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Airtrain AI 10

Students taking this course explore the art of architecture, the design process, the language of architecture, how methods and materials shape buildings, the relationship between structural types, and the use of space and how architecture reflects the culture for which it was built. This course introduces students to classical drawing techniques and computer-aided design methods using AutoCAD software. Drawing terminology, text creation and editing, dimensioning, AutoCAD menus, file manipulations, plotting, and geometric construction techniques are used to create 2-D drawings. In this course, students learn drawing techniques including section views, auxiliary views, and dimensioning styles using AutoCAD software. AutoCAD commands include model and paper space viewports, polylines, multilines and splines, annotation with text, use of attributes for data storage and extraction, xrefs, and basic 3-D drawing techniques. Hands-on experience with the Autodesk software provided in this course introduces students to the basic functions of building information modeling (BIM). Concentration is on building parts (walls, floors, roofs, doors, windows), and construction documents are produced from 3-D models. Hands-on experience with Autodesk REVIT Building software allows students to continue the work started in Beginning REVIT. Students concentrate on schedules, family components, production of construction documents, and rendering. Advanced REVIT architecture encourages students to advance their skill level beyond fundamental technical skills to an increased understanding of building information modeling in collaboration with other advanced users. The curriculum presents a set of advanced problems involving typical issues encountered in contract document production in a multi-user environment in the architecture, engineering, and construction industries. Students are encouraged to explore personal areas of interest within the course objectives. Students investigate the process by which architects and drafters determine the form of a small wood-frame building and produce the set of drawings, models, and specifications used to build the building. Students design and graphically document several aspects of commercial architecture: steel and masonry structure, electrical, plumbing, and HVAC. Students encounter the problems involved in changing the usage of a building including antique or dangerous materials, specification writing, ADA and other codes, and cost estimating. Hands-on experience with this 3-D modeling, rendering, and animation software introduces students to the creation of 3-D models, materials, lighting, and key frame animation. Students continue the work they began in ARCH 2520 by designing, developing, and polishing a project that demonstrates their ability to create 3-D models and animations. Students focus on vertical buildings: structure, mechanical core, vertical transportation, egress, fire protection, and parking. This course permits instruction in special content areas not included in other courses of the Architectural Design Technology program.

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http://www.mccneb.edu/catalog/coursedescriptions/transform.aspx?discipline=ARCH

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Funny and Stupid Ideas: Are elephants really afraid of mice? The rumour that elephants are scared of mice is very persistent and there are whole collections of jokes circulating on this topic. However, these jokes are just as incorrect as all the stories about women who scream and jump on the nearest chair at the sight of a mouse. Why aren't the elephants scared? Basically, elephants flee from danger and are afraid of whatever they don't know. Zoo and circus elephants, however, know practically everything about their environment, and they certainly know mice. Whenever large quantities of hay and straw are delivered to a stable, there are often a few mice hidden in the bales. In their search for food, mice quickly discover the elephants' many leftovers. Furthermore, a stable is an ideal home for a mouse. It has everything it needs: food, nesting material, warmth and quiet hiding places.

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Physical Evidence Confirms Albert Einstein's Brain Was Superior to Yours His brain is legendary: When TIME named Albert Einstein its Person of the Century in 1999, the magazine called the shaggy-haired physicist a "genius among geniuses," whose understanding of the universe represented the "embodiment of pure intellect." What few people know, however, is that within a few hours of his death in 1955, Einstein's brain was removed from his skull and photographed from different angles before it was sectioned into 240 blocks — all to advance the sciences he loved so dearly. Many of the photographs, however, were lost or misplaced over the decades. Now analysis of 14 recently resurfaced photos reveals what we've suspected all along: Einstein's physical brain, says Doyle Rice at USA Today, "was better than yours." Though not at first glance. According to the study from Florida State University, the pre-dissected brain doesn't initially appear all that different from the average person's. "Although the overall size and asymmetrical shape of Einstein's brain was normal," writes study author Dean Falk, an evolutionary anthropologist from Florida State University, "the prefrontal, somatosensory, primary motor, parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices were extraordinary." The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain in charge of abstract thinking and thought analysis — responsible for digesting sensory data before making any decisions. As such, it's also the most "strongly implicated" as a sign of intelligence. Analysis of these photographs revealed that Einstein's prefrontal cortex is more complex and possessed a far greater surface area than most people's, which may explain some of his "remarkable cognitive abilities," said Falk.

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Observation Skills Workshop Designed as a follow-up to the Introduction to the Framework, this session focuses on developing participants’ observation skills. Use of classroom videos, analysis, and discussion provide a foundation for those learning to become critical observers of classroom practice. Topics include: understanding the difference between evidence and opinion, collecting evidence of practice based on the Framework for Teaching, analyzing the evidence against the rubrics, providing effective feedback, and using the Framework to promote reflective practice. This session is equally as appropriate for mentors and coaches as it is for supervisors. - Audience: Teachers, teacher leaders, mentors, coaches, administrators, supervisor, evaluators - Recommended length: 2 full days - Recommended maximum group size: 25 - Prerequisite: Introduction to the Framework for Teaching Back to Workshops and Services

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“U.S. states, which aren't recommending protective measures for the public, are reporting tiny amounts of radioactive iodine known as iodine-131 that is seen in the early stages of a nuclear reaction.” “The ministry also said that an abnormal amount of the material, called iodine-131, was detected in milk from a dairy farm about 50 kilometers away from the plant.” “He also said no one in the U.S. should be taking potassium iodide as a preventive measure against possible ingestion of radioactive iodine-131.” “A water sample taken just outside the water intake for the No. 2 unit showed the level of radioactive iodine-131 at 7.5 million times the allowable limit, the most dangerous level of radiation so far detected.” “One sample of konago caught Friday contained twice the permissible level of radioactive iodine-131, which has a half-life of eight days and which can accumulate in the thyroid in humans, possibly raising the risk of thyroid cancer.” “The state-run Xinhua news agency reported Thursday that trace levels of the radioactive isotope iodine-131 were discovered on spinach plants in the cities of Beijing, Tianjin and the province of Henan.” “TEPCO said seawater near the plant contains radioactive iodine-131 that is 7.5 million times the legal limit.” “Austria's Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics indicated that, at most, the Japanese nuclear reactors have emitted about 20% of the iodine-131 and 50% of the cesium-137 that Chernobyl did.” “The discharge had an iodine-131 concentration of about 100 million times the level Japan considers safe for release into the environment, according to Tepco.” “The water has been measured as having 13 million becquerels of iodine-131 per cubic centimeter, 300 million times the legal limit, and three million becquerels of cesium-137, which is 30 million times the limit.” ‘iodine-131’ hasn't been added to any lists yet. Looking for tweets for iodine-131.

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Are Enterprise JavaBeans and JavaBeans the same thing? The original JavaBeans specification is based on the java.beans package which is a standard package in the JDK. Components built on the JavaBeans specification are intraprocess components that live in one address space and are typically used for Graphical User Interface (GUI) as visual widgets like buttons, tables, HTML viewers, etc. The EJB specification is based on the javax.ejb package, which is a standard extension package. Components built on the EJB specification are interprocess components that live in multiple address spaces as distributed object. These components are used as transactional business objects that are accessed as remote objects.

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If you wish to contribute or participate in the discussions about articles you are invited to join SKYbrary as a registered user From SKYbrary Wiki VOLCANIC ASH & AVIATION SAFETY Editor's Note: Visitors reviewing the SKYbrary guidance to pilots and controllers concerning the effects of volcanic ash as a result of airspace closures may also wish to view the CFMU Network Operations Portal (NOP) which contains all the current ATCFM information affecting Europe. Current Volcanic Ash Advisories for Europe are available from the London VAAC Volcanic Ash is defined as very small solid particles ejected from a volcano during an eruption which have intermediate axes measuring 2 mm or less (US Geological Survey) and "fine ash" is further defined by the same source as particles smaller than 1/16 (0.0625) mm across. During a volcanic eruption, huge quantities of material can be ejected into the atmosphere, reaching great height and remaining a threat to aviation for several months. Volcanic ash accumulates at higher altitudes in clouds which then drift with the wind. The ash does not show up on aircraft weather radar or ATC radars because of the small size of the particles. Ash particles carry electrical charges and, within a cloud of volcanic ash, this can give rise to Thunder and Lightning in the area immediately overhead the eruption. At night, St Elmo's Fire, created when charged ash particles hit the aircraft, may be the first circumstantial indication to a flight crew that they flying into dense volcanic ash. Other indications might be a sulphurous smell and dust within the cabin. Volcanic Ash encounter can result in engine damage and malfunction: - Engine Malfunction. The principal risk to continued safe flight, arising from flight through high concentrations of volcanic ash, is the melting within the engine of ash particles, which are predominantly composed of silicates with a melting point of 1100°C1,373.15 K 2,471.67 °R. This melting point is considerably less than the core operating temperature of high by pass turbine engines which, at normal thrust settings, is at least 1400°C1,673.15 K 3,011.67 °R; there will be a trend for the core temperature to increase as engine design focuses on improved specific fuel consumption. Ingested silicate ash melts in the hot section of the engine and then fuses onto the high pressure turbine blades and guide vanes. This drastically reduces the throat area and both static burner and compressor discharge pressures rapidly increase and cause engine surge. Transient and possibly terminal loss of thrust can occur in the most severe cases with a successful engine re-start only possible if clear air can be regained. If present at sufficient densities, ash particles can also contribute to engine malfunction by simple deposition. In either case, the added debris clogs up the engine airflow and is likely to initially lead to engine surging and ultimately to a Flame Out. Reducing the thrust setting quickly to idle may lower the core temperature enough to prevent silicates melting. - Long Term Engine Damage. The abrasive effect of volcanic ash particle impact can cause surface roughness inside turbine engines which, whilst it will not affect their continued normal operation, will result in a reduced specific fuel consumption. It is impossible to repair such damage, so the life of an affected engine could be considerably reduced. - External Surface Corrosion. Ash can cause significant damage to the exposed surface of the aircraft skin and to the outer ply of windscreens. If the ash encounter is severe, the latter may become sufficiently abraded to be difficult to see through. British Airways Flight 9 (24 June 1982) Cruising at FL370, the aircraft, a Boeing 747-200, British Airways Flight 9, en-route at night from Kuala Lumpur to Perth, entered a dense cloud of volcanic ash in the vicinity of a volcanic eruption from Mount Galunggung. The crew had noticed St Elmo's fire and an acrid smell and dust had entered the cabin through the air conditioning system. All four engines failed and the aircraft started to descend. Once clear of the ash cloud, the crew managed to restart the engines in succession but because of continued malfunction of one of them, it was shut down and an en route diversion was made to Jakarta on 3 engines. - Avoidance. Since the above event, ICAO has implemented a system of Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAAC) which are tasked with issuing information on the location and flight level of volcanic ash clouds through SIGMET charts and in Volcanic Ash Advisory messages. However, this information rarely includes any information on particle size or on cloud density and so the real degree and extent of the hazard can be difficult to determine. - Escape. Inadvertent penetration of significant volcanic ash concentrations from new explosive eruptions, which have not yet been detected and notified, can still occur and is most likely at night. Such encounters can be recognised as such and an escape manoeuvre performed taking into account terrain circumstances, see Volcanic Ash: Guidance for Flight Crews 15 April 2010 On 15 April 2010, large sections of airspace over Northern Europe began to be affected by a large area of fine volcanic ash drifting south east from an erupting volcano in Iceland. The suspension of acceptance of IFR Flight Plans for flights in any part of the affected airspace because of the perceived risk effectively shut down the commercial air transport system over a wide area. - Contingency Planning: Volcanic Ash - Managing Volcanic Ash Risk to the Safety of Flights - Volcanic Ash - Volcanic Ash Advisory - Volcanic Ash: Guidance for Controllers - Volcanic Ash: Guidance for Flight Crews Accidents & Incidents involving Volcanic Ash - B744, en-route, Alaska USA, 1989 (WX LOC) (On 15th December 1989, a KLM Boeing 747 encountered a Volcanic Ash cloud over Alaska, USA. the ingestion of ash led to compressor stall of all engines; the engines were subsequently relighted successfully and the aircraft landed safely.) - B742, en-route, Mount Galunggung Indonesia, 1982 (WX LOC) (On 24 June 1982, a British Airways Boeing 747-200 lost power on all four engines while flying at night at FL370 en route from Kuala Lumpur to Perth. During the ensuing sixteen minutes, the aircraft descended without power from FL370 to FL120, at which point the flight crew were able to successfully restart engines one, two and four after which an en route diversion was made to Jakarta.) Airports near areas where Volcanic activity occurs The following map shows the aerodromes where Volcanic Ash might occur across the world which are listed on SKYbrary: - ICAO Doc 9974:"Flight Safety and Volcanic Ash" - First Edition 2012. - ICAO Handbook for International Airways Volcano Watch. This handbook is no longer subject to ICAO revision except for 'Part 5 - Contacts' for which they have set up a specific "latest version" - ICAO EUR Doc 019: "Volcanic Ash Contingency Plan" - 2nd Edition, September 2009. - ICAO NAT OPS Bulletin - Effective: 16 May 2010 at 0001 UTC, recommended interim enhanced procedures to be implemented by States in the event of a volcanic eruption. Flight Safety Foundation - Flight Safety Foundation, Flight Safety Digest, May 1993, “Volcanic Hazards and Aviation Safety: Lessons of the Past Decade”, Casadevall. US Geological Survey - Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Volcanic Ash & Aviation Safety; Seattle, 1991. The wealth of scientific knowledge in these proceedings informed subsequent contingency planning policy and operational recommendations. - Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Volcanic Ash & Aviation Safety; Alexandria VA USA, 2004. - "The 1991 Pinatubo Eruptions and Their Effects on Aircraft Operations": Thomas J Casadevall and others. - NASA/TM-2003-212030: Engine Damage to a NASA DC-8-72 Airplane From a High-Altitude Encounter With a Diffuse Volcanic Ash Cloud

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Hierarchical Data Format file HDF is a data file format used by Hierarchical Data Format. HDF files are used for the transfer of graphical and numerical data between machines. HDF files store data usually relating to scientific data. This information is stored in libraries and multi-object files. Learn more about .HDF files: Search for .HDF-related questions on IT Knowledge Exchange.

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Here is some history on what makes hot sauce and hot peppers so hot in temperature and who developed the famed heat scale known as the Scoville Heat Scale. The Scoville scale is a measure of the hotness of a chilli pepper. These fruits of the Capsicum genus contain capsaicin, a chemical compound which stimulates thermoreceptor nerve endings in the skin, especially the mucus membranes, and the number of Scoville heat units (SHU) indicates the amount of capsaicin present. Many hot sauces use their Scoville rating in advertising as a selling point. It is named after Wilbur Scoville, who developed the Scoville Organoleptic Test in 1912. As originally devised, a solution of the pepper extract is diluted in sugar water until the 'heat' is no longer detectable to a panel of (usually five) tasters; the degree of dilution gives its measure on the Scoville scale. Thus a sweet pepper, containing no capsaicin at all, has a Scoville rating of zero, meaning no heat detectable even undiluted. Conversely, the hottest chiles, such as habaneros, have a rating of 300,000 or more, indicating that their extract has to be diluted 300,000-fold before the capsaicin present is undetectable. The greatest weakness of the Scoville Organoleptic Test is its imprecision, because it relies on human subjectivity. Spice heat is now usually measured by a method using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (also known as the "Gillett Method"). This identifies the heat-producing chemicals and weights them according to their relative capacity to produce a sensation of heat. This method actually yields results, not in Scoville units, but in "ASTA pungency units." A measurement of one part capsaicin per million corresponds to about 15 Scoville units, and the published method says that ASTA pungency units can be multiplied by 15 and reported as Scoville units. This conversion is approximate, and Tainter and Grenis say that there is consensus that it gives results about 20-40% lower than the actual Scoville method would have given. List of Scoville ratings Pungency values for any pepper, stated in "Scoville units," are imprecise, for three reasons: - They may vary considerably within a species—easily by a factor of 10 or more—depending on seed lineage, climate and even soil. This is especially true of habaneros. - True "Scoville units" are the result of an organoleptic test, in which the measurements of the same sample can vary by ±50%. - The modern High Pressure Liquid Chromatography test does not yield Scoville units, it yields "ASTA pungency units." The HPLC test itself can vary by about 12%. These are often converted to roughly equivalent Scoville unit values, but as noted above this conversion itself is imprecise. When interpreting Scoville ratings, this imprecision should be kept in mind. |Scoville rating||Type of pepper| |15,000,000 - 16,000,000||Pure capsaicin| |8,600,000||Homodihydrocapsaicin and homocapsaicin| |2,000,000 - 5,000,000||Standard US Grade pepper spray| |855,000 - 1,041,427||Naga Jolokia| |876,000 - 970,000||Dorset Naga| |350,000 - 577,000||Red Savina Habanero| |100,000 - 325,000||Scotch Bonnet| |100,000 - 300,000||Habanero Chile| |100,000 - 200,000| |50,000 - 100,000||Thai Pepper| |30,000 - 50,000||Cayenne Pepper| |10,000 - 23,000||Serrano Pepper| |7,000 - 8,000||Tabasco Sauce (Habanero)| |5,000 - 10,000| |2,500 - 8,000||Jalapeño Pepper| |2,500 - 5,000||Tabasco Sauce (Pepper)| |1,500 - 2,500||Pepper| |1,000 - 1,500||Poblano Pepper| |600 - 800||Tabasco Sauce (Green Pepper)| |500 - 1000||New Mexico Pepper| |100 - 500||Pimento, Pepperoncini| |0||No heat, Bell Pepper|

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And Other Essays on Honor, Social Discomfort, and Violence How do we feel when our friend turns up with a holiday present and we have nothing ready to give in exchange? What lies behind our small social panics and the maneuvers we use, to avoid losing face? Recognizing how much we care about how others see us, this wise and witty book tackles the complex subject of humiliation and the emotions that keep us going as self-respecting social actors. William Ian Miller writes astutely about a host of homely and seemingly banal social occasions and shows us what is buried behind them. In his view, our lives are permeated with sometimes merely uncomfortable, sometimes hair-raising rituals of shame and humiliation. Take the unwanted dinner invitation, the exchange of valentines in grade school, or the "diabolically ingenious invention of the bridal registry." Readers will have no trouble recognizing the social situations he finds indicative of our often perilous dealings with each other. Educated as a literary critic and philologist, by profession a historian of medieval Iceland, by employment a law professor, Miller ranges comfortably beyond his areas of formal expertise to talk about emotions across time and culture. His scenarios are based on incidents from his own college town and from the Iceland of the sagas. He also makes incursions into the emotional worlds represented in the Middle English poem, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and in some of the works of Shakespeare, Dostoyevsky, and others. Indeed, one theme that gradually becomes specific is how meaning travels from one culture to another. Ancient codes of honor, he insists, still function in contemporary American life. Some of Miller's narratives are unsettling, and he acknowledges that a certain ironical misanthropy may run through his discussions. But he succeeds in cutting through a mountain of pretensions to entertain and enlighten us.

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Threatened, Endangered, and Proposed (TEP) Plant Profile San Bernardino bluegrass, also known as Bear Valley bluegrass, in full flower. This species is dioecious, meaning that any individual plant has all staminate (male) flowers or all pistillate (female) flowers. This individual is staminate, as you can see from the pale yellow anthers, the pollen-bearing parts of the stamens, dangling from the purplish flowers. Photo by Chelsea Vollmer, San Bernardino National Forest. Poa atropurpurea range map. Poa atropurpurea, San Bernardino bluegrass Visit the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile link below for links to listing and other USFWS documents. - Loss and degradation of habitat from urban and recreational development - Fragmentation from ORV traffic - Grazing by livestock and feral burros - Hybridization with invasive, co-occurring, non-native bluegrass (Poa pratensis) - Competition from invasive plants National Forest and Grassland Occurrence

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Explores a particular topic in American culture that highlights the methodological tools needed to integrate the interpretation of cultural texts, including literature, film, music, and art, with their historical contexts. Fall 2012 Topics in American Culture: Mexican Art and Culture This course will cover Mexican art, history and politics, from the time of the Aztecs and Mayas and the Conquest to the present, with emphasis on the twentieth century. We will learn about ancient Mexico, colonial architecture, mural and easel painting, printmaking, photography and folk art. concentrating on issues of style and placing Mexican art its cultural, political and historical contexts. Student learning goals Understand the historical and cultural background of Mexico from Pre-Conquest times up to the present. Gain a knowledge of the political and historical conditions that contribute to the development of a modern Mexican art and culture. Be able to analyze Mexican art in terms of its political and cultural contexts, to become familiar with art forms such as prints and photography and be able to place them into the context of more dominant forms such as mural and easel painting. Gain an understanding of the iconography of the Mexican mural movement,the Mexican Revolution and other historical imagery of the twentieth century, by studying the Mexican Mural Movement and major artists associated with it. Gain an understanding of the psychological symbolism and complex, culturally coded subject matter of Surrealist-inspired painters like Frida Kahlo who focused on the personal and the private aspects of human experience. Students will have the opportunity to make a creative work of art in response to the art studied during the quarter. General method of instruction Classes will be a combination of lecture, discussion and collaborative group work. Survey of art history recommended. Strong interest in Mexican history, art and culture essential. Knowledge of Spanish helpful. Class assignments and grading There will be short writing assignments, a research-based art project and quizzes. The required readings will be Art in Latin America by Dawn Ades and ereserve articles. Grading will be based on writing assignments, quizzes, and class participation.

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Our eighth graders research and present speeches about heros. People who have contributed signifiantly or overcome great obstacles. I always want to encourage the use of artists as heros and heroines. The English teachers seem to be unaward of artists. duh? So I want to provide them with a list and rationale. e.i. Frank Lloyd Wright---earthquake proof buildings, etc. Frida Kahlo---overcoming personal health issues Miriam Shapiro---forwarding the cause of women artists and their tradional work. So can you all please send me some other ideas???? Thanks in advance. Hope you all have a great long weekend and enjoy your blessings. This list is one of mine! Upton Middle School St. Joseph, Michigan

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The State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) is one of the most important children’s initiatives of the last half-century. SCHIP was created by Congress in 1997 as a bipartisan effort to provide insurance coverage for children in families with too much income to qualify for Medicaid but not enough to afford to buy a policy in the private insurance market. Over the last decade SCHIP has given millions of children nationwide the chance to start out healthy in life. SCHIP is a state-based program that is jointly financed by the federal and state governments. Unlike Medicaid, SCHIP is a block grant program with funding that has caps both nationally and state by state. To encourage states to participate, the federal government assumes a larger share of SCHIP financing by paying higher matching payments relative to Medicaid. Distribution of SCHIP funds across states is based on each state’s share of low-income children. The statute creating SCHIP gives states considerable flexibility in designing their child health programs, a factor that helped make it attractive to state policymakers. There is strong evidence that health insurance for children improves their access to care. At the time of the SCHIP’s inception, nearly a quarter of all low-income children were uninsured. Since that time, the program has extended coverage to millions. Research has shown that uninsured children are more likely to experience avoidable hospital stays. Children without a primary care physician that SCHIP provides are nine times more likely to be hospitalized for a preventable problem. A recent analysis by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation found that SCHIP has reduced the number of uninsured children in America by 24%.. There is overwhelming consensus by American health care leaders that SCHIP has been one of America’s rare recent success stories on the health care front, countering the general trend of steady increase in the ranks of America’s uninsured. Even so, 9 million American children remain uninsured today. The SCHIP reauthorization bill passed by Congress last year would have reduced the number of uninsured kids to 6 million, but it was vetoed by President George Bush.

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Pakistan - Politics Military Coup: Pervez Musharraf On 14 October 1999, General Pervez Musharraf, Army Chief of Staff, declared a state of emergency and issued the Provisional Constitutional Order (PCO), which suspended the federal and provincial Parliaments, held the Constitution in abeyance, and designated Musharraf as Chief Executive. Following the 12 October 1999 ouster of the government of Prime Minister Sharif, the military-led government stated its intention to restructure the political and electoral systems. Musharraf officially became head of the Pakistani state on 20 June 2001. Musharraf's takeover was unconstitutional, but there was silent approval by the majority of Pakistanis at the time. The Pakistani people believed the Army would bring sweeping changes to Pakistan by restoring the country's international image, eliminating widespread corruption, stabilizing the security situation, and providing jobs and hope to the general population. After 3 years of General Musharraf's rule, public enchantment with the Army had waned. The 1999 coup was not the first attempt by the military to intervene in the chaotic political situation during the 1980s and 1990s. Musharraf's first blatant attempt to hang onto power was on 30 April 2002, when he held a referendum to confirm himself as president for the next 5 years. The government claimed a 60 percent turnout in which 97 percent of voters approved of Musharraf remaining as president. The press, international monitoring groups, human rights organizations, and all domestic political parties accused the government of electoral fraud. Independent observers put the turnout at between 10 and 20 percent. Seeking to ease international concern about the nature of his regime and rise to power, Musharraf sought to put Nawaz Sharif, and six others, on trial for attempted murder and hijacking in relation to the October coup. The charges were centered around the allegation that Sharif had ordered landing rights denied to a plane carrying Musharraf and 200 other people, said to have been dangerously low on fuel. Military forces eventually took control of the Karachi airport and allowed the plane to land, an event followed just hours later by the completion of the coup. The charges also alleged that Sharif had attempt to collect men and arms in preparation for a counter coup and had sought to kill Musharraf. Sharif was convicted in April 2000 and sentenced to life in prison. By May he was put on trial again by the Musharraf government on charges of corruption. In July he was convicted on charges of tax evasion. Sharif's legal defense team boycotted these trails on numerous occasions in protest of the fairness of the proceedings. In December 2000, Sharif went into self-imposed exile in Saudi Arabia. General Musharraf banned Sunni militants Lashkar-e-Jhangvi and its Shiite counterpart Sipah-e-Mohammad in August 2001. After the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were attacked on September 11, 2001, Musharraf pledged complete cooperation with the United States in the war on terror, which included locating and shutting down terrorist training camps within Pakistan's borders, cracking down on extremist groups and withdrawing support for the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. In January 2002, he banned four more groups, Jaish-e-Mohammad, Tehrik-e-Jafaria Pakistan, Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan and Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi. The latter was banned for "misleading thousands of simple poor people into Afghanistan and being responsible for their massacre." The banned groups were reorganized under new names. The Jamaiat-ud-Dawa (JuD) was the rechristened version of Lashkar-e-Taiba. The banned Tehrik-e Jafaria Pakistan had renamed itself Tehrik-e-Islami, Masood Azhar's Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM) had resumed working as Khudam-ul-Islam and Al Furqan. The Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan, led by the slain Azam Tariq, was reincarnated as Millat-e-Islamia Pakistan. The Markaz-ad-Dawa-wal-Irsahd subsequently operated as the Jamaat-ad-Dawa. New general parliamentary and provincial elections were held on 10 October 2002. A total of 72 parties were registered to contest, but strict rules had been decided upon in advance which barred the former democratically elected Prime Ministers to take part, whereas their parties were allowed to participate. Final results to the National Assembly elections: - Pakistan Muslim League (Quaid-e-Azam), PML (Q) - 117 (led by Mian Mohd. Azhar) - Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians, PPPP - 81 (led by Benazir Bhutto) - Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal, MMA - 60 - Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz), PML (N) - 19 (led by Nawaz Sharif) - Muttahida Qaumi Movement, MQM - 17 (led by Altaf Hussain) - National Alliance, NA - 16 (led by Imtiaz Sheikh) - Pakistan Muslim League (Functional) - 5 - Pakistan Muslim League (Junejo) - 3 - Pakistan Peoples Party (Sherpao) - 2 - Pakistan Tehrik-e-Insaaf - 1 - Pakistan Awami Tehrik - 1 - Pakistan Muslim League (Zia) - 1 - Balochistan National Party - 1 - Jamhoori Watan Party - 1 - MQM(H) - 1 - PSPP - 1 - Independent candidates - 15 The PML-Q, also called the "king's party" due to its perceived pro-military bent, won 118 of the total 342 seats, mostly from Punjab. The affiliated National Alliance won 16 seats. This gave the pro-Musharraf parties a plurality in the National Assembly, but not a majority. As expected, the PPP did well in Sindh, but was unable to form a working coalition in that province's legislature. The PML-N suffered huge losses, winning only 19 national seats, all of them in Punjab. The Muttahida Quami Movement (MQM) did well in Sindh's provincial elections. The MQM collected only a small percentage of the national vote (winning 17 national seats), and aligned itself with the PML-Q. Small parties and independents account for the remaining 31 seats. The previously influential Awami National Party was shut out at the national level. The the pro-military Pakistan Muslim League (PML) and the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) had been the prominent national political parties, while the Muttahid Majlis-e-Amal (MMA), an umbrella group of six religious parties, including the Jamaat-I-Islami, Pakistan's oldest religious party, gained significant influence during the 2002 election. Other parties with a strong regional, ethnic, or religious base include the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM). After the elections held in late 2002, the Pakistani political system remained highly fragmented, with no group winning a substantial majority of seats in the legislature, and religious groups banding together in the MMA to earn a very significant portion of seats for the first time. In November 2002 Pakistan's National Assembly elected Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali as the country's first civilian prime minister since the 1999 military coup. The 58-year-old Pakistani leader was from the southwestern province of Balochistan. He won 172 votes out of 328, defeating candidates from an Islamic alliance and the party of exiled former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. For almost five weeks after the general election, Mr. Jamali's party held several rounds of talks with the alliance of Islamic parties, the Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal, to form a coalition. The negotiations broke down over differences over President Musharraf's constitutional amendments, which allow him to stay in office for five more years. The amendments also gave the president power to dismiss the elected government. Prime Minister Jamali's party accepted these changes, saying they were needed to ensure a stable democratic system in Pakistan. The multi-party Alliance for Restoration of Democracy (ARD), which was made up of liberal politicians of the PPP and the PML (N), included the political party of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto PPP, which emerged as the second largest party in Parliament. |Join the GlobalSecurity.org mailing list|

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Bullying is a social process, not a personal one, said Twemlow, a professor of psychiatry at Baylor College of Medicine and co-author with Frank Sacco, Ph.D., of Preventing Bullying and School Violence (American Psychiatric Publishing). “Shaping the child's behavior with social-skills training won’t effect change in the system until group dynamics, often unconscious, are discussed and resolved,” he said. “All schools need to take steps to mold a set of ideas or an approach to prevent bullying, adapt it to their cultural context, and get very high buy-in from staff and parents. Then a school can truly become a creative social, emotional, and intellectual learning environment.” For purchasing and additional information see Preventing Bullying and School Violence. Stuart Twemlow’s comments on bullying are published in Psychiatric News.

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Mr. Phillips' ScienceHome Page About fifteen years ago, I gave a quiz on the periodic table and was upset to find that most students had failed. Some students could only remember one or two of the elements. I decided that I needed to present and reinforce the elements in a more meaningful way. While commuting to school, I came up with "The Element Song." Students loved the song, and we also made a quilt of the periodic table. I was amazed when I quizzed them, and most every student received an A! It was then that I began developing songs for each of the units that I teach. Students who could not remember facts were now reciting important concepts and "singing science". Students repeatedly have returned to visit me and proudly recite the first thirty elements. I have been encouraged by my family and colleagues to produce a CD. 3. The Element Song 4. Water Wonderland 5. The Fossil Song 6. The Volcano Song 7. Oh, Density! 9. The Optics Song 13. The Element Song 14. Water Wonderland 15. The Fossil Song 16. The Volcano Song 17. Oh, Density! 19. The Optics Song How I use these songs: DNA: I have students make a "cut and paste" model of DNA. I introduce the DNA song. We then begin a genetic mating simulation, which drive home the concepts in the song. The Element Song: We sing this song each day for about a week. Students may take an oral quiz on the song any time during the next week. If they havent sung the words to me by the end of the next week, they will take a written quiz. Amoebas: Use the hand signs (see the word sheet) to reinforce the song. The other songs: I sometimes introduce the unit with these songs, and will give extra credit for memorizing the words. Well sing at random spontaneous times during the unit. How you can use them: Whether youre a parent or a teacher, encourage and "be amazed" when your child spouts out these songs. An insert with all the words is included. Ive also included a "karaoke version" for each song, so that your child can practice singing without the words. Use the karaoke to lead a class song yourself, or amaze your child by teaching them with the words. But most of all have fun with "Sing-A-Long Science"! Only $15 ! plus $2 postage e-mail me at [email protected] for more information! I could not have done this without my familys great support and encouragement. "Thanks" is not enough for my wife, Karen, without whom I would be lost. Thanks to my daughter Kristin for her unending enthusiasm and positive attitude. My son Jeff has assisted me with the technology and has been very helpful. Thanks to my parents for all those years of keyboard lessons and listening to me practice, and to my mother-in-law Mildred for her constant help. Id also like to thank Sharon Jeffery, Russ Blake, and Beth Cook for convincing me that this was a worthwhile project. Cindi DiCicco deserves great appreciation for writing and allowing me to record "Water Wonderland". Finally, thanks to my students for proving that learning can be fun! All music and vocals performed by Warren Phillips Recorded at the studios of Ed Dillon and Mark Fitzpatrick

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by David Robbins The year is 1941 and the world is in a tumultuous state. World War II is raging and the United States is still attempting to remain neutral. David Robbins’ photograph illustrates the general feeling of American citizens who were not willing to commit to a war while still struggling to overcome the effects of the Great Depression. However, on December 7th, Pearl Harbor is bombed in a surprised attack by the Japanese. The Japanese Admiral Yamamoto afterwards said, “I fear all we have done is to awaken a sleeping giant” and his words proved true, for the U.S. joined the Allied cause and in 1945 both the German Nazi regime and the Japanese admitted defeat. (p. 84 This Was the Photo League)

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It used to be trichinosis was the big fear when eating pork, but the risk of getting that disease has been largely eliminated. However, Consumer Reports' new lab tests on pork found there are new reasons to take precautions. Consumer Reports tested almost 200 samples of pork chops and ground pork and found more than two-thirds were contaminated with the bacteria yersinia enterocolitica, which can cause fever and abdominal pain. "Even more troubling is the vast majority of the yersinia bacteria that Consumer Reports found were resistant to one or more commonly used antibiotics," said Jamie Kopf of Consumer Reports. The tests also found that a few pork samples were contaminated with other bacteria that can be harmful, including salmonella and staphylococcus and listeria. And again, some of the bacteria were resistant to certain antibiotics. "Antibiotic resistance is worrisome because it can lead to infections in humans that are more difficult to treat," Kopf said. Healthy pigs are commonly given low doses of antibiotics to prevent infections and promote growth, which can accelerate the development of drug-resistant bacteria. A second test of 240 pork samples found that about 20 percent had traces of the drug ractopamine, which is used in pigs to promote growth and make meat lean. A major pork producer, Smithfield, says ractopamine is "a safe and effective Food and Drug Administration-approved feed supplement that has been widely used in the hog farming industry for many years." The levels Consumer Reports found were well below the limits set by the FDA. But Consumers Union, the advocacy arm of Consumer Reports, called for ractopamine to be banned claiming there isn't enough evidence that's safe for humans. Consumer Reports recommends buying pork raised without antibiotics and ractopamine. It's also important to cook pork thoroughly to kill any possible bacteria. Whole pork, such as chops and tenderloin, should be cooked to 145 degrees farenheit. Ground pork needs to reach 160 degrees farenheit. As for finding pork that has not been given antibiotics or ractopamine, Consumer Reports advised looking for meat labeled "certified organic." Another option is to buy from Whole Foods, which requires producers not to use antibiotics or ractopamine. For a list of recent stories Marilyn Moritz has done, click here.

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(PhysOrg.com) -- The National Academies in the United States, made up of the four organizations: the National Academies of Science and Engineering, the Institute of Medicine and the National Research Council, has issued an interim report in the National Academies Press, advocating that additional research be put into studying alternative technologies for imploding fuel used in fusion reactions. Currently, the bulk of federal spending on fusion research goes towards finding out how it can be used in military applications. To that end, the government has invested billions of dollars in the National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California. There researchers say they are on the brink of achieving “ignition” the point at which they get as much power out of the system as they put in. The NIF achieves fusion by imploding hydrogen isotope pellets by shooting them with the world’s largest laser. The problem the Academies says, is that no one knows for sure if it will work and if it does, how well. Also, no one really knows if there might be a better way to go about imploding fuel for use in such reactions. Thus, it makes little sense to pursue just one way to get the job done. Standing in the way of research into other ways to implode the fuel necessary for a fusion reaction is the huge amount of money such research takes. Making matters worse is next year’s US federal budget calling for less spending overall into such research. Others, such as Geoff Olynyk, agree. He argues in a gust column on MIT’s The Tech that the United States can’t afford to not invest in alternative technologies because other countries are already hard at work doing so. He points out that China has made fusion research a national priority and that the European Union is spending billions to do so as well. Not doing the research required to build a true fusion program in this country, he maintains, will lead to the United States falling behind in a technology that could prove to be one of the most vital in the near future as energy demands worldwide continue to increase. Thus, at this juncture, the real issue is whether the United States will continue to see nuclear fusion as a means for creating weapons of unparalleled destruction, or as a means for solving the looming energy crises stemming from both high demand for oil and the cost to the environment of the continued use of coal and other highly polluting nonrenewable resources. Explore further: The better to see you with: Scientists build record-setting metamaterial flat lens

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EXECUTION (Civil), laws concerning methods of recovering a debt. Definition and Substance of the Concept In Jewish law, a debt or obligation (ḥiyyuv) creates in favor of the creditor not only a personal right of action against the debtor, but also a right in rem in the form of a lien over the latter's property (termed aḥarayut nekhasim; see *Lien; Law of *Obligation). Hence, many of the laws concerning the methods of satisfying a debt out of the debtor's property also apply to the recovery of a debt with the consent of the debtor, and not merely to recovery of a debt by court action; e.g., such matters as the distinction between the different categories of assets out of which the debt must be satisfied, the distinction between free and "encumbered and alienated assets" (nekhasim benei ḥorin and meshu'badim, respectively), or the matter of preferential rights as between several creditors, etc. Recovery of debt will here be dealt with from two main aspects: (1) methods of recovery involving the exercise of constraint against the person or liberty of the debtor; and (2) methods of recovery from the debtor's assets. Execution in Jewish Law and in Other Legal Systems – Fundamental Principles There are detailed instructions under biblical law governing the relationship between the lender (creditor) and borrower (debtor; Ex. 22:24–26; Deut. 24:6; 10–13), the essence of which is to enjoin the creditor not to prejudice the debtor's basic necessities of life or his personal honor and freedom. This is in contrast to the right given the creditor in the laws of Hammurapi to enslave the debtor as well as the debtor's wife, children, and slaves (secs. 114–6, 151–2, also 117–9) and in further contrast with similar provisions in the laws of Assyria, Ashnunna, Sumer, etc. (see Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat 3–8). In biblical law the institution of slavery is limited to two cases only: (1) the thief who does not have the means to make restitution and is "sold for his theft" (Ex. 22:2); and (2) the person who voluntarily "sells himself" because of his extreme poverty (Lev. 25:39). Scriptural references indicate, however, that in practice bondage for debt was customary at times (II Kings 4:1; Isa. 50:1 and see I Sam. 22:2) – presumably under the influence of the surrounding legal systems; but the practice was strongly criticized by the prophets (Amos 2:6; 8:4–6; Micah 2:1–2) and after Nehemiah's sharp condemnation of the "nobles and rulers" for indulging in this practice (Neh. 5:1–13) bondage for debt was abolished in practice as well as in theory. The Bible makes no mention of imprisonment for debt and, indeed, Jewish law has given only the most limited recognition to *imprisonment, even in the field of criminal law. Accordingly, methods of execution in Jewish law were in direct contradistinction to execution procedures under the Roman Twelve Tables. By the legis actio per manus iniectionem, the creditor was entitled – on the expiration of the 30 days' grace given the debtor to repay his debt and a further 60 days within which someone could redeem him from imprisonment and pay the debt on his behalf – to put the debtor to death or to sell him "trans tiberim"; if there were several creditors, each was entitled to a share of the debtor's corpse. The underlying motive of execution in Roman law was not only to satisfy the creditor's legitimate and material claim, but also to extract vengeance and to punish the debtor for not fulfilling his obligation (see H.F. Jolowicz, Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law (19522), 192; Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat 11f.). In the course of time the harshness of these provisions were modified and the creditor's right to sell or to put the debtor to death was abolished by the Lex Poetelia in 313 (326?) B.C.E., but it still remained possible to imprison the debtor until he repaid the debt or made adequate compensation for it by his own labor (Elon, ibid.). The basic attitude toward the creditor-debtor relationship as laid down in biblical law, with the later further requirement that the debtor make repayment by the due date, has, throughout the ages, remained at the root of the rules of execution in Jewish law (see Yad, Malveh, chs. 1 and 2; Tur and Sh. Ar., ḤM 97–98), although certain changes and modifications were, at various times, introduced in keeping with the social and ethical realities prevailing in the different centers of Jewish life (see below). Distinguishing between a Pauper and a Man of Means The biblical passages mentioned above already delineated the basic concept of protecting the poor against the obduracy of their creditors. Talmudic scholars emphasized the distinction in unequivocal terms: "To the poor of your people you shall not be as a creditor, but to the rich" (Mekh., ed. Horowitz-Rabin, Mishpatim; 19, p. 316), and "You shall not be as a creditor to him – do not harass and demand from him when you know he has no means" (Mekh. SbY to 22:24; BM 75b and Codes). In post-talmudic times the distinction acquired a particular significance, especially in relation to imprisonment for debt. Entry into the Debtor's Home Entering the home of the debtor, in order to remove his assets in satisfaction of a debt, was prohibited in the Torah (Deut. 24:10–11). According to one opinion, entry for this purpose was forbidden to both the creditor and the debtor – so that the The prohibition against entering the debtor's home hindered the effective recovery of a debt if the debtor pleaded that he had no assets and if no assets were found outside his home, since it was impossible to search his home so as to ascertain the truth of his plea. The post-talmudic scholars sought to overcome this difficulty in various ways. For example, Alfasi decided that entry is permissible if the debtor is "given to violent and evil ways and is arrogant" (i.e., in refusing to pay – quoted in Sefer ha-Terumot, 1:3), but Maimonides did not accept this view and regarded any permission to enter the debtor's home as against biblical law (Yad, Malveh, 2:2), and other scholars also rejected any permit of this nature (Sefer ha-Terumot, 1:3; Resp. Rashba, vol. 1, no. 909; vol. 2, no. 225). Some scholars sought to overcome the problem by giving a restricted interpretation to the biblical prohibition. Thus, for example, Meir ha-Levi *Abulafia argued that the officer of the court is only prohibited from entering the debtor's home when the debt can be recovered from other assets outside his home; if no such other assets are found and the creditor contends – even doubtfully – that the debtor has assets inside his home, the court officer may enter the latter's home and seek assets on which to levy execution (quoted in Tur, ḤM 97:26). Jacob b. Meir Tam and Asher b. Jehiel offered a solution based on the following reasoning: the biblical prohibition refers only to the case of the creditor attempting to take a pledge from the debtor's property as security for repayment of the loan at some time after the debt was created; but not to the case of the creditor seeking entry in order to collect payment of the debt, after the lapse of the due date (see also *Pledge). It follows therefore that entry into the debtor's home in the latter circumstances had never in fact been prohibited and was permissible (Sefer ha-Yashar, Nov. no. 602); Piskei ha-Rosh, BM 9:46–47), and this distinction was accepted by the majority of the posekim (Sh. Ar., ḤM 97:6,15 and standard commentaries); but such entry was nevertheless still restricted to the court officer (Tur, ḤM 97:26; Sh. Ar., ḤM 97:6,15; Keẓot ha-Ḥoshen, ḤM 97, n. 2; Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat (60, n. 35)). When it is clear that the debtor is impoverished and has no property, entry into his home is prohibited since "this can only cause him shame and suffering" (Sma, ḤM 99–13). The possibility of compelling satisfaction of a debt by means of the debtor's own labor was recognized in various legal systems during the Middle Ages. This form of compulsion represented a temporizing with the institution of enslavement for debt – all the recognized characteristics of this sometimes being manifest, while at other times and places the debtor was merely required to cover the principal and interest of the debt with his own labor (see Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat 68ff.). There was in Jewish law no trace of this kind of compulsion until the 11th century (except for the contents of one of the aggadot concerning the destruction of the Temple: Git. 58a). From this time onward, however, the question was discussed in the light of the surrounding legal realities and the need for more efficient methods of debt collection. On the one hand, the halakhic scholars regarded compulsory labor as prejudicial to the debtor's personal liberty – particularly in view of the general attitude of Jewish law toward any kind of labor – hire as a restraint on personal freedom, for which reason it has afforded the laborer special privileges, such as the right of retracing, etc. (BM 10a, 77a; see also *Labor Law). On the other hand, compulsory labor involved no actual deprivation of the debtor's liberty – such as resulted from a sale into slavery – if its object was merely to give the creditor due satisfaction for his debt. Alfasi, and other scholars following him, decided that the debtor should labor – hire himself in order to repay his debt (quoted in Resp. Maharam of Rothenburg, ed. Cremona, no. 146). Some scholars distinguished between different kinds of obligations, and thus, for example, it was decided that in the case of a debt arising from the debtor's obligation to maintain his wife, he could be compelled to work in order to maintain her, since he expressly undertook to do so in the ketubbah – a factor not present in any other obligation and thus precluding compulsory labor (Elijah of Paris, Tos., Ket. 63a). Other scholars were of the opinion that compulsory labor was precluded in all cases, including even that of a wife's maintenance (Jacob *Tam quoted in Haggahot Maimoniyyot; Yad, Ishut, 12: s.s. 8), and this view was accepted by the majority of the posekim (Rosh, Resp. no. 78:2; Tur, EH, 70; Tur, ḤM 97:28–30; 99:18–19; Sh. Ar., EH 70:3; 154:3; HM 97:15), although some of the latter did recognize the exception in respect of a wife's maintenance (Rema, EH 70:3; Ḥelkat Meḥokek, Beit Shemu'el Imprisonment for Debt In talmudic times and for a long time afterward, Jewish law completely excluded the possibility of imprisonment for debt. In the course of time, however, and because of the surrounding legal realities as well as internal social and economic changes, the question of imprisonment for debt came to the surface in Jewish law, and a number of basic halakhic rules were laid down on this subject. For greater detail see *Imprisonment for Debt. Execution procedure in Jewish law is based upon talmudic and post-talmudic sources and may be briefly summarized as follows: when it is sought to execute a judgment of the court ("if the borrower fails to give of his own accord, payment is levied through the court": Yad, Malveh 18:1), the court will grant a stay of execution – if so requested by the debtor in order to give him the chance of raising money to repay the debt – for a period of 30 days; during this period the debtor is not obliged to provide any pledge or surety, unless the court sees grounds for suspecting that he will place his assets beyond reach or in some other manner evade payment of the debt (Sh. Ar., ḤM 100:1; Resp. Maharik, sec. 14); the period of the stay may be increased or reduced by the court, depending on the circumstances (Tur ḤM 100:1; Rema ḤM 100:1), but no stay will be granted in respect of certain debts arising from tort (Yad, Ḥovel u-Mazzik, 2:20; see also Sh. Ar., ḤM 420:27; for further details concerning the stay, see Arukh ha-Shulḥan, ḤM 100:2). No stay of execution will be granted when an appeal is lodged against the judgment, unless so warranted by special circumstances (Rema ḤM 14:4; Bah ḤM 14:4; see also Takkanot ha-Diyyun be-Vattei ha-Din ha-Rabbaniyyim be-Yisrael, 5720 – 1959/60, Rule 132, and *Taxation). The creditor may also demand that the court impose a general ban on anyone who has money or chattels and refuses, without reasonable cause, to repay a debt (Yad, Malveh, 22:1; Sh. Ar., ḤM 100:1). Upon the debtor's failure to repay within the period of the stay, the court will issue a writ of adrakhta (see below, Yad, ibid.; ḤM 100:3), which is followed by various other procedural steps until the actual sale of the debtor's property or the creditor's "going down" to the property (horadat ba'al ḥov la-nekhasim), in satisfaction of the debt. If a stay of execution is not sought by the debtor and he declares that he will not pay the debt, the writ of adrakhta is issued forthwith (BK 112b; Yad and Sh. Ar., ibid.). If the debtor is found to have no property he is "warned" by the court three times – on a consecutive Monday, Thursday, and Monday – and then the lesser ban (*niddui) is pronounced against him until he pays the debt or pleads that he has no means of doing so and delivers a solemn oath accordingly (the oath of ein li; see below). If he suffers the ban for 30 days without seeking its retraction, it will be extended for a further 30 days and thereafter the full ban (*ḥerem, "excommunication") is pronounced against him (ḤM, ibid.). Adrakhta and Tirpa The word adrakhta means "to pursue and overtake" (cf. Judg. 20:43; Ket. 60b), hence it is the term used for a document empowering a creditor to "pursue" his debtor's property and levy payment thereon, wherever found (Rashi to BM 16b and 35b). Other scholars gave the term the meaning of the word dorekh ("treading upon"), i.e., by virtue of the writ of adrakhta, the creditor becomes master over and "treads upon" the debtor's property for the purpose of recovering the debt therefrom (Rashbam to BB 169a and see Yad Ramah, ibid.). The writ is issued for the recovery payment out of both the free prospect, and the "encumbered and alienated" property (nekhasim benei ḥorin and meshu'badim; see *lien). The adrakhta in respect of free property is written as follows: "X was adjudged to be indebted to Y in such and such an amount and, he not having paid voluntarily, we have written out this adrakhta on such and such a field of his." Thereupon the bond of indebtedness is torn up, and according to one opinion, this fact must be stated in the writ of adrakhta to prevent any possibility of the creditor recovering a second time on the same bond (Yad, Malveh, 22:13; Sh. Ar., ḤM 98:9–10; Meiri, in: Shitah Mekubbezet BK111b). If the debtor has no free property, the adrakhta on the "encumbered and alienated" property is written thus: "X was adjudged to be indebted to Y in such and such an amount by virtue of a bond in the latter's hands; since he has not paid the debt and whereas we have not found any free property of his and have already torn up Y's bond, we therefore give Y the power to investigate and seek out and lay hands on all the property of X that he can find, including all the lands sold by X from such and such a time on, and Y is hereby authorized to recover the debt and levy payment on all such property" (Yad, Malveh, 22:6; Sh. Ar., ḤM 98:9; for the adrakhta version as to orphans' property, see Yad, Malveh, 12:9; ḤM 109:2). If the creditor finds any encumbered property which he is entitled to seize for the purpose of recovering payment, he will do so and thereupon the adrakhta is torn up (for the same reasons as the bond is torn up) and a writ of tirpa ("tearing apart," seizure) is issued (in which the tearing up of the adrakhta is recited: for the text see Yad, Malveh, 22:8; Sh. Ar., HM 98:9; for a different order of procedure concerning the adrakhta and tirpa, see commentaries to BK and BB, ibid.). A creditor executing a tirpa against encumbered property is required to take a solemn oath that he has not yet recovered payment of the debt, nor granted a release from or sold his claim (Shevu. 45a; Yad, Malveh, 22:10; ḤM 114:4). Appraisement and Related Procedures After the creditor finds free property of the debtor and also in the case of recovering payment from encumbered property, following upon a writ of tirpa, an appraisement (shuma) of the After the appraisement has been approved by the court, there is a public announcement or advertisement (hakhrazah) in which the judges announce: "whoever wishes to buy may come and do so," in order to find the highest bidder. In origin, the law of hakhrazah applied in respect of consecrated property and the property of *orphans (Ar. 2lb and Codes), but was extended also to property sold in execution (Ket. 100b; Tos. to Ar. 2lb and Codes). The scholars disputed the question whether the sale of orphans' property should be so advertised for 30 or 60 days and the halakhah was decided that the period should be 30 days where the announcement is made daily and 60 days where it is made on Mondays and Thursdays only (Ar. 2lb and Codes.). According to some of the posekim, an announcement for 30 days is made even in matters not concerned with orphans' property (Rema ḤM 103:1), but another opinion is that in the case of recovering payment out of free property, an announcement is made "as may be deemed necessary, until there are no higher bids" (ibid.). The announcement is made in the morning and evening, when the "workmen set out and return home," and is only made for the sale of land, not for the sale of chattels, nor, if the sale is for urgent purposes, such as maintenance, funeral expenses, or polltax (Ket. 100b and Codes). The property is sold to the person paying the highest price beyond the appraised value or – if there be no one to raise the price – to the person paying the appraised value. The purchaser is given a shetar hakhrazah or iggeret bikkoret ("letter of examination," Ket. 99b and see Rashi ad loc.; cf. also Tosefot Yom Tov, Ket. 11:5; for the text see Sefer ha-Terumot, 3:2; Beit Yosef ḤM 103:17; cf. also other interpretations in A rukh ha-Shalem, S.V. iggeret bikkoret). The creditor is given a preferential right of acquiring the property for himself if no one offers more than the appraised value or if he equals any other offers (Sh. Ar., ḤM 103:1). In this event the creditor is given a shetar horadah (i.e., he "goes down" to the property, it is "appraised" to him; for the text see Tur ḤM 103:17 where it is called a shetar shuma; cf. BM 16b, where it is called a shetar ahaletata Yad, Malveh, 22:10–11) where it is also called a shetar horadah but a different version of the text is given; see also the standard commentaries and Gulak, ibid.). One opinion is that once the adrakhta has reached the hands of the creditor, he may also enjoy the fruits of the property, but another opinion is that he may do so only after the appraisement and the announcement (BM 35b) – the halakhah was decided in accordance with the latter view (Malveh, 22:12). The execution proceedings are completed when the property is sold and the proceeds paid to the creditor or the property itself transferred to him. Restoration of Property Transferred to the Creditor In strict law the creditor to whom the debtor's land is transferred is not thereafter obliged to return the land if the debtor subsequently acquired the means to repay the debt in cash; but the scholars enacted, in a takkanah referred to in the Talmud as shuma hadar (BM 16b and Codes; cf. Gulak, Ha-Hiyyuv ve-Shi'budav, 125, on the use of the term shuma in this connection), that this should be done for the sake of "Do what is right and good in the sight of the Lord" (Deut. 6:18 and see *Takkanot). Chattels recovered by the creditor, however, are not returnable to the debtor (Rema ḤM 103:9). According to one view, land is returnable to the debtor if he repays the debt within 12 months but the halakhah was decided according to the view that land is always returnable to the debtor (i.e., upon repayment of the debt, BM 16b. and 35a, Codes). Land recovered by the creditor and then sold by him, or given in gift, or inherited upon his death, is however not returnable to the debtor (ibid.). According to some scholars, the land must always be returned to a debtor, even if given by him voluntarily in satisfaction of the debt and not as a result of execution proceedings; but other scholars hold that his voluntary surrender of the land is a bar to its ever being returned to him against payment of the debt (ibid.). Similarly, a stipulation between the creditor and debtor and effected by way of a formal kinyan (see *Acquisition, Modes of), to the effect that the former shall not be obliged to return the land to the latter, holds good even when the land is turned over to the creditor as a result of execution proceedings (Sh. Ar., ḤM 103:9). Categories of Assets for Recovery of Debt If the debtor owns cash (coins), chattels, and land, he must pay in cash and cannot refer the creditor to other property (Sh. Ar., ḤM 101:1); if the debtor wishes to pay in cash but the creditor wants land or chattels, some scholars give the creditor the right to choose, but the halakhah was decided according to the view that the choice is the debtor's (Tur and Sh. Ar., ḤM 101:3). If the debtor owns land only, the creditor may refuse to accept it and choose to wait until the debtor is able to pay him in cash (ḤM 101:4). If the debtor has chattels and land but no cash, the creditor recovers payment out of the chattels, but the debtor has the right to choose the chattels for this purpose (ḤM 101:2); the creditor cannot demand land if the debtor offers chattels in payment. If the debtor has no chattels or such chattels do not satisfy the debt, payment is extracted from his land (Malveh 22:4 and ḤM 101:10) and – when such land consists of fields of different quality – in this order: a debt arising from tort is satisfied In many places it was customarily stipulated in bond agreements that the debtor had to pay the debt in cash, without putting the creditor to the trouble of execution proceedings and for this purpose the debtor was obliged personally to deal with the sale of his property and to pay the creditor in cash (Resp. Rashba, quoted in Beit Yosef ḤM 101:5). "Arrangement" for the Benefit of Impoverished Debtors (siddur le-ba'al ḥov). The Pentateuch lays down various provisions concerning the taking of a pledge from a borrower and the duty to restore it in case the borrower is impoverished and requires the pledge for the elementary necessities of life. The scholars have interpreted these laws as applying to the taking of a pledge other than at the time of the loan and for purposes of securing the loan, but not when it is taken in satisfaction of the loan (see *Pledge). The scholars laid down that when the creditor seeks to levy on the debtor's property – i.e., after due date of payment and in satisfaction of the debt – certain property serving the debtor's elementary needs is to be entirely beyond the reach of the levy. This exclusion of a part of the debtor's property from the creditor's grasp is termed mesaredin le-va'al ḥov; i.e., an assessment is made of how much to leave the debtor for his vital necessities (Rashi, BM 113b), or an "arrangement" is made for his necessities, as laid down by the scholars (Rashi to Ned. 65b); the version of some scholars is mesaredin le-va'al ḥov, from the word שָׂרִיד = a remnant, i.e., leaving the debtor a shred or remnant (Rashi, 113b). The basic idea of an "arrangement" is found in a baraita which lays down that a creditor may demand that an expensive suit of clothing belonging to the debtor be sold in satisfaction of the debt, but the latter must be left with some other ordinary clothing. In the opinion of R. Ishmael and R. Akiva, "all Israelites are entitled to the same robe," and even an expensive suit must be left to the debtor (BM 113b). However, the detailed laws of "arrangement" laid down by Judah ha-Nasi in the Mishnah (Ar. 6:3), relate only to *arakhin obligations (to the Temple) and not ordinary debts and only in the baraita cited is mention made of "arrangement" in relation to all debts (BM 113b). According to some of the amoraim, no "arrangement" of this nature is ever made (BM 114a) and this view is followed by some of the posekim (Sefer ha-Yashar, Nov. no. 602), but the majority of the posekim confirm the institution (Yad, Malveh, 1:7; 2:1–2; Sh. Ar., ḤM 97:6ff, 23). There is also an opinion that "arrangement" is only made in the case of a debt originating from loan (and not, for example, from hire; ḤM 97:29; Arukh ha-Shulḥan 97:35). Within the framework of the arrangement the debtor is left with the following: food for a period of 30 days – according to the normal requirements of the average townsman, even though the debtor may have lived as a pauper; clothing for a period of 12 months ("he does not require to wear silken apparel or a head-covering of gold – these shall be taken from him and he shall be given what is due to him"; see above); a bed and other requirements for sleeping; essential home furniture, such as a table and chair (Arukh ha-Shulḥan 97:26); his shoes; an artisan is left with two of each kind of tool used by him (Yad, Malveh 1:7 and ḤM 97:23); according to R. Eliezer a farmer is left with a pair of working animals, and the owner of an ass or a boat is left with the ass or boat respectively, but the majority opinion of the scholars, according to which the halakhah was decided, is that these are regular assets and not artisans' utensils (Ar. 23b; and Codes). The debtor retains his *tefillin but not his books (ibid.), but some scholars say that if the debtor is a talmid ḥakham, his books are not taken from him (the opinion of Judah Barzillai, quoted in Sefer ha-Terumot 1:1,8). An interesting innovation is the decision of Moses *Sofer (at the beginning of 19th century) that a shopkeeper's stock of goods is not to be sold in execution, "since in these times the essence of their livelihood is to buy and sell on credit, it would amount to taking their lives in pledge (Deut. 24:6) if their stock is taken from their shops; therefore the practice is to take payment in installments at fixed times … so that the shopkeeper shall not fail completely" (Nov. Hatam Sofer ḤM 97). The laws of the "arrangement" are not concerned with the needs of the debtor's wife and children, even though they are the debtor's responsibility (Ar. 6:3f., and Codes). Hai Gaon held the view, however, that the debtor's needs for his household and children, for whose maintenance he is responsible, come within the arrangement – and this was the practice in Kairouan (see Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat 47, n. 43). The creditor does not, however – but for an entirely different reason – levy payment on the clothing of the debtor's wife and children, even if it was bought by the debtor with his own money. In the opinion of some of the posekim, this includes their Sabbath and festival garments, even if they are very expensive. The reason is that it is presumed that such garments are given by the debtor to his wife and children with the intention that the garments become their own property and the law precludes the creditor from levying payment on chattels that have passed out of the debtor's ownership (Yad, Malveh, 1:5; ḤM 97:25,26 and Isserles ad loc; and see *Lien). Some scholars hold, on the strength of this view, that a wife's jewelry given to her by her husband, the debtor, is also excluded from the creditor's levy (and see Sma, ḤM 97 n. 62). Garments or jewelry owned by the debtor's wife prior to their marriage or acquired thereafter Plurality of Creditors – Preferential Rights In the case of a written obligation (shetar or deed), the creditor in whose favor the obligation was first established takes preference in levying payment on the debtor's land, whether still in the latter's possession (i.e., the free property) or whether already acquired from the debtor by a third party (i.e., "encumbered and alienated" property; Ket. 94a; Yad, Malveh, 20:1; Sh. Ar., ḤM 104:1). This preferential right upon recovery of a debt is the result of an attitude of Jewish law which gives the creditor, upon the creation of the debt and over and above his personal right of recourse against the debtor, a lien on the latter's land. This lien, which is in the nature of a right, takes precedence over any similar right acquired by a subsequent creditor. If a later creditor forestalls an earlier one in levying on the debtor's land, some scholars hold that what he succeeds in recovering cannot be taken from him by an earlier creditor despite the right of a creditor by deed to seize a debtor's "encumbered and alienated" assets – since a later creditor still takes precedence over a regular purchaser, so that "the door shall not be bolted before a borrower" (Ket. 94a and Tos. to ibid.). Other scholars (ibid), followed by the majority of the posekim (Alfasi and Asheri to Ket. 94a; and Codes), hold that in these circumstances the levy of the later creditor is not valid and the earlier creditor may seize from the later one whatever the later may have recovered. However, if the later creditor forestalls the earlier one and levies on the beinonit land, but leaves the debtor with zibburit, the levy will be valid since the earlier creditor is still able to recover his debt from the zibburit (Sh. Ar., ḤM 104:1). So far as the debtor's chattels are concerned, the earlier creditor takes no precedence in recovering his debt from such chattels, since there is no lien over movable property. In the case of two creditors simultaneously claiming the debtor's chattels, some scholars hold that the earlier creditor takes precedence but the majority opinion of the posekim is that there is no preferential right and the debtor's assets are shared between the two creditors (see below; Ket. 94a; and Codes). Even in respect of land there is no preferential right unless the land was in the debtor's possession prior to establishment of the debt; and if the debtor, at the time the debt was established, charges in favor of two or more creditors any land which he may acquire in the future (see *Lien), the earlier creditor will have no preferential right in respect of such land, since when the debtor acquires the land it is automatically charged in favor of both creditors (BB 157b; and Codes). In the case of a mere oral obligation there is no preferential right between creditors, neither over land nor chattels, and two creditors seeking to levy payment at the same time must share the debtor's property (Rif. Resp. no. 197; see also Sma to Sh. Ar., ḤM 104 no. 3 and 31). According to some scholars, however, there is an order of preference in respect of land in the debtor's possession (ḤM 104:13 and Sma), even in the case of oral debt. The posekim dispute the method of dividing the debtor's property amongst his creditors when there is no preferential right. One opinion is that each creditor takes a share of the property in proportion to the size of his debt, since it would be inequitable to divide the property equally in proportion to the number of creditors (Rabennu Hananel, in Tur ḤM 104:11; Yad, Malveh 20:4 quoting the Geonim); whereas others hold that the debtor's property is shared equally amongst the creditors according to their number, provided that no creditor receives more than the due amount of his debt, since the small creditor is thereby afforded greater protection (Ket. 94a; Alfasi and Rashi ad loc.; and Codes). Preferential Rights and Insolvency A consequence of the law of preference as described above is that Jewish law does not recognize some of the laws of insolvency customary in other legal systems. Thus, it does not recognize a concurrence with regard to division of an insolvent estate, whereby all the debtor's assets – save for those specifically charged in favor of a particular creditor or creditors – are divided among his creditors on a concurrent basis in proportion to the size of each creditor's claim. Because of the lien over the debtor's land afforded in Jewish law to each of the creditors, the order of precedence in recovering a debt follows the order of the establishment of the various liens, in similar manner to the order of preference in other legal systems regarding specifically charged assets. Even in cases where there is no prescribed order of preference, for example, in respect of the debtor's chattels or land acquired by him after the establishment of the debt, the assets are distributed amongst the creditors in proportion to the number of creditors and not to the size of each claim. In post-talmudic times the law was supplemented, within the above-mentioned framework, by a number of rules very similar to the familiar insolvency laws. Some of these rules were aimed at protecting all the creditors. Thus, for example, it was laid down that in cases where the law afforded no preferential right, a proportional share of the debtor's estate had to be reserved for those creditors who had not yet claimed repayment and even for those creditors holding claims that were not yet due for payment. (Teshuvot Maimoniyyot, Mishp. no. 41; Rashba, Resp. vol. 1, no. 1111; Keẓot ha-Ḥoshen ḤM 104, s.s. 2). It also became customary to announce in public that anyone failing to lodge his claim against a particular insolvent within a specified period would lose his right (Rashba, Resp. vol. 1, no. 893). In different periods, when economic crises led to an increase in cases of insolvency, various takkanot were enacted to deal with the situation (see Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat 172ff.). These provided for the appointment of a trustee (ne'eman) over the property of an insolvent (a bore'aḥ or "fugitive" as he is called in the halakhic literature and takkanot of Poland, Germany, and Lithuania in the 17th and 18th centuries: see Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat Execution in the Absence of the Debtor The scholars of the Talmud express conflicting opinions on the question of levying payment on the debtor's property when he is absent and there is no reasonable prospect of reaching him. One opinion is that in these circumstances, payment is not levied, even if the creditor should take an oath that the debt has not yet been paid; another opinion is that a debt is not recovered in the debtor's absence except with regard to a debt on which interest is payable; third opinion is that payment is not levied unless the debtor had faced trial and thereafter taken flight; a further view is that payment is levied in the debtor's absence and the possibility that he may have paid the debt and received a release from his bond is disregarded, in order that "a person shall not take his neighbor's money and then go and sit abroad, which would cause the door to be bolted before borrowers" (Ket. 88a, TJ, Ket. 9:9,33b, 8). Some of the posekim follow the third of these opinions (Hai Gaon, quoted in Sefer ha-Terumot, 15:1; Rabbenu Hananel, quoted by Alfasi, Asheri, and in Tos. to Ket. 88a); the majority of the posekim, however, hold the opinion that payment is levied in the debtor's absence, on both his land and chattels, after the creditor has presented his bond of indebtedness and taken an oath that the debt had not yet been paid (Alfasi and Asheri, Ket. 88a; Yad, Malveh, 13:1; Sh. Ar., ḤM 106:1). In the event that the debtor goes abroad before the debt falls due for payment, some scholars hold that by virtue of the presumption that no person pays a debt before its due date, the creditor may levy payment without taking the oath of non-payment – even though the debt may meanwhile have fallen due – since the fact that the creditor holds the bond of indebtedness obviates the fear that the debtor may meanwhile have paid the debt through an agent. Other scholars hold that in these circumstances the creditor is required to take the prescribed oath just because of the fear that the debtor may have paid the debt through an agent (Sefer ah-Terumot, 15:1; Tur, ḤM 106:3). At no time is payment levied in the debtor's absence, unless the latter cannot be reached by an agent in a return journey lasting not more than 30 days (some scholars fix a longer and others a shorter period); if the debtor is somewhere where he can be reached in less than the stated period, the court will dispatch an agent to notify the debtor of the proposed levy on his assets. The expenses involved are paid by the creditor, but these may be recovered in turn from the debtor (Yad, Malveh, 13:1 and ḤM 106:1); expenses incurred by the creditor for his own benefit, such as those connected with the issue of a writ of adrakhta, etc. are not recoverable from the debtor (Sma n. 2 and Siftei Kohen ḤM 106). Execution in the debtor's absence is conditional upon the prior fulfillment of three requirements by the creditor: (1) probate of the bond of indebtedness held by him; (2) proof that the debtor is abroad and is not available to face trial; and (3) proof that the assets on which it is sought to levy payment belong to the debtor (Malveh 13:2; ḤM 106:2). In order to obviate the difficulties attending an execution in the debtor's absence, the creditor may request the court to restrain the debtor from leaving the country unless he provides a surety for the payment of the debt (Sh. Ar., ḤM 73:10; see also Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat 218, n. 409; PDR 2:65ff.). Impoverished Debtors and the Plea of Ein li "It is the law of the Torah that when the lender comes to recover payment of the debt, and it is found that the borrower has property, then an assessment ["arrangement"] for his vital needs is made and the remainder is given to his creditor …; if it is found that the debtor has no property, or that he only has objects which fall within the assessment – the debtor is allowed to go his way (and he is not imprisoned, neither is he asked to produce evidence that he is a pauper, nor is an oath taken from him in the manner that an idolator is adjudged, as it is written: 'you shall not be as a creditor unto him.'" (Yad, Malveh, 2:1). This was the law as it prevailed until geonic times. The advent of the geonic period was accompanied by material changes in the economic life of Babylonian Jewry. Commerce, extending to the North African and other countries, came increasingly to replace agriculture and the crafts as the mainstay of Jewish existence. Whereas formerly loans were taken primarily for the borrower's daily needs, they now came to be employed mainly for profit-making purposes, and the growing capital flow and development of external trade made it difficult to keep a check on the assets of a debtor, all of which encouraged the phenomenon of concealing assets. In the course of time this led to the adoption of far-reaching changes in the means of recovering a debt (see above; and also Imprisonment for *Debt.). These changes only partially asserted themselves in the geonic period, but two developments from this period may be mentioned, both aimed at a more effective process of debt recovery from a debtor pleading a lack of means. One development was to place the debtor under a strict ban for a predetermined period, as a means of compelling payment. Thus it was decided by Hai Gaon, the first to mention this practice, that because of the adoption of various subterfuges by people of means seeking to evade payment of their debts – including those falsely swearing to their lack of means – any debtor pleading a lack of means to pay a debt shall have the ban imposed on him for a period of 90 days, during which time he is "severed" from Israel – so as to induce the disclosure of his assets and payment of the debt. Upon the expiry of this period he is made to take an oath that he has no means (for the terms of the oath, see below). Only a debtor who is reputed to be a pauper and known as such by the people is exempt from the ban when pleading no means of paying his debt (see A. Harkavy, Zikkaron la-Rishonim, no. 182). The ban for 90 days is also mentioned in the Talmud (BK A second development in the geonic period toward more efficient debt collection was a takkanah providing for the administration of the oath of ein li ("I have no means") or shevu'at ha-ḥashad (oath taken when "suspected" of having means) to a debtor pleading a lack of means to repay his debt: "After the redaction of the Gemara, when the early geonim saw the swindlers increase in number and the door bolted before a borrower, they regulated that a solemn oath – having the stringency of biblical law – be taken from a borrower to the effect that he has nothing beyond the assessment that is made for him and that he has not concealed anything with others and has given no returnable gifts; the oath shall include that whatever he may earn or that may come into his hand or possession, in any manner whatever, shall not be used at all to feed or clothe either his wife or children or be given to anyone as a gift, save that he shall take from it sustenance for 30 days and raiment for 12 months – such as is due to him; neither the sustenance of gluttons nor of the nobility nor the raiment of high officials, but such as he has accustomed to – and the remainder he shall give to his creditors, in due order of preference, until the whole of his debt is collected" (Yad, Malveh, 2:2). Unlike the case of the ban imposed for 90 days, the pauper was also subjected to this oath, but was later exempted from it by Maimonides, on the grounds that the oath was designed "to deal with swindlers and not with those generally accepted to be paupers" (Yad, Malveh, 2:4). The administration of this oath, as qualified by Maimonides, was accepted by the posekim (Tur and Sh. Ar., ḤM 99:4). A similar oath can be traced in the legal systems of various European countries, commencing from the 12th century onward; thus for example, in the Offenbarungseid of German and Austrian law, the debtor is also committed to make over all his future earnings to his creditor (see Elon, Ḥerut ha-Perat 49, n. 52). The underlying purport of the Jewish laws of execution is to ensure the existence of an effective debt-collection procedure, so as not to "bolt the door before a borrower," while maintaining adequate safeguards against the violation of a debtor's personal freedom and dignity. The pursuit of this twofold objective has ensured that the laws of execution at all times recognize a material distinction between a genuinely impoverished debtor and a debtor of means seeking to evade fulfillment of his obligations towards the creditor, a distinction lucidly enunciated in the statements of Maimonides already cited. In the State of Israel The laws and proceedings for the execution of judgments in the State of Israel in general, particularly with respect to the imprisonment of debtors, were significantly changed by the Supreme Court's decision in the Perah case (HCJ 5304/92, Perah v. Minister of Justice, 47(4) PD 715). This decision, written by the deputy-president of the Court (Justice Menachem Elon), relied on the position adopted by Jewish law regarding imprisonment for the enforcement of debts. The Perah organization had petitioned the court to nullify one of the regulations that allowed for the excessively easy imprisonment of debtors, without the debtor even having to be brought before the head of the Execution of Judgments Office. The decision begins by noting that "the central issue of this complaint is the fundamental right of a person to freedom and dignity in the context of imprisonment for debt." In the ruling, Justice Elon presents a detailed description of the position of Jewish law and its development as attested by a broad range of sources dealing with the execution of judgments in general, and imprisonment for debt in particular, from the biblical era through the contemporary period. In focusing on the detailed process that lead to the Knesset enacting the Execution of Judgments Law, he noted that support for the proposed bill was based on principles of Jewish law that reject the view that collection measures also serve as a punishment of the debtor. Justice Elon also relied on the fact that the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty establishes the values of the State of Israel as a Jewish and democratic state. In wake of this decision, a number of amendments were made to the Execution of Judgments Law, allowing imprisonment for debt only in certain particular instances. (See also the detailed discussion of the decision in the entry *Imprisonment for Debt.) The Negola decision (LCA 7700/95, Negola v. Hazan, 50 (1) PD 338) was another Supreme Court decision in which the Court relied upon the "ancient social sources of Jewish law" regarding the rules of execution of judgments. In that case, in the framework of proceedings to enforce collection of a debt, attachment proceedings were instituted for the sale of the petitioners/debtor's residential apartment, and an alternative arrangement was established in accordance with the provisions of the Execution of Judgments Law. These provisions require that, prior to ordering the sale of a residential apartment, the head of the Execution of Judgments Office must be shown that "the debtor and his family members who live with him will have a reasonable place to live, or that there is an alternative arrangement for them." Justice Strassbourg-Cohen's decision discusses the nature of such an "alternative arrangement," and analyzes in detail the criteria and the considerations for striking a balance between the creditor's right to collect his debt, on the one hand, and the special personal circumstances of Extensive use of Jewish law was made in this regard in a decision of the Petah Tikvah Magistrate's Court regarding the imposition of liens on a debtor's assets. The Court relied on the writings of the Rosh (Piskei Ha-Rosh, BK 1.5) and of Rabbi Israel Isserlein (Terumat ha-Deshen, §305), from which it emerged that, prior to imposing a temporary lien on assets in order to prevent the debtor from hiding them, there must also be proof of the grounds of the action, and it must be shown that there is a likelihood that the defendant will attempt to hide these assets. The reason is that the purpose of imposing a lien on the assets is not to punish the defendant, but to prevent a situation which would encumber enforcement of the judgment (Maharshal, Yam Shel Shlomo, BK 1.20; Civil Application 4804/02, NMC v. Ben Chalouche, Registrar Zvi Weitzmann). The same Court also discussed the issue of what situation is considered to be one that encumbers the execution of judgment and concluded, on the basis of Jewish legal sources (Sh. Ar., HM, 73.10; Shakh on Shulhan Arukh, op. cit.; Maharshal, op. cit.), that, in order to obtain temporary relief, it is necessary to prove an active attempt on the part of the defendant to conceal his assets and to frustrate the execution of a judgment, and it is not sufficient to prove his inability to discharge the debt. (Civil Application 2264/04, Rosenthal v. Shinterko). Another decision handed down by the same court, also dealing with liens, reviewed the developments in Jewish law regarding the ability to enter a debtor's house to collect a debt, in accordance with the Perah decision, while taking care to maintain the debtor's dignity and not to harm him. In light of this review, the Court examined the proper balance between the defendant's rights and the plaintiff's rights, and the degree of harm that can legitimately be caused to the defendant in order to secure the plaintiff's rights (Civil Petition 2621/04, Shinterko v. Rosenthal, Judge Zvi Weitzmann). Regarding this matter, see also FF 24891/03, A.N. v. A.T.; Civil Application 743/02 G.A. v. G.A., regarding an injunction against leaving the country; Execution of Judgment File 17-09642-96-8 – re foreclosure on a secured asset. Concerning the use of Jewish law, see also Civil Petition 18702/02 Polaski v. Galaxy Electronics (Haifa District Court, Judge Yakovshvili), regarding an arrangement of the debtor's assets and a lien on sacred objects; and 3403/01 Ziva v. Yaako v, 5761(1) PDM, 756 (Jerusalem District Court, Judge Moshe Drori), regarding the execution of an act without a signature of the creditor.) [Menachem Elon (2nd ed.)] M. Bloch, Die Civilprocess-Ordnung nach mosaiich-rabbinischen Rechte (1882), 90–106; Gulak, Yesodei, 107–9; 4 (1922), 184–96; Gulak, Oẓar, 314–36; idem, Toledot ha-Mishpat be-Yisrael bi-Tekufat ha-Talmud, I (1939) (Ha-Hiyyuv ve-Shi'budav), 118–40; Herzog, Instit 1 (1936) 4f; 386; S.J. Zevin, in: Sinai, 3 (1938),55–71, 246; ET, 5 (1953), 92–132; 9 (1959), 143–55; B. Cohen, in: Louis Ginsberg Jubilee Volume (1945), 113–32, republished in his Jewish and Roman Law (1966), 159–78; addenda ibid. 772–75. ADD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Elon, Kevod ha-Adam ve-Ḥeruto be-Darkei ha-Hoẓa'ah la-Po'al (2000), idem, Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri (1988), I:105, 194, 486, 515, 535, 601, 633; 2:885, 1284f; 3:1319, 1370f; idem, Jewish Law (1994), 1:117, 218; 2:591, 627, 651f, 744, 784; 3:1079, 1533f., 1576, 1635; ibid., Jewish Law (Cases and Materials) (1999), 455–75; M. Elon and B. Lifshitz, Mafte'aḥha-She'elot ve-ha-Teshuvot shel Ḥakhmei Sefarad u-Ẓefon Afrikah (1986), (1), 89–103; B. Lifshitz and E. Shohetman, Mafte'aḥ ha-She'elot ve-ha-Teshuvot shel Ḥakhmei Ashkenaz, Ẓarefat ve-Italyah (1997), 61–67. Source: Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved.

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Water Cycle Research How will the hydrologic cycle change as the climate warms? Estimated global water cycle. Water storage is given by the non-italic numbers in cubic km, while fluxes of water are given in thousands of cubic km/hr by the italic numbers (From Trenberth et al. 2006) Water is essential to life on Earth, plays a key role in the development and functioning of society, and is a high priority resource for sustainable development. Yet, many aspects of the Earth’s water cycle, are not well understood or simulated by climate models. One focus of NCAR's water system research is to reduce this uncertainty through improved understanding and parameterization of the water cycle in climate models. A second component of the effort is to examine the impact of climate change with regard to its effects on changing water systems, and to determine potential effects on water management policy in order to assist decision-makers. A complete understanding of the water system requires an approach that extends beyond the atmosphere to include ground and surface water and the management of changing water resources. It is a highly collaborative research activity at NCAR, involving many disciplines.

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Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium Chemical equilibrium is a very delicate system that represents a perfect balance between forward and reverse reaction. Chapter 18. Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium 18.1 The Three Laws of Thermodynamics • Thermodynamics - the scientific discipline that deals with the interconversion of heat and other forms of energy • First Law of Thermodynamics - (Chapter 6) energy may be converted from one form to ... Chemical Equilibrium Lab. Many of the reactions you have studied in the lab appeared to use up all of at least one of the reactants, to have "gone to completion." GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM by Dr. Stephen Thompson Mr. Joe Staley Ms. Mary Peacock The contents of this module were developed under grant award # P116B-001338 from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), United States Department of Education. Worksheet 18 - Equilibrium Balance the following reaction, and use it to answer the following 8 questions: ___ N 2 (g) + ___ H 2 (g) ___ NH 3 (g) 1. Name: _____ Section: Lab Worksheet for " Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's Principle " General Instructions: • Complete Part A, Part B Steps 1a-1e (skip 1f) and Steps 2a-2e (skip 2f-2i) . DISTURBING THE POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM: Le Chatelier's Principle THEORY: Le Chatelier's principle states that the position of an equilibrium will shift to relieve any applied stress. 14 1Q/2010, Economic Perspectives Measuring the equilibrium real interest rate Alejandro Justiniano and Giorgio E. Primiceri Alejandro Justiniano is a senior economist in the Economic Research Department at the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago. Balance and Equilibrium, I: The Vestibule and Semicircular Canals JoelD. Swartz, David L. Daniels, H. Ric Harnsberger, Katherine A. Shaffer, and Leighton Mark In this, our second temporal bone installment, we will emphasize the vestibular portion of the labyrinth, that relating to balance and ...

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"We can't, however, discover ourselves by introspection. We have to jump in before we learn to swim." --Charles Handy of Quilting Terms useful definitions to enhance your terms to view in Anatomy of a A design made by cutting shapes from one or more fabrics and sewing them on top of another piece of fabric. A baby size quilt or wallhanging is typically 38” x 38”. The lighter or receding color fabrics in patchwork, or the base fabric onto which appliqué shapes are sewn. A large piece of fabric that makes up the back of the quilt. The ‘fluffy’ middle layer of a quilt, giving it warmth and thickness. It also enhances the quilting by puffing up slightly around the lines of stitching, adding an important element to the overall quilt design. A strip of fabric sewn over the edges of the quilt layers to finish the raw edges, add strength, and/or decorate the outer edge. One unit of patchwork design, usually square, that is repeated (the unit, not necessarily the pattern on the block) to build an overall pattern in a quilt top. Can be either pieced or appliquéd. Outermost edge of a quilt top. Borders are often used to ‘frame’ the inner, pieced quilt top. Quilts can also have multiple borders. Much like ‘mats’ on a framed piece of art, interior borders delineate concentric patterns radiating out from the center of a quilt. Quilts made from a single shape (square, triangle, etc.) utilizing many small pieces of fabric, where no two patches are from the same fabric. A square unit at the corner of borders on a quilt top. Used in place of Mitered A method of stitching irregular and random pieces of fabric to form a quilt block. Many have decorative stitching added to the seam lines. A crib size mattress is 27"x52". stitching, lace, buttons, etc. on a quilt; Crazy Quilts are often lavishly embellished. Adding embellishments will often reduce the washability of a Decorative top stitching. A technique whereby fabrics are combined to 'capture' colorful items- such as thread, ribbons, yarns, lace, silk flowers, beads, glitter and more - under a layer of sheer fabric to create unique designs. These original fabrics can then be used in larger quilting projects to add dimension and Feedsack Fabrics (also called Floursacks) Dating back as far as the early 1800’s, these sturdy bags were used to carry flour, sugar, meal, grain, salt and feed home from grain mills. Thrifty wives quickly discovered that the cotton bags were a great source of fabric for dish cloths, diapers, nightgowns and other household uses. Manufacturers took advantage of this trend and began offering sacks in prints and solid colors. At their peak in the 1930’s-40’s, Post WWII technological innovations greatly reduced availability of feedsacks, and their popularity waned. Today, there remains an active trade in these ‘antique, collectible fabrics’ among specialty quilt and fabric collectors and dealers. Consider yourself extremely lucky if you’ve got a stash of these special fabrics, or even better, a quilt made from these lovely pieces of the past. A full (double) size mattress is 54"x75". Fabric that has been dyed by hand to create unique colorations, often looking more ‘natural’ or subtle than commercial fabrics. A fabric tube sewn on the top back of a quilt in order to hang the quilt from a dowel for display. Usually 3-4" wide and attached during the binding process. (also called a Sleeve) A king size mattress is 76"x 80". A piece of fabric affixed to the back of a quilt to document the quilt name, recipient, quilt maker, date completed, special messages for the recipient, care instructions and/or other pertinent information. A youth size mattress is 36”x 66”. (This size is also often called a Throw Quilt) Term for the thickness and resilience of quilt batting is thinner and shows off quilting stitches to better advantage. Usually made of cotton, this batting gives a quilt a softer, more traditional feel, which will continue to grow softer and more comfortable with passing years. High loft batting is usually made of polyester. It is thicker and fluffier than cotton and is used more often for tied The method of the three layers of a quilt (decorative quilt top, batting and backing) using a sewing machine. Provides the advantages of strength, durability and speed over traditional hand-quilting. Decorative and intricate patterns can be utilized to full advantage in machine quilting. A central block, motif or patterned area on a quilt top, surrounded by a border or borders radiating outward in concentric patterns. The center is often a large square or on-point. A quilt pieced from a loved one's clothing or other special fabrics. Can be made from outgrown baby clothes, T-shirts, uniforms, jeans, ties, curtains, direct printed photos or documents, or almost anything holding special meaning for the user. Also, quilts made to commemorate an occasion such as a retirement, new baby, or birthday. Individual quilt blocks can be made of 'signable' signature blocks, printed photos, or theme related blocks (i.e. schoolhouses for graduation). A corner (usually of a border) joined at a 45 degree angle to form a 90 degree corner, like a picture frame. A design element, image or drawing used on a quilt block or for an appliqué. An example is a quilt using a "heart motif" or other themed image. A term used to define the orientation of a square quilt block when the square is “standing up” on one of its points, instead of resting on a side. The ‘extra’ fabric/quilt that extends over the edge of a standard sized mattress. Includes allowances for ‘drop’ to the floor and ‘pillowtuck’, if desired. Dimensions are often referenced by the terms ‘comforter’, ‘coverlet’ and (see Sizes of Quilts for more information.) This generally refers to the process of sewing together fabric pieces to make the colorful quilt top. The practice of washing fabric before cutting and sewing into a quilt top. Pre-washing is important to prevent fabric colors from bleeding and for A queen size mattress is 60"x 80". Once a quilt top is pieced, it is layered with a middle layer of batting and a backing layer. The three layers are secured together with patterned lines of stitching, called quilting, to add strength and decoration to The three layers can also be secured by tying, or ‘tufting’, in which a series of knotted ties are spaced about 3-5" apart all over the quilt. (see also Tied Quilt) Glossary of Quilting Terms, continued...

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Friday, July 08, 2011 (Liberty, NY) – Sullivan County Manager David Fanslau has announced that the Sullivan County Public Health Director, Carol Ryan, has developed the following public service announcement article to educate the public about rabies: The rabies virus occurs commonly in animals throughout Sullivan County and across New York State. In the past week, there have been several encounters between humans and rabid animals such as foxes, raccoons and skunks. The vast majority of rabies cases reported each year, in fact, occurs in wild animals like these. Domestic animals account for less than 10% of the reported rabies cases, with cats, cattle, and dogs most often reported rabid. Small rodents (such as squirrels, rats, mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, gerbils, and chipmunks, ) and lagomorphs (such as rabbits and hares) are almost never found to be infected with rabies and have not been known to cause rabies among humans in the United States. What Can People Do To Protect Themselves Against Rabies? Be sure your dogs, cats and ferrets are up-to-date on their rabies vaccinations. Vaccinated pets serve as a buffer between rabid wildlife and man. Protect them, and you protect yourself and family. Vaccines for dogs, cats and ferrets over three months of age are effective for a one-year period. Revaccinations are effective for up to three years. Pets too young to be vaccinated should be kept indoors. Don't try to separate two fighting animals. Wear gloves if you handle your pet after a fight. Keep family pets indoors at night. Don't leave them outside unattended or let them roam free. Don't attract wild animals to your home or yard. Keep your property free of stored bird seed, food garbage or other foods that may attract animals. Feed pets indoors. Tightly cap or put away garbage cans. Board up any openings to your attic, basement, porch or garage. Cap your chimney with screens. Don't feed, touch or adopt wild animals, stray dogs or cats. Encourage children to immediately tell an adult if they are bitten by any animal. Tell children not to touch any animal except their own. If a wild animal is on your property, let it wander away. Bring children and pets indoors and alert neighbors who are outside. You may contact a nuisance wildlife control officer who will remove the animal for a fee. If you are being threatened by a wild animal, go indoors and call the local police. Seek treatment for all animal bites and report contact with wild animals to Sullivan County Public Health Services at (845) 292-5910. If you can safely do so, don't let an animal escape that has possibly exposed someone to rabies. Depending on the species, it can be observed or tested for rabies in order to avoid the need for rabies treatment for people or euthanization for exposed unvaccinated pets. This includes bats that have had skin contact or have been found in a room with a sleeping person, unattended child, or someone with mental impairment. Bats have small, sharp teeth and in certain circumstances people can be bitten and not know it. Bats can be particularly difficult to keep out of buildings because they can get through cracks as small as a pencil. Methods to keep bats out (bat proofing) of homes and summer camps should be done during the fall and winter. If bats are already inside (e.g., in an attic or other areas), consult with your local health department about humane ways to remove them. References: CDC (Centers for Disease Control), the New York State Department of Health, and Sullivan County Public Health Services. For more information, call (845) 292 5910, or visit: http://www.health.state.ny.us/diseases/communicable/zoonoses/rabies/guide.htm or http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/. For more information or questions about article content, please contact Carol Ryan 845-292-5910

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Children's Day/Book Day, also known as El día de los niños/El día de los libros (Día), is a celebration of children, families, and reading held annually on April 30. The celebration emphasizes the importance of literacy for children of all linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Día is an enhancement of Children’s Day, which began in 1925. Children’s Day was designated as a day to bring attention to the importance and well-being of children. In 1996, nationally acclaimed children’s book author Pat Mora proposed linking the celebration of childhood and children with literacy to found El día de los niños/El día de los libros. For more information visit www.ala.org/ala/alsc/diadelosninos/diadelosninos.cfm Celebrate El día de los niños/El día de los librosFrom http://www.colorincolorado.org/calendar/celebrations/dia Catch a kid reading… and show how proud you are by sending an e-card to a child, friend, or relative. This beautiful e-card was created for Colorín Colorado by David Diaz, the Caldecott Medal winning illustrator of Stormy Night, Roadrunner's Dance, and other favorites. 10th Annual Literary Conference An Evening with the Authors- "Fiesta Style", Tuesday, May 6, 2008 The San Benito CISD Library Department. Click on the flier for a better view

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NASA Sky Cameras Capture Man-Sized Fireball Meteor Over Macon, Ga. Astronomers at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center have recorded the brightest fireball meteor seen by their network in almost three years of operation. On May 20, 2011, at 9:47 p.m. CDT, a six-foot diameter fragment of an unknown comet entered the atmosphere approximately 66 miles above the city of Macon, Ga., traveling northwest at a speed of some 24 miles per second (86,000 mph). At this velocity, the boulder-sized "dirty snowball" possessed an energy or striking power somewhere between 500-1000 tons of TNT. This was seen by many eyewitnesses in Georgia and Alabama; the American Meteor Society has some of the reports here: It was tracked by two NASA all sky cameras, one located in Chickamauga, Ga., and the other at the Tellus Science Museum in the town of Cartersville, Ga. Analysis of the video data from these cameras enabled the Meteoroid Environment Office to estimate the trajectory, speed, mass and orbit of the meteor. More information on these cameras and a log of recent meteor events can be found at: http://fireballs.ndc.nasa.gov Fortunately the atmosphere provided us with excellent protection, as the video below illustrates. Because the video is slowed to one-third of the actual real-time speed, it's easy to spot the large fragments coming off in the wake after the flares. The video shows four distinct flares caused by the meteor breaking apart in its fiery final few seconds. You can see fragments coming off in the meteor's wake after three of these flares. After a last burst of light, the meteor ablated -- or "burned up" -- 38 miles above the town of Villa Rica, Ga., located on the border between Carrol and Douglas counties in Georgia. NASA Media Contact: Janet Anderson, 256-544-0034 NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Ala.

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Montessori believed in a necessary relationship between children and their environment. Children must find a properly prepared environment if they are to fully develop their unique human potentials. In addition to determining children's eventual height, hair color, and other physical characteristics, there is another cognitive plan which determines the unique emotional and intellectual qualities of each child. These qualities develop through what Montessori referred to as "the sensitive periods." Each sensitive period is a specific kind of compulsion, motivating young children to seek objects and relationships in their environment with which to fulfill their special and unique inner potentials.. Montessori believed that children will develop to their full human potential when everything in the environment is "just right." Everything Food, furniture, learning activities, social relations, clothing, routines, and rituals must all be "just right" in order for them to develop their fullest potential as human beings. Young children are neither consciously aware of nor capable of directly communicating their interests and developmental needs. In Montessori Early Childhood programs, teachers are charged with providing learning environments in which everything is "just right." For almost one hundred years, Montessori educators have observed a set of motivations shared by young children around the world. What Dr. Maria Montessori discovered in the St. Lorenz Quarter in 1907 was that children are self-motivated to learn from their environment. Borrowing a term from biology, she called these stages the sensitive periods, after similar developmental stages in animals. The idea seemed revolutionary at the time, and took many years, following Piaget's extensions of Montessori's initial explanation, to become generally accepted in child psychology. Today, whether we use Montessori's terminology or not, the description of child development she first presented at the turn of the century rings true. Each sensitive period is: A period of special sensibility and psychological attitudes. An overpowering force, interest, or impetus directing children to particular qualities and elements in the environment. A period of time during which children center their attention on specific aspects of the environment, to the exclusion of all else. A passion and a commitment. Derived from the unconscious and leads children to conscious and creative activities. Intense and prolonged activity which does not lead to fatigue or boredom, but instead leads to persistent energy and interest. A transitory state once realized, the sensitive period disappears. Sensitive periods are never regained, once they have passed. Dr. Montessori identified eleven different sensitive periods occurring from birth through age six. Each refers to a predisposition compelling children to acquire specific characteristics as described below. When Montessori teachers speak about children being "inner directed," they are referring to an inner compulsion or sensitive period. A Montessori teacher would say, for example, "This child is in her sensitive period for order." These phrases point to each child's predisposition to follow her own daily classroom routine in which she chooses the same materials and in the same sequence. Ages of the onset and conclusion of each sensitive period are approximate and are indicated after the general description. Movement Random movements become coordinated and controlled: grasping, touching, turning, balancing, crawling, walking. (birth — one) Language Use of words to communicate: a progression from babble to words to phrases to sentences, with a continuously expanding vocabulary and comprehension. (birth — six) Small Objects A fixation on small objects and tiny details. (one — four) Order Characterized by a desire for consistency and repetition and a passionate love for established routines. Children can become deeply disturbed by disorder. The environment must be carefully ordered with a place for everything and with carefully established ground rules. (two — four) Music Spontaneous interest in and the development of pitch, rhythm, and melody. (two — six) Grace & Courtesy Imitation of polite and considerate behavior leading to an internalization of these qualities into the personality. (two — six) Refinement of the Senses Fascination with sensorial experiences (taste, sound, touch, weight, smell) resulting with children learning to observe and with making increasingly refined sensorial discriminations. (two — six) Writing Fascination with the attempt to reproduce letters and numbers with pencil or pen and paper. Montessori discovered that writing precedes reading. (three — four) Reading Spontaneous interest in the symbolic representations of the sounds of each letter and in the formation of words. (three — five) Spatial Relationships Forming cognitive impressions about relationships in space, including the layout of familiar places. Children become more able to find their way around their neighborhoods, and they are increasingly able to work complex puzzles. (four — six) Mathematics Formation of the concepts of quantity and operations from the uses of concrete material aids. (four — six) Note: This list does not include the sensitive periods found in the development of older children and adolescents. However, it does suggest to the early childhood educator some of the things that young children absorb, or will if they are given exposure and opportunity. Keep in mind that the child's learning during these early stages is not complete, nor has it reached the internalized abstraction stage that will develop as she grows older. It is, however, the foundation upon which much that follows will be built. Wherever this solid foundation is lacking, children will experience difficulty in learning and operating later on. Last Updated (Monday, 09 August 2010 14:11)

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Exoplanet forecast: Quartz with a chance of feldspar Next time you’re unhappy with the weather, be glad it’s not raining rocks. That seems to happen on CoRoT-7b, a hot, Earth-like planet about 500 light-years away from us. A new modeling study suggests that the exoplanet’s atmosphere is filled with the chemical components of rock, such as oxygen, sodium and silicon monoxide, and whenever these gases condense into clouds, rocky rain likely hammers down onto CoRoT-7b’s sweltering surface. The findings show that planets outside of our solar system can be quite different from ours, and they also suggest that it’s possible to get an oxygen-rich atmosphere by means other than photosynthetic life. Scientists discovered CoRoT-7b last February when it moved in front of its star, CoRoT-7. The exoplanet’s mass — about five times that of Earth — suggested that the planet had sufficient gravity to hold on to an atmosphere but no one knew what that atmosphere was made of. So Bruce Fegley and Laura Schaefer of Washington University in St. Louis, Mo., ran model simulations to find out. Fegley and Schaefer needed to know the planet’s surface temperature and its chemical composition. Previous work determined CoRoT-7b orbits its star at a mere distance of 2.6 million kilometers — about 23 times closer than Mercury is to our sun. As a result, the exoplanet’s surface temperature can reach a sizzling 2,300 degrees Celsius, estimates have shown. Finding out what elements linger on the exoplanet was much trickier, but Fegley and Schaefer had some hints. For example, observations had shown that CoRoT-7b is a rocky planet like Earth. But calculations suggested that, unlike Earth, the lighter, more volatile portion of the periodic table — elements such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine — were “boiled off the planet” a long time ago, Fegley says. And CoRoT-7b doesn’t have any sources that could continuously fill the atmosphere back up with these elements. Chlorine, for example, is abundant in seawater, but CoRoT-7b doesn’t appear to have any oceans. “So there goes your source of chlorine,” he says. One exception is oxygen: It’s even lighter than chlorine, but CoRoT-7b probably still has oodles of it because the element is often the main component of rocks, the material that CoRoT-7b is made of, he says. Taking these considerations into account, Fegley and Schaefer modeled a number of plausible rock recipes, including those of Earth’s continental and oceanic crust and the makeup of the moon, they reported in the Astrophysical Journal. They saw that regardless of the composition of CoRoT-7b’s rock, the same thing always happened: Rocks vaporized, loading the atmosphere mainly with sodium, oxygen and silicon monoxide gas. And once an atmosphere contains only components of rock, that’s what rain will consist of simply because “that’s all there is,” Fegley says. “It’s fascinating that there are planets that are so different from Earth and that have these really interesting atoms and molecules in the atmosphere,” says Sara Seager of MIT in Cambridge, Mass., who was not involved in the study. So far, scientists have no direct observations of CoRoT-7b’s atmosphere, but the findings will give them guidance as to what to look for, Seager says. For example, the new study predicts sodium and potassium in the upper atmosphere. These two elements are relatively easy to detect, and if scientists were to find them, they would have one indication that the model might be correct, Fegley says. The new findings also show that a planet can have an oxygen-rich atmosphere without the presence of life, Fegley says. Most scientists have long thought photosynthesis was the only way to accumulate large amounts of oxygen in an atmosphere. But the team’s calculations show that “if you have oxygen that doesn’t necessarily mean that it’s life — it could be vaporized rock,” he says. Until now, no one knew of an example of a planet whose temperature was as high as that on CoRoT-7b, so this possibility hadn’t come up, Fegley adds. “I think this is a unique case to date.”

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(PhysOrg.com) -- By the eerie light of a Halloween moon, while a chilly wind blows autumn-dry leaves askitter on bare and fingered branches, scary things can happen. Blood-sucking bats, creepy-crawly spiders, and a bevy of Halloween horrors give a fright on October 31. But did you know the weeks surrounding this All Hallow’s Eve mark a haunting milestone? – the 5-year anniversary of some the most powerful solar storms ever recorded. Called the "Halloween Storms of 2003," these energetic storms began, surprisingly, near the low point in the sun’s 11-year cycle of solar activity. During this usually "quiet" time, when few sunspots are visible, an outbreak of 17 major flares erupted on the sun. The flares caused the sun’s magnetic field lines to stretch then suddenly snap like a rubber band stretched beyond its limit. The result was coronal mass ejections, enormous explosions on the sun’s surface that can blast billions of tons of electrified gas and subatomic particles into space at speeds up to 5 million miles per hour. This ‘space weather’ can and does affect Earth. Space weather from these enormous solar storms slammed into Earth’s magnetic field from October 19 through November 7. “The effects of these storms were ghoulish enough that [aircraft controllers] had to re-route aircraft, it affected satellite systems and communications, and it also caused a power outage in Sweden for about an hour,” said Dr. Holly Gilbert, a solar scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. During the height of the solar activity, more than half of the deep space and near-Earth space science missions experienced the effects of the Halloween storms of 2003. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) satellite, a collaboration between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA), failed temporarily. NASA’s Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) satellite experienced damage, and instruments aboard many spacecraft had to be shut down temporarily. Another effect of these storms was an increase in the colorful dancing lights seen at Earth’s north and south poles, called aurora. “The aurora are normally limited to the higher latitudes, and these storms were so powerful they created aurora that could be seen as far south as Florida,” said Gilbert. Scary solar storms like the Halloween storms of 2003 are the exception, rather than the rule. Preparing for sudden, severe space weather can help reduce the effects of storms like these. A future NASA mission, called the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) will investigate the sun in great detail in an attempt to learn how changes on the sun impact Earth. The more sun-focused satellites learn about our nearest star, the better prepared we’ll be the next time storms erupt on the sun. Provided by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Explore further: NCAR joins massive field campaign to examine summertime air in Southeast

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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines. OCR for page 63 --> 4 Proterozoic and Early Cambrian Protists: Evidence for Accelerating Evolutionary Tempo Andrew H. Knoll In the 50 years since G. G. Simpson published Tempo and Mode in Evolution , paleontological documentation of evolutionary history has improved substantially. Not only has the quality of stratigraphic and systematic data increased for animal, plant, and protistan taxa found in Phanerozoic * rocks; recent decades have witnessed a tremendous increase in the documented length of the fossil record. Speculation about a long pre-Cambrian history of life has been replaced by a palpable record of evolution that begins some 3000 Ma before the Cambrian explosion. In this paper, I examine the early fossil record of eukaryotic organisms, asking whether or not this longer record is amenable to the types of investigation used to estimate tempo in Phanerozoic evolution. Even though analysis is limited by incomplete sampling, patchy radiometric calibration, and taxonomic uncertainty, a robust pattern of increasing diversity and accelerating evolutionary tempo is evident. Andrew H. Knoll is professor and chairman of the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. * The Phanerozoic Eon is one of the three major divisions of the geological time scale. Literally the age of visible animal life, the Phanerozoic Eon encompasses the past 545 million years (Ma), beginning at the start of the Cambrian Period. Earlier Earth history is divided between the Proterozoic (2500–545 Ma) and Archean (> 2500 Ma) eons. OCR for page 64 --> Figure 1 Species richness of selected protistan microfossil assemblages in 17 stratigraphic intervals running from the latest Paleoproterozoic era (P), through the Mesoproterozoic (Meso), Neoproterozoic, and Early Cambrian. Numbers 1–33 identifying assemblages refer to Table 1. V marks the Varanger ice age. Species richnesses are based on my taxonomic evaluation and do not necessarily reflect published tabulations. With a single exception (assemblage 31), all assemblages have been examined first-hand, resulting in uniform systematic treatment. Stratigraphic and systematic data for all figures and tables are available from the author. The Nature and Limitations of the Record Stratigraphic and Geochronometric Framework. The time interval considered here is 1700–520 Ma; that is, the latest Paleoproterozoic Eon to the end of the Early Cambrian Period (Figure 1 and Table 1). U-Pb dates on accessory minerals in volcanic rocks of known relationship to fossiliferous strata are limited for this interval—but then, such data are also limited for younger Paleozoic fossils on which much greater paleobiological demands are placed. Quantitative analysis of the Paleozoic fossil record is possible because a well-defined chronostratigraphic, or relative, time-scale has been calibrated by radiometric data in a few key sections. The Proterozoic-Cambrian time scale is developing along the same OCR for page 65 --> TABLE 1 Stratigraphic intervals used in analyses of tempo and representative acritarch assemblages Interval (age in millions of years [Ma]) Formation Location Reference Late Paleoproterozoic- and Mesoproterozoic M1 (1700–1400 Ma) Satka Urals, Russia Jank. 82 Bakal Urals, Russia Jank. 82 Ust'-Il'ya Siberia Veis. 92 McMinn Australia Peat. 78 M2 (1400–1200 Ma) Omachtin Siberia Vesi. 89 Zigazino-Kamarovsk Urals, Russia Jank. 82 M3 (1200–1000 Ma) Baicaoping China Yan. 92 Neoproterozoic N1 (1000–900 Ma) Lakhanda Siberia Germ. 90 N2 (900–800 Ma) Miroyedikha Siberia Germ. 90 Kwagunt Arizona, USA Vida. 85 Dakkovarre Norway Vida. 81 N3 (800–750 Ma) Andersby Norway Vida. 81 Middle Visingsö Sweden Vida. 76 N4 (750–700 Ma) Svanbergfjellet Svalbard Butt. 94 N5 (700–650 Ma) Upper Visingsö Sweden Vida. 76 N6 (650–600 Ma)* N7 (600–575 Ma; Volhyn) Pertatataka Australia Zang. 92 Doushantuo China Yin. 87 Kursovsky Siberia Mocz. 93 N8 (575–560 Ma; Redkino) Redkino Baltic Volk. 90 Mogilev/Nagoryany Ukraine Asee. 83 N9 (560–545 Ma; Kotlin) Kotlin Baltic Volk. 90 Early Cambrian C1 (545–538 Ma; Rovno) Rovno Baltic Volk. 83 C2 (538–531 Ma; Lontova) Lontova Baltic Volk. 83 Mazowsze Poland Mocz. 91 C3 (531–528 Ma; Talsy) Talsy Baltic Volk. 83 Lower Radzyn*/Kaplanosy Poland Mocz. 91 OCR for page 66 --> Interval (age in Ma) Formation Location Reference Early Cambrian (continued) C4 (528–524 Ma; Vergale) Middle Radzyn*/Kaplanosy Poland Mocz. 91 Qianzhisi China Zang. 90 Tokammane Svalbard Knol. 87 Vergale Baltic Volk. 83 Buen Greenland Vida. 93 C5 (524–520 Ma; Rausve) Upper Radzyn*/Kaplanosy Poland Mocz. 91 Rausve Estonia Volk. 83 Assembly numbers in brackets refer to Figure 1. * Interval includes Varanger ice age. path (Harland et al., 1990; Semikhatov, 1991; Knoll and Walter, 1992; Compston et al., 1992; Bowring et al., 1993). A biostratigraphic framework based on stromatolites, microfossils, and (in younger rocks) both the body and trace fossils of animals can be used to divide this nearly 1200-Ma expanse into recognizable intervals of various lengths. Complementing this is an increasingly well-supported chemostratigraphic framework based on the distinctive pattern of secular variation in the isotopic compositions of C and Sr in carbonate rocks (Kaufman and Knoll, in press). These data define the chronostratigraphic scale now being calibrated. Within the period under consideration, younger intervals are shorter than older ones, both because strong Neoproterozoic isotopic variation has no parallel in the Mesoproterozoic record and, more importantly, because of the finer biostratigraphic resolution in younger successions. For the purposes of this analysis, I have divided the period from 1700 to 520 Ma into 17 intervals as shown in Table 1 and Figures 1–3. Table 1 and Figure 1 also show my placement of representative microfossil assemblages into these intervals. Others might estimate the ages of interval boundaries differently, and one or two assemblages might be moved to bins adjacent to those chosen here. However, no assemblage placement or estimate of interval duration is so egregiously uncertain as to affect the analysis in a substantial way. That is, relative to the strength and time scale of the pattern observed, uncertainties of time are acceptably small. The Paleontological Data Base: Taxonomy. For the estimation of evolutionary tempo, I will restrict consideration to the organic-walled micro- OCR for page 67 --> Figure 2 Total taxonomic richness (histogram), first appearances (solid dots), and last appearances (open dots) of protistan microfossil species for the 17 intervals recognized in this study (Tables 1 and 2). V marks the Varanger ice age. Abbreviations are as in Figure 1. fossils known as acritarchs (Figure 4). Structural features leave little doubt that all or nearly all were eukaryotic. Most were the vegetative and reproductive walls of unicellular protists, although the reproductive cysts of multicellular algae and even egg cases of early animals may be included. The total number of clades that contributed to the observed record is unknown, but probably small. Some of the Early Cambrian microfossils included here are clearly the phycomata of green algal flagellates (Tappan, 1980). (The phycoma is a nonmotile vegetative stage of the flagellates' life cycle characterized by a wall that contains the degrada- OCR for page 68 --> Figure 3 Histogram showing total species richness of protistan microfossils for the 17 intervals recognized in this study (Tables 1 and 2). The time scale along the abscissa is linear, underscoring the long initial interval of low diversity and the rapidity of later radiations. V marks the Varanger ice age. PAL, Paleoproterozoic; C; Cambrian. tion-resistant polymer, sporopollenin.) Others, including most Neoproterozoic taxa, may also represent green algae (Tappan, 1980; Vidal and Knoll, 1983; Knoll et al., 1991), but phylogenetic relationships have not been established unequivocally. The pre-Ediacaran record of seaweeds is too patchy for meaningful evaluation of evolutionary tempo, but these fossils do provide a paleobiological context for the interpretation of microfossil assemblages. In particular, fossils of multicellular algae relate the latest Mesoproterozoic and early Neoproterozoic diversification of acritarchs to the biological differentiation of ''higher" protists inferred from molecular phylogenies (Sogin et al., 1989; Knoll, 1992a). If the view of eukaryotic evolution provided by molecular phylogenies is reliable, many of the protistan phyla that differentiated during the Proterozoic are not represented in the fossil record. Therefore, care must be exercised in ascribing generality to the preserved record. The prob- OCR for page 69 --> lem is well understood by invertebrate paleontologists who enjoy excellent preservation for only a few of the more than 30 phyla of invertebrate animals. Estimates of evolutionary tempo and the timing of diversification and extinction events are broadly similar across phyla for Phanerozoic invertebrates and protists with good fossil records. Therefore, the limited clade diversity of Proterozoic and Early Cambrian acritarchs may reflect a broader pattern of early eukaryotic evolution. A second type of biological uncertainty concerns the interpretation of paleospecies. In studies of acritarchs, analyses are necessarily done at the species level, because biologically meaningful higher taxa have not been defined. The uncertain phylogenetic relationships of most forms exacerbate the common paleontological problem of relating paleospecies to biological species. While the paleontological use of the term species is convenient and accurate in the sense of "most inclusive diagnosable units," what we can really measure is diversity of morphology. Estimates of tempo are, therefore, to be viewed as rates of morphological diversification and turnover within a preservable subset of early eukaryotes. The Paleontological Data Base: Sampling Quality. Several hundred Proterozoic and Lower Cambrian formations are known to contain protistan microfossils (Schopf and Klein, 1992); however, many assemblages are indifferently preserved, poorly described, and/or accompanied by inadequate stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental information. Assessment of sample quality is better based on those assemblages that are well preserved, meticulously monographed, and well buttressed by stratigraphic and sedimentological data (Figure 1). Older assemblages are both less numerous and less diverse than those of younger intervals. One might, therefore, suppose that low observed diversity is a product of poor sampling or poor preservation; however, sampling adequacy is not simply a function of assemblages per interval. It is also dependent on quality of preservation, facies and/or paleogeographic heterogeneity, and rates of taxonomic turnover. If fossils are well preserved, cosmopolitan, and slowly evolving, a limited number of samples may be sufficient to characterize the paleobiology of an interval. This appears to be the case for the Mesoproterozoic acritarch record. The quality of fossil preservation in Mesoproterozoic mudstones (e.g., Peat et al., 1978) and silicified carbonates (e.g., Sergeev et al. , in press) matches the best seen in Neoproterozoic rocks, but the acanthomorphic (process or spine bearing) and other ornamented acritarchs seen in younger rocks of comparable environmental setting are not seen in these or any other rocks older than ca. 1100 Ma. In contrast, even metamorphosed Neoproterozoic rocks may contain ornamented acritarchs OCR for page 70 OCR for page 71 --> Figure 4 Representative Proterozoic and Early Cambrian acritarchs. A–C and the specimen on the left in D are spheromorphic; the specimen on the right in D and E–H are acanthomorphic. (A) Le iosphaeridia sp., Mesoproterozoic [M1] McMinn Formation, Australia. (B) Leiosphaeridia crassa, Neoproterozoic [N2] Miroyedikha Formation, Siberia. (C) Kildinosphaera verrucata, Miroyedikha Formation. (D) Shuiyousphaeridium macroreticulata (Left ) and Dictyosphaera incrassata (Right), late Mesoproterozoic [M3] Baicaoping Formation, China. (E) Trachyhystrichosphaera aimika, Neoproterozoic [N4] Draken Formation, Svalbard. (F) Tanarium densum, Neoproterozoic [N7] Doushantuo Formation, China. (G) Tanarium conoideum, Neoproterozoic [N7] Kursovsky Formation, Siberia. (H) Skiagia ciliosa , Early Cambrian [C4] Tokammane Formation, Svalbard. (Bar in E: A–C and H, 25 µm; D and G, 60 µm; E, 300 µm; G, 100 µm) OCR for page 72 --> (Knoll, 1992b). Observations such as these suggest that differential preservation is not a principal determinant of observed diversity and turnover patterns. In general, Proterozoic and Cambrian acritarch species have wide (and known) paleoenvironmental distributions and show little evidence of provincialism. This minimizes the likelihood that observed patterns are influenced strongly by differential sampling of facies among time intervals. Perhaps the best indicators of sample quality are the degree of similarity among assemblages within an interval and the incremental taxonomic richness accompanying each new assemblage reported. The total number of assemblages known for the interval from 1700 to 1000 Ma is low, but the taxonomic similarity among samples is high. Insofar as knowledge of the age and environmental setting of an assemblage permits the prediction of taxonomic composition, the Proterozoic and Early Cambrian acritarch record appears to be sufficiently well sampled to permit the broad estimation of evolutionary tempo. Despite my confidence that the existing record is governed more by evolution than by sampling, this paper should be read as a dispatch from the trenches and not as a definitive history. The events most likely to have escaped notice to date are short bursts of diversification and extinction of the type recorded in interval N7. The time intervals most likely to yield new assemblages that will modify the conclusions drawn here are those between 750 and 600 Ma ago, just prior to and including the Varanger ice age. Early Eukaryotic Fossils: A Narrative Record Acritarchs occur in rocks as old as 1900–1700 Ma (Zhang, 1986). The fossils are morphologically simple, but sedimentological distributions, size frequency distributions, and inferred excystment structures ally these remains to unequivocally eukaryotic microfossils that extend upward from this interval to the present. Independent evidence for the occurrence of late Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic eukaryotes comes from significant sterane concentrations in bitumens (Summons and Walter, 1992) and problematic macrofossils (Walter et al., 1990; Han and Runnegar, 1992). There is no reason to assume that these remains document the evolutionary first appearance of the Eucarya nor even any necessary reason to insist that they mark the emergence of clades capable of synthesizing preservable walls or cysts. What can be concluded is that eukaryotic organisms were significant parts of marine ecosystems in the late Paleoproterozoic Era and that the fossil record of earlier periods is poor. OCR for page 73 --> Acritarchs are widespread and abundant in late Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic rocks, and in all known assemblages morphological diversity is limited to a few taxa of smooth-walled spheromorphs (leiosphaerids; Figure 4A) differentiated on the basis of size, spheroids bearing a single filament-like emergence, and/or somewhat lumpy or irregular vesicles (Keller and Jankauskas, 1982; Jankauskas, 1989). Morphological diversification began in the late Mesoproterozoic Eon with the appearance of striated spheromorphic vesicles (Valeria lophostriata ) and the first acanthomorphic acritarchs (Jankauskas, 1989; Knoll, in press). Chinese rocks poorly dated at ca. 1100 Ma contain the oldest known large (>100 µm) acanthomorphs (Yan and Zhu, 1992; Figure 4D)—a type of microfossil characteristically found in Neoproterozoic assemblages (Semikhatov, 1991; Knoll, in press). The 900- to 1000-Maold Lakhanda biota of Siberia (German, 1990) contains a moderate diversity of both acanthomorphs and lightly ornamented spheromorphs (Figure 4C). Latest Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic acritarch diversification is complemented by the first appearance of multicellular eukaryotes that can be placed in extant phyla. Red algae that display clear cellular differentiation are locally abundant in silicified peritidal carbonates of the Hunting Formation, arctic Canada (Butterfield et al., 1990); probable chromophytic algae are beautifully preserved in Lakhanda mudstones (German, 1990); and several green algal taxa occur in the younger Svanbergfjellet Formation of Svalbard (Butterfield et al., in press). Acritarchs increase in both total and assemblage diversity in 900-to 800-Ma-old rocks (Figures 1–3), due largely to the differentiation of ornamented forms. Vase-shaped protistan tests also proliferate at this time. Most taxa that originated during the early-to-middle Neoproterozoic Era disappeared by the time of the great Varanger ice age (?650–590 Ma ago), but post-Varanger successions on three continents contain diverse assemblages of new and highly ornamented acritarchs (Yin, 1987; Knoll, 1992a; Zang and Walter, 1992; Moczydlowska et al., 1993; Figure 4F and G). This postglacial diversification is all the more remarkable because it is so short-lived. Even exceptionally preserved latest Proterozoic acritarch assemblages are limited to a handful of leiosphaerids and small acanthomorphs. The extinction correlates stratigraphically with the appearance of diverse Ediacaran-type metazoans; where diverse acanthomorphs and Ediacaran remains occur in the same succession, the former lie stratigraphically beneath the latter. However, correlation to the independent chronostratigraphic record of C and Sr isotopic variation suggests that the two types of assemblage coexisted for a limited interval (Kaufman and Knoll, in press). Acritarchs again diversified rapidly during the Early Cambrian (Volkova et al., 1983; Moczydlowska, 1991; Figure 4H). OCR for page 74 --> Estimates of Evolutionary Tempo Figures 1 and 2 depict assemblage and total diversity through the interval from 1700 to 520 Ma ago. (Figure 3 plots total diversity data on a linear time scale to show more clearly the length of the initial interval of low diversity and the rapidity of subsequent changes.) The similarity of the figures is not surprising, given the wide facies and geographic distributions of many taxa. Species richness began low and rose only slightly during the first 700–800 Ma of the acritarch record—an interval longer than the entire Phanerozoic Eon. A burst of first appearances 900–800 Ma nearly doubled both assemblage and total diversity, bringing them to a new level that would persist with limited change until the Varanger ice age. The figures show diversity peaking 750–700 Ma ago and then declining to a minimum during the Varanger interval. However, intervals N5 and N6 are the most poorly sampled of the entire period under consideration. Taxa whose currently known last appearance is in N4 or N5 may well be discovered in closer proximity to Varanger strata, while some of the many acritarch taxa whose first known appearance is in N7 may be found in earlier intervals. For example, the large acritarchs Papillomembrana compta and Ericiasphaera spjeldnaessi, both conspicuous components of N7 assemblages, occur in clasts of the Biskopås Comglomerate, Norway, that underlie Varanger tillites (Vidal, 1990). On the other hand, few pre-Varanger taxa occur in the beautifully preserved assemblages that characterize N7, and in places like northwestern Canada, assemblages deposited just before the ice age contain only characteristically pre-Varanger taxa (Allison and Awramik, 1989). Thus, the marked change in assemblage composition across the Varanger interval is probably a stable feature of the record, and the extinctions inferred from the figures may have been concentrated in a brief interval before or during the Varanger ice age. The high diversity of immediately post-Varanger acritarch assemblages is apparent from the figures. A burst of first appearances lifted both assemblage and total species richness to their Proterozoic maxima, and an ensuing maximum in last appearances subsequently reduced diversity to levels resembling those of the Mesoproterozoic and earliest Neoproterozoic. Seventy-five percent of recorded species disappeared, including most if not all large morphologically distinctive forms. The first four intervals of the Early Cambrian exhibit sharp increases in numbers of first appearances; species richness within assemblages eclipsed its Proterozoic maximum in C3 (ca. 531–528 Ma), and total diversity peaked one interval later (C4, ca. 528–524 Ma ago). Last OCR for page 75 --> TABLE 2 Species richness, rates of origination, and rates of extinction for Proterozoic and early Cambrian acritarchs Interval (Ma ago) N FA FA/Ma FA/sp/Ma LA LA/Ma LA/sp/Ma M1 (1700–1400) 6 6 0.02a 0.003a 0 0.00 0.000 M2 (1400–1200) 8 2 0.01 0.001 2 0.01 0.001 M3 (1200–1000) 11 5 0.03 0.004 3 0.02 0.002 N1 (1000–900) 13 5 0.05 0.005 1 0.01 0.001 N2 (900–800) 28 16 0.16 0.009 3 0.03 0.002 N3 (800–750) 31 6 0.12 0.004 3 0.06 0.002 N4 (750–700) 35 7 0.14 0.004 12 0.24 0.008 N5 (700–650) 28 5 0.10 0.004 13 0.26 0.010 N6 (650–600) 17 2 0.04 0.002 1 0.02 0.001 N7 (600–575) 60 44 1.76 0.060 46 1.84 0.060 N8 (575–560) 16 2 0.13 0.008 4 0.26 0.017 N9 (560–545) 15 3 0.20 0.015 6 0.40 0.030 C1 (545–538) 11 5 0.70 0.070 4 0.60 0.060 C2 (538–531) 22 16 2.30 0.185 7 1.00 0.080 C3 (531–528) 48 32 10.70 0.400 12 4.00 0.150 C4 (528–524) 78 42 10.50 0.198 31 7.75 0.150 C5 (524–520) 54 7 1.75 0.035 18 4.50 0.089 N, total species richness; FA, first appearance; LA, last appearance; FA (LA)/Ma, first (last) appearance per Ma; FA (LA)/Sp/Ma, first (last) appearance per species per Ma. For the calculation of per species rates of origination and extinction, standing diversity was taken to be the geometric mean of diversity at the beginning and end of each interval, making the simplifying assumption that all extinctions took place at the ends of intervals. a All species present in M1 are counted as first appearances, but some may have originated earlier. Thus, calculated rates of first appearance for M1 may be too high. appearances also increase throughout these intervals and exceed first appearances at the end of the Early Cambrian. Table 2 shows calculated rates of cladogenetic evolution for each of the intervals under consideration. For intervals M1 though N1, both total and per taxon rates of first and last appearances are low, indicating not only that diversity was low but also that constituent species were long lasting. (The calculated rates of first appearance for M1 may be misleading, in that all species are recorded as first appearances. The presence of simple acritarchs in rocks that may be older than 1700 Ma indicates that at least some of these forms may have originated earlier.) By 900–800 Ma ago (N2), total rates of origination had increased by an order of magnitude to a level at which they remained for the duration of the pre-Varanger Neoproterozoic. Interestingly, after an increase during interval N2, per taxon rates of origination returned to levels comparable to earlier intervals; both total and per taxon extinction rates increased toward the Varanger ice age. Another order of magnitude increase in origination and extinction OCR for page 76 --> Figure 5 Cohort survivorship curves for species that originated during intervals M1 (1700–1400 Ma), N2 (900–800 Ma), and C3 (531–528 Ma). The abscissa denotes time since cohort origin. rates attended the brief post-Varanger diversification event, after which terminal Proterozoic turnover returned to average Neoproterozoic levels. During the peak of the Cambrian acritarch radiation, origin and extinction rates both increased to levels an additional order of magnitude above the Neoproterozoic mean. Cohort survivorship provides another means of evaluating evolutionary tempo (Van Valen, 1973; Raup, 1978, 1985). A comparison of the three cohort survivorship curves in Figure 5 shows that species originating in early Cambrian interval C3 turned over much more rapidly than those of Neoproterozoic cohort N2, which in turn decayed more quickly than Paleo- and Mesoproterocoic cohort M1. Very rough estimates of mean species duration and half-life (median species duration) confirm the order of magnitude increases in tempo between the Mesoand Neoproterozoic and again between the Neoproterozoic and Early Cambrian (Table 3). Thus, relative to earlier intervals, Cambrian acritarch assemblages contain more and more species that survive for shorter and shorter periods of time. Mean species duration and half-life for Cambrian acritarchs is similar to values computed for both younger protistan groups with good fossil records and Phanerozoic animal taxa (Table 3). Discussion How seriously should we take these figures? The general problems of sampling, data set size, and age estimation have already been noted. Imprecisions could easily alter estimates of tempo by a factor of two. OCR for page 77 --> TABLE 3 Estimates of species durations Taxonomic group Half-life, Ma Mean duration, Ma Acritarch cohort M1 1390a 1960a Acritarch cohort N2 75 102 Acritarch cohort C3 5.4 7.7 Planktonic foraminifera 5 7 Dinoflagellates 9 13 Diatoms 5.5 7.9 All invertebrates 7.7 11.1 Half-life (median species duration) and mean duration were calculated according to Raup (1978, 1985). Data for Phanerozoic protists and invertebrates are from Van Valen (1973) and Raup (1985). a Of course, species that originated <1700 Ma ago cannot have true durations that exceed this age. Durations presented were calculated from the mean extinction rate (the slope of the cohort survivorship curve), which is very low. However, it is unlikely that any combination of sampling, taxonomic, or geochronometric errors exerts a major control on the principal pattern revealed by this analysis—that of doubling in diversity and ten-fold increase in rates of origination and extinction near the Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic boundary and again in the Early Cambrian. Indeed, this exercise quantifies what we have long known as biostratigraphers—that acritarch-based correlation is difficult among Mesoproterozoic successions, somewhat easier in the Neoproterozoic, and precise in the Lower Cambrian. Comparisons with Previous Diversity Estimates. The diversity trends noted here are broadly similar to those outlined a decade ago by Vidal and Knoll (1983), indicating an overall stability of pattern despite substantial increases in the numbers of species and assemblages described. There is one difference between the two estimates, however, and it is a major one; Vidal and Knoll's compilation lacks any inkling of the short-lived diversity peak in N7. That peak first appears in the literature in 1988 in a figure by Zang (1988), who discovered highly diverse N7 acritarchs in the Pertatataka Formation, Australia. Since then, even more diverse assemblages have been recognized in rocks of this age (Figure 1). The N7 spike cautions us that despite the overall stability of Proterozoic and early Cambrian acritarch diversity trends, short-lived diversification and extinction episodes may be missed at current levels of temporal sampling density. A different view of Proterozoic protistan diversity was presented by Schopf (1992), who showed a broad diversity peak 1000–850 Ma ago, followed by a strong and continuing decline until the end of the eon. OCR for page 78 --> Schopf's compilations of mean assemblage diversity for plankton and eukaryotes emphasize the inferred early Neoproterozoic diversity peak even more strongly. This discrepancy arises for at least three reasons: (i) Schopf's estimates of species richness for early Neoproterozoic assemblages from Russia significantly exceed those accepted here, (ii) most of the fossils that determine the diversity levels of intervals N4 to N7 in the present paper do not appear in Schopf's data set, largely because of recent discovery, and (iii) Schopf's calculation of mean assemblage diversity is swamped by low diversity assemblages of limited paleobiological value. For these reasons, I believe that the diversity trends shown in Figures 1–3 of the present paper better reflect the known record of early protists. Intimations of Mode? As noted above, the increase in acritarch diversity and tempo near the Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic boundary coincides with the appearance of identifiable red, green, and probable chromophyte algae in the record. Branching patterns in molecular phylogenies of the eukaryotes suggest that these algal taxa, along with stramenopiles (ciliates, dinoflagellates, and plasmodia), fungi, and the ancestors of animals, diverged rapidly relatively late in the history of the domain (Sogin et al., 1989). The paleontological data suggest that the radiation implied by molecular phylogenies occurred near the Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic boundary; phylogenetic data, in turn, suggest possible explanations for the acceleration of evolutionary tempo documented by the fossils. Nuclear introns, multicellular development that includes coordinated growth and cellular differentiation, and life cycles in which classical meiosis plays a prominent role are all characters displayed by higher eukaryotes but not earlier branching clades (Cleveland, 1947; Margulis et al., 1989; Tibeyrence et al., 1991; Palmer and Logsdon, 1991). The evolutionary relationships among these features are poorly understood, but possibly not coincidental. Either sexual life cycles or the exon shuffling made possible by introns could increase genetic variation and, thereby, accelerate evolutionary tempo (Schopf et al., 1973; Knoll, 1992a). This would be true of nuclear introns whether they first evolved at the time of higher protistan differentiation (Palmer and Logsdon, 1991) or were simply retained more readily in lineages characterized by sexual life cycles (Hickey, 1982). Given the population genetic possibilities of such changes, it is surprising that the greater increase in acritarch diversity and tempo is concentrated at the beginning of the Cambrian Period. At this time, there is no evidence of genetic reorganization. New faster evolving clades may enter the acritarch record, but groups such as the prasino- OCR for page 79 --> phytes that appear to have been important on both sides of the Proterozoic–Cambrian boundary also document the acceleration of cladogenetic tempo. Of course, the sharp increase in acritarch diversity and turnover coincides with a comparable evolutionary burst in animals. The nearly simultaneous radiation in two such phylogenetically, developmentally, and trophically disparate groups suggests the importance of ecology in determining the tempo of Cambrian (and later) evolution. Evolving animals would have contributed in several ways to the complexity of environments perceived by acritarch-producing protists: for example, through predation, the disturbance of pre-existing physical environments, the creation of new physical environments, and the alteration of nutrient fluxes in marine platform and shelf waters. Diversifying protists would have had reciprocal effects on animals. Diversity levels reached by Early Cambrian animals and protists were later eclipsed by continuing diversification, but the increased rates of turnover established at this time have persisted for the past 500 Ma (Table 2; Van Valen, 1973; Raup, 1985). This is interesting in light of evidence that turnover in Phanerozoic marine communities may be coordinated among species and concentrated at times of environmental disturbance represented sedimentologically by sequence boundaries (Brett et al., 1990; Morris et al., 1992; Miller, 1993). This suggests that the basal Cambrian increase in the biological complexity of environments may have lowered the response thresholds of populations to physical fluctuations, perhaps by decreasing population sizes and effective niche breadth. The short-lived acritarch radiation in N7 stands out as anomalous. Is this when faster evolutionary tempo was established in protists, only to be cut off by mass extinction? Might it correspond to an epoch of cryptic animal diversification that presaged the Ediacaran faunas of the next interval? Is the acritarch diversification causally related to oceanographic changes that accompanied the end of the Varanger glaciation, and if so, why aren't comparable changes observed in the wake of earlier Neoproterozoic ice ages? Conclusions We still glimpse early biological history through a glass darkly, but broad patterns are beginning to come into focus. These patterns suggest that on the time scale of eukaryotic evolution as a whole, evolutionary tempo has increased episodically. Morphological diversity and turnover rates were low for the earliest recorded period of early protistan evolution, an interval that lasted longer than the entire Phanerozoic Eon. Near the Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic bound- OCR for page 80 --> ary, the morphological diversity and turnover rates of acritarch-producing protists increased significantly, apparently as part of a larger increase in eukaryotic diversity that included heterotrophs as well as algae. Most notably, the Proterozoic and Early Cambrian record of acritarchs suggests that radiating animals had a profound effect on both diversity and turnover within clades already present in marine communities, implying an important role for ecology in fueling the Cambrian explosion and, perhaps, earlier protistan diversification. Summary In rocks of late Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic age (ca. 1700–1000 million years ago), probable eukaryotic microfossils are widespread and well preserved, but assemblage and global diversities are low and turnover is slow. Near the Mesoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic boundary (1000 million years ago), red, green, and chromophytic algae diversified; molecular phylogenies suggest that this was part of a broader radiation of ''higher" eukaryotic phyla. Observed diversity levels for protistan microfossils increased significantly at this time, as did turnover rates. Coincident with the Cambrian radiation of marine invertebrates, protistan microfossils again doubled in diversity and rates of turnover increased by an order of magnitude. Evidently, the Cambrian diversification of animals strongly influenced evolutionary rates within clades already present in marine communities, implying an important role for ecology in fueling a Cambrian explosion that extends across kingdoms. I thank Zhang Yun, Yin Leiming, Kathleen Grey, Zang Wenlong, Malcolm Walter, Tadas Jankauskas, Nina Volkova, Tamara German, Alexei Veis, Vladimir Sergeev, Nicholas Butterfield, and—especially—Gonzalo Vidal and Malgorzata Moczydlowska for access to and discussions about Proterozoic and Cambrian microfossils. George Miklos, Kenneth Campbell, and J. William Schopf provided helpful criticisms of an earlier draft. This work was sponsored in part by National Aeronautics and Space Administration Grant NAGW-893 and National Science Foundation Grant BSR 90-17747. References Allison, C. W. & Awramik, S. M. (1989) Organic-walled microfossils from earliest Cambrian or latest Proterozoic Tindir Group rocks, northwest Canada. Precambrian Res. 43, 253–294. Aseeva, E. A. (1983) Vendian microfossils of the Ukraine, in Vend Ukrainy [The Vendian of the Ukraine], eds. Velikanov, V. A., Aseeva, E. A. & Fedonkin, M. A. (Naukova Dumka, Kiev, pp. 102–127). OCR for page 81 --> Bowring, S. A., Grotzinger, J. P., Isaachsen, C. E., Knoll, A. H., Pelechaty, S. M. & Kolosov, P. (1993) Calibrating rates of Early Cambrian evolution. Science 261, 1293–1298. Brett, C. E., Miller, K. B. & Baird, G. C. (1990) Paleocommunity temporal dynamics: the long-term development of multispecies assemblages. Paleontol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 5, 178–209. Butterfield, N. J., Knoll, A. H. & Swett, K. (1990) A bangiophyte red alga from the Proterozoic of arctic Canada. Science 250, 104–107. Butterfield, N. J., Knoll, A. H. & Swett, K. (1994) Paleobiology of the Neoproterozoic of arctic Canada. Foss. Strata, in press. Cleveland, L. R. (1947) The origin and evolution of meiosis. Science 105, 287–288. Compston, W., Williams, I. S., Kirschvink, J. L., Zhang, Z. & Ma, G. (1992) Zircon U-Pb ages for the Early Cambrian time-scale. J. Geol. Soc. 149, 171–184. German, T. N. (1990) Organic World Billion Year Ago (Nauka, Leningrad). Han, T. M. & Runnegar, B. (1992) Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan. Science 257, 232–235. Harland, W. B., Armstrong, R. L., Cox, A. V., Craig, L. E., Smith, A. G. & Smith, D. G. (1990) A Geologic Time Scale 1989 (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.). Hickey, D. (1982) Selfish DNA: a sexually-transmitted nuclear parasite. Genetics 101, 519–531. Jankauskas, T. V., ed. (1989) Mikrofossilii dokembriya SSSR [Precambrian Microfossils of the USSR] (Nauka, Moscow). Jankauskas, T. V. (1982) Microfossils from the Riphean of the Southern Urals, in Stratotip rifeya: Paleontologiya, Paleomagnetizm [Stratotype of the Riphean: Paleontology, Paleomagnetism], ed. Keller, B. M. (Nauka, Moscow), pp. 84–120. Kaufman, A. J. & Knoll, A. H. (1994) Neoproterozoic variations in the C-isotopic composition of seawater: implications for stratigraphy and biogeochemistry. Precambrian Res., in press. Keller, B. M. & Jankauskas, T. V. (1982) Microfossils in the Riphean stratotype section in the Southern Urals. Int. Geol. Rev. 24, 925–933. Knoll, A. H. (1992a) The early evolution of eukaryotes: a geological perspective. Science 256, 622–627. Knoll, A. H. (1992b) Vendian microfossils in metasedimentary cherts of the Scotia group, Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard. Palaeontology 25, 751–774. Knoll, A. H. (1994) Archean and Proterozoic paleontology, in Palynology: Principles and Applications, ed. Jansonius, J. & MacGregor, D. C. (Am. Assoc. Stratigraphic Palynologists Found., Tulsa, OK), in press. Knoll, A. H. & Swett, K. (1987) Micropaleontology across the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in Spitsbergen. J. Paleontol. 61, 898–926. Knoll, A. H. & Walter, M. R. (1992) Latest Proterozoic stratigraphy and Earth history. Nature (London) 356, 673–678. Knoll, A. H., Swett, K. & Mark, J. (1991) Paleobiology of a Neoproterozoic tidal flat/lagoonal complex: the Draken Conglomerate Formation, Spitsbergen. J. Paleontol. 65, 531–570. Margulis, L., Corliss, J. O., Melkonian, M. & Chapman, D. J., eds. (1989) Handbook of Protoctista (Jones & Bartlett, Boston). Miller, W. (1993) Benthic community replacement and population responses. N. Jb. Geol. Paläont. Abhandlangen 188, 133–146. Moczydlowska, M. (1991) Acritarch biostratigraphy of the Lower Cambrian and the precambrian/Cambrian boundary in southeastern Poland. Foss. Strata 29, 1–127. OCR for page 82 --> Moczydlowska, M., Vidal, G. & Rudavskaya, V. A. (1993) Neoproterozoic (Vendian) phytoplankton from the Siberian Platform, Yakutia. Palaeontology 36, 495–521. Morris, P. J., Ivany, L. C. & Schopf, K. M. (1992) Paleoecological stasis in evolutionary theory. Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Prog. 24, A313. Palmer, J. D. & Logsdon, J. M. (1991) The recent origins of introns. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1, 470–477. Peat, C. R. Muir, M. D., Plumb, K. A., McKirdy, D. M. & Norvick, M. S. (1978) Proterozoic microfossils from the Roper Group, Northern territory, Australia. BMR J. Aust. Geol. Geophys. 3, 1–17. Raup, D. M. (1978) Cohort analysis of generic survivorship. Paleobiology 4, 1–15. Raup, D. M. (1985) Major features of the fossil record and their implications for evolutionary rate studies, in Rates of Evolution, eds. Campbell, K. S. W. & Day, M. F. (Allen & Unwin, London), pp. 1–14. Schopf, J. W. (1992) Patterns of Proterozoic microfossil diversity; an initial, tentative, analysis, in The Proterozoic Biosphere, eds. Schopf, J. W. & Klein, C. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.), pp. 529–552. Schopf, J. W. & Klein, C., eds. (1992) The Proterozoic Biosphere (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.). Schopf, J. W., Haugh, B. N., Molnar, R. E. & Satterthwait, D. F. (1973) On the development of metaphytes and metazoans. J. Paleontol. 47, 1–9. Semikhatov, M. A. (1991) General problems of Proterozoic Stratigraphy in the USSR. Sov. Sci. Rev. G 1, 1–192. Sergeev, V. N., Knoll, A. H. & Grotzinger, J. P. (1994) Paleobiology of the Mesoproterozoic Billyakh Group, northern Siberia. J. Paleontol. , in press. Simpson, G. G. (1994) Tempo and Mode in Evolution (Columbia Univ. Press, New York). Sogin, M., Gunderson, J., Elwood, H., Alonso, R. & Peattie, D. (1989) Phylogenetic meaning of the kingdom concept: an unusual ribosomal RNA from Giardia lamblia. Science 243, 75–77. Summons, R. E. & Walter, M. R. (1992) Molecular fossils and microfossils of prokaryotes and protists from Proterozoic sediments. Am. J. Sci. 290-A, 212–244. Tappan, H. (1980) The Paleobiology of Plant Protists (Freeman, San Francisco). Tibeyrence, M., Kjellberg, F., Arnaud, J., Oury, B., Darde, M. & Ayala, F. (1991) Are eukaryotic microorganisms clonal or sexual? A population genetics vantage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 5129–5133. Van Valen, L. (1973) A new evolutionary law. Evol. Theory 1, 1–30. Veis, A. F. & Semikhatov, M. A. (1989) Lower Riphean Omakhtin association of microfossils in eastern Siberia, composition and conditions of formation. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Geol. 5, 36–54. Veis, A. F. & Vorobyeva, N. G. (1992) Riphean and Vendian microfossils of the Anabar Massif. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR Ser. Geol. 8, 114–130. Vidal, G. (1976) Late Precambrian microfossils from the Visingsö Beds, southern Sweden. Foss. Strata 9, 1–57. Vidal, G. (1981) Micropaleontology and biostratigraphy of the Upper Precambrian and Lower Cambrian in East Finnmark, northern Norway. Norges Geol. Unders. Bull. 362, 1–53. Vidal, G. (1990) Giant acanthomorph acritarchs from the Upper Proterozoic in Southern Norway. Palaeontology 33, 287–298. Vidal, G. & Ford, T. D. (1985) Microbiotas from the late Proterozoic Chuar Group (northern Arizona) and Uinta Mountain Group (Utah) and their chronstratigraphic implications. Precambrian Res. 28, 349–389. OCR for page 83 --> Vidal, G. & Knoll, A. H. (1983) Proterozoic plankton. Mem. Geol. Soc. Am. 161, 265–277. Vidal, G. & Peel, J. S. (1993) Acritarchs from the Lower Cambrian Buen Formation in North Greenland. Bull. Grønl. Geol. Unders. 164, 1–35. Volkova, N. G. (1990) Acritarchs and other plant microfossils of the East European Platform, in The Vendian System, eds. Sokolov, B. S. & Iwanowski, A. B. (Springer, Berlin), Vol. 1, pp. 155–164. Volkova, N. G. et al. (1983) Plant microfossils, in Upper Precambrian and Cambrian Palaeontology of the East-European Platform, eds. Urbanek, A. & Rozanov, A. Yu. (Wydawnictwa Geologiczne, Warsaw), pp. 7–46. Walter, M. R., Du, R. & Horodyski, R. J. (1990) Coiled carbonaceous megafossils from the Middle Proterozoic of Jixian (Tianjin) and Montana. Am. J. Sci. 290-A, 133–148. Yan, Y. & Zhu, S. (1992) Discovery of acanthomorphic acritarchs in the Baicaoping Formation of Yongli, Shanxi, and its geological significance. Acta Micropalaeontol. Sinica 9, 278–282. Yin, L. (1987) Microbiotas of the latest Precambrian sequences. Strat. Palaeontol. Systemic Bound. China Precamb.-Camb. Bound. 1, 415–494. Zang, W. (1988) Dissertation (Australian National Univ., Canberra, Australia). Zang, W. (1990) Sinian and Early Cambrian floras and biostratigraphy on the South China Platform. Palaeontograph. Abteilung B 224, 75–119. Zang, W. & Walter, M. R. (1992) Late Proterozoic and Cambrian microfossils and biostratigraphy, Amadeus basin, central Australia. Mem. Assoc. Aust. Palaeontol. 12, 1–132. Zhang, Z. (1986) Clastic facies microfossils from the Chuanlinggou Formation (1800 Ma) near Jixian, North China. J. Micropalaeontol. 5, 9–16. OCR for page 84 This page in the original is blank. Representative terms from entire chapter:

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any of various stork-like wading birds of temperate and tropical regions, such as the Nile, having a long, slender, downward-curving bill Arabic for "son of" traditional images or symbols associated with a subject Islamic dynasty that ruled Egypt AD 935-969 the leader of an Islamic community the smoke or odor produced by the burning of an aromatic substance A figure of design carved into or beneath the surface of hard metal or stone. the name of a religion that is centered on the Qur'an, the word of God as passed through the Prophet Muhammad Relating to the phallus carried in the ancient festivals. vaulted hall or porch closed on three sides and open at one side overlooking the courtyard of a mosque

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Traditional Chinese Medicine Chinese traditional medicine generally refers to natural materials such as plants, animals and minerals, etc. that can have medicinal values. There are several thousand types. Most of these medicines have a long history of providing sufficient and reliable guarantee for the health and multiplication of the Chinese nation, and as a main weapon for disease prevention and cure. It is an important part of Chinese traditional culture. Chinese traditional medicine has a great variety with complicated names, which is related with the change of era and the difference in places. On the whole, the naming of Chinese traditional medicine is mostly according to the place of origin, performance, growth character, shape, smell, the part used as medicine and the name of the discoverer, etc. In the processing of medication the exertion of the efficiency of medication is, first of all, determined by the function of medication itself. Secondly, it also has a direct relationship with the means of processing. The processed Chinese traditional medicine is better for the exertion of the efficiency of the medicine and can reduce the irritation and toxicity of the medicine. Sometimes it can also increase and change the performance and better meet clinical requirements. The ways of processing can generally be divided into four categories, ordinary processing, water processing, fire processing and water and fire processing. Four natures: they refer to cold, hot, warm and cool, the four different natures of medicines observed and generalized in the long-term practice of medical treatment. Five flavors: they refer to the five flavors of sourness, bitterness, sweetness, spiciness and saltiness. Different flavors of medicines mean different functions. Channel Tropism: It is the optional function of medicines and also the rule of using Chinese traditional medicine. When using medicines clinically, first identify the viscerae, bowels and channels where the pathological changes occur and then select corresponding medication to treat the disease. Ascending, descending, floating and sinking: they are tendencies of medication in the therapeutic effect. Combination: It refers to combine more than two medicines optionally in application according to the requirements of the state of a disease and the performance of medication. The felicity of combination has a direct influence on the curative effect. More Topics on Traditional Chinese Medicine - Massage Therapy - Acupuncture and moxibustion - Main works on traditional Chinese medicine - Basic Theories of Traditional Chinese Medicine - History of Traditional Chinese Medicine

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The Construction of a Chinese Picture Naming Test and Its Preliminary Normative Data We will construct a Chinese Picture Naming test which include 60 items with various word frequency and familiarity and is arranged by their familiarity in daily life. Then we will collect the normative data for this test using normal subjects of various age and educational level. |Study Design:||Observational Model: Cohort Time Perspective: Cross-Sectional |Official Title:||The Construction of a Chinese Picture Naming Test and Its Preliminary Normative Data| - naming accuracy [ Time Frame: 10 minutes ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ] - naming agreement [ Time Frame: 10 min ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ] - image agreement [ Time Frame: 10 min ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ] |Study Start Date:||May 2007| |Study Completion Date:||September 2007| |Primary Completion Date:||June 2007 (Final data collection date for primary outcome measure)| university student living in Taiwan for more than 5 years No known neurological, psychiatric or speech language disorders normal subjects 20-80 y/o Living in Taiwan for at least 5 years No know neurological, psychiatric and speech-language disorders In this study, we will first construct a Chinese Picture Naming Testing following the format of Boston Naming test. We will use the original 60 items from BNT and also choose another 100 items of objects with various frequency using the word frequency data from the Linguistic Corpus of the Academia Sinica. Colored pictures will be constructed accordingly. University students will be recruited to name the pictures and to judge the familiarity and image agreement for these pictures. Then, we will choose 60 pictures of according to the principles of 1. high image agreement 2. high naming agreement 3. including items of various familiarity and word frequency 4. double or triple phoneme words 5. including the original BNT items as possible. The 60 pictures will be arranged by their familiarity to construct the Chinese Picture Naming Test. Then, we will recruit normal subjects of various age group and educational level to to the Naming test and to construct the preliminary norm.

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Without animal research, most of the nationís one million insulin-dependent diabetics would be dead. From mice to dogs, pigs to electric eels, a variety of animal species contribute each year to medical breakthroughs that save millions of human lives each year. Through research on these animals, scientists have discovered cures and preventions for a number of human and animal ailments. Click to play! Why do veterinarians, who are supposed to take care of sick animals, work with researchers who do experiments on them? Veterinarians realize that the results of animal research improve the health of animals as well as humans. Many advances in veterinary medicine are the direct result of animal research; some research has even helped save certain species from extinction. Veterinarians also act as advocates for research animals, making sure they are healthy and comfortable.

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Description: Dust or Dew addresses the question of Israel's unique contribution to beliefs about afterlife in the Ancient Near East as hinted at in Psalm 49. Reading this obscure psalm separately from other diverse contexts is often unrewarding. Dust or Dew shows which other readings, from the literature of both ancient Israel and its neighbors, enriches our understanding not only of the psalm and but also of Israel's developing concepts of sheol and redemption for the righteous. The Korahite clan of Israel emerges from the historical shadows. Finally, new light on Genesis 1-3 enriches understanding of the Psalm 49, while a survey of the icons of ancient goddess worship informs our understanding of Genesis 1-3. Subjects: Bible, Hebrew Bible / Old Testament, Writings, Literature, Psalms Review by Philippus J. Botha Read the Review Citation: Philippus J. Botha, review of Janet Smith, Dust or Dew: Immortality in the Ancient Near East and in Psalm 49, Review of Biblical Literature [http://www.bookreviews.org] (2012). Adobe Acrobat Reader All RBL reviews are published in PDF format. To view these reviews, you must have downloaded and installed the FREE version of Adobe Acrobat Reader. If you do not have the Reader or you have an older version of the Reader, you can download the most recent version now.

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So many people are unemployed these days. Maybe because they don’t know very well what they are really interested in or perhaps they don’t have in mind the proper job that suits them. One task which is simple and growing to one’s growth is being a physician assistant. Now, what exactly is this job? A Physician Assistant Job description is simply the right hand of a physician. What does it do? It does the physician requires them to do. - Physician Assistant Job - Physician Assistant Task - Physician Assistant Career This type of job continues to be scientifically inclined because it centers in the medical industry. As what I have said earlier, physician assistant job description is somewhat the secretary of the physician. They should still be executing medical works but not on their own. They will be advised by expert physicians or doctors. This is certainly far beyond clerical tasks that are done by secretaries who do book appointments in the clinic. These individuals largely do actualize what they have learned in the medical industry. They also diagnose disease and perform medical tasks that doctors and physicians do only with proper training as well as direction of the latter. Part of the physician assistant task description is carrying out a variety of medical examinations and interpreting them as well. They can also figure out illness from patients and offer certain cures. They can be lovingly called as junior physicians. They make a physician’s job as basic as it might be. If possible, the physician’s job is just to approve what the physician assistant did or not. Another Physician Assistant Courses description could be to treat minor disease or injuries. Typically, these matters are merely too minor for a certified physician to take care of. These situations are then given over towards the PA’s. Some situations of these minor health problems are headache, stomachache, diarrhea, cramps and the like. PA’s are allowed by all means to identify and prescribe possible remedies for these types of problems. In the scope of the physician assistant job description is the hours of work expected. It all depends on the physician. They’ll need to do field works well with the physician 7-day period a week. Do rounds in the hospitals and look on their physician’s patients and report to their supervisor for possible progress or problems. They might be also asked to visit remote areas to check possible patients who might be needing their assistance. Just because a licensed physician has a lot of functions, minor functions as stated above are done by the PA’s. Tags: assistant job description, physician, physician assistant, Physician Assistant Career, physician assistant courses, Physician Assistant Information, physician assistant job, Physician Assistant Program, physician assistant task, what is the physician assistant career Trackback from your site.

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Super separation: an innovative filter separates oil from water with unusual quickness. The water barrier Separating water and oil is not easy. In chemical processes in particular, it is often necessary to remove disruptive water from oily liquids. Frequently, such emulsions only separate themselves very slowly, leading to downtimes in the production process. Alternatively, they can be separated by distillation, but this consumes a great deal of energy. Lotus leaf as the inspiration Materials experts at Bayer Technology Services have now developed a porous filter that allows oil to flow through while blocking the way for water. The water-repellent property was not invented by chemists but originated in nature. Read here to find out how the lotus leaf served as the model for this new technical water barrier and thus helps to save energy.

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The first European settlement of Bellingham was at the base of Whatcom Creek in 1853. The mouth of Whatcom Creek was also the site of the first lumber mill started by city founders Russell Peabody and Henry Roeder. Along Bellingham Bay four towns blossomed within close proximity of each other: Fairhaven, Sehome, Bellingham and Whatcom. By 1904 all four towns had consolidated to form the City of Bellingham. In the early Twentieth Century a Washington State group named the Good Roads Association successfully lobbied for a network of “good roads” to better serve the needs of Washington residents. Their efforts resulted in the construction of, among others, Washington’s Primary State Highway 99 also known as Pacific Highway 1, stretching along the West Coast from Mexico to Canada. Highway 99 became the main road to and through Bellingham bringing more people from greater distances than ever before. As a result of the increase in tourism a number of new businesses flourished along the Highway’s path. Gas and service stations catering to the traveler proliferated as did motels, cafes and gift shops. The few remnants from the travel boom of Highway 99 are conspicuously out of place among the changed neighborhoods and provide clues to what Bellingham must have looked like during that period. Without question, the development of Interstate 5 has changed the land use and shape of Bellingham. Compared to the average of 38,000 daily trips along Highway 99 in 1950, the combined 1997 daily average of 10,500 along the same route speaks volumes of the change. Tourist oriented businesses, and major retail stores such as Fred Meyer and K-mart, have been diverted from the route of Old 99 and now cluster around the interchanges of I-5. Within two years after the freeway was finished, plans to expand the State Road now called Old Fairhaven Parkway (in the south side of Bellingham) to meet I-5 were already under way. Bellingham’s roads and businesses have not only expanded east from downtown to meet with where I-5 was side-stepping the city center, but have jumped onto the other side of I-5. Residential neighborhoods have also spread beyond their previous limits. Amazingly, the downtown area of Bellingham has remained economically healthy despite the inability to even see most of it from the freeway. On the surface the route of Highway 99 through Bellingham seems to have changed little. Closer inspection shows that the numerous gas stations and motels that lined both sides of the road are either gone or converted to other uses. The few that remain, like the Evergreen Motel, the Lions Inn Motel and the main branch of the US Post Office, have almost become historic markers of a period beginning 70 years ago when Highway 99 was first laid down. Building a Military Road| The Start of The Good Roads Association | Highway 99 The Route of Highway 99 Through Bellingham | Samish Way | East Maple and Ellis Street Holly Street | Prospect and Dupont | Elm Street and Northwest Avenue West Maplewood | References and Attribution CLICK HERE FOR A PRINTABLE VERSION OF THE ENTIRE TEXT TO MAIN TEXT TO MAP OF HIGHWAY 99

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15-317 Constructive Logic Lecture 1: Overview We provide an overview over the course, covering topics, approach, and learning goals. We also outline administrative issues, such as assignments, exams, course policies, and The course is divided into 4 parts. - Proofs as Evidence for Truth - Proofs as Programs - Proofs as Computations - Proofs as Refutations The constructive nature of our approach to logic is manifest in the central role of proofs, which will be interpreted differently in the different parts of the course.

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Every day, conversations about food take place all around us - at the supermarket, in the news, and online. Food is something that connects us all but many people have questions about how it gets from the farm to their fork. Consumers need accurate, science-based facts about modern food production. Many people don't know about farmers' and ranchers' relationship with their animals, or how modern farmers produce meat, milk, and eggs. The image of the family farm with its red barn, a few chickens in the yard, some pigs in the mud, and cows in the field isn't accurate anymore. Today, U.S. animal agriculture is a dynamic, specialized endeavor - the envy of the rest of the world. Modern American agriculture allows less than two percent of the population to feed the rest of us. Well cared for, healthy livestock and poultry is the key to this efficiency, resulting in the highest-quality and most affordable food in the history of the world. Farmers and ranchers continuously strive to better serve their animals, the land, and consumers. Americans enjoy an abundance of choices in the supermarket. That is worth celebrating! Learn how farmers and ranchers - whether they farm using biotechnology or organically, on 10,000 acres or 10 acres - produce wholesome, safe, and affordable foods for their family and yours. In 50 years, we will require 100 percent increase in food production. To feed the growing population, technology must be utilized to increase food production, sustainability on farms and help keep food safe and affordable. More. Show your support of farmers working on farms large and small to ensure a safe, nutritious and affordable food supply for future generations. More. The Animal Agriculture Alliance, a partner of the Alliance to Feed the Future, is a national non-profit organization that helps the public better understand modern animal agriculture's importance to our quality of life. More.

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Visual Representation System People who primarily rely on the Visual Representation System often stand or sit with their heads and/or bodies erect, with their eyes up. They generally will be breathing from the top of their lungs. They often sit forward in their chair and tend to be organized, neat, well-groomed and orderly. They are often thin and wiry. They memorize by seeing pictures, and are less distracted by noise. They often have trouble remembering verbal instructions because their minds tend to wander. A visual person will be interested in how your program LOOKS. Appearances are important to them.

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India's Left Front has completed 30 years in power in West Bengal — a monumental achievement. Never before has a political alliance, leave alone an ideology-driven coalition, governed any Indian state for so long. Nowhere else in the world have Communist parties won free and fair elections to rule a country or province the size of West Bengal (population 80 million) consecutively for three decades. This reaffirms the relevance of the Left’s policies and its consummate practice of democracy. The LF’s long West Bengal tenure can’t be attributed to manipulative politics. The Left parties, led by the Communist Party (Marxist), Communist Party of India, Forward Bloc and Revolutionary Socialist Party, have sunk deep roots among the masses. Last year’s Assembly elections, probably the most tightly monitored in any state, conclusively disproved the charge that rigging was responsible for the Front’s success. It won 235 of 294 seats against a robust opposition. The LF’s achievements are many and impressive. The greatest include land reform — the most successful outside Kerala — an unblemished record of communal harmony, relatively clean, stable, governance, advanced panchayati raj institutions, and above all, politicisation and empowerment of the masses. Operation Barga, which gave 2.3 million cultivators tenancy rights, accounts for more than one-half of the total acreage transferred under land reforms in India. Only slightly less impressive are the high increases in crop yields, and urban renewal, that occurred under the LF. The Front has transformed dilapidated Kolkata into a flourishing metropolis. The LF’s performance is creditable in some social sectors: a 210 per cent increase in literacy and a halving of the infant-mortality ratio. The urban poverty ratio is 14.8 per cent, well below the national average (25.7 per cent). However, the Front’s record in some other respects is middling or poor. Public spending and access to health have stagnated. Some indicators—immunisation, nutrition among women, and number of doctors and hospital beds per lakh people—are below the national average. West Bengal hasn’t opened a single new primary-health centre in a decade. The rural poverty ratio annually declined by 2.24 percentage-points between in 1983 and 1993. But the decline has slowed down to 1.15 points. Today, the rural poverty ratio is 28.6 per cent, slightly above the national average. The percentage of rural households not getting “enough food” is highest in West Bengal (12 per cent), almost double that in Orissa/Assam. An alarming indicator is the number of school dropouts. At 9.61 lakhs, this figures is even higher than in Bihar (6.96 lakhs). Of India’s 24 districts which have more than 50,000 out-of-school children, 9 are in West Bengal. No less embarrassing is the rate of suicides (15,015), the highest among all states in 2005. A disturbing aspect of West Bengal’s reality is starvation deaths among the workers of tea gardens. In Jalpaiguri, the health department recorded 571 starvation deaths in 15 months. Informal estimates put the total since 2002 at 3,000 deaths. This is a shameful blot on the Front’s record. Yet another dark spot is the Front’s failure of inclusion in respect of religious minorities. Muslims form 25.2 per cent of the state’s population. But their proportion in government employment is an abysmal 2.1 per cent, even lower than Gujarat’s 5.4. This represents the downside of the LF’s record of protecting the minorities against violence. Clearly, West Bengal hasn’t yet become a model state. The LF must undertake serious introspection and return to a strongly pro-people, inclusive orientation if it’s to become one. Regrettably, the LF leadership’s priorities seem to have turned elitist. It now obsessively promotes industrialisation at any cost, at the expense of peasants and workers. It has set its mind upon projects like the Singur car factory and Special Economic Zones. The results were brutally evident in the firing in March on SEZ protestors at Nandigram. This grievous blunder betrayed the Front’s own core-constituency. No argument about “provocation” or a “conspiracy” between the Right and the Extreme Left, can justify the gunning down of 14 peasants. Unfortunately, the leadership of the LF, in particular the CPM, has not learnt any lessons. The Nandigram victims have been given no compensation. No major CPM leader has visited Nandigram. On the 30th anniversary, many Front leaders spoke the same language of growth that they (rightly) criticise the Congress for. Most stressed that W Bengal has the highest GDP growth rate (8.55 per cent) of all states. Worse, they ruled out rethinking on neoliberal industrialisation. Chief Minister Bhattacharjee said: “There is no turning back from industries...” Even CPM general secretary Prakash Karat said: “[W]e have to adopt industrialisation… Industrialisation cannot be achieved without the help of capitalists like the Tatas.” Is there no alternative to private capital-led industrialisation? Prabhat Patnaik, the party’s pre-eminent economist, strongly counters this. He argues: “When the Tatas or the Ambanis invest, they do so not out of their savings: they obtain finance from various institutions… The public sector can do exactly the same…” However, leave alone undertake investment, the LF refuses to regulate industrialisation in the public interest. It’s zealously wooing all manner of businessmen, including the Salim group linked to Indonesia’s super-corrupt Suharto family. This approach threatens to weaken the LF’s greatest collective strength: unity and ideological cohesion. It could erode the Left’s support among workers and peasants and eventually turn it into an elitist, social democratic entity favoured by the middle classes. That cannot give the Left a viable and relevant future. If the LF wants to build on its achievements, overcome its flaws, and offer an alternative radical vision for society, it must correct course — urgently and sincerely.

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This page is based on the 1993 Jepson Manual. Please see the Jepson eFlora for up-to-date information about California vascular plants. |Jepson Flora Project: Jepson Interchange| |TREATMENT FROM THE JEPSON MANUAL|| previous taxon | Jepson Interchange (more information) ©Copyright 1993 by the Regents of the University of California Print edition is available from the University of California Press |The second edition of The Jepson Manual (2012) is available from the University of California Press| |See also the Jepson eFlora, which parallels the Second Edition| Annual to bamboo-like; roots generally fibrous Stem generally round, hollow; nodes swollen, solid Leaves alternate, 2-ranked, generally linear; sheath generally open; ligule membranous or hairy, at blade base Inflorescence various (of generally many spikelets) Spikelet: glumes generally 2; florets (lemma, palea, flower) 1many; lemma generally membranous, sometimes glume-like; palea generally ± transparent, ± enclosed by lemma Flower generally bisexual, minute; stamens generally 3; stigmas generally 2, generally plumose Fruit: achene-like grain Genera in family: 650900 genera; ± 10,000 species: worldwide; greatest economic importance of any family (wheat, rice, maize, millet, sorghum, sugar cane, forage crops, ornamental, weeds; thatching, weaving, building materials). [Hitchcock 1951 Manual grasses US, USDA Misc Publ 200; Clayton & Renvoise 1986 Kew Bull Add Series 13]See Glossary p. 26 for illustrations of general family characteristics. Generally wind-pollinated. Annual, perennial herb, generally cespitose Stem solid, generally glabrous Leaves generally basal; ligule generally < 1 mm, generally hairy; blade flat to inrolled, upper surface generally ± short-hairy, often ciliate near ligule, hairs long, bulbous-based Inflorescence generally panicle-like; branches spike-like, 1 per node, persistent or deciduous in fruit; spikelets 2-rowed on 1 side of axis, overlapping Spikelet sessile or short-stalked, ± cylindric to laterally compressed; glumes generally unequal, generally lanceolate, 1-veined, upper glume firmer than lower; axis (if inflorescence branch persistent) breaking between glumes and lower floret; florets generally 23, lower floret bisexual, > upper, upper florets generally vestigial, sterile; lemmas 3-veined, generally 3-awned, awns straight, scabrous; palea ± = lemma Species in genus: ± 40 species: Am Etymology: (Claudio (born 1774) and Esteban (born 1776) Boutelou, Spanish botanists, horticulturists) Reference: [Gould 1979 Ann Missouri Bot Gard 66:348416] Many species important for forage. Stem decumbent to erect, 0.53.5 dm Leaf: blade < 7 cm, < 2 mm wide Inflorescence: branches 416, 825 mm, appressed to reflexed, deciduous in fruit; branch axis exceeding terminal spikelet node > 5 mm, base densely short-hairy; spikelets 14 per branch, generally appressed, falling with branch Spikelet: upper glume 57 mm, glabrous or hairy, acute; florets (1)2; lower floret lemma ± = upper glume, glabrous or hairy, lobes 0, awns 0 or 2, < 1 mm; upper floret base hairy-tufted, lobes generally 0 between awn bases, awns 27 mm, generally unequal Ecology: Dry, open, sandy to rocky slopes, flats, washes, disturbed sites, scrub, woodland Elevation: < 1800 m. Bioregional distribution: e Peninsular Ranges, e&s Mojave Desert, Sonoran Desert Distribution outside California: to Utah, Texas, s Mexico, S.America Flowering time: AprSep Another var. in AZ, NM, n Mex Horticultural information: STBL. |YOU CAN HELP US make sure that our distributional information is correct and current. If you know that a plant occurs in a wild, reproducing state in a Jepson bioregion NOT highlighted on the map, please contact us with that information. Please realize that we cannot incorporate range extensions without access to a voucher specimen, which should (ultimately) be deposited in an herbarium. You can send the pressed, dried collection (with complete locality information indicated) to us (e-mail us for details) or refer us to an accessioned herbarium specimen. Non-occurrence of a plant in an indicated area is difficult to document, but we will especially value your input on those types of possible errors (see automatic conversion of distribution data to maps).|

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Join for Just $16 A Year - Discounts on travel and everyday savings - Subscription to AARP The Magazine - Free membership for your spouse or partner Hepatitis C is a disease that causes inflammation and infection in the liver. This condition develops after being infected with the Hepatitis C virus (HCV). There are two forms of hepatitis C: acute and chronic. Acute hepatitis C causes symptoms to set in quickly, whereas chronic hepatitis C develops over a period of months, so symptoms may not be apparent at first. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that over 130 to 170 million people have chronic hepatitis C (WHO). Unlike hepatitis A and B, hepatitis C has no vaccination, although efforts to create one are ongoing. Hepatitis C is highly contagious, which is why such a high number of people have the disease. According to WHO, this disease is found worldwide, with Egypt having the highest percentage of chronic hepatitis C cases (WHO). Hepatitis C is transmitted through blood contaminated with the hepatitis C virus. It can be spread through: Some forms of hepatitis are spread sexually, but hepatitis C is less likely to be spread through sexual means than the other forms. Hepatitis C develops after becoming infected with the hepatitis C virus. People who are at high risk for developing hepatitis C include: Symptoms may not show up right away, and can take between six and seven weeks to appear. Based on the symptoms alone, your doctor may not have enough evidence to diagnose you with hepatitis C. It’s very important to let your doctor know if you’ve been exposed to hepatitis C. If your doctor suspects that you have the condition, he or she may order a series of blood tests to check for signs of the hepatitis C virus. Blood tests can also measure the amount of hepatitis C virus in your blood. If you’re infected, a genotyping test can be used to see which treatment will work for you. If your doctor thinks you may have liver damage, he or she will prescribe a liver function test. This test checks your urine and blood for signs of heightened enzymes from your liver. This helps your doctor determine if there is any damage. Another test that can be used to check for liver damage is a liver biopsy. A liver biopsy involves the doctor taking a tiny bit of tissue from your liver. This tissue is then tested for cell abnormalities. There are several options for treating hepatitis C, but treatment is usually reserved for those with serious liver involvement and scarring and no other conditions that prevent treatment. Your doctor may decide if anti-viral treatment is likely to provide more benefit than harm. Doctors recommend bed rest to help your body gain the energy it needs to fight off the disease. They may also create a nutrition plan to keep you from getting malnourished or dehydrated. According to the Mayo Clinic, some people with hepatitis C do not need treatment because they have only minor liver abnormalities. If that is the case, your doctor will probably want to monitor your liver function with regular blood tests (Mayo). Complications from hepatitis C are: Complications of hepatitis C usually arise from chronic hepatitis C. Prevent contracting the hepatitis C virus by: Written by: April Kahn Published on Aug 20, 2012 Updated on Feb 15, 2013 Medically reviewed by Peter Rudd, MD Enter your symptoms in our Symptom Checker to find out possible causes of your symptoms. Go. Enter any list of prescription drugs and see how they interact with each other and with other substances. Go. Enter its color and shape information, and this tool helps you identify it. Go. Find information on drug interactions, side effects, and more. Go. Member access to health and insurance products and services at AARPhealthcare.com. Members can get an instant quote with AARP® Dental Insurance administered by Delta Dental Insurance Company. Members can save on eyewear with AARP® Vision Discounts provided by EyeMed. Caregiving can be a lonely journey, but AARP offers resources that can help.

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NASA to Announce New Planetary Discoveries MOFFETT FIELD, Calif. -- NASA will host a news briefing at 10 a.m. PST, Wednesday, Feb. 2, to announce the Kepler mission's latest findings about planets outside our solar system. The briefing will be held in the NASA Headquarters auditorium at 300 E St S.W. in Washington and carried live on NASA Television and the agency's website at http://www.nasa.gov/ntv Reporters may view the televised press conference at NASA's Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif., in the main auditorium, Bldg. N-201 or ask questions by phone. To obtain dial-in information, journalists must send their name, affiliation and telephone number to Steve Cole by e-mail at [email protected] by 9 a.m. PST on Feb. 1. Kepler is the first NASA mission capable of finding Earth-size planets in or near the "habitable zone," the region in a planetary system where liquid water can exist on the surface of the orbiting planet. Although additional observations will be needed over time to achieve that milestone, Kepler is detecting planets and planet candidates with a wide range of sizes and orbital distances to help us better understand our place in the galaxy. The news conference will follow the scheduled release of Kepler mission science data on Feb. 1. The data release will update the number of planet candidates and is based on observations conducted between May 2 and Sept. 17, 2009. - Douglas Hudgins, Kepler program scientist, NASA Headquarters, Washington - William Borucki, Kepler Science principal investigator, Ames - Jack Lissauer, Kepler co-investigator and planetary scientist, Ames - Debra Fischer, professor of Astronomy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. For more information about the Kepler mission and to view the Feb. 1 data release, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/kepler - end - text-only version of this release To receive Ames news releases via e-mail, send an e-mail with the word "subscribe" in the subject line to To unsubscribe, send an e-mail to the same address with "unsubscribe" in the subject line. NASA Image Policies

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In a remote region, a village struggles for its life as scientists face the global challenge of warming. Rob Barrett looks for puffin birds' nests in the cliffs of Hornoya, Norway. (Essdras M Suarez/ Globe Staff) VARDO - At the intersection between Norway, Russia, and the open ocean, the midnight light of high summer can so often deceive. Soul-soft sun mutes rooftops and tufted tundra. Distance, whether from dock to buoy, or from sandy seashell to orange-hued horizon, dulls. Time, in these eerie, extra hours, drifts in a slack sea. Or so it seems. There, on the rock-ribboned heights of Hornoya, an island seabird sanctuary, chaotic colonies do not go gentle into the good night. Male guillemots, black-and-white birds smaller than a gull, bob in the shallows of the sea and prepare to migrate. The fathers call to their children clamoring on the cliffs above. "GRRRR! . . . GRRRR! . . . GRRRR!," they cry, somewhere between a growl and a purr. "Come! Jump! Now!" Other twilit moments also illuminate critical times for land and lives at the Arctic edge of Europe. At an inland bog south of Hornoya, biologists watch as warming soil seethes. In the living room of one of Vardo's huddled island homes, a great-grandmother sits and sifts memories of world war occupation and fishing booms and busts, of family fun and solitude. In such shifts, the stakes are high for life here, and worlds away. So lean in, as a scientist might, and look closely. On Hornoya's cliffs, an important seabird nesting ground just across a choppy channel from Vardo's sleeping port, the cacophony does not cease. Kittiwakes quick-clip their gray wings and scream toward home. Puffins sputter to sea, and cormorants arch backs on black rocks. Amid it all, a single guillemot chick steps to the edge of a 60-foot-high ledge. The chick is 3 weeks old, more or less, and weighs only half a pound. It cannot fly. But black-backed gulls lurk. An otter is somewhere about on the island. Temperatures will not hold long near 60 degrees. A father continues its call from below. It is time to go to sea. The chick looks, and leaps. But turn toward shore to consider different dramas. Across Varanger Fiord, the long, lean water to the south of Vardo and Hornoya, dwarf birch, yellow cloudberries, and tight white flowers of Labrador tea help weave the bog's sharp, spongy carpet. Beyond this soggy swath, brown bears roam Norway spruce and tall birch in the Pasvik Valley, the beginning of the taiga that spans Russia to the Pacific Ocean. Stop near Neiden, though, at the bog only 6 miles inland, and walk a half-mile to its center. There rise several big bumps, low hills called palsas, with ice in their cores. The palsas are an early stage of permafrost, the frozen layers of soil beneath millions of square miles in the earth's polar and subpolar regions. Such high latitudes are thought to be warming twice as fast as more temperate parts of the planet. Yet it is uncertain how carbon-rich northern land - whether permafrost, or milder wetlands - will react as temperatures increase. As soil warms, how fast is it adding carbon dioxide and methane to the atmosphere's greenhouse gases, accelerating global warming? This bog, quicker to warm than permafrost, could be giving early indications. So scientists from nearby Svanvik and distant Washington, D.C., stand on top of a palsa and wonder: Might the bog share secrets? Not yet. Hush instead to hear a rollicking conversation in Vardo, a 700-year-old town anchored atop a treeless island just off the eastern edge of the mainland. In a second-floor sitting room framed with black-and-white portraits, eight old friends - women all, widows most - gather to celebrate a birthday. Their evening began at 2 and will run until 10. The women range in age from 65 to 84. Says one: "The age changes with the mood, and sometimes we are 20 years old!" They banter about chakras, energy centers into the body and soul, and read fortunes in the dregs of their cups. Says another: "We're not as crazy as we look, but it's important to keep your brain going." Topics turn to bus trips to southern fiords and flights to Italian beaches. Adds another: "You should always go away from where you live, because it's so much better to come home. To a comfortable bed and an empty wallet!" Most who have hit the road do not return. Vardo's fishing industry, once with boats thick in the harbor and docks bustling with fillet factories, collapsed when offshore factory trawlers began bypassing the town to ship fish for processing in China and elsewhere. Vardo's population was halved over the past 30 years, from 4,500 residents to 2,300. Many homes hugging the port sit empty. The gray-stroked streets are quiet, then, as one great-grandmother, Lillian Frantzen, 73, strolls from the party, thoughts of twilight leading her home. No such comforts for the guillemot out on Hornoya. The chick crashed with a thud, and has gathered itself up at the base of the cliff. It stands all of 6 inches tall beneath boulders and well-fertilized scurvy grass with lush leaves the shape of spinach. The chick's parents most likely swam from the North Sea to spend the summer searching for Barents Sea fish. A recent rebound of herring stocks, reflective of altered fishery management in other parts of Norway, helps the guillemot chicks, which can gulp down the thick herring. It has hurt the puffins, as herring eat the larvae of sand lance and capelin which the puffins prefer. Rob Barrett, a marine ornithologist from the Tromso University Museum, has been reaching into puffin burrows and intercepting leaping guillemots for 25 years to track their health. This summer, some hunting kittiwakes have returned to the cliffs with pipefish dangling from their beaks. "Whether this is global warming or not," Barrett says, "there is certainly a warm-water fish turning up in these waters." No food now, though, for the just-leapt guillemot. It swings its head from side to side and opens its beak wide: "CHEEP! CHEEP! CHEEP!" Some leapers call calmly after landing, as though humming to themselves. Others, like this one, sound the alarm. Fifty feet of rock-scrabbled slope below, a particularly frantic father, still circling in the sea, calls in four-second intervals. "GRRRR! . . . GRRRR! . . . GRRRR!" Child and father cannot see each other. The chick stumbles, alone, toward the water's edge. Progress is not so obvious on the bog. The end of an ice age began to unlock this land some 10,000 years ago. The Gulf Stream has long sent warming waves across the northern Atlantic, keeping Norway's coast ice-free in winter, and the land at its outer edges hospitable enough to welcome a network of highways, airports, and heated homes. Before such modern construction, temperatures cooled during the Little Ice Age, which had peaks as late as the 19th century. Many of the bog's palsas began to form then. Stand on a palsa with a biologist such as Paul Aspholm, from the nearby Svanhovd center of Bioforsk, a Norwegian environmental institute. Aspholm knows the unseen rhythms of a palsa's life. When winter temperatures and precipitation are low, a palsa freezes water from the surrounding bog to expand its core. As temperature and precipitation increase, the palsa loses insulation, and its core begins to melt. Over decades, the palsa pulses: Its mound swells, then edges crack into spongy gorges of peat and shallow pools. Listen as Bert Drake, a US plant physiologist from the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, and Daniel Rasse, a Belgian with Bioforsk, join Aspholm to consider where best to put instruments to track changing climatic conditions. They hope to measure air movement and the amount of carbon dioxide and methane in it. Factor that with temperature, radiation, and other data, and an understanding could begin to emerge about the silent seep of the Arctic earth. The ease of August belies the urgency. One standard estimate predicts the north will warm 7 to 13 degrees in the next century. Yet some scientists contend there is twice the amount of carbon locked in northern soil as exists in the atmosphere. "If it all starts coming out, then we've got a feedback that's really terrific," Drake says, "and our guesses about how high the temperature is going to go are way off." For years, Drake has measured how ecosystems respond to rising carbon dioxide and other climate change in Maryland and Florida. The study he and Rasse are planning in the bog would be the first of its kind in Norway. And it could become the northernmost part of a broader effort to measure greenhouse impacts from soil emissions on land throughout Europe. First, though, Drake and Rasse need to find money for the project. They stand on the palsa and watch the wind shift across the bog. "Where," Drake says, "do we want to put the instrument?" Back in Vardo, Frantzen, her hair short and dark, her mind quick, settles into a soft chair before a muted Predecessors to the native Sami communities existed in the region more than 5,000 years ago. Throughout the last millennium, Norwegians, Finns, and others arrived. For the past few centuries, especially, Vardo has reacted to outside influences: ideas of free trade traveled north with the French and other revolutions. Local fishermen swapped for timber and grain with Pomors, sea-faring Russians from the White Sea. Frantzen opens a hardback volume of Vardo history and thinks of a grandfather, Mattis Bjorklund. In the 1870s, barely 20 years old, Bjorklund walked from famine-stricken Finland to Vardo's busy port. Nearly fifty years later, the Bolshevik Revolution broke up the Pomor trade. World War II brought German occupiers and Russian bombs. Relations with Russia were cut off by the Iron Curtain. In the 1950s and '60s, though, local fishermen sent millions of cod and haddock westward to world markets. In the dismal end of day outside Frantzen's living room window, the harbor stills. The tourists who disembarked with the coastal steamer's afternoon stop have long since departed. An American-built radar tower that monitors space debris - Russians claim it watches them - looms on an eastern hilltop. In an office less than a mile away, on the island's western edge, Norwegian officers monitor the distant passage of tankers. Traffic will increase as Russia's Gazprom teams with France's Total to develop the offshore Shtokman natural gas fields, one of the world's largest remaining deposits. Norway already profits hugely from oil found off its western shores. Vardo could cash in as a weigh-station for Russian tankers heading west. But such speculation has sputtered for 20 years. Frantzen fetches a dessert of fresh waffles with strawberry jam and a pitcher of hot coffee from the kitchen. She remembers scrambling with young friends to fight wartime hunger with seagull eggs. She misses her late husband, a sturdy man who won wrestling competitions across this edge of the Arctic. She is not as fond of the distance she feels Norway's central government has kept from Vardo. "While the town is bleeding," she says, "they see it only for strategic importance." Frantzen takes shelter with friends and family from the seemingly constant climate of her life: "We were born and raised in this weather. Cold and foggy." Small cities near Vardo fare better: Vadso as a government seat, Kirkenes as a center for renewed trade across the land border with Russia. In her August twilight, Frantzen lives apart from most of her five children and 14 grandchildren, who have left Vardo for work in Trondheim, or study in Bergen or Tromso. What, then, for the people who remain on the island as the sun swings toward winter's total darkness? "Those who are left in Vardo now," Frantzen says, "are staying." Things are not so certain for the bog. While rising temperatures melt polar ice to the north and glaciers in Greenland, Canada, and other Arctic points at similar latitudes as the bog, one long-term fear here is the opposite. Despite the short-term presence of the warm-water pipefish, will increased rain and melting ice deliver too much cooler water to the sea? Will the crucial warm waters fed from the Gulf Stream be cut off? If the world warms too much, in other words, will this temperate stretch of the Arctic eventually freeze? Atop a palsa in the silver evening light, cloudberries, nearing ripeness only weeks away, shudder against a chill breeze. And the guillemot chick out on Hornoya? The chick's father has hopped onto the last boulder, two feet from the ocean's edge, and waits. The chick scrambles up. The birds brush chests, heads back, beaks open only inches apart. The father cranes its neck: "GRRRR! . . . GRRRR! . . . GRRRR!" The chick answers: "CHEEP! . . . CHEEP! . . . CHEEP!" They will swim north into the Arctic Ocean for weeks, then turn southward for a winter spent at sea. Scientists do not know where, exactly, the guillemots will go when the seasons change. Neither do the birds. The father turns on the rock and leaps into the sea. The chick hesitates, then takes the next plunge. Tom Haines can be reached at [email protected].

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Criminal Justice & Religion Saint Louis University - School of Law December 12, 2009 RELIGION AND EVERYDAY LIFE AND CULTURE, p. 657, Vincent F. Biondo &, Richard D. Hecht, eds., Praeger, 2010 This chapter examines the relationship between criminal justice and religious traditions in the U.S. It outlines a general framework to illuminate the historical tensions between criminality and religious tradition. It further argues that even though the notion of “separation of church and state” is held in high esteem, in practice, history shows that Christian ideals can be linked to the very foundations of American law. The criminal justice system is no exception, and the impacts of Christianity can be seen from the very beginning of its development. In turn, the criminal justice system has played an influential role in the history and day to day realities of religious practitioners and their communities. As home to the largest prison population in the world, this chapter reveals the U.S. criminal justice system is a key factor in the religious practice of many. Number of Pages in PDF File: 16 Keywords: Religion, Criminal Justice, Penitentiary, Civil Religion, ScapegoatAccepted Paper Series Date posted: July 30, 2010 © 2013 Social Science Electronic Publishing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. This page was processed by apollo4 in 0.750 seconds

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Lehrer concludes that the “decline effect” is “troubling because it reminds us how difficult it is to prove anything.” But scientific hypotheses, no matter how firmly established, are never “proved” right. They are inherently provisional. Scientists know that the door is always open for new evidence and stronger theories. Newton’s law of gravitation was supported by countless empirical observations. It held the stage, unquestioned, for more than two hundred years. Then Einstein’s general relativity showed that Newton’s law, while a good approximation, was wrong. In this historical context, it’s no surprise that some recently formulated biological theories will not stand the test of time. New York City

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Hans Pfitzner (1869-1949) ,was an important German composer and almost exact contemporary of Richard Strauss .But his music never achieved the international popularity of Strauss, whose success Pfitzner resented bitterly. Pfitzner's late Romantic music has never been performed much outside of Germany and Austria, where it has maintained something of a place in the repertoire,although recordings of it have always been available everywhere. His most famous work is without a doubt the great and profound opera Palestrina,loosely based on the life of the great 16th century Italian composer,which was premiered in Munich in 1917 with Bruno Walter conducting. This is a vast ,complex and difficult opera, and not for every one. But any one who loves the operas of Wagner and Richard Strauss should definitely try it. The story takes many liberties with historical fact, but that does not make it any less a masterpiece. There was a controversy in the 16thcentury at the Vatican about religious music; One of the Popes at the time felt that Masses and other religious works for a Capella choir were too frivolous and filled with complex polyphony which obscured the meaning of the texts, and there was a threat of demanding that only Gregorian chant be used in Catholic services. According to the story, Palestrina, the great religious composer,wrote the great Mass for Pope Marcellus to show that polyphonic church music should be retained, and greatly pleased the Pope with this work. In the opera, Palestrina is an older man, depressed by the loss of his beloved wife and by the fact that he had been forced out of his prestigious position as director of the Papal choir because he was marred ,as this was a no-no at the time. He has lost all interest in composition despite the urgings of his son Ighino and pupil Silla, who are close friends. Silla wants to go to the more secular Renaissance environment of Florence and to compose secular works ,and to escape the rigid and austere world of Roman church music. The music-loving Cardinal Borromeo,also a historical figure, and a friend and admirer ,comes to Palestrina's home to urge him to write a great work to persuade the Vatican to avoid banning anything but Gregorian chant . But the composer refuses ,saying that he is completely burned out ,to Borromeo's dismay. Borromeo threatens him with imprisonment and even torture if he refuses. Later,in a dream, great church composers of the past appear to him in a dream, and demand that he compose a masterpiece because of the musical crisis in the Vatican. They tell him that to refuse is presumptuous, and his late wife Lucrezia also appears in a vision. Later, Ighino and Silla discover Palestrina asleep in the morning, and are astonished to see the manuscript of a new Mass . The second act takes place at the historic Council of Trent, and all the top religious leaders of Catholic Europe convene to discuss the musical crisis,among other theological and political matters. There is much bickering and infighting among all the Bishops and Cardinals, The Spanish delegation hates the Italians, and Martin Luther's reforms are discussed. Eventually he infighting gets so out of hand that a violent brawl ensues with dissident Protestants and the public getting involved, and Cardinal Madsdrucht, who chairs the council, orders guards to fire on the rioters. In the final act, the Mass has had a very successful first performance, and the the public comes to Palestrina's home crying "Evviva Palestrina". The Pope visits, and tells Palestrina how profoundly moved he was by the great Mass, and calls him "Prince of music for all times" Silla has already left for Florence. Palestrina remains humble in the face of all the acclaim and thanks God for everything. Pfitzner's music is very much in the Wagnerian tradition but very much in his own style. The action is rather-slow-moving and ponderous, but you can get accustomed to it, and if you take the effort to get to know this great opera, you will find it highly rewarding. Just don't expect the fast-moving action and instant gratification of opera such as La Boheme,Tosca, and La Traviata. I have the live recording on Berlin Classics from the 80s with the late Otmar Suitner conducting the Berlin State opera, before the unification of Germany and Berlin,where Daniel Barenboim is now music director. Peter Schreier is Palestrina, and there is a large cast of not very well known but excellent singers from the old East Germany. I have not heard the DG studio recording from the 70s with Nicolai Gedda as Palestrina and Detrich Fischer-Dieskau as Borromeo , conducted by the lat Rafael Kubleik with the Bavarian Radio orchestra and chorus, but very much want to, You may be able to find these at arkivmusic.com, by far the best site on the internet for getting hard-to-find classical CDs. You won't regret it ! There is also a recent DVD which I very much want to get of a recent revival in Munich conducted by Christian Thielemann, who has long been been a a committed advocate of Pfitzner's muisic.

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May 12, 2006 A SALTY NAME. A new species is often named after the discoverer or a loved one. But leave it to the kids to take the scientific high road in tagging a salt- and sun-loving microbe found in the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Salsolis was discovered by Ashlee Allred, a student at Westminster College in Utah working with biochemist Bonnie Baxter. Baxter teamed up with Maple Tree Press to hold a Name a New Species Contest. And the joint winners were Hannah Walsh, 11 (top), and Duncan Uszkay, 8 (above), of Canada, who independently chose the same Latin-based moniker. Runners-up included "Salteenies" and "Salty the Basking Carrot," but Baxter chose salsolis because "it reflected the scientific process of naming organisms." Salsolis belongs to the Halorubrum genus, and Baxter is proposing Halorubrum salsosis as its scientific name.

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Lasers 101: Understanding Aesthetic Lasers There are many variables involved in aesthetic lasers, including the active laser medium, wavelength, and targeted chromophore. Aesthetic lasers can be ablative, non-ablative or fractional. There are also other (non-laser) technology based treatments used in aesthetics such as Intense Pulsed Light (IPL) and Radio Frequency (RF). The term “laser” originated as an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser generates a beam of very intense light. The light emitted by a laser is monochromatic, coherent and collimated. Monochromatic – the light is of a single wavelength Coherent - the light beam waves are in the same phase Collimated - the light beams travel in parallel, all are parallel to each other. Active Laser Medium Types The lasing medium is the source of optical gain within a laser. The Active Lasers Medium can be a solid crystal, liquid dye, gas, or semiconductors. Carbon dioxide (Co2) are gas lasers that are commonly used in aesthetic treatments. Solid State Lasers Generally, the active medium of a solid-state laser consists of a glass or crystalline material. Solid state lasers include Ruby, Aexandrite and Erbium. Semiconductor-based lasers are also in the solid state, but are considered as a separate class. Diode is a semiconductor based laser used in aesthetic treatments. A dye laser is a laser which uses an organic dye as the lasing medium. A dye can usually be used for a much wider range of wavelengths which makes them suitable pulsed lasers. Pulsed Dye Lasers are used in aesthetic treatment. Electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible wavelengths and frequencies. Wavelength is the distance over which the wave’s shape repeats ( peak to peak).Wavelenghths are measured in micrometers (microns) and nanometers (nm) Frequency is the number of oscillations per second, measured in hertz. Energy is the amount of joules (J/cm) delivered. A laser technician adjusts the energy of each treatment, based on factors such as skin type and condition. The laser technician can also control other factors such as spot size and the length and duration of the pulse. Lasers used in aesthetic treatments target a specific chromophore generally melanin, hemoglobin or water in the tissue. The targeted chromophore is determined by the wavelength. The concentration of a specific chromophore peaks at different depths in the skin. For example hemoglobin in the blood is best absorbed at a shallow wavelength and water is best absorbed at deep wavelengths. Melanin is best absorbed somewhere in the middle (500nm-1064nm), the exact depth can vary, depending on the desired target. For example if you are targeting pigment in the hair follicle a deeper wavelength (640nm-1064nm) would be used, however most lasers used for hair removal are Diodes (800nm-900nm). Melanin and hemoglobin in blood vessels have color that absorbs the light emitted by specific lasers. Lasers that target color are usually used for hair removal, treating vascular issues such as rosacea and broken blood vessels, and skin discolorations such as freckels. Tanning is contraindicated with laser treatments that target color, tan skin will absorb more heat, increasing the probability of a burn. Tanning can also interfer with the desired results of treatment, because there is less contrast between the intended target and the surrounding tissue. Lasers that are used for hair removal target the color in the hair, so grey or blond hair will not respond well. (There are some lasers that claim to treat grey or light hair). Water constitutes 80% or more of soft tissue, so lasers that target water are generly used for resurfacing. Lasers with deep wavelenghts such as Co2 or erbium lasers are strongly absorbed by water. The Smoothbeam laser is a 1450nm diode laser that targets water in the skin and is used to treat acne by shrinking the oil gland. Argon 488 and 515 nm, is a gas laser that emits a blue green light which is strongly absorbed by both hemoglobin and water,used for photocoagulation. Argon lasers are rarely used for aesthetic or dermatologic treatments. KTP 532 nm, a brilliant green light well absorbed by hemoglobin and melanin used photoablation and photocoagulation. The Iredex DioLite 532 nm KTP that is Diode Pumped, it is used to treat vascular lesions and hyperpigmentation. Pulsed Dye: 577 -585nm, a yellow light that is well absorbed by hemoglobin in blood. Pulsed Dye Lasers (PDL) are especially useful for the treatment of vascular lesions, including spider veins, strawberry birthmarks and port wine stains. Ruby 694 nm, uses a synthetic ruby crystal that emits red light that is strongly absorbed by blue and black pigment, and by melanin in skin and hair. Ruby lasers are used for laser hair removal, tattoo removal and treating pigmented lesions including freckles, liver spots. Alexandrite Laser 755nm, emits a deep red light and is absorbed by melanin. Alexandrite permits deeper penetration into skin than the ruby, and is used for Laser Hair Reduction. Diode 800-900nm, emit near-infrared light. Diodes in the 800-900 nm range are absorbed by melanin and used for laser hair removal. The Smoothbeam uses a diode with a 1450nm, it targets water in the skin and is used to treat acne and build collagen. Nd:YAG 1064nm, laser emits a near infrared beam that can be absorbed by all tissue chromophores, however it is strongly absorbed by hemoglobin. Nd:YAG lasers are used for photocoagulation and photoablation, commonly used to treat broken blood vessels. Er:YAG 2940nm, emits a mid-infrared beam which has an absorption peak for water. Its used is to ablate tissue for cosmetic laser resurfacing. Also known as Erbium. CO2 10,600nm, is a gas laser emitting a mid infrared beam which is strongly absorbed by water. Co2 lasers are capable of cutting or vaporizing tissue, and are used for deep laser resurfacing. Ablative, Non-ablative an Fractional Non-ablative lasers heat the layers of skin beneath the surface without removing the epidermis (top layer of skin). Ablative procedures remove the epidermis. Carbon dioxide and Erbium lasers are ablative lasers used in aesthetic treatments. Ablative laser treatments are used for resurfacing, and leave skin raw. Fractional lasers can be ablative or non-ablative treatments, and target only a fraction of skin at a time, leaving the surrounding tissue intact. [ Read more on Fractional lasers ] Some of the lasers used in aesthetic treatments: Iredex DioLite – 532 nm KTP Diode Pumped – Non-Ablative Candela Vbeam – 595nm Pulsed dye laser (PDL) – Non-Ablative Candela GentleLASE – 755 nm Alexandrite – Non-Ablative Lumenis LightSheer – 800nm Diode – Non-Ablative Syneron eLaser / Comet – 810nm diode laser ( with RF) – Non-Ablative Syneron Matrix IR – 915nm diode (with RF )- Non-Ablative/Fractional Sciton Profile – Nd:YAG 1064 nm – Non-Ablative Lumenis Multi-Spot – 1064 Nd:YAG – Non-Ablative Candela GentleYAG – 1064nm Nd:YAG – Non-Ablative Fraxel re:fine – 1410nm Erbium – Non-Ablative/Fractional Cynosure Affirm – Nd:Yag 1440nm – Non-Ablative/Fractional Candela Smoothbeam – 1450 nm diode laser – Non-Ablative Fraxel re:store – 1500nm Erbium laser – Non-Ablative/ Fractional Sciton Profile -2940nm Er:YAG – Ablative /(additional attachment to Profile base) Sciton ProFractional – 2940 Er:YAG – Ablative/Fractional Lumenis UltraPulse – 10,600nm Co2 – Ablative/ Fractional Fraxel re:pair – 10,600nm Co2 laser – Ablative/ Fractional Sometimes a little information can be a dangerous thing. This is intended to help provide some very basic information of cosmetic / aesthetic lasers. There are many factors involved with laser aesthetic treatments and not everything can be included in this post. Aesthetic laser treatments can be complicated and should only be performed by a qualified and experienced technician.

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I wrote some rubbish java code last year that was designed to copy a file, but instead created a folder structure so deep that windows and Linux could not determine the size in order to delete it nor could it be moved or sent to the recycle bin or just deleted via Linux. An OS re-install was required to get rid of it in the end. What is the depth to which you can continue you to create folders in windows/mac/linux? The question has been closed for the following reason "The question is answered, right answer was accepted" by SignOff Oct 17 '10 at 09:31 Excerpt from Microsoft's Developer's Network (MSDN) In the Windows API (with some exceptions discussed in the following paragraphs), the maximum length for a path is MAX_PATH, which is defined as 260 characters. A local path is structured in the following order: drive letter, colon, backslash, name components separated by backslashes, and a terminating null character. For example, the maximum path on drive D is "D:\<some 256-character="" path="" string=""><nul>" where "<nul>" represents the invisible terminating null character for the current system codepage. (The characters < > are used here for visual clarity and cannot be part of a valid path string.) Basically, your entire path can only be 260 characters long, including the drive letter, colon, and slashes for the file structure. So, in order to make a deep, but narrow file structure, you could easily get a directory 127 folders deep, if all of the folder's names were only one character long, with no spaces. 260 (total character places) - 3 ( for "C:") = 257/x+1 x = numbers of characters in folder name My math is weak, so that formula might not be right, but I think you can grasp the idea. answered Sep 09 '10 at 19:05 It's not actually the depth that you can continue to create folders in, Windows at least, but it's how many characters you take up doing so. So if you had C:ABCDEFGHetc... you could have a lot of folders, but I believe there is a restriction on the amount of characters a folder structure can contain before telling you you've gone too far. answered Sep 09 '10 at 18:09 There isn't a set maximum of how many node children there can be with in a parent node. File systems like NTFS use a B+tree and HFS(+) use a B-tree structure to create a hierarchy of nodes ( or files ) within the database of the file system. There is a limit, but the limit is of total overall nodes within the database, not a set limit of how many children a specific node can have, or how long a branch can extend within the tree. An OS or Filesystem can artificially limit it if they so choose however. The number of nodes, or files, allowed in a filesystem depend on the bitsize of it... an NTFS or HFS+ system is 32bit, which means it supports 2^32-1.. or 4,294,967,295 files. By the way, a file denotes any node, in other words a directory (or folder) is a file itself that simply contains other files.

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Bug of the Week Damselflies (Suborder Zygoptera) Hi, again, BugFans, |A stunning Ebony-winged damselfly. Like dragonflies, damselflies are in the order Odonata. Despite the fact that the immature insect looks very different than the adult, like dragonflies they practice simple/incomplete metamorphosis, growing through egg – naiad – adult stages. Like dragonflies, their nurseries are aquatic, often in the quiet waters of the pond’s edge. |A female American rubyspot.||(Probably) a Slender Spreadwing; the Lestes tend to perch with their bodies at an angle and their wings are only partially folded at rest.| Damselflies tend to be smaller and slimmer than dragonflies, their eyes bulge out to each side, making them look “bug-eyed,” and they can fold their wings over their bodies when they land. Dragonflies’ wings stay outstretched at rest, and they have “wrap-around” compound eyes that face forward. The immatures/naiads/nymphs are carnivores and will eat anything they can stuff into their mouths (and they prey on mosquito larvae, which develop along side them in the water). Adults fly around and snag small insects out of the air and eat them. The combs along the sides of their legs help them hold onto their prey. |The bug-eyed aquatic damselfly nymph does show a surprising resemblance to the bug-eyed future adult, confirming that pesky Simple metamorphosis. Eggs are laid in or on the water. The nymph may spend a few months to over-the-winter under water. Although they can locomote by undulating, the nymphs are not considered swimmers, but are sprawlers - walking around on plant stems and on the pond bottom, looking for prey. The three, leaf-like appendages on 3 their tails are gills. They emerge as adults by crawling up a plant stem, crawling out of their skin, and pumping up their wings. They never go in the water again, and they are sometimes found quite a distance from water. They are harmless to humans and are beneficial because of what they eat. Once, as the BugLady was about to photograph it, a damselfly, flew off of its perch, flew around the back of her neck, and landed again with a mosquito. |Bluets are a large and common group of often-confusing damselflies. ||A pair of damselflies preparing to “exchange bodily fluids.” Both the spectacular black and emerald Ebony Jewelwing and the American Rubyspot damselflies grace the edges of streams and rivers, the Jewelwing in early summer and the rubyspot in mid-to-late summer. The male Jewelwing has black wings and an emerald abdomen; the female is, overall, less colorful and has sooty wings. The male Rubyspot has a classy red spot on its wings near the thorax. Both are in the Broad-winged damselfly group.

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Throughout the ages, from the earliest days of Islam to contemporary times today, Muslim women have been and continue to be active leaders in their communities and countries across the world. This directory is a growing archive of leading Muslim women scholars, activists, writers, politicians, artists, religious and spiritual leaders, civil society leaders and more. Please contribute to this archive by suggesting Muslim women to be featured through our recommendation form. - By Category - By Name - By Century - By Country - 100 Extraordinary Muslim Women - Global Muslim Women's Shura Council - Academic Leaders - Civic Leaders - Cultural Leaders - Heads of State - Opinion Leaders - Political Leaders - Spiritual and Religious Leaders - WISE Conference 2011 Participants Chand Bibi appeared with a veil on her head. She got guns to be brought to bear on the assailants, and stones to be hurled at them, so that they were repulsed in several repeated attacks. During the night, she stood by the workmen and caused the breach to be filled up nine feet, before daylight, with wood, stones and carcasses. Known For: Invincible Lady of Ahmadnagar Dates: 957-1007 Hijri Known as the “Invincible Lady of Ahmadnagar,” Chand Bibi was married to the Sultan of Bejapur, Ali Adil Shah, who she counseled on issues related to the government and military. Unfortunately, however, her evident power was viewed with distrust by the men of her husband’s court, and her husband was murdered. She later became the guardian of his nephew and heir. Pushed out of Bejapur four years later by this distrustful coterie, Chand returned to her home of Ahmadnagar where her brother was ruler. At the time, the Mughals were looking to expand their power into Ahmadnagar territory. Following the cowardice and the failed political maneuverings of others around her and the death of her brother in 1594, Chand Bibi decided to defend Ahmadnagar against the Mughal onslaught. According to the writer Abu Fazl, “Chand Bibi appeared with a veil on her head. She got guns to be brought to bear on the assailants, and stones to be hurled at them, so that they were repulsed in several repeated attacks. During the night, she stood by the workmen and caused the breach to be filled up nine feet, before daylight, with wood, stones and carcasses.” Thanks to Chand’s leadership and courage, the Mughal army’s efforts failed. According to the peace treaty, Chand Bibi was named regent over Bahadur Shah, the ruler, but the men who had left Chand Bibi to defend Ahmadgar returned. Rejecting the terms of the treaty, they resumed hostilities. Yet Chand resumed command and triumphed again. Unfortunately, Chand’s valet believed her negotiations with the Mughals constituted treachery. He roused a mob who proceeded to murder her. Chand’s outraged men hacked the murderers to death and vowed to continue to fight against the Mughals. Yet without her leadership, they fell to the Mughal force. - Bosnia and Herzegovina - Czech Republic - Saudi Arabia - Sierra Leone - South Africa - United Arab Emirates - United Kingdom - United States

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Barrett is not a climate scientist According to a search of 22,000 academic journals, there is a "JC Barrett" listed as a co-author of a single research paper on cloud densification published 13 years ago. In an article published in 1994 in the New Scientist he suggested that the lowest 30 metres of the troposphere already contains all the CO2 necessary to absorb all the radiation reflected and emitted back by the earth's surface at most infra-red wavelengths, except for the "window" between 7.5 and 14 micrometres, through which radiation escapes back into space. Other scientists strongly disagree with him. He was one of the keynote speakers at the conference in Leipzig in November 1995 organized by the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and the Science and Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) which resulted in the Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change. At that conference he said that even if the level of CO2 would double, that would result in a temperature increase of only 0.07°C what cannot justify the commotion about global warming. Currently he is a member of the Scientific Advisory Forum of the Scientific Alliance. - Jack Barrett, "Structure and Bonding (Basic Concepts In Chemistry)," Wiley-RSC, April 19, 2002, ISBN 0471224790 - Jack Barrett, "Atomic Structure and Periodicity," Wiley-RSC, December 13, 2002, ISBN 0471444685 - DeSmogBlog research on Barrett.

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What is the difference between An Ileostomy and a Colostomy? During clinicals, nursing students will follow a preceptor for 8-12 hour shifts for a couple of weeks. While following a nurse, students will be required to be present during shift report. If you are going enter into nursing school or if you are already there; it will become apparent that you need to be on your game during clinicals. No one will stop to explain medications, procedures or diseases. Some nursing schools have students get patient information the day before clinicals in order to be prepared for the next day. Patients will have different kinds of tubes, drains and lines. During report you may be told that your patient has a colostomy or ileostomy to the abdomen. Your first thought may be what is that? The second question may be why do they have it? You may even wonder where on the abdomen is this appliance. An ostomy may be needed when a defect or disease has obstructed or perforated the patient’s digestive. When a patient is unable to digest food, a diversion is created. The type of diversion to be performed influences the location of the stoma. The colon, rectum and anus are the last sections of the body’s digestive system. These parts are an important but, they have little to do with digesting food or absorbing nutrients, therefore parts can be taken out and feces can be diverted. Some reasons why patients may have digestive diversions are traumatic injury, colon cancer, Crohn’s disease or constipation. The type of diversion performed influences the location of the stoma. Colostomy’s are connected to part of the large intestine or colon and sutured to the abdomen and forms a stoma. Ileostomy means that the end of your small intestine or ileum was cut and sutured to the skin of the abdominal wall. Nursing students should be aware of the different parts of the small intestine like the duodenum, jejunum and the ileum and the large intestine has an ascending, descending and transverse part. The stool in the colostomy bag will be formed because the colon absorbs water and waste from the small intestine which forms solid stool. The stool in the ileostomy will be semi-solid fluid and has the least problems because it bypasses the colon, rectum and anus. Usually ostomy bags are on the right side of the abdomen. An ileostomy and colostomy will be in the right lower quadrant; however, due to the location of the descending colon, the location will be in the left lower quadrant. A patient with an ostomy will need psychological support, education, and counseling. Nursing students should also have a care plan prepared in order to be prepared for patient teaching and questions the preceptor or nursing instructor may have for you. Bowel Diversion Surgeries: Ileostomy, Colostomy, Ileoanal Reservoir, and Continent ileostomy. (2009). National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse. Retrieved from: http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/ileostomy/ Caring for a stoma is more than skin deep. (2010). Health Publications. Retrieved from: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3689/is_200105/ai_n8951011/ Ileostomy. (2010). MedlinePlus. Retrieved from: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007378.htm

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Cerebral Palsy Speech Therapy & Speech Disorders Cerebral palsy is a condition that affects several different motor skills and muscle coordination. Trouble with communication can often be a symptom of cerebral palsy. Since the muscles that control speaking are affected, speech may be awkward or hard to control. Speech therapy is one of the most effective methods of combating these symptoms of cerebral palsy. Speech therapy helps cerebral palsy patients with their speech disorders and can also include many different techniques. Speech therapy may include learning sign language and improving listening skills. The length of a speech therapy regimen will vary depending on the level of cerebral palsy being affected and the patients own response. A speech pathologist is typically the one who performs the speech therapy with 1-on-1 meetings and groups settings. How much speech therapy is required for cerebral palsy is dependent on the patient's current speech abilities. Some individuals with cerebral palsy have problems moving their mouths to form words correctly because of muscle problems. Speech therapy can also help individuals with hearing loss speak more clearly. Speech therapists can also help cerebral palsy patients improve their listening skills and vocabulary. The tools of speech therapy for cerebral palsy may include workbooks and picture boards or cards. Books and computer programs are also used to help with recall and reading skills. Sometimes cerebral palsy is so severe that speech pathologists must incorporate technological devices and communication enhancement devices. These devices may amplify the cerebral palsy patients voice and may give someone who can't speak at an opportunity to communicate. Speech therapy for cerebral palsy is necessary in developing communication for these patents. It can help fixed confusion between caregiver and the child. Speak with a speech pathologist to find out more about speech communication for your child.

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WEST PALM BEACH, Fla. – Little progress has been made in restoring the Everglades and the fragile ecosystem continues to be degraded as projects with the greatest potential benefits are put off, a congressionally mandated report released Thursday found. The fourth biennial review by the National Research Council says that while notable progress in the construction of restoration projects has been made since its last report, those initiatives still have done little to reverse generations of decline. "Unless near-term progress is made to improve water quantity and restore water flow, ecosystem losses will continue, many of which would require decades to centuries to recover," said William Boggess, chair of the NRC committee that wrote the report and a professor at Oregon State University. Since development began on the vast Everglades in the late 19th century, damage has been rampant with the draining of swamp land, the erection of dikes, dams and canals, and the intrusion of farms and development that have polluted with fertilizers and runoff. The 228-page review looked at all aspects of progress of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan, or CERP, which was approved by Congress in 2000 and originally estimated to cost about $7.8 billion, a price tag that has since ballooned. The plan aims to restore natural water flow, but has been stymied by years of funding shortfalls, legal challenges and political bickering. The Everglades, meantime, continues to be depleted, now occupying about half its historical size of 4 million acres. CERP calls for a 50-50 cost share between the state and federal governments. The NRC's report says Florida's spending since 2002, however, has far outpaced that of Washington's, at $3.1 billion compared with $854 million. In a joint statement Thursday, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the South Florida Water Management District, which leads Everglades restoration efforts for the state, pledged to work toward the goals outlined in the report. "We will continue to work with our federal partners to fast-track project planning in the central Everglades, better integrate water quality and water quantity components and construct projects that will return the flow of cleaner water to this national treasure," it said. In assessing the state of ten key attributes of the Everglades, the outlook was dire. Three measures of phosphorous levels appeared to be stabilizing, though full recovery was rated as being anywhere from years to centuries away. The condition of seven other aspects of the ecosystem were rated with letter grades of two C's, four D's and an F, with two criteria listed as stable and the others degrading. Progress on a key factor in reversing damage, restoring water flow to the Everglades, was rated poor. "Twelve years into the CERP, little progress has been made on restoring the hydrology," the authors wrote. Bits of praise were sprinkled through the report, including for the Central Everglades Planning Project, which was called "an important step forward." But in sum, it echoed the cries of countless Everglades advocates, who say progress is too slow and funding too small. "We thought this problem would be fixed," said David Guest, an attorney for Earthjustice who has spent decades fighting for Everglades restoration. "In 1994, we were screaming bloody murder that it was going to take 12 years and here we are 18 years later and we're nowhere near solving the problem." The report notes funding has been strained by the recession, though Guest says getting the money has always been a problem. "Part of it is the recession, but part of it even before that was that they didn't make it a priority," he said.

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Yahweh summons the nations to bring their witnesses to vindicate themselves (Isaiah 43:9), but Israel is the chief witness in His defense (43:9, 10, 12; 44:8, 9). How? Isaiah 44:8 appears to give the answer: Yahweh long ago announced what He would do and declared it. He promised, for instance, to give the land of Canaan to Abraham, and explained the process by which Abraham’s seed would inherit the land (Genesis 15). He promised (through Isaiah) to bring Israel back from Babylonian bondage. He speaks about things that are not yet. Israel preserves the testimony of Yahweh’s promises and commitments. The Scriptures document that God has spoken before things happened. Israel’s Scriptures her use of them in teaching, song, ritual preserve the testimony that Yahweh has spoken. And then the things not yet happen. Israel comes out of Egypt and inherit the land, and they return from Babylon. Events vindicate Yahweh’s promises. Events vindicate Israel’s trust in Yahweh. And so in the sheer facts of Israel’s history, Israel becomes a witness in defense of Yahweh. Israel witnesses to the uniqueness of Yahweh. For what other God can speak 400 years before the event and then bring that promise to pass? Who can make commitments long ahead of time and then keep them? What other God is at the beginning and at the end, at the first and at the last? What other God encloses and encompasses all time? There is none, Israel’s history tells us. Yahweh alone is God. posted by Peter J. Leithart on Thursday, September 20, 2012 at 9:02 am Permission is given to use material on this site, provided the source is cited, blog entries are republished in full, and the author is notified in advance.

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On Wedding Nights and Honeymoons in Contemporary Egypt Writing this piece has been somewhat of a challenge. The nuances of cultural traditions and customs related to marriage and wedding nights in Egypt today are not easy to describe. Like many of our social traditions, these customs are evolving, but the innovations and subtle transformations that are taking place reflect two very different trends. The result is that old traditions and customs are being pulled in two opposite directions simultaneously. Another important point is that people continue to observe the form of traditional customs, even when the actual basis behind them has been drastically modified. The Source of Tradition Socially and culturally, much of Egypt's rural population and a considerable part of its urban population remain steeped in ancient tradition. Many contemporary Egyptian marriage traditions date back to ancient Egypt where marriage was both a civil and legal relationship. Over time, these traditions have been modified by a series of cultural and religious intrusions (Greek, Roman, Christian and Muslim) and by the influences of our modern era. The contemporary Egyptian perception of marriage, and how it is celebrated, are a product of all of these elements combined. In most ancient societies, including ancient Egypt, marriages were arranged by the families of the bride and groom. This is still true in Egypt today where parental consent is of primary importance. Marriage contracts in ancient Egypt were drawn up between the bride’s father and her prospective husband, although the bride often signed the contract too. They spelt out the rights and duties of the couple to be married, were signed by three officers and registered by a ‘priest’. A standard Egyptian marriage contract, dating back to 219 BC, contained the following: - The date (the year of the reign of the ruling monarch) - The contractors (future husband and wife) - The names of both sets of parents - Husband’s profession - The scribe who drew up the contract - The names of the witnesses* The ancient tradition of the groom's family proposing to the bride continues to be the norm in Egypt, and the official steps toward marriage remain very similar: the suitor and his family visit the bride’s family to ask for her hand in marriage, and to discuss the terms of the marriage. After the two families come to an agreement, they fix a date for the engagement. When the home of the new family is ready, a date is set for the wedding. Muslim and Christian Egyptians share the same values concerning the importance of family involvement and approval. Almost all Egyptian families observe the formalities described above. This can be misleading to the foreign observer. The fact is that the steps towards marriage remain the same even when the choice of the partner, the timing of the wedding and other details are not decided by the family. A couple who decide to get married will normally inform their respective families - and then the official process begins. The symbolic ‘family negotiation’ is essential even when the marriage is not really an ‘arranged marriage’ at all. The actual reality of how marriage takes place may be changing, but people still insist on maintaining the traditional forms – which often are completely superfluous. Male – Female Interaction The degree of intermingling of the sexes varies greatly between rural and urban areas, and between different ‘social classes’. In Egyptian cities, for example, young people meet one another at work, universities, schools, clubs and other public or private places. This is definitely rarer in the Egyptian countryside - especially in the south where people (Muslims and Christians) are generally more conservative. Normally, the engagement period allows couples to get to know one another, and breaking off an engagement is both perfectly acceptable and quite common. Nevertheless, there are still cases where a couple (more especially the woman) is forced to marry against their wishes. Strong differences also exist as to what is acceptable in terms of interpersonal behavior between men and women in the private sphere. Normative changes resulting from the influence of Western ideas and the spread of mass education have promoted Western family values in certain social circles where it is perfectly normal to date, even for teenage girls who (in these circles) are considered too young to marry. For most urban (and some rural) middle class families, it is absolutely normal for boys and girls to meet in groups in public places. The Wedding Night Nonetheless, sexual promiscuity is considered unacceptable behavior for both genders in all Egyptian social sectors. Furthermore, while men or boys may be reprimanded, sexual promiscuity among women or girls is an extremely serious matter. Men may sometimes attempt to portray themselves as “moral” when proposing marriage so that they are eligible to marry a ‘respectable girl’ and because of the common belief that past behavior predicts future behavior, but the common assumption is that all brides will be virgins on their wedding night. Historically, bridal virginity was prized in many cultures. A young woman was expected to maintain her chastity until she was deflowered on her wedding night. In some of these cultures, this led to the ancient custom of showing a bloodstained cloth on the wedding night as “proof”* of the bride’s virginity. Incredibly, this custom is still practiced in some Egyptian villages to this day. Relatives of the bride and the groom actually sit outside the newlywed couple’s room on the wedding night waiting for the bloody bed sheet to be exhibited. One version of this custom requires that a midwife (daya) follow the couple into their bedroom and proceed to deflower the bride using a clean white handkerchief that is then paraded before the assembled guests, whereupon the bride’s mother starts singing and is joined by all the women present. Since Egypt is a predominantly Muslim country, and because of the widespread view of Islam as a religion which subjugates women and limits interaction between the sexes, readers may understandably jump to the conclusion that this wedding night custom is an Islamic one. Islam, like most other religions, prohibits sexual intercourse outside of marriage – for both men and women. However, the custom described is as common among extremely conservative Coptic Christians as it is among extremely conservative Muslims. It is simply a cultural manifestation of the patriarchal organization of Egyptian society. In Egypt, as in the rest of the Arab world, descent is traced through the male line. A woman remains a permanent member of her father’s family, keeping her father’s name even after she is married and is incorporated into her husband’s family. Thus any ‘dishonorable actions’ she may have committed before marriage traditionally affect her father’s family, while any involvement in an extramarital relationship threatens to dishonor both her father’s and her husband’s family. Again, this is true for Christians, as well as for Muslims. The essential requirements for a valid Muslim marriage are the same all over the world: - consent of the wife; - consent of the legal guardian; - two legal witnesses; - payment of the dowry (mahr) by the husband to the wife; - public announcement of the marriage. Although all Muslim marriages must include these legal components, the customs and traditions related to Muslim marriages vary widely from one region or culture to another, and the various culture-specific practices incorporated into marriage are not all necessarily in line with Islamic values. The custom of showing ‘proof’ of a bride’s virginity is one example of such a practice. It is not rooted in Islam, nor does it reflect its values. I am sure it does not reflect the values of Christianity either. This practice is no longer the norm in urban or rural Egypt, but it does still take place in remote parts of the country. Nevertheless, it is still believed that a bride must be a virgin on her wedding night. In most educated, or ‘westernized’ families, proving that the bride is a virgin has never been an issue – but that doesn’t mean that people don’t assume, or pretend to assume, that she is. In reality, sex before marriage is more common than is usually admitted by most Egyptians. Pre-marital sex, at least in Cairo and other large cities, is increasing. Starting in the late 1960’s, declining economic opportunities for men, the rise of the number of women joining the work force, and the drastic increase in the cost of marriage led to a rise of the age at first marriage. Young couples in Egypt are expected to accumulate sufficient resources before they marry to set up their own household - a radical departure from the not so distant past when many couples began married life as part of an extended household. Despite the trend toward later marriage, traditional notions about the appropriate age for women to marry (early 20’s or late teens) remain rigid. The result is that girls are betrothed early, but engagement periods have become longer. This is one reason why pre-marital sex is on the rise. A previously unheard of phenomenon has also become quite widespread among young people in Egypt in recent years: secret common-law (urfi) marriage. This consists of a simple contract drawn up between the two partners and signed by two witnesses – supposedly fulfilling the Islamic requirements for a valid marriage. It is largely used by young people to circumvent the prohibition of pre-marital sex, though the option is not available to Christians. Since it is not registered at a government office, this type of ‘marriage’ has no legal status. It is also temporary in nature. The simple act of tearing up both copies of the contract is enough to dissolve the marriage. Common-law marriages are used to circumvent vice laws, and have become a cause for growing concern among both government and religious officials. The religious, as opposed to legal, legitimacy of this type of marriage is debatable. For most Muslim theologians a urfi marriage is not valid unless it is publicly announced. To recapitulate, because time-honored traditions and symbols are so essential to most Egyptians, evolving customs related to marital intimacy are almost unacknowledged by society. Arranged marriages are no longer the norm, but everyone continues to honor the custom of ‘family negotiation’. Although pre-marital sex remains the exception (particularly among women), it certainly does take place and is increasing. Still, society will not accept this change. While the practice of parading ‘proof’ of bridal virginity has almost disappeared, it is still widely believed that a woman should be a virgin on her wedding night. The normative changes in inter-personal behavior between men and women described above can be qualified as a departure from conservatism and tradition. At the same time, a new type of change is presently taking place in traditional Egyptian marriage customs. Equally a departure from Egyptian tradition, this is a trend toward extreme social conservatism imported from the conservative Islamic cultures of the Gulf States by returning Egyptian migrant workers in the late 1960’s. External manifestations of religious observance have increased (for some women this means wearing a veil), and the form of social observances, including marriage, is changing to incorporate imported religious (Islamic) practices. Over the past ten years, it has become more and more common for weddings to take place in mosques, for example. This custom is foreign to Egyptian tradition, where marriage contracts have traditionally been signed at the home of the bride. The hypocritical use of common-law marriage is also a manifestation of this growing concern with religion. Nevertheless (and despite the claim that these customs are in disagreement with the simplicity of the Islamic spirit), both the engagement celebration and the wedding reception following official Muslim and Christian marriages remain much the same as in ancient Egypt. These are always exuberant family affairs. Whether the couple is of modest means or wealthy, city-bred or country-bred, Egyptian engagements and weddings are resplendent with enough food, music, performance and ceremony to create what is always a spectacular social event. The word for honeymoon in Arabic is “shahr el assal” which literally means “the month of honey” (a month is one moon cycle). Honeymoons are popular among Egyptian urban upper and middle class families. Like everywhere else in the world, where a couple goes on their honeymoon depends on their finances and the time they can afford to take off from work. In the Egyptian countryside (where at least 60% of the population lives), newlyweds rarely go on honeymoons. Traditionally, the young couple stays home for the first seven days of their marriage. On the seventh day after the wedding, the bride's relatives and friends visit her bearing gifts and large amounts of food and supplies (symbolic provisions for her new home), called the ‘aashyan’, an Arabic word derived from the verb "to live". This is was also an ancient Egyptian custom. From this day onward, the new bride and groom are expected to provide for themselves - though secure in the knowledge that they can always count on their families’ support. I met my husband at work when I was twenty-eight years old. He was thirty-five, divorced, with a three-year old daughter. He was not the first man I had ever known. I was twenty-eight, after all. We went out several times and discovered we were in love a few months later. We decided to get married. I knew my parents wanted to see me married, but I also knew that my father might not like the fact that my friend was divorced, with a child. So I made sure my father knew all the facts before I told my husband he could come speak to my father. We followed the traditional steps after that. He came (alone since his parents lived in another city) and received official permission to marry me. A date was set for my parents-in-law to come to Cairo. They came, and, again, his father officially asked my father for permission for his son to marry me! A date was set for our engagement, another a few months later for the wedding. The marriage contract was signed at my home just before the wedding reception. My uncle, one of the two witnesses to the marriage, brought the contract into my room for me to sign (I was with female relatives, trying to get into my wedding dress). After the wedding reception, my husband and I spent a night in a hotel in Cairo. The next morning we drove to Alexandria where we spent a few days at a quaint old hotel overlooking the sea. It was nice to get away from all the well-meaning relatives – and we both needed a rest before getting back to work. My husband and I had not waited for the wedding night to have sex – although I am sure that many people took it for granted that we had. We had spent a few days together in Greece long before we decided to get married, and for me that was our real honeymoon. * Tour Egypt!. 01/13/2006. Springer, Ilene. “The Ancient Egyptian Bride”. 10/12/2007. http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/bride.htm * Reportedly, brides and grooms have been known to use the blood of animals or to prick their own fingers to provide the bloody “proof” needed.

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|Nutrition and Fitness The winning recipe for a healthy lifestyle includes a combination of both good nutrition and physical activity. Your body needs a variety of nutrient rich foods to grow and prevent illness. And your body also needs to move and exercise every day. Key things you need to know about leading a healthy lifestyle are: Well-nourished students have higher test scores, increased school attendance, improved concentration, and improved classroom behavior. Students, who are physically fit, sleep better and are better able to handle the physical and emotional challenges that they encounter during the day. Join First Lady Michelle Obama, community leaders, teachers, doctors, nurses, moms and dads in a nationwide campaign called "Let's Move" in the important goal of solving the epidemic of childhood obesity within a generation. We need to get moving. Click below to learn more! |Making Healthy Choices for Healthy Lifestyles|| Don't Let Your Diet... Let you Down Get Kids Moving Make Physical Activity a Way of Life

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Saddleback Valley Unified schools are in for a big shift in curricula and state testing this fall. Kathy Dick, assistant superintendent of instruction, outlined the new Common Core State Standards (CCSS) at the SVUSD school board meeting Tuesday. "This is a very exciting time in public education, with interesting, challenging changes to our curriculum," she said. The new standards will alter teaching styles in English language arts and math. English instruction will move away from an emphasis on literature to a 50-50 split between fiction and nonfiction. Writing tests will require careful reading of texts instead of being based more on student experiences. In mathematics, the standards will shift from cursory instruction on multiple topics to focusing deeply on a few critical areas. For example, elementary students will concentrate on operations and fractions, which are a strong predictor of success in algebra. Habits of Mind Also ahead: Habits of Mind, which concentrates on tools needed for college and the workplace. In English language arts, that means helping students be independent, understand other cultures, respond to varying demands and use technology capably, Dick said. New math standards include reasoning abstractly and quantitatively, making sense of problems and solving them, constructing valid arguments and critiquing the reasoning of others. The new 21st-century skills are creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem-solving, and communication and collaboration, Dick said. A New Take on Standardized Testing Instead of the current emphasis on multiple-choice tests, such as the Standardized Testing and Reporting program, CCSS focuses on the learning process involved in Smarter Balance Assessment Consortium and the National Center and State Collaborative, a complex, performance-based assessment. Students will trade pencils and multiple-choice test sheets for computers and group projects. The state plans to fully implement the new testing by Spring 2015. Dick said she was pleased to see curricula emphasizing critical thinking, with students creating their own questions and their own meanings. So far, most teachers are happy to see more opportunities for creativity in their classrooms, officials said. But some are apprehensive because it's a new system and doubling curricula during the transition may cause strains. School board President Dolores Winchell said the district would be closely involved in helping the teachers through this “monumental transition.”

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Schools of fish swim using the same physics principles as cut-throat Tour de France pedal pushers — the weaker fish and bicyclists at the back of the pack use fluid dynamics to keep up. A shimmering school of fish and a group of sweaty guys in tight shorts have at least one thing in common: an established pecking order. Sure, the ones out in front get the glory, but the ones in back get the easier ride. Fluid dynamics work in both liquids and gases, and are taken advantage of by both undersea creatures outrunning sharks and surface dwellers zooming through the French countryside. Those leading a group of fish (or cyclists) get hit in the face and body with every molecule in their path. Unless the current (or wind) is with them, those molecules are standing still when the moving creature smashes into them. The molecules are accelerated quickly and tumble up and over the moving animal. Once the first animal is gone, they don't just return to their original place, or their original motion. Moving objects leave a slipstream behind them. They push fluid out of their way, leaving hollows behind. As more fluid rushes into the hollow, it moves in the same direction the object was moving in. If there are enough objects creating enough slipstreams, they're essentially creating their own "current" behind them. The current moves the same direction (and the same speed) that they do. So anyone taking up the rear will not be smashing into stationary molecules. They'll be moving with an already-established flow set up by their peers. This slipstream phenomenon has been taken advantage of by racers, but it looks like nature beat them to it. Researchers in the UK recently tested the theory by having a group of fish all swim in the same direction against a current. The same fish (the weaker swimmers) took up the rear of the school every single time. By measuring the fishes' respiration and the strokes of their tails, the researchers estimated that the fish at the back were using 12% less energy than the rest. Although they didn't get a lot of food, they did manage to push along in the safety of the herd without using up the calories from the food they did find. Sometimes it pays to be beta. [Via The Guardian]

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Thrombocytopenia is any disorder in which there is an abnormally low amount of platelets. Platelets are parts of the blood that help blood to clot. This condition is sometimes associated with abnormal bleeding. Thrombocytopenia is often divided into three major causes of low platelets: - Low production of platelets in the bone marrow - Increased breakdown of platelets in the bloodstream (called intravascular) - Increased breakdown of platelets in the spleen or liver (called extravascular) Disorders that involve low production in the bone marrow include: - Aplastic anemia - Cancer in the bone marrow - Cirrhosis (chronic liver disease) - Folate deficiency - Infections in the bone marrow (very rare) - Vitamin B12 deficiency Use of certain drugs may also lead to a low production of platelets in the bone marrow. The most common example is chemotherapy treatment. Disorders that involve the breakdown of platelets include: - Nosebleeds or bleeding in the mouth and gums - Rash (pinpoint red spots called petechiae) Other symptoms may be present as well, depending on the cause of the condition. Mild thrombocytopenia can occur without symptoms. Exams and Tests Complete blood count (CBC) shows low number of platelets. Blood clotting studies (PTT and PT) are normal. Other tests that may help diagnose this condition include: Treatment depends on the cause of the condition. In some cases, a transfusion of platelets may be required to stop or prevent bleeding. The outcome depends on the disorder causing the low platelet counts. Severe bleeding (hemorrhage) is the main complication. This can include: - Bleeding in the brain (intracranial hemorrhage) - Gastrointestinal bleeding (vomiting blood or blood in the stools) When to Contact a Medical Professional Call your healthcare provider if you experience unexplained bleeding or bruising. Prevention depends on the specific cause. McMillan R. Hemorrhagic disorders: abnormalities of platelet and vascular function. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 179. David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine; Yi-Bin Chen, MD, Leukemia/Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Massachusetts General Hospital. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.

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HIV-infected people with raised lipid levels consume more total fat, more saturated fat and more cholesterol than the general population, even though their total calorie intake is no different, write US researchers in the July 31st edition of AIDS. They stress their findings emphasise the need to make nutritional advice a central part of the management of antiretroviral-associated dyslipidaemia. A recently presented randomised Brazilian study found that HIV-positive people who received regular dietary counselling after starting antiretroviral therapy were significantly less likely to experience lipid elevations on treatment when compared with people who received a one-off nutritional information intervention before starting treatment. Taken together, the findings of the two studies strongly suggest that lipid elevations in people on antiretroviral treatment cannot be blamed on the drugs alone. The US study investigated the relationship between food intake and metabolic parameters in 356 HIV-positive people and 162 HIV-negative controls taking part in metabolism studies at the Massachusetts General Hospital between 1998 and 2005 The HIV-positive group had average CD4 cell counts of 444 cells/mm3, viral loads of 400 copies/ml, and duration of HIV infection of 8.5 years with 89% taking antiretrovirals. All study participants recorded their food intake by either using four-day food diaries or recalling what they had eaten at the end of each day. Overall calorie intake was similar between the groups- with HIV-positive people consuming on average 2235 kilocalories/day compared to 2065 kilocalories/day in the HIV-negative group. Levels of dietary carbohydrates and proteins were broadly similar. But dietary fats intake varied significantly with HIV-infected individuals eating more total dietary fat (p < 0.05), saturated fat (p = 0.006), and cholesterol (p = 0.006). They also took in a greater percentage of their calories from more harmful saturated fats (p = 0.002) and trans fats (p = 0.02). The researchers then compared food intake with the US Department of Agriculture Recommended Dietary Guidelines. A significantly higher percentage of HIV-infected individuals were above the 2005 USDA recommendation for saturated fat (76% HIV versus 61% controls, p = 0.003), and cholesterol (50% HIV vs. 38% controls, p = 0.04). That increased fat intake was reflected in the increased risk of dyslipidaemia in the HIV positive group. Compared to the controls, HIV-positive individuals had higher mean triglyceride levels (2.59 vs 1.47 mmol/l, p<0.0001). They also had lower HDL (or “good”) cholesterol levels (1.06 vs. 1.24 mmol/l), p<0.0001). Total cholesterol was 5.06mmol/l on average in the HIV-positive group compared to 4.60 mmol/l in the control p = 0.003. These associations remained after controlling for protease inhibitor use and other major factors known to influence lipid levels, including gender, alcohol use, race, fibre intake, body-mass index and age. Exactly why HIV-positive individuals should eat more fat than the general population cannot be explained by this study, say the authors, but it could be due to a number of factors. These include the possibility that HIV-positive people could eat more fat to compensate for increase energy expenditure due to metabolic changes as a result of HIV or antiretroviral treatment, or due to changes in taste or feelings of satiety. While there has been much research on HIV infection and antiretroviral drug use as factors in blood fat and cholesterol levels in HIV-infected people, the researchers conclude: "Careful assessment of dietary intake and more aggressive dietary intervention may prove to be beneficial to the prevention of cardiovascular disease in this population of patients."

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EEA plays a key role in coordinating in-situ observations and contributing to the development of the services, in particular to the technical coordination of the Land Monitoring Service. Use of the Copernicus services is an integrated part of EEA‟s strategy to improve environmental information. Copernicus also plays an important role in the implementation of the principles of the Shared Environmental Information System (SEIS), and has the potential to make effective use of existing infrastructures in accordance with the INSPIRE directive. In the global context, Copernicus is an integral part of the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS). GMES / Copernicus evolution In May 1998, institutions involved in the development of space activities in Europe gave birth to the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) programme through a declaration known as the "Baveno Manifesto". The Manifesto called for a long-term commitment to the development of space-based environmental monitoring services, making use of, and further developing, European skills, and technologies. In October 2010, the programme entered a new phase with the adoption of the Regulation 911/2010 on GMES and its Initial Operations which provided for an initial operational governance framework and funds (EUR 107 million). This Regulation paved the way for the evolution of GMES/Copernicus to a fully operational programme from 2014. Copernicus services provide data combined from in-situ sources, satellite sources (space) and modelling capacities. In-situ sources include all ground-based, air-borne, and ship/buoy-based measurements. To date, the services are provided by consortia (research or commercial) contracted to the European Commission (EC). For services entering the GMES/Copernicus Initial Operations (GIO) phase, the EC has appointed technical coordinators; for Land Monitoring Service to EEA and for Emergency Management Service to JRC. In support of European policies, Copernicus will provide comprehensive geographic coverage of state and trends of key environmental parameters for Europe and beyond. Critical decisions that need to be made quickly during emergencies, such as floods and humanitarian crises, will be supported. Businesses and citizens will also benefit through innovation and incentives to create new practical applications using environmental information. Through the coordination of the European environment information and observation network (Eionet), EEA coordinates networks of data providers in countries in order to fulfil its mandate of providing European environmental information and assessments. Through this role, EEA strengthens coordination mechanisms and develops partnerships with other EU-level stakeholders. EEA coordinates the GMES in-situ component through the GISC (GMES In-Situ Coordination) project. GISC aims at linking data providers and service providers using the principles of the Shared European Environmental Information System (SEIS) and the Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE). GISC is proposing sustainable mechanisms for in-situ data delivery/access, based on existing information capacities (e.g. national systems, European networks). The ultimate goal is to build up an Initial Framework (IF) that comprises tools and methods necessary for an efficient and sustainable interface between in-situ data providers and the GMES/Copernicus services. GISC's role is to effectively manage this interface. EEA also contributes to the development of Copernicus services – in particular, the technical coordination of the pan-European and local components of the Initial Operations of the Land Monitoring Service (GIO Land). Furthermore, the EEA Strategy 2009-2013 – Multi-annual Work Programme foresees use of the Copernicus services for marine, air quality, land, and climate change, elements of which are already present in the EEA‟s European environment state and outlook 2010 report. Figure 1: Examples of the use of GMES services by EEA presented in the European environment state and outlook 2010 report. Copernicus has strategic importance since it provides capacity to support the EU as a global actor. For example, Copernicus is designated as Europe’s main contribution to the global ten-year implementation plan of the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS). GEOSS is designed to provide decision-support tools to a wide variety of users. GEOSS will link existing and planned observing systems around the world and support the development of new systems where gaps currently exist. The Group on Earth Observations (GEO) is coordinating efforts to effectively build GEOSS. In addition, Copernicus provides the EU with tools for participating in international efforts such as strengthening the global climate observation system. It will contribute to the EU Strategy for Africa through the development of an African observatory and the implementation of the African Monitoring of the Environment for Sustainable Development initiative. GMES/Copernicus has also been highlighted in the EU’s dialogues with USA, Russia, China and India. More about GMES/Copernicus More about GISC More about GIO land More about SEIS More about INSPIRE

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|Home HCB Community Culture Concrete You Can Walk Around On It| Concrete: You Can Walk Around On It I love you as much as all the stars in the sky. I love you as much as all the grains of sand on the shores. It’s a game that almost every parent has played with his or her child—I love you as much. I remember nights of cuddling in a twin bed, my tired brain struggling for a word picture in response to my boy’s. For him this game helped to root his love—by tagging this elusive emotion with a familiar image, love became something real. This should not surprise us, say Chip and Dan Heath in our third chapter of Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Survive and Others Die. When we are able to describe our message concretely it will have greater meaning and stick better. This week we discuss quality number three of a sticky message: Concreteness. What exactly does it mean to be concrete? If you can examine something with your senses, it’s concrete, the brothers Heath tell us. One of the best illustrations of the sticky nature of a concrete message is Aesop’s fable The Fox and the Grapes. This story about a fox who unsuccessfully tries to nab a bunch of grapes has survived more than 2500 years and has versions in Hungary, China, and Sweden. The fox’s final statement, I am sure they are sour, reflects our human nature to rationalize our failures. But the reason the fable has prevailed, the authors say, are the concrete images used in the story. Language is often abstract, but life is not abstract…Even the most abstract business strategy must eventually show up in the tangible actions of human beings. It’s easier to understand those tangible actions than to understand and abstract strategy statement—just as it’s easier to understand a fox dissing some grapes than an abstract commentary about the human psyche. The authors describe several real-life examples of effective campaigns that utilized concreteness to their advantage. The one that sticks with me is The Nature Conservatory’s “bucks and acres” program. This program uses donor money to buy up plots of land to protect environmental treasures around the world. One donor commented that the program provides results you could walk around on. That’s pretty concrete. Whether you are teaching children math or memorizing literature, messages that are described concretely will be easier to remember. One reason concrete images are easier to remember can be explained by the Velcro Theory of Memory. If you look at the two sides of Velcro material, you’ll see that one is covered with thousands of tiny hooks and the other is covered with thousands of tiny loops. When you press the two sides together, a huge number of hooks get snagged inside the loops, and that’s what causes Velcro to seal. Your brain hosts a truly staggering number of loops. The more hooks an idea has, the better it will cling to memory… Concrete messages have more hooks than abstract ones. More hooks mean more people from varying backgrounds coordinate more effectively because the message is clearer to all involved. The Curse Strikes Again If making a message concrete is so effective and so easy, why don’t we do it more often? Because of our old friend, The Curse of Knowledge, the Heath brothers tell us. The barrier is simply forgetfulness—we forget that we’re slipping into abstractspeak. We forget that other people don’t know what we know. And that forgetfulness can greatly hinder our message. So, in addition to keeping it simple and keeping it surprising, we are tying a ribbon around our finger to remember to keep our message concrete. Right? And don’t forget: I love you as much as there are drops of water in the ocean. Next week we discuss chapter four of Made to Stick: Credible. Meet us here! Nancy's I Won A Trip to Concrete! Charity's Getting My Head in the Clouds Faith Hope and CherryTea's Love Revealed Lyla's Hanging Towels on Hooks Sandra's Concrete Compassion L.L.’s Welcome to Our House Monica's Walking in Red Glynn's Concrete--As the Air Laura's I Am Rubber, R U Glue? Other Made to Stick posts: Chapter Two: Unexpected Journey Chapter One: Simple Photo by A Simple Country Girl, used with permission. Post by Laura Boggess. We recommend logging in before posting comments Subscribe for free to receive email encouragements about your work—once a week, once a day, or both! Most Popular Posts Most Emailed Posts Daily Reflection From Laity Lodge Just When You Thought... Ever since I was young and devoured the Hardy Boys mysteries books, I have loved a good mystery. It can take the form of a novel, a movie, a play ... you name it. Part of what I love about a mystery... Read More +

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Definitions for orthoboric acid boric acid, orthoboric acid(noun) a white or colorless slightly acid solid that is soluble in water and ethanol; used in the manufacture of glass and paper and adhesives and in detergents and as a flux in welding; also used as an antiseptic and food preservative Any of several poorly-characterized acids that are hydrates of boric oxide Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: "orthoboric acid." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2013. Web. 19 Jun 2013. <http://www.definitions.net/definition/orthoboric acid>.

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CONSIDERATIONS IN COMPUTER SUPPORT AND OPERATIONS management and administration staff generally perform support and operations tasks although sometimes users do. Larger systems may have full-time operators, system programmers, and support staff performing these tasks. Smaller systems may have a part-time Computer support and operations refers to everything done to run a computer system. This includes both system administration and tasks external to the system that support its operation (e.g., maintaining documentation). It does not include system planning or design. The support and operation of any computer system, from a three-person local area network to a worldwide application serving thousands of users, is critical to maintaining the security of a system. Support and operations are routine activities that enable computer systems to function correctly. These include fixing software or hardware problems, loading and maintaining software, and helping users resolve problems. The failure to consider security as part of the support and operations of computer systems is, for many organizations, their Achilles heel. Computer security system literature includes many examples of how organizations undermined their often expensive security measures because of poor documentation, old user accounts, conflicting software, or poor control of maintenance accounts. Also, an organization's policies and procedures often fail to address many of these important issues. The important security considerations within some of the major categories of support and primary goal of computer support and operations is the continued and correct operation of a computer system. One of the goals of computer security is the availability and integrity of systems. These goals are very closely linked. Some special considerations are noted for larger or smaller systems.101 This chapter addresses the support and operations activities directly related to security. Every control discussed in this handbook relies, in one way or another, on computer system support and operations. This chapter, however, focuses on areas not covered in other chapters. For example, operations personnel normally create user accounts on the system. This topic is covered in the Identification and Authentication chapter, so it is not discussed here. Similarly, the input from support and operations staff to the security awareness and training program is covered in the Security Awareness, Training, and Education chapter. 14.1 User Support In many organizations, user support takes place through a Help Desk. Help Desks can support an entire organization, a subunit, a specific system, or a combination of these. For smaller systems, the system administrator normally provides direct user support. Experienced users provide informal user support on most systems. support should be closely linked to the organization's incident handling capability. In many cases, the same personnel perform An important security consideration for user support personnel is being able to recognize which problems (brought to their attention by users) are security-related. For example, users' inability to log onto a computer system may result from the disabling of their accounts due to too many failed access attempts. This could indicate the presence of hackers trying to guess users' passwords. In general, system support and operations staff need to be able to identify security problems, respond appropriately, and inform appropriate individuals. A wide range of possible security problems exist. Some will be internal to custom applications, while others apply to off-the-shelf products. Additionally, problems can be software- or hardware-based. systems are especially susceptible to viruses, while networks are particularly susceptible to hacker attacks, which can be targeted at multiple systems. System support personnel should be able to recognize attacks and know how to respond. The more responsive and knowledgeable system support and operation staff personnel are, the less user support will be provided informally. The support other users provide is important, but they may not be aware of the "whole 14.2 Software Support Software is the heart of an organization's computer operations, whatever the size and complexity of the system. Therefore, it is essential that software function correctly and be protected from corruption. There are many elements of software support. One is controlling what software is used on a system. If users or systems personnel can load and execute any software on a system, the system is more vulnerable to viruses, to unexpected software interactions, and to software that may subvert or bypass security controls. One method of controlling software is to inspect or test software before it is loaded (e.g., to determine compatibility with custom applications or identify other unforeseen interactions). This can apply to new software packages, to upgrades, to off-the-shelf products, or to custom software, as deemed appropriate. In addition to controlling the loading and execution of new software, organizations should also give care to the configuration and use of powerful system utilities. System utilities can compromise the integrity of operating systems and logical access controls. take advantage of the weak software controls in personal computers. Also, there are powerful utilities available for PCs that can restore deleted files, find hidden files, and interface directly with PC hardware, bypassing the operating system. Some organizations use personal computers without floppy drives in order to have better control over the system. are several widely available utilities that look for security problems in both networks and the systems attached to them. Some utilities look for and try to exploit security vulnerabilities. (This type of software is further discussed in Chapter 9.) A second element in software support can be to ensure that software has not been modified without proper authorization. This involves the protection of software and backup copies. This can be done with a combination of logical and physical access controls. Many organizations also include a program to ensure that software is properly licensed, as required. For example, an organization may audit systems for illegal copies of copyrighted software. This problem is primarily associated with PCs and LANs, but can apply to any type of system. 14.3 Configuration Management Closely related to software support is configuration management -- the process of keeping track of changes to the system and, if needed, approving them.2 Configuration management normally addresses hardware, software, networking, and other changes; it can be formal or informal. The primary security goal of configuration management is ensuring that changes to the system do not unintentionally or unknowingly diminish security. Some of the methods discussed under software support, such as inspecting and testing software changes, can be used. Chapter 9 discusses other methods. networked systems, configuration management should include external connections. Is the computer system connected? To what other systems? In turn, to what systems are these systems and organizations Note that the security goal is to know what changes occur, not to prevent security from being changed. There may be circumstances when security will be reduced. However, the decrease in security should be the result of a decision based on all appropriate factors. A second security goal of configuration management is ensuring that changes to the system are reflected in other documentation, such as the contingency plan. If the change is major, it may be necessary to reanalyze some or all of the security of the system. This is discussed in Chapter of smaller systems are often responsible for their own backups. However, in reality they do not always perform backups regularly. Some organizations, therefore, task support personnel with making backups periodically for smaller systems, either automatically (through server software) or manually (by visiting each machine). Support and operations personnel and sometimes users back up software and data. This function is critical to contingency planning. Frequency of backups will depend upon how often data changes and how important those changes are. Program managers should be consulted to determine what backup schedule is appropriate. Also, as a safety measure, it is useful to test that backup copies are actually usable. Finally, backups should be stored securely, as appropriate (discussed below). 14.5 Media Controls Media controls include a variety of measures to provide physical and environmental protection and accountability for tapes, diskettes, printouts, and other media. From a security perspective, media controls should be designed to prevent the loss of confidentiality, integrity, or availability of information, including data or software, when stored outside the system. This can include storage of information before it is input to the system and after it is output. The extent of media control depends upon many factors, including the type of data, the quantity of media, and the nature of the user environment. Physical and environmental protection is used to prevent unauthorized individuals from accessing the media. It also protects against such factors as heat, cold, or harmful magnetic fields. When necessary, logging the use of individual media (e.g., a tape cartridge) provides detailed accountability -- to hold authorized people responsible for their actions. Controlling media may require some form of physical labeling. The labels can be used to identify media with special handling instructions, to locate needed information, or to log media (e.g., with serial/control numbers or bar codes) to support accountability. Identification is often by colored labels on diskettes or tapes or banner pages on printouts. markings for media could include: Privacy Act Information, Company Proprietary, or Joe's Backup Tape. In each case, the individuals handling the media must know the applicable handling instructions. For example, at the Acme Patent Research Firm, proprietary information may not leave the building except under the care of a security officer. Also, Joe's Backup Tape should be easy to find in case something happens to Joe's system. If labeling is used for special handling instructions, it is critical that people be appropriately trained. The marking of PC input and output is generally the responsibility of the user, not the system support staff. Marking backup diskettes can help prevent them from being accidentally overwritten. The logging of media is used to support accountability. Logs can include control numbers (or other tracking data), the times and dates of transfers, names and signatures of individuals involved, and other relevant information. Periodic spot checks or audits may be conducted to determine that no controlled items have been lost and that all are in the custody of individuals named in control logs. Automated media tracking systems may be helpful for maintaining inventories of tape and disk libraries. 14.5.3 Integrity Verification When electronically stored information is read into a computer system, it may be necessary to determine whether it has been read correctly or subject to any modification. The integrity of electronic information can be verified using error detection and correction or, if intentional modifications are a threat, cryptographic-based technologies. (See Chapter 19.) 14.5.4 Physical Access Media can be stolen, destroyed, replaced with a look-alike copy, or lost. Physical access controls, which can limit these problems, include locked doors, desks, file cabinets, or safes. If the media requires protection at all times, it may be necessary to actually output data to the media in a secure location (e.g., printing to a printer in a locked room instead of to a general-purpose printer in a common Physical protection of media should be extended to backup copies stored offsite. They generally should be accorded an equivalent level of protection to media containing the same information stored onsite. (Equivalent protection does not mean that the security measures need to be exactly the same. The controls at the off-site location are quite likely to be different from the controls at the regular site.) Physical access is discussed in Chapter 15. Magnetic media, such as diskettes or magnetic tape, require environmental protection, since they are sensitive to temperature, liquids, magnetism, smoke, and dust. Other media (e.g., paper and optical storage) may have different sensitivities to environmental factors. Media control may be transferred both within the organization and to outside elements. Possibilities for securing such transmittal include sealed and marked envelopes, authorized messenger or courier, or U.S. certified or people throw away old diskettes, believing that erasing the files on the diskette has made the data un-retrievable. In reality, however, erasing a file simply removes the pointer to that file. The pointer tells the computer where the file is physically stored. Without this pointer, the files will not appear on a directory listing. This does not mean that the file was removed. Commonly available utility programs can often retrieve information that is presumed deleted. When media is disposed of, it may be important to ensure that information is not improperly disclosed. This applies both to media that is external to a computer system (such as a diskette) and to media inside a computer system, such as a hard disk. The process of removing information from media is called sanitization. Three techniques are commonly used for media sanitization: overwriting, degaussing, and destruction. Overwriting is an effective method for clearing data from magnetic media. As the name implies, overwriting uses a program to write (1s, 0s, or a combination) onto the media. Common practice is to overwrite the media three times. Overwriting should not be confused with merely deleting the pointer to a file (which typically happens when a delete command is used). Overwriting requires that the media be in working order. Degaussing is a method to magnetically erase data from magnetic media. Two types of degausser exist: strong permanent magnets and electric degaussers. The final method of sanitization is destruction of the media by shredding or burning. Documentation of all aspects of computer support and operations is important to ensure continuity and consistency. Formalizing operational practices and procedures with sufficient detail helps to eliminate security lapses and oversights, gives new personnel sufficiently detailed instructions, and provides a quality assurance function to help ensure that operations will be performed correctly and efficiently. The security of a system also needs to be documented. This includes many types of documentation, such as security plans, contingency plans, risk analyses, and security policies and procedures. Much of this information, particularly risk and threat analyses, has to be protected against unauthorized disclosure. Security documentation also needs to be both current and accessible. Accessibility should take special factors into account (such as the need to find the contingency plan during a disaster). should be designed to fulfill the needs of the different types of people who use it. For this reason, many organizations separate documentation into policy and procedures. A security procedures manual should be written to inform various system users how to do their jobs securely. A security procedures manual for systems operations and support staff may address a wide variety of technical and operational concerns in considerable detail. System maintenance requires either physical or logical access to the system. Support and operations staff, hardware or software vendors, or third-party service providers may maintain a system. Maintenance may be performed on site, or it may be necessary to move equipment to a repair site. Maintenance may also be performed remotely via communications connections. If someone who does not normally have access to the system performs maintenance, then a security vulnerability is introduced. In some circumstances, it may be necessary to take additional precautions, such as conducting background investigations of service personnel. Supervision of maintenance personnel may prevent some problems, such as "snooping around" the physical area. However, once someone has access to the system, it is very difficult for supervision to prevent damage done through the maintenance process. of the most common methods hackers use to break into systems is through maintenance accounts that still have factory-set or easily guessed passwords. Many computer systems provide maintenance accounts. These special log-in accounts are normally preconfigured at the factory with pre-set, widely known passwords. It is critical to change these passwords or otherwise disable the accounts until they are needed. Procedures should be developed to ensure that only authorized maintenance personnel can use these accounts. If the account is to be used remotely, authentication of the maintenance provider can be performed using call-back confirmation. This helps ensure that remote diagnostic activities actually originate from an established phone number at the vendor's site. Other techniques can also help, including encryption and decryption of diagnostic communications; strong identification and authentication techniques, such as tokens; and remote disconnect verification. Larger systems may have diagnostic ports. In addition, manufacturers of larger systems and third-party providers may offer more diagnostic and support services. It is critical to ensure that these ports are only used by authorized personnel and cannot be accessed by hackers. There are support and operations components in most of the controls discussed in this support and operations staff have special access to the system. Some organizations conduct background checks on individuals filling these positions to screen out possibly untrustworthy individuals. Support and operations may include an organization's incident handling staff. Even if they are separate organizations, they need to work together to recognize and respond to incidents. Support and operations normally provides technical input to contingency planning and carries out the activities of making backups, updating documentation, and practicing responding to contingencies. Training, and Education. Support and operations staff should be trained in security procedures and should be aware of the importance of security. In addition, they provide technical expertise needed to teach users how to secure their systems. Physical and Environmental. Support and operations staff often controls the immediate physical area around the computer system. The technical controls are installed, maintained, and used by support and operations staff. They create the user accounts, add users to access control lists, review audit logs for unusual activity, control bulk encryption over telecommunications links, and perform the countless operational tasks needed to use technical controls effectively. In addition, support and operations staff provides needed input to the selection of controls based on their knowledge of system capabilities and operational constraints. and operations staff ensures that changes to a system do not introduce security vulnerabilities by using assurance methods to evaluate or test the changes and their effect on the system. Operational assurance is normally performed by support and operations staff. 14.9 Cost Considerations The cost of ensuring adequate security in day-to-day support and operations is largely dependent upon the size and characteristics of the operating environment and the nature of the processing being performed. If sufficient support personnel are already available, it is important that they be trained in the security aspects of their assigned jobs; it is usually not necessary to hire additional support and operations security specialists. Training, both initial and ongoing, is a cost of successfully incorporating security measures into support and operations activities. Another cost is that associated with creating and updating documentation to ensure that security concerns are appropriately reflected in support and operations policies, procedures, Paul. "Data Security for Personal Computers." Proceedings of the 15th National Computer Security Conference. Vol. I. National Institute of Standards and Technology and National Computer Security Center. Baltimore, MD. October 1992. William, Dennis Longley, and Michael Shain. Information Security Handbook. New York, NY: Stockton Press, 1991. Lisa J. "A Local Area Network Security Architecture." Proceedings of the 15th National Computer Security Conference. Vol. I. National Institute of Standards and Technology and National Computer Security Center. Baltimore, MD. 1992. J.M. Managing Risk: A Computer-Aided Strategy. Boston, MA: D. Brent. "Network (In)Security Through IP Packet Filtering." Proceedings of the 3rd USENIX UNIX Security Symposium, 1992. A. UNIX System Security: A Guide for Users and System Administrators. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1992. Garfinkel, Simson, and Gene Spafford. Practical UNIX Security. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly & Associates, 1991. Paul, and Joyce Reynolds, eds. Site Security Handbook. Available by anonymous ftp from nic.ddn.mil (in rfc directory). Security for System & Network Administrators. Computer Emergency Response Team Security Seminars, CERT Coordination Center, 1993. W.H. "Security Considerations for Personal Computers." Tutorial: Computer and Network Security. Oakland, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1986. Donna B. Managers Guide to Computer Security. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing, Inc., 1981. Pfleeger, Charles P. Security in Computing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, In general, larger systems include mainframes, large minicomputers, and WANs. Smaller systems include PCs and LANs. 102. This chapter only addresses configuration management during the operational phase. Configuration management can have extremely important security consequences during the development phase of a system.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Topical steroids are the topical forms of corticosteroids. Topical steroids are the most commonly prescribed topical medications for the treatment of rash, eczema, and dermatitis. Topical steroids have anti-inflammatory properties, and are classified based on their vasoconstriction abilities. There are numerous topical steroid products. All the preparations in each class have the same anti-inflammatory properties, but essentially differ in base and price. Corticosteroids were first made available for general use around 1950. Weaker topical steroids are utilized for thin-skinned and sensitive areas, especially areas under occlusion, such as the armpit, groin, buttock crease, breast folds. Weaker steroids are used on the face, eyelids, diaper area, perianal skin, and intertrigo of the groin or body folds. Moderate steroids are used for atopic dermatitis, nummular eczema, xerotic eczema, lichen sclerosis et atrophicus of the vulva, scabies (after scabiecide) and severe dermatitis. Strong steroids are used for psoriasis, lichen planus, discoid lupus, chapped feet, lichen simplex chronicus, severe poison ivy exposure, alopecia areata, nummular eczema, and severe atopic dermatitis in adults. To prevent tachyphylaxis, a topical steroid is often prescribed to be used on a week on, week off routine. Some recommend using the topical steroid for 3 consecutive days on, followed by 4 consecutive days off. Long-term use of topical steroids can lead to secondary infection with fungus or bacteria (see tinea incognito), skin atrophy, telangiectasia (prominent blood vessels), skin bruising and fragility. The use of the finger tip unit may be helpful in guiding how much topical steroid is required to cover different areas of the body. Side effects of topical steroids - Diabetes mellitus - Topical Steroid Withdrawal (TSW) - Allergic contact dermatitis (see steroid allergy) - Steroid atrophy - Perioral dermatitis: This is a rash that occurs around the mouth and the eye region that has been associated with topical steroids. - Ocular effects: Topical steroid drops are frequently used after eye surgery but can also raise intra-ocular pressure (IOP) and increase the risk of glaucoma, cataract, retinopathy as well as systemic adverse effects. - Tachyphylaxis: The acute development of tolerance to the action of a drug after repeated doses. Significant tachyphylaxis can occur by day 4 of therapy. Recovery usually occurs after 3 to 4 days rest. This has led to therapies such as 3 days on, 4 days off; or one week on therapy, and one week off therapy. - Vehicle-related adverse effects - Other local adverse effects: These include facial hypertrichosis, folliculitis, miliaria, genital ulcers, and granuloma gluteale infantum. Long term use has resulted in Norwegian scabies, Kaposi's sarcoma, and other unusual dermatosis. Classification systems USA system Group I Very potent: up to 600 times stronger than hydrocortisone - Clobetasol propionate 0.05% (Dermovate) - Betamethasone dipropionate 0.05% (Diprolene) - Halobetasol proprionate 0.05% (Ultravate, Halox) - Diflorasone diacetate 0.05% (Psorcon) Group II - Fluocinonide 0.05% (Lidex) - Halcinonide 0.05% (Halog) - Amcinonide 0.05% (Cyclocort) - Desoximetasone 0.25% (Topicort) Group III - Triamcinolone acetonide 0.5% (Kenalog, Aristocort cream) - Mometasone furoate 0.1% (Elocon ointment) - Fluticasone propionate 0.005% (Cutivate) - Betamethasone dipropionate 0.05% (Diprosone) Group IV - Fluocinolone acetonide 0.01-0.2% (Synalar, Synemol, Fluonid) - Hydrocortisone valerate 0.2% (Westcort) - Hydrocortisone butyrate 0.1% (Locoid) - Flurandrenolide 0.05% (Cordran) - Triamcinolone acetonide 0.1% (Kenalog, Aristocort A ointment) - Mometasone furoate 0.1% (Elocon cream, lotion) Group V - Triamcinolone acetonide 0.1% (Kenalog, Aristocort,kenacort-a vail, cream, lotion) - Fluticasone propionate 0.05% (Cutivate cream) - Desonide 0.05% (Tridesilon, DesOwen ointment) - Fluocinolone acetonide 0.025% (Synalar, Synemol cream) - Hydrocortisone valerate 0.2% (Westcort cream) Group VI - Alclometasone dipropionate 0.05% (Aclovate cream, ointment) - Triamcinolone acetonide 0.025% (Aristocort A cream, Kenalog lotion) - Fluocinolone acetonide 0.01% (Capex shampoo, Dermasmooth) - Desonide 0.05% (DesOwen cream, lotion) Group VII The weakest class of topical steroids. Has poor lipid permeability, and can not penetrate mucous membranes well. - Hydrocortisone 2.5% (Hytone cream, lotion, ointment) - Hydrocortisone 1% (Many over-the-counter brands) Other countries Most other countries, such as the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, recognize only 4 classes. In New Zealand I is the strongest, while in Continental Europe, class IV is regarded as the strongest. Class IV Very potent (up to 600 times as potent as hydrocortisone) - Clobetasol propionate (Dermovate Cream/Ointment, Exel Cream) - Betamethasone dipropionate (Diprosone OV Cream/Ointment, Diprovate Cream) Class III Potent (50-100 times as potent as hydrocortisone) - Betamethasone valerate (Beta Cream/Ointment/Scalp Application, Betnovate Lotion/C Cream/C Ointment, Daivobet 50/500 Ointment, Fucicort) - Betamethasone dipropionate (Diprosone Cream/Ointment, Diprovate Cream) - Diflucortolone valerate (Nerisone C/Cream/Fatty Ointment/Ointment) - Hydrocortisone 17-butyrate (Locoid C/Cream/Crelo Topical Emulsion/Lipocream/Ointment/Scalp Lotion) - Mometasone furoate (Elocon Cream/Lotion/Ointment) - Methylprednisolone aceponate (Advantan Cream/Ointment) Class II Moderate (2-25 times as potent as hydrocortisone) - Clobetasone butyrate (Eumovate Cream) - Triamcinolone acetonide (Aristocort Cream/Ointment, Viaderm KC Cream/Ointment, Kenacomb Ointment) Class I - Hydrocortisone 0.5-2.5% (DermAid Cream/Soft Cream, DP Lotion-HC 1%, Skincalm, Lemnis Fatty Cream HC, Pimafucort Cream/Ointment) Japan classification Japan rates topical steroids from 1 to 5, with 1 being strongest. Allergy associations Group A Group B Group C Group D Hydrocortisone-17-butyrate, hydrocortisone-17-valerate, alclometasone dipropionate, betamethasone valerate, betamethasone dipropionate, prednicarbate, clobetasone-17-butyrate, clobetasol-17-propionate, fluocortolone caproate, fluocortolone pivalate, and fluprednidene acetate See also - Habif, Thomas P. (1990). Clinical dermatology: a color guide to diagnosis and therapy (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby. p. 27. ISBN 0-8016-2465-7. - Rattner H (November 1955). "THE STATUS OF CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY IN DERMATOLOGY". Calif Med 83 (5): 331–5. PMC 1532588. PMID 13260925. - Recommendations from New Zealand Dermatological Society Incorporated on corticosteroids - Habif, Thomas P. (1990). Clinical dermatology: a color guide to diagnosis and therapy (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby. pp. 27–30. ISBN 0-8016-2465-7. - van der Linden MW, Penning-van Beest FJ, Nijsten T, Herings RM (2009). "Topical corticosteroids and the risk of diabetes mellitus: a nested case-control study in the Netherlands". Drug Saf 32 (6): 527–37. doi:10.2165/00002018-200932060-00008. PMID 19459719. - Lebreton, O.; Weber, M. (2011). "Complications ophtalmologiques des corticoïdes systémiques". La Revue de Médecine Interne 32 (8): 506–512. doi:10.1016/j.revmed.2011.01.003. PMID 21330017. - Wolverton, Stephen E. (2001). Comprehensive Dermatologic Drug Therapy. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company. pp. 562–3. ISBN 0-7216-7728-2. - Wolverton, Stephen E. (2001). Comprehensive Dermatologic Drug Therapy. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company. p. 563. ISBN 0-7216-7728-2. - Habif, Thomas P. (1990). Clinical dermatology: a color guide to diagnosis and therapy (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby. p. Inside front cover. ISBN 0-8016-2465-7. - Wolverton, Stephen E. (2001). Comprehensive Dermatologic Drug Therapy. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company. p. 562. ISBN 0-7216-7728-2.

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I learned of the passing of Albert Hirschman on December 11, and while better and more instructive tributes to his life can be read elsewhere, I wanted to focus on a little piece of Hirschman’s work that I use all the time: the (inverse) Herfindahl–Hirschman Index. The HHI is basically a measure of market concentration, but when inverted, it is an “effective number of” whatever grouping you might be interested in, such as parties. Essentially, this statistic can be interpreted as, “Individuals are distributed across groups in such a way that they are as concentrated as they would be if divided across [HHI value] groups evenly.” This is perhaps best understood by example, and fortunately, my field of American Politics offers an interesting one. The U.S. South, between Reconstruction and the Civil Rights Act, was commonly known as the “one-party South,” due to the overwhelming dominance of the Democratic Party in Southern Politics. We can see evidence of this dominance by calculating the Effective Number of Parties-in-the-Electorate, using the HHI. As the graph below illustrates, non-Southern states have consistently featured just over two “effective” parties (Democrats, Republicans, and some Independents/Others), while the South lagged behind in this measure up until the 1980s. The inverse HHI is an elegant little function (the square of the sum over the sum of the squares), and plyr makes it very easy to calculate for any dataset.

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FINITE MATHEMATICS FOR BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT While this course may be used to fulfill part of the six-hour general education mathematics requirement for the A.S. degree at John A. Logan College , it is designed primarily for economics majors, business administration, and accounting majors. Those students will be required to take a calculus course to complete their mathematics sequences. This course will fulfill the mathematics requirement for the A.A. degree. Topics covered include functions and lines, linear systems , linear programming , the Simplex Method, mathematics of finance, set theory, and probability. This course is not de signed for mathematics or science majors. The Texas Instruments TI-83 graphing calculator or a graphing calculator approved by the instructor is required for this course. MAT 108 with a grade of “C” or higher or assessment 1. Construct cost, revenue, and profit functions and perform break-even analysis. 2. Solve straight -line depreciation problems utilizing linear functions. 3. Calculate future value and present value for simple interest accounts, compound interest accounts, and annuities. 4. Calculate effective rate of interest for a compound interest account. 5. Calculate the point of equilibrium in supply and demand analysis. 6. Write the parametric form of an infinite solution to a system of linear equations. 7. Solve a system of linear equations using matrices and elementary row 8. Apply matrix ope rations in performing tests for equality, addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, and matrix multiplication. 9. Calculate the inverse of a square matrix. 10. Utilize inverse matrices to aid in solving for the sector production levels that will meet internal and external demands of a Leontief Input-Output model. 11. Calculate the feasible region and its corner points relating to a system of linear inequalities involving two variables . 12. Use the feasible region and its corner points to solve a two- variable linear 13. Apply the Simplex Method to solve a linear programming problem involving standard and mixed constraints. 14. Utilize the Dual to solve a linear programming problem. 15. Apply set operations and use Venn diagrams to aid in performing tests for equality, unions, intersections, complements, and subset analysis. 16. Count the number of elements in a set using Venn diagrams, the inclusionexclusion principle, the addition rule, the multiplication rule, tree diagrams, permutations, and combinations. 17. Calculate regular and conditional probabilities using set counting procedures, mutual exclusion, independence, the complement rule, the union rule, the multiplication rule, and Bayes’ rule. Topics to be covered in this course include: I. FUNCTIONS AND LINES B. Graphs and Lines C. Mathematical Models and Applications of Linear Functions II. MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE A. Simple Interest B. Compound Interest C. Annuities and Sinking Funds D. Present Value of an Annuity and Amortization III. LINEAR SYSTEMS A. Systems of Two Equations B. Systems with Three Variables: An Introduction to a Matrix Representation of a Linear System of Equations C. Gauss-Jordan Method for General Systems of Equations D. Matrix Operations E. Multiplication of Matrices F. The Inverse of a Matrix G. Leontief Input-Output Model in Economics IV. LINEAR PROGRAMMING A. Linear Inequalities in Two Variables B. Solutions of Systems of Inequalities: A Geometric Picture C. Linear Programming: A Geometric Approach V. LINEAR PROGRAMMING: THE SIMPLEX METHOD A. Setting Up the Simplex Method B. The Simplex Method C. The Standard Minimum Problem: Duality D. Mixed Constraints E. Multiple Solutions, Unbounded Solutions, and No Solutions VI. SETS AND COUNTING B. Counting Elements in a Subset Using a Venn Diagram C. Basic Counting Principles F. A Mixture of Counting Problems A. Introduction to Probability B. Equally Likely Events C. Compound Events: Union, Intersection, and Complement D. Conditional Probability E. Independent Events F. Bayes’ Rule Homework. Homework will be assigned at every class session. The student should realize that, as a general rule of thumb , a minimum of two hours of study outside of class is required for every one hour of class time. This course will require a minimum of twelve to twenty-two hours per week of outside class work. Attendance. Attendance to this class is both expected and required. John A. Logan College’s attendance policy will be enforced: A. Students are expected to attend all scheduled class periods for the courses in which they are enrolled unless they are participating in a scheduled, supervised college trip or function. There are no excused absences or minimum number of class “cuts.” All absences must be made up in a manner acceptable to the B. A student who is absent from class for three consecutive meetings or who is excessively absent as defined by the instructor (more than 5 absences), without prior approval, may be required by the instructor to meet with the appropriate administrator before being readmitted to the class. Students who claim illness as a cause for excessive absences may be required to present a physician’s statement before being readmitted to the class. Required Materials. The textbook, along with the usual notebook, paper, pencils, etc. represent the required materials for the class. The utilization of the Texas Instruments TI-83 Graphing Calculator will be emphasized in classroom presentations as well as on homework assignments and tests. Hence, the student is required to use the TI-83 on appropriate assignments and should be knowledgeable of its workings. The functions provided by the Texas Instruments TI-83 Graphing Calculator will be utilized throughout the course and will be required for successful completion of certain homework assignments and tests. Student Success Center. Tutors may be obtained through the Student Success Center. Contact the staff in C219 if this service is desired. John A. Logan College will make reasonable accommodations for students with documented disabilities under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Any student with a disability that may have some impact on work in this class, who feels she/he needs an accommodation, should make an appointment with the Coordinator of Services for Students with Disabilities on campus, Christy McBride, Room C219B, Ext. 8516. Before services can be provided, this advisor must de termine eligibility and arrange appropriate academic adjustments. It is the student’s responsibility to register in advance of a school term with this office and to turn in a schedule each term to ensure that there is every opportunity for success in this class. English Writing Center/Tutoring: For assistance with writing assignments in any college courses, students are encouraged to visit “The Write Place” in E109. English instructors are available for one-on-one tutoring each semester during hours posted at the center. Financial Aid. Students who receive financial assistance and completely with draw from classes prior to 60% of the semester being completed (approximately 2-3 weeks after midterm) could be responsible to return a portion of their Federal Pell Grant award. Prior to withdrawing from courses, students should contact the Financial Aid Office. METHOD OF EVALUATION: Evaluation will be made on the basis of: 1. A maximum of five 100-point exams that will be administered periodically over the course of the semester. 2. A 200-point comprehensive final exam. The combined average of the tests and the final exam will determine the student’s overall course percentage grade. No make-ups will be given on the tests. Students attending a required school-sponsored activity must make arrangements with the instructor to complete the exam before attending the obligatory event. Any answers, which have been copied from someone else, will result in a zero for all parties involved. Grades are assigned according to the following scale: METHOD OF PRESENTATION: Most instruction will be of the lecture-discussion type. Homework will be assigned which, together with announced exams serve to amplify and clarify the classroom discussions. Occasionally, topics will be assigned to be performed through independent study. Ample opportunity will be provided for the student to meet with the instructor on a one-to-one basis during office hours to clear up any difficulties that may arise. Finite Mathematics, Fifth Edition: by Rolf; Harcourt, Inc.; 2002. DATE: Summer, 2005

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US space probe leaves for Mars A US space probe has lifted off from Cape Canaveral, in Florida, heading for the south pole of Mars. The Mars Polar Lander is expected to touch down in December, to probe the surface of the planet for rocks and soil samples. It will join the Mars Climate Orbiter, already launched, which should be circling Mars by September. One important question the space probes could tackle is the possible presence of water on Mars - either now, or in the past. The lander is expected to touch down on Mars on December 3, shortly after releasing Deep Space 2, a set of two mini-probes that will imbed itself into the Martian soil. The main probe will collect rocks and soil samples with a robot arm. These will be heated and any volatile gases that escape, such as water vapor, will be analysed. The Deep Space 2 mini-probes will do the same with underground samples. Last month NASA launched the Mars Climate Orbiter. It was set to begin orbiting the planet on September 23 and study the Martian seasons and the location of water. The information gathered by Mars Polar Lander and Mars Climate Orbiter should provide a greater understanding of the history of water on Mars. Scientists already believe that water once flowed freely on Mars, but do not understand why it may have disappeared.

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The candidates for the presidential nomination are using the record beef recall as fodder for speeches on the campaign trail, calling for policy change and increased food safety. But there are things consumers can think about when purchasing meat that can protect their health now. The federal regulation of meat processing plants that exists is supposed to ensure that only healthy animals make it into the food system, according to the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. However, we now know that this system doesn't always guarantee safety: inspectors were present at the Hallmark Meat Co. that was fork-lifting downer cattle into the slaughter house. Dr. Dorothy Blair, assistant professor of nutritional sciences at Penn State University tells the paper that consumers should consider where meat comes from and how it's processed. She adds that meat eaters should "eat local meat, eat grass-fed meat" and know their farmers. Ask at local grocery stores and butcher shops if they carry local suppliers. Another way to access locally grown foods is by joining a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) program, where people buy into a farm and receive a portion of the produce. Some CSAs offer poultry and eggs. Shopping farmers markets is another way to buy from local producers. While local meats and poultry can be more expensive, its worth the extra cost if you consider the safety issues (not to mention the benefits to the local economy). Dr. Blair worries that the pressures to keep meat prices low have a dangerous cost, adding that some processors use downer cattledespite the fact that it is against federal regulation due to health risksbecause profits on meat are so small. Enter your city or zip code to get your local temperature and air quality and find local green food and recycling resources near you.

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LAUSANNE, Switzerland, Nov. 16, 2012 — A new algorithm based on a well-known natural optical phenomenon called the caustic effect makes it possible to “paint” images using light and a curved surface. The technique holds potential for automobile headlights, projectors and architectural applications. The scientists at Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) who developed the algorithm tested it by transforming a simple transparent acrylic plate into a molded surface that, when a light is directed through it, produces a coherent image of the face of Alan Turing, a British mathematician and the father of modern computer science. Researchers at EPFL found a way to control caustics — patterns that appear when light hits a water surface or a transparent material. Thanks to an algorithm, investigators can shape a transparent object so that it reflects a coherent image. Courtesy of ©Alain Herzog. “With the technique that we developed, we can compose any image we want, from a simple form such as a star to complex representations such as faces or landscapes,” said EPFL professor Mark Pauly, who conducted the study with four other scientists. It isn’t magic — the only thing at work is the relief on the plaque’s surface and the caustic effect, which the scientists succeeded in bending to their will. This effect is easy to observe and can be explained by light refraction. When light rays hit a transparent surface, they continue their trajectory but are bent as a function of the surface geometry and optical properties of the material. The light passing through does not distribute uniformly, but rather gets concentrated in certain points, forming some zones that are more intense and others that are more shaded. Pauly and his colleagues studied these distribution principles, identifying the curves and undulations they would need to give the surface to direct the beams of light to a desired area. From this, they developed an algorithm to precisely calculate the trajectories to form specific images. On auto headlights, the technique could be used to direct light toward a specific direction. With applications in architecture, the method could be applied to display cases, windows, fountains and ornamentations on monuments or in museums. The research was presented in September at the Advances in Architectural Geometry Conference in Paris. For more information, visit: www.epfl.ch

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A study has found that cars with very high gas mileage are less polluting than electric vehicles charged up in coal-heavy regions. The Union of Concerned Scientists released a report today called "State of Charge" that finds that on average plug-in cars are less polluting than gasoline-powered vehicles in the U.S. But the greenhouse gases emitted from electric vehicles depends on the sources of electricity. The study centers on a heated discussion in auto circles. Automakers have sometimes referred to electric vehicles as "zero emissions," which is misleading because most plug-in drivers charge their cars from electricity generated by burning coal or natural gas. The Union of Concerned Scientists, a nonprofit, sought to clarify matters by doing a lifecycle analysis of greenhouse gas emissions that includes energy inputs from start to finish, not only during drive time. The new Ford Focus Electric car It finds that charging an all-electric car, such as the Nissan Leaf, in regions dominated by coal results in global warming emissions equivalent to a car with a mileage rating between 31 miles per gallon to 40 mpg. The coal-dominated regions are in the Midwest, representing 18 percent of the U.S. population. In this case, a hybrid Prius, for example, which gets about 48 mpg, would be less polluting than an all-electric car. Electric vehicles charged in areas with cleaner sources of electricity yields the equivalent of over 50 miles per gallon, better than the most fuel-efficient gasoline or diesel cars today. Those areas include most of the western states and most of the states on the eastern seaboard, which rely more on hydropower, natural gas, or nuclear. These regions as "best" for plug-ins cover about 45 percent of the U.S. population. "This report's analysis shows that consumers should feel confident that driving an electric vehicle yields lower global warming emissions than the average new compact gasoline-powered vehicle," according to the report. The authors note there are other benefits to driving plug-in electric vehicles, including lower costs per mile and reducing oil consumption. Plug-in electric vehicles come with a higher price tag, but the Union of Concerned Scientists study estimates that over the life of the car a driver could save over 6,000 gallons of gasoline and $13,000 by driving an all-electric vehicle, compared to an average compact gasoline car. That assumes $3.50 per gallon gasoline, the U.S. average for electricity prices which is 11 cents per kilowatt-hour, and 15,000 miles a year for 15 years. Drivers can also lower their electric charging costs by taking advantage of off-peak rates or EV-specific rates. The study comes at a time when more battery-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles are coming out. The Nissan Leaf and Chevy Volt have been out for more than a year, while Ford and Mitsubishi are releasing all-electric cars and Toyota prepares to release a plug-in Prius hybrid. The Union of Concerned Scientist analysis echoes previous studies in finding that on average, plug-in electric cars are less polluting than gasoline cars and cut oil consumption. It also underscores how fuel efficiency through hybrids or other efficient engine technologies can achieve significant gasoline reductions. The study notes that projected increases in solar and wind on the grid means that the global warming emissions from an electric vehicle in those areas will decrease over time.

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Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods. Its manifestations include hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services, social discrimination and exclusion as well as the lack of participation in decision-making. Various social groups bear disproportionate burden of poverty. The World Social Summit identified poverty eradication as an ethical, social, political and economic imperative of mankind and called on governments to address the root causes of poverty, provide for basic needs for all and ensure that the poor have access to productive resources, including credit, education and training. Recognizing insufficient progress in the poverty reduction, the 24th special session of the General Assembly devoted to the review of the Copenhagen commitments, decided to set up targets to reduce the proportion of people living in extreme poverty by one half by 2015. This target has been endorsed by the Millennium Summit as Millennium Development Goal 1. Poverty eradication must be mainstreamed into the national policies and actions in accordance with the internationally agreed development goals forming part of the broad United Nations Development Agenda, forged at UN conferences and summits in the economic, social and related fields. The Second United Nations Decade for the Eradication of Poverty (2008-2017), proclaimed by the General Assembly in December 2007 aims at supporting such a broad framework for poverty eradication, emphasizing the need to strengthen the leadership role of the United Nations in promoting international cooperation for development, critical for the eradication of poverty. A social perspective on development requires addressing poverty in all its dimensions. It promotes people-centered approach to poverty eradication advocating the empowerment of people living in poverty through their full participation in all aspects of political, economic and social life, especially in the design and implementation of policies that affect the poorest and most vulnerable groups of society. An integrated strategy towards poverty eradication necessitates implementing policies geared to more equitable distribution of wealth and income and social protection coverage. A social perspective on poverty should contribute to the debate on the effectiveness and limitations of current poverty reduction strategies. Poverty analysis from a social perspective requires thorough examination of the impact of economic and social policies on the poor and other vulnerable social groups. Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) serves as a tool to assess both the economic and social impact of reforms on different social and income groups. Properly conducted PSIA contributes to national debate on policy options and helps to promote national ownership of development strategies and could contribute to the operationalization of Copenhagen’s commitments.

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Mumbai: One child below the age of five dies in India every four minutes. Most of these deaths occur due to preventable illnesses like pneumonia. The International Access Vaccine Centre blames India for not introducing the latest vaccines. But can that alone save nearly four lakh children's lives every year? According to the latest report by the centre based at Johns Hopkins University, as many as 3.71 lakh Indian children die every year due to pneumonia. It finds every fourth child, who dies of pneumonia world-wide, is an Indian. The figure is worse than sub Saharan Africa, Pakistan, and even Afghanistan. Yet, India is among just four countries to not introduce the newest generation of pneumonia vaccines, which protect against the 23 most common strains of the disease. Doctors say there are other focus areas. "Vaccine up to certain extent can limit the morality and morbidity, but definitely control of environmental risk factor is more important. Basically it is the overall hygiene, the avoidance of over crowding and the environmental risk factors. Those are more important rather then giving the vaccine," said Dr Mukesh Agarwal, HOD Pediatric, KEM Hospital. There are also concerns over cost, and access. The International Access Vaccine Centre says the new vaccine would help save at least 4 million children across developing countries in the next decade. However, the vaccine requires four booster shots. Altogether, the cost would be Rs 16000. "It is rather unfair that only one percent of population can afford the expensive vaccines and have access to them and the people who need them most don't have access to them. So that's were the fight lies," said Dr Soonu Udani, Pediatrician, Hinduja Hospital. "Just like they fought for AIDS medication to be made cheaper and now ART has been made really cheap for the patients, same things should be done for vaccines," said Dr Udani. The report also highlights low rates of breast feeding in India as a key factor for child deaths. According to the WHO, breast feeding provides vital immunity and Pneumonia wouldn't take such a terrible toll if 70-80 per cent of infants were breastfed, as opposed to 46 per cent of infants, which is the case in India.

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[Haskell-cafe] Newbie question: "multi-methods" in Haskell bf3 at telenet.be Mon Aug 6 12:36:22 EDT 2007 In de book Modern C++ design, Andrei Alexandrescu writes that Haskell How is this actually done in Haskell? Maybe this is just a basic feature = Haskell which I don't grasp yet because of my object-oriented = A good example is collision between pairs of objects of type (a,b). In object oriented languages this cannot be handled in a nice way, because neither a.Collide(b) or b.Collide(a) is the correct approach; one would = to write (a,b).Collide() A specific example might be better here.=20 Assume the following class hierarchy: + -- Earth + -- Jupiter Using multi-methods, I could write (in pseudo code) collide (Asteroid, Planet) =3D "an asteroid hit a planet" collide (Asteroid, Earth) =3D "the end of the dinos" collide (Solid,Solid) =3D " solids collided" collide (Planet, Asteroid) =3D collide (Asteroid, Planet) collide (Earth, Asteroid) =3D collide (Earth, Asteroid) So basically, the "best" collide function is picked, depending on the = of the arguments. How should I write Haskell code for something like this in general, in = sense that this hierarchy is typically huge and the matrix (of collide functions for each pair of types) is very sparse. No virus found in this outgoing message. Checked by AVG Free Edition.=20 Version: 7.5.476 / Virus Database: 269.11.6/938 - Release Date: = More information about the Haskell-Cafe

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Resume Writing with the Word Survey Survey – to examine a field or set of data. noun form: survey Survey is a resume writing power word that shows that a candidate: - gathered information on a topic or problem - examined that information to find patterns What to survey – data, research, information, fields, areas, users, employees, customers, natural phenomena, land, applicants, people Resume Writing Examples Example that Shows Communication Skills Surveyed all of customers and implemented changes based on feedback to ensure that hotel staff was providing the best possible service. Conclusion: This candidate can gather data and communicate conclusions for positive results. Example that Shows Analytical Skills Improved public speaking skills by surveying the techniques of dozens of public speakers, television hosts, and radio personalities. Conclusion: This candidate was able to examine the techniques of successful people and find useful common patterns. Examples that Show Research Skills Surveyed over three hundred customers each week for their reactions to movies and grouped the data to got to press. Conclusion: This candidate can collect and distribute information. Surveyed the data on renewable energy costs and made recommendations to the board about the company’s environmental policy. Conclusion: The candidate has strong research skills. Synonyms: analyze, appraise, assess, chart, check, consider, critique, describe, evaluate, inspect, investigate, measure, observe, outline, overview, poll, question, research, review, sample, scan, study, evaluate please Contact Us and tell us where so we can make corrections.

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The Library of Congress has recently digitalized a collection of over 10,000 photographs, taken by the "American Colony" in Jerusalem, a group of Christian utopians who lived in Jerusalem between 1881 and the 1940s. The photographers returned to the US, and bequeathed their massive collection to the Library of Congress in 1978. The collection includes Winston Churchill's visit to Jerusalem, Jewish expulsions from the Old City during Arab riots, and the building of Tel Aviv. Israel Daily Picture usually focuses on the Library of Congress' American Colony collection of 22,000 photos. But while exploring the Library's archives we came across an amazing collection of pictures of the Bukhari Jewish community of Samarkand in 1870. Members of the community began moving to Eretz Yisrael, the Holy Land, in the mid-1800. They established a new neighborhood outside of Jerusalem's Old City walls. The American Colony photographers recorded how various Jewish communities celebrated Sukkot in Jerusalem in the early 1900s with pictures of Yemenite, Ashkenazi and Bukhari succot booths. Is it possible that the family photographed in Samarkand in 1870 may be the same family photographed in Jerusalem in 1900? More photos can be viewed at http://www.israeldailypicture.com

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Hosted by The Math Forum The diagram shows a circle of radius 1, with the boundary of the shaded (gray) portion consisting of three circular arcs of radius 1 whose centers are equally spaced on the ambient circle. Dissect the unshaded (yellow) portion of the circle's interior into pieces that can be reassembled to form a rectangle. To get the diagram: Start with a unit circle with center O and inscribe an equilateral triangle ABC. Then draw arcs through O centered at A, B, and C, respectively, and consider only the part of the arcs lying inside the circle. The propeller-like region they form is the shaded region referred to. See Jeff Erickson's solution © Copyright 1996 Stan Wagon. Reproduced with permission. Home || The Math Library || Quick Reference || Search || Help

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An internal review said the space agency doesn’t keep track of the (now) irreplaceable artifacts. The American space program was riding high when the astronauts from the Apollo missions returned from our planet’s only natural satellite with samples of moon rock. NASA lent out these samples to observatories and research facilities for experimentation and observation – I even remember my high school science teacher showing me a moon rock in class – but after a story came out in 2010 from a Delaware institution’s large sample being lost, NASA performed an investigation on where all its moon rocks had gone. The report from NASA’s inspector general released admitted that many of the moon samples are lost forever and the agency needed to keep better records. NASA has lent more than 26,000 to museums and scientists over the years. The inspector general audited a quarter of these samples, and reported that more than 500 have either been lost or stolen. 19 percent of the recipient’s in question could not locate the samples, either because they were lost, they had been destroyed or lent to other institutions. Some of these samples can never be gained again, including 22 meteorites and two comet samples from an operation that retrieved them from a comet as it passed by. In other cases, one scientist admitted to possessing 9 samples he borrowed more than 35 years ago. Others kept samples for 16 or more years after they had finished working with them. Even worse, some scientists said they held onto moon samples that they had never performed any experiments on at all. NASA’s report doesn’t mean that it will stop lending out moon rocks, but the agency plans to adopt specific measures to track and keep accurate records of where its samples are located. I imagine that NASA will start checking in with these scientists to return the rocks after they are used, and start tracking them with bar codes or another tracking method to keep them all straight. These rocks are difficult to replace, now that we haven’t traveled to the Moon since 1972 and are likely not to return since the space shuttles are retired from service. Crap, we’re not going to get any more moon rocks any time soon. SAMPLES STORED IN NITROGEN TO MIMIC CONDITIONS ON THE MOON - The main repository for the Apollo moon rocks is the ultra-secure Lunar Sample Building at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. - There is a smaller collection at Brooks Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. - The samples are stored in nitrogen to mimic conditions on the moon and keep them free of moisture. - The Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions brought back 2,415 samples weighing 382 kg. - The three Russian Luna spacecraft returned with an additional 0.32 kg of samples. - In 1972, President Richard Nixon sent moon rocks to 135 foreign heads of state, the 50 U.S. states and its provinces as a goodwill gesture - In 2002 three young Nasa interns stole dozens of samples from the Houston repository but were arrested as they tried to sell them to an undercover FBI agent An Apollo astronaut digs for samples (right) and President Bill Clinton shows off a sample of moon rock given to him in 1999 What was most significant about the lunar voyage was not that men set foot on the moon but that they set eye on the earth.

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Scientists have explained that the cancer causing effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals, which have effects such as what hormones have in the body. The researchers at Tufts University School of Medicine said that even though the health-threatening impacts are known to an immense degree, more multifaceted strategies for reading how these chemicals have an effect on health are necessary. Author Carlos Sonnenschein, MD, professor in the Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology at Tufts University School of Medicine said that the strength and breadth of the on hand research on the bad effects of ECDs, as well as bisphenol A, cautions rapid action, in order to reduce EDC exposure, especially amongst the developing fetus and women of reproductive age. Specialists state that studies in rodents illustrate that ECDs are capable of harming if exposure occurs during organ formation as contrasted to exposures during the time of adulthood. The proof shows that exposure to BPA and other EDCs might contribute to diseases that become visible during adulthood, such as augmented cancer rates in the industrialized world. Author Ana Soto, MD, professor in the Department of Anatomy and Cellular Biology at TUSM informed that these chemicals have linked with obesity, altered behavior and infertility.

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May 24, 2000 Later Bedtime and Family Stress May Play A Role Washington - Children in the sixth-grade may suffer adverse cognitive, behavioral and emotional consequences due to an increased risk of being chronically sleep deprived, according to a new study in the May issue of Developmental Psychology, a journal published by the American Psychological Association (APA). The study of 140 Israeli elementary school children also found that family stress, parental age and parental education may all play a role in a child's sleep-wake patterns. Study authors Avi Sadeh, Ph.D., Amiram Raviv, Ph.D., and Reut Gruber, Ph.D., of Tel Aviv University, used various methods to gauge the sleep patterns of 72 boys and 68 girls in the second, fourth and sixth grades from mostly two-parent middle-class or upper middle-class families. Each child was monitored with an actigraph, a miniaturized wristwatch-like device that the child attaches to his or her wrist during the recording period. The device enables continuous recording for prolonged periods with no interference with the child's natural sleep environment. Daily logs were used to obtain subjective information from the children, along with a questionnaire on sleep habits that the parents and children filled out independently. Results show that sleep onset time in second grade was more than one hour earlier than that in sixth grade, although sleep quality appears to remain stable across the age range studied because no age differences were found on any of the objective sleep quality measures. However, the subjective measures indicate that the older children (sixth grade) reported increased morning drowsiness compared with the younger children. "These findings," according to the authors, "suggest the age-related significant delay in sleep onset and the shortening of sleep lead to chronic partial sleep deprivation and increased day-time sleepiness even in this age group preceding adolescents, where such a tendency has already been established." "The significant reduction in sleep duration coupled with the significant increase in daytime sleepiness found in our study suggests that the sleep behavior of the older children may not be in accordance with their physiological needs," say the authors. These children, according to the researchers, are at increased risk of being chronically sleep deprived, which could have adverse consequences, involving the child's development. Physiological and hormonal changes explain part of the reason for the older children delaying sleep, but psychosocial reasons that are familiar to American children are also involved, according to lead author Dr. Sadeh. "There are increased school demands, the need of children to feel more like adults by having a more active night life and the incentives like late-evening or late-night TV shows and Internet surfing," he said. Other findings of the study suggest that younger parents are more likely to enforce an earlier bedtime, which resulted in extended sleep durations. However, the best predictors of sleep quality measures, according to the authors, were the parents' education and family stress. "Although it is not entirely clear why the children of parents with a higher education level sleep better, this finding is consistent with a recent report correlating poor sleep with lower maternal education," said the authors. They add that family stress (loss, illness, hospitalization, relocation and emotional turmoil within the family) may lead to poor sleep in children because increased stress and the anxiety associated with it are likely to activate an alarm response that triggers the activity of the adrenocortical system, which results in alertness. Article: "Sleep Patterns and Sleep Disruptions in School-Age Children," Avi Sadeh, Amiram Raviv and Reut Gruber, Tel Aviv University; Developmental Psychology, Vol. 36, No. 3. Full text of the article is available from the APA Public Affairs Office or at http://www.apa.org/journals/dev.html Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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|Socialization||lifelong process of learning to become a member of the social world, beginning at birth & continuing until death.| -important b/c major part of family, education>prepare individuals to be members of the social world. -factors> necessary for the survival of the individual but also for survival of society & its groups. |Socializing Agents||the transmitters of culture-ppl, organizations,& institution that teaches us how to thrive in our social world.| |Formal Agents|| socialization is the stated goal.| -usually have some official or legal responsibility for instructing individuals -primary roles & responsibilities |Informal Agents|| do not have to express purpose of socialization, but they function as unofficial forces that shape values, belief, & behaviors.| |"the look-Glass Self"|| a reflective process based on our interpretations of the reactions of others.| -we imagine how we want to appear to others -others make judgements & respond -our interpretation of ppl's reactions feed into our self-concept. -we experience feelings & react based on our interpretation. |Theorists Credit w/ developing the Looking Glass Theory|| Charles H. Cooley| GEorge Herbert Mead |Parts of Self|| I- the spontaneous, unpredictable, impulsive, & largely unorganized aspect of the self.| Me- ablity to see the self as others see them & critique the behavior of the I. :the me has learned the rules of society through socialization & interaction & it controls the I & its desires. |Stages in the Development of Self (Mead)||-imitation stage: child >3 prepare for role taking by observing others & imitating their behaviors, sound ,& gestures.| -play stage: involves a kind of playacting in which the child is actually "playing" a role. (ie) playing house -significant others:parents, guardian relatives or siblings whose primary & sustained interaction w/ the child are especially influential -game stage: the child learns to take the role of multiple others concurrently. (ie) 6yr old playing t-ball |Generalized other|| process gradually builds up a composite of societal exceptions | -child learns to internalize the expectations of any "significant other" |Resocialization|| process of shedding one or more positions &taking on others | -involves changing from establish patterns learned earlier in life to new one suitable to newly acquired status. -major transition in your life (ie) divorce, military |Rites of passages||are celebrations or public recognitions when individuals shift from one status to another| |Positive Sanctions||a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material reward| |Negative Sanctions||an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prison sentence or an execution| |Transnationalism||involves an individual or a family that has national loyalty to more than one country.| |Conflict Theorist view Socialization|| w/ linkage between various parts of the social world based on competition w/ or even direct opposition to another part.| -believe that those who have power & privileges use socialization to manipulate individuals in the social world to support the power structure & the self interest of the elite. |Structural Functionalist view Socialization||tend to see different levels of the social world operating to support each other.|

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Road construction workers face many hazards on the job. In addition to many of the hazards present on a “traditional” construction site, road workers also need to contend with moving vehicles both in and around the job site. Road construction workers risk injury from construction equipment operating within work zones. From 1995 through 2002, 844 fatal occupational injuries occurred at road construction sites. The majority of these fatalities, 693 (82%) cases, were reported to be transportation incidents. Fatalities involving a ground worker being struck by a vehicle or equipment accounted for 509 (73%) of the transportation incidents. Victims were as likely to be struck by construction equipment (32%) as by highway vehicles (28%). Backing up accounted for at least 50 percent of fatalities from being run over by construction equipment [Pegula 2004]. In 2001, NIOSH began developing and evaluating interventions to reduce the number of ground workers being struck by road construction equipment. While developing evaluation methods, researchers created equipment blind-area diagrams. Although originally developed for use by NIOSH researchers, industry stakeholders suggested that blind-area diagrams can be a valuable training resource for road construction companies and labor unions. This information can be useful to companies when purchasing new vehicles. Additionally, educating drivers and road crew about vehicles’ blind areas can help to reduce related injuries and fatalities. What Is a Blind-Area Diagram? A blind-area diagram is best described as a drawing that depicts the area around a vehicle or piece of equipment that cannot be seen from the operator’s position. The blind-area diagrams utilized the procedure outlined in [ISO 5006:2006], “Earth-moving machinery – Operator’s field of view – Test method and performance criteria.” This procedure uses light sources to represent the operator’s eyes and the shadow created by blockages associated with the vehicle, such as door posts and mufflers, to represent the blind area. NIOSH had blind-area diagrams developed for three different planes: ground level, 900 mm (36 inches) above ground, and 1500 mm (59 inches) above ground. The blind area associated with each plane corresponds to the area at which an object on that plane cannot be seen from the operator’s position. The 900 mm plane was chosen because it represents the height of a construction barrel. The 1500 mm plane is slightly less than the shoulder height of 95 percent of the US adult female population, representing the height at which enough of the head is visible for an operator to recognize a person. How Can Blind-Area Diagrams Be Used in Training? Blind-area diagrams of 38 pieces of construction equipment and 5 pieces of mining equipment are available on the NIOSH website. These diagrams may be downloaded as visual aids for demonstrating the hazards of working around operating equipment to field crews during classroom training sessions or as the basis for toolbox talks held in the field. The diagrams may also be printed at a scale that matches scale models of equipment. This shows the size of blind areas relative to the equipment, as shown in Figure 1. Blind-area diagrams can also be used to understand how equipment selection can influence the risk to workers around operating equipment. Though only a limited number of blind-area diagrams are available, the website does provide diagrams for a wide range of equipment types. Studying these diagrams can help construction companies understand the primary obstructions (e.g., mufflers, engine cowlings) creating blind areas. When considering equipment for purchase, companies can use this understanding to select equipment that provides operators with the best possible visibility. NIOSH published these blind-area diagrams on its website, contributed to worker training programs and trade journal articles, and enlisted roadway construction industry partners to promote the distribution of these diagrams. NIOSH is interested in learning - The extent and manner that these diagrams are being used in the roadway construction industry - The applicability and extent of use of these diagrams in other industries - How these diagrams might be used to promote awareness of blind areas around construction equipment and reduce the number of workers struck by operating construction equipment at construction sites. - How best to provide this information to the jobsite We value your input and assistance in preventing worker injuries. For more information about work zone safety, refer to the highway work zone topic page. For more information about our research in construction safety and health, please refer to our construction program page. Mr. Fosbroke is a statistician with the Division of Safety Research, Surveillance and Field Investigations Branch. His research focus is on preventing worker injuries in roadway construction work zones and includes secondary data analysis of occupational injuries and illnesses, engineering evaluation of construction equipment visibility, field evaluation of interventions, and partnership with roadway construction industry employers, labor unions, transportation agencies, and academic institutions to promote work zone safety for workers and road users. - Pegula, SG . Fatal occupational injuries at road construction sites. Monthly Labor Review 12:43-47. - ISO 5006:2006 “Earth-moving machinery – Operator’s field of view – Test method and performance criteria.”

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- Explain how the following elements and terms affect the quality of a picture: - Light-natural light/ambient, flash - Exposure-aperture (f-stops), shutter speed, depth of field - Composition-rule of thirds, leading lines, framing, depth - Angle of view - Stopping action - Explain the basic parts and operation of a film camera or digital camera. Explain how an exposure is made when you take a picture. - Discuss with your counselor the differences between a film camera and a digital camera. List at least five advantages and five disadvantages of using a digital camera versus using a film camera. - Do ONE of the following: - Produce a picture story using the photojournalistic technique of documenting an event. Share your plan with your counselor and get your counselor's input and approval before you proceed. Then, using either a film camera or a digital camera, produce your approved picture story. Process your images and select eight to 12 images that best tell your story. Arrange your images in order, then mount the prints on a poster board. If you are using digital images, you may create a slide show on your computer or produce printouts for your poster board. Share your picture story with your counselor. - Choose a topic that interests you to photograph for an exhibit or display. Get your counselor's approval, then photograph (digital or film) your topic. Process your images. Choose 20 of your favorite images and mount them on poster board. Share your display with your counselor. If you are using digital images, you may create a slide show on your computer or produce printouts for your poster board. - Discuss with your counselor the career opportunities in photography. Pick one that interests you and explain how to prepare for such a career. Discuss with your counselor the education and training such a career would require. BSA Advancement ID#: Requirements last updated in: 2006 Pamphlet Publication Number: 33340A or 35930 Pamphlet Stock (SKU) Number: 35930 Pamphlet Revision Date: 2005 Page updated on: May 02, 2013

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Situated in the heart of Utah... Situated in the heart of Utah Valley between the east shore of Utah Lake and the towering Wasatch Mountains is the city of Provo. Mount Timpanogos (elevation 11,957 feet) dominates the northern view from the city. Other rugged mountains east of the city provide one of the most picturesque backdrops for a Utah city. Utah Valley was the traditional home of Ute Indians, who settled in villages close to the lake both for protection from bellicose tribes to the northeast and to be close to their primary source of food--fish from the lake. The first white visitors to the Provo area were Fray Francisco Atanasio Dominguez and Fray Silvestre Velez de Escalante, who visited Utah Valley in 1776. Only a retrenchment in Spanish New World colonization and missionary efforts prevented establishment of settlements promised by these Franciscan missionaries. Fur trappers and traders frequented the area in the early decades of the nineteenth century, and it is from one of these trappers, Etienne Provost, that Provo takes its name. Provo was settled by Mormons in 1849, and was the first Mormon colony in Utah outside of Salt Lake Valley. Troubles with Indians gave rise to a popular saying in early Utah: 'Provo or hell!' When President James Buchanan sent United States troops to Salt Lake City to put down the 'Mormon insurrection' in 1858, thousands of Mormons, including leader Brigham Young, moved to Provo. 'The Move South' came to a quick end as the Mormons were 'pardoned' and new governor Alfred Cumming made peace with the Saints. Provo remained the second largest city in Utah until Ogden became Utah's primary railroad terminus in 1869. Provo lost in its bid as a transcontinental railroad stopping place, but thereby retained its distinctly Mormon flavor. It soon came to be known as the 'Garden City' because of its extensive fruit orchards, trees, and gardens. In 1875 Brigham Young Academy was founded. From humble beginnings, this institution has grown into Brigham Young University, the largest church-affiliated university in the United States today. The city and the university have enjoyed a symbiotic relationship and have grown together. Today, the university has helped generate a fledgling high-technology industry in the Provo area and sometimes attracts national attention through its academic and sports programs.

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“Stories of the Great Migration” is a two-week school teacher institute for thirty participants on the history, literature, music, and art of the Great Migration. From the 1890s through the 1930s, nearly two million African Americans left the South for Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, and other northern cities. The institute uses the literature, music, art, and oral history of this movement to help school teachers understand the impact it had on American history and culture. The institute, which has its genesis in a successful 2010 Picturing America teachers’ conference, first provides participants with an overview of post-Civil War southern history and the development of Jim Crow segregation before turning to an examination of the factors that encouraged large-scale migration and the literary and artistic responses to that migration. Readings include selections from Isabel Wilkerson’s The Warmth of Other Suns, as well as works by W.E.B. DuBois, Ralph Ellison, Richard Wright, Leon Litwack, Jessica Harris, Zora Neale Hurston, Travis Dempsey, Arna Bontemps, and Sterling Brown. Participants also study jazz and blues songs, prepare scenes from August Wilson’s The Piano Lesson, examine works from painter Jacob Lawrence’s Great Migration series, and receive training in oral history methods before conducting their own oral history interviews in the South Carolina community of Cheraw. The project director, Valinda Littlefield, is a scholar of African-American history. Institute faculty include several scholars from the University of South Carolina: Patricia Sullivan (history), Minuette Floyd (art education), Larry Watson (history), Bobby Donaldson (history), Marvin McAllister (English), and Folashade Alao (American studies). Participants also work with Isabel Wilkerson, a journalist whose collection of oral histories related to the Great migration is included among the readings; Suzanne Wright from the Phillips Collection; Gerald Early, a leading scholar of jazz and American music at Washington University; and Jessica Harris, a scholar of American culinary history at Queens College, CUNY.

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What is Rumella Vaccine (M-M-R II)? Rubella vaccine contains live attenuated Rubella virus, Wistar RA 27/3 live strain propagated on human diploid cells. Rubella vaccine is a vaccine used against rubella. The MMR vaccine is made by using live, attenuated (or weakened) strains of the measles, mumps, and rubella viruses. The first measles vaccines (an inactivated and a live virus product) became available in 1963, both of which were largely replaced by a further attenuated live virus vaccine that was licensed in 1968. The mumps vaccine first became available in 1967, followed by the rubella vaccine in 1969. These three vaccines were combined in 1971 to form the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine. This drug is commonly sold as Brand Name M-M-R II. Indication/Contraindication for use of Rumella Vaccine (M-M-R II) - Immunizations in persons from 12 month of age to puberty - Pregnancy, febrile respiratory illness, severe disease of haemopoietic system, l.v injection Side Effects of Rumella Vaccine (M-M-R II) Burning or stinging, local pain, in duration at injection site. Dosage and Prescribing Information for Rumella Vaccine (M-M-R II) 0.5 ml suboutaneously into upper arm. Precautions while prescribing Rumella Vaccine (M-M-R II) Acute hypersensitivity, don comitant immunization, blood transfusion.

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What Kind of Economy Does Canada Have? In these days when we have heard so much debate about private enterprise, it is interesting to observe that Canadians have gone in for public enterprise much more than we have. When the Dominion was first formed, the federal government undertook to build and operate a railway that would unite the Maritime Provinces with Central Canada. As a business proposition it did not pay, it could not pay, and it was never intended to pay. It was a great public work to draw the country together. Similarly when the Dominion acquired the country west of the Great Lakes out to the Pacific, the federal government undertook to provide a railway that would tie the West to the Eastthe Canadian Pacific Railway. It too was started as a government concern, and though later turned over to a private corporation, it had to be heavily subsidized by the government. Otherwise private capital would not touch it. In both these early ventures the Canadian people and their government were giving bold recognition to the fact that the profit motive was not sufficient to meet the needs of the nation. Today there are only two railway systems in the country, both operating from the Atlantic to the Pacific. One is the privately owned Canadian Pacific (17,058 miles). The other is the Canadian National (22,586 miles), which is owned and operated by the federal government. You may have heard this railway cited as convincing proof that public ownership does not pay. But one can just as truthfully argue that it proves the failure of private enterprise. Most of it, the rest being what the federal government had built and operated, is made up of the wrecks of private undertakings: railways that had become heavily mortgaged to the government and then had gone broke. Not from choice but out of necessitynational necessitythe government undertook this enormous extension of public ownership. Moreover, the Canadian government owns and operates one of the two telegraph systems of the country, one of the two big hotel chains, and a fleet of steamships. They were all taken over when the railways were nationalizedfor Canada, in contrast to the United States, has not believed in divorcing these lines of business. They seem to like it Public ownership and operation of other utilities is also common in Canada. The Hydro Commission of the Ontario government has long supplied at cost most of the power consumed in the province. Its success stimulated the development of provincial and municipal power systems throughout the country, particularly in the West. In that part of the country the telephone systems have also been commonly public enterprises from the time they were first installed. The same has been true of municipal transportation. Perhaps stranger still to us is what happened when prohibition was repealed in Canadaa decade before we repealed it, because in Canada the constitution was not involved. The Canadians refused to restore the old private liquor traffic. Instead, each of the provinces established a public monopoly, with conveniently located government stores selling liquor only in containers for consumption off the premises. Unlike most other government businesses in Canada, which have been operated to serve the public at cost, this one has been run for profitand the profits have been very large. During the 1930s the Dominion government entered two other fields which we Americans also usually regard as within the proper domain of private enterprise: radio and air transportation. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) of the federal government owns and operates the only national chain of stations in the country. There are still 100 private stations; but these are supervised by CBC, and their total power is scarcely more than a quarter that of CBC stations. There are also private airlines in Canada, but the only national system, operating from Atlantic to Pacific is the federal governments Trans-Canada Airlines. The motive behind these latest government enterprises was the same as that which had prompted the federal government to build railways. National unity had to be promoted in the face of the sectional pull exerted by our country. Canadians believe the result has justified the effort. Our major political parties may differ somewhat on the issue of government versus private enterprise, but the corresponding parties in Canada do not. The Conservatives have been just as responsible as the Liberals for all this development. As a rule, Canadian public enterprises in the economic field are kept out of politics. What did World War I do to Canada? The depression taught the United States, rather painfully, how much our economic welfare is bound up with that of the rest of the world. But Canada is three or four times more dependent upon foreign trade than we are. It cannot help itself. Nature is responsible for the situation. During the opening years of this century, the mainspring of Canadian prosperity was the rapid development of the Prairie Provinces. People were rushing in to build a whole new society on a foundation of wheat. It was a fat land, best suited to the production of this king of all grains. Industrial Europe was willing to pay a profitable price for all that the Canadian prairie could supply. Wheat poured out of the West and across the Atlantic. The Dominion became one of the worlds chief exporters of wheat. When World War I jumped the prices of food fast and far, the Canadian West almost doubled its wheat acreage and increased its livestock by a third. War demands caused an unprecedented exploitation of the countrys forest and mineral resources also-in British Columbia, in northern Ontario and Quebec, and in the Maritimes. Yet of all the extractive industries, agriculture still supplied the great bulk of Canadian exports. Another industry, however, was catching up and at the end of the war accounted for more exports than agriculture. It was manufacturing. World War I made the Dominion one of the leading manufacturing countries in the world and transferred to Canadian ownership much of the foreign capital invested in the country. World War I had yet another important effect. Up to this time the external economic relations of Canada had been chiefly with Britain. Thenceforth they were with the United States. We got more than half the Canadian trade, and New York replaced London as the money market in which Canada was most interested. It was then that American investments in Canada began to be heavy. Between the wars The 1920s saw further important changes in the national economy of Canada. British Columbia became a great exporter of lumber. Much more important was the gigantic expansion of its pulp and paper industry to meet the demands of the Orient as well as of the United States. Greater still was the development of mining and smelting in that part of the Dominion. The immense power required by these new industries was got by harnessing the tumbling rivers to provide electricity. The same kind of development, only much more of it, took place in northern Ontario and Quebecon the Pre-Cambrian shield. This development was highly important to the prosperity of Central Canada, which then became more industrialized that ever. It supplied these provinces with a new mainspring to replace the old one that was pretty well worn outthe expansion on the prairie. The products of the new North were almost all exported, and most of the income they brought back was spent in the protected domestic market. The new pulp and paper plants, smelters, and hydroelectric developments required huge capital expenditures. Where did the money come from? Some from the United States, but relatively little. Most came from Canadian savings. The ownership of the countrys wealth was more than ever concentrated in Central Canada, and there chiefly in Montreal and Toronto. Centralized financial control did not mean a greater unification of the economic life of the Dominion, however. When the prairie was the one great area producing for export and the market was across the Atlantic, the main movement of the countrys trade was transcontinental. It bound eastern and western Canada together. Now there were two new important export areas. Their trade flowed north and south, for their principal market was in the United States. So the new movement of trade made for regional independence instead of the interdependence that the old movement had promoted. In one fundamental respect the Canadian economy was still the same. Though the country had added two baskets (pulp and paper, and metals) to its one (wheat), all three baskets still had to go to market outside the country. Canada could not escape from its vital dependence on foreign trade, and in a way this dependence was greater than before. It was extended beyond the prairie, where the alternative was wheat or subsistence farming, to other big regions, where the alternative was worse. There it was lumber or nothing, pulp and paper or nothing, nonferrous metals or nothing. The depression which began in 1929 hit Canada much harder than the United States, for the prosperity of Canada was much more tied up with international trade. The provinces that suffered most were the Prairies, for the collapse of the grain market shattered the foundations of their economic life. A great readjustment then began, at first slowly and then more rapidly. It was a shift from wheat to mixed farming. The result was that western Canadian farmers got a lower income than before. But they were also less dependent on world conditions. Agriculture $742,020,000 $1,691,540,000 Forestry 244,564,571 429,079,260 Trapping 6,572,824 23,801,213 Fisheries 35,593,009 64,821,702 Electric Power 142,320,725 200,345,240 Mining 374,415,674 514,109,951 Manufactures* 1,428,286,778 3,309,973,758 Construction 176,661,077 310,917,190 Custom & Repair 99,086,100 139,349,000 Total $2,974,673,454 $6,258,464,613 * Includes sawmills, pulp and paper mills, etc., which are included in the other headings above. This duplication amounts to $274,847,304 in 1938 and $425,472,701 in 1942 and is eliminated from the grand total. What now and in future? By the time World War II broke, Canada, like our country, had pretty well recovered from the depression. As the first war changed us from a debtor to a creditor nation, so the second World War changed Canada into one of the three or four creditor countries of the world. Once again the prairie prospered greatly. This time, however, barely a third of its total production was wheat. Feed grains took its place, for there was a great swing to livestock (beef and pork), dairying, and poultry. As before, however, most of the production was for export. This of course revived the problem of markets at the end of the war, for Canada cannot begin to consume the food that its West is capable of producing. This is equally true of other main lines of production. The war caused an enormous expansion that put Canada in top position among the nations of the world in production of nickel, newsprint, asbestos, platinum, and radium; second in gold, aluminum, wood pulp, hydroelectric power, and the building of cargo ships; third in copper, lead, and zinc; and fourth in the production of war supplies for the United Nationsthat is, in manufacturing. Most of us have little idea of the huge size of some of these Canadian industries. Take newsprint, for example. Canada has a mill capacity four times that of any other country. It is equal to the combined capacities of the United States, Britain, Norway, Sweden, and Finland. Canada can use only a small percentage of the newsprint turned out by its mills. We produce no comparable surplus, not even of cotton. And newsprint is only one of many surpluses that Canada must export if it is to maintain its standard of living. All this means that Canada is very much more interested than we are in getting the freest possible international trade in peacetime. We talk of that as something desirable, but Canadians see it as a necessity.

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In 1 Nephi 17:9, Nephi begins his task of building a ship, according to instructions from the Lord, with a telling request: "Lord, whither shall I go that I may find ore to molten, that I may make tools to construct the ship?" This simple plea says much. Not only does it speak of Nephi's humility, obedience, and faith, it also implies that Nephi was skilled enough in metallurgy or metalworking that he knew he could make iron tools if he could just be pointed to some suitable ore. The Lord did in fact guide him and he did make tools, so we can also conclude that a suitable site for Bountiful in the Arabian Peninsula not only has the trees, fruit, and (implicitly) water required by the text, but also iron ore. You may have noticed the exciting news about the discovery of iron ore in the vicinity of the excellent candidates for Bountiful. See the powerful article by Ron Harris, "Lord, Whither Shall I Go that I May Obtain ore?" at LDSMAG.org. Ron Harris describes the trip of a geological team to the Salalah Coast in Dhofar on the eastern coast of Oman, a region that could be reached by Nephi, in my opinion, from any of the THREE lading candidates for Bountiful: Wadi Sayq, Khor Rori, and most recently, Mughsayl. Haven't heard of Mughsayl yet? See Wm. Revell Phillips, "Mughsayl: Another Candidate for Land Bountiful" (that's a PDF file - the report is also available in HTML without the impressive figures) in Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 2007, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 48-59. The discovery of iron ore in the region was something of a miracle, in the opinion of Brother Harris, for Arabia has very little ore and in spite of previous geological surveys in the region, no iron ore had been found. Yet they were able to find some right away. More surprisingly, the ore was of an unusual nature that would allow smelting to be done at a lower than normal temperature, allowing Nephi to process it using a wood fire: What seemed at first as an overwhelming task of trying to find a ‘needle in a haystack’ turned out to be a windfall of discovery. Why had the other geologists who had recently explored the region in detail missed these occurrences of mineralization? This is a question we still do not have an answer for. We carefully mapped and sampled the occurrences over the course of several days, then shared our observations with the Ministry of Mines of Oman. They confirmed that these ore bodies were new discoveries and are now planning to explore them further. Geochemical analysis of samples of the veins indicate they mostly consist of minerals known as limonite and ferroan dolomite, which have many unique properties that make it possible, ‘to molten’ the ore as described by Nephi. These properties include a naturally occurring mixture of iron and carbonate. Carbonate acts as a natural flux that lowers the melting point of iron to temperatures that are most likely achievable with a wood fire and bellows. We tested the process to make certain it was possible by crushing samples and mixing them with carbon, then heating them to 1100° C (2012° F). After a few hours the samples were transformed into sponge-iron, which is a brittle form of iron that can be further refined by a combination of heating and pounding. The samples were essentially ‘molten’ and it would have been possible to forge them into tools. It appears from the scriptural text that Nephi already knew how to do this, which is consistent with his having a metal bow (I Nephi 16:18). Yes, that's amazing and wonderful news. But I'd like to also call attention to one subtle implication of Nephi's request. While the Book of Mormon indicates that usable iron ore must be present in the region of Bountiful on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, Nephi's request also implies that it wasn't easy for him to find. He obviously hadn't spotted any as they came into the region, and he felt that he would need divine guidance to find it. As Wm. Revell Phillips observes in his thorough description of the region in "Mughsayl: Another Candidate for Land Bountiful," iron ore is genuinely scarce because the geology of the region is dominated by young limestone, but there are places where ore can be found: Nephi made only one request of the Lord, so far as we know. Where could he find ore to make shipbuilding tools? Perhaps he could have purchased such tools at Khor Rori, or perhaps not, and surely Lehi had brought basic tools, like a hammer and axe, from Jerusalem. Whatever access he may have had, Nephi chose to make his own tools and, having the ore, seemed to know how to proceed. Perhaps only a geologist would understand the sincere need for divine help, as relatively young limestone layers (Tertiary and Cretaceous) are the surface rocks over nearly all the Dhofar province. Only where these limestone layers have been stripped away by erosion is there a real possibility of finding ore, and the only large area of such "basement" exposure is the Marbat Plain, east of Marbat between Jabal Samhan and the Arabian Sea. On a geologic map (figure 15), the "basement" rock stands out in bold colors, contrasting sharply with the monotonous color representing the youthful limestone, but Nephi had no such map. Only the Marbat Plain and a tiny exposure of basement rock at a small wadi between Raykut and Mughsayl are likely to yield ore, and iron ore is, indeed, present at both locations, not enough for an iron industry, but far more than adequate for Nephi's needs. It's such a subtle detail, but the candidates for Bountiful on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula fulfill the Book of Mormon requirement that useful iron ore not only be available but also be scarce enough to require divine direction to find. It's amazing enough that places can be found that come anywhere close to matching the general requirements for the place Bountiful. "Common knowledge" in Joseph Smith's day might suggest that the Arabian Peninsula, as we've all see in the movies, is a place of endless desert but certainly no place that anyone could call Bountiful. As increasing evidence mounts for the bulls-eye nature of First Nephi's description of a journey through the Arabian Peninsula, critics, rather than ridiculing the account, can be increasingly expected to sift through mountains of text to find scattered bits and pieces to support a new hypothesis that the description of this journey was "obvious" and easily forged by Joseph Smith and his resourceful team, relying upon his vast frontier library and world-wide network of scholars. That memo has gone out, but was sent a little too late to help some anti-Mormon authors. For example, last week as I was perusing the highly touted and allegedly scholarly treatise of Richard Abanes, One Nation Under Gods (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2002), I found this pithy statement (p. 74): "Consider, too, the problem in 1 Nephi 17:5, which describes Arabia as being 'bountiful' because of its fruit and wild honey. The fact is that Arabia has never had bountiful supplies of either fruit or honey. The BOM also speaks of a river in Arabia named Laman continually flowing to the Red Sea (1 Nephi 2:6-9), yet there has never been such river in Arabia. [sic]" (Memo to Richard: Fruit and honey in Salalah must have been common knowledge. A simple-minded extrapolation from Felix Arabia, no doubt. Country folks in Joseph's day surely knew about the river with year-long flow into the Red Sea a few days' south of Jerusalem - don't let George Potter get away with claiming it as a big discovery [PDF]. Didn't Herodotus or Homer or someone hint at that? Too easy for our plagiarist! Please revise your 2nd edition accordingly. Oh, and regarding iron ore: duh, iron is what the core of the earth is made from. Iron must be everywhere. Trivial. Get the word out.) Such discoveries, interesting as they may seem, don't prove that Joseph Smith was a prophet or that the Book of Mormon was true. However, they do suggest that whoever wrote First Nephi had knowledge of the Arabian Peninsula that appears to have transcended what scholars accessible to Joseph Smith could have known in that day - not to mention transcending what highly educated people could have known until recently in ours. This makes First Nephi more interesting than ever, and less easy to explain as a pious fraud by a silly con-man drawing upon common knowledge and local books and newspapers of his day. That's all. Don't get too excited - it's just a little piece of data to include in your ponderings.

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That branch of philosophy which investigates what human reason unaided by Revelation can tell us concerning God; distinguished from dogmatic theology which treats of the science of God in the light of Revelation. This science endeavors: - To demonstrate the existence of God from the visible things of the world through such principles as those of finality and causality: "For the invisible things of Him, from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made; His eternal Power also and Divinity" (Romans 1). - To establish something about the Divine attributes. Since effects resemble causes we can affirm of God certain perfections possessed by creatures, such as Truth, Love, Beauty. Since the effect differs from the cause and does not necessarily exhaust the perfections of the cause, we negate of God the imperfections found in creatures. Since God is infinite, we exalt in Him to an infinite degree, the perfections found in creatures. - To tell us something about God's relation to the world. God is related to us as an object is related to a science, e.g., life can exist without biology, and matter without physics. We are related to God as a science is related to its object, e.g., zoology cannot exist without animals nor botany without plants. - To throw some light on the action of Divine Providence, conservation, and the problem of evil. New Catholic Dictionary

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In this paper [pdf] two academics claim that farmers cannot afford to use markets for water because the price required to balance supply and demand would be too high for the farmers to make money. Besides the basic flaw in this logic (shortages are good for farmers?), there is the other flaw -- that prices would rise to the VALUE of water before quantity demanded fell to equal supply -- so that farmers "lose money." This is just wrong. All that's required is that prices rise high enough to choke demand. It's nearly certain that the price will be below value. In fact, this figure from paper illustrates where price has to go, both to end shortage and cover system costs: somewhere above O&M costs and below value. Yes, the price is way above what they are paying, but that price is WAY too low. Bottom Line: All academics have biases; some have biases that defy common sense.

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Art: An unlikely form of army therapy With the lack of military hospitals, many veterans are turning to charities for help. One is using the unlikely weapon of art to help fight the psychological wounds of war, while another organisation is actively encouraging artwork in the army. Outside of the NHS, the charity Combat Stress is the biggest provider of support to armed forces veterans with conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety. Art therapy is one of the treatments it uses. Drawing, sculpting and painting are helping patients manage their symptoms with great success. "Traumatic memories take a different path from our normal memories and tend to be frozen in the body in the central nervous system," explains Janice Lobban, who has been a trauma therapist at Combat Stress for the past 10 years. "When a trauma happens, the person will react to get through the experience, but it leaves the trauma unprocessed. A person might then get a sensory memory like a sound, or sight, or smell, that is reminiscent of the trauma and they re-experience it happening again." Art therapy, therefore, aims to help people express themselves unconsciously and process the meaning afterwards. Group sessions typically begin with the therapist giving a one or two word brief to inspire creativity before veterans are given a selection of materials for painting, modelling or writing. After 45 minutes of quick work, the group then get together to talk about and describe what they've just created. "I try to keep a blank mind and just let images and feelings rise out from my unconscious to my hand and things start appearing," says Richard Kidgell from Braintree, Essex, who served in the Royal Air Force from 1978 to 1985. "What surprises me is that while I'm drawing I don't know what it is - they're just images, but by the end of the session I've made a complete story. It's quite enlightening as sometimes I'm not entirely sure what I've drawn until I speak to others about it." After their sessions, the veterans are encouraged to develop their initial artwork into fuller, finished pieces to further interpret and explore their feelings. Although many of the veterans who try the therapy may never have had any interest in art before, there are some servicemen who actively pursue the craft and use it to reflect their experiences. The Army Arts Society, set up by war artist Linda Kitson after the Falklands War, promotes and supports arts and crafts within the British Army - working with serving military, those who have retired and even their dependants. One of its latest initiatives is to provide operational art packs to troops - the first 20 of which went out to Afghanistan in September. "Art is a way of keeping some people sane," says committee member Francesca Bex, herself a painter and the wife of a bomb disposal expert. "The packs can give soldiers an alternative. A lot of them watch awful films when they have down time and art can give some a different option." 'Angry and frustrated' Art has been invaluable for 32-year-old Norfolk serviceman, Nick Hendry. Having joined the army when he was 16, he has been posted in countries including Germany, Kosovo and Afghanistan. After qualifying as a diving supervisor for his regiment's airborne unit in Portsmouth, he was attacked while out one evening last May and left with serious head injuries. In a coma for almost a month, he spent a lengthy time in a rehabilitation unit, where he had difficulty walking and talking, and suffered from hallucinations and memory loss. "I was due to go on tour in September to Afghanistan but couldn't make it as I was in hospital. I felt guilty this had happened to me," he says. "Eventually I got put back to my regiment and I tried to do my diving job but my head wasn't good enough to enable me to do it. "I was quite angry and frustrated and, as a lot of the lads were away on tour or leave, I didn't have anyone to talk to. I thought I'd lost everything I loved." It was while looking through regiment photos that Nick thought he would try his hand at painting - something he used to enjoy doing. A colleague's wife then suggested he join the Army Arts Society and he gained a new lease of life. "I'd spend about 50 to 70 hours on a picture and every night, instead of sitting on the steps and questioning everything. I just worked on it and it was heaven," he says. Even though he was not confident in his abilities, the society encouraged Nick to enter its Serving War Artist of the Year competition - which he went on to win for his watercolour, Deliberation. Nick says art has been invaluable in giving him something to aim for again: "I was struggling trying to justify everything, but as soon as I get hold of a paintbrush it takes my mind off some really bad thoughts and focuses my mind on one thing." He fully supports the operational art pack initiative. During his time in the army, he says there was no outlet for art - unlike the more traditional pastimes of rugby or football. Richard Kidgell agrees it's a good idea to give soldiers the opportunity to process what they are experiencing on a tour of duty. Potentially, it can allow the military to spot the symptoms of PTSD early. "My guess is a lot of the packs will be largely wasted as people will dabble for 10 minutes and think it's not for them," he says. "But even for the minority who will grasp the idea, the benefits for catching those people at an early stage and giving them a chance to vent will be brilliant." The Culture Show: Invisible Wounds is on BBC Two and BBC HD on Friday 11 November at 19:00GMT.

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Transitions in the digital domain current design-flow of digital automotive ASIC parts commonly starts on register-transfer level (RTL) using VHDL or Verilog (henceforth referred to as HDL descriptions). Therefore, we define these models as IL models in the digital domain. For transitions between Simulink models and these HDL descriptions, there are two different kinds of solutions, which are depicted in Figure 2. Figure 2: Transitions in the digital domain. kind of solutions are high-level synthesis (HLS) transitions (see arrow 1 in Figure 2), which refine a behavioral description of an SL model into a cycle-accurate description of an IL model by performing scheduling, allocation and binding. The other kind of solutions are mapping transitions (see arrow 2 in Figure 2), which transform an SL model that is already refined down to an RTL description into an IL model without performing any refinement. We focus on mapping transitions, because high-level synthesis transitions make it difficult to formally verify resulting HDL descriptions (see (2)). mapping transition from Simulink models described on RTL to HDL is realized by MathWorks HDL Coder. HDL Coder is compatible with Simulink models containing a subset of the standard Simulink blockset, Stateflow models and MATLAB Code. Additionally, HDL Coder offers the possibility to explore the trade-off between area and timing. Therefore, different implementations for Simulink blocks are provided on the one hand. On the other hand, HDL Coder can modify the SL model by applying distributed pipelining, streaming and resource sharing to subsystems. want to assist the developer in developing Simulink designs that result in efficient HDL designs. Therefore, we developed two optimization approaches. They were derived from our experience in developing Simulink SL models representing datapath-oriented applications. These optimizations showed a significant improvement of our SL design flow. in digital signal processing designs are often processed at different sample rates: While for example analog signals are sampled at a very high rate for the improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio, the internal computation at lower rates reduces the computational effort in the design. Transitions between different sample rates are realized by decimation and interpolation of signals. Such systems containing multiple sample rates are called multirate systems. capable of modeling multirate systems. Decimation or interpolation of signals can be achieved for example by using rate transition blocks or counters and switches. While developers often model decimation and interpolation of signals correctly based on their signal processing knowledge, it might occur that sample rates of blocks are higher than the sample rates of the connected signals. Because HDL Coder translates Simulink sample rates directly into clock rates, this results in unnecessarily high clock rates in the HDL description. avoiding too high clock rates, we developed Timing Optimization, which checks a Simulink model for blocks whose connected signals change at a lower rate than the blocks' sample rates. When the sample rate of blocks is adjusted to the alteration rate of the connected signals, then HDL Coder runs the resulting HDL components at a corresponding lower clock rate. This results in relaxed timing constraints for logic synthesis and reduced power consumption. Furthermore, if a block such as a derivation block contains delay blocks and its sample rate can be reduced by a certain factor, then the number of delays can be decreased by the same factor. This leads to fewer registers in the HDL description. The alteration rate of signals is determined by simulation. After changing the sample rates, an automated verification is executed by simulating the model and comparing the systems outputs. This is necessary since some combinations of blocks might lead to a different behavior when their sample rate is reduced. Figure 3 shows an example of a system of two Simulink blocks. The value R is the rate at which a signal changes, which is also depicted in the signal sequences next to the signals. S represents the sample rate of a block that results in the used clock rate in the HDL description. The decimation block reduces the incoming signal rate by a factor of 2. The processing block then receives a signal with a change rate of 5 kHz and outputs a signal with the same rate, yet this block is executed with a sample rate of 10 kHz. Therefore, the processing block's sample rate can be reduced by a factor Figure 3: Timing Optimization optimization identifies characteristics of Simulink models which lead to inefficient HDL descriptions and improves these characteristics. The optimization depends on signals' sample rates occurring during simulation. Thus it is crucial that the testbench stimuli of the SL model are sufficient for covering all possible scenarios that are specified. Furthermore, this optimization enables the quick assembling of an SL model using existing Simulink subsystems and the adaption of the subsystem to the alteration rates of the incoming signals. the beginning of a common system-level design flow, Simulink models representing digital hardware often use floating-point signals. For a resulting efficient hardware implementation, a fixed-point representation of the design is needed, which supports the needed value ranges and precisions for every signal. Tool – part of Simulink Fixed Point – assists the developer in the adaption of signals’ integer bits to the used value ranges. We extend this functionality by providing an optimization that reduces the fractional bits of signals. Since the modification of fractional bits of signals influences their precision, we consider the impact on the output behavior of the overall system. This also allows the identification and reduction of blocks that have little or no impact on the system's behavior. We are looking for the most efficient hardware implementation that doesn’t change the system’s behavior. this purpose, we use the stochastic optimization method Simulated Annealing. We explore the solution space by increasing and decreasing the integer and fractional bits of randomly chosen blocks. The resulting solution specifies word-lengths for every block while the resource consumption should be minimal and no deviation of the system's output signals is allowed. In Figure 4 the Simulated Annealing algorithm for our specific problem is shown: We start with an initial SL model that contains signal values that lead to the desired signal processing behavior. This behavior will be used in further optimization as reference behavior. In the following, the model is rated by estimating the resulting hardware resource consumption of the digital component. After that, it will be decided if the solution will be accepted. Better solutions are always accepted, and depending on the current temperature, worse solutions are accepted with a specific probability. This prevents the algorithm from getting stuck in local optima. Furthermore, it is checked if the model violates the allowed signal deviation. If the model is not accepted, then a new model is created by modifying the fixed-point type of randomly chosen blocks. If the model is accepted, the current model is replaced. After that, depending on the number of iterations, the temperature is reduced. If no new model was accepted for a defined number of iterations, the algorithm is stopped. Otherwise, a new model is created and the loop starts again. Figure 4: Simulated Annealing flowchart exploration at SL in the Simulink environment has the advantage that the impact of the digital part's change of functionality on the overall system is directly visible. As with Timing Optimization, the outcome of this optimization strongly depends on the SL testbench stimuli.

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The fact that climate change is happening all around the world is evident to everyone in possession of a working brain, and indigenous people have reported this for decades. Especially indigenous communities in circumpolar areas have warned of the devastating effects of global warming for over 40 years. As Larisa Pavlovna Adjedeva, the director of the Saami Cultural Centre in Lovozero said to the Snowchange Cooperative in 2009; When we ask the Elders and reindeer herders for example what kind of summer it will be, how much berries to expect or what kind of fish and how much to expect they answer us that they cannot predict anything because our Sámi calendar of yearly cycle has collapsed completely because of the changes that have taken place in the nature. They cannot foresee accurately and with precision. Before we would ask the reindeer herders and the answers would be right to the mark but now the predicted times keep on moving and changing. At the same time, however, the fact that the ones who have done the least to cause climate change in the first place, and who are hit the hardest by climate change are now also being harmed by misguided attempts to stop it is more often than not completely ignored. The idea pervading Western society at the moment is that nature has to be saved, but what Western society seems to forget at the same time is that as the very society that brought about the biggest climate change in millions of years perhaps need to get its head out of its arse and listen to communities that have lived sustainably for millennia when it comes to the issue of ‘saving our nature’. Indeed, what very few people know is that two of Western societies most common measures taken to halt climate change, the production of biofuels and the building of hydroelectric dams, are directly hurting indigenous peoples around the world. While using biofuels, often produced from sugar canes, does diminish the emission of greenhouse gases, it does at the same time contribute directly to the destruction of indigenous peoples’ ancestral homelands and the diversity of floras and faunas around the world. As Amilton Lopez stated in 2008, The big sugar cane plantations are now occupying our land. Sugar cane is polluting our rivers and killing our fish. [It is increasing] suicides, mainly among young people, alcoholism and murder In other words, while the measures taken serve to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to a certain extent, the growing of plants to create biofuels harms nature and completely ignores the right to land and life held by the indigenous peoples living in the areas turned into massive biofuel plants. The Guarani was one of the first tribes to make contact with Europeans, they still constitute the largest tribe in Brazil and now, thanks to biofuels, the majority of them are driven from their ancestral homelands and forced to live in make-shift camps next to plantation roads, where people starve to death. Another big threat to indigenous peoples and indeed nature is the building of hydroelectric dams; in an attempt to reduce our carbon footprint and bring down our dependency on non-renewable energy sources, hydroelectric dams, which use ‘the never-ending source of water and rivers’, thus naïvely deemed clean and safe, are hailed as a massive step forward in the fight to stop climate change. What is completely ignored, however, is the massive impact dams have on indigenous peoples around the world. To this day, the building of hydroelectric dams have forcibly displaced between 40-80 million indigenous peoples and minorities from their ancestral homelands, leaving these people, to quote International Rivers, ‘economically, culturally and psychologically devastated’. From the Ethiopian Gibe III dam to the building of the Murum and Bakun in Indonesia and Malaysia, hydroelectric dams destroy indigenous peoples lives, while being hailed as great investments for ‘nature’. Any attempt to halt climate change has to involve indigenous peoples; without drawing on and using the centuries of knowledge held by indigenous peoples with regards to the areas they inhabit, we cannot ‘save the planet’. Western activism tries to turn itself into false custodians of nature, while completely ignoring the fact that indigenous people, by virtue of relying on their ancestral homelands for their survival, already make great custodians of the same. Western climate activism also has a troubling tendency of turning the ‘saving of the planet’ into a capitalist project. One obvious example of this was the creation of the UN REDD (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) schemes. Rather than listening to the valid concerns raised by indigenous communities inhabiting forests faced by deforestation, these schemes turn indigenous ancestral homelands into cash cows for the world’s states, if they can prove that their forests are free from human presence. In other words, in order to get UN funding to protect forests already in the custody of indigenous communities, many states forcibly evict indigenous communities from their homes, thereby using ‘green rhetoric’ to justify the violation of indigenous peoples’ human rights. Before the 2009 Copenhagen meeting, the International Forum of Indigenous Peoples on Climate Change stated that ‘REDD will increase the violation of our human rights, our rights to our lands, territories and resources, steal our land, cause forced evictions, prevent access and threaten indigenous agriculture practices, destroy biodiversity and culture diversity and cause social conflicts,’ but few if any people recognised these valid points at the time and to this day, REDD does not recognise indigenous peoples’ rights. But I guess to Western society it looks great on paper; kill the indigene and save the forest. - underdogworldstrike reblogged this from wifwolf - bronwenoir reblogged this from wifwolf - respectissexy reblogged this from nowavefeminism - thecoffeebreaklife reblogged this from knowledgeequalsblackpower - sasqueer likes this - digitalmeowmix likes this - agua05 reblogged this from minevras - kbutno reblogged this from rematiration - swsmh reblogged this from knowledgeequalsblackpower - zuky likes this - kagey likes this - fouronesix reblogged this from rootshock - mandaplz likes this - picaq reblogged this from caterpillar-danceparty - driftingdeeper reblogged this from cultureofresistance - winnicking likes this - theworldweare reblogged this from andimprouvaire - cielito-lindo reblogged this from rootshock - lips-richmond reblogged this from rematiration - hairypitsandtits likes this - nerdbyrd reblogged this from impromptuonedykedanceparty - theyalwayswantyoutoproveit reblogged this from selchieproductions - cracks-in-the-ceiling reblogged this from le-kif-kif - illethegal likes this - rootshock reblogged this from le-kif-kif - clatterandclank likes this - vita-dulcis likes this - punkpedagogy reblogged this from le-kif-kif and added: - notflowers likes this - kwajbasket likes this - kibibyte reblogged this from le-kif-kif - 8-5-5-10 likes this - novaless likes this - charmless likes this - dcfcutiechk likes this - bunkebabs likes this - kraken-queen likes this - le-kif-kif reblogged this from digatisdi - inautumn-inkashmir likes this - bio-bliss reblogged this from hsnahr - applebutterbomb likes this - melonbellies likes this - cephalopodqueen reblogged this from rematiration - queer-unic0rn likes this - theexploringbee likes this - thecurvature likes this - perfectformelancholy likes this - willverbosityandtime reblogged this from nowavefeminism - sublimelightdetroit likes this - euphoricelixir reblogged this from selchieproductions

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I decided to do some research on the subject, so I checked the internet, then talked to some people smarter then I. I spoke with my very knowlegable 90 year old friend who grew up with diabetics in the family. She told me that carrots were always in their house & were recommended as a snack to be consumed regularly. She didn’t know the science behind the recommendation. The same evening I questioned my best friend who’s a registered nurse. I asked her about diabetes & carrots. She told me that diabetics should not eat carrots . I asked why & was told that carrots are very high in sugar. Well, I’d done my research! I told this medical professional that carrots are high in soluble fibre & natural sugar. This special combination allows the sugar to be released slowly into the bloodstream. Carrots help regulate & maintain blood sugar! That’s why carrots are highly recommended as a snack for diabetics. Knowing I’d been surfing the internet, her retort was, “Where did you get that information?” My answer- CANADIAN DIABETES ASSOCIATION! ( I think it’s always important to get my information from reputable sources with scientific research to back up their statements.) In other words, my comments were based on scientific facts NOT my personal opinions! Here are some of the facts you should know about carrots. Carrots are an excellent source of vitamins A,B,C,D,E & K. Carrots are sweet & dogs love them! Here are some of the facts about feeding other vegetables to your pets: * intake of vital nutrients, proteins, & fatty acids * fibre aids in digestion & regulation of “output” * vegetables contain antioxidants, photochemical & omega 3 fatty acids Educate yourself on the nutritional value of the vegetables you feed your dog. All vegetables are NOT created equal. Many vegetables are full of vitamins & minerals, some are full of water and have little to no nutritional value, and others are dangerous. Make sure you know the difference. We’ve attached some reference information! Medical professionals are not the authority on everything! Ask your medical professional about their nutritional training and information sources. For the health of your canine companion, it is your right and obligation to verify the information you are being given about the nutrition your pet is being fed. Decisions should be based on fact, NOT OPINION. Opinions are like mouths, everyone has one. JUST THINK ABOUT IT, HOW MANY DIABETIC BUNNIES DO YOU KNOW? This information is the opinion of Barabara Fellnermayr President of the Amoré Pet Foods. No medical or nutritional training but smart enough to get facts from those who really know!

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