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The following section sets out what may happen to low-income families under the alternative “Golden Age?” These two scenarios share some common trends. In both future worlds, economic growth is expected to be slow to modest (on average) to 2030, both expect to see rising social inequalities, and both predict continued pressure on public spending with the generosity of welfare payments declining. But there are important differences between the scenarios with differing implications for poverty and social cohesion. As a result, while the numbers living in absolute poverty have declined, the continued rise in inequality has meant that relative poverty has continued to grow, albeit at a relatively slow pace. While incomes have risen, so too have costs, particularly for housing, education and transport and those at the bottom of the income distribution scale are increasingly excluded in these domains.
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Other aspects of risk - including how to target extensive, everyday risks - also need to be better understood. Risk management and resilience criteria should be part of all budget allocation processes. A 'tagging and tracing' methodology, that allows the tracking and calculation of allocated funds, could, therefore, be beneficial. Building resilience aspects into concessional loans may provide a useful additional funding stream.
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In October 2015, the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration declared the third global coral reef bleaching event, the previous two took place in 1998 and 2010. These global shocks, brought on by climate change, and coupled with events such as the El Nino phenomenon are the largest and most pervasive threats to coral reefs around the world (NOAA, 2015). Many areas of boreal forests have experienced biomass productivity declines that have been attributed to warming-induced drought (Williams el al.,
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The Albanian authorities have intensified cooperation with their Italian counterparts in mapping illicit cultivation areas through aerial surveys. The quantity of cannabis seized in Albania in 2014 (101.7 tons) exceeded the total quantity seized during the previous nine years (96 tons). Seizures of cannabis plants in a country may indicate the production of the drug in its territory.
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From the middle of the 20th century to today, there have been drastic changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations and dynamics in many marine areas. Currently there are over 500 hypoxic systems covering over 240 000 km2 around the globe related to human activities. The great future challenge will be to integrate agriculture and other land based activates with aquaculture in a manner that addresses the multiple needs of humans but also protects ecosystem services and function that humans depend on.
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Programmes for the development of the agro-industrial complex represent the main mid-term agricultural policy framework in Kazakhstan. The succession of agricultural programmes since the beginning of the 2000s shows that this process has largely been driven by changes in ministerial leadership. Policy adjustments are necessary to respond to evolving situations both within and outside the agricultural sector, but this should not create undue policy instability.
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In 2015, ODA disbursement on forestry was about USD 800 million, or just under 1 percent of total ODA. While net ODA disbursement on forestry has increased since 2000, there is annual variability and it has decreased as a proportion of total ODA. There is a lack of reliable information from official statistics about the informal forest sector, although it has been estimated to provide between 40 million and 60 million jobs.
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While monetary poverty gives a good picture of 'the financial resources needed to support household members at a subsistence level ofit is incomplete when measuring whether all household members have access to the necessary goods and services. As argued above, having enough financial resources does not always mean that this access is guaranteed. This can be due to lack of services or infrastructure, lack of information, administrative restrictions, discrimination and other reasons. At the same time, it may well be that the access to certain goods and services is guaranteed without the need of the financial resources at the household level because, for instance, the goods or services are available for free or almost free (e.g., partially subsidised).
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However, given that the broader reform involves a shift in the composition from corporate income tax towards consumption tax, it also reduces the price of domestically-produced goods relative to imported goods (the so-called fiscal devaluation effect), possibly boosting thereby net exports and the current account in the short run.26 Considering that the competitiveness effect may partly eroded by nominal exchange rate adjustments, the effect could be stronger for euro area countries. By favouring new firms’ entry, price reductions and higher demand, a more competitive environment can stimulate investment, in particular if this is accompanied by a lower regulatory burden (Alesina et al., At the same time, by reducing internally-generated funds, lower mark-ups may depress investment, at least in the short term.
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Analysis of the South African Child Support Grant”, Working Paper, School of Development Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal. Evidence from South African Pensions”, NBER Working Paper 8495. Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch. South African Economic Policy under Democracy, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
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An estimated amount of $320 million is available for Tier 2 activities. For instance, at WTO, in addition to regional courses, LDCs are entitled to participate in three national activities per year such as training and technical assistance activities, compared to two for other developing countries. Apart from regular participation of LDCs in general WTO-related training, an introduction course on the WTO is organized in Geneva exclusively for the LDCs. It articulates policies and measures by LDCs and their development partners to promote sustained economic growth and sustainable development of LDCs and their beneficial integration into the world economy. Accordingly, it addresses the following cross-cutting priority issues: poverty eradication, gender equality, employment, governance at national and international levels, capacity-building, sustainable development, special problems of landlocked and small island LDCs, and challenges faced by LDCs affected by conflict.
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While access to potable water in urban areas is now almost universal, 56% of the urban population had access to sewage collection systems in 2011, with large regional variations. In some areas, environmental and health impacts resulting from insufficient sanitation and high levels of fertiliser and pesticide use are significant (MMA, 2010, 2015). The main nationwide policy-making body is the National Environmental Council (CONAMA), established in 1981, a high-level advisory and deliberative committee that brings together representatives of all government levels and principal stakeholders.
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The remaining aid flows which were not screened against the marker were mainly attributable to the United States’ reporting. The other 23 DAC members combined a total of 92% of their aid. Canada stands out as the exception in this regard, with 42.4% of its aid targeting gender equality as a principal objective.
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The review' of models in this paper highlights emerging systems of models where different modelling approaches are designed to work together coherently. In this way, techniques w'ith different strengths are amalgamated and a broader range of policy questions may be explored. Examples include the system of models developed by the U.S. Congressional Budget Office and by the University of Canberra and Monash University in Australia.
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Efforts to collect this data at a city level are underway in countries to ensure its availability in the coming monitoring rounds for this goal. This target has two indicators, data and methodology, both of which are available. Weak land-use planning, informal settlements often located on high-risk areas and limited disaster response capacities in African cities exacerbate disaster vulnerability.
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The MIS approach for example, tries to blend the best of the methodologies for developing budget standards in the United Kingdom - the Family Budget Unit (FBU) and the Consensual Budget Standard (CBS). Under the FBU approach a panel of professional experts constructs budget standards, while the CBS is drawn up by ordinary people. The CBS approach considers that negotiation and agreement are necessary to defining a minimum standard.
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The increased frequency and expansion of hypoxic and anoxic deep water has affected the structural and functional diversity of benthic communities. Phytoplankton productivity has increased and there has been a shift from dominance of diatoms to dominance of dinoflagellates in the phytoplankton spring bloom (HELCOM, 2009). Changes have also occurred in the zooplankton community where copepod biomass and the mean size of zooplankton have decreased, with consequences for the weight-at-age in herring stocks, Figure 26 (HELCOM, 2009).
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Globally, health and social inequities are growing and are created, actively maintained, and aggravated by existing policies and practices. The call for evidence-based policy making to address this injustice seems a promising strategy to facilitate a reversal of existing strategies and the design of new effective programming. Acting on evidence to address inequities requires congruence between identifying the major drivers of disparities and the study of their causes and solutions. Yet, current research on inequities tends to focus on documenting disparities among individuals or subpopulations with little focus on identifying the macro-social causes of adverse population health. Moreover, the research base falls far short of a focus on the solutions to the complex multilevel drivers of disparities. This paper focuses upon recommendations to refocus and improve the public health research evidence generated to inform and create strong evidence-based recommendations for improving population health.
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Indeed, it might even give the US Congress the evidence it claims is lacking to justify American provision of budget support. Evidently, not all LDCs are currently at a level of government capacity at which certification would be assured. Hence, it would be important to combine a certification process with transitional arrangements, including support for capacity building followed by re-assessment for those countries currently below the standard necessary for certification. While from the perspective of government this may be inferior to budget support, it is evidently better than the government not receiving the aid at all.
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Environmental economics is currently still far from properly evaluating the impacts on land use and ecological systems of electricity generation. The important work on the health impacts of air pollution, for instance, still needs to be replicated in the area of land use. Direct land-use regulation, most often through zoning laws at the local and regional levels, are the most common and most widely used form of land-use policy. However, market-based schemes such as mitigation banking have been used in some countries to try to ensure that there is no net loss of sensitive ecosystems like old-growth forests and wetlands.
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The CAD 20 million Biofuels Opportunities for Producers Initiative, which ran from 2006 to 2008, helped farmers and rural communities hire experts to assist in developing business proposals, feasibility studies and other work necessary to create and expand agricultural producers’ biofuels production capacity. The NexGen Biofuels Fund will disburse funds up to 31 March 2017. A Strategy for Agriculture and the Rural Development Plan for period 2014-20 are being prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture.
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The unequal sharing of family and household responsibilities means that when public services such as health, childcare, water and sanitation are cut back or become less affordable, it is usually women and girls who fill the ensuing gap, spending more time on unpaid care and domestic work (see Chapter 6). Finally, because women are more likely to be employed in the public sector, they are particularly affected by staff and wage cuts in this sector. In the United Kingdom, the Women's Budget Group has repeatedly denounced the regressive nature of fiscal consolidation, which is based on spending cuts rather than tax increases, and quantified the toll that budget cuts take on the most disadvantaged women and girls in the country.
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The increase in low cost and abundant Internet bandwidth supported the launch of 100 Mbps fiber optic packages. Parallel to this, secondary education enrolment jumped and all high schools are equipped with Internet access through corporate social responsibility initiatives. This includes those on track to achieve SDG 9.C by 2020 (high), those that might achieve at least one or more of the indicator thresholds particularly with the right policies to induce rapid growth (medium), and those unlikely to reach the target by 2020 due to vulnerability challenges and structural barriers, or and where change is likely to be incremental (low).
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Thus funding for the “active” services of the El system was in principle, before taking subsidies from government into account, a quarter of funding for passive unemployment benefits. Table 5A. 1 (see Annex 5A) lists these programmes, together with a tentative allocation of each programme to Categories 1 to 7 of the OECD/Eurostat classification, which is a classification by “type of action” rather than by target group. The sub-sections below follow this approach, and include some comments based on Table 5A.1.
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One possible weak point is that there is a ceiling only on charges for the chronically ill. Widening this ceiling to the population at large would potentially reduce the risk of low-income households (particularly large ones) from being dissuaded from accessing the health-care system. Finally, co-payments for NHI services should not be the sole focus as direct payments linked to either Shaban or commercial insurance may well also be significant for those households who spend a substantial share of their incomes on health-care services. One approach is to base eligibility on whether individuals (or households) receive the National Insurance Institute’s (Nil’s) Income Support benefit (or the Income Supplement in the case of pensioners). However, the eligibility criteria for this support are so stringent that a significant share of low-income households does not receive these benefits. Clearly access to health care would be strengthened if access to them was itself widened, as has been suggested in other OECD analysis (OECD, 2010a, 2010b and 2011b).
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Finally, access to well designed and reliable transport systems can lower congestion and reduce operating costs for firms and commuting times. Most carbon emissions in urban areas in China come from industrial use including power generation and in selected cities such emissions are high compared to cities in other countries (Sugar et al., However, the density of Chinese cities has helped limit carbon emissions from non-industrial sources, including transport. As noted in Chapter 1, as urbanisation continues density in Chinese cities has remained high by international standards.
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In today’s Latin America, governments implementing public policies for development and against poverty and inequality meet with social movements that engage in practices for social change, poverty reduction, and empowering. In this context, we analyze the interplay between both processes, describing its conflicts in three specific dimensions: the material, the democratic, and the environmental. Social movements are permanently contesting and challenging public policy when they autonomously appropriate public policy resources, yet, governments respond with criminalization and cooptation strategies. In a setting where social conflict takes place in response to existing poverty and inequality levels, movements challenge development and poverty reduction projects of an ‘assistentialist’ and extractivist nature, and propose an integral understanding of development and the emergence of new relationships among individuals, society, and the environment.
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At the same time, the less dispersed wages among union members indicate that such extensions may be associated with lower earnings inequality. While empirical evidence also suggests that centralised as opposed to intermediate wage bargaining might be beneficial for both employment and income equality, the level of bargaining is not under the immediate influence of policy makers. These labour market effects have implications for income inequality: the lower employment rate is likely to be associated with higher income inequality, whereas the more compressed wage distribution - to the extent that unemployment benefits are progressive or lower-income workers are more likely to receive them - has the opposite effect.
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This paper starts by summarising recent challenges to neo-liberal assumptions about human motivation, rooted in economically rational individualism. This leads into the discussion of the increasing recognition of the role of emotions and alternative approaches to social policy and community development, including increasing interest in faiths and spirituality within civil society as well as amongst public policy makers. Finally, the paper focuses upon the emotional impact of neo-liberal policies upon public service professionals, their motivations and professional identities, together with the ways in which they identify and cope with the ethical dilemmas that they face, in the current policy context. This final section draws upon the findings from research carried out together with Paul Hoggett and Chris Miller, along with some more personal reflections on the possible implications for training and continuing professional development.
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Of the EUR 47 million to be transferred to federal ministries, only EUR 34 million were effectively applied to the water resources management system. States and municipalities received EUR 422 million, but the application of those financial resources (representing over 85% of the total financial compensation) is not committed to the water sector. Overall, only a small part of the revenues is invested in the implementation of the WRM system, as most of the revenues are invested according to the respective governments’ general priorities. The revenue generated by the water use charges must be invested in the river basin where it was collected, according to the respective water resources plan.
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Furthermore, there are additional reasons why donors may prefer not to use country systems, such as the ability to account for taxpayer funds and the need to track climate-related results (OECD, 201 la). As transaction costs reduce the total amount of climate finance devoted to climate activities, reducing them can increase the effectiveness of climate finance. The performance/existence of specific national institutions can also affect whether a country meets the safeguards introduced by selected climate funds to limit potential negative impacts (e.g. social) of climate interventions, or to ensure that specific standards (e.g. fiduciary standards) have been met. However, there are several related challenges at both the national and international level.
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This chapter explores how Mexico can meet those challenges and the steps it can take to close remaining gender gaps in top public decision-making positions. Whereas women accounted for only 22.6% of members of parliament in the Camara de Diputados (Chamber of Deputies) in 2005, they currently hold 42.37% of the 500 seats. In the Camara de Senadores (Senate) they occupy 33.6% of the 128 seats, compared to 17.19% in 2006. Such representation is well above the OECD average of 28.47% of seats in lower houses and unicameral legislatures.
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Rather, what is needed is a set of marketing policies and institutions that connect farmers to markets by reducing their marketing costs and risks (IFPRI, 2007). Similarly, this analysis strongly confirms the importance of better market integration and investment in rural infrastructure to help reduce transport and energy costs thereby better transmitting the opportunities created by market opening to those regions. Today, food and other agricultural products are sourced globally as much as manufactured products and the expanding markets for agro-food products are opening up new opportunities for developing countries (see Box 4). Participation in regional or global agro-food value chains allows developing country producers to overcome the limits imposed by their small domestic markets. It provides them access to more vibrant markets, allowing them to upgrade their production processes and improve the quality and value-added of their products. Although the strong growth performance of recent years has been mainly attributed to Zambia’s booming mining sector (copper is the country’s single largest foreign exchange earner), agriculture is the most dynamic component of Zambia’s export economy and is the main driver of export diversification.
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They score it higher than the transport infrastructure, resulting in a higher international country ranking (4.57 points on a scale between 1 and 7 points), although there remains a significant quality gap with the best OECD performers (Figure 5.4). World Bank, htto://data.worldbank.orQ/data-cataloa/world-development-indicators. Labour income play ed a key role in reducing poverty and income inequality in Brazil, helped by a steady decline in unemployment. Under Brazilian labour regulations, the minimum wage is subject to the automatic indexation rule based on past inflation and increases in overall GDP (as opposed to per capita GDP).
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The term “good governance” is unsettled in its meaning. Through the 1980s and 1990s, donor countries and institutions trended to make aid conditional upon reforms in the recipient country, which was found largely ineffective in encouraging real policy changes. More recently, donors, such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the United States, are increasingly insisting upon performance and good governance as a prerequisite for aid, a practice called “selectivity.” This is a means of requiring a recipient state to demonstrate the seriousness of its commitment to economic and social reforms. There are no objective standards for determining good governance: some aspects include political stability, the rule of law, control of corruption, and accountability. High levels of poverty and weak governance are linked, making selectivity difficult to implement. For reforms to succeed, domestic support, ownership, and commitment are crucial, as are the recipient's cultural context and history.
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They may also renounce asking for their rights for fear of reprisals and to avoid stigma from their family and society. Heirs must register their inheritance, and all transactions involving a transfer of property rights is forbidden during three months following the death of the testator (Box. This regulation obliges all heirs to register their immovable inheritance in their name and prohibits any transactions involving a transfer of inheritance rights until three months after the death of the testator.
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It also confers on Governments the primary responsibility for mapping out the roles of different actors, establishing rules of engagement and ensuring their enforcement, setting technical and safety standards, and planning for human development. Consumer protection, and protections against the abuse of market power, may also be a consideration where micro- or mini-grid owners attain effective monopoly status locally. A transition to more environmentally sustainable systems can lead to shortages of generation capacity — as has been the case even in some European countries (Deloitte, 2015). Most regional generation projects are started by electricity utilities, although there are exceptions, such as the Manantali dam completed in 1987, a joint initiative of Mali, Senegal and Mauritania to develop the agricultural and hydropower potential of the Bating River, which was initiated by their joint water organization (Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du fleuve Senegal).
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Governments introduced several measures in order to help families, for instance measures of debt relief. As a result, firms started to cut jobs or reduce wages. Moreover, they increasingly used temporary employment contracts without benefits, and more generally entailing a reduction in job security and deterioration in job quality.
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By Grade 9, approximately six in ten boys and seven in ten girls report that they go to school tired, and around a third of boys and a quarter of the girls are overweight or obese (self-reported height and weight). But there are also more encouraging findings. Diets appear to have improved over time, and rates of daily smoking continue to be low for Canadian students.
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There are wide disparities in quality between public and private education services in many developing countries. A recent review of 21 studies in Ghana, India, Kenya, Nepal, Nigeria and Pakistan found that students in private schools tend to achieve better learning outcomes than do students in state schools. Epidemics, violence, climate change and natural disasters can quickly undermine the progress of individuals who have exiced poverty and push poor people into more extreme poverty.
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The range of qualifications across public universities is quite remarkable where more established universities may have 40 to 55% of academic staff with doctorates while newer universities have less than 10% staff with doctoral degrees. Universiti Sains Malaysia reports 53.6% staff with doctoral degrees and University of Malaya 40.5% while Universiti Malaya Pahang reports 11% and the National Defence University only 0.7%. Training schemes to upgrade staff qualifications have started but will take considerable time to change the situation. However salary packages offered by universities, which operate within a civil service framework, are unable to be internationally competitive.
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However, no data are published about such industrial water uses. About 450 million m3/y is directly abstracted from rivers and streams (i.e. not via reservoirs). Use of underground waters for irrigation is limited (about 3 per cent of the total). These figures are not, however, based on actual monitoring of volumes abstracted for irrigation purposes. Due to erosion and alluvium, their real water retention capacity' has been reduced to approximately 290 million m3.
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In quantile regressions, we continue in the same way. We replace the scalar § in equation (3) by the parametric function %<Xj, /?) The Blinder-Oaxaca (bo) decomposition divides the wage differential between two groups into a portion that is “explained” by groups’ dissimilarities in productivity characteristics and an “unexplained” residual portion, which is typically used as a measure of discrimination (Jann, 2008).
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Although it has been demonstrated that in the long term, factors such as demographic transition and economic growth have generally had a greater impact on poverty reduction than social policy, some countries have in recent years developed broader, more comprehensive and more coordinated policies, which have been particularly successful in reducing poverty and indigence. These include innovative link-ups between programmes to create employment —public works, job creation subsidies and subsidized lines of credit— and provide training for young people and the unemployed and the conditional transfer programmes. The latter will be considered later in this chapter.
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This is a consistent picture that emerges for a range of mental health indicators and a large number of countries. Yet, in the empirical analysis presented in this paper, there is no evidence that these higher expected needs are being met through higher hospital admissions or pharmaceutical consumption for mental health. This is perhaps a sign of further stress on mental health systems that are unable to respond and provide adequate treatment during times of high need. The clear lesson is that providers need additional capacity to respond to the additional mental health needs during times of economic downturns.
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This is particularly true in the case of the Agency for Quality Education, which is building up an assessment and feedback mechanism on school effectiveness that should allow schools to make a more effective use of resources. It forbids private-subsidised schools to select their students on the basis of economic, social and academic criteria. This is likely to put an end to a longstanding practice which has been considered one of the reasons for the high level of socio-economic segregation in the Chilean school system.
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There have been across-the-board rationalisations of expenditure in all sectors of the health system and permanent cuts to public sector workers salaries, including those of health professionals, since 2010, in efforts to reduce costs. These pressures, combined with the fact that private spending is already high (Figure 12) and unlikely to be able to stretch further, create tangible concerns over the adequacy of health system funding, especially in the longer term. In response, the sector has seen a number of evidence-based measures aimed at securing savings and enhancing efficiency (Box 4), However, despite the huge reductions, current spending on prescribed and over-the-counter medicines makes up over a quarter (26%) of all health expenditure, and is among the highest in the EU. Before the crisis, high private capacity combined with weak sickness fund bargaining power, poor payment procedures, the lack of clinical protocols/guidelines and a failure to monitor doctors’ use of diagnostic tests created an incentive structure conducive to overconsumption and waste.
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This last issue is particularly important when curriculum material or education tasks have little relevance or meaning to groups within the student population, including Indigenous students (Young, 2010). Compared to other students in their own countries, all three groups of low performers undertake less homework each week, and this indicator is particularly pronounced among low performers in Australia (Figure 6.3).
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Table 3.4 presents the number of students who graduated with specialization in specific environment-related subjects from universities in Uzbekistan from 2001 to 2008. The Biological Department of the National University of Uzbekistan (NUU) teaches a course on sustainable development. In 2008, the Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology (named after M.V. Lomonosov) became a co-founder of the centre.
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It provides facilities for savings and fixed deposit accounts, thus inculcating thrift. The impetus to form the Bank came from a recognition that mainstream commercial banks failed to address the specific needs of poor, self-employed women. In March 2012 the Bank had 165,175 loan accounts and more than 371,000 savings and deposit accounts, amounting to a total outstanding deposit base of some INR 1.11 billion (US$20,813,800) at the end of financial year 2011-2012. For example, it offers a unique loan product that provides up to INR 100,000 for repaying high-cost debts taken earlier from largely exploitative moneylenders.
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In the last two decades, researchers have scrutinised the conditions under which aid is effective. William Easterly argued that the US$568 billion spent on aid to Africa over the last 40 years has not lifted average African incomes.23 Other recent cross-country analyses also conclude that the relationship between aid and development is weak and often ambiguous (Rajan and Subramanian 2008, Easterly et al. In a recent meta-analysis of the literature, Doucouliagos and Paldam (2011) conclude that the overall finding on ‘aid ineffectiveness’ has not been overturned, though there are some results suggesting certain components of aid may be effective.
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Designation of a nature preserve "Panj", with an area of 18,000 ha within the boundaries of Tajik national park, was planned for 2007. However, none of these planned activities has so far been implemented. It implied the establishment of some 150,000 ha of industrial forest plantations. If die Programme were successfully implemented, the afforested area in Tajikistan would significantly increase, and the share of forests in the overall territory of the country (currently 2.95 per cent) could extend to 4.0 per cent.
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In all cases, a much lower percentage of persons aged 15 and over with one or more types of disability are economically active than those who have no disability. This situation impacts heavily, both emotionally and financially, on family well-being, and highlights the shortfall in the supply of care services provided by the State, the market and civil society organizations. The governments of a number of Latin American and Caribbean countries have also developed programmes of integration and inclusion in education for children with disabilities.
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The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted in 1966, states in article 10(2) that marriage must be entered into with the free consent of the intending spouses. In its general comment No. It also notes that States parties are obliged to prevent third parties from coercing women to undergo traditional practices, such as female genital mutilation. In addition, the Convention contains specific provisions in relation to forced marriage (article I6(l)(b)) and early marriage (article 16 (2)).
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Summative assessment measures learning that has taken place with the purpose of presenting a summary of students’ achievements over a defined period, in this case upper secondary education. Hence, summative assessment reports on students’ learning achievements for judgement at a specific point in time. It is often described as “assessment of learning” and contrasted with “assessment for learning”. For a comprehensive literature review on summative assessment, see Nusche (forthcoming).
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ABSTRACT The study of international security and political economy are two sides of the same coin. Yet the disciplinary fields of security studies and political economy too often maintain a deliberate distance from each other. The three books discussed in this article are a welcome departure from such an artificial division between (inter)national security issues on the one hand, and economic issues on the other. Furthermore, like much political economy scholarship, they each aim to incorporate an analytical focus on domestic politics that many international security scholars still eschew. Such a broader (re-)integration of the domestic political economy dimension of security into international relations scholarship provides a comprehensive theoretical and empirical understanding of how and why national security, like all areas of public policy, is riddled with the pursuit of political agendas.
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In May 2003, the 192 members of the World Health Assembly, the decisionmaking body of the World Health Organisation, unanimously adopted the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) (WHO, 2003). The WHO (2010) describes it as a ‘milestone for the promotion of public health’ and ‘one of the most widely embraced treaties in UN history’. It marks the first time that the WHO has used its powers under Article 19 of its Constitution to develop an international public health treaty (WHO, 2006). As of September 2011, it had 174 ‘parties’ (see note 9).
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Substantial progress has already been made to curb GHG emissions from fossil-fuel combustion in a number of countries, including large emitters like the People’s Republic of China,1 the European Union or the United States. Current efforts are, however, unlikely to be enough to avoid average temperatures increasing by 4°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100. The IPCC’s latest assessment finds, for example, that scenarios in which the average temperature increases by less than 2°C over the 21st century involve global GHG emission reductions between 40% and 70% by 2050 compared with 2010 levels (IPCC, 2014).
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This study examines the impact of corporate governance on earnings predictability (future cash flows) for banks operating in 71 countries over the period 2007 to 2016. We find that board structure and CEO power have a significant influence on future cash flows. In contrast, risk governance variables have no significant influence. These findings vary between developed and emerging countries, common and civil law countries, and different sized banks. Board structure is more effective in predicting future cash flows in civil law and developed countries than in common law and emerging economies.
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Lone Christiansen and Per Tronsmo present Norwegian approaches to leadership, and national programmes for school leadership professional development and the Advisory Team programme for mentoring principals and local providers. The South Australian and Israeli examples presented by Susanne Owen and Dorit Tubin feature the work ofparticular sections of the education ministries looking to drive innovative learning and provide conditions to support it. This layering of networked learning opportunities helps to sustain and extend their leadership influence. Both CIEL and the earlier programme have been informed by international research on school leadership development, in particular the work of Stefan Huber and Viviane Robinson.
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Some 6 600 birds have been killed in collisions with aircraft. Bird movements have been mapped to avoid such collisions. As a result, two aircraft were lost in 1984-2004 compared with seven in the previous 15 years and the number of collisions has been reduced by 76%. The air force estimates that it has saved USD 690 million in avoided damage cost since 1984.
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Despite major progress in social science helping policeto prevent crime, federal funding for police research is atits lowest level in thirty-five years. Only a majorrestructuring of the political economy of criminology seemslikely to revive research with and for the police. Forabout $1 per American per year, federal funding for“Centers for Crime Prevention” could be established inall sixty-seven cities of more than 250,000 people and ineach of the twenty states with no cities that large. Bycreating much stronger grassroots engagement in research,both the consumption and the production of socialscience could be greatly strengthened to improve theeffectiveness and fairness of police practice.
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This is usually complemented with additional opportunities to learn and be assessed. In many countries, repetition cannot be applied in transition grades, when students' poor performance may be due to a short-term failure to adjust. Repetition may be limited to grades considered as fundamental for consolidating basic skills.
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Among all 15 to 49-year-old females in Mexico, only about half report currently using any type of contraceptive method. Mexico’s rate of unmet need for family planning is higher than rates in many other OECD countries with available data, and Mexico’s adolescent pregnancy rate is the highest in the OECD. Access to abortion is prohibited or severely restricted in most of Mexico.
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sdg5
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However, this is at the cost of ending the win-win situation where patients choose relatively cheaper cash benefits (worth 75% of the cost of in-kind care) that improve their own welfare thanks to a greater choice of providers and also encourage competition across home care providers. Thus, it would be preferable to keep a cash benefits scheme for home care but to improve screening and monitoring to avoid unintended use. One way of reducing the need for monitoring could be to provide cash benefits in the form of vouchers directly payable to professionals, like in the Nordic countries (Colombo et al., To be effective, such vouchers should be designed to cover less than the full costs of care, where the implied copayment on each service purchased would give patients incentives for cost-efficient use of the vouchers. Such a focus could risk impeding the excellent Dutch results in terms of equity and access to health care facilities. However, the increasing role of competition has not had a negative impact on equity so far.
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sdg3
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In Mexico’s public sector, however, few efforts have been made to address pay inequality. The predominance of women versus men in job classes has not been identified, there are no regular pay assessments to ensure equality in pay, and there are no audits to ensure pay equality as well as equity (i.e. in promotions or to ensure gender balanced representation in job classes). Should a public sector employee wish to lodge a complaint challenging a gender gap in wages or inequity between male and female employees, there is no specific procedure for doing so. These rates have changed little over the past decade (Figure 2.8).
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sdg5
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The Sistema Integral de Salud (SIS), provided by governmen t, has been the main source of this expanded coverage. Despite such progress, however, much remains to be done. An efficient and sustainable health insurance scheme should: i) ensure effective and financial access to health services, ii) use resources efficiently through strategic purchasing, iii) generate sufficient and sustainable resources, and, iv) manage population health risk and institutional financial risk.
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sdg3
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Official development finance can contribute towards strengthening the business environment to drive further investments, support key infrastructure projects with concessional or non-concessional financing, and use blended finance to mobilise additional resources from the private sector. Fixed assets should include tangible assets such as buildings and networks, and non-tangible assets, such as computer software and intellectual property. The indicator is a measure of investment made by entities providing telecommunication networks and/or services in the country, and includes expenditure on initial installations and additions to existing installations where the usage is expected to be over an extended period of time.
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sdg9
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Shares remained roughly stable for LDCs but increased slightly for the other three groupings. This evidence suggests that, for food-importing developing countries in general, meeting the cost of food import bills has become less onerous over time. Konandreas (2012) conducts a more disaggregated analysis for the period 1990-2009, looking at individual countries in the LDCs and NFIDC groups and at their average, maximum and minimum shares of food import expenditure in both total merchandise imports and exports.
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sdg2
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In the “cost pressures” scenario, a 'full Baumol' effect is assumed implying that LTC costs per dependant will increase in line with overall labour productivity. In the “cost-containment” scenario, policy action is able to contain the cost pressures associated with the Baumol effect. In the latter scenario, governments would deploy a continuous effort to generate productivity gains and/or contain upward pressures on wages of staff providing long-term care. For health care: the size of the income elasticity, the magnitude of the residual, as well as factors underlying health status scenarios and demographic projections were tested.
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sdg3
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It is up to the investor to take the suggested comments on board, in case of negotiation, he must reply to the authors in written form. The Service of Licenses and Permits Department within MEPNR receives the application and all required documents describing activities (review of documentation, preparation of written statements by the experts, establishment of an expert commission, and preparation of conclusions). An Ecological Expertise (EE) is then performed in not less than 10 and not more than 15 days.
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sdg6
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Those schools and projects that participate in innovation programmes with additional funding may be required as a condition of their participation to write up their approaches and materials into handbooks to be shared with others, as in the “experimental” schools chosen by the Experiments and Entrepreneurship Division of the Israeli Ministry of Education. The identified longer-term impacts included the value of literature and research as the basis for discussions about innovative practice, the validation of innovative practices, and in general for enhanced understanding and better design. In the case of the Austrian NMS Reform this was achieved through the creation of the National Centre for Learning Schools (CLS). Similarly, in Slovenia, the National Education Institute has been crucial to the reform - in partnership with the ministry and the consortia of gymnasia.
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sdg4
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If they do not, the answer is considered favourable. The Directorate of Planning is the strategic advisory body of the MOP in matters of planning, policy definition and general co-ordination. It is in charge of proposing policies and development plans in such infrastructure as roads, ports and airports, or water resources.
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sdg11
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At the macroeconomic level, the contribution of remittances to the economy of a country is often measured by the share of remittances in a country's GDP. In addition, the development impact may be discussed in terms of human capital, considering remittances as an instrument for providing additional opportunities for the recipients. In this respect the link between remittances and poverty and between remittances and inequality will be revisited to clarify the meaning of the realized and unrealized development potential of remittances.
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sdg10
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This applies for the entire chain of activities necessary for achieving climate-resilient development: collecting, processing and interpreting climate data, climate forecasting and projections, using the data to identify sector and local climate vulnerabilities, and identifying priority areas for policy action. Development cooperation providers can help establish regional partnerships to pool resources and support national governments in incorporating regional forecasts into national disaster-mitigation programmes to provide warnings. For example, the Regional Integrated and Multi-Hazard Early Warning System works with governments across South and East Asia to incorporate regional forecasts into national disaster-mitigation programmes (Webster, 2013).
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sdg13
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Consistently, a larger percentage of girls than boys reported internalizing characteristics on question items related to sadness or hopelessness, feeling lonely, and feeling nervous. In addition, a greater percentage of girls than boys indicated the presence of psychosomatic symptoms (headaches, stomach aches, feeling irritable or bad tempered) at least once a week during the past six months. Across survey administration years, the percentage of students rating high life satisfaction varied from just above to just below half of all students.
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sdg4
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Information on regulation for collective dismissals is not available in this period. This section draws heavily from Venn (2009), although underlying data have been revised and updated. While this chapter focuses mainly on the costs of procedures of dispute resolution, corruption and evasion mean that laws are not always adequately enforced, regardless of the cost.
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sdg10
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Too often, school science is seen as the first segment of a (leaky) pipeline that will ultimately select those who will work as scientists and engineers. Not only does the "pipeline" metaphor discount the many pathways successful scientists have travelled to reach their career goals (Cannady, Greenwald and Harris 2014, Maltese, Melki and Wiebke 2014), it also conveys a negative image of those who do not end up as scientists and engineers. Because knowledge and understanding of science is useful well beyond the work of scientists and is, as PISA argues, necessary for full participation in a world shaped by science-based technology, school science should be promoted more positively - perhaps as a "springboard" to new sources of interest and enjoyment (Archer, Dewitt, and Osborne 2015). Expanding students' awareness about the utility of science beyond teaching and research occupations can help build a more inclusive view of science, from which fewer students feel excluded (Alexander, Johnson, and Kelley 2012). Achieving greater equity in education is not only a social justice imperative, it is also a way to use resources more effectively, increase the supply of skills that fuel economic growth, and promote social cohesion.
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sdg4
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In the mid-2000s, migrants from Central Asia represented about a third of all labour migrants (Tyuryukanova, 2011, p. 1,12), in 2015, the share of their citizens among those who explicitly indicated employment as their purpose of travel was about 66 per cent (Table 1). Available from http:/ /xn—blab2a0a.xn—blaew.xn—plai/about/ activity/stats/Statistics/Svedenija_v_otnoshenii_inostrannih_grazh (accessed 1 May 2016). These data include the number of foreign citizens of all ages who appeared to be within the territory of the Russian Federation for a range of reasons.
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sdg5
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On the other hand, resource and waste processing firms do not internalize in their supply plans the consequences of the reflux of material to the waste pile" (Pittel et al., Each major actor type has its own decision node in the circular economy where his decision can break the circular flow of the recycling process in figure 6. The producers' decision node contains the choice between virgin and recycled plastics as input to production and then to sell goods to consumers (or industry).
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sdg12
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The number of poor grew in 2014 to 168 million, of whom 70 million were indigent. The increase was basically in the number of non-indigent poor, which rose from 96 million in 2013 to 98 million in 2014 (see figure 1.1). The number of poor in the region increased by about 2 million between 2013 and 2014, this being the outcome of a recorded or projected rise of 7 million poor persons occurring mainly in the Bolivarian Republic ofVenezuela, Guatemala and Mexico, and a decline of 5 million occurring mainly in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador.
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sdg1
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Table of Cases Table of Legislation List of Abbreviations List of Contributors 1. Repetition, Revolution, and Resonance: An Introduction to New Technologies and Human Rights 2. Human Dignity, Ethical Pluralism, and the Regulation of Modern Biotechnologies 3. Regulating Human Genetics in a Neo-Eugenic Era 4. Constitutional Patriotism and the Right to Privacy: A Comparison of the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights 5. New Technologies, the Precautionary Principle and Public Participation 6. The Texture of Reproductive Choice: Law, Ethnography and Reproductive Technologies 7. The International Law of Genetic Discrimination: The Power of 'Never Again' 8. Individual Human Rights in Genetic Research: Blurring the Line between Collective and Individual Interests Index
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sdg16
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The government of Turkey undertook comprehensive public administration reforms in the first decade of the twenty-first century. These reforms were a new phase in the long history of the public administration reforms in this country. The reforms of the early 2000s were more comprehensive than their predecessors. In this latest phase, the government undertook both “managerial reforms” (improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public service delivery and adopting businesslike management techniques) and “governance reforms” (improving transparency, accountability, and responsiveness in public service delivery and citizen engagement in them) (Sozen 2012, p. 168). In this chapter we discuss the historical background and contents of these reforms and assess their effectiveness, particularly in two areas: citizen engagement in governance and reducing corruption.
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sdg16
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At the same time, gender relations in the localities of origin regulate whether females will respond to these demands. Overall, perceptions of women's mobility among Kyrgyz people are more conducive to female migration than among Tajiks and Uzbeks. Among die important differences observed between females and males are marital status and migration regime. Among those who have children, women more often take the children with them to the Russian Federation.
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sdg5
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It does not have the negative connotation of the word “subsidy”, sometimes interpreted as government handouts. “ Government support” also has a broader scope and defines a variety of government policies that benefit various types of energy. This report uses the terms “subsidies” and “government support” interchangeably.
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sdg7
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Other incidents recorded in the COG reports demonstrate examples of electoral violence. This typology expands the traditional categories of electoral violence monitoring and research efforts to encompass the nuances presented by women's experiences. Research from Amnesty International suggests that post-election violence in Kenya included 40,000 incidences of sexual and gender-based violence, confirming the findings of Commonwealth observers of increased ‘levels of violence perpetuated against women’. In the case of Swaziland, the levels of intimidation experienced by female candidates was noted to have been encouraged by traditional leaders, because a female candidate ‘wore trousers’ and in one case because the female candidate in question was a ‘widow’.
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sdg5
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A major change at the municipal (and provincial) level is the adoption of one plan for the entire territory that will incorporate all applicable zoning regulations and pertinent administrative laws. All existing zoning plans will be transferred to the environmental plan and local governments will have a period of ten years to transform them. It is anticipated that some areas will have a high degree of protection, such as heritage sites, while others will have far fewer rules and constraints and be more open to experimental uses and spaces.
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sdg11
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Almost 40 million people were affected. First, large-scale humanitarian support is required to assist food-insecure populations, institutional arrangements and coordination. Second, they highlight the need for all countries to be well prepared for such emergencies, including through strengthening climate-smart agricultural practices, investing in irrigation and building emergency food reserves.
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sdg2
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One of the most interesting extensions is the inclusion of disparity, the “distance” between different options. For instance in a gas-based electricity system, it is one thing to diversify into oil and another one to branch out into nuclear, as the second option could be considered more “diverse”. Capturing disparity adequately, however, is problematic.
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sdg7
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Federal R&D spending as a share of GDP rose to 1.9% by 1964, but then was gradually scaled back as the Apollo project came to an end. In 2009, the National Academy of Science released a study, A New Biology for the 21s' Century, which called for stronger integration of new advances in fundamental biological sciences into federal science agencies to address pressing societal needs, especially for food, environment, energy and health. The National Research Council Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources (an operational arm of the National Academies) also periodically releases studies on aspects of the federal agricultural research enterprise.
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sdg2
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Because economic conditions during these two periods were quite different, the policy space available in each period for pursuing development goals, including the MDGs, was defined differently. The first period was a time of increased policy space that represented an opportunity for economic policies to become enablers for achieving development goals. During the second period, policy space was more constrained and the effects of the crisis on the achievement of the MDGs were more or less drastic depending on the policy responses at the time. The discussion points to the importance of keeping in mind the potential macroeconomic trade-offs of any financing efforts to bridge such spending gaps within a coherent and comprehensive policy framework (see section on the challenges of bridging spending gaps).
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sdg10
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Eletrobras is a federally-owned holding Page | 22 comPanV f°r electricity assets, controlling a large part of electric power generation and transmission systems mainly through six subsidiary companies, as well as some distribution capacity in the Amazon area. The Empresa de Pesquisa Energetica (EPE, or Energy Research Company) is responsible for the development of integrated long-term planning of Brazil's power sector, thus supporting MME's national energy policy and long-term planning. By 2007, 55.35 million out of a total 56.34 million permanent residences were connected to electric energy.
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sdg7
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Equal contribution of men and women from the planning to the implementation of peacebuilding programmes is a precondition for enhancing the impact of local and international interventions and making the consolidation of peace increasingly just and sustainable (Chapters 2,10 and 11). Commitments to gender equality are thus an essential requirement for peacebuilding activities. However, while one or two programmes dedicated to the inclusion of women or women’s organizations may show symbolic goodwill, they do not substitute for a truly participatory process that capitalizes on the contributions of women peacemakers and responds to and advances women’s specific needs and experiences (Chapters 2 and 11). Individual requirements of specific groups must be analysed, understood and considered, particularly of those groups which are marginalized in peacebuilding processes and thus prevented from fully determining their own fate and making positive contributions to their society’s future. Being one of these groups, women have been marginalized and are now in need of proactive inclusion.
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sdg5
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As an example, the substitution of fossil fuels by renewables and the corresponding global market for renewable power equipment offer opportunities, but also risks, for national or regional trade balances. In the case of the European Union (EU), for instance, there is a trade deficit with China in solar components, China being the largest producer of solar panels with 65% of the global production, 90% of exports of which 80% serve the EU market. Counting the trade benefit coming from export of solar equipment to non-EU countries, such as Japan and the United States, the resulting trade deficit for the EU has been EUR 21 billion in 2010, falling to 9 billion in 2012. Unlike trade in solar components, the EU has a sustained trade surplus in components for wind power, amounting to EUR 2.5 billion in 2012. One could therefore look more closely for one country where renewable energy innovation policy was particularly strong.
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sdg7
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An invaluable, unique and necessary moral achievement, it is voluntary. Many (sometimes a majority of) health workers move freely without recruitment, as they do in Samoa and Tonga, and the code can never be a panacea (partly because it excludes the private sector), it is a ‘soft law’ that needs to be monitored carefully. Implicit in the code is that all countries should train adequate numbers of health workers for their own nations - a task that poses enormous problems for many.
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sdg10
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Youth can start an apprenticeship either if they have already left school, or while still at school in Years 11 or 12. The 2009 CO AG’s National Indigenous Reform Agreement (revised in 2011) aims to halve the gap in Year 12 attainment rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous youth between 2008 (when die gap stood at 40%) and 2020, this target is considered “on track” (Australian Government, 2015). In 2009, only about 60% of all 20-24 year-olds with a disability or with a long term healdi condition (such as asthma or a mental healdi condition) had attained Year 12, compared to almost 80% of all youth in good health.
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sdg4
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In the same year, Uzbekistan toughened the Criminal Code and the Administrative Responsibility Code to make the use of grants difficult. Whatever motivated these measures, they rather complicated NGO operations. To remedy the situation, Uzbekistan adopted the 2007 Law on Guarantees for Non-governmental Organization Activities. The Law envisages providing NGOs with state grants and subsidies under certain conditions.
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sdg6
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Markets can help coordinate to some extent, but no market has ever been devised that could efficiently coordinate the evolution of the global energy system towards achievement of global policy objectives. Energy and economic planning units typically provide in-depth assessments of government plans and targets. While, in theory, energy plans would be based on their independent assessments, in practice, energy planning units are not always independent and assessments are either tweaked to support political decisions or sidelined.
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sdg7
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In addition, the government applied a policy to cushion the transmission of high world prices for food security reasons. For example, in 2008 it released dry milk from state reserves to restrain increases in prices of dairy foods. Since mid-2010, the simplification of trade within the Customs Union facilitated cheaper imports of dry milk from Belarus, which has likely put a significant competitive pressure on domestic milk prices.
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sdg2
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It is a mechanism, for example, to keep trainers up to speed with the skill demands of employers in their locality. To take full advantage of such successes, there need to be mechanisms for scaling them up to the state level. At a minimum, this includes a carefully designed communications strategy for identifying successes and bringing them to the attention of influential stakeholders.
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sdg7
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