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These debates have tended to focus on whether market-led growth is sufficient to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality, or whether specific policies are necessary because untargeted growth may be insufficient or even perverse. The paper charts the degenerating outcomes of these debates, and the emergence of the inclusive growth (IG) paradigm within the World Bank. A critical examination of IG suggests that its weaknesses are best addressed through a more ambitious restatement of the pro-poor goals of economic policy.
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Between 1949 and 1976, while the country was rapidly developing, the number of farms in Germany declined by 50%, while the average size of farms jumped from near 8 hectares to more than 30 hectares. Technological changes on the farm allowed farmers to expand production with fewer workers. Between 1971 and the 2005, average farm size fell by 50% in India from 2.3 to 1.2 hectares, with a doubling of the number of smallholders from 49 million to 108 million.
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These savings offer a cushion and can help reduce default on loan payments in the event of an emergency. Indeed, when providing credit to the poor they often provide other complementary services such as skills training, teaching of literacy and numeracy, health nutrition workshops, family planning advice. This diversification, which now goes beyond financial products, makes microfinance an efficient platform for the delivery of pro-poor services to its clients.
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Low levels of taxation hurt poor people, and poor women in particular, because they prevent the establishment of development programmes which can counteract market-generated inequalities. Where fiscal reform has involved cuts in social expenditures, or the imposition of user fees on services and utilities, women have often had to compensate by increasing the amount of time taken to care for children, the sick and older persons at home to save money, walking longer distances in search of health care or queuing for longer periods for water (Razavi, 2007). In Zambia, for example, the abolition of marketing boards and the privatization of extension services and rural credit under structural adjustment affected women farmers more than men. Local market cooperatives used to be one of the few sources of credit and extension services for women farmers (Evers and Walters, 2000).
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Whereby today some approaches exist, their restricted interoperability leads to a fragmented landscape of systems, thus hindering widespread adoption among customers and businesses. Blockchain technology can enhance the effectiveness of such solutions, by providing the overarching standard to unique identification and recording transactions of e.g. carbon certificates, their trading, and even the origin of GHG emissions. This transparent and immutable record makes it easier to monitor and incentivise, or impose penalties on, certain industrial practices. Building on existing carbon market models, more efficient and highly integrated trading platforms could be established. A detailed consideration of how these benefits can be leveraged is presented in section 3.2.
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The implications also need to be treated with caution as, in some instances, further research is needed for specific contexts as well as across a sufficient number of countries to be confident about the consequences of specific approaches. Further potential areas of research on school leader appraisal include, among others, school leaders’ perceptions of using separate appraisal processes for developmental and accountability purposes, the effects of using professional school leadership standards as a reference standard for appraisal, the effects of involving peer evaluators in the appraisal process, the effects of using teacher, parent and student surveys and questionnaires as a source of information, ways to strengthen links between appraisal and professional development, and the effects of using appraisal results to reward successful school leaders with a financial reward. These need to reflect country-specific governance frameworks, the allocation of responsibilities in the education system and the extent of decentralisation. The existence of national curricula and standards and the overall culture of evaluation all need to be taken into account in approaches to the appraisal of school leaders (also see Chapter 3).
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I sought to establish forms of fluid contact and dialogue with citizens in the context of realizing democracy. I set out to encourage people’s participation in civil society by allowing them to participate in the creation of public policies on education, early childhood matters, salaries, pensions and a lot of other issues. This took place through the creation of advisory commissions made up of community representatives and experts from across the political spectrum.
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And yet, despite the evolution of competition, regulation 2 of the evolving telecommunications industry does not appear to be getting easier. As this ecosystem grows in unpredictable technological directions, regulators today face an increasing array of challenges, reflecting the dizzying explosion of services and applications being carried over multiple digital networks - all of them subject to societal demands for regulation. The author, Dr. Bob Horton, suggested a framework for understanding the evolution of telecommunication regulation, postulating three different "generations" of regulatory practice.
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Abstract Despite widespread recognition of the importance of values, decision makers and stakeholders in health policy appear to disagree fundamentally over what ‘values’ essentially are. Hidden dissent about the nature of values can confuse policy deliberations. This study investigates empirically the following two questions: (1) what sorts of entities do Canadian health reformers typically call ‘values’? and, (2) how do Canadian health reformers use the idea of values in health reform rhetoric? We conducted a qualitative, interpretive analysis of 36 Canadian health reform documents published during the period 1990–1999. The values raised in Canadian health reform rhetoric vary widely not only in topic (e.g. health states, health services, equity, economic viability, etc.) but also in substance (e.g. physical entities, goals, principles, attitudes, etc.). We review the diversity of concepts underlying ‘values talk’ in health policy, and discuss implications for policy analysis and future research.
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This chapter explores the linkages between international trade rules, national security, and various dimensions of human security, which includes the environment, labor, and human rights. It shows how and why such linkages emerged, describes who initiated and opposed them, and explains how they have affected the membership, terms, scope, and interpretations of global trade agreements. In contrast to several other essays in this volume, this chapter focuses not on regional or bilateral trade agreements, but on multilateral ones. It specifically explores trade policy linkages in the context of the International Trade Organization (ITO) , the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
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Chinas GDP is projected to stay flat in 2014 at 7.7 per cent, slowing to 7.5 per cent for the next two years, reflecting deleveraging and less reliance on policy-induced investment. India’s growth is projected to rise to over 6 per cent in FY 2014-15, increasing to 7.1 per cent by FY 2016-17 (World Bank 2014). China alone accounts for three-quarters of the 2011 share.
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In the context of climate change, these responses are referred to as mitigation and adaptation measures, respectively. Figure 4.7.1 depicts a flowchart of climate change issues posed by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, including both impacts and countermeasures. In contrast, adaptation serves to adjust human and natural systems on the assumption of ongoing climate change, e.g. disaster prevention, changes in cultivated plant species and breeding new plant varieties.
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Essential elements for such a planning instrument have been identified according to international good practice (Box 2.3). Transparency and predictability in development control mechanisms will increase the credibility of the city master plan and help to promote private investment under the plan. Viet Nam has a unique land ownership system with Land-use Rights (LURs) (Box 2.4), and development control in urban areas is based on zoning. Effective enforcement is another urgent challenge (see Chapter 4).
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Until the entry into force of the amendment, the Paragraph 6 Decision will remain a valid legal basis for the facilitated export of drugs to countries in need. It is important to note that from a substantive point of view, the Paragraph 6 Decision and the TRIPS Amendment Decision are essentially the same. For each of the remaining Members, the Paragraph 6 Decision will continue to apply until each of those Members ratifies the amendment. For an overview of Members that have so far accepted the amendment, see http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/amendment_e.htm.
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For young people, the decisions they make about what and where to study, both within and following periods of compulsory education, have become both more important and more difficult to make. The purpose of career guidance is to enable young people to make what are good education and career decisions for them now and in their future as well. In the absence of reliable and trustworthy information and support which good career guidance should provide, such decisions become more difficult, with personal and social costs often displayed in skills mismatches and unsatisfactory employment prospects. Over recent years, the significance of career guidance services has grown. Rapid economic and educational change has led to school-to-work transitions which are now longer and more complex.
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For the third report, 82 per cent of responding member States engaged at least one other government department in the compilation of the NIR: only seven member States indicated that no other government department was involved. Nearly three-quarters (71 per cent) affirmed that civil society or academic stakeholders contributed to the NIR. Private sector stakeholders were much less involved, with only nine member States indicating direct or indirect engagement with private sector interests in the preparation of the NIR. Thirty-two member States responded at least once to the annual survey of initiatives under the Phase III work plan priorities (2012: 19 countries [TVET questions only], 2013: 22 countries, 2014: 23 countries). Case studies have been slightly condensed and edited for inclusion, and in some cases enhanced with data from the NIRs. In three cases (Finland, Germany and Hungary) only an excerpt of the study has been used to highlight lessons that are relevant to a specific ESD issue, references to other data provided in the full case studies are noted where relevant in the body of the report.
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On the one hand, if water bottlenecks are well managed and the change of resource availability is well anticipated, all the options available to limit the effect of water scarcity will be implemented in a cost effective way. In that case, the cost of adjusting to the bottleneck is quite low for the electricity system. On the other hand, if disruptions in the electric sector cannot be avoided, they can be very costly. Therefore one needs to take into account the cost of investments to hedge energy systems against the risk of disruption, for instance by providing more back-up generation capacity.
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Marine ranches are also being established for resource conservation and environment protection.2 Twenty demonstration marine ranches have been established in 2015, with more planned in the future based on lessons learned from these. In 2015, The Fishery and Fishery Administration Bureau set out a plan to monitor and assess important marine and fresh water. The primary objective of fisheries co-operation is to ensure food security and fulfil the fisheries development strategy.
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All grain prices decline in real terms, and they will fall below current levels at the end of the projection period (Figure 1.15). Because of the significant fall in coarse grain prices described above, a shift in land to oilseeds is anticipated in 2014/15 which should contribute to further declines in the prices of oilseeds. In the oil sector, a strong demand for food and fuel will push the price to increase as of 2015/16.
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It has to be however considered in connection with the profitability of the public transport provider as well as the inhabitants'purchasing power. This will happen unless the local governments are able to take over the investment costs. Provided that the operation is above break-even point, it would give space for fare cut.
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While national and sub-national capacity is of primary importance in multi-level governance relations, the line between co-ordination and capacity is not always clearly demarcated. Co-ordination can help in disseminating good practices and spreading the benefits of diversification of water policy, thereby also building capacity. Thus, co-ordination and capacity building go hand in hand: they are synergistic processes that can be mutually reinforcing, provided there is a territorial approach to water policies.
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This target is aligned with the European objective of halving the number of people killed in 2020 and it will be reviewed in 2015. The safety performance indicators established by Spain are shown later in this paper under monitoring. The elderly (people aged above 65) represent more than half of total fatalities. The 9th National Traffic Safety Programme covering the period 2011-2020 was launched by the Government of Japan in April 2001.
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For example, labour force participation may decrease further due to the withdrawal of older workers from the labour force as a result of the lowering the statutory retirement age in late 2017. This policy may have a disproportionate impact on rural locales where there is a higher concentration of senior residents. This includes the network of national roads, railway lines, airports and harbour ports. A territorial lens on such overarching policies can help ensure that they are adequately tailored to place. Poland’s National Spatial Development Concept 2030 offers guidance on how to co-ordinate and implement public policies that have a significant territorial impact, however, in practice, its co-ordinative ability is weak (OECD, 2016b).
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They are therefore particularly well-suited for an assessment of how policy changes have impacted on relative inequality measures. A negative change of NRR points to incomes of the unemployed falling behind relative to those in work. Figure 12 provides a strong indication of reduced cash support for the unemployed between 1995 and 2005.
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The health care system is obligated to deliver equal care to all citizens regardless of their place of residence. This requires a large number of small, cost-effective health centres capable of providing acute care because the expenses for transport of patients and staff are very high.182 Due to their small size and isolation, towns and villages in Greenland often need to be self-sufficient and are very vulnerable to external factors.18 No private providers of health care services exist in Greenland, but private dental care, physiotherapy, psychotherapy and treatment for alcohol and drug abuse are available in Nuuk. In the past, perinatal complications, acute and chronic infectious diseases and injuries dominated as the leading causes of morbidity.184 Recently, chronic and lifestyle diseases and disabilities dominate morbidity concerns despite the fact that the "old" diseases have not decreased to the same low levels found in Western countries.
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The SNA data on household income are first divided by the population size. They are then multiplied by the ratio of the average household income of each decile to the average household income in the IDD, to give an estimate of an average household income by decile that is consistent with the SNA totals. Unemployed persons are defined as those who are currently not working but are willing to do so and actively searching for work.
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In accordance with international standards, the reference population for indicators on child labour and forced labour should go beyond the group of persons engaged in employment work, covering either forms of work within the SNA production boundary or forms of work within the general production boundary, as defined in the 19th ICLS resolution on work statistics. Relevant context information for the interpretation of the indicators on child labour and forced labour includes the respective national legal provisions. In the case of child labour, important aspects may be the minimum age set by national law for employment, hazardous work and permissible light work, the coverage of this legislation and the prohibition of certain types of child labour, such as the worst forms of child labour.
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However, currently with seven different approaches existing for such target setting,54 it is no surprise that actors are feeling lost. Beyond company target setting, there is a general lack of guidance on 20 C compatibility of investments which can support investors in their decision-making processes. Here the development of tools and criteria may be helpful.
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Compared to the traditional informal mutual help networks, CBHI offers well defined ex ante protection with reliable premiums (Tabor, 2005). Such insurance allows members to cover low-frequency, high-cost events - especially hospitalisation - when health service supply is available (Jutting, 2003). Despite these advantages, most CBHI schemes remain small: from a subset of 44 schemes Carrin, Waelkens and Criel (2005) found the median value of coverage among the eligible population to be 24.9%, 13 schemes had a coverage rate below 15%, and only 12 had a coverage rate above 50%.
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National-level monitoring and evaluation can also assess the degree of co-ordination between different actors, and/or between institutions/government bodies in charge of adaptation. It can also evaluate to which extent consideration of climate impacts and adaptation is embedded across different policy priorities or in operational and planning decisions, regarding for instance natural resource management or development planning. This practice, known as adaptation mainstreaming, can increase the efficiency and effectiveness of adaptation planning (OECD, 2015b). Reporting on adaptation monitoring and evaluation under the UNFCCC has been requested by several guidelines and agreements.
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Another distinct feature of the primary care system is that the majority (around 94%) of clinics are solo practices (Table 3.2). From a quality of care perspective and in the absence of a patient registration system embedded within primary care, this raises obvious questions about care continuity and co-ordination and about the functionality of the primary care system outside of normal working hours. Solo privately owned clinics are also less able to weather difficult economic circumstances, which is a compounding viability issue in a market where patients tend to prefer to be seen in a hospital setting.
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The open PRI model used appeared to ensure that potentially disruptive research was conducted outside the SHOKs. Adjustments were made to the way the SHOKs were operating, but the programme was discontinued from 2015 and is being phased out. Further, it exacerbates the lack of “strategic technology” research investment in Finland.
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In this case, a gap exists between the efficacy of the product assessed during clinical trials and its observed effectiveness in real life use. While this gap is widely recognised, the safety and effectiveness of new technologies is only rarely assessed through formal re-evaluation. Recent evidence shows that health technology re-assessment is seldom used in OECD countries. A third of OECD health care systems rely on periodic re-assessment after technologies are included in the range of benefits covered by public funding (Auraaen et al.,
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Some LDCs that have been able to attract strong operators have often witnessed stronger growth (Box 2-1). Further, the idea that market size limits the potential for competition has not been the case in LDCs with smaller populations (Box 2-2). Given that mobile penetration can be misleading due to a single person having multiple SIM cards or lapsed accounts, it is also useful to look at demand side statistics such as the proportion of households with a mobile phone. Here too Mali is a leader, as one of only six LDCs where at least nine out of 10 households have a mobile phone.
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Since violence by a partner can occur in any type of intimate relationship, a series of questions are required to accurately identify current and previous relationship types so as to screen respondents for modules of questions that address, for example, violence by current or most recent partner, and violence by all other previous partners (as is the case in the UNECE survey module on violence against women). The definition of “intimate partner” is subject to national circumstances, some of the questions listed below, such as those referring to living with a man without being married and being involved in a relationship with a man, may not be appropriate for all country contexts. In the examples shown above, respondents who reply that they are currently married, living with a man without being married to him or involved with a man without living together (regular or steady dating) will be filtered into modules of questions concerning violence by current partner.
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Overall, the OECD average water application rate per irrigated hectare decreased by 7% between the periods 1990-92 and 2002-04, while in most cases the volume of agricultural production increased (OECD, 2010b). This may induce water stress. Some states in the United States, such as California, as well as many Mediterranean countries, already battle with increasing water stress (OECD, 2010b). Figure B.2 provides more detail about the level of water stress in a selection of OECD countries. Although water stress by itself may have negative consequences for productivity, combined with a supporting set of policies it may stimulate more efficient water allocation and the adoption of sustainable water management techniques. However, OECD research (2010) shows that in many countries, farmers are only charged for the operation and maintenance portions of their water supply costs, with little recovery of the capital costs of water supply infrastructure.
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Institutional Theory.- Reviving State Theory.- Public Opinion, Elections, and Democratic Politics.- Neo-Functionalism and Civil Society.- Politics and the Civil Sphere.- Globalization and Transnationalism.- Elite Theory and Elites.- Conflict Theory.- Social Movements and Contentious Politics.- Guerilla Warfare and Terrorism.- Elites, PACS, and Political Influence.- The State and Economic Development.- Gender and Politics.- Globalization and Protest.- Culture and Political Protest.- Religion and Politics.- War and Democracy.- Space and Politics.- Politics and the Environment.- Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism.- NGOs and Transnational Organizations.- Democracy and Democratization.- Revolutions and Authoritarian Regimes.- Mass Media and Politics.- Elections and Voting.- The Politics of Inequality.- The Political Sociology of Criminal Justice.- Events Data and Conflict Analysis.- Ethnography and Politics.- Comparative Historical Methodology in Political Sociology.- Hierarchical Linear Modeling.- New Methods of Text Analysis and Politics.- Event-History Methods and Politics.- Social Networks and Politics.- Time-Series Analysis and the Study of Politics.- Varieties of Political Analysis.
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To avoid this multicollinearity issue the approach has been to include a direct measure of the gender gap in educational attainment in the growth equation - rather than separate indicators on male and female educational attainment (Klasen, 2002, Knowles et al., This approach involves assuming common technological change, common population growth, and common growth convergence patterns. However, population growth differs considerably across countries, and the evidence on multifactor productivity growth patterns across countries does not fit with the assumption of common technological change (Lee et al.,
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If waste is perceived by the generator as having little or no value, it will tend to be managed either at the lowest possible cost to themselves, or at minimum cost in compliance with legal requirements. The costs normally considered are the financial costs of waste management that occurred for the collection, treatment and disposal of waste. These costs may be offset in part by direct revenues from selling recovered materials or energy or the benefits of action to the society as a whole, such as resource efficiency, green job creation and a healthy and clean living environment.
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In particular, the obligation to publish by December 2009 River Basin Management Plans has been a strong driver for water management in EU member States. Eastern neighbours are also interested in the application of the provisions of the WFD. Belarus has schemes for the complex use and protection of waters, and is interested in seeing how these compare with EU River Basin Management Plans. Due to lack of resources and capacity in the eastern neighbours, the preparation of River Basin Management Plans has been mostly supported by external donors, but the implementation of the developed plans in some cases advances very slowly.
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In other words, “women get sicker, men die quicker” (Tolleson-Rinehart, 2005). Self-reported health status is widely used in cross-sectional studies as a single-item morbidity measure that strongly correlates with objective physical and mental health measures (Smith et al., In Finland, women reporting good or very good health outnumbered their male counterparts.
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Turkey recognizes the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Until a lasting and equitable solution is found within the context of the United Nations, Turkey shall preserve its position concerning the “Cyprus issue”. The information in this document relates to the area under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus.
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They have planning, data collection and co-ordination prerogatives usually devoted to river basin organisations. As collegial structures, they can also arbitrate and prevent conflicts over water use. They provide fora to reach compromise on water allocation disputes, and they are key interlocutors of CONAGUA regarding the management of water risks such as drought, overexploitation and contamination in order to develop mechanisms in line with the national strategy. In addition, the councils participate in the development of financial studies with CONAGUA to best determine the necessary users’ contribution to support their programmes of work.
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In this regard, a conspicuous weakness of the QICH framework is that it does not currently include quality measures for COPD, CHF, smoking status and related measures to incentivise preventive action around quitting smoking. Primary care professionals should be more active generally in health promotion, disease prevention, and encouraging healthy lifestyles (smoking cessation in particular). Primary care services operate in a wider health care context, and it is imperative for government-run public health and prevention services to complement these efforts by strengthening the focus on risk factor modification and promoting health literacy. While QICH is a quality-monitoring programme for primary care that many countries could leam from and emulate, it can be further developed over time, exploiting the potential offered by the use of EMRs in primary care.
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Nonetheless, South Africa’s changing population shares imply that a policy focus on race-based redistribution will become increasingly limited in the future as the foundation for further broad-based social development. Rather, it would seem that a more dynamically sustainable direction lies in addressing seriously the increasing inequality within each race group. However, before w,e proceed to this discussion of social spending, Chapter 2 interrogates and adds to the review of post-Apartheid inequality and poverty of this first chapter by comparing the empirical picture of poverty and inequality from three national household survey data sets from 1993, 2000 and 2008. Careful attention is given to making these data sets as consistent as possible.
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Private health insurance companies covered 17% of the population. The National Health Care Fund offers a universal health plan. This dual system has been criticized because it leaves low-income and high-risk populations to be treated mainly in the public system, which is poorly resourced and thus tends to provide lower quality service. Providing universal health care and at least nine years of compulsory education requires strong state commitment, involvement and consistency over time.
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Investing in and enfranchising SMEs in developed countries and LDCs will encourage growth, investment and jobs. The successes of Turkey's tenure will be enduring. That is why in May 2015 we set up the World SME Forum to be a permanent structure in global economics. Since the first G20 Business Summit in Seoul in 2010, the B20 has called upon the G20 to address the constraints SMEs face in the global marketplace.
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The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries. It assesses urban sectors and activities that foster growth and reduce pressure on the environment, focusing on land use and transport, including eco-districts, energy efficiency in buildings, waste recycling, district heating and renewable energy. Public transport should link the proposed nodes more effectively, particularly those planned in the City of Stockholm with those planned elsewhere in the County. It is also important that existing urban areas in each node are densified, to prevent urban sprawl around the nodes.
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Research also constitutes a basis to understand which policy responses should be instituted for the good of both immigrants and the destination countries. Working across different contexts, the goal is to help countries design effective policies for leveraging immigration for positive development outcomes. This has included providing advice on the governance of comprehensive immigration systems and linking development strategies for policy coherence within a country and across countries.
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In 2011, the government spent around USD 649 million in subsidies to irrigation agriculture (OECD, 2012). In July 2011, the government launched a pilot programme to partly decouple the amount of the subsidy from electricity use. The programme involves 13 aquifers and more than 8 000 potential beneficiaries.
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Greater female entrepreneurship would be an incidental benefit arising out of policy interventions which are motivated by broader objectives associated with education policy. Moreover, some existing policies may seek to address this issue directly. Examples include the emphasis placed on encouraging women’s participation in STEM entrepreneurship in the last decade or through various Business Supporting Programs (see Council of Economic Advisers, 2015).
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However, the lack of clarity about the distinction between climate change and development is one of the factors that has led to distrust between developed and developing countries, fuelled by concerns about additionality and the potential for competition between climate finance and development finance for a limited amount of international public finance. Development finance in the form of Official Development Assistance (ODA) increased steadily from the end of the 1990s up to 2010. In 2015, net official development assistance (ODA) flows from member countries of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD totalled USD 131.6 billion.
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Using surface water for drinking water supply requires long and expensive means of transmission to reach communities located in the centre of the country. Therefore, aquifers with good quality and quantity are already heavily exploited. Eight per cent of total water abstracted was lost during transportation.
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As such the emphasis for the inclusion of nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) within the scope of CDM is intensifying. There is no silver bullet solution to the challenges raised by the current CDM mechanism. The most serious proposals for reforms include simplification of the monitoring and verification process (which is quite challenging for end-use EE projects) as well as technology-wide agreement (which would enable an ex-ante benchmarking of EE technologies). The call for Sectoral No-Lose Targets (SNLTs) or technology wide CDM would answer these preoccupations.
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At the same time, there was decrease by 7% in 2008 in the South and in the islands, as compared to the average rainfall in the period 1961 to 1990. Water stress may increase by 26% in this century with a growing demand for irrigation water. Reduction of water availability in the North and in the Centre of Italy.
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ABSTRACTThe Doha Round on multilateral trade liberalization, originally intended to better integrate developing countries into the world economy, has been largely considered a failure. With the Doha outcome falling short of expectations, North–South trade remains underdeveloped. Embedding the political economy and the resulting importance of reciprocating trade liberalization in an evolutionary model along Axelrod–Rapoport lines indicates that factor endowments are crucial in triggering trade policies. Their pivotal nature gives rise to bifurcations, thereby tilting policies towards or away from liberalization trajectories. The theoretical insights are reflected in an empirical analysis, thus strengthening the case for a variable-geometry approach.
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According to Klasen and La manna (2009), per capita GDP growth rates in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia could increase by as much as l per cent annually with gender equality in education. Bandara (2015) finds that total annual output losses due to gender gaps in effective labour (the combined effect of inequality in education and labour market participation) could exceed $60 billion for sub-Saharan Africa, rising to $255 billion for the Africa region as a whole. The latter reflects the wider gaps in North Africa.
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Without further policy action, for example, the OECD estimates a doubling of premature deaths from local air pollution by 2050, with air pollution today already a larger health threat globally than malaria (OECD, 2012). Natural assets represent over a quarter of the wealth in developing countries today, increasing the vulnerability of these countries to growing environmental risk, including resource scarcity (OECD, 2008). Local benefits alone can provide justification for environmental action, and measures in support of climate change adaptation and improved resilience are often locally focused.
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However, different absolute poverty lines are used in many countries. For example, the United States Census Bureau uses an absolute poverty threshold, which stood at $12,071 a year in 2014 for a single adult household. By contrast, relative measures utilise poverty lines that are set in relation to the average situation within a society.
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A complementary National Performance and Benefits Measurement Framework (NPBMF) has been proposed. The objective of the framework is to track both mitigation and adaptation actions and the synergies between the two. It is informed by a methodology developed by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) called Tracking Adaptation and Measuring Development (TAMD).
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The S90/S10 ratio is the share of income received by the top decile divided by the share of income of the bottom decile. By contrast, household disposable incomes started slowing down for the European Union as a whole as early as 2008, and were already declining in 2010. Research note 01/2012, European Commission, DG Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion, December.
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The funding for primary care keeps increasing, together with performance-based payments for GPs. These included the expansion of the list of reference countries and changes to setting reference prices, new requirements for generic pricing, introduction of cost and volume agreements with producers, a positive list of reimbursed medicines and patient choice of medicine with the smallest copayment Initially, these measures lead to a decrease in pharmaceutical expenditure and some improvement in access to medicines for patients (Kacevicius & Karanikolos, 2013). However, more recently both public and private spending on phaimaceutical diugs have risen again, accounting for 28% of the total health care spending - among the highest levels in the EU.
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Data centres evolved from mere data containers to become centralized hubs that managed and distributed data across a network to end devices. Datacentres expanded into cloud infrastructure". This may give a couple of false impressions: that technology is destiny and that everything digital is revolutionary.
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Its outreach activities also aim to increase the number of countries covered by the organization. By 2035, the share of the working-age population is expected to climb to 60% of total population, promising new waves of workers that seek jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities. For this youth to deliver on its potential, the Gambia envisions specific sector promotion and active skill development. The Strategic Youth and Trade Development Roadmap 2018-2022 (SYTDR), launched by the Government of the Gambia, in collaboration with ITC and with funding from the European Union, identifies three key sectors for growth.
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Climate change is increasing the risk of disaster - amplifying existing risk and creating new risks including the direct consequences of a warming planet - with cascading consequences in the short, medium and long term. Climate mitigation can also be understood as a subset of development planning.319 The main policy implication, within the risk framework of this GAR, is that at a minimum, CCA needs to be integrated with DRR, and that governments need to move to a coherent policy approach that sees both of these risk reduction measures as integral to planning for sustainable development. There is also no obligation on Member States to divide their policy formulation and implementation according to the scope of different international agreements negotiated along thematic lines.
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sdg13
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Under this framework, parties can determine their contribution at a national level. Compared to the predecessor, the Kyoto Protocol (KP), the Paris Agreement provides a clearer system for comparing and monitoring progress. Any support for synergy between mitigation and adaptation is to be found in targets, reporting systems, rules for finance and technology transfer- and in the collective thinking behind the structure of the agreement. The analysis identifies where the individual policy mechanisms and obligations could support synergy between mitigation and adaptation, drawing on the types of M&A synergy used outlined in the review ofthe literature and examples where it has been implemented in practice.
|
sdg15
|
In general, accumulation of carbon in forest growth exceeds the total release from it, and thus forests globally act as a carbon sink (see, e.g. IPCC 2007). Globally the carbon stock has been on constant decline between 1990 and 2010. Forests and other terrestrial ecosystems annually absorb about 2.6 GtC (i.e. equivalent to 9.53 Gt of CO2},18,19 1.6 GtC of which re-enters the atmosphere due mainly to forest clearing and degradation, and thus the rate of carbon sequestration is 1 GtC per year (IPCC 2007].
|
sdg15
|
Such opportunities are not specifically defined at this stage but ability to benefit will depend on adaptive capacity. At present, higher risk/impact regions have been outlined (Handisyde et al., Asia is by far the major aquaculture producer, with large populations and production zones in low-lying areas, and is the most vulnerable region. Deltaic areas in Asia and elsewhere are also critical for agricultural livelihoods and food security, and the loss of agriculture productivity due to salination from sea level rise and seawater intrusion could have an important impact.
|
sdg14
|
While strengthening productivity will contribute to the success of a number of the Sustainable Development Goals, investing in their achievement will also nurture productivity growth, creating a virtuous cycle between sustainable development, productivity and economic growth. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all Goal 7.
|
sdg9
|
For instance, the growth rate was 62%, in Saudi Arabia 73% in Egypt and 96% in Iran (GE, 2010). This trend is projected to continue, ostensibly presenting a challenge but in reality also offering an opportunity for Jordan and its neighbours. According to the Electricity Regulatory Commission, renewable energy amounts to 108 MW of installed electricity capacity, which is equivalent to 3.5% of the total electricity generated in Jordan (ERC, 2010).
|
sdg7
|
Due to increased fish prices for the most important demersal species (sole, plaice and North Sea brown shrimp) there was only a slight decrease in landings value. Capture fisheries production value increased at annual average rate of 2.0% between 2011 and 2015. In the Oosterschelde estuary, about 40 farms produce mussels and 20 farms produce oysters.
|
sdg14
|
In particular, 52 per cent of women aged 20-24 years were married in 1997, compared with 46 per cent in 2002. The level of age specific marital fertility rate peaks in the age group 20-24 years and afterwards it declines at older ages. In the age group 20-24, both rural and urban areas experience an almost equal decline in the proportion of currently married women between the two surveys. In both the settings, marriage postponement clearly was observed.
|
sdg5
|
There are considerable differences within the UNESCWA region in terms of road density, both in the per capita and spatial dimensions. The proportion of paved roads is above 50 percent in all countries with available data (2010). Road density in Asia and the Pacific continues to increase, but remains low in comparison to more developed regions of the world. From 2005 to 2011, the road spatial density in Asia and the Pacific increased from 25 to 38 km of road per 100 km2 of land area, an increase of 50.1 per cent compared to a global growth of 10 per cent over the same period.
|
sdg11
|
Health providers have been trained, with support from UNFPA and the Auckland University of Technology, to follow a women-centred approach, allowing survivors to speak, finding solutions that they feel are safe for them and connecting them with other services. Special measures have been put in place to reach adolescents through community outreach, peer education and comprehensive sexuality education programmes. This connection is particularly visible in the case of care for people with HIV and AIDS.
|
sdg5
|
In Brazil, public participation is institutionalised in such arenas as the Conference of Cities at the federal level, and in city councils at the municipal level. Low engagement by civil society groups in NUP development is observed, partly due to a lack of participation mechanisms. However, Morocco's inclusive NUP process stands out as a potential model for the Arab States region (Box 5.4).
|
sdg11
|
Panelists discuss to what degree an expansive immigration policy might suppress wages or limit opportunities for workers in the United States. There is some competition between low‐skilled American workers and undocumented immigrants, and racism and poverty exacerbate anti‐immigrant sentiments. Poor public education is partially to blame for the high number of unemployed, low‐skilled Americans. Illegal immigration may be more likely than legal immigration to suppress wages because unscrupulous employers do not adhere to labor standards. Employer sanctions and wider adoption of programs like E‐Verify are needed. [Note: This is an edited and abridged transcript of a panel discussion.]
|
sdg16
|
Indufor (2013) calculated a "cascade factor” for Europe, which it defined as the overall use of wood raw material divided by its roundwood component, the cascade factor is a measure of the extent to which the European wood-processing industry has succeeded in increasing the utilization of wood co-products and recycled fibres. Greenhouse gas emissions from woody bioenergy are small when burned efficiently compared with emissions from fossil fuels, and "carbon debt" becomes insignificant if: wood is produced sustainably, there is cascaded use, and the total energy system is considered (IINAS et al., Although US and EU standards have been in place for several years, the new ISO standard could support thetradeof solid biofuels internationally.
|
sdg15
|
It would be important to estimate the costs of inaction and to make the case for business to involve itself in biodiversity protection. For example, in addition to their number, the welfare and quality of forests should be emphasised. Environmental priorities in the case of Sweden could be overfishing, reducing nutrients [e.g. NOx), and protection of forests and wetlands. The policy objectives included in the table have been ranked by interviewees as low or high priorities for their country.
|
sdg15
|
In the Netherlands and Denmark, where EU-SILC finds it difficult to meaningfully distinguish between market-rate and social rental accommodations, all renters are placed in the market rate category. Additionally, the Australian, Canadian, and American surveys used here do not ask whether rent is subsidized. All respondents paying any level of rent in these countries are included in their survey's “market plus subsidized” rental category. In Sweden, although subsidized housing is a survey response option, very few respondents select this option.
|
sdg11
|
Unusually, perhaps, for a discussion of the political economy of policy reform, it begins with a look at the role of evidence and analysis - reflecting the fact that much of the pressure for environmental policy reform arises not from the complaints of agents currently suffering the consequences of the status quo, but from forward-looking scientific analyses of the impact of human activities over a long time horizon. This is followed by a relatively simple sketch of other influences on behaviour and the policy process and a look at environmental policy processes. Five cases of environmental policy reform are then analysed in some detail in order to assess the impact of some of the factors that appear to explain the success, or failure, of environmental policy reforms.
|
sdg6
|
Of these, Norway has emphasised that its approach is not a monitoring and evaluation framework in the traditional sense. Rather, Norway is using existing systems and initiatives to track adaptation and to continuously learn what approaches to adaptation are effective in reducing climate vulnerability and risk (GIZ, 2013). Some of the frameworks outlined in Table 1.2 specify desired outputs and outcomes (e.g. the Philippines and France).
|
sdg13
|
Manufacturing jobs tended to move from the Northeast and Midwest to the West and South up to the late 1990s. Some of the affected workers were able to move to the higher-end of the job distribution, but many had to take up jobs in the lower-wage service sector, potentially displacing lower-skilled workers. This shock was especially strong in the Western states, which lost about 8% of construction jobs between 2007 and 2008.
|
sdg8
|
In 2012, about 10% of the variance in mathematics score to PISA test was explained by the socio-economic background of students in Korea. On average across the OECD about 15% of the variance in PISA mathematics score is explained by socio-economic background reaching more than 15% in countries such as France and Germany. As in most other OECD countries, the variation in PISA mathematics score is higher within schools than between schools.
|
sdg4
|
Equally, there is a substantial amount of research that shows economic downturns are strongly associated with worse health, particularly in the area of mental health and some causes of mortality. These surprising, and seemingly contradictory, results have led to a body of research that seeks to provide a better understanding of how macroeconomic conditions can influence health outcomes. This paper builds on these existing studies by first undertaking a review of the available empirical research and, second, undertaking a new piece of analysis using well-tested methodologies.
|
sdg3
|
Immigrants perform better in import/export industries than generally in independent business. The usual explanation addresses their overseas social networks. Extensive network connections abroad enable immigrants to reduce the daunting transaction costs that otherwise bedevil SMEs in international trade. Accepting that prevailing view, this research obtains evidence regarding the actual social network ties that Iranian immigrant entrepreneurs in Los Angeles had with trading partners abroad. However, instead of looking at connections between the Iranians and their homeland, we examined instead their social connections with other locations in the Iranian international diaspora. Although preliminary and sketchy, this evidence tends to confirm the importance of personal social contacts abroad, but it also shows that Iranian traders still reported many collection problems overseas and, as a result, had undertaken legal strategies of self-protection.
|
sdg16
|
However, this very same nuclear production is a contribution to the diversification of power supplies at the European level. It is, however, increasingly recognised that the national level may not be the appropriate level to deal with the issue. In Europe, for instance, the creation of a single market for goods and services as well as the creation of a European-wide market for carbon emissions is driving an evolution that sees energy and security of supply issues more and more as European issues.
|
sdg7
|
Around 75% of principals in intervention schools estimated that the project led to collaboration between teachers in unusual and positive ways, and that the project provided professional development opportunities that their teaching staff would not have otherwise had. The survey instruments measure both the local contexts in which the intervention takes place and the effects of the intervention on a series of outcomes of interest for students and teachers, including the change in teachers' pedagogical practices, attitudes and beliefs, as well as the effects of those practices on their students' tests scores, their understanding and attitude towards creativity and critical thinking, their engagement in school, and their scores in standardised creativity tests. While the results are tentative, the initial analysis of the pilot student data shows that the intervention has promising effects on the outcomes of interest. The next phase of the project should entail a validation (or efficacy) study before countries scale up the effective approaches.
|
sdg4
|
ABSTRACTSince its early years, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has based its strategy on the promotion of multiculturalism. However, despite UNESCO’s declarations and recommendations on cultural diversity and multilingualism, some member states have adopted different and unreceptive national cultural policies. In fact, the principles and objectives of UNESCO were widely disregarded or produced partial and contradictory results. A case in point is the political and cultural context of North Africa. This paper analyses the changes to the linguistic rights policies of UNESCO and its North African member states following the 2011 revolutionary developments in the Maghrib.
|
sdg16
|
Third, and most significantly, it is important to build up women's agency and capabilities to create better synergies between gender equality and sustainable development outcomes. Ensuring women's access to and control over agricultural assets and productive resources is important for achieving food security and sustainable livelihoods (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2011). Women's knowledge, agency and collective action are central to finding, demonstrating and building more economically, socially and environmentally sustainable pathways to manage local landscapes, adapt to climate change, produce and access food, and secure sustainable water, sanitation and energy services. Further, certain aspects of gender equality, such as female education and women's share of employment, can have a positive impact on economic growth, although this impact is dependent on the nature of growth strategies, the structure of the economy, the sectoral composition of women's employment and labour market segregation, among other factors (Kabeer and Natali, 2013).
|
sdg5
|
Over the past two years, sales in metropolitan France have fallen substantially, amounting to a 9% decline in constant Euros. National expenditure, which was strictly controlled, primarily related to research, fisheries inspection and, exceptionally, the payment of compensation to the victims of natural disasters. These efforts will continue in 2011.
|
sdg14
|
In accordance w ith the Regulation on Forests, which was valid until November 2011, the funds have been transferred into a special budgetary' account of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (20 percent) and the budgets of the cantons (80 per cent). In 2015,929 ha were afforested, less than the 1,163.3 ha planned. The area under all kinds of silviculture works has been continuously decreasing in the past five years (table 12.15).
|
sdg15
|
In Asia, as well as globally, China is making its mark, accounting for most of the global alternative finance market, while Africa and the Middle East show potential for growth. One of the main advantages of these solutions is that they can be tailored to specific contexts, promising growth even for SMEs with a limited digital footprint. Strong logistics services are a sign of a dynamic business ecosystem. Developing countries in particular assign these services great importance.
|
sdg9
|
We are witnessing the disappearance of the traditional paradigm that viewed the structural position as the determining factor in shaping collective action and social actors. Because of the structural and cultural changes that have occurred in the world and the region -the transformation of Latin America's weak national Statecentred industrial society and the break-up of the traditional relationships between State and society- collective action is tending to take shape mainly along four axes: political democratization, social democratization or the struggle against exclusion and for citizenship, the reconstruction and international reintegration of national economies or the reformulation of the economic development model, and the redefinition of a model of modernity. As a result, social actors are becoming less wedded to single causes, more concerned with sociocultural issues than politico-economic ones, and more focused on demands concerned with quality of life and inclusion than on projects of broader social change.
|
sdg16
|
Ibis can help public employment services to identify the most appropriate course of action for each job-seeker, particularly at the start of a period of unemployment. Economic rewards for greater proficiency provide an incentive for investing in developing and maintaining skills. Greater proficiency in information-processing skills appears to be more generously rewarded in some countries than others, where wage-setting and other labour market arrangements may limit those incentives.
|
sdg4
|
Every year in this category counts as two years in the scheme, with the maximum reduction being from five to three years. Includes remote locations, small communities, very difficult community attributes, and high Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people need. Also includes demonstrated requirement for advanced practice skills, special services, and extreme climate.
|
sdg3
|
Open innovation not only increases the speed of exploitation and captures economic value from ideas through inward licensing or spinning out unused ideas, it also creates a sense of urgency among internal innovators to use or lose internally available knowledge and technologies. Other motivations for using external sources of innovation are to increase the number of ideas for new projects, to attract and retain talent, and to increase external funding of ideas and technology development (OECD, 2008b). Some of these firms performed in-house R&D, which indicates that they contract out new products or processes not because they lack in-house capability, but in order to find complementary capabilities (OECD, 2010a). Human resource management and the management of different partners are an important aspect of open innovation, since success often depends on involving external partners in the company’s innovation activities.
|
sdg9
|
Many developing countries lack the legal and financial framework to enforce the complex contractual models required for ESCOs (Sarkar and Singh 2010). International ESCOs, while initially eager to operate in developing countries, acknowledge that many prospective customers require more time and capacity-building to adequately understand and accept such models, and customer credit-worthiness and local credit are not assured (Sarkar and Singh 2010). Preparing information and building the institutions needed to formulate, institutionalize and implement industrial energy-efficiency policies and programmes all have costs, something not always considered in policy measure discussions (UNEP 2006a, WEC 2008).
|
sdg7
|
Most of the new equilibrium tariffs are slightly below 0.30 dirham (USS0.0037) per m . But the supplementary charges due to energy costs for pumps, were they to apply, are in some cases higher than the “equilibrium tariff” (table 4.4). The tariffs for irrigation water were progressively increased over the past decade or so, and bill recovery rates have apparently improved.
|
sdg6
|
The text of this Recommendation can be accessed at htln://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/recommendations/General%20recommendalion%2025%20(English).ndf. The share of women in par liaments in the Arab region has generally increased since 1995 (Table 2). It has reached above 25 per cent in Algeria, Iraq, Mauritania, the Sudan and Tunisia, showing a significant rise after the adoption of gender quotas in these countries. However, there remain large dispar ities in women’s participation throughout the region, and women’s presence in parliament is close to zero in at least seven countries (Comoros, Egypt, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar and Yemen).
|
sdg5
|
This also reflects the pervasiveness of island social mores, and perhaps some discrimination in destinations that increases the desire to maintain island social ties. For whatever combination of reasons, there is room for some degree of optimism that remittance flows will not decline significantly in the near future, but alongside pessimism that this will not continue indefinitely, especially for non-migrant generations. Thus far at least, the migration-remittances nexus has proved sustainable.
|
sdg10
|
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