum and plaintiff’s execution and delivery of a release and discharge from all claims and demands growing out of the fire. Plaintiff says the settlement was arrived at by reaching an agreement as to the amount of the loss and on the value of the merchandise on the date of fire and on the last reporting date and then, because of the underreporting of the latter, invoking the provisions of the limitation clause, which plaintiff calls void, and applying to the coverage under the policy the percentage provided for in that clause. Suit is for the difference between the amount so determined and paid and the proportion of the full loss covered by this policy. One of the defenses urged is accord and satisfaction. Plaintiff counters that it was invalid for the 3 reasons hereinafter considered.
(1) Plaintiff claims, first, that the accord and satisfaction was invalid because in violation of what it terms the coinsurance statute, namely, CL 1948, §§ 532.14, 532.15 (Stat Ann §§ 24.430, 24.431). In effect, these sections prohibit and render void any provision in a fire insurance policy or separate agreement limiting liability of the insurer by reason of failure of the insured to insure property covered for a certain amount or proportion of its actual cash value except, as provided in CL 1948, § 532.9 (Stat Ann § 24.425), in cases of coinsurance policies issued upon written applications therefor. Plaintiff says that the accord and satisfaction was void because it was a “separate agreement” limiting the insurer’s liability by reason of the insured’s failure to fully insure. We do not so consider it. It is clear from the context of the statute that the agreements prohibited are those which, because of failure of insured to fully insure, limit the hazard or risk assumed by the insurer, not agreements compromising and settling the disputed amount of the debt due from insurer to insured, after a loss has occurred, under the liability or risk theretofore assumed by the insurer. The accord and satisfaction did not limit the risk or liability assumed by the insurer, but, rather, determined through compromise the amount owing thereunder and terminated it upon payment. The statute does not invalidate it. Compromise settlements are favored by the law. Flanders Co. v. Canner s’ Exchange, 235 Mich 157, and cases cited in Galperin v. Department of Revenue, 327 Mich 556.
(2) Plaintiff terms the accord and satisfaction invalid because against public policy and without consideration. In furtherance of this contention plaintiff says that the value of merchandise on the last reporting date and on the date of fire and the amount of the loss had been agreed upon between the parties and, in effect, that thereupon the amount ■due plaintiff under the policy became determined and an account stated, a liquidated claim; and that payment thereafter of a sum less than the amount of such account stated could not constitute a consideration for. a compromise agreement to accept less than •the total due. The trial court found as a fact, however, that a dispute had existed between the parties with respect to the amount of said values and' as to whether the policy was one for coinsurance and whether the underreporting had been due to the mistake of defendant’s agent, and that this dispute had continued to the very instant of the compromise settlement; that, in settlement of these disputed issues; figures for the several values were not agreed upon independently, but, rather, as a part of a compromise settlement, for the purpose of affording the basis to which the percentage specified in the limitation clause should' be applied in order to ar.rive at the final amount agreed upon for the com promise settlement. "We think that finding of fact not against the clear preponderance of the evidence. Só' considered, plaintiff’s claim did not become an account stated but remained an unliquidated claim until the time of settlement and accordingly the compromise agreement of one party became the supporting consideration. for that of the other. In point is Wheeler v. Baker, 132 Mich 507. There defendant, as plaintiff’s agent, confessed that he had become short in his accounts due the latter in a certain sum. Plaintiff did not accept the figure as being correct. Later the 2 worked out an agreement that the shortage amounted to a specified greater figure and that it was to be settled at the rate of 50 cents' on the dollar. After the agreed payment had been made plaintiff sued for the balance. He insisted, as does plaintiff here, that the agreement had converted defendant’s shortages into an account stated which could not be settled by a smaller sum. Holding to the contrary, this Court said, in effect, that defendant’s confession of a sum due, not accepted as correct by plaintiff, did not become an account stated; that plaintiff’s demand continued to be an unliquidated one, which could be settled by payment of an amount smaller than its actual value, citing Tanner v. Merrill, 108 Mich 58 (31 LRA 171, 62 Am St Rep 687), and Kern Brewing Co. v. Royal Insurance Co., 127 Mich 39; that the mere fact that the agreement for settlement contained, incident thereto, an agreement that the amount of the demand exceeded the amount to be paid to satisfy it did not render void the settlement of what had been, up to that point, an unliquidated demand; that the agreement liquidating the account gave defendant the right to satisfy it by payment of a smaller sum and that plaintiff could not rely upon the agreement to create an account stated and, at the same time, reject it or seek to escape his obligations thereunder to accept a smaller amount in settlement. The reasoning is appropriate to the facts here as found by the trial court.
(3) Plaintiff contends that the accord and satisfaction was invalid because based on a mutual mistake. The mistake urged is that, in arriving at the settlement, the fraction or percentage which was applied to the-loss, as- provided by the limitation clause because of the underreporting, was not the correct one under the -terms of the policy itself. Throughout the negotiations plaintiff was represented by able counsel who knew the provisions of the policy and urged every consideration in favor of a higher settlement. The present interpretation given the policy by plaintiff and counsel with respect to the-manner of arriving' at the correct percentage, which we think erroneous, could as well have been urged by .-them during negotiations as now. The fact, if it be a fact, that they now constrne the applicable provisions differently than then does not present a case of mistake of fact vitiating the settlement agreement.
Affirmed, with costs t,o defendant.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Smith, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
Seetion 6b, added by PA 1951, No 145 (CLS 1954, § 532.6b [Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 24.422(2)]), has no applicability to this •ease.—Reporter. | [
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Smith, J.
In tbis case plaintiff, Robert Bennett, brought an action in the circuit court for the county of Wayne to recover for personal injuries sustained as the result of an accident. He was struck by a Checker taxicab, driven by defendant David A. Cowan, in the city of Detroit on December 26, 1949, at about 8:45 p.m. Defendant Reginal Hill, the owner of the taxicab, was joined as a party defendant.
Plaintiff, on the day in question, after having arrived by train from Grand Rapids, waited for a taxicab at the Port street railroad station. After waiting for 5 or 10 minutes and being unable to obtain the taxicab, he decided to walk to Woodward avenue to obtain either a taxicab or a bus. Carrying a suitcase weighing 20 to 25 pounds, he walked easterly on the southerly sidewalk of Port street and, in crossing the intersection of Port and Wayne streets, was struck by the taxicab. Plaintiff and defendant Cowan were the only eyewitnesses to the accident.
On the trial in circuit court, defendants, at the close of plaintiff’s proofs, moved for a directed verdict on the ground that plaintiff was guilty of contributory negligence as a matter of law. Said motion was denied without reservation, was renewed at the conclusion of the testimony, and was again denied by the court. The jury returned a verdict in plaintiff’s favor in the sum of $20,000 and judgment was entered accordingly. Thereafter defendants filed a motion for a new trial, which was denied by the trial court, whereupon defendants appealed.
The proofs disclose that the intersection where the accident occurred, Wayne and Fort streets, is somewhat unusual in its layout. North of Port, Wayne is 59 feet wide. South thereof the width is only 27.1 feet. The westerly lines of Wayne, both below and above Fort, are continuous, the diminution in width of the street being effected by a change in the easterly line of Wayne. The result is that a car going south on Wayne must make a “jog” to its right to stay on its own proper side of the street. The intersection is protected by traffic lights which, it is not disputed, were in operation on the December night in question.
The testimony of the plaintiff relative to his conduct in attempting to cross the street was that he stopped at the intersection, looked for traffic in all 4 directions, and observed the light to be green to cross Wayne. He thereupon started to cross. When he reached the middle of the street, approximately, he again looked to the north for traffic, again observed that the traffic light was still green for Fort street traffic, whereupon he continued across the street. He was struck, he testified, when some 6 or 7 feet from the curb he was approaching.
The taxicab driver, defendant Cowan, was confined in a hospital with pulmonary tuberculosis and did not testify in person. His deposition, however, was read into the record. It differed markedly, both in substance and in detail, from plaintiff’s testimony. It was his version that he had completely crossed Fort street with the green light, and was in the crosswalk when plaintiff ran in front of him and was struck.
“When this man commenced to run across Wayne street, I was in the crosswalk. I would say he was either 3 or 4 feet south of the crosswalk when he started to run. I say the man started to run across the street.”
Defendants contend that plaintiff was guilty of contributory negligence as a matter of law. We are not in accord with this view. Plaintiff’s testimony and all legitimate inferences which may be drawn therefrom must be viewed in a light most favorable to plaintiff in determining whether a trial court was in error in not granting a directed verdict. Douglas v. Holcomb, 340 Mich 43; Wisnaski v. Afman, 341 Mich 453.
We will note some of the evidentiary conflicts presented. From the testimony of the plaintiff and the defendant driver it is clear that they do not agree with regard to the traffic signal, plaintiff claiming that it was green in his favor at the time he started to cross the intersection and that it continued to be green at the time of his last observation, immediately before he was struck by defendant Hill’s car some 6 to 10 feet from the curb. Defendant driver, on the other hand, insists that the light was in his favor. Defendants contend, also, that plaintiff, had he looked, must have seen the taxicab before it struck him. Plaintiff, in reply, points to the peculiar configuration of the intersection. A southbound car next to the center line of Wayne, north of Fort, is headed directly for its “wrong” side of Wayne south of Fort, but constitutes no danger to pedestrians crossing Wayne south of Fort, who have reached a position in the street where they are relatively safe from southbound traffic, unless the car fails to make the jog demanded by the street’s narrowing. Defendants also point out certain claimed inconsistencies in the plaintiff’s testimony with respect to his position in the intersection when struck by defendant Hill’s taxicab. There were, in addition, other conflicts in the testimony, a recital of which would unduly lengthen this opinion.
Appellants have cited in support of their contentions numerous prior decisions of this Court in which recovery of damages was denied because of the failure to establish freedom from contributory negligence. They point to decisions of this Court where, as a matter of law, we have held that the pedestrian involved must have seen the ear that was there to be seen. Thus Moore v. Cook, 275 Mich 578; and Molda v. Clark, 236 Mich 277, and other cases in which the accident occurred on the driver’s proper side of the road. But obviously this is a doctrine which requires careful guarding in its application lest it furnish an automatic answer in any negligence case, for an automobile at a given place is never cloaked with a veil of invisibility. Extended discussion of the decisions cited would serve no useful purpose here. It is to be borne in mind that the factual circumstances in the many automoblie' accident cases that have come before the court differ in numerous respects.. It is axiomatic that each such case must stand on its own facts. In-such a situation as we have here outlined, a question of fact was clearly presented as to plaintiff’s contributory negligence and it was properly submitted to the jury. A complete answer to defendants’ argument is found in the recent decisions of this Court in Douglas v. Holcomb, supra; Day v. Troyer, 343 Mich 189; and Wisnaski v. Afman, supra.
It is also urged that the jury’s verdict is contrary to the.great weight of the evidence. ' In- examining the record before us we find that there is substantial evidence to support the .verdict. Under such facts we cannot say that the verdict of -the jury was contrary to the great weight of the testimony. • The rule applied in determining this question is clearly stated in Werker v. McGrain, 315 Mich 287, 291:
“If there is substantial evidence tending to support the verdict it should not be set aside even though this " Court might =be in doubt as to the ultimate facts.”’ 1 ■ ■ -
See, also, Day v. Troyer, supra.
Error is likewise claimed because of the court’s refusal to submit to the jury 2 special questions:
(1) jWas^the point of impact at the place where the debris was' found?
. (2) Did the collision occur south of the southerly crosswalk and west of the center line of Wayne street?
We have repeatedly held, as to special questions, that they must call for findings of fact which are conclusive of the real'issue.involved in the case, Gilbert v. Stickley, 204 Mich 342, or be controlling on the main issue, Corfeld v. Douglas Houghton Hotel Company, 324 Mich 459, and cases cited, and nonargumentative in nature. See Wernette v. Bradfield, 233 Mich 23. The trial court rejected both questions on the ground that “they do not come within the statute, which provides for an answer as to a question of fact,—as to a finding of fact. Those, all of them, call for conclusions.”
Tested by the principles enunciated in the cases above cited, both questions are clearly objectionable. As to the first, there was a great, deal of argument at the trial as to whether certain material in the street near the plaintiff’s body was debris which might have fallen from a car upon impact or whether it was “just plain dirt,” not unlikely to be encountered in any city street. It was repeatedly referred to at the trial in the alternative, as “debris or mud,” or “some mud or some debris,” or “mud or dirt.” Defendants’ phrasing of the question is argumentative and assumes as a conclusion a circumstance which was far from proven. But beyond that, it is abundantly clear that the answers to both questions merely call for conclusions on evidentiary matters, as distinguished from findings on a controlling issue, or, as sometimes put, an ultimate fact. The trial court was correct in its rejection of both'.
Error is further claimed in the trial court’s refusal to permit defendants’- counsel to cross-examine plaintiff relative to allegations made in his declaration as to his earning capacity. Plaintiff’s declaration, which was unsworn, claimed that he had an earning capacity of upward of $500 per month. The plaintiff testified that for 12 months pri.or to the accident his average monthly income was about.$350; that in 1951 his income averaged approximately $350 per month, and in 1952 averaged $362 per month.
The substance of the trial court’s ruling with respect thereto was as follows:
“The Court: You cannot test the credibility of the witness by matters that are included in the pleadings, unless the pleading is traced directly to him. If you have a sworn bill of complaint signed by the witness and sworn to before a notary public,—you always have one in divorce cases, and you generally have bills of complaint sworn to on the chancery side of the court always. That is something you can trace directly to the man who signed it, and swears to it. But in this case, the pleading is one which is signed by his attorney. He didn’t make that statement.”
And further:
“The Court: You cannot cross-examine him on something unless you bring it home-to him that he made the statement. You cannot attack the credibility of a witness on the basis of a statement that somebody else made, until first you prove that the statement was made with his express knowledge and authority, under such conditions that he is bound by it. -Now, if it were against interest, or if it is against his interest, he is bound by it. And you can comment on it to your heart’s content on that basis. But I do not think it is a subject of attacking his credibility unless you can prove first that it was made with his knowledge and consent; and in trying to do that you run up against the matter that- communications between attorney and client are privileged.”
Reversible error cannot be based on this ground. The court’s ruling permitted full comment upon the contents of the pleadings as admissions against interest; The ruling and the reasons therefor, as stated by the trial court, were correct. Court Rule No 17, § 10 (1945). ■
Grounds for reversal are claimed by appellants in that the court’s charge to the jury was argumentative. It is a fundamental rule that, in reviewing a charge, it will be considered as a whole in determining whether prejudicial error is involved. It would serve no useful purpose to quote at length from the court’s charge which covers, 17 pages of the printed record. The charge has been examined in its entirety and we find that it is not prejudical and does not constitute reversible error.
Defendants’ final contention on appeal is that the jury’s verdict is excessive. The medical testimony in the case establishes that plaintiff was hospitalized for a period of approximately 10 months for the treatment of his injuries. He had received, in addition to other injuries, what was described as an “overriding fracture of the mid-shaft of the right femur.” Skeletel traction was employed, plus later surgery, bone graft, and the utilization of a steel metal plate secured to the bone by screws. After discharge from the hospital, plaintiff used a leg brace until April of 1951. The injury was painful and will in the future involve a degree of discomfort. Plaintiff, who is a salesman, is permanently hampered in driving his car, in walking, and in his recreation. There is a permanent limitation of knee flexion, with a degree of atrophy of the right thigh, and a possibility of limitation of ankle flexion. As to earnings, his losses could fairly be said to involve the sum of $350 a month from December, 1949, to November of 1950, with an additional $100 a month from the latter date to June of 1951.
This Court has but recently, in Day v. Troyer, supra, spoken on this same question. What was said there (pp 201, 202) is applicable here:
“In order to justify the granting of a new trial on the ground that the amount of the verdict is excessive, the burden is upon the party so claiming to show affirmatively that the verdict rendered is excessive. In Torma v. Montgomery Ward & Company, 336 Mich 468, the appellant claimed that the amount of the jury’s award was excessive and out of reasonable proportion to the damages shown by the proofs. We there said (p 488) :
“ ‘There is nothing in the record before us to indicate that ■ the jury may have been prejudiced or biased by any occurrence in the course of the trial. It has been' repeatedly recognized in prior decisions of this Court that the awarding of damages for pain ánd suffering rests in the sound judgment of the jury, or of the judge in a case tried without a jury. What, was said in Teeter v. Pugsley, 319 Mich 508, 511, mav well be repeated here:
“ ‘ “The amount allowed for pain and suffering must rest in the sound judgment of the trier,of the facts. We do not substitute our judgment on this, question unless a verdict has been secured by improper methods, prejudice, or sympathy. No such showing has been made; nor is this portion of the judgment so great as to shock the'"judicial conscience. Watrous v. Conor, 266 Mich 397, 401.” :
“ ‘See, also, Brebner v. Sidney Hill Health System, Inc., 269 Mich 541; Trafamczak v. Anys, 320 Mich 653, 662; Graham v. United Trucking Service, Inc., 327 Mich 694.’”
In view of the serious and permanent nature of the injuries, the lengthy hospitalization, the pain and suffering, and the major limitation of movement of the knee, together with financial losses involved, the verdict, while substantial, is not so excessive as to shock the judicial conscience. Crase v. City of Detroit, 341 Mich 132.
The judgment of the trial court is affirmed. Plaintiff may have costs.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, and Kelly, JJ., concurred with Smith, J.
Dethmers, J., concurred in the result. ' \
See CL 1948, ■§ 618.39' (Stat Ana § 27.1019) .—Reporter. | [
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Btjtzel, J.
Plaintiffs Donald and Esther Armstrong were buying their home in Byron Center, Kent county, Michigan, on land contract. On July 31, 1948, defendant Woodland Mutual Fire Insurance Company issued to them a fire insurance policy insuring the home for $3,500 and its contents for $1,500. As members of a mutual company plaintiffs were required to pay annual assessments. In this regard the company’s bylaws which were part of the insurance contract provided:
“7. Assessments. All assessments shall be ordered by the board of directors, and shall be levied by the secretary and collected by the treasurer or under his direction. Notice of each assessment shall be sent by mail to each member to the last known post office address as shown by the records of the company at least 30 days before the insurance would become delinquent for nonpayment of the assessment, and proof of mailing such notice shall be deemed conclusive evidence of its receipt. The secretary shall include with the notice of assessment, unless previously supplied to the member, a statement of financial condition of the company at the close of the preceding year. If the assessment is not paid on or before the date of payment fixed by the board, then the insurance covered by said assessment shall be automatically suspended until the assessment is paid and the company .shall not be liable in any toay for any loss during the period of such suspension and the insurance shall not be reinstated until payment of the assessment shall have been actually received at the office of the treasurer.” (Emphasis supplied.)
It was apparently the rule and practice of the company to make the assessments due on the first day of the month in which the policy was to come due. Plaintiffs testified that they paid $15 when the policy was issued on July 31, 1948, though the records of the defendant indicate a payment of only $7.50. Thereafter, in accordance with the bylaws, assessments were ordered and defendant annually mailed to plaintiffs timely notices to the effect that their assessments were due on June 1st. Plaintiffs paid these assessments on May 31, 1949, June 5, 1950, June 5, 1951, and June 9, 1952. Though not so required the company mailed notices of suspension in those years in which the payment was not received by June 1st. In April, 1953, defendant gave plaintiffs notice of assessment due on June 1, 1953. They deny receipt of this notice in their brief but examination of the record shows that their attorney admitted or stipulated its receipt and Mrs. Armstrong acknowledged it in her testimony. They did not pay this assessment by June 1 and on June 5, 1953, a fire occurred resulting in considerable damage to the home and personalty. The following day plaintiffs went to the agent through whom they had procured the policy and advised him of the fire and the fact that they had not yet paid their assessment. After the agent called the company, he advised them to send in their assessment, which they did. The company accepted it on June 8, 1953, three days after the loss occurred.
Thereafter, proof of loss for damage to the house in the amount of $1,800 was filed, adjusted, accepted and paid—-the proceeds going to the vendors in the land contract under which plaintiffs were vendees. Defendant, however, denied liability for the $1,500 damage to the personalty claiming that at the time of the fire the policy was suspended due to nonpayment of the assessment. No adequate explanation appears to explain the company’s payment of part of the loss, other than that on reconsideration it might have been a mistake and also the vendors in the contract to plaintiffs had not received notice of assessment and defendant might have considered itself liable to the vendors.
Plaintiffs brought suit for the $1,500, the amount of the insurance on the personal property. At the trial they argued that they were entitled to go to the jury on the question of whether the correct assessment date was July 1st or June 1st. Their theory was that as the policy was issued on July 31st, the assessment date was the first of that month rather than the first of June. Plaintiffs further claimed that defendant had waived suspension of the policy, if such there was, by accepting the assessment and paying part of the loss. During the trial plaintiffs also stressed the fact that 1 or 2 of the prior assessment notices had printed on them “Assessment date June-” with no particular date filled in. However, in view of the fact that there was only 1 assessment date in any 1 month, the first of that month, such an argument is of little or no force.
Defendant argued that the clear terms of the policy and the assessment notice showed the insurance was suspended at the time of the fire. It was shown that for some 5 years since the date of issuance the assessment date had been June 1st, and that, while the policy itself noted July 31, 1948, as the issuing date, it also noted that June 1st was the assessment date. Defendant also claimed that the policy issued to plaintiffs was a “rewrite” of a policy assigned to them by another party whose assessment date was June 1st.
The court was at first disposed to direct a verdict for defendant because of the assessment notices and the clear terms of the policy both of which indicated that the policy was suspended at the time of the fire. The court, however, reserved its decision on the motion for directed verdict under the Empson act and submitted the case to the jury who returned a verdict for $1,500. Defendant moved for judgment non obstante veredicto which the judge denied in the following words:
“The issue of fact was as to whether or not the assessment was due on July 1st of each year or June 1st of each year. That was the issue of fact submitted to the jury, and the jury found for the plaintiffs. In other words, the jury must have found that the company was in error in its claim that the proper assessment date was June 1st instead of July 1st of each year. * * *
“If June 1st was the correct assessment date, then there can he no doubt hut that the failure to pay the assessment due June 1st suspended the provisions of the policy insofar as providing insurance coverage for the plaintiffs. * * *
“However, as above noted, it was the positive testimony of the plaintiffs that on July 31, 1948, they paid to the defendant company the sum of $15 and that on that date they received a policy dated July 31,1948, stating that the- insurance under that policy commenced on the 31st day of July, 1948; that although the assessment date on the front or cover of the policy was stated to be June 1st of each year, that that date was incorrect. On the other hand, it was and is the claim of the defendant company that June 1st was the correct assessment date. That issue was submitted to the jury.”
On appeal defendant asks that we vacate the judgment on the verdict and remand the case for entry of a judgment of no cause of action.
The jury must have decided that July 1st rather than June 1st was the correct assessment date. A thorough review of the record reveals that the facts which support such a conclusion are that the policy was issued on July 31, 1948; that a director 'testified that policies are normally written and paid for 1 year; that it was the practice of the company to make the assessment due on the first day of the month in which the policy came due; and that the company accepted payment of the assessment. Payment originally of $15 does not tend to support plaintiffs’ theory because while currently a full year’s assessment, on July 31, 1948, higher rates were in force and $15 was something less than 1 year’s assessment.
Though we might have reached a different result, it is not within our province to substitute our judgment for that of the jury. Nor can we, though-possi bly so inclined in this case, order a new trial because the verdict might be against the great weight of the evidence. Defendant did not move for a new trial •on that ground, or at all, and we therefore cannot order one. Nadolski v. Peters, 332 Mich 182; Riber v. Morris, 279 Mich 344. Though meager, there was evidence to support plaintiffs’ claim and therefore we cannot consider this ease as one which was erroneously submitted to the jury on the ground that no question of fact was presented.
Thus bound by a determination that the policy was in force at the time of the fire, we need not consider the question of defendant’s waiver of suspension.
Judgment affirmed, with costs.
Caee, C. J., and Smith, Sharpe, Boyles, Beid, Dethmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
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Reid, J.
Upon leave granted, plaintiff appeals from his conviction and sentence on a charge of robbery armed. The case was first tried before a jury in March, 1954, bukthe jury were unable to arrive at a verdict. Subsequently, upon a second trial by a jury in June, 1954, the defendant was found guilty. He appeals from the sentence afterwards pronounced.
■On the second trial the court conducted the voir dire examination of jurors and asked the following questions:
“Have any of you read or heard or know anything about this case?”
“Are any of you acquainted with William J. Lock-hart, ..the..defendant, seated here at the counsel table ?”
“Are any of yon acquainted with Mr. Keyworth,. the assistant prosecutor, except perhaps as you have seen him in court ?”
“Are any of you or any of your immediate members of your family connected with any law-enforcement agency?”
“Do you know of any reason why you could not sit here and render a fair and impartial verdict based upon the evidence produced here in open court?”
“Do you know of any matter, fact or circumstance that might tend to prejudice you one way or another in this case ?”
At the conclusion of the examination by the court,, counsel for the defendant requested the court to ask each juror the following questions:
1. “Have any of you jurors or any of the immediate members of your family ever been robbed by anyone ?”
2. “What their verdict would be in the event the testimony is evenly balanced?”
The court asked the first question but refused to ask each juror,
“What their verdict would be in the event the testimony is evenly balanced.”
. Further the court asked the following questions of both counsel
“The Court: Cause Mr. Prosecutor ?
“Mr. Keyworth: None Your Honor.
“The Court: Cause Mr. Dunnings? [attorney for defendant]
“Mr. Dunnings: None Your Honor.
“The Court: Peremptory Mr. Prosecutor?
“Mr. Keyworth: None Your Honor.
“The Court: Peremptory Mr. Dunnings ?
“Mr. Dunnings: I am satisfied Your Honor.”
Thereafter, on June 18, 1954, the said defendant moved the trial court to set aside the said verdict and grant a new trial for the reason that the trial judge erred in refusing to ask the jurors upon the voir dire examination, at the request of counsel for defendant, “What their verdict would be in the event the evidence is evenly balanced!” The trial judge refused to grant a new trial, giving for such refusal the reason that it seemed to the court that the jury had been fairly and adequately questioned as to any prejudice they had.
On June 28, 1954, the court sentenced the defendant to a term of not less than 5 nor more than 15 years.
The appellant contends that prejudicial error was committed by the trial court in refusing to ask The question put before the court in its conduct of the voir dire examination and to receive the answer of each juror as to, “what their verdict would be in the event the testimony is evenly balanced.” In support of such contention defendant cites Monaghan v. Agricultural Fire Insurance Co. (1884), 53 Mich 238, 245; also, People v. Keefer (1893), 97 Mich 15, 19; also, Towl v. Bradley (1896), 108 Mich 409; and People v. Peck (1905), 139 Mich 680, 683. However, in the case of People v. Wheeler, 185 Mich 164, we say, p 169:
“The reason of the rule first stated in the Monaghan Case is that counsel have the right to ask this question for the purpose of ascertaining the condition of the juror’s mind, which rule is not changed by the decision in the Caldwell Case [People v. Caldwell, 107 Mich 374], which expressly recognized the rule, but held that adding thereto the words, ‘if either way,’ as suggested by the court, was a reasonable request, and that the condition of the juror’s mind could be as clearly ascertained with the amendment as without it, and that therefore it is not reversible error to exclude the question where no reason is shown why counsel refused to adopt the sug gestión of the court. So we conclude that in the instant case, counsel having refused to adopt the suggestion of the court as to amending the question, it was not reversible error to exclude the question and the answer thereto.”
In the instant case the trial court did not suggest any amendment to the proposed question, which is basically a question of law, but merely refused to ask the question. The court did ask each juror whether the juror knew of any reason why he could not sit and render a fair and impartial verdict, based upon the evidence produced in open court and further asked of each juror, “Do you know of any matter, fact or circumstance that might tend to prejudice you one way or another in this case?” Since the earlier decisions cited by defendant, our Court Rule No 37 (1945) has been adopted, section 1 of which is as follows:
“The voir dire examination of jurors in all cases may be conducted by the trial judge, or he may, in his discretion, permit such examination' by the attorneys for the respective parties. If made by the judge, counsel for any of the parties desiring that additional matters be inquired into shall request the judge to interrogate the juror relative thereto, which request, if the matter be deemed material, shall be granted.”
Commenting upon this rule, Honigman in Michigan Court Rules Annotated, p 376, states as follows:
“The scope of the voir dire examination of jurors is largely in the discretion of the trial court and should be kept within reasonable bounds.”
In the instant case defendant’s counsel did not see fit to add to the question in dispute the qualification, “if either way” (or any similar qualification), which added words we have ruled in the Wheeler and Caldwell Cases to be reasonable as a'request on the part of the court. Therefore, in the language of the court rule, the matter was “deemed material.” In view of the answers of the jurors, disclosing want of prejudice, the ruling of the court was not reversible error. There was no abuse by the trial court of the discretion vested in him under the court rule. Defendant’s petition for a new trial is denied.
Carr, C. J., and Smith, Sharpe, and Kelly, JJ., concurred with Reid, J,
Butzel, Boyles and Dethmers, JJ., concurred in the result. | [
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Boyles, J.
Plaintiffs are owners of land in a certain plat fronting on Lake Michigan in Van Burén county. The defendant county road commission claimed a right-of-way, as a public road, over certain land in said plat leading to the beach and water’s edge on the lake. Plaintiffs erected a fence across said claimed public road, preventing its use as such. The defendant county road commission threatened to remove the fence and plaintiffs filed the instant bill of complaint to enjoin the defendant from interfering with the fence or trespassing on plaintiffs’ property. Issue was joined and testimony taken and the trial judge entered a decree that the area in question was private property, not a public highway or thoroughfare, and enjoined the defendant from trespassing, or from interfering with the fence. Defendant appeals.
This property was platted in 1941, approved by the Van Burén county board of road commissioners, and recorded in 1944. It showed that the streets, walks and parks in the plat were dedicated to the use of .the lot owners only, except highway US-31 which had been conveyed to the people for road purposes, and also excepting a strip of land called Valley road also dedicated to the use of the public. On the plat Valley road was designated as a road 50 feet in width, running east and west, beginning at US-31 on the east and running west, ending at a private north-and-south street called Lake street on the plat. This western terminus of Valley road was approximately 650 feet east of the lake shore and said 650-foot strip of land from Valley road to the lake is here in controversy. The county road commission claims it is a public highway, and seeks to prevent the plaintiffs from depriving the public from using it by having erected a fence across it near its eastern terminus. For that purpose, the defendant road commission sought affirmative relief in its answer.
The essence of the defendant’s claim is that there has been such a use by the public, over a claimed highway from the western terminus of Valley road, as dedicated in the plat, westerly to Lake Michigan, as to make it a public highway.. It follows the course of a creek which sometimes overflows its banks and washes out the road. Consequently the road—called a “trail” by some of the witnesses—did not always follow the same route. In the early days it was used as a logging or lumbering road. As this use disappeared it was used at times by commercial fishermen. In later years its use has been limited to recreational purposes. At times it has been repaired for use by public-highway authorities, especially since the county road commission reported it to the State as a county road taken over under the so-called McNitt act. During that time a new bridge was erected on the Valley road by the county to replace an old one. The westerly 650 feet between the west end of the Valley road and the lake runs along Rogers, creek. On the south side of the road there are high bluffs. As the course of Rogers creek was changed over the years by reason of overflow, that part of the road here in question was correspondingly changed. It has followed no definite or established route. At times landowners have posted signs on it against trespassing and a landowner once erected and chained a gate across it. County maps occasionally showed a road from US-31 to the lake after the county had certified it to the State as a county road taken over under the McNitt act, and during that time it was occasionally maintained or repaired by the county. However, there is no claim of a dedication of the road here involved either by plat or otherwise except by use and maintenance by the public.
The proofs fall short of establishing a dedication of this strip of land to the public by use, for highway purposes. Dedication of land to the public for a highway by use wall not be inferred from facts and surrounding circumstances unless they imply not only an offer, but an acceptance of the same, for public use. Where the traveled part used as a highway runs alongside a river-bank but does not include the bank and the beach, there has been no acceptance thereof by the public as part of a highway, and the court will properly restrain the public authorities from taking said land without condemnation proceedings. Smith v. State Highway Commissioner, 227 Mich 280.
The instant case quite closely parallels a situation recently before this Court in Missaukee Lakes Land Company v. Missaukee County Road Commission, 333 Mich 372, decided in 1952. The factual situation here is quite like that in the Missaukee Case, and the cases there cited are applicable here. We there held that the plaintiff landowner might enjoin the defendant county road commission from interfering with a fence placed across a road traversing the plaintiff’s property, on a claim that the road was a county highway under the McNitt act by reason of implied dedication or use by the public. The facts in that case are significantly similar to those in the case at bar, and the conclusions reached therein control here.
Affirmed. No costs, appellees not having filed a brief in this Court.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Smith, Sharpe, Reid, Dethmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
See CL 1948, § 247.1 el seq. (Stat Ann § 9.141 et seq.) .-RePORTER. | [
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Kelly, J.
On December 12,1951, the circuit court for the county of Wayne denied appellant’s claim that she was a partner with Thomas S. Young in the ownership and operation of the Young Cocktail Bar.
A petition to set aside the decree was filed on April 11, 1953, and denied on May 27, 1953. Appellant’s motion for rehearing was denied on July 10, 1953.
Appellant presents 2 questions to this Court:
(1) Did the trial court err in consolidating appellant’s divorce action against her husband, David Young, with her partnership action against Thomas Young?
(2) Did the trial court err in denying her petition to set aside decree on grounds of fraud and misrepresentation ?
In regard to the first question it is sufficient to say that the record clearly supports the trial court’s statement that:
“When the 2 suits were assigned to this court great pains were taken by the court to discuss the question of consolidating the suits to avoid the duplication of testimony since most of the testimony was alike on the question of property rights. Both sides through their attorneys, consented in open court to the consolidation of the 2 suits.”
Sixteen months after the decree was entered (on April 11, 1953) appellant filed her petition to set aside decree, and her only allegation concerning fraud was:
“That the figures quoted during said testimony was a fraud committed upon the court and a misrepresentation of the true figures and that the fraud and misrepresentation can be substantiated by affidavits of the defense.”
This petition to set aside decree was supported by one affidavit, namely, the affidavit of Mary Young, stating:
“That the figures quoted during said testimony were false and a misrepresentation of the true figures.”
The court denied the petition to set aside the decree stating that it had lost jurisdiction because of the lapse of time between the entry of the decree and the filing of the petition to set aside the decree.
The court denied the motion for rehearing because “there is no merit to the claims of the plaintiff as set forth in said motion.”
The lower court did not err. See Court Rule No 48 (1945); Lisiak v. Lupienski, 241 Mich 119; Denby v. Ellis, 245 Mich 124; Naylor v. Washtenaw Circuit Judge, 250 Mich 698; North Branch Oil & Gas Co. v. Hodges, 280 Mich 317.
Affirmed, costs to appellees.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Smith, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, and Dethmers, JJ., concurred. | [
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Smith, J.
Plaintiffs herein are farmers in the county of Tuscola. They have filed a petition for writ of mandamus against the defendant, Inter-County Drainage Board of Tuscola, Sanilac and Lapeer counties for the "White Creek No 2 Inter-County Drain. It was the complaint of the plaintiffs that the defendant board caused the construction of an inter-county drain which crossed their farms. Having done so, and having thus severed plaintiffs’ farms into “disconnected portions,” the defendant board found itself without funds for the construction of suitable bridges or passageways across the drains. As a result, the farmers cannot move their stock and machinery from one part of their farms to another without either traveling on public roads or the privately owned lands of others. The plaintiffs assert that under the provisions of the general "drain law (CL 1948 and CLS 1952, § 261.1 et seq., as amended [Stat Ann 1952 Rev and Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 11.1 et seq., as amended]), it was the duty of the defendant to make a further assessment to provide funds for the construction of bridges or passageways required by law. They prayed that a writ of mandamus issue, commanding the board to make a further assessment for such purpose and directing the defendant to undertake such construction.
An order to show cause was issued on May 15, 1954. The attorney general appeared, specially on behalf of John Hudson, chief of drainage of the department of agriculture of the State of Michigan, and a member of the defendant board, and moved to dismiss on the following grounds:
“1. That this defendant is a State officer of the State of Michigan;
“2. That all the members of said inter-county drainage board above named are State officers .and not local officers;
“3. That circuit courts are by law forbidden to issue writs of mandamus against State officers.”
The trial court, on June 17,1954, denied the attorney general’s motion to dismiss and entered an order upholding the jurisdiction of the court. Subsequently, the attorney general intervened on behalf of the people and upon leave granted has appealed from the order of the circuit court denying defendant John Hudson’s motion to dismiss. The defendant board has not appealed but has filed a brief sustaining the circuit court’s jurisdiction.
The applicable statute above cited (particularly CLS 1952, § 265.2 [Stat Ann 1952 Rev § 11.42]), provides, as to an inter-county drain, that “the drain commissioners interested” and the State commissioner of agriculture, “or any deputy selected by him,” shall constitute such drainage board. With respect thereto appellant takes a broad position. He asserts that not only the deputy appointed by the commissioner of agriculture to act for him, but all of the members of the inter-county drain board are State officers. From this premise he argues that the circuit court was without jurisdiction to issue the writ as prayed because of CL 1948, §§ 606.1, 636.3 (Stat Ann §§ 27.542, 27.2230), providing that no circuit court has jurisdiction to issue a writ of mandamus against State officers. In addition, and so far as the officers concerned comprise an official board, we are pressed with the argument that the powers of a circuit court with respect to mandamus are narrowly circumscribed by article 7, § 10, of the Constitution (1908); that, in fact, the “circuit courts have no power to issue writs of mandamus generally unless such power has been given to them under the terms of the section in question by the Supreme Court.” Appellant then argues, as to jurisdiction under Court Buie No 43 (1945), “unless the inter-county drainage board is a county board there is under the terms of Court Buie No 43 a total lack of authority for circuit courts to try mandamus cases against such boards.”
In view of its importance we will consider first the constitutional challenge to the jurisdiction of the circuit court. This stems from the case of McBride v. Common Council of Grand Rapids, 32 Mich 360, which involved the interpretation of article 6, § 8, of the Constitution of 1850:
“The circuit court shall have original jurisdiction in all matters civil and criminal, not excepted in this Constitution, and not prohibited by law; and appellate jurisdiction from all inferior courts and tribunals and a supervisory control of the same. They shall also have power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, quo warranto, certiorari, and other writs necessary to carry into effect their orders, judgments and decrees, and give them general control over inferior courts and tribunals within their respective jurisdictions.”
The case concerned an application for a mandamus to compel the common council of Grand Bapids to issue a salary warrant to the applicant. The court denied the mandamus, concluding that (p 367)
“the Constitution does not give to the circuit courts jurisdiction of the enumerated writs, except for the purposes of the jurisdiction which in general terms is conferred; and that the writ of mandamus has a very limited application within that jurisdiction, not extending to the present case.”
A vigorous dissent by Chief Justice Craves challenged the conclusion of the majority, reasoning, in part, as follows (pp 377, 378):
“Before taking leave of this inquiry, I think it admissible to survey the section in the order of clauses, as we may suppose its framers constructed it, and seek to ascertain how their minds were moved in designing the various parts. In looking at the section in this way a numbering of the clauses will help distinctness.
“1. The circuit courts shall have original jurisdiction in all matters, civil and criminal, not excepted in this Constitution, and not prohibited by law;
“2. And appellate jurisdiction from all inferior courts and tribunals, and a supervisory control of the same;
“3. They shall also have power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, quo warranto, certiorari ;
“4. And other writs necessary to carry into effect their orders, judgments and decrees, and give them a general control over inferior courts and tribunals within their respective jurisdictions.
“The first clause was framed plainly enough to grant general original jurisdiction, subject, however, to the general exception stated; and it is equally plain that the second clause was drawn to convey general appellate power; both grants, as well as the exception in the first, being couched in general terms.
“Having thus in broad language conferred original and appellate jurisdiction, and having made an exception in broad language from the grant of original jurisdiction, we may suppose it was deemed needful to be more specific in regard to certain features of jurisdiction, and likewise essential to exclude such features from the operation of the exception in the first grant, and to that extent to fix specifically and positively the power of the court; that having'this in mind, the third clause was added in the nature of a proviso, or exception out of the exception, so as to assure the right to employ any of the enumerated proceedings whenever applicable.
“Having proceeded thus far with the section in the effort to prescribe and regulate the jurisdiction, it is not unreasonable to suppose its authors conceived that there might be other proceedings essential to the jurisdiction intended to be vested, and which, notwithstanding the admissible implications from other grants, might be claimed to be excluded as an effect of the previous specific enumerations, unless such result should be guarded against by a supplementary provision; and then, imitating, not very distinctly, the Federal convention when it authorized ‘all laws necessary and proper,’ et cetera, the last clause was added out of prudent caution, and not with any design to hamper the power to employ the proceedings previously enumerated.”
The attorney general asserts that the majority opinion states the prevailing rule today. "We are constrained to hold otherwise. The matter was fully considered and debated at the time of the formulation and adoption of the Constitution of 1908. In the official report of the Proceedings and Debates of the Constitutional Convention of the State of Michigan (Vol 2, p 1308), will be found the following :
“The secretary read section 10 of article 7 as follows:
“Section 10. Circuit courts shall have original jurisdiction in all matters civil and criminal not excepted in this Constitution and not prohibited by law, and appellate jurisdiction from all inferior courts and tribunals and a supervisory control of the same. They shall also have power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, quo warranto, certiorari and other writs necessary to carry into effect their orders, judgments and decrees, and give them general control over inferior courts and tribunals within their respective jurisdictions, and in all such other cases and matters as the Supreme Court shall by rule prescribe.
“The Chairman: Are there any amendments to section 10?
“Mr. Adams: In line 63 I move to amend by striking out the comma after the word ‘warranto’ and inserting in lieu thereof the word ‘and;’ by inserting after the word ‘certiorari’ the words ‘and to hear and determine the same;’ by inserting in line 64 after the word ‘and’ the words ‘to issue such’ and by inserting after the word ‘writs’ the words ‘as may be.’
“The meaning is not clear as it reads in the present section. Have they the power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunctions, et cetera, to carry into effect their orders, judgments and decrees ? Is that what it means ? Or does it mean that they have the right to issue the writs independently? And if they are to have the right to issue them, what court is to hear and determine them ? The language is not clear. And while this amendment may be technical I want to say now that there is a case pending in the Supreme Court where that very question is raised—that the circuit court has no power to issue writs of mandamus, habeas corpus, injunctions, quo warranto and certiorari except to carry into effect their orders and decrees, and not as independent writs. The language I suggest will make it clear, and it follows the language used in the section pertaining to the Supreme Court. On page 26 in lines 16 and 17 it reads ‘remedial writs, and to hear and determine the same.’ If that language is used with reference to the Supreme Court it ought to he used with reference to the circuit court. * *
“The Chairman: The question is upon the amendment.
“The question was taken and upon a division— yeas 34, nays 28—the amendment was agreed to.
“The Chairman: Are there any further amendments to this section? If not, it will be passed. (After a pause.) It is passed.”
The final draft of the section is as now appears in article 7, § 10, of the Constitution (1908), which reads:
“Circuit courts shall have original jurisdiction in all matters civil and criminal not excepted in this Constitution and not prohibited by law, and appellate jurisdiction from all inferior courts, and tribunals and a supervisory control of the same. They shall also have power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, quo warranto and certiorari and to hear and determine the same; and to issue such other writs as may be necessary to carry into effect their orders, judgments and decrees and give them general control over inferior courts and tribunals within their respective jurisdictions, and in all such other cases and matters as the Supreme Court shall by rule prescribe.”
It is clear, then, under the present Constitution, that the circuit courts were intended to have, and have, plenary jurisdiction in matters of mandamus, subject only to the restrictions properly flowing from the Constitution itself.
It remains, however, to be considered whether or not the facts of the instant case bring it within the prohibitions of CL 1948, §§ 606.1, 636.3 (Stat Ann §§ 27.542, 27.2230). This in turn brings up for decision whether or not the officials comprising the defendant Inter-County Drainage Board are “State officers” within the meaning of such acts. If so, the circuit court’s mandamus cannot run against them and jurisdiction will rest exclusively with this Court.
It is not peculiar to Michigan that particular jurisdictional provisions obtain as to mandamus -against “State officers.” Thus we find in the constitution of Arizona (art 6, § 4) that “the supreme court' shall have original jurisdiction in habeas corpus, and quo warranto and mandamus as to all State officers.” In Wyoming (art 5, § 3) the phrasing varies but slightly, “original jurisdiction in quo warranto and mandamus as to all State officers, and in habeas corpus.” In the Texas statutes the phrase takes a much broader turn, it being provided in. Vernon’s Annotated Civil Statutes (art 1735) that “the supreme court only shall have power, authority or jurisdiction to issue the writ of mandamus * * against any of the officers of the executive departments of the government of this State.” We shall return to this statute and its construction. In the State of Washington, also, the constitution provides (art 4, § 4) that “the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction in * * * mandamus as to all State officers.” There are many others, but the foregoing are typical and illustrative.
A closely related problem of construction is presented in all of these enactments, namely, just what cases shall be heard exclusively by the supreme court of the State. Thus shall the Texas court take literally the requirement that only it shall have the jurisdiction over “any” of the officers of the executive department of the State government? If so, considering the vast number of such officers, the court must greatly change its numbers, structure, and organization. Or, in the State of Washington, where the supreme court’s jurisdiction in mandamus to State officers is concurrent with that of the superior court, just which of the State officers (in the broad sense) will be relegated for trial to' tbe superior courts? In Michigan the problem under our statute is in essence similar, namely, what is a State officer within the meaning of the circuit court prohibition as to jurisdiction?
On the one hand, it is clear that the term “State officer” is so broad as to embrace the literally hundreds of officials within the State who perform, in varying degrees, functions having their authorization in constitutional provisions and statutory enactments applicable to the State at large or partaking to some extent of the police power of the State. Thus, in a sense, and to the extent that the performance of their official functions involves the administration of State laws, county and municipal officials, prosecutors, judges, treasurers, police and ^chool officials, drain commissioners and hosts of others are all State officials.
On the other hand, as opposed to such broad usage, the use of the term “State officer” in the Michigan Constitution (1908) is specific. ' We start with the proposition (article 4, § 1) that the powers of government are divided into 3 departments, legislative, executive, and judicial. As to the executive department we find that article 6, § 1, is devoted to “State officers; election, term, duties,” the section making reference to the governor, lieutenant govern- or, secretary of State, State treasurer, commissioner of State land office, auditor general, and attorney general. Yacancies in any of the “State offices” are provided for in section 10 of the same article, it providing that the governor shall fill the same by appointment, by and with the advice and consent óf the senate. We also find salaries of “State officers” governed by section 21 of the same article. It is also significant to note that in the Constitution we also find provisions respecting municipal and town ship officers as well, e.g., article 9, §§ 7 and 8, article 8, § 18.
We cannot conclude, in view of the foregoing, that the term “State officer” as employed in our fundamental charter embraces the broad usage tendered to us. In fact, in view of the language in the Com stitution itself, there is much to commend the view of the Texas court that the provisions of the statutes of that State, above cited, apply only to the executive officers named in the Constitution, despite the apparent breadth of the phrase “any of the officers of the executive department of the government of the State.” Texas Liquor Control Board v. Continental Distilling Sales Co. (Tex Civ App, 1947), 199 SW2d 1009, writ of error denied, 145 Tex 691, application for appeal to supreme court of the United States denied (Tex Civ App, 1947), 203 SW 2d 288, appeal dismissed, 332 US 747 (68 S Ct 26, 92 L ed 335).
It is clear from what has this far been observed that in one sense of the term a State officer is one who exercises a portion of the sovereign powers on a State-wide basis, normally from the seat of government, such as the attorney general, while in another; a State officer is any official whatsoever whose duties embrace the implementation of sovereign policy, however expressed, such as the village constable. See State, ex rel. Milwaukee Medical College, v. Chittenden, 127 Wis 468 (107 NW 500); Stone v. State, ex rel. Courtney, 233 Ala 239 (171 So 362); State, ex rel. Burns, v. Linn, 49 Olda 526 (153 P 826). Prom such dichotomy we derive no comfort, however, for it is equally clear that the term “State officer” will vary in content with its use and context; and that the same officeholder may be an officer of the State for one purpose and not for another. Thus we might well hold that a county, township, or municipal election official is a State officer as con eerns the' duty of State officers to administer constitutional rights equally to all races (e.g., Mitchell v. Wright, 69 F Supp 698) while at the same time denying that he is a State officer to the extent that a vacancy in his office could only he filled by the governor by and with the advice and consent of the senate.
We are not so bold as to attempt an all-embracing definition of “State officer.” The precise delineation of the term will await our rulings as cases are brought before us. In each instance the meaning of the term “State officer” will be governed by the purpose of the act or clause in connection with which it is employed. We are here concerned with a matter of jurisdiction and forum. A farmer asserts that his land has been traversed by drains and left without the bridges required by statute. As a result thereof he cannot cross, he says, from one part of his farm to another “with men, machinery, animals, or produce” without traveling on public roads, or, in one instance, without invading the privately-owned land of others. As a result he asks, in short, that the defendant bridge the drains. This is a matter peculiarly appropriate for resolution by the local courts. Local witnesses will be heard, and a jury from the vicinage may view the local premises. True, there is a State law in the background, but few of our affairs today are conducted without such hovering presence.
Just why is it that jurisdiction is denied to local courts in mandamus involving State officers ? What is the purpose of the restriction? Chief Justice Gaines of the supreme court of Texas, in discussing the mandamus jurisdiction of that court in Betts v. Johnson, 96 Tex 360, 363 (73 SW 4), phrased the answer in the following terms :
“We can see a reason why the court should have been empowered to. grant writs of mandamus against the heads of the departments of the State government. These officers must reside and their offices must be kept at the seat of the State government and their official functions are to be performed there. A mandamus proceeding against the head of a department, as a rule, involves questions which are of general public interest and call for a speedy determination. That they are of far more importance than those ordinarily arising in mandamus suits against other officers, whether of the State or of a district or a county, is as we think obvious.
“We fail to see any very good and sufficient reason why the legislature should have deemed it appropriate to confer original jurisdiction upon this court to grant a writ of mandamus against executive officers other than those intrusted with the general administration of State affairs, and who exercise general governmental functions. Others are officers in a certain sense; but in another sense, they are mere agents charged with the performance of special functions.”
Similar views as to matters properly cognizable before the highest court of a State are found in. Attorney General v. City of Eau Claire, 37 Wis 400, 445, in which the court, in discussing mandamus, held:
“These are questions publici juris, as are title to. local public office, performance of local official duty, use of local highways, maintenance of local public buildings, abuse of local power or franchise, and kindred local matters. But these are not generally questions directly involving the sovereign prerogative or the interest of the State at large, so as to call for the prerogative jurisdiction of this court. As a rule, no extraordinary jurisdiction is necessary or proper for them; the ordinary jurisdiction of the circuit court being ample. Practically it would be impossible to take jurisdiction of them all here; and we intend to assume jurisdiction of none of them, which are not taken out of the rule by some exceptional canse. When they are governed by some peculiarity which brings them within the spirit and object of the original jurisdiction of this court, we will entertain them. Otherwise they will be left to the circuit courts.”
Tested by the criteria suggested, which commend themselves to us, we are unable to conclude that the drain commissioners comprising the defendant board are “State officials” within the meaning of the statute. They are not intrusted with the general administration of State affairs; they are not heads of State departments; their authority is not coextensive with the borders of the State; nor is the interest of the State at large involved save in a most general sense. The matter presented, while important, is a matter primarily local in extent and character.
While it is true that the jurisdictional question here presented was not argued in the case of Hoad v. Van Wagoner, 278 Mich 600, 607, 609, nevertheless the conclusion there reached is in complete accord with our present holding:
“Plaintiffs’ remedy, if any, was by mandamus in each of the counties where the drain commissioner and corresponding county treasurer could be joined, along with the inter-county drainage board, all as proper parties. * * *
“Mandamus afforded a proper and effective remedy to raise these legal questions and to afford the plaintiffs the relief sought in this proceeding.”
To the same effect see Hartwick v. Sanilac Drain Commissioner, 338 Mich 624.
As to the remaining defendant John Hudson, it is asserted that he, as a deputy appointed by the commissioner of agriculture pursuant to CLS 1952, § 265.2 (Stat Ann 1952 Rev §11.42), is indubitably a “State officer” regardless of the status of the drain- commissioners, and, hence, that the mandamus of the circuit court could not run against him. We are far from convinced that “any” deputy selected by the commissioner of agriculture to constitute one of an inter-county drain board thereby becomes a “State officer,” as we construe the term, if, indeed, he sits in an official, rather than an individual, capacity at all. Groesbeck v. Auditor General, 216 Mich 243 (21 ALE 249). It is not necessary, however, to dispose of these questions since we agree with the trial court that the principle of Huisdekoper v. Hadley (CCA), 177 F 1, 12, 13 (40 LRA NS 505), certiorari dismissed, 223 US 735 (32 S Ct 529, 56 L ed 635), is fully applicable here:
“In view of these wise and temperate observations and of the fact that the Missouri doctrine is in harmony with the great weight of authority, we shall conform to that doctrine, and hold that the respondent, Hadley (governor), is not subject to the writ of mandamus in the present case.
“But this is not conclusive of the inquiry before us. The governor is only 1 out of 5 members of the State board of equalization. Any 3 of them, according to the statute (section 9126, Eev Stat) constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. The reason why the governor cannot be coerced by mandamus is that he needs no such coercion; he is conclusively presumed to be willing to perform all his executive duties. His constitutional obligations to see that the laws of the State shall be faithfully executed (article 5, § § 4, 6, Const) and his oath of office require him to support the constitution and demean himself faithfully in office (article 14, § 6, Const). The very reasons which exempt him from liability to the writ of mandamus are the ones which insure the performance of his duty as a member of the board of equalization. * * *
“But whatever the fact may be in this regard, the board is not one which requires either unanimity of consideration or of action by all its members. By special provision of law (section 9126, Rev Stat) any 3 of them constitute a quorum and are, therefore, competent to transact the business of the board in the absence of the other members. If the governor should be disabled by sickness or other infirmity from attending the sessions of the board, can it be doubted that the remaining members of that body could be compelled to proceed with the performance of their duty? Obviously not. Accordingly, we think the writ of mandamus may lawfully be awarded to secure action by a statutory quorum of the board in this case when circumstances are such that the entire membership cannot be reached by that writ.”
We find no merit in appellant’s remaining contentions. The order of the trial court is affirmed. No costs will be allowed, a public question being involved.
Bittzel, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
Carr, 0. J., and Dethmers, J., concurred in the result.
References are to Missouri constitution of 1875 and Revised Statutes of Missouri, 1899.—Reporter. | [
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Reid, J.
On leave granted defendants appeal ini the nature of certiorari from an order of the probate court for the county of Marquette dated December 1, 1953, confirming the award of commissioners in condemnation proceedings made on October 13,1953.. Defendants and appellants Clarence Specker and Anne Specker were owners of the fee of the lands taken, subject to the life estate of defendants Joseph Specker and Minnie Specker.
The proceedings were taken pursuant to PA 1925, No 352, as last amended by PA 1942 (2d Ex Sess), No 21 (CL 1948, § 213.171 et seq. [Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 8.171 et seq.]).
The lands taken consist of 3.77 acres, from a farm which contained 73.58 acres before the condemnation. The taking of the land was for the relocation, of highway US-41 for the purpose of building a new bridge and approaches at the Chocolay river at a point about 2 miles north of Scandia in Marquette county. Prior to and after the taking the farm was primarily used as a dairy farm. The taking was in fee simple including all buildings, structures, trees or other improvements to the land taken.
The State highway commissioner, plaintiff, prior to May, 1953, attempted to negotiate the purchase of the land and made what the plaintiff claims was .a reasonable offer for the lands. The State offered :$7,000; the award made by the commissioners was $6,335. It is the claim of the plaintiff that the award of $6,335 was within the range of competent testimony. Plaintiff’s witness, Mr. Davis, testified that the true market value of the Specker farm prior to taking was $9,500 and that the true market value after the taking was $4,500. Mr. Closser, a witness for plaintiff, testified that the true market value after the taking was $4,250. The competency of both witnesses, Davis and Closser, on real-estate market values in the vicinity of the lands in question was shown. The 2 witnesses examined in considerable detail the buildings inside as well as outside in making up their appraisals, as well as considering all the various important matters affecting the entire farm, before the taking and also the situation that would result from the taking.
Apparently, the barn, equipment shed and blacksmith shop as well as chicken coop, were rendered by the close proximity of the new location of highway, less useful. On the lands taken were located 2 houses, a garage, an orchard covering about 1/2 acre, with 55 fruit trees, also there were on that strip taken, 2 wells of 80-foot depth, with 5-inch casings.
To substantiate their claim that the award of damages was grossly inadequate, defendants rely on their witness’ testimony of the sum of the values of separate items, i. e., of the larger, older house, of the new house, of the barn, blacksmith shop, chicken coop, the 2 wells, et cetera, and not on testimony of the value of the farm before and after the taking, considered as an entirety.
The plaintiff claims that the measure of damage in a partial taking is stated in In re Widening of Fulton Street, 248 Mich 13, 20 (64 ALR 1507), as follows:
“The rule for compensation has been announced by this Court as follows :
“ ‘Where only a part of a parcel is taken, just compensation is not measured by proportionate acreage but. by the amount to which the value of the property from which it is taken is diminished.’ Johnstone v. Detroit, Grand Haven & Milwaukee Railway Co., 245 Mich 65, 81 (67 ALR 373)”
The rule in the Johnstone Case is cited with approval in In re Widening of Michigan Avenue, 280 Mich 539, 548.
Defendants deny that plaintiff made a bona fide effort to purchase before the condemnation, citing Fitzsimons & Galvin, Inc., v. Rogers, 243 Mich 649. Defendants further claim that the appraisal by plaintiff’s witnesses was based on market value but that the statute, PA 1931, No 323 (CL 1948, § 213.-271 [Stat Ann §8.241]), requires that the owner be reimbursed for the full value of any building, structure, tree or other improvement located in whole or in part upon the land taken, and that the award in question failed to compensate the owner for such full value. Defendants further claim that the testimony of plaintiff’s witnesses respecting value of the parcel taken should be disregarded because not properly based on a true consideration of the value of the buildings included in the parcel taken.
Defendants further claim that prejudicial error was committed on the part of the commissioners in admitting over the objection of the land owners, testimony of the assessed valuation of the farm. The assessed valuation of the entire farm before the taking as given in testimony was $3,450. The commissioners allowed $6,335, so it is evident they disregarded the testimony as to the assessed value. We do not consider that the admission of this testimony amounted to reversible error.
Plaintiff tendered to the interested parties, who are residents of the said county, $7,000 for the parcel taken. In view of the award by the commissioners, the tender was proper.
Defendants claimed damages in the sum of $22,-169.14, and claim they should have received for the large house taken, $8,914.79, not including the items of plumbing, well or electric wiring. The basement of the larger house was oid, had no concrete floor; the furnace was an oil drum, described by Clarence Specker, one of defendants, as “a drum like they used to use in camps, grates in it and a factory-made door and draft, and a collar from the heating-shop put-on the drum,-and regular-pipes to the chimney, and a hot water coil inside for heating the water, and built up with stone and brick.” The house contained 5 rooms and a bath. It was 40 years old; the walls were plastered, hardwood floors in the living room and linoleum in the kitchen, with also a milk house built at the back entrance. The exterior of the house was extremely dilapidated in appearance.
Defendants claim that because there is no showing in the record of the details of the testimony taken on the hearing on determination of necessity, we must presume the determination of necessity is void, and cite L. A. Darling Company v. Water Resources Commission, 341 Mich 654. The determination of necessity is final unless it is reviewed directly on certiorari in advance of the appointment of commis sioners on damages. See In re State Highway Commissioner, 252 Mich 116, 122; also, Jacox v. State Highway Commissioner, 334 Mich 482, 488.
We conclude that the plaintiff made a fair effort at arriving at an agreement with defendants and that the determination of necessity is valid and binding. The commissioners viewed the premises; their award was properly made as compensation for defendants’ damages by reason of the taking. The award is affirmed. Costs to plaintiff.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Sharpe, Boyles, Dethmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
Smith, J., took no part in the decision of this case. | [
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Butzel, J.
Defendant Griffith Oldsmobile Com-
pany, a Michigan corporation, sold an • Oldsmobile automobile on conditional sales contract and assigned the contract to defendant General Motors Acceptance Corporation. In the record the words defendant and defendants are used interchangeably and in referring to them it is not necessary to determine which one or both of them is intended, as liability, were there any, is asserted against both of them. Default was made in the payments on the contract and after repossession, one of the defendants, the record does not show which, advertised the sale of the automobile in the Detroit News, the advertisement stating:
“Public Sale
“Olds 1953 Super 88 Convertible “538 M, 35966, at 10225 Gd.
“River, Nov. 11,10 A.M.”
On the designated date plaintiff, who was not the ■original buyer, attended the sale. He was informed by the auctioneer that if he bid $2,200 he could have the car. However, plaintiff bid $1,600 and defendants refused to complete the sale, advising plaintiff of their intent to bid on the car themselves, and further telling plaintiff that if no further bids were received he would be so advised. Plaintiff claims that he was not so advised and that the defendants refused his tender of $1,600 and sold the car to another party.
Plaintiff thereupon filed a bill in chancery for specific performance which, after defendants’ motion to dismiss, was transferred to the law side of the court. Plaintiff there filed an amended declaration setting forth the above facts and asking for damages in the amount of $1,500, the difference between the market value of the car and his bid. Defendants filed a motion to dismiss claiming that the sale was duly conducted in accordance with the provisions of the motor vehicle retail instalment sales contracts act, CL 1948, § 566.301 et seq. (Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 19.415[1] et seq.). The trial court granted the motion and plaintiff has appealed.
Appellant argues that-in a sale of a repossessed automobile at auction, the seller has no right to bid unless such right is expressly reserved in the notice. Reliance is placed by plaintiff on the uniform sales act, CL 1948, § 440.21 (Stat Ann § 19.261) which provides:
“(3) A right to bid may be reserved expressly by or on behalf of the seller.
“(4) Where notice has not been given that a sale by auction is subject to a right to bid on behalf of the seller, it shall not be lawful for the seller to bid himself or to employ or induce any person to bid at such sale on his behalf, or for the auctioneer to employ or induce any person to bid at such sale on behalf of the seller or knowingly to take any bid from the seller or any person employed by him. Any sale contravening this rule may be treated as fraudulent by the buyer.”
Defendants insist that the sale and their right to bid is specifically governed by the motor vehicle retail instalment sales contracts act, CL 1948, § 566.305 (Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 19.415[5]), which provides : ly, buys the motor vehicle at such sale, the proceeds . of the resale ■ shall be considered to be either the amount bid by the seller or the fair cash market ' value of the motor vehicle at the time of such resale, whichever is the greater.” (Emphasis added.)
“The seller shall give to the buyer not less than 10 days’ written notice of the time and place of sale, either personally or by registered mail directed to the buyer at his last known place of business or residence. The seller may hid for the motor vehicle at such sale; if, however, the seller, directly or indirect-
Plaintiff contends that the 2 statutes are in pari materia and that the provision of the sales act, requiring a specifically reserved right of the seller to bid, should in eff ect be read in, as an addition .to, the motor vehicle retail instalment sales contracts act.
We cannot agree with this contention. The- later act specifically deals, with automobile sales at auction and in haec verb,a gives the right to the seller to bid for the car. It does not require a reservation of this right. In Attorney General v. Contract Purchase Corporation, 327 Mich 636, we held, inter alia, that a provision in the motor vehicle retail instalment sales contracts act allowing the seller to provide insurance for the buyer was not affected by a provision of the general insurance law requiring an agent to have a license. We said (p 647) “The statute expressly authorized the acts here done.” Section 14 of the act, CL 1948, § 566.314 (Stat Ann § 19.415 [14]), provides that:
“Except so far as they are applicable to retail instalment contracts made prior to the time when this act takes effect, all acts and parts of acts incon■sistent herewith to the extent of such inconsistency .are hereby repealed.”
We hold that thq'qqo.ted provisions of the uniform sales act, supra, relied on by plaintiff, are inapplicable. In specifically dealing with the subject of bids by a seller at.afi-auction the later special statute must be considered as paramount over the former general one.
Defendant also contends that plaintiff has absolutely no right, title or interest in the subject matter and cannot complain because, according to his own statement, his bid was never accepted. See CL 1948, § 440.21, subd (2) (Stat Ann § 19.261, subd[2]); 5 Am Jur, Auctions, § 17, p 455; 1 Restatement, Contracts, § 27. "We shall not pursue this particular question inasmuch as the parties stipulated in open court that the sole question involved was whether the provisions of the uniform sales act applied to sales under the motor vehicle retail instalment sales contracts act.
We find no merit in plaintiff’s claim on appeal. The granting of defendants’ motion to dismiss is affirmed, with costs.
Carr, C. J., and Smith, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, Dethmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred. | [
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Smith, J.
Plaintiff, a licensed optometrist, filed &. bill of complaint in the Ingham county circuit .court seeking to enjoin the defendant State board of .examiners in optometry from conducting a hearing •on a complaint charging plaintiff with unprofession.al, unethical and dishonest conduct.
Plaintiff’s bill of complaint challenged the sufficiency of the notice of hearing served upon him by the board and the constitutionality of the optometry .act (PA 1909, No 71, as amended). A temporary restraining order and an order to show cause issued upon the filing of the bill. The defendant board moved to dismiss on the ground that the bill of complaint did not state a cause of action, that plaintiff had an adequate remedy at law, and that the court was without jurisdiction to enjoin and interfere with the administrative function of the board.
After hearing, the circuit court sustained defendants’ motion to dismiss and entered an order dismissing plaintiff’s hill of complaint. Plaintiff has appealed from the order of dismissal.
Section 4, Act No 71, PA 1909,’as amended (CL 1948, § 338.254[Stat Ann § 14.644]), provides in part:
“The board of examiners in optometry shall refuse to issue the certificate of registration provided for in this act to any person who shall have been guilty of grossly unprofessional, unethical and dishonest conduct of a character likely to deceive the public, and may suspend or revoke such certificate for like reasons.
“ ‘Unprofessional and dishonest conduct’ as used in this act is hereby declared to mean:
“(á) The loaning of his license by any licensed optometrist to any person; the employment of ‘cappers’ or ‘steerers’ to obtain business; ‘splitting’, or dividing a fee with any person or persons ; the advertising by any means whatsoever of optometric practice or treatment or advice in which untruthful, improbable, misleading or impossible statements are made.”
Appellant urges upon us that the clause “grossly unprofessional, unethical and dishonest conduct of a character likely to deceive the public,” as found in the act, is not sufficiently definite to inform appellant of the path he must follow at his peril, and, more particularly, that the word “unethical,” as so employed, is vague and undefined and thus offensive to the constitutional due process clauses. Moreover, asserts appellant, the complaint itself, which charges that appellant employed a “capper”’ or “steerer” (subparagraph [a], supra), merely compounds his confusion, since it lacks specific allegations as to how capping and steering deceives the public, and, in addition, like the statute, employs the allegedly vague language describing Ms conduct as grossly unprofessional, unethical and of a character likely to deceive the public. Finally, he asserts that the complaint does not link capping and steering with swindling, that it thus does not constitute a violation of section 4(a) of the act, and hence that the board of examiners is without jurisdiction to proceed with the hearing.
The act must be read in its entirety and construed in the light of its objectives. Words will be given their usual and customary meanings, save as otherwise defined, and, in seeking meaning, words and clauses will not be divorced from those which precede and those which follow. Our interpretation will thus carry out the intention of the legislature. Wayne County Board of Road Commissioners v. Wayne County Clerk, 293 Mich 229. The axis upon which this appeal turns is the expression “grossly unprofessional, unethical and dishonest conduct of a character likely to deceive the public.” We will •examine it in detail for its adherence to the standard above set forth. Its beginning and its ending will not long detain us. The word “grossly” introduces no new or different charge but -relates solely to the matter of degree ,• and, as to the words “of a character likely to deceive the public,” we agree with the New Jersey court (Abelson’s, Inc., v. New Jersey State Board of Optometrists, 5 NJ 412 [75 A2d 867, 22 ALR2d 929]) that they are words of definite and certain meaning and, as employed in our act, sufficiently explicit to inform our people as to the conduct which will render them liable to its penalties.
Although it is not an inevitable conclusion that the words “unprofessional * * * and dishonest conduct,” standing alone, would have lacked the necessary particularity (e.g., Bell v. Board of Regents of University of the State of New York, 295 NY 101 [65 NE2d 184, 163 ALR 900]), our legislature has not seen fit to let the matter rest in the courses of conduct known to be improper and unprofessional' as a matter of common knowledge. It has defined unprofessional and dishonest conduct. What, however, of the word “unethical”? Does its added employment render vague and ill-defined what was theretofore precise? Does it import a new and different concept and standard? To answer this inquiry we must inquire into the standards themselves, particularly with respect to the need therefor and the content thereof. It is well recognized that in those professions dealing with human ills and their treatment it is the policy of our people, expressed in many legislative acts, of which the act before us is one, to require of those who would essay such practice conformity with the highest standards of personal and professional competence. With reference to the practice of optometry, it has been well said:
(The work of the optometrist) “bears such intimate relation to the health of mankind as to bring it within the power of legislative supervision through the exercise of the police power. Vision is essential to the highest usefulness of the individual. The eye is proverbially a delicate organ. It is closely connected with intellectual, nervous and physical functions. Advice as to its care and prescribing for the correction of its defects by tests and. examinations-without the use of drugs is closely connected with health.” Commonwealth v. Houtenbrink, 235 Mass 320, 324 (126 NE 669).
We have expressed similar views. In Seifert v. Buhl Optical Co., 276 Mich 692, 697, 698, we held:
“The difficulty with appellant’s entire position is its belief that optometry is merely an incident to its corporate merchandising business. It overlooks the fact that optometry has become a real science devoted to the measurement, accommodation and refractory powers of the eye without the use of drugs, thus superseding obsolete and archaic methods of fitting eye glasses. It has become one of the important professions and for the preparation of its proper practice, courses in optometry, physics, physiology, pathological conditions of the eye, the proper use of the retinascope, ophthalmometer, ophthalmoscope, refractor, prisms, lenses, et cetera, are given as part of the curriculum in many of our-largest universities as well as colleges specializing, in optometry. The legislatures throughout the entire country have recognized that the proper practice of this profession is of the most vital importance' to the public and have made due provisions not only for the licensing of optometrists after proper examination, but for regulating the proper practice of the profession.”
In. such learned and demanding professions the term .“ethics” receives frequent employment. It has not lacked examination in the courts. The supreme court of the United States has spoken with respect thereto as follows: '
“We do not doubt the authority of the State to, estimate the baleful effects of such methods and to put a stop to them. The legislature was not dealing with traders in commodities, but with the vital interest of public health, and with a profession treating bodily ills and dehianding different standards of conduct from those which are traditional in the competition of the market place. The community is concerned, with.. .the maintenance . of professional standards which- will insure not only competency in individual practitioners,, but protection against those who wo,uld. prey upon a public peculiarly susceptible to imposition through alluring promises of physical relief. And the community is concerned in providing safeguards not only against deception, but against practices’ which would tend to demoralize the profession by forcing its members into an unseemly rivalry which would enlarge the opportunities of the least .scrupulous. What is generally called the ‘ethics’ of the profession is but the consensus of expert opinion as to the necessity of such standards.” Semler v. Oregon State Board of Dental Examiners, 294 US 608, 612 (55 S Ct 570, 79 L ed 1086).
The term came also under the scrutiny of the court in Pennsylvania State Board of Medical Education and Licensure v. Ferry, 172 Pa Super 372, 378, 379 (94 A2d 121):
“The legislature has not said what conduct constitutes ‘grossly unethical practice’ but the phrase is akin to the phrase ‘unprofessional conduct’ and includes, as well stated by Judge Sohn of the court below, ‘those, breaches of the trust, confidence and reliance, necessarily attendant upon the intimate relationship of physician and patient, which amount to gross abuses of the- standards of professional conduct generally recognized as essential to the proper practice of medicine and surgery’—to which we add—and which are within the scope of the purpose of the act and within the limits of the police power. It cannot be doubted that appellant’s conduct of aiding and abetting an unlicensed person iii'the unlawful practice'of medicine, manifestly and flagrantly violative of the purpose of the act, was ‘grossly unethical practice.’ ”
It seems clear, then, that the term “unethical” is descriptive of professional standards. It is clear, also, that conduct, such as in the case at bar, which is both unprofessional and dishonest by statutory definition, is unethical by any standard of ethics. The term, as so construed, is neither vague nor ill-defined and the appellant has had fair and adequate warning of the standards he is required to attain and the complaint he is required to meet.
In view of the regulatory problem and the widespread statutory use of such terms as “dishonest,” “unprofessional,” “unethical,” and words of like-import, we would not be understood.as holding that their use, with respect to the learned professions, either without conjunctives or without a context of accompanying specific, defined offenses, necessarily imports an unconstitutional vagueness. (See Bell v. Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York, supra; Sage-Allen Co., Inc., v. Wheeler, 119 Conn 667 [179 A195, 98 ALR 897]). The point is not before us and we express no opinion thereon. The short answer to appellant’s arguments respecting the use of the words “capper” and “steerer” is that they have a commonly-accepted, meaning (People v. Dubin, 367 Ill 229 [10 NE2d 809]), and the elements of fleecing or swindling or fraud are not necessary factors thereof. We find no merit in appellant’s remaining and other contentions. - ■
The order of the lower courtis affirmed.' No costs, a'public question being involved.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, Dethmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
'CJS Const, Am 14; Midi Const 1908, art 2, § 16.—Reporter. ■ | [
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Dethmers, J.
Plaintiff’s truck and defendant’s, travelling at right angles, collided in an intersection. Prom judgment for plaintiff for resultant damages and an order denying judgment non obstante veredicto defendant appeals. The only question presented is whether plaintiff should be held guilty of contributory negligence as a matter of law, entitling defendant to reversal without new trial. Contending in the affirmative, defendant recognizes the general rule applicable, that the evidence must be viewed in the light most favorable to plaintiff (Sonfilian v. Wiedman, 291 Mich 697), but urges that here the physical facts were such that it would have been impossible for the accident to have happened in the manner claimed by plaintiff, that they refuted the testimony and inferences therefrom favorable to plaintiff, and that, in consequence, the verdict should be set aside, citing Brady v. Pere Marquette R. Co., 248 Mich 406; Ladd Co. v. New York Central R. Co., 249 Mich 450; Dzikowski v. Michigan Central R. R., 282 Mich 337; Brenner v. Dykstra, 289 Mich 301; and Sonfilian v. Wiedman, supra. In each of those cases the plaintiff therein had admitted or asserted, at trial, the truth of the so-called physical facts which were held to render his version of the accident impossible.
Essential to defendant’s theory is its claim that under the undisputed facts and circumstances it would have been physically impossible for its truck to have been travelling more than 3 miles per hour while approaching and passing through the intersection, contrary to plaintiff’s testimony that it then was going 25 miles per hour. Effect of acceptance of defendant’s, rather than plaintiff’s, version of such speed would he to increase the period of time prior to the collision during which defendant’s truck was visible to plaintiff and thus increasing the time and distance during which plaintiff might have observed defendant’s truck and brought his own to a stop and averted the accident, so that his failure to •do so during such increased period constituted, so defendant reasons, contributory negligence as a matter of law.
The difficulty with defendant’s position is that what it styles the undisputed physical facts were not, as in the cited cases, admitted to have been such by plaintiff on trial. They consist of what defendant refers to as the uncontradicted testimony of its driver, essentially as follows: That defendant’s truck with attached vehicle totaled 35 feet in length and weighed 13 to 15 tons; that it had stopped for and then made a right turn at a previous intersection 1 block distant and then proceeded that last block on an upgrade; that it would take 4 or 5 city blocks for defendant’s truck to attain a speed of 25 miles per hour from a standing start; that he had intended to bring defendant’s vehicle to a stop as soon as it had cleared the intersection. It is from this that defendant concludes that it would have been physically impossible for its truck to have been going more than 3 miles per hour. From the mere fact that defendant’s driver’s testimony, just outlined, was not met by direct testimony to the contrary, it does not follow that plaintiff has, as in the cited cases, admitted or that defendant has established as true what defendant’s driver testified were the facts in those respects, thus converting them into incontrovertible physical facts. On the contrary,, his testimony was inferentially disputed and refuted by plaintiff’s testimony as to the speed of defendant’s truck. Accordingly, in resolving the question of that speed, plaintiff is entitled to have the evidence viewed in the light most favorable to him. So-viewed, it must be accepted as fact that the speed, was 25 miles per hour.
Affirmed, with costs to plaintiff.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Smith, Sharpe, Boyles,. Reid, and Kelly, JJ., concurred. | [
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Kelly, J.
In the spring of 1951 a jury in the recorder’s court for the city of Detroit found defendant William F. Welke guilty of extortion. He was sentenced to not less than 5 nor more than 20 years in the State prison of southern Michigan.
■ The • complaining witness, Mrs. Katherine Vasu, testified-that'the following events occurred in the city of Detroit on May 31, 1949:
That on that day she received a telephone cal! at approximately 9 :l5 at m. The call allegedly came from a Mr. Weber from the University of Michigan, inquiring as to the whereabouts of her son Corclell Vasu and stating "that he had not slept in his room the previous night. Twenty minutes later another telephone call was received by Mrs. Vasu. The second caller had- a different voice from that of the first caller. The • second caller demanded of; Mrs. Vasu $3,500 in' $20 and $100 bills, stating'that her son' would be unharmed’if the money was forthcoming. He inquired as to where she did her banking* and she informed him that her bank was located in the General Motors building. She was told by the voice that a taxicab would pick her up; that she was to come to the bank, withdraw the money and wait outside on Grand bqulevard. The cab arrived and took her to the bank. Mrs. Vasu had $3,500 at home in the denominations specified, but went to the bank and pretended to go.in and withdraw the money. She then came outside' and waited. A man appeared on her right and said, “Give me that money.” She was able to see the .left side of his face,-.which.was bandaged. She, described him as being about 30 to 35 years of age, 5'6" or 5,7"'tall, weighing about 140 pounds, blond complexion, a high-pitched voice, blond hair, wearing a hat and a blue pin-striped suit, and with a large bandage on his face. She was told to wait there for 5 minutes before doing anything. The man then left and she waited about a minute before she approached an officer, who called a cab. She did not reveal to the officer what had transpired. She went to the Highland Park General Plospital where her husband was on the staff and reported what had happened, and then collapsed. A call was put in to the Federal bureau of investigation and at their suggestion another call was made to Ann Arbor. It was then discovered that Cordell Vasu had been in school all morning and that nothing had happened to him.
On May 31, 1949, the defendant was a student at the University of Michigan, 23 years of age. He had enrolled as a freshman in the fall-of 1946 after completing 2 years’ service with'- the armed forces of the United States. The record discloses that on May 31, 1949, the defendant was 5'9" in height and weighed between 160 and 170 pounds and that hi's hair was brown.
Complainant’s son, Cordell Vasu, had enrolled as a freshman at the University of Michigan, in the fall of 1948 and was a resident of the same hall that defendant occupied.-
Shortly after May 31,1949, a general investigation by the Detroit police department was made of students at the University, particularly those who were residents in the hall in which defendant and Cordell Vasu resided. Cordell Vasu testified that he and his mother decided in the summer of 1949 that he .should visit defendant’s home and from observation try and determine whether defendant was the guilty person.
In the fall of 1949 the complainant visited her son át the University and was introduced by her son to the defendant. She testified that she did not form a conclusion at that time that he was the one who had obtained her $3,500, but that she informed the police that he-resembled-the extortionist.
On September 26, 1950, approximately 16 months after the day of extortion, defendant appeared at the Detroit police department for questioning, at their request. Throughout a day’s interview he maintained -his - innocence and was allowed to go home that evening but was instructed to report in the morning. The following morning he was immediately brought to a Sergeant Mareydt, who was then in charge of lie-detector tests. Sergeant Mareydt testified:
“I did see the defendant here, William Welke. That was on the 27th day of September, 1950, in the scientific laboratory. Lt. Maxon brought him up there for a polygraphic examine. Without going into the results of the polygraph or lie detector, I did have a conversation with him after that. * * *
“There was a conversation between me and this defendant with reference to his guilt or innocence of the crime charged.
“Q. What was that conversation?
“A. On my part or the defendant’s part ?
“Q. Both of your parts; what did you say and what did he say ?
“A. I told the defendant that he wasn’t stating the truth, and our conversation continued until finally the defendant admitted to me that he had accomplished the extortion.”
Welke testified that he had applied for service and training in the jet branch of the army air force and that he had received notice to report for active service shortly before he was called to the Detroit police department in September, 1950; that he made these facts known to the police officers who interviewed him the first day and again to Sergeant Mareydt who gave the lie-detector test the next day. He further testified that Mareydt was a colonel in the air force reserves and that Mareydt informed him that all the police department was interested in was getting the return of the $3,500 to Mrs. Vasu; that if he would pay this amount the case would be dropped against him and he could proceed forthwith and report to the army for induction into active service. Relying upon said inducement and fearing that the publicity would shatter his good name and any chances to enter the army, even though he would be finally acquitted, he did make the confession but refused to sign said confession when he found that the promise to save him' from publicity was not being kept. Sergeant Mareydt denied any such inducement had been made.
Appellant enumerates 97 assignments of error, claiming he was denied a fair and impartial trial by reason of the trial court’s attitude and comments throughout the trial; that reversible error was committed in allowing in evidence testimony relative to a lie-detector test, and by the court’s failure to charge the jury as to the theory of the defendants case and refusal to admit into evidence the testimony of a handwriting expert relative to a card of inquiry addressed to the Pan American Airways. Defendant also contends the verdict is against the weight of the evidence.
We believe reversible error was committed by allowing the testimony that clearly disclosed to the jury that not only was the lie-detector test made but the fact that the man who made the test concluded and informed the defendant he was lying. The fact that the exact results of the test were not testified to does not correct this error. It is a well-accepted principle in this State that results of a lie-detector test are not admissible in evidence.
We also believe that reversible error was committed by the trial court’s refusal to state the theory of the defendant’s case. The court’s instructions were confined to the law applicable, and the court excused his refusal to state the theory of defendant’s case by stating that:
“Through the respective attorneys during the summation of the case and also through the testimony of witnesses from the witness stand, the respective theories have been called to your atten tion. There is no need for me to further summarize or mention them.”
This Court in People v. Hoefle, 276 Mich 428, 431, stated:
“A careful reading of the court’s charge discloses that this request was not given nor was it covered by any portion of the charge to the jury. Instead the charge, insofar as it outlined the theory of defense, was wholly confined to another issue of fact presented by the testimony, to-wit; that defendant subsequent to taking and using the money, believing he had a right to do so, decided to retain it and apply it in payment on an indebtedness which he claimed was due him from Mr. Rands. This we think deprived defendant of a fair trial. It is the duty, of a trial court, if proper request is made, to cover in the charge to the jury the theory upon which the defense is founded, if it is supported by competent testimony.”
In People v. Lane, 304 Mich 29, 34, this Court said:
“However, this tlieory of the defense was specifically called to the' attention of the court and it was the duty of the court to cover it fairly in the charge to the jury.”
Cordell Yasu, during cross-examination, was shown a postcard mailed from Ann Arbor on November 8, 1950, to the Pan American Airways requesting information in regard to flights to South America and signed “W. F. Welke.” Cordell Yasu denied that the writing on the card and the signature “W. F. Welke” was in his handwriting. He then admitted that a registration card shown him was in his handwriting. When defense counsel endeavored to introduce these 2 cards in evidence with the statement that he would introduce expert testimony to prove that Cordell Vasu had written the card and forged defendant Welke’s name, the State objected to the introduction. The court sustained the objection^ and when the defense called to the witness stand the handwriting expert the court refused to allow the witness to testify.
It was defendant’s theory that the forging of this postcard by Cordell Yasu not only showed an ani,mus on Yasu’s part, but that it was deliberately forged to make it appear that defendant-had plenty of money for airplane flights and was contemplating leaving the country shortly before trial.
It is th'e duty of the trial court to limit cross--examination so as to exclude unnecessary, collateral, and extraneous matters. The nature of this case Is such, ¡however, that we believe that defendant 'should have been entitled to make proof as to whether complainant’s son wrote the card and made it appear that it was in defendant’s handwriting.
We do not deem it necessary to comment upon other assignments of error as we do not believe they will occur in another trial.
Reversed and remanded.
Carr, C. J., and Btjtzel, Smith, Boyles, Reid, and Dethmers, JJ., concurred.
Sharpe, J., did not sit. | [
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Kelly, J.
On November 10, 1952, a deputy commissioner of the workmen’s compensation commission awarded compensation to appellee-employee “at the rate of $21 per week for total disability from May 21,1951 to February 6, 1952 and at the rate of $21 per week for partial disability from April 2, 1952 to August 18, 1952,” because of a knee injury resulting from an accident on August 27, 1949. The award of the deputy commissioner further determined that “the plaintiff’s disability * * * ceased as of August 18,1952.”
On November 24, 1952, appellee-employee filed application with the commission for review of the deputy commissioner’s findings. Appellant elected not to appeal, and on January 12, 1953, paid the compensation awarded by the deputy commissioner.
At the request of the appellee an extension of time to March 3, 1953, in which to file transcript was granted by the commission. A year passed • without appellee filing his brief. Appellee’s brief was filed on April 15, 1954; appellant’s brief on April 30, 1954, and on June 4, 1954, the. commission filed, its opinion and order..
In its opinion the commission held that the record proved that appellee-employee was still disabled on November 7,1952, being the date of the hearing, and .consequently was entitled to compensation “from August 18, 1952 until the further order of the commission.”
Appellant-émployer’s petition for leave to appeal was granted by this Court on September 8, 1954. Appellant’s statement of question involved is as follows : ,
“Does the workmen’s compensation commission Rave power or authority to enter an order directing the payment of compensation to the date of the order and until the further order of the commission based, solely on a finding that the claimant was disabled on the date of the hearing held 18 months previously wheke there is no evidence of the claimant’s physical condition since the date of the hearing?”
Appellant is not contesting the validity of .the •commission’s order insofar as it requires payment •of compensation for the period of time prior to the Rearing, wRich began on November 6, 1952. Appellant contends that there is no evidence in the record that appellee was disabled during the 18-month period elapsing between the deputy commissioner’s findings on November 10, 1952, and the commission’s opinion and order of June 4,1954.
The record establishes beyond question that there was no evidence submitted to the commission in regard to the appellee’s physical condition since the date of the hearing 18 months previous to the commission’s opinion and order.
The order of the commission awarding compensation must be based upon competent evidence: In Foley v. Detroit United Railway, 190 Mich 507, 516, this Court said:
“To sustain its award the board must have been able to find from competent testimony a continuing partial incapacity to properly perform the work of a motorman, in which claimant was engaged at the time of the accident.”
Findings of fact by the commission are binding upon this Court if_s_uch findings are supported by competent evidence.
It is an accepted principle of law in this State that an award of compensation may be modified by a showing of a change in the ..physical condition that affects the earning power of the injured employee. Goines v. Kelsey Hayes Wheel Co., 294 Mich 156, 158, 159. In that case, this Court also said:
“It. is. well settled that if .the department fails to make a finding upon a material issue, we may examine the testimony taken at the hearing to determine whether there is any competent evidence to support the award.”
There is no evidence sustaining the commission’s order of June 4, 1954, for compensation payments for the period from November 6, 1952, to June 4, 1954, and the order of the commission to the extent that the same requires payment of compensation
benefits for periods subsequent to November 7, 1952, is set aside. Costs to appellant.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, and Dethmers, JJ., concurred.
Smith, J., took no part in the decision of this case.
The •'board, here referred to, was the industrial accident board whose powers and duties have been transferred to the workmen’s compensation commission. See CL 1948, § 408.6 (Stat Ann 1950 Rev § 17.6 [6]).—Reporter.
See CL 1948, § 413.12 (Stat Ann 1950 Rev § 17.186).—Reporter.
The department, here referred to, was the department of labor and industry, whose powers and duties with respect to workmen’s compensation have been transferred to the workmen’s compensation commission. See CL 1948, § 408.6 (Stat Ann 1950 Rev § 17.6[6]).— Reporter. | [
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Btjtzeu, J.
The Ingham County Bar Association, plaintiff, brought proceedings to have Walter Neller Company and Edward G. Hacker Company, both Michigan corporations, corporate defendants, and Arnold J. Sprayman, Harold Davis and Alice L Broadbent, individual defendants, adjudged guilty of contempt of court. The specific charge is that they practiced law illegally. There is no testimony whatsoever to indicate that Herman Cook, Jr., also an individual defendant, ever performed any acts which, plaintiff alleges constitute the illegal practice of law. He will not he- further referred to in this opinion. Plaintiff also sought an injunction against all of the defendants to restrain them from what plaintiff claims was the illegal practice of law. The State Bar of Michigan intervened as a plaintiff and we shall also include it as plaintiff. The Michigan Beal Estate Association filed a "brief as amicus curiae. In view of our decision it is unnecessary to consider other questions raised by the latter’s brief.
The defendant corporations are realtors in the city of Lansing, Michigan, and respectively employ the individual defendants. They do a large volume of real-estate business, manage properties, collect rents for some of their clients, and one of them represents an insurance company which makes loans on real-estate mortgages. In the conduct of their work they fill in standard printed forms of agreements of purchase and sale, deeds, land contracts, mortgages, assignments of mortgages, notices to quit, et cetera, as printed by stationers. They do this solely in connection with properties in which their services are enlisted in the course of the particular transactions in which they are involved, and for no one else, nor do they receive any extra fees or compensation whatsoever for these incidental services. The testimony shows that if forms of conveyance are necessary in these transactions the defendants fill in on the printed forms the names of the parties, the date, the description of the property, terms of the contract, et cetera; that they draw instruments such as deeds, mortgages, et cetera, after the abstract has been examined by an attorney; and that if something other than a simple warranty deed, land contract or other document is contemplated, an attorney is called upon to draw it. Plaintiffs also claim that in cases of nonpayment of rent and after notice to quit, defendants conducted proceedings before the circuit court commissioner for repossession of the property.
Plaintiffs claim that all the parties, licensed brokers but not licensed attorneys, thus engaged in the practice of law in violation of CL 1948, § 601.61 (Stat Ann § 27.81), and that the 2 corporate defendants thus also engaged in the practice of law contrary to the provisions of CL 1948, § 450.681 (Stat Ann § 21.311). Defendants specifically denied the charge that they had acted illegally and assert that what they did was not the practice of law but only the filling in of simple forms without exacting or receiving extra compensation, and solely as incidental to real-estate transactions in which they were engaged.
The main and real question in the case is whether such transactions, as hereinbefore described, constitute the practice of law. The plaintiffs brought these proceedings in a commendable effort to protect the public against the illegal practice of law. All parties admit that the question presented is one of first impression in this State although it has been passed upon in a few other jurisdictions. The case was heard by the 3 judges of Ingham county sitting en banc and they unanimously held that the filling-out of the standardized blank forms, as described by the testimony, was not the practice of law when it was only incidental to the particular transactions they, as licensed brokers, were engaged in; but that in the proceedings before the circuit court commissioner, the examining and cross-examining of witnesses constituted the practice of law and would be enjoined. There is no appeal from the part of the decree restraining defendants from such activity be fore the circuit court commissioners. Our discussion is therefore limited to the question stated as follows by appellees:
“Have defendants practiced law or engaged in the law business contrary to CL 1948, § 601.61 (Stat Ann § 27.81), by reason of their having completed and filled out printed forms of offers to purchase real estate, warranty deeds, quitclaim deeds, land contracts, land contract assignments, leases, and notices to terminate tenancy incidental to their handling and consummation of real-estate transactions in tvhich, defendants were acting as real-estate brokers, no separate charge having been made therefor?”
Plaintiffs claim that only a duly-licensed attorney has the right to fill in these forms. They contend that the defendant realtors violated CL 1948, § 601.-61 (Stat Ann §27.81), which provides:
“It shall be unlawful for any person who is not a regularly licensed attorney and counselor of this State, * * * to practice law or to engage in the law business; or to represent himself as an attorney at law, or to use any sign, letterhead, return envelope, or writing, printing or advertising of any kind whatever in or by which he designates or represents his place of business as a law office or himself as a lawyer, attorney at law, counselor, or in any way represent to the public that he is an attorney at law, or his place of business a law office; or to make any representations to any person or persons either spoken or written, intended to lead such person or persons to believe that the person making such representations is an attorney at law;”
and CL 1948, §450.681 (Stat Ann §21.311), which makes it unlawful for any corporation to practice law with the exception that:
“This section shall not apply to any corporation * * * lawfully engaged in a business authorized by the provisions of any existing statute.”
Of this latter provision, the Court in Detroit Bar Association v. Union Guardian Trust Company, 282 Mich 216, 225, stated:
“It is apparent that this provision was embodied in the statute by the legislature so it might be definitely understood that it was not the intent of the legislature by this enactment to restrict the powers conferred upon corporations by other acts of the legislature under which such corporations were organized.”
The licensing and regulation of real-estate brokers is provided for in CL 1948, § 451.201 et seq. (Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 19.791 et seq.). In addition, the corporation and securities commission is ■charged with the administration and enforcement ■of these provisions. CL 1948, §451.204 (Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 19.794). Further, and most important, CL 1948, § 451.208 (Stat Ann 1953 Cum Supp § 19.798), provides:
“The commission shall also require each applicant for broker’s or salesman’s license to pass an examination establishing, in a manner satisfactory to the commission, that the applicant has a fair knowledge of the English language, including reading, writing, spelling and elementary arithmetic, a satisfactory understanding of the fundamentals of real estate practice and of the laws and principles of real estate conveyancing, deeds, mortgages, land contracts, leases, the obligations of a broker to the public and his principal, and the provisions of the Michigan statutes defining, regulating and licensing real ■estate brokers and salesmen: Provided, however, That the commission shall have the authority to require at its discretion written examination or written re-examination of brokers and/or salesmen, and in these cases that passing grades, satisfactory to the commission shall be required as a condition precedent to reissuance of licenses to such brokers and/or salesmen.” (Emphasis supplied.)
Plaintiff claims that this latter provision was enacted subsequently to the unlawful practice of law statute above quoted, and conflicts with it, that inasmuch as the earlier statute has not been expressly repealed or amended (and should not impliedly be so) the last quoted statute is of no legal effect. We cannot subscribe to this view.
In addition it is persuasive but not conclusive that the regulations and rules of the real-estate division of the corporation and securities commission bear out our interpretation of the statute. Accordingly we conclude that while the statutes do not define the practice of law, they do reveal, at the very least, the right of licensed real-estate brokers to engage in conveyancing in the manner complained of when it is incidental to the items of business they are transacting.
Since it is left to the courts of this State as well as those of most other States, to define the “practice of law” we must consider the adjudicated authorities. Initially, however, a verbal distinction must be disposed of. It is said that while conveyancing may be considered to be the practice of law, the real question is whether, conceding that it is, it should be deemed unlawful when solely incidental to a lawful business. It has been repeatedly held that it is not the practice of law. Under either approach the inquiry is the same for all practical purposes.
The only Michigan decision bearing on the subject, and then only by implication, is Grand Rapids Bar Association v. Denkema, 290 Mich 56. In that case the defendant was not a real-estate broker. The Court, while recognizing that the concept of the “practice of law” is difficult to define, said that (p 66) :
“The preparation of conveyances of real estate and personal property by the defendant for others, for a consideration, comes within the usual and ordinary definition of ‘practice of law.’ ” (Citing cases.)
However, the Court went on to cite with approval the following statement from State, ex rel. Wright, v. Barlow, 131 Neb 294, 296 (268 NW 95, 96) (1936):
“We do not desire to be understood as saying that the mere act of drawing a promissory note, chattel mortgage, real-estate mortgage, deed or other similar instruments would constitute the practice of law, where the person so drawing them acts merely as an amanuensis and does not advise or counsel as to the legal effect and validity of such instruments.”
The defendant in the Barloio Case was not a licensed attorney but he had executed wills, notes, mortgages and other instruments.
The difference between the Denkema Case and the one at bar is that in the former the defendant appeared to be in the business of executing these instruments rather than doing so without extra compensation and as incidental to another lawful business—the situation at bar. The same can be said of the Barlow Case.
A consideration of cases in other jurisdictions that have passed upon similar facts reveals a divergence of opinion, though most of those that uphold plaintiffs’ contention can be distinguished on facts. In People, ex rel. Illinois State Bar Association, v. Schafer, 404 Ill 45, 54 (87 NE2d 773, 778) (1949), the defendant real-estate and insurance broker executed the various instruments both incidentally to matters in which he was involved as broker and also in other matters in which he was not so concerned. The court adjudged the defendant guilty of contempt of court both because it felt the preparation of such instruments involved complex considerations which only a lawyer could pass upon and because:
“The public should be protected from falling into the hands of one not shilled in the laws of conveyancing when seeking advice or service having to do with real-estate titles.”
Similarly, in Washington State Bar Association v. Washington Association of Realtors, 41 Wash2d 697 (251 P2d 619) (1952), the court enjoined a broker from the preparation of instruments, especially those evidenced by a deed which contained a mortgage clause contrary to the intent of the parties. The court said that such legal instruments cannot be considered simple. A concurring opinion stated that the selection of the proper form constituted the illegal practice of law. Another theory was advanced in Keyes Co. v. Dade County Bar Association (Fla 1950), 46 So2d 605, 606, where a divided court in the prevailing opinion enjoined a realtor from preparing instruments of conveyance on the basis of an analysis of the Florida real-estate broker statute which they concluded only allowed a realtor to perform that type of work which was “preliminary in nature,” i.e.:
“He performs his service when he produces a prospective purchaser ready, willing, and able to buy or procures from the purchaser a binding contract.”
In a dissenting opinion the realtor was given broad powers. See, also, Commonwealth of Virginia and Virginia State Bar v. Jones & Robins, Inc., 186 Va 30, 42, 43 (41 SE2d 720, 727) (1947), where a real-estate broker, who charged a separate fee for preparation of deeds and conveyances, was enjoined by the court which said that:
“The deed or legal instrument by which title to real estate passes must be under seal and signed and acknowledged by the owner * * * to which instrument the broker is not a party as agent or otherwise * * it is more than a contract; it is a muniment of title and must become a matter of permanent record.”
It should be noted that this also was a 5-2 decision and that the court was bound by a clear definition of the “practice of law” the key word of which for purposes of the decision was “contract.” In addition compare In re Gore, 58 Ohio App 79 (15 NE2d 968) (1937), upholding plaintiff’s contention, with Gustafson v. V. C. Taylor & Sons, Inc., 138 Ohio St 392 (35 NE2d 435) (1941), which modified In re Gore, supra.
Despite the foregoing authorities, we are impressed with the lower court’s unanimous opinion reached by the 3 judges sitting en banc in the Ingham -circuit court and also the reasoning in a very large number of cases which reach a conclusion opposite to plaintiffs’ contentions. They appear to be in the majority.
One such is the recent case of Hulse v. Criger, 363 Mo 26 (247 SW2d 855) (1952), in which the defendant, realtor, executed conveyancing forms in connection with transactions in which he was the broker, he, however, making a separate charge therefor. In proscribing the charge therefor but not the practice of executing the forms, the court said (p 44) :
“Likewise, general warranty deed and trust deed forms are so standardized that to complete them for usual transactions requires only ordinary intelligence rather than legal training. They are in fact less complicated than contracts for sale of real estate. We know that these forms are furnished to the public at the offices of recorders of deeds through the State. We think the preparation of these in struments in closing transactions in which, a real-estate broker is acting as broker is so closely related to the transaction and the business of the broker as to be practically a part of it and that he is not engaging in unlawful practice of law to prepare them under such circumstances. The same thing is true of ordinary short term leases, notes, chattel mortgages and trust deeds in transactions which the broker procures.”
We believe that the determining point is set forth in the further statement of the Missouri court, when it said (p 45):
“We think the guiding principle must be whether under the circumstances the preparation of the papers involved is the business being carried on or whether this really is ancillary to and an essential part of another business.”
The Missouri court went on to refute the reasoning of the Florida court in Keyes Co. v. Dade County Bar Association, supra, when it stated (p 43):
“It is true that a real-estate broker has earned his commission when he has found a purchaser ready, willing and able to take the property at the price and upon the terms fixed by the owner. However, we know as a practical matter that he does not get his money at that time; and often there are several written offers and counteroffers which result in a contract before it can be said that a purchaser has been found. It is a matter of great importance to the broker to get an agreement in writing and then to close the transaction as promptly as possible, because as a matter of practice that is usually when he gets paid. Thus he is personally concerned in the transaction and actually he is acting partly in his own interest in getting a contract signed and the deal closed.”
In Cowern v. Nelson, 207 Minn 642, 646, 647 (290 NW 795, 797) (1940), the Minnesota unauthorized practice-of-law statute- excepted therefrom brokers drawing papers incident to sales, leases, et cetera. Refuting the argument that such a statute encroached upon the court’s jurisdiction over what constitutes the practice of law, the court said:
“The line between what is and what is not the practice of law cannot he drawn with precision. Lawyers should be the first to recognize that between the two there is a region wherein much of what lawyers do every day in their practice may also be done ¡by others without wrongful invasion of the lawyers’ field. We think that ordinary conveyancing, part •of the everyday business of the realtor, is within that region and consequently something of which the legal profession cannot under present circumstances ■claim that the public welfare requires restraint by .judicial decree.”
The court further stated:
“We do not think the possible harm which might come to the public from the rare instances of defective conveyances in such transactions is sufficient to outweigh the great public inconvenience which would follow if it were necessary to call in a lawyer to draft these simple instruments.”
In Childs v. Smeltzer, 315 Pa 9 (171 A 883, 885) (1934), the defendant was a notary public and a stenographer who advertised herself as a conveyancer. In the course of the opinion, which enjoined the practices of the defendant, the court stated, in answer to briefs amici curiae of realty hoards (pp 14, 15):
“There can he no objection to the preparation of deeds and mortgages or other contracts by such brokers so long as the papers involved pertain to and grow out of their business transactions and are intimately connected therewith. The drafting and execution of legal instruments is a necessary concomitant of many businesses and cannot be consid ered unlawful. * * * A real-estate broker is not prohibited from drawing a deed of conveyance, or other appropriate instrument relating to property of which he or his associates have negotiated a sale or lease.”
Other courts have made similar statements, which, though not in cases directly involving realtors, confirm the basis of our decision. In the case of People v. Title Guarantee & Trust Co., 227 NY 366, 380 (125 NE 666, 670) (1919), Pound, J., stated in a concurring opinion :
“This does not imply that a real-estate broker may not prepare leases, mortgages and deeds, or that an instalment house may not prepare conditional bills of sale, in connection with the business and as a part thereof. The preparation of the legal papers' may be ancillary to the daily business of the actor or it may be the business itself. The emphasis may be upon the services of the broker or the business of the trader or it may be upon the practice of law.”
Similarly in Cain v. Merchants National Bank & Trust Co., 66 ND 746, 755 (268 NW 719, 724) (1936), the court, when considering various deeds and mortgages which defendant executed incident to its business of making loans and selling the resultant mortgages to other customers, said:
“The group of instruments represented by exhibit 91 appear to be simple instruments which were drawn as an incident to the defendant’s loan business, or in connection with settlements with the bank, and cannot reasonably be said to constitute practicing law.”
The court concluded (p 754):
“A careful study of the many decisions of the courts relative to what constitutes practicing law when applied to the facts in this case, leads us to the conclusion that a person who is not a member of the bar may draw instruments such as simple deeds, mortgages, promissory notes, and bills of sale when these instruments are incident to transactions in which such person is interested provided no charge is made therefor. These simple instruments are usually prepared upon or with the aid of printed forms and seldom involve a high degree of legal skill.”
And in In re Matthews, 58 Idaho 772 (79 P2d 535, 539) (1938), the court, in considering the preparation for a charge of deeds, mortgages, et cetera, by an insurance and real-estate agent, said (pp 779,. 780):
“It would be an anomaly to hold that every individual, abstracter, realtor, banker, title insurance company, trust company, et cetera, who fills out a blank deed, mortgage, bill of sale, contract, or such instrument and receives compensation therefor is engaged in the practice of law * * * and it appears that the statement or matter, appearing in In re Eastern Idaho Loan & Trust Co., 49 Idaho 280, 285, 286 (288 P 157, 73 ALR 1323), as follows: ‘Such work as the mere clerical filling out of skeleton blanks or drawing instruments of generally recognized and stereotyped form effectuating the conveyance or incumbrance of property, such as a simple deed or mortgage not involving the determination of the legal effect of special facts and conditions, is generally regarded as the legitimate right of any layman. It involves nothing more or less than the clerical operations of the now almost obsolete scrivener.’ * * * should be invoked as the rule controlling in this case.”
See, also, the dissenting opinions in Keyes Co. v. Dade County Bar Association, supra, and Commonwealth of Virginia and Virginia State Bar v. Jones & Robins, Inc., supra, which support our conclusions.
With the growth of this State and particularly in urban centers with their rapidly increasing populations making purchases of homes and land, a very conservative estimate would be that many thousands of documents of the type here under consideration are executed each year. Plaintiff claims that the functions of brokers are simply to find a willing seller and a willing buyer and that thereafter it becomes necessary for duly licensed attorneys to complete the transaction. The difficulty is that such contracts must be in writing and duly signed and neither the seller nor the buyer is bound until a contract of sale is signed. Practically speaking the broker is interested in the transaction up to and including the consummation of the sale. And, as pointed out by the defendants, a large volume of the business is transacted after working or business hours when attorneys are not available. It would cause extra expense and great inconvenience to the parties to have to wait until an attorney could be secured under such circumstances and possibly the willing party (buyer or seller) might not sign after a lapse of hours or days, or more, until the services of an attorney of the parties’ choice would be available. The claims of the plaintiffs are unrealistic and impractical.
According to plaintiffs’ claim it would be necessary to have an attorney present or at beck and call at all times when sales, which under the statute of frauds must be in writing, are made. This might result in unnecessary expense or possibly also making attorneys become realtors in order to legally close a contract for the sale of real estate. Such a course by the latter would be improper if a fee were exacted for such services. This is not an issue in this case. There cannot be any objection to a licensed broker doing such work without compensation when it is incidental to his business.
A decree in accordance with this opinion will be entered in this Court. As a public question is involved, no costs will be allowed.
Carr, C. J., and Boyles, Reid, Dethmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred with Butzel, J. | [
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Carr, C. J.
The traffic accident from which this case has resulted occurred on Marquette avenue in the city of Muskegon on July 15, 1952. At the time plaintiff’s decedent, Duane S. Norton, a boy 6 years and 4 months of age, was undertaking to cross said street from the south curb to the north side. An exhibit returned to this Court with the record, pursuant to stipulation of counsel, indicates that the distance across said street from curb to curb is approximately 29 feet. In proximity to the center line of the pavement Duane was struck by an automobile driven by the defendant Miles in an easterly direction. It is conceded that the car was owned by the other defendant, and that it was being driven on the occasion in question with her knowledge and consent. As a result of the impact plaintiff’s decedent sustained injuries resulting in his death on October 7,1952.
Claiming that defendant Miles was negligent in the operation of the automobile, plaintiff brought suit, as administratrix of the estate of decedent, to recover damages. The declaration alleged that defendant driver was operating his car on the left side of the center line of the street, at an excessive rate of speed under the circumstances, and without keeping a reasonable and proper outlook for the safety of others on the highway, and particularly for the safety of Duane. Defendants filed their answer denying the allegations of negligence as set forth in the declaration.
At the conclusion of plaintiff’s proofs on the trial in circuit court, counsel for defendants moved for a directed verdict on the ground that plaintiff had failed to show that defendants were guilty of actionable negligence constituting the proximate cause of the accident and the injuries sustained by her decedent therein. Decision of the motion was reserved, defendants put in their proofs, and the cause was submitted to the jury which returned a verdict for plaintiff in the sum of $3,736.68. Thereupon defendants moved for judgment in their favor notwithstanding the verdict of the jury. The motion was denied, and judgment was entered for the plaintiff in accordance with the verdict. Thereafter defendants moved for a new trial, alleging that they were entitled to the directed verdict and, further, that errors prejudicial to them had occurred in the course of the proceeding. The motion was denied, and defendants have appealed from the judgment entered and from the order denying the motion for a new trial.
The first question for consideration is whether defendants were entitled to a directed verdict at the conclusion of the testimony offered by plaintiff in support of the averments of her declaration. In considering such question we have in mind the general rule, repeatedly declared by this Court, that the testimony is to be construed as strongly as possible in plaintiff’s favor. Anderson v. Kearly, 312 Mich 566; Bramer v. Ames, 338 Mich 226. The record discloses that the accident in question here occurred about 3 o’clock in the afternoon, that it was a clear day, and the pavement was dry. The testimony of several witnesses for plaintiff indicates that other children, some of them older than Duane, preceded him across the street, that he remained briefly on the south side, and then started to follow his companions. He was running, but the record does not indicate how rapidly, other than as may be inferred from his age.
As above stated, the driver of the automobile,, hereinafter referred to as the defendant, was proceeding in an easterly direction. It was plaintiff’s claim on the trial that he struck Duane on the north side of the center line of the road. A witness for plaintiff, Mrs. Fannie Anderson, noted defendant’s ear prior to the accident and stated that it was “about in the middle of the road.” Another witness testified that the car came to a stop partly over the center line and at a distance of approximately 100 feet from the scene of the accident. One of the boys who had preceded Duane across the street saw the impact, and expressed the opinion that it was “About in the center.”
The witness Archie Dempsey was operating a truck in a westerly direction on Marquette at the time of the accident. He testified on the trial that he saw defendant’s car approaching from the west, that it was “coming down the center of the road,” and that he noticed children along the curb on the south side of Marquette. The following excerpt from his testimony indicates the claim of this witness as to where Duane was when struck by the ear.
“Q. Now, then, as this boy left the south curb and started across the street, how far across the street did he get?
“A. He had —
“Q. Before the car struck him?
“A. He had already reached past the center line.
“Q. Could you tel] me, you mean by that he was north of the center line?
“A. Yes, sir.
“Q. Could you tell me how far north of the center line he was when he was struck?
“A. Approximately about 3 feet.
“Q. Three feet, and could you see the part of the Miles’ car or the car that was coming towards you, that struck the boy?
“A. Yes, sir.
Witness Dempsey also testified that following the accident he approached defendant’s car, that he said to defendant that he ought not to have hit the boy, that he had plenty of chance to stop, and that defendant answered :
“I know it, but I never saw the child until I heard the thud and I looked up in the car and I saw him flying.”
With reference to the speed of the automobile, the witness testified as follows:
“Q. Do you have an opinion as to whether this car was traveling over or under 25 miles an hour?
“A. Yes, sir, I would say he was definitely going over 25 miles an hour.
“Q. That is your opinion?
“A. Yes, sir.
“Q. Would .you care to give how much over 25 miles an hour it was going?
“A. No, I couldn’t estimate how fast over he was going.”
A member of the city police force arrived at the scene of the accident shortly after it occurred. He testified as to pacing off certain distances, including the distance from the point where Duane undertook to cross the street and the beginning of certain skid marks on the pavement. According to his testimony, assuming the correctness of other testimony on behalf of plaintiff, defendant’s car traveled approximately 45 feet after striking the boy before the brakes were applied, and then continued for about 37-1/2'feet, as indicated by the length of the sldd marks. Other testimony introduced by plaintiff indicated that Duane was struck by the left-front portion of defendant’s car, and that he was thrown through the air for some distance.
Was the testimony referred to sufficient to render the question of defendant’s negligence a matter for the jury? Immediately prior to striking the. boy defendant Miles passed an automdbile standing at the curb. He'denies, however, that he crossed the center line of the road, and the width of the pavement, as indicated by the exhibit above 'referred to, was apparently sufficient to render it unnecessary to do so, However, we have positive testimony from one of plaintiff’s witnesses, corroborated to a certain extent by others, that the boy was struck on the north side of the center line. There was testimony also that defendant admitted that he did not see Duane prior to the impact.. If such was the fact, the inference clearly follows that he was not keeping a reasonable and proper outlook for others on the highway, as it was his duty to do.
The testimony with reference to the speed of defendant’s automobile is rather unsatisfactory, but we think the trial court was not in error in submitting the matter to the jury in view of the provisions of section 627 of the motor vehicle code, which reads, in part, as follows:
“(a) Any person driving a vehicle on a highway shall drive the same at a careful and prudent speed not greater than nor less than is reasonable and proper, having due regard to the traffic, surface and width of the highway and of any other condition then existing, and no person shall drive any vehicle upon a highway at a speed greater than will permit Mm to bring it to a stop within the assured, clear distance ahead.
“(b) Subject to the provisions of paragraph (a) of this section and except in those instances where a lower speed is specified in this chapter, it shall be prima facie lawful for the driver of a vehicle to drive the same at a speed not exceeding the following, but in any case when such speed would be unsafe. it shall not be lawful:
“25 miles an hour on all highways in a business or residence district as defined herein;
“25 miles an hour in public parks unless a different speed is fixed and duly posted.
“It shall be prima facie unlawful for any person to exceed any of the foregoing speed limitations, except as provided in section 629 of this chapter.”
In Halzle v. Hargreaves, 233 Mich 234, 238, 239, in commenting on a somewhat similar situation, it was said:
“Whether the speed at which he was driving was excessive or not did not depend upon any ordinance or statutory traffic rules but iipon what was reasonable in view of all the circumstances. The duty of defendant to look where he was going and of plaintiff to look about while in the street are not duties wholly dependent on municipal or legislative declarations ■of traffic regulations.”
It was accordingly held that the question of defendant’s negligence was for the jury.
A case in which the facts were analogous to those in the case at bar is Bade v. Nies, 239 Mich 37. There the action was for the recovery of damages for the negligent killing of plaintiff’s decedent who was at the time of the accident 6 years and 4 months of age. It was pointed out that one operating an automobile may be guilty of negligence even though keeping within the statutory limit, and that a driver must have regard for the situation and operate his car accordingly. See, also, Deyo v. Detroit Creamery Co., 257 Mich 77; Holmes v. Merson, 285 Mich 136; Dedo v. Skinner, 296 Mich 299.
Had defendant in the instant case been keeping a reasonable outlook he could scarcely have failed to observe the presence of young children in proximity to the pavement. Bearing in mind that, in determining whether defendants were entitled to a directed verdict, the testimony must be construed as strongly as possible in plaintiff’s favor, it may not be said that the proofs were insufficient to establish a prima facie showing of a failure by defendant to maintain a reasonable and proper outlook for the safety of others on the highway, and likewise a failure to drive on his own side of the highway at a reasonable and proper speed under the circumstances. See Alley v. Klotz, 320 Mich 521. The court was not in error in refusing to enter judgment in defendants’ favor.
Appellants contend that the trial court was in error in denying the motion for a new trial on the ground, among others, that the verdict was against the great weight of the evidence. However, for the reasons hereinbefore set forth, we think that there were material issues of fact in the case which were properly submitted for determination by the jury. Sufficient evidence was introduced by plaintiff to warrant a verdict in her favor. The weight to be given to the testimony of each witness was within the province of the jury, and we cannot say that there was any apparent disregard of the evidence as a whole. O’Brien v. Wahl, 335 Mich 601; Ray v. Harris, 336 Mich 197; Day v. Troyer, 341 Mich 189.
Error is also claimed because of the refusal of the trial judge to give certain requests to charge preferred by defendants. Such requests were in substance that there was no proof that the automobile was being operated at an improper rate of speed, that if it was driven to the left of the center line •of the street such fact did not constitute negligence, and that there were no proofs indicating failure on the part of defendant Miles to keep a proper outlook for the safety of others. In the aggregate these requests amounted to a renewal of the motion for a directed verdict. In view of the testimony in the case the trial court was not in error in refusing to give them in the form presented. It was for the jury to determine whether under the circumstances the defendant was guilty of negligence in the various respects, or any of them, claimed by plaintiff on the trial, and also whether such negli.gence constituted a proximate cause of the accident.
Defendants further requested that the court •charge the jury that “one who, in a sudden emer.gency, acts according to his best judgment, or who, because of want of time in which to form a judgment, omits to act in the most judicious manner, is not chargeable with negligence.” The trial judge in his instructions to the jury covered the substance of the request, but added to it the qualification that •one is not entitled to the benefit of the rule if he is at fault in creating the emergency. Appellants claim that adding the qualification, commonly recognized as part of the rule, was error. With this claim we are unable to agree. The request was obviously based on the assumption that defendant was not at fault in any way, and that the accident occurred •solely because of the action of Duane in attempting to cross the street in the manner disclosed by the testimony. Under the proofs in the case, the charge as given was correct.
Other incidental questions raised by counsel in their briefs have been considered, but they are not of such nature as to require discussion. We find in the record no reversible error, and the judgment is affirmed. Plaintiff may have costs.
Butzel, Smith, Sharpe, Boyles, Reid, Dethmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
PA 1949, No 300. § 627 (a) and (b) (CLS 1952, § 257.627, Stat Ann 1952 Bev § 9.2327). | [
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Smith, J.
The facts herein are stipulated. The case involves the taxability, under our inheritance tax act (CL 1948, § 205.201 et seq. [Stat Ann and Stat Ann 1947 Cum Supp § 7.561 el seq.)), of the deceased’s share of a profit-sharing plan. In brief, the deceased, Clare L. Brackett (hereinafter for brevity referred to as the deceased) was the president of the National Machine Products Company of Detroit (hereinafter referred to as the company). In December of 1941 this company established a profit-sharing' savings and retirement plan for its employees. Under the terms of the plan the company deposited annually with a trustee a percentage of its profits. Each such deposit was then allocated on the books of the trustee among the company’s employees in proportion to their compensation, an employee’s portion thereof being termed a “participant’s” share.
Each annual contribution by the company (the employees made none) was to be held by the trustee for 10 years, during which time interest accrued thereon, and was then to be distributed to the employees in 3 annual instalments. Should an employee leave the company, he was entitled to receive his share in 3 instalments, or he could (in event of retirement or prolonged illness) receive his entire share in one lump sum. He was also entitled to' name a beneficiary to receive his share in the event of his death. The plan, in addition, contained a typical spendthrift clause and the company reserved the right to (and did) amend the plan from time to time and under certain limitations. Among the lat ter were provisions to the effect that the participants’ interests in past contributions could not be impaired, nor could the company recapture the fund or any part thereof for its own use and benefit.
Pursuant to the provisions of the plan, the company deposited large sums of money with its trustee, the National Bank of Detroit, on whose books it was allocated to the individual employees in the manner heretofore described. Also in accordance with the provisions of the plan, as will hereafter be described in more detail, the deceased named his daughter, appellant herein, as the person to receive his beneficial share in the event of his death. The deceased departed this world on October 4, 1948, at which time the amount credited to him on the books of the trustee amounted to $76,846.29.
The probate court, in making a determination of the Michigan inheritance tax, included as a taxable transfer the above sum of $76,846.29, which so passed to MaryLin C. Brackett Morison, the named beneficiary. After the reaffirmation of this position upon appellants’ petition and appellee’s cross petition for redetermination of the tax, the matter was appealed to the circuit court which held that the said sum was taxable as a transfer intended to take effect in possession or enjoyment at or after the death of the decedent within the meaning of section 1, subdivision third, of Michigan inheritance tax statute. The matter comes to us upon appeal from such determination and order entered pursuant thereto.
The impact of high taxes of all kinds, income, estate, inheritance, gift, and others has caused significant changes in our economy. Various devices have been employed to lessen such impact, among them profit-sharing plans of the type with which we are here concerned. This is not to dismiss as unimportant, or even as secondary, the other advantages of such plans involving, as they do, incentives for younger employees to stay with the firm, security for older employees and better labor-management relations, but we are here concerned with the fiscal aspects of such plan. See Deferring Compensation Through the Use of Pension and Profit-Sharing Plans (4 Syracuse LR 319). The writer of a recent article (Lubick, Designing a Deferred Compensation Profit-Sharing Plan for a Small Company, 3 Buffalo LR 222, 223) succinctly describes the advantages of using a plan qualified, as was the plan in the case at bar, under the then section 165(a) of the internal revenue code:
“If you use a qualified plan and trust, you will become entitled to very significant tax advantages.
“First of all, the company, within certain limits, will get a tax deduction for its contribution against the year’s profits. Since you make contributions ■only in profitable years, it is to your advantage to get your deduction in such years, when you are sure to have taxable income, even though the money is not received by the employees until later years. Thus the tax collector will foot part of the bill for your retirement plan.
“Second, the employee pays no tax on the money contributed by the company for his account until he receives it. This means if you are setting aside something this year for an employee’s retirement, he won’t be taxed on it this year on top of his other earnings, but will be taxed only at retirement when he receives it and his earnings are down. This is particularly advantageous to you because of your present high tax bracket. "While you would like to get more salary now, wouldn’t you prefer it if a sum were set aside for you now, which you would draw on at and after retirement when your tax bracket is much lower? In other words it is more advantageous for you to save for old age out of currently untaxed money, than to receive higher pay currently, on which you must pay taxes now, and save after taxes. Also under certain circumstances you can get your money out of a qualified trust as a long-term capital gain at a maximum tax rate of 25%, and in your tax bracket that is certainly an advantage.
“Third, the trust fund in which the profit-sharing-contributions are accumulated pays no tax oh its earnings. If it earns 4% on your share, that is certainly better than if you -invested your own money at 6%, but paid tax on the income.”
Not surprising, is it, that the capital invested in such funds has reached large proportions. In an editorial note in 21 George Washington LB . 749, 762, the writer comments as follows on the phase of our matter:
“Profit-sharing plans have become a billion dollar enterprise. There are now more than 18,000 profit-sharing and pension plans in operation. Their assets, about $12,000,000,000, form the largest pool of private capital outside of life insurance companies. Employers, are now setting aside about $2,500,000,-000 a year for their plans and that figure is expected to be over $3,000,000,000 by 1953. Some employers’ annual contributions are' over $1,000,000. New plans are being filed with the commissioner at a rate in excess of 300 a month.”
We have sketched this background to indicate the nature and magnitude of the problem, particularly in view of the fact that this case is one of first impression in this Court. The precise issue presented is whether or not the employee’s share of the profit-sharing fund, passing to a beneficiary designated by the employee, is taxable under our inheritance tax act. The appellants say not. They insist that, upon these facts, the deceased did not make a lifetime transfer of property or an interest therein, that the proceeds in dispute were not owned by deceased during his lifetime, that they did not pass from him to his beneficiary by a lifetime transfer, and that the deceased did not withhold possession or enjoyment of the proceeds from his daughter during his lifetime, all of which they assert is required for taxability under the act. In addition, we are pressed with the argument that this case is analogous to life insurance and the proceeds here involved should not be taxed under the act for the same reason that life insurance is not taxed. As to the latter, we will only say that we will meet the life insurance case when it arises and the instant case will be decided on its own merits.
The appellee, on the other hand, argues that the decedent did, in fact and law, transfer property or interest therein to his daughter to take effect in possession or enjoyment (of such daughter) at or after his death within the meaning of the inheritance tax act. Appellee also argues the applicability of the power of appointment section of the act.
We will first address ourselves to the matter of the property interest of the decedent. In order to answer this question, (i.e., whether or not decedent had the requisite property interest within the meaning of the statute) it will be fruitful to review the' details of the plan in connection with which the alleged property interest arose. It was described, as noted heretofore, as a profit-sharing plan. One announced purpose was to enlarge employees’ incomes during their later years. Such enlargement did not result from the caprice of the employer. Its purpose was that of reward. Reward for what? We will quote from the company’s statement to its employees :
“Through this plan, you are given an opportunity to share in the profits of the company. It was adopted after considerable thought, as a reward and incentive for your continued loyal and efficient service. Its success depends entirely upon your ability and your efforts to produce the necessary profitable results.”
The reward, then, was for work and labor performed. The greater the effort, the larger the reward. It thus furnished an incentive for redoubled ■efforts to the end that profits might be increased. The plan in this respect differs from many of those described in cases cited to us. Here the element of (consideration, the quid pro quo, the compensation ■earned but deferred in enjoyment, is found, rather than the outright gratuity. Likewise, it differs from the purchased annuity cases, the simplest type of which is the annuity purchased directly by the employee from his own funds and subject wholly to his -order. Here the employee made no contribution whatever from his own funds, as distinguished from his own efforts.
Yfihat was the nature of his rights in the fund prior to his death? It is clear that his share of the money was not so completely subject to his dominion as the dollar bill in his pocket. It was not in his physical possession. He could not spend it. He could not pledge it. He could not borrow it, although he could, for the first 3 years of the plan, borrow from the trustee up to “the minimum amount payable to the borrowing participant upon termination in any manner of his interest in the fund.” Despite these restrictions, however, the striking characteristic of the plan, from a property standpoint, was that the money was his and his alone. Under no circumstances could the company recapture the fund for its -own use or benefit. It was provided in the plan itself that it should be
“impossible at any time * * *- for any part of the fund or the income thereof to revert to, or inure to the benefit of, the employer, either directly or indirectly, or to be used for or diverted to purposes other than for the exclusive benefit of the participants or their beneficiaries.”
The language of impossibility is strong language.. The trustee, obviously, held the fund solely for the employees, of whom decedent was one. Nor was enjoyment thereof to be long deferred. After 10 years, distribution might be had. If the employee quit, however, or was discharged, or retired, or suffered prolonged illness, he was nevertheless entitled to his proportionate share. He was also permitted to name a beneficiary to receive his share upon his death. Accordingly, on December 15, 1943, the decedent directed the trustee to make payment of “my beneficial share” to MaryLin C. Brackett Morison, his daughter, one of the appellants here.
The inheritance tax act (CL 1948, §§205.201-205.221 [Stat Ann and Stat Ann 1947 Cum Supp §§ 7.561-7.582]) defines “property” as follows:
“The word ‘estate’ and ‘property’ as used in this act shall be taken to mean the property or interest therein of the testator, intestate, grantor, bargainor, or vendor, passing or transferred to those not herein specifically exempted from the provisions of this act, and not as the property or interest therein passing or transferred to the individual legatees, devisees, heirs, next of kin, grantees, donees, or vendees, and shall include all property or interest therein whether situated within or without this State and including all property represented or evidenced by note, certificate, stock, land, contract, mortgage or other kind or character of evidence thereof, and regardless of whether any such evidence of property is owned, kept or possessed within or without this. State.”
The language used is broad and sweeping. The legislative intent was equally broad as we pointed •out in In re Stanton’s Estate, 142 Mich 491, 495, 496, when we observed that “the legislature intended the tax to be measured by property which it is within the power of the State to tax.” Nor will it be forgotten, .in any question of statutory tax interpretation, that taxing is a practical matter and that the taxing statutes must receive a practical construction. While they will not be extended by implication, People, ex rel. Attorney General, v. Welch’s Estate, 235 Mich 555, 564, neither will the words thereof be so narxowly interpreted as to defeat the purposes of the net. Conflicting interests are involved. As was said by Mr. Justice Cardozo in Burnet v. Guggenheim, 288 US 280, 286 (53 S Ct 369, 77 L ed 748) a case .involving the assessment of a gift tax:
“The respondent invokes the rule that in the construction of a taxing act doubt is to be resolved in favor of the taxpayer. (Citing cases.) There are •many facets to such a maxim. One must view them all, if one would apply it wisely. The construction that is liberal to one taxpayer may be illiberal to -others. One must strike a balance of advantage.”
It is clearly within the competence of the legislature to sweep within its taxable orbit all kinds of property and any and all interests therein. It is not reasonable, in our opinion, to conclude that the' legislature, in the broad language above quoted, intended to exclude, and free from inheritance taxation, a type of property and property right so valuable that it would serve not only as a “reward” but also as a labor incentive, so completely vested that it would be “impossible” to revert to the contributor, and so thoroughly under the employee’s dominion and control that he could, without let or hindrance, name the person or persons who would enjoy the same in full measure upon his demise. Unrealistic, indeed, would be the conclusion that an aggregate of rights treated by the parties themselves as so compelling and substantial did not rise to the dignity of property within the meaning of the act. If this is not property, the words employed in the act must be redefined. To point out that the daughter’s enjoyment might be defeated by certain contingencies does not deny the existence of the property right but raises a question as to its value. The two should not be confused.
The statute requires, however, not only an interest in property, but a transfer of such interest. The difficult cases involving transfers are those in which the owner of the vested right does nothing, or merely cuts down his present interest in favor of enlarging (or creating) an interest in another. Even in such cases, under related laws, transfer has been found under various theories. See Merry, Federal Estate and Gift Tax; Concept of a Transfer, 38 Mich Law Rev 1032 (1940); see, also, 38 Yale LJ 657 (1929). The reason lies not only in the breadth of the modern taxing statutes but in/rhe consideration that the essence of a transfer has come to be identified more nearly with a change of economic benefits than with technicalities of title. We do not, in construing a taxing statute, require for transfer a formal common-law conveyance. As expressed in Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. Wilder’s Estate, 118 F2d 281, 282, cert denied, 314 US 634 (62 S Ct 67, 86 L ed 509):
“The taxability of a transfer is not to be determined by the refinements of conveyances or the technicalities of contracts, but by comparing the substance and practical effect of what was done with the standards set up by the taxing act.”
We have indorsed similar views. In In re Kutsche’s Estate, 268 Mich 659, 667, we quoted with approval the following with respect to an inheritance or succession tax:
“Apparently the legislature intended to reach for the purpose of taxation the shifting of the enjoyment of property—the ‘economic benefits’ thereof or ‘economic interest’ therein * * * from a former owner at his death, even though such shifting of enjoyment followed necessarily from a prior transfer of title inter vivos. * * * ‘The policy of the law is, that the owner of property shall not defeat or evade the tax by any form of conveyance or transfer, where after death the income, profit or enjoyment inures to the benefit of those who are not exempted.’ ” Worcester County National Bank v. Commissioner of Corporations and Taxation, 275 Mass 216, 221 (175 NE 726).
This Court has consistently adhered to the rule as stated in People, ex rel. Attorney General, v. Welch’s Estate, supra, 566, in determining whether a particular transfer of property comes within the statutory definitions and, hence, taxable under the inheritance tax statute:
“ ‘The test is always whether the property comes into possession and enjoyment of the transferee upon the death of the transferor. If the death of the transferor makes no difference in the rights .of the parties there is no tax.’ Gleason & Otis on Inheritance Taxation (4th ed), p 876.”
Let us now examine what was done by the decedent : In accordance with the provisions of the trust indenture, he, by letter, exercised his undoubted right to name the recipient of his share, eventually amounting to $76,846.29, subsequent to his death.
It is important to note the particular language of the decedent’s designation of his beneficiary:
“You. are holding as trustee under this plan a certain sum designated as my beneficial share.
“In the event this share or other sums that may hereafter be deposited in said plan for my benefit shall become a claim by reason of my death, I hereby direct that the proceeds of such share or shares be paid to MaryLin C. Brackett, my daughter.
“In the event my said daughter shall not have survived me, I hereby direct you to pay the proceeds of share or shares to my executors, administrators or assigns.”
By this act, exercised in accordance with the provisions of the trust instrument, he caused the reward heretofore earned by him, and allocated to him beyond possibility of divestment, to move at his death to the natural object of his testamentary bounty, his daughter. Did it move free of inheritance tax on the theory that he made no “transfer” within the meaning of the act? We hold not. By such act, so exercised, he effected the shifting and passing to her of substantial economic benefits coming to complete fruition and enjoyment at the time of his death. Such was a transfer within the meaning of the act, and as such it was taxable to the extent and in the manner determined in the court below.
The conclusions we have reached are also those reached by our neighboring State, Ohio, upon very similar facts. In the case of In re Estate of Daniel, 159 Ohio St 109, 114 (111 NE2d 252), the court concludes as follows:
“The fund definitely set aside for the employee, Daniel, whether deemed additional compensation or otherwise, was his to dispose of at his death just as any other property which he possessed, and by his direction it passed to his designated beneficiary.”
It would prolong this opinion to undue length to comment upon the various theories and cases cited -to us by both parties. Suffice to say we have reviewed and examined them all (as well as others) and are satisfied that, because of factual, statutory and other differences, they are distinguishable from the case at bar and inapplicable to the fact situation here presented.
Under the view we have taken, we do not find it necessary to pass upon the power of appointment argument and we make no finding with respect thereto.
The decree of the lower court is affirmed. No costs will be allowed, a public question being involved.
Carr, C. J., and Butzel, Sharpe, Boyles, Beid, Dbthmers, and Kelly, JJ., concurred.
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