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Supergranulation and Magnetic Network : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 22
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Rotation-Induced Vorticity : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 24
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Evolution of Supergranulation Pattern : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 25
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SUNSPOTS : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 26
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The Anchoring Problem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 26
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Moat Flow : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 27
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Absorption of Solar Oscillations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 27
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Phase Shifts and Wave-Speed Perturbations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 28
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EXTENDED FLOWS AROUND ACTIVE REGIONS : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 29
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Surface In
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ows, Deeper Out
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ows : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 30
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Flows due to Thermal Eects of Magnetic Fields : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 30
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GLOBAL SCALES : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 30
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Dierential Rotation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 31
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Meridional Flow : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 31
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Solar-Cycle Variations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 33
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Contribution of Active Region Flows to Longitudinal Averages : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 34
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FARSIDE IMAGING : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 34
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FLARE-EXCITED WAVES : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 52
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FUTURE OBSERVATIONS : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 52
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Solar Dynamics Observatory : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 52
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Solar Orbiter : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 54
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SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 55
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1 INTRODUCTION
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Helioseismology is the observation and interpretation of the solar oscillations to
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probe the solar interior. These oscillations, with periods around ve minutes,
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2Local Helioseismology 3
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are due to the random superposition of acoustic waves and surface-gravity waves
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and are excited by turbulent convection in the upper layers of the Sun. Solar
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oscillations were discovered by Leighton, Noyes & Simon (1962) and interpreted
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by Ulrich (1970) and Leibacher & Stein (1971) as internal acoustic waves trapped
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in spherical-shell cavities. Wave motions are measured along the line of sight from
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the Doppler shifts of absorption lines in the solar spectrum. A short review of
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solar oscillations is given in Section 2.
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Helioseismology has produced a large number of discoveries in solar, stellar,
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and fundamental physics. It provides the most precise tests of the theory of
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stellar structure and evolution, for example it motivated a revision of the standard
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model of particle physics to solve the solar neutrino problem. Helioseismology also
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enables the study and discovery of eects that are not included in standard solar
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models (standard models are spherically symmetric, non rotating, non magnetic,
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and include a simplied treatment of convection).
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One of the most exciting aspects of helioseismology is the search for the origin
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of the Sun's magnetic eld, one of the most important unsolved problems in solar
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physics. The eleven-year solar magnetic cycle is thought to be due to a eld-
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amplication (dynamo-) process (cf. Charbonneau 2005, Rempel 2008), whereby
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a toroidal magnetic eld component (in the azimuthal direction with respect
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to the rotation axis) is built up by stretching of the eld lines by the Sun's
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dierential rotation. In a second step the toroidal eld is partially converted
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into a poloidal eld component, which 'closes' the dynamo cycle. Models for
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this second step (` -eect') dier signicantly. In most models, it is attributed
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to the eect of convection on the magnetic eld (convective dynamos). In an
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older model more closely connected with observations, convective
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ows play no
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role in this step; it is instead due to the instability of the toroidal eld itself.
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The instability causes loops of magnetic eld to rise to the solar surface, and
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appear as the observed magnetic (sunspot) activity. Resolution of this con
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ict
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between the models is key for progress towards a theory of stellar magnetic elds
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which has real predictive power. Helioseismology holds the promise of providing
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new observational constraints on cycle-related structures below the surface (e.g.
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Kosovichev 2008).
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Traditionally, helioseismology methods have been classied into two groups:
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global helioseismology and local helioseismology. Global helioseismology con-
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sists of measuring the frequencies of the modes of oscillation and searching for
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seismic solar models whose oscillation frequencies match the observed ones (see
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Christensen-Dalsgaard 2002, for a review of techniques and results). Global he-
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lioseismology is two dimensional and is used to infer solar properties as functions
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of radius and unsigned latitude. A major achievement of global helioseismology
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is the inference of the angular velocity in the solar interior (e.g. Schou et al.
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1998, Thompson et al. 2003). The dierentially-rotating convection zone and the4 Gizon, Birch & Spruit
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rigidly-rotating radiative interior are separated by a transition region at 0 :69R,
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the tachocline, which may be the seat of the solar dynamo.
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Unlike standard global mode helioseismology, local helioseismology is capable
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of probing the solar interior in three dimensions. This is important for the study
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of solar activity, which is seen on the surface as localized patches of magnetic
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eld, e.g. active regions, sunspots, and plage regions. Local helioseismology can
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potentially be used to infer vector
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ows, thermal and structural inhomogeneities,
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and even the magnetic eld itself. Local helioseismology has been reviewed by
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e.g. Kosovichev & Duvall (1997), Braun & Lindsey (2000), Kosovichev, Duvall &
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Scherrer (2000), Christensen-Dalsgaard (2002), Kosovichev et al. (2002), Komm,
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Howe & Hill (2006), Gizon & Thompson (2007), Birch (2008), and Thompson &
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Zharkov (2008). The most comprehensive review is provided by Gizon & Birch
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(2005).
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Local helioseismology encompasses various methods of data analysis (Section 3).
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One method of local helioseismology, ring diagram analysis, is a relatively straight-
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forward extension of global helioseismology. It consists of measuring local fre-
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quencies of oscillation by analyzing small patches on the Sun. Ring-diagram
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analysis is computationally ecient and has produced important results, such as
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maps of
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ow patterns in the Sun.
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Other methods of local helioseismology, like time-distance helioseismology and
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helioseismic holography, are based on the computation of the cross-covariance
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between the oscillation signal measured at two points on the surface. The basic
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principle is to retrieve information about the solar interior from the time it takes
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for solar waves to travel between any two surface locations through the solar
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interior. The cross-covariance function is directly related to the Green's function
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and thus carries essential information.
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Like in global helioseismology, an inverse problem must be solved in order to
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