id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
list |
|---|---|---|---|---|
200062
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20of%20Time%20%28album%29
|
Nick of Time (album)
|
Nick of Time is the tenth studio album by the American singer Bonnie Raitt, released on March 21, 1989. It was Raitt's first album to be released by Capitol Records. A commercial breakthrough after years of personal and professional struggles, Nick of Time topped the Billboard 200 chart, selling five million copies, and won three Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year, which was presented to Raitt and producer Don Was. In 2003, the album was ranked number 229 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, then was re-ranked at number 230 on the 2012 list. As of September 2020, it is ranked at number 492. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Background
In 1983, Bonnie Raitt was dropped from Warner Bros. Records for not selling enough copies of her two previous albums, The Glow (1979) and Green Light (1982). This decision came just one day after she had finished recording her upcoming album, titled Tongue in Groove. Two years later, Raitt's affair with producer Rob Fraboni came to an end, and she was forced to dissolve her backing band as she could no longer afford to pay them. In addition to these personal problems, Warner Bros. announced they would release Tongue in Groove in 1986, now titled Nine Lives. This upset Raitt, as she now had to promote an album that she no longer had full control over. Raitt began to suffer from depression, and tried to distract herself with excessive eating, drinking, and partying. When asked about this period in her life, Raitt said: "I wasn't kicking and screaming into dementia, but I did have a complete emotional, physical, and spiritual breakdown."
After the release of Nine Lives, Raitt went on a concert tour. Pop star Prince was a fan of Raitt, and attended her performance at the Beverly Theater in Los Angeles. He later offered her a recording contract on his own label Paisley Park Records. Raitt agreed, and traveled to Minneapolis. Before she recorded any material however, she suffered a skiing accident and was hospitalized for two months. The injury gave her time to reflect on recent life choices. "It seemed that some changes needed to be made. I looked at myself and just felt I wasn't being the best version of me as I could. I wasn't going to blame anyone other than myself." Raitt attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, which she credits with giving her a new outlook on life.
Despite her newfound sobriety, Raitt was still in financial trouble. She left Paisley Park Records after the planned collaboration between her and Prince fell through. Without enough money to afford a backing band, Raitt played a series of acoustic gigs to simply keep afloat. It was during this period that Raitt met musician Don Was of the band Was (Not Was). They collaborated on the song "Baby Mine" for the 1988 album Stay Awake: Various Interpretations of Music from Vintage Disney Films, which featured contemporary interpretations of songs from Disney films. Raitt enjoyed working with Was, and he agreed to produce her upcoming album. The search for a record label proved more difficult, as many labels felt Raitt no longer had commercial viability. Co-manager Danny Golberg said at least fourteen executives passed on Raitt before Tim Devine of Capitol Records took an interest. In 1988, Raitt signed a recording contract with Capitol Records for $150,000.
Composition
Nick of Time features a smooth and understated rock sound. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic wrote: "[Raitt] never rocks too hard, but there is grit to her singing and playing, even when the surfaces are clean and inviting." There are many genres explored in Nick of Time, including blues rock, country, R&B, and pop. When Was was announced as the producer, some listeners wondered if he would instill a funk rock sound into the album, given his reputation with Was (Not Was). Was decided to instead maintain the laid-back blues sound Raitt had developed earlier in her career. According to Raitt: "There's less production, less slickness. Basically, it's a return to my roots."
Before Raitt signed with Capitol Records, she and Was had recorded some early demos at Was's home studio. These early demos focused on music that was stripped down, similar to Raitt's acoustic gigs. Was wanted to showcase her musical talents by choosing songs that worked without a backing band. These demos were then properly recorded over the course of a week at Ocean Way Recording in Los Angeles on preparation for the album's release. Because they had already worked on the songs, recording sessions were fairly quick. About two tracks were recorded a day. Engineer Ed Cherney noted how most of the music was recorded live in studio as opposed to recording each instrument individually. This was because Raitt was comfortable jamming with other musicians.
Many of the songs deal with personal issues Raitt was struggling with at the time. For example, Raitt was almost forty years old when Nick of Time was released, and the album's title track is about coming to terms with middle age. According to biographer Mark Bego, Raitt sought to make an album for the baby boomer generation. "Unlike her past releases, there were no 'you've done me wrong' songs or tearful laments about love lost. The songs were much more personal" said Bego. Nick of Time features two original songs and nine cover songs.
Release
Nick of Time was released on March 21, 1989. Devine was unable to convince Capitol Records' marketing team to promote Raitt, and instead had to ask the president of the company to put full page ads in music magazines. Despite the limiting promotion, Nick of Time sold very well for the first few months, and quickly became the best selling album of Raitt's career. It debuted at number 105 on the Billboard 200, and slowly climbed the chart until peaking at number 1 on April 6, 1990. The seventeen and a half year stretch between Raitt's first album to chart on the Billboard 200–Give It Up in 1972–and Nick of Time broke the record for the longest period of time it took an artist to have a number 1 album. By 2019, Nick of Time had sold over five million copies, and helped revitalize Raitt's career. When asked why Nick of Time sold as well as it did, publicist Joan Myers said: "Bonnie's personality and sincerity just won people's hearts, in addition to her music. There was nothing ever pretentious about her."
Bego identifies the music video for "Thing Called Love" as an important factor to the commercial success of Nick of Time. With the rise of MTV and VH1 in the 1980s, the music video helped expose Raitt to a younger generation of listeners. In the video, Raitt performs in a bar, and acts flirtateous with a man played by Dennis Quaid. "Thing Called Love" was one of three singles from Nick of Time; the other two were "Love Letter" and "Have a Heart," the latter of which reached number 49 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Reception
In 2003, the album was ranked number 229 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, then was re-ranked at number 230 on the 2012 list. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. It was voted number 615 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000).
Track listing
Personnel
Bonnie Raitt – lead vocals, electric piano (1, 9), slide guitar (2, 3, 4, 7), guitar (5, 6, 11), backing vocals (5)
Scott Thurston – keyboards (3, 7)
Michael Ruff – keyboards (4)
Jerry Lynn Williams – acoustic piano (5)
Don Was – keyboards (8)
Herbie Hancock – acoustic piano (10)
Michael Landau – guitar (1, 3)
Johnny Lee Schell – acoustic guitar (2), backing vocals (2), guitar (3, 9)
Arthur Adams – guitar (3)
John Jorgenson – guitar (8)
Jay Dee Maness – pedal steel guitar (8)
James "Hutch" Hutchinson – bass (1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9)
Chuck Domanico – acoustic bass (4, 6)
Preston Hubbard – bass (11)
Ricky Fataar – drums (1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9), percussion (1)
Fran Christina – drums (11)
Paulinho da Costa – congas (1), percussion (4, 7)
Tony Braunagel – percussion (2, 5), timbales (2), drums (4)
Marty Grebb – tenor saxophone (3, 9)
Heart Attack Horns – horns (3, 9)
Bill Bergman – saxophone
Greg Smith – saxophone
John Berry, Jr. – trumpet
Dennis Farias – trumpet
Kim Wilson – harmonica (5, 11)
Sir Harry Bowens – backing vocals (1, 3, 8, 9, 11)
Arnold McCuller – backing vocals (1, 7, 8, 11)
Sweet Pea Atkinson – backing vocals (3, 8, 9, 11)
David Crosby – backing vocals (4)
Graham Nash – backing vocals (4)
Larry John McNally – backing vocals (5)
David Lasley – backing vocals (7)
Production
Produced by Don Was
Engineered by Ed Cherney
Mastered by Greg Fulginiti
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Awards
Grammy Awards of 1990
References
Sources
1989 albums
Albums produced by Don Was
Bonnie Raitt albums
Capitol Records albums
Grammy Award for Album of the Year
Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance
|
[
-0.45551571249961853,
0.025669211521744728,
-0.17637796700000763,
0.45614194869995117,
-0.20276369154453278,
0.5158337354660034,
0.4245401620864868,
0.042757727205753326,
0.12172205001115799,
-0.1557244062423706,
0.21852536499500275,
0.8411413431167603,
-0.08934380859136581,
0.3820670545101166,
-0.03151290491223335,
-0.1225779578089714,
0.3711693286895752,
0.09396584331989288,
-0.3183152675628662,
-0.5284170508384705,
0.2087855041027069,
0.08366146683692932,
-0.05756019800901413,
-0.432303249835968,
-0.19355380535125732,
0.3105361759662628,
-0.5855143666267395,
0.24029338359832764,
0.3363281488418579,
-0.08748725056648254,
0.25602594017982483,
0.15691465139389038,
0.15203115344047546,
-0.46990668773651123,
0.0020115303341299295,
0.19580675661563873,
-0.021974729374051094,
-0.5455487966537476,
-1.0135409832000732,
-0.4856085777282715,
0.4289577901363373,
-0.11253020167350769,
0.2854703366756439,
0.5465813875198364,
-0.09277515858411789,
0.041628625243902206,
-1.3497051000595093,
-0.1342257857322693,
-0.6579115986824036,
0.04073791578412056,
0.2422209531068802,
0.1791931688785553,
0.6982867121696472,
-0.14415475726127625,
-0.07084483653306961,
0.5647618770599365,
-0.31526631116867065,
0.019524572417140007,
-0.4958333671092987,
0.032790638506412506,
-0.2836151719093323,
0.10778163373470306,
0.3334869146347046,
-0.7990706562995911,
0.18071237206459045,
-0.29129862785339355,
0.3520158529281616,
0.8436195850372314,
-0.10252832621335983,
-0.5405552387237549,
-0.09303741902112961,
-0.1162610650062561,
0.1048373356461525,
0.29085296392440796,
-0.0776262879371643,
-0.39763355255126953,
0.16361702978610992,
-0.37247100472450256,
0.262285441160202,
0.24194557964801788,
0.05249614268541336,
0.3559110760688782,
1.3613449335098267,
-0.14056602120399475,
-0.02118748426437378,
-0.6207287311553955,
-0.3348013162612915,
0.9869015216827393,
-0.718582034111023,
0.4595261216163635,
-0.4454785883426666,
-0.9344759583473206,
0.27147969603538513,
0.24958565831184387,
-0.06361818313598633,
-0.5118520855903625,
-0.14969231188297272,
0.28656771779060364,
0.36868757009506226,
0.38598373532295227,
0.27881595492362976,
0.06987307220697403,
0.14891685545444489,
-0.352054238319397,
-0.3748612701892853,
-0.008349601179361343,
0.04026162251830101,
-0.46221235394477844,
0.27401912212371826,
-0.092433862388134,
-0.026958541944622993,
0.442669540643692,
-0.3942696750164032,
0.2920471429824829,
0.22046256065368652,
0.652222216129303,
0.12095999717712402,
0.33425000309944153,
-0.5047227144241333,
-0.14839890599250793,
0.6398716568946838,
0.27622854709625244,
0.6243119239807129,
-0.0863330215215683,
0.10465539991855621,
0.2201378494501114,
-0.06544908881187439,
0.17513024806976318,
-0.018006497994065285,
0.11606275290250778,
-0.016900278627872467,
0.3510272204875946,
-0.37842273712158203,
-0.34161391854286194,
-0.2364266961812973,
-0.09494717419147491,
0.6110700368881226,
0.16985096037387848,
0.0037637727800756693,
0.3975922167301178,
-0.3984059989452362,
0.7948295474052429,
-1.123759150505066,
-0.5477412939071655,
0.25613871216773987,
0.2352428138256073,
-0.3380635976791382,
0.4198712408542633,
-0.308104932308197,
-0.0876004546880722,
0.2932753562927246,
-0.01531760860234499,
-0.323183536529541,
-0.14283904433250427,
-0.4758853614330292,
-0.2316116988658905,
-0.12414272129535675,
0.6638628244400024,
0.05603551119565964,
-0.03347690403461456,
0.10633841156959534,
0.657367467880249,
0.17539821565151215,
0.4366835355758667,
-0.01888253353536129,
-0.06327363103628159,
0.661052405834198,
0.4287020266056061,
0.05037134140729904,
-0.18641363084316254,
-0.16377943754196167,
0.4284652769565582,
-0.4429238736629486,
0.6247925162315369,
-0.1495048552751541,
0.10991933196783066,
0.8832418918609619,
0.3029087781906128,
0.248759925365448,
-0.417469322681427,
-0.34102484583854675,
-0.2517082989215851,
0.5384173393249512,
-0.501263439655304,
0.6772002577781677,
0.28203704953193665,
0.21965698897838593,
0.4982084631919861,
0.30439040064811707,
-0.35699358582496643,
-0.5716875791549683,
-0.03970915451645851,
0.4214416444301605,
-0.19964855909347534,
0.1479305475950241,
0.468511164188385,
-0.39946091175079346,
0.1668100655078888,
-0.32301807403564453,
0.8131633996963501,
0.01341844443231821,
-0.49879926443099976,
0.5324074625968933,
-0.08483640849590302,
-0.20825837552547455,
0.14708350598812103,
0.15335577726364136,
-0.4364822804927826,
-0.0556570403277874,
0.7893326282501221,
-0.11684662848711014,
-0.15358111262321472,
0.5565396547317505,
0.6237850785255432,
-0.604390025138855,
-0.033247511833906174,
0.048920389264822006,
-0.03332565352320671,
0.19967539608478546,
-0.08548829704523087,
0.9132125377655029,
0.663300633430481,
-0.2587253749370575,
0.14719979465007782,
-0.2523903548717499,
0.5132054686546326,
0.09687650203704834,
-0.25583913922309875,
-0.05795279145240784,
-0.15277062356472015,
-0.6387101411819458,
0.10178255289793015,
0.04009910672903061,
-0.38548263907432556,
0.6475775241851807,
0.7086706161499023,
0.3328382074832916,
-0.29999396204948425,
0.12916788458824158,
-0.6727853417396545,
0.41944411396980286,
-0.5614199638366699,
-0.6685894727706909,
0.9724104404449463,
0.35951799154281616,
0.12477519363164902,
0.20346015691757202,
0.2695302963256836,
-0.5631587505340576,
-0.7747634053230286,
0.19038048386573792,
0.4832903742790222,
0.18499135971069336,
0.7770329117774963,
-0.4331004321575165,
0.1213902086019516,
0.1200268492102623,
-0.29627326130867004,
0.24000677466392517,
0.836101233959198,
0.2281191200017929,
-0.030042046681046486,
0.7799186706542969,
0.11021548509597778,
0.19740642607212067,
-0.9032139778137207,
-0.37612012028694153,
-0.30400413274765015,
0.3153226673603058,
-0.5283953547477722,
-0.568515956401825,
-0.046979162842035294,
-0.4677905738353729,
0.4919443726539612,
-0.14618051052093506,
0.3659491240978241,
-0.45595064759254456,
-0.08778964728116989,
-0.1857708841562271,
-0.716172456741333,
0.7039619088172913,
0.7377094626426697,
0.32992058992385864,
-0.056383922696113586,
-1.019391655921936,
-0.36241936683654785,
0.7110727429389954,
-0.7244268655776978,
-0.1979135423898697,
-0.2045200616121292,
-0.38004162907600403,
0.5252857804298401,
-0.392400860786438,
-0.017476586624979973,
0.14258694648742676,
-0.08118675649166107,
0.15567882359027863,
-0.20403730869293213,
-0.22877539694309235,
0.297279417514801,
-0.16780158877372742,
-0.23724490404129028,
-0.25394943356513977,
-0.06624648720026016,
0.31436556577682495,
-0.21731826663017273,
0.3462435007095337,
-0.9295448064804077,
-5.734012126922607,
0.17243057489395142,
-0.060669805854558945,
-0.12703318893909454,
0.037082575261592865,
-0.21872565150260925,
0.38026395440101624,
-0.36801767349243164,
-0.23435379564762115,
0.05142052099108696,
-0.7921122312545776,
0.05575757846236229,
-0.1520010530948639,
0.5510572791099548,
0.34534093737602234,
0.02737351506948471,
-0.0844392403960228,
-0.02494664490222931,
-0.46612200140953064,
0.29825472831726074,
0.12211280316114426,
-0.3709148168563843,
-0.1572941392660141,
0.15991546213626862,
-0.1392192393541336,
0.6552732586860657,
0.15520639717578888,
-0.08232518285512924,
-0.6053981184959412,
0.5487999320030212,
0.20456072688102722,
-0.3492744266986847,
-0.06725667417049408,
-0.5700942873954773,
-0.131501242518425,
-0.12990325689315796,
-0.04247074946761131,
-0.27115875482559204,
0.6004336476325989,
-0.33064526319503784,
0.02990136295557022,
-0.060098014771938324,
0.3807663321495056,
-0.6826722025871277,
-0.034747764468193054,
0.166268453001976,
-0.15749266743659973,
-1.0250099897384644,
-0.2587886154651642,
1.562795877456665,
0.3221934735774994,
-0.1126006692647934,
-0.020629364997148514,
-1.0247418880462646,
-0.36716437339782715,
0.18117812275886536,
0.3869900107383728,
0.14343886077404022,
0.08780641108751297,
0.6572473645210266,
0.7259514927864075,
-0.4569705128669739,
-0.06595463305711746,
-0.38698866963386536,
0.13738931715488434,
-0.3071479797363281,
-0.5699832439422607,
0.3599255084991455,
0.37506791949272156,
0.5155936479568481,
0.445039838552475,
0.10139010846614838,
-0.2051898092031479,
-1.1446654796600342,
-0.3182971775531769,
-0.26106318831443787,
-0.3297499120235443,
-0.17719890177249908,
-0.23715707659721375,
0.20430819690227509,
0.5128785967826843,
0.17421746253967285,
0.10232754796743393,
0.372031033039093,
-0.15311580896377563,
-0.29278287291526794,
-0.30617955327033997,
-0.19391211867332458,
-0.3434079885482788,
0.03841105476021767,
0.35600414872169495,
-1.0672829151153564,
-0.4273280203342438,
-0.2156127691268921,
0.33992722630500793,
0.07463663071393967,
0.5111857056617737,
1.1536118984222412,
0.6301360726356506,
0.0417216457426548,
-0.2627432346343994,
-0.32396501302719116,
1.1361008882522583,
-0.2810935378074646,
-0.1857391744852066,
-0.6543489098548889,
-0.4183749556541443,
-0.10017254948616028,
0.523679256439209,
-0.43697482347488403,
-0.14544004201889038,
-0.047343604266643524,
-0.2546219527721405,
-0.7458556890487671,
0.6010512113571167,
-0.4978354871273041,
0.1700742393732071,
0.3514385223388672,
0.4961096942424774,
-0.17575907707214355,
0.29162007570266724,
-0.3126099407672882,
0.24090813100337982,
-0.2875294089317322,
-0.630059003829956,
0.16352476179599762,
0.06966861337423325,
-0.06746044009923935,
0.2542831599712372,
0.4343031942844391,
0.00940433144569397,
-0.15102702379226685,
0.12815824151039124,
0.24240224063396454,
0.3641274869441986,
-0.7075855135917664,
-0.255290150642395,
0.04568101093173027,
-0.378391295671463,
-0.07159736752510071,
0.2571510672569275,
-0.633227527141571,
-0.1173400804400444,
0.6332241892814636,
0.5446652173995972,
0.47118350863456726,
0.1401052623987198,
-0.7634990215301514,
-0.5913144946098328,
-0.021459659561514854,
0.16720524430274963,
0.2222004234790802,
1.0118733644485474,
-0.1836344301700592,
-0.08333523571491241,
0.6645275950431824,
-0.04614925757050514,
0.04497520625591278,
-0.2711597979068756,
-0.45132189989089966,
0.1135454997420311,
-0.3444252610206604,
-0.8200974464416504,
-0.05731270834803581,
0.28065240383148193,
0.2840886414051056,
-0.11786721646785736,
-0.46847301721572876,
-0.20707589387893677,
0.38905081152915955,
0.06636504828929901,
-0.4202045500278473,
0.024077199399471283,
-0.3631550669670105,
0.4510820209980011,
0.1229599267244339,
-0.02308947965502739,
-0.12301592528820038,
0.501945436000824,
-0.4402680993080139,
-0.22136636078357697,
-0.8605538606643677,
0.04808585345745087,
-0.3223123550415039,
0.26588669419288635,
-0.2148197889328003,
-0.7118783593177795,
-0.38286730647087097,
-0.14530901610851288,
0.15728269517421722,
-0.0907280445098877,
0.01217574905604124,
0.05691581964492798,
-0.24094921350479126,
-0.4830538332462311,
-0.7332992553710938,
0.20054203271865845,
0.2195335328578949,
-0.15522760152816772,
-0.20939740538597107,
-0.4756316542625427,
-0.08621098101139069,
0.06098305806517601,
0.2049495428800583,
0.8124629259109497,
-0.6386491656303406,
0.2672364413738251,
0.4511839747428894,
-0.41177499294281006,
0.4867616593837738,
-0.8590862154960632,
-0.3649991452693939,
0.24152174592018127,
0.2966245710849762,
0.3214483857154846,
0.2513575553894043,
-0.06761358678340912,
-0.47536927461624146,
-0.5735353231430054,
-0.6900539398193359,
-0.47323501110076904,
0.17625974118709564,
-0.11446965485811234,
0.14133238792419434,
-0.6223821640014648,
-0.1761779934167862,
0.47957053780555725,
-0.11452307552099228,
-0.36791011691093445,
-0.16140007972717285,
-0.09777116775512695,
0.09933232516050339,
-0.006643866654485464,
0.29464346170425415,
-0.4289934039115906,
-0.07944844663143158,
-0.13766059279441833,
0.42353421449661255,
0.4865022301673889,
0.5029487013816833,
0.7067710161209106,
-0.14140111207962036,
-0.06493110954761505,
-0.17294006049633026,
-0.3802982568740845,
0.08199619501829147,
-0.40915530920028687,
-0.3020988702774048,
-0.593413770198822,
0.31765756011009216,
0.06375305354595184,
0.03224599361419678,
-0.3871658444404602,
-0.8724082708358765,
0.4616400897502899,
-0.7767637968063354,
-0.2293780893087387,
-0.5133684277534485,
-0.5930478572845459,
-0.3642429709434509,
-0.13555631041526794,
0.11455272883176804,
0.12378537654876709,
0.23472841084003448,
0.35221800208091736,
0.29873454570770264,
0.10337857156991959,
-0.26909130811691284,
0.055714406073093414,
-0.14506025612354279,
0.11128906160593033,
0.1281375139951706,
-0.3376929759979248,
0.12340057641267776,
0.1918109655380249,
-0.12197734415531158,
0.03144397214055061,
-0.3391762375831604,
-0.12426023930311203,
0.3089272379875183,
-0.2770305871963501,
0.10219713300466537,
-0.4388589859008789,
-0.23910239338874817,
-0.15529070794582367,
-0.5433931350708008,
-0.46649396419525146,
-0.06623823940753937,
0.2830849587917328,
0.25165894627571106,
0.23917868733406067,
0.1519315540790558,
0.1281006783246994,
-0.026673149317502975,
-0.17409293353557587,
-0.08278242498636246,
0.22816725075244904,
0.04252146929502487,
-0.6044190526008606,
-0.3006455898284912,
0.2158425897359848,
0.1694735288619995,
0.4634917676448822,
-0.31391212344169617,
-0.017664188519120216,
-0.36743679642677307,
0.5739792585372925,
-0.13965767621994019,
-0.6003353595733643,
0.43992865085601807,
0.31342822313308716,
0.10185383260250092,
0.3514578640460968,
0.6074790358543396,
-0.4713734984397888,
0.07421425729990005,
0.375460147857666,
-0.24769996106624603,
0.03840020298957825,
0.4576577842235565,
-0.20742885768413544,
0.15615341067314148,
0.1313161700963974,
0.28059861063957214,
-0.6333897113800049,
0.2730274498462677,
-0.3156532645225525,
0.3583533465862274,
0.277443528175354,
0.41760313510894775,
0.5234019756317139,
0.10799026489257812,
0.2511594295501709,
0.3499605059623718,
0.16824521124362946,
-0.4989292621612549,
0.14971764385700226,
0.013038364239037037,
0.2179788500070572,
0.5618403553962708,
0.1303078532218933,
-0.15672746300697327,
0.4093053936958313,
0.30443328619003296,
-0.12790578603744507,
0.030572911724448204,
-0.5760015845298767,
0.4304063618183136,
0.2678922116756439,
-0.2981069087982178,
0.31532421708106995,
0.7659094333648682,
-0.07980085909366608,
-0.8240296840667725,
0.5345257520675659,
0.5211825370788574,
0.008483758196234703,
-0.38175979256629944,
0.18866299092769623,
-0.10453283786773682,
-0.054057903587818146,
0.1177578940987587,
0.028410883620381355,
0.45447516441345215,
0.07723861187696457,
0.10945823788642883,
-0.05789463594555855,
0.08828885853290558,
-0.03887386620044708,
0.6753276586532593,
-0.13159407675266266,
-0.1224270910024643,
-0.1614721119403839,
0.1892613172531128,
0.5340296030044556,
0.42297372221946716,
0.5202580690383911,
0.5060827136039734,
-0.02167118713259697,
0.3382713496685028,
-0.4663742780685425,
-0.21248839795589447,
-0.22446496784687042,
-0.0729992687702179,
-0.7778932452201843,
-0.10234782099723816,
0.04524463042616844,
0.08139298856258392,
0.2294532209634781,
-0.37887275218963623,
0.30731090903282166,
-0.7592109441757202,
-0.291465699672699,
-0.1416616439819336,
-0.6433704495429993,
-0.6514995098114014,
0.6188749074935913,
0.34032487869262695,
0.17852729558944702,
0.6281504034996033,
0.23942773044109344,
-0.30656954646110535,
-0.18551844358444214,
0.2983129918575287,
-0.39114102721214294,
0.4418984055519104,
0.10184937715530396,
-0.10941103100776672,
-0.15419593453407288,
0.33045387268066406,
-0.4291793406009674,
0.25494182109832764,
-0.04096279665827751,
0.5039564967155457,
-0.5743277072906494,
-0.3885316848754883,
0.7525503635406494,
0.38333621621131897,
0.21379084885120392,
-0.6798470616340637,
0.25914156436920166,
0.014737076126039028,
0.29951322078704834,
0.47843506932258606,
-0.02009471133351326,
-0.09898730367422104,
0.21370428800582886,
-0.026232026517391205,
-0.1374209076166153,
0.6104637384414673,
0.20850983262062073,
-0.30564191937446594,
-0.09216248244047165,
-0.20628821849822998,
-0.5174476504325867,
-0.11592232435941696,
-0.039311688393354416,
0.04700787737965584,
0.1778874695301056,
-0.3865959346294403,
-0.10443133860826492,
-0.13539756834506989,
-0.3231786787509918,
0.18313594162464142,
-0.4893386662006378,
-0.12637433409690857,
0.00390789657831192,
-0.2723883092403412,
-0.898414134979248,
0.2823798954486847,
-0.04873135685920715,
-0.13011854887008667,
-0.12307953834533691,
-0.1334364414215088,
-0.5366137027740479,
-0.3163906931877136,
0.8111754655838013,
0.14941540360450745,
0.016505204141139984,
-0.13514584302902222
] |
200064
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Onions%20%28album%29
|
Green Onions (album)
|
Green Onions is the debut album by Booker T. & the M.G.'s, released on Stax Records in October 1962. It reached number 33 on the pop album chart in the month of its release. The title single was a worldwide hit and has been covered by dozens of artists, including the Blues Brothers and Roy Buchanan (both with Steve Cropper on guitar), as well as The Ventures, Al Kooper, The Shadows, Mongo Santamaría, Deep Purple (Live and studio versions) and Count Basie.
Three previous Stax LPs – two by the Mar-Keys, one by Carla Thomas – had been issued on Atlantic Records. Green Onions was the first album released on the Stax label. It was also Stax's first charting album, peaking at number 33 on the Billboard 200. The album features only instrumental songs and features Steve Cropper playing a Fender Telecaster.
The album was included in Robert Dimery's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Track listing
Personnel
Booker T. & the M.G.s
Booker T. Jones – Hammond M3 organ
Steve Cropper – guitar
Lewis Steinberg – double bass, bass guitar
Al Jackson Jr. – drums
Technical
Haig Adishian - cover design
Irving Schild - cover photography
Chart history
Notes
Booker T. & the M.G.'s albums
1962 debut albums
Stax Records albums
Atlantic Records albums
Albums produced by Jim Stewart (record producer)
|
[
-0.02330177091062069,
0.07086913287639618,
-0.5663956999778748,
-0.18543106317520142,
-0.3016277849674225,
0.16076116263866425,
0.29454877972602844,
0.17411194741725922,
-0.3968452513217926,
-0.2848139703273773,
0.2282266914844513,
0.5823140740394592,
-0.6203156113624573,
-0.32566773891448975,
-0.08582910895347595,
0.4554887115955353,
0.442861944437027,
0.031326960772275925,
-0.34551453590393066,
-0.6671476364135742,
0.5063918232917786,
-0.23308202624320984,
0.13181237876415253,
-0.09408123791217804,
0.032932329922914505,
-0.0891592875123024,
-0.34927642345428467,
0.2252141535282135,
0.014419407583773136,
-0.14974698424339294,
0.23119670152664185,
0.1412840634584427,
0.5443915724754333,
-0.5515240430831909,
0.0790921002626419,
0.3767319917678833,
-0.19500955939292908,
-0.33507803082466125,
-0.4009489119052887,
-0.39704421162605286,
-0.11957740038633347,
0.01782102696597576,
0.21758762001991272,
0.663100004196167,
0.08189434558153152,
0.3800940215587616,
-1.32276451587677,
-0.08251089602708817,
-0.772975504398346,
0.11547211557626724,
0.4101223647594452,
-0.11195182055234909,
0.29760971665382385,
0.1285698115825653,
0.23139554262161255,
0.50919508934021,
-0.3602844476699829,
0.10270995646715164,
-0.5069563984870911,
-0.17858394980430603,
-0.29012566804885864,
0.24758142232894897,
0.2297854721546173,
-0.3247872591018677,
0.1896447241306305,
0.09444668889045715,
-0.6595653295516968,
0.924568235874176,
-0.16535694897174835,
-0.23468565940856934,
0.03259563073515892,
-0.052864111959934235,
-0.040467046201229095,
0.3498191833496094,
0.13879810273647308,
-0.21438506245613098,
0.19650378823280334,
-0.5427172183990479,
-0.023906074464321136,
0.2898298501968384,
-0.2076520174741745,
0.026341499760746956,
0.9233108758926392,
0.09258231520652771,
0.1687542349100113,
-0.19722804427146912,
-0.5626415014266968,
0.7270277738571167,
-0.43292781710624695,
0.3233824670314789,
0.03488064184784889,
-0.715593159198761,
0.2424517273902893,
0.6107907891273499,
-0.5273436903953552,
0.0013452862622216344,
-0.14772583544254303,
0.32482561469078064,
0.3604195713996887,
0.2167077362537384,
0.1914503276348114,
0.3421323299407959,
0.17993253469467163,
-0.04146677255630493,
-1.1740680932998657,
0.11945535242557526,
0.02913363091647625,
-0.34287601709365845,
0.23065155744552612,
-0.4527536630630493,
0.01290077343583107,
0.6777794361114502,
-0.10580334067344666,
-0.586381196975708,
0.1950223743915558,
0.9128064513206482,
0.3793647587299347,
0.09112582355737686,
-0.7373082041740417,
-0.12215416133403778,
0.15729601681232452,
0.7224742770195007,
0.20896561443805695,
0.7257232666015625,
-0.15883584320545197,
-0.13599959015846252,
-0.10909615457057953,
0.86663818359375,
0.45453616976737976,
0.2316776067018509,
-0.4502342641353607,
0.06670614331960678,
-0.2857644855976105,
-0.26760372519493103,
-0.4316352307796478,
-0.2864629030227661,
0.5710648894309998,
0.22833523154258728,
0.0510074608027935,
0.3309387266635895,
-1.045299768447876,
0.19075343012809753,
-0.5303317904472351,
-0.2788791060447693,
0.13515985012054443,
-0.16419345140457153,
-0.24943478405475616,
0.33136069774627686,
0.04562912508845329,
0.1348329484462738,
0.5758947134017944,
-0.17168152332305908,
-0.2927958071231842,
0.1768915206193924,
-0.8755290508270264,
0.23725762963294983,
0.46747636795043945,
0.16970233619213104,
0.2673722207546234,
0.025466231629252434,
0.06718116998672485,
0.18257610499858856,
0.3499186933040619,
0.3508136570453644,
0.05783998221158981,
-0.2847644090652466,
0.35289403796195984,
-0.013925433158874512,
-0.0013863735366612673,
-0.3428337574005127,
-0.16028571128845215,
0.09042235463857651,
-0.2979870140552521,
0.0817432701587677,
0.2695994973182678,
-0.10115265846252441,
0.6751642823219299,
0.31684473156929016,
0.18743573129177094,
-0.2216522991657257,
-0.408299058675766,
0.14676931500434875,
0.5824620127677917,
-0.9697074294090271,
0.6410335302352905,
0.11573386937379837,
-0.04151846095919609,
0.05451392009854317,
0.8816211819648743,
0.10307338833808899,
-0.5812160968780518,
-0.12843230366706848,
0.5907750725746155,
-0.27441874146461487,
0.31206828355789185,
0.3039693236351013,
-0.20957879722118378,
-0.20635919272899628,
-0.04524270445108414,
0.519169807434082,
0.04252276197075844,
-0.12128697335720062,
0.35008808970451355,
-0.19239506125450134,
-0.49658071994781494,
0.4938916862010956,
-0.16224735975265503,
-0.26245683431625366,
0.05422902852296829,
0.5562487244606018,
0.20430393517017365,
-0.2707158029079437,
0.4536965489387512,
0.06892778724431992,
0.07165814936161041,
-0.19455133378505707,
0.17374226450920105,
0.0942511186003685,
0.35325899720191956,
-0.27559149265289307,
1.148378849029541,
0.7482161521911621,
0.011416810564696789,
0.48935529589653015,
-0.03689499944448471,
1.0571317672729492,
0.03138655796647072,
-0.33773544430732727,
0.021116573363542557,
0.022944431751966476,
-0.10602736473083496,
0.5655380487442017,
-0.01967478170990944,
-0.6328598260879517,
0.5200048089027405,
0.5982475876808167,
0.03385452926158905,
-0.4287989139556885,
0.8126345276832581,
-0.3274654448032379,
0.45447883009910583,
-0.6581286787986755,
-0.9123860597610474,
0.6321754455566406,
0.2017498016357422,
-0.24920135736465454,
-0.27723971009254456,
-0.1767260581254959,
-0.027439838275313377,
-1.1280627250671387,
0.5924521684646606,
0.6346673965454102,
0.7380117774009705,
0.36051568388938904,
-0.04963064193725586,
0.3893185555934906,
-0.25780677795410156,
-0.23704130947589874,
0.2623644471168518,
0.3547286093235016,
-0.35041365027427673,
0.23199620842933655,
0.5863500833511353,
-0.008357258513569832,
0.11382479965686798,
-0.21785715222358704,
-0.7088550925254822,
0.13460224866867065,
0.34739863872528076,
-0.5218731164932251,
-0.15231376886367798,
0.17524555325508118,
-0.7923387885093689,
-0.5056487321853638,
-0.28204768896102905,
-0.013482917100191116,
0.07811135053634644,
-0.36570438742637634,
-0.18684081733226776,
-0.8713120222091675,
0.4573087990283966,
0.5494641065597534,
0.4472223222255707,
-0.3328450918197632,
-0.5158336758613586,
-0.20207898318767548,
0.6918699145317078,
-0.710530698299408,
-0.013038515113294125,
-0.18662910163402557,
0.023687027394771576,
0.25881701707839966,
-0.0852847769856453,
-0.3507501780986786,
0.76102614402771,
-0.003910727333277464,
0.03002888709306717,
-0.4256467819213867,
-0.3563842177391052,
-0.09105648100376129,
0.332552969455719,
-0.37784549593925476,
0.0677802562713623,
-0.11656738072633743,
0.4843696653842926,
-0.2664690911769867,
0.02478581853210926,
-0.40310439467430115,
-5.60893440246582,
0.7010031342506409,
-0.1436091959476471,
0.5053874254226685,
0.11929911375045776,
-0.5783780217170715,
0.7691178917884827,
-0.5441386103630066,
0.1951712816953659,
-0.276926189661026,
-0.7208780646324158,
-0.17414556443691254,
-0.29267311096191406,
0.1046893447637558,
0.37803974747657776,
0.4925137758255005,
0.46155115962028503,
-0.42891526222229004,
0.026043355464935303,
0.4774150848388672,
0.10213159024715424,
-0.17550842463970184,
0.2640998363494873,
0.10772935301065445,
-0.1335742175579071,
1.056455373764038,
-0.11079917103052139,
0.11768193542957306,
-0.791588306427002,
0.14778566360473633,
0.12818928062915802,
-0.29847556352615356,
-0.18396271765232086,
-1.0670759677886963,
-0.5358846187591553,
-0.28933054208755493,
0.1181546300649643,
0.1434893012046814,
0.3531499207019806,
0.10950760543346405,
-0.038536109030246735,
0.027670467272400856,
0.2044495791196823,
-0.26969605684280396,
0.03344186022877693,
-0.0250041875988245,
-0.3893057107925415,
-1.178122878074646,
-0.2475934624671936,
1.2684228420257568,
0.21244706213474274,
-0.24342411756515503,
0.47722217440605164,
-0.4143142104148865,
-0.07255389541387558,
-0.08196672797203064,
0.1440938115119934,
0.24400484561920166,
0.09786773473024368,
0.5464898943901062,
0.7825272679328918,
-0.3470616340637207,
0.13665561378002167,
-0.4937971234321594,
0.19426165521144867,
-0.22497481107711792,
0.35101714730262756,
0.2317962646484375,
0.31170564889907837,
0.5800930261611938,
0.1490972936153412,
0.4988689422607422,
0.04903912916779518,
-1.0701485872268677,
-0.09850654751062393,
-0.07633001357316971,
-0.9674039483070374,
0.1906738579273224,
0.20182208716869354,
-0.3974107503890991,
-0.055072590708732605,
-0.3043924868106842,
0.008726203814148903,
0.5118108987808228,
-0.4142370820045471,
-0.43724262714385986,
-0.6817415952682495,
0.1984463483095169,
-0.7327991724014282,
0.050001464784145355,
0.4928637444972992,
-0.22006092965602875,
-0.08911435306072235,
0.2772199809551239,
0.5393017530441284,
0.09630178660154343,
0.6784772276878357,
0.2857894003391266,
0.285617470741272,
0.18853642046451569,
-0.0018406249582767487,
-0.3174493908882141,
0.2669141888618469,
-0.7056815028190613,
-0.6650280952453613,
-0.37309885025024414,
-0.69400954246521,
0.509576141834259,
0.4721846878528595,
-0.621147871017456,
0.18604415655136108,
-0.4147888123989105,
-0.13330106437206268,
-1.1425073146820068,
0.7655475735664368,
-0.19546209275722504,
0.4909876585006714,
0.12495652586221695,
0.42436400055885315,
-0.39918068051338196,
0.4349729120731354,
0.2924480438232422,
0.0708748921751976,
-0.49264290928840637,
-0.9173111915588379,
0.06058173626661301,
0.5441856980323792,
0.1530885249376297,
0.03398359566926956,
0.1605769693851471,
-0.12923218309879303,
0.010107183828949928,
-0.21439610421657562,
0.01420204434543848,
0.147846981883049,
-1.0095068216323853,
-0.17890025675296783,
-0.34366875886917114,
-0.6141954064369202,
-0.17456156015396118,
-0.08998746424913406,
-0.30220046639442444,
0.12132580578327179,
0.6114538311958313,
0.4744637608528137,
0.8036304116249084,
-0.06378022581338882,
-0.36486855149269104,
-0.43186601996421814,
0.28243088722229004,
0.04620187357068062,
0.09239792078733444,
1.257237434387207,
-0.5228737592697144,
0.05907578021287918,
0.6149260401725769,
-0.24974212050437927,
0.3119238615036011,
-0.1840742826461792,
-0.20580609142780304,
0.2971900403499603,
-0.41802656650543213,
-0.635455846786499,
-0.22410176694393158,
0.09761836379766464,
-0.1027434840798378,
0.37644681334495544,
-0.45158615708351135,
-0.7962302565574646,
0.3817954659461975,
0.13466665148735046,
-0.18635797500610352,
-0.029922377318143845,
-0.48491808772087097,
0.6609049439430237,
0.006532163359224796,
-0.3008498549461365,
0.30543795228004456,
0.04408985376358032,
-0.2540639638900757,
-0.30496758222579956,
-0.42833438515663147,
-0.08091486990451813,
0.49669358134269714,
1.0740314722061157,
-0.7164100408554077,
-1.0223997831344604,
-0.6073780655860901,
-0.3445829153060913,
0.4553128480911255,
-0.41184014081954956,
-0.038091737776994705,
0.5813477039337158,
0.0912332832813263,
-0.286429226398468,
-0.6856012940406799,
0.42107143998146057,
-0.27360999584198,
-0.19554059207439423,
-0.7888805270195007,
-0.03167851269245148,
-0.01703813672065735,
-0.013784914277493954,
0.4441148340702057,
0.27497750520706177,
-0.7644253969192505,
0.4441555142402649,
-0.02052903175354004,
-0.7090207934379578,
0.39882025122642517,
-0.1573036164045334,
-0.8786078691482544,
0.48818525671958923,
0.025286829099059105,
-0.17285004258155823,
0.14374782145023346,
-0.03795731067657471,
-0.11468963325023651,
-0.18677136301994324,
-0.43327581882476807,
-0.4542555809020996,
-0.03235405683517456,
-0.07257281988859177,
0.324673056602478,
-0.3060503900051117,
0.33894941210746765,
-0.023482546210289,
-0.1876760572195053,
0.22306963801383972,
0.034153979271650314,
-0.2661595940589905,
-0.01501863356679678,
-0.28562402725219727,
0.3107728660106659,
-0.46212440729141235,
0.214297816157341,
-0.030192462727427483,
0.758750855922699,
0.12409943342208862,
0.43224555253982544,
0.31005382537841797,
0.36367642879486084,
-0.41219374537467957,
-0.14011237025260925,
0.1738589107990265,
-0.1383846551179886,
-0.21975177526474,
0.001182965817861259,
-0.28325527906417847,
0.061345163732767105,
0.22144635021686554,
0.12343572080135345,
-0.5283516645431519,
-0.9902538061141968,
0.5920314788818359,
-0.5254630446434021,
-0.3553028404712677,
0.02207082509994507,
-0.4855388402938843,
-0.22757817804813385,
0.09839073568582535,
0.972589373588562,
-0.34295180439949036,
-0.06556713581085205,
0.13044805824756622,
-0.10441529005765915,
-0.2976090610027313,
-0.48105108737945557,
0.44716671109199524,
-0.006921396125108004,
-0.8055301308631897,
-0.13711068034172058,
0.13488252460956573,
0.5118193030357361,
0.2993307113647461,
0.0838715136051178,
0.0597141869366169,
-0.9517014026641846,
-0.008711859583854675,
0.047706857323646545,
-0.24222688376903534,
-0.34666234254837036,
-0.06327289342880249,
-0.32941940426826477,
0.17873409390449524,
-0.2716106176376343,
-0.6282617449760437,
-0.20572830736637115,
0.3561156690120697,
0.17573902010917664,
0.1411123424768448,
0.012181710451841354,
0.09574729204177856,
-0.5907871723175049,
0.015240705572068691,
0.19873732328414917,
0.3313184082508087,
-0.31013908982276917,
-0.1755245178937912,
-0.3266366422176361,
-0.3932657241821289,
0.44408681988716125,
0.4020828306674957,
-0.10632777214050293,
0.3203325867652893,
0.03909379988908768,
0.46297675371170044,
-0.32384297251701355,
-0.6195070743560791,
0.23616206645965576,
-0.027285773307085037,
-0.029653966426849365,
0.29621145129203796,
0.6209812760353088,
-0.48900583386421204,
0.3790297508239746,
0.6528354287147522,
-0.4095648229122162,
0.3809044361114502,
0.2170739471912384,
-0.17236679792404175,
-0.15621109306812286,
-0.3167513310909271,
0.7763321995735168,
-0.7586377263069153,
0.2818978726863861,
-0.7911683917045593,
-0.1788974106311798,
0.6565065383911133,
-0.09095774590969086,
0.2581169605255127,
0.8580710291862488,
-0.11847952753305435,
0.2529986500740051,
-0.051109760999679565,
0.3730301856994629,
0.22195488214492798,
-0.3004609942436218,
-0.08223254233598709,
0.797450840473175,
-0.05568530037999153,
-0.10637267678976059,
0.6123601794242859,
-0.2628909647464752,
-0.2714824974536896,
-0.06847432255744934,
-0.6402234435081482,
0.08868790417909622,
0.5764029026031494,
-0.00429902458563447,
0.16378232836723328,
0.2942066490650177,
-0.0982806608080864,
-0.7867058515548706,
-0.06958824396133423,
0.24038934707641602,
-0.22289720177650452,
-0.15810637176036835,
0.3138350546360016,
-0.4969480037689209,
-0.3892953097820282,
0.27869343757629395,
-0.10605514049530029,
0.35607466101646423,
-0.22996793687343597,
0.37700024247169495,
0.08951453864574432,
0.06361515074968338,
0.022711411118507385,
0.9601613283157349,
-0.06133536621928215,
-0.44025224447250366,
0.0029271363746374846,
-0.03571679815649986,
0.2690141201019287,
0.4787271022796631,
-0.05936526507139206,
0.5065776705741882,
-0.2579672932624817,
0.2601604163646698,
-0.33891645073890686,
0.1341969519853592,
-0.6396424770355225,
0.22462300956249237,
-0.19109584391117096,
-0.19985949993133545,
-0.7619761228561401,
0.0795816108584404,
-0.7164475321769714,
-0.03712894394993782,
0.04225350171327591,
-0.37508678436279297,
-0.2558653950691223,
0.07130759209394455,
-0.24401527643203735,
-0.19323302805423737,
-0.02931315079331398,
1.054694414138794,
-0.08698920160531998,
0.3801681697368622,
-0.08718675374984741,
-0.2491115778684616,
0.19630658626556396,
0.4106648862361908,
-0.14116837084293365,
0.44890454411506653,
-0.32191556692123413,
-0.15442109107971191,
-0.4535886347293854,
0.8854090571403503,
-0.43733465671539307,
0.4886842966079712,
-0.2309441864490509,
0.7607100605964661,
0.026612579822540283,
-0.3721461594104767,
0.8613715767860413,
-0.2511789798736572,
-0.30475348234176636,
0.07729605585336685,
0.20712104439735413,
-0.14817190170288086,
-0.041870858520269394,
0.6167869567871094,
-0.315790593624115,
-0.5225986838340759,
0.4088371992111206,
0.39595067501068115,
-0.03870226815342903,
0.42255356907844543,
0.6871653199195862,
-0.1772897094488144,
-0.45772600173950195,
-0.6569784879684448,
-0.36204394698143005,
-0.11039592325687408,
0.5262817144393921,
0.28330162167549133,
0.22466060519218445,
-0.0682443156838417,
0.2674817144870758,
-0.05661207437515259,
-0.22641946375370026,
0.2832867205142975,
-1.0723366737365723,
-0.10407016426324844,
0.6544325947761536,
-0.31903398036956787,
-0.8522663712501526,
0.8468626737594604,
0.1060551106929779,
-0.4840075373649597,
0.012391341850161552,
0.1999397873878479,
-0.3269379734992981,
-0.16637924313545227,
0.742700457572937,
0.34979721903800964,
-0.20815889537334442,
-0.395205020904541
] |
200068
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretchin%27%20Out%20in%20Bootsy%27s%20Rubber%20Band
|
Stretchin' Out in Bootsy's Rubber Band
|
Stretchin' Out in Bootsy's Rubber Band is the first album by American funk and soul band Bootsy's Rubber Band, an offshoot act of Parliament-Funkadelic led by bassist and vocalist William "Bootsy" Collins. It was released on January 30th, 1976, on Warner Bros. Records.
Recording and Release
The album was recorded around the same time as Parliament's Mothership Connection and Funkadelic's Let's Take It To The Stage at United Sound Systems in Detroit, Michigan. The album was produced by Collins and George Clinton. Collins co-wrote all of the album's seven songs (two with Clinton, one with vocalist Leslyn Bailey and four with Clinton and other band members) and did the arrangements (horn arrangements in collaboration with Fred Wesley).
Since its original release, Stretchin' Out in Bootsy's Rubber Band has been reissued and remastered several times. In 2007, the album was licensed through Rhino Records and reissued through the Collectors Choice Music service.
Samples
"I'd Rather Be With You" has been sampled several times on notable tracks.
by Childish Gambino on his Grammy-winning song "Redbone" from his album "Awaken, My Love!" in 2016.
by Beyoncé on her song "Be With You" from her 2003 debut album Dangerously in Love.
by Adina Howard on her #2 charting hit song "Freak Like Me from her debut album Do You Wanna Ride? in 1995.
by Eazy-E on his song "I'd Rather Fuck You" from the final N.W.A. album Niggaz4Life in 1991.
by 2Pac on his song "Ratha Be Ya Nigga" from the last album to be released during his lifetime All Eyez on Me in 1996.
by Questionmark Asylum on their song "Get With You/I'd Rather Be With You" from their album The Album in 1995.
Track listing
Personnel
Certain personnel are credited under nicknames on the album sleeve. The full names are given below.
Musicians
William Collins – bass, guitar, drums, vocals; cowbell on track 1
Phelps Collins – guitar
Garry Shider – guitar
Michael Hampton – guitar
Gary Cooper – drums, vocals; tambourine on track 1
Cordell Mosson – drums
Frank Waddy – drums
Fred Wesley – trombone
Maceo Parker – saxophone
Michael Brecker – saxophone
Rick Gardner – trumpet
Randy Brecker – trumpet
Bernie Worrell – keyboards; melodica on track 4
Sonny Talbert – keyboards
Frederick Allen – keyboards
Leslyn Bailey – vocals
Robert Johnson – vocals
Production
William Collins – production, arrangements, horn arrangements
George Clinton – production
Fred Wesley – horn arrangements
Jim Vitti – recording, engineering
Jim Callon – mixing
Allen Zentz – mastering
George Whiteman – photography (cover and liner photos)
Ed Thrasher – artwork (direction)
John Van Hamersveld – artwork (design)
Charts
Singles
References
External links
Bootsy's Rubber Band-Stretchin' Out in Bootsy's Rubber Band at Discogs
1976 debut albums
Warner Records albums
Bootsy Collins albums
|
[
0.551673412322998,
0.13299798965454102,
-0.5208554267883301,
-0.4195358157157898,
0.18338119983673096,
0.24729743599891663,
0.245243102312088,
0.0971740260720253,
-0.3140185475349426,
-0.2402154952287674,
0.38460057973861694,
0.30518320202827454,
-0.8114514946937561,
-0.01558247022330761,
-0.08721566200256348,
0.6282052993774414,
0.20424599945545197,
0.06659598648548126,
0.38184136152267456,
-0.8842860460281372,
0.5502175092697144,
-0.24104942381381989,
-0.21809270977973938,
-0.31636589765548706,
-0.08360673487186432,
0.19397863745689392,
-0.11770547181367874,
0.21978648006916046,
0.14791062474250793,
-0.025246232748031616,
0.53611159324646,
-0.001494766678661108,
0.3089215159416199,
-0.7201424241065979,
0.32203423976898193,
0.41076523065567017,
0.02545064315199852,
-0.12530721724033356,
0.004542351700365543,
-0.4526222348213196,
0.262874573469162,
-0.407116562128067,
0.360647588968277,
0.5243882536888123,
-0.06433267891407013,
-0.302173376083374,
-0.9670143127441406,
0.08056934922933578,
-0.5918967723846436,
-0.2801807224750519,
0.11702589690685272,
0.31719931960105896,
0.8132404088973999,
0.4641372561454773,
-0.05286190286278725,
0.13908572494983673,
0.0721355527639389,
0.4715089797973633,
-0.07991135120391846,
-0.6929877996444702,
0.23879171907901764,
0.7461020350456238,
0.1905398964881897,
-0.7125703692436218,
0.2103830873966217,
0.23710282146930695,
-0.054560668766498566,
0.5266073346138,
0.3873228430747986,
-0.661362886428833,
-0.2625029981136322,
0.368913471698761,
-0.12286899983882904,
0.2632655203342438,
0.337689071893692,
0.04757541045546532,
0.5094054341316223,
-0.5444595813751221,
0.38765910267829895,
0.6579881906509399,
0.09930439293384552,
0.37787604331970215,
1.0695773363113403,
0.854971706867218,
0.26758649945259094,
-0.19155912101268768,
-0.5853694081306458,
0.5966415405273438,
-0.7268177270889282,
0.3141593933105469,
-0.5237852931022644,
-0.5679602026939392,
0.07842700183391571,
0.2940995693206787,
-0.3085210621356964,
-0.06742747128009796,
-0.1824766993522644,
0.1462249606847763,
0.3419840335845947,
0.11995502561330795,
0.3558935821056366,
-0.10286763310432434,
-0.13017086684703827,
0.4284326434135437,
-0.8776201009750366,
-0.06286050379276276,
-0.1647947132587433,
-0.7717029452323914,
0.3425580859184265,
-0.1312204748392105,
-0.3472967743873596,
-0.012624557130038738,
0.04473375156521797,
-0.7843745350837708,
-0.05925709009170532,
0.8553327322006226,
0.0920971930027008,
-0.34290874004364014,
-0.8585448265075684,
0.1956491470336914,
-0.26347512006759644,
0.522977352142334,
0.176010861992836,
0.35737624764442444,
-0.4910660982131958,
-0.0747767835855484,
0.03198964148759842,
0.5152175426483154,
-0.5436770915985107,
0.6163964867591858,
-0.07598277926445007,
0.8245671391487122,
0.2120998501777649,
0.059475451707839966,
-0.0678316205739975,
-0.6779809594154358,
0.4061438739299774,
0.41853129863739014,
0.48962271213531494,
0.20482905209064484,
-0.43698039650917053,
0.24135904014110565,
-0.8499805927276611,
-0.6247707605361938,
0.290604829788208,
-0.32534000277519226,
-0.15366972982883453,
0.5258419513702393,
-0.05463960021734238,
-0.12804290652275085,
0.46829885244369507,
-0.3766711950302124,
-0.09851061552762985,
-0.03999435529112816,
-0.4109446406364441,
0.21794869005680084,
0.4893609285354614,
-0.3866412341594696,
0.3270484209060669,
0.0637783408164978,
0.13678300380706787,
0.3977280855178833,
-0.28738951683044434,
0.6886503100395203,
-0.06476081162691116,
0.08849254250526428,
0.3106478452682495,
-0.35695070028305054,
0.1412021368741989,
0.41645026206970215,
-0.20441806316375732,
0.4818047881126404,
0.09450681507587433,
-0.2972010672092438,
-0.25510042905807495,
0.6379311084747314,
1.0579208135604858,
0.39399316906929016,
-0.07412442564964294,
-0.37278637290000916,
-0.36222124099731445,
-0.17947576940059662,
0.9209097623825073,
-0.0783548355102539,
1.1053777933120728,
-0.12247009575366974,
0.2691314220428467,
0.012365255504846573,
0.11205437034368515,
-0.3773934245109558,
-0.5585184693336487,
-0.6430898904800415,
1.161960482597351,
-0.10331518203020096,
0.7542540431022644,
0.3473465144634247,
-0.5040640830993652,
-0.112311951816082,
0.18694201111793518,
0.47458574175834656,
-0.011026452295482159,
-0.42005354166030884,
0.3183377981185913,
-0.32950055599212646,
-0.28652212023735046,
0.14161507785320282,
0.251803994178772,
-0.47849175333976746,
0.16964475810527802,
0.5261198878288269,
0.7608082890510559,
-0.6545689702033997,
-0.11036296933889389,
-0.2942602336406708,
-0.5320902466773987,
-0.5563690066337585,
0.17019186913967133,
0.021665021777153015,
-0.21782077848911285,
-0.0027197604067623615,
0.802969753742218,
0.22643902897834778,
-0.2588633596897125,
0.0760776698589325,
-0.050355877727270126,
0.6389908194541931,
-0.7757964134216309,
-0.07063402980566025,
0.009542586281895638,
0.29203611612319946,
-0.09715817868709564,
0.25932469964027405,
0.1488942950963974,
-0.8043868541717529,
-0.10311952233314514,
0.2023135870695114,
0.3249526619911194,
-0.7069639563560486,
0.24450606107711792,
-0.0983823835849762,
0.39127492904663086,
0.20390982925891876,
-0.7183952927589417,
0.13092993199825287,
-0.4439971148967743,
-0.221253901720047,
0.07129035145044327,
0.43979761004447937,
-0.31490713357925415,
-0.31926456093788147,
0.149110808968544,
0.7846121191978455,
0.2795926332473755,
0.04297145828604698,
-0.032079681754112244,
0.5308643579483032,
-0.03157757967710495,
0.1256379336118698,
0.2720915377140045,
-0.023935088887810707,
-0.04743609577417374,
0.10666177421808243,
0.845963716506958,
0.388553649187088,
-0.16911061108112335,
-0.929799497127533,
-0.16816452145576477,
0.05622398480772972,
0.3283124268054962,
-0.06005949154496193,
0.27379199862480164,
0.30105695128440857,
-0.6555638313293457,
0.5245287418365479,
-0.2768876850605011,
0.156416118144989,
-0.287298321723938,
-0.4152405261993408,
-0.0389019250869751,
-0.8726615309715271,
0.8808379769325256,
0.9380988478660583,
0.8723273277282715,
-0.6429170370101929,
-0.556952178478241,
0.20834212005138397,
0.4240252673625946,
-0.0781458392739296,
0.35082632303237915,
-0.31911149621009827,
-0.025138555094599724,
0.5721367597579956,
-0.2572115659713745,
0.02527700737118721,
0.0484418161213398,
0.41514840722084045,
-0.05489584431052208,
-0.14179472625255585,
0.06712410598993301,
0.1765948385000229,
-0.422812283039093,
-0.4146677255630493,
-0.19579501450061798,
-0.19801227748394012,
0.6621825695037842,
-0.6584632396697998,
-0.24925082921981812,
-0.5151995420455933,
-5.320631504058838,
1.1191366910934448,
-0.0036006991285830736,
0.36714649200439453,
0.29895710945129395,
-0.034710779786109924,
0.8957772850990295,
-0.9152527451515198,
-0.8325551748275757,
-0.5908414721488953,
-1.2465579509735107,
0.5766289830207825,
-0.13618355989456177,
0.3059585690498352,
0.23934102058410645,
0.3036549389362335,
0.5046146512031555,
-0.2905321419239044,
0.7807728052139282,
-0.08672972768545151,
0.12765569984912872,
-0.1167713925242424,
-0.10264638066291809,
-0.11364071816205978,
0.3821473717689514,
0.7022375464439392,
-1.0886774063110352,
0.3777390718460083,
-0.48901572823524475,
0.3736457824707031,
0.23157437145709991,
-0.17814604938030243,
-0.16270512342453003,
-0.8639988303184509,
-0.1386994570493698,
0.28073012828826904,
0.5035903453826904,
-0.2561282217502594,
0.26450204849243164,
-0.5521909594535828,
0.03478869050741196,
0.3170434236526489,
0.4252066910266876,
-0.2688805162906647,
0.12902362644672394,
0.04014403745532036,
-0.3378559947013855,
-0.4924217760562897,
0.35346275568008423,
0.8856027722358704,
0.001090116216801107,
-0.2224850356578827,
0.25947561860084534,
-0.46001097559928894,
-0.2509048879146576,
-0.5040939450263977,
0.045468833297491074,
0.06419716775417328,
0.09689443558454514,
0.41430729627609253,
0.8981181979179382,
-1.1142462491989136,
-0.26884037256240845,
-0.7133848667144775,
0.08714160323143005,
-0.7253807783126831,
0.10417010635137558,
0.29971811175346375,
0.41984760761260986,
1.0313323736190796,
0.7243955135345459,
0.6521329283714294,
-0.15860602259635925,
-1.3124147653579712,
0.16615068912506104,
-0.6337804794311523,
-0.3705352246761322,
0.12577389180660248,
0.19559313356876373,
0.03425740450620651,
0.018761014565825462,
-0.1840880811214447,
-0.32223135232925415,
0.5964105725288391,
-0.3864642083644867,
-0.5937836766242981,
-0.6076266169548035,
0.1870638132095337,
-1.6162320375442505,
-0.2643589377403259,
-0.1283707618713379,
-0.3550625443458557,
-0.4009113907814026,
0.20991413295269012,
-0.5001109838485718,
0.013980486430227757,
0.14915534853935242,
1.095576286315918,
0.27454784512519836,
-0.3344738781452179,
0.14334425330162048,
-0.26432815194129944,
0.6212024092674255,
-0.7813957333564758,
-0.43953320384025574,
-0.6492602825164795,
-0.18484249711036682,
0.10739796608686447,
0.7716280221939087,
-0.1287768930196762,
-0.08248339593410492,
0.00824230071157217,
-0.26935839653015137,
-0.9480602741241455,
0.533005952835083,
0.17667414247989655,
-0.274865984916687,
-0.24516987800598145,
0.3338995575904846,
-0.44753989577293396,
0.8824638724327087,
0.1542343944311142,
-0.018640736117959023,
-0.4915590286254883,
-0.6779593229293823,
0.6766199469566345,
0.43891727924346924,
0.12488627433776855,
-0.24567073583602905,
0.020224537700414658,
-0.27845141291618347,
0.3637262284755707,
-0.30699872970581055,
0.2859319746494293,
-0.0024875965900719166,
-0.8455938100814819,
-0.8638716340065002,
0.1520816534757614,
0.4620441794395447,
-0.2229379415512085,
0.4124317765235901,
-0.29006460309028625,
0.24644896388053894,
0.05772554874420166,
0.34851452708244324,
0.738666296005249,
0.004973894450813532,
-0.34825223684310913,
-0.4690178632736206,
0.24123410880565643,
0.3518916666507721,
-0.6037783622741699,
0.4292682707309723,
-1.3090115785598755,
0.15323150157928467,
0.08863452821969986,
0.15786220133304596,
0.25032925605773926,
0.24149315059185028,
-0.7042597532272339,
0.396885484457016,
-0.47667166590690613,
-0.5909741520881653,
-0.15265145897865295,
0.12550343573093414,
-0.277156263589859,
-0.04923980310559273,
-0.9313640594482422,
-1.2549749612808228,
0.3947860300540924,
-0.2732696831226349,
0.09713312238454819,
-0.014505569823086262,
-0.2175651639699936,
0.45929229259490967,
0.29243215918540955,
-0.21642738580703735,
0.34910422563552856,
0.3271443545818329,
-0.12490762025117874,
-0.38765132427215576,
-0.1118851751089096,
-0.23579731583595276,
0.07674036175012589,
0.5249645709991455,
-0.2901977002620697,
-1.0059235095977783,
-0.1084349974989891,
-0.3600670397281647,
0.1695673018693924,
0.023078501224517822,
0.181181401014328,
0.534928023815155,
-0.4706589877605438,
-0.8062837719917297,
-0.7599630951881409,
-0.3833463788032532,
1.041847586631775,
-0.15540578961372375,
-0.865293562412262,
0.29038646817207336,
0.08959460258483887,
0.00394443841651082,
0.7389752268791199,
0.09199228137731552,
-0.4139775037765503,
0.389449805021286,
-0.19575873017311096,
-0.9440624117851257,
0.9389975666999817,
-0.17698484659194946,
-1.0650328397750854,
0.443200021982193,
0.14255309104919434,
-0.7176240086555481,
0.4638114273548126,
0.1958773285150528,
-0.13881373405456543,
-0.4859817922115326,
-0.17860345542430878,
-0.6060142517089844,
-0.18278537690639496,
-0.4060100018978119,
0.35573258996009827,
-0.8486460447311401,
0.08944325894117355,
0.012583231553435326,
0.23065027594566345,
0.2855531871318817,
-0.24336111545562744,
-0.11420115828514099,
-0.18041543662548065,
-0.20308846235275269,
0.4014955759048462,
-0.37621045112609863,
0.29751989245414734,
-0.16898579895496368,
0.43065518140792847,
0.15620166063308716,
-0.12787024676799774,
0.5576674938201904,
0.5690235495567322,
-0.32524439692497253,
-0.5661869049072266,
0.01575019210577011,
-0.04122437536716461,
0.5712575912475586,
-0.06312927603721619,
-0.202214315533638,
0.14933839440345764,
0.42819884419441223,
-0.003414562903344631,
-0.8003515005111694,
-0.3158099949359894,
0.6807416081428528,
-0.1865917444229126,
-0.7624200582504272,
-0.2636297345161438,
-0.34293341636657715,
0.020286928862333298,
0.26445022225379944,
0.7324873208999634,
-0.6075167059898376,
0.2589319944381714,
0.05782143399119377,
-0.08209305256605148,
0.22967784106731415,
0.07882083207368851,
-0.00857535470277071,
-0.2220209538936615,
-0.625952422618866,
0.15214094519615173,
0.6396281123161316,
0.10878308117389679,
0.1055651605129242,
-0.04933005943894386,
0.4993285834789276,
-0.9696379899978638,
0.30086371302604675,
-0.13055658340454102,
-0.461825430393219,
0.05997341498732567,
0.2994232177734375,
-0.3617129623889923,
0.3363969326019287,
-0.4681642949581146,
-0.4801832437515259,
-0.20847177505493164,
0.4548734724521637,
-0.18760262429714203,
-0.49738606810569763,
0.07333149015903473,
0.12553422152996063,
-0.04662245139479637,
0.08125827461481094,
0.6155798435211182,
0.10064881294965744,
-0.46784645318984985,
0.2068178355693817,
-0.3900023102760315,
-0.35973408818244934,
0.5979399085044861,
0.1560600847005844,
-0.04764522239565849,
-0.14946630597114563,
-0.013858400285243988,
0.47394296526908875,
-0.35618019104003906,
-0.3806283473968506,
0.5895313620567322,
0.2875944972038269,
-0.2515011131763458,
-0.3434070348739624,
0.9362148642539978,
-0.5921176075935364,
-0.07387641817331314,
0.6842127442359924,
0.06832560896873474,
-0.008237820118665695,
0.47917288541793823,
-0.3280119299888611,
-0.6293995976448059,
0.3281228542327881,
0.15412375330924988,
0.23745247721672058,
0.2782650291919708,
-0.25358232855796814,
0.06340215355157852,
0.8023637533187866,
0.6427208781242371,
0.1398455649614334,
-0.07248318940401077,
-0.01943948119878769,
0.12519530951976776,
0.10561573505401611,
-0.042220763862133026,
-0.17611750960350037,
-0.10020802915096283,
-0.2773181200027466,
0.5126660466194153,
-0.7418316006660461,
-0.10938743501901627,
-0.25228551030158997,
0.011055896990001202,
0.09865522384643555,
-0.31826213002204895,
-0.2615422010421753,
0.15464596450328827,
0.5862912535667419,
-0.08795040100812912,
-0.26501554250717163,
0.1480035036802292,
-0.1667642593383789,
-0.4597238004207611,
0.5887354016304016,
-0.374723345041275,
0.6217671036720276,
-0.20090822875499725,
-0.08325587958097458,
0.12709581851959229,
-0.042233921587467194,
-0.11364329606294632,
0.1924120932817459,
-0.13417944312095642,
0.1642540991306305,
-0.005754824262112379,
0.23377656936645508,
-0.2913430333137512,
0.3099193871021271,
0.8452209234237671,
0.5171976685523987,
0.2279813438653946,
-0.050872642546892166,
0.2872768044471741,
0.25951817631721497,
0.2345138043165207,
0.14300145208835602,
0.4211347997188568,
-0.11938702315092087,
0.16650819778442383,
-0.04623311012983322,
0.3399401009082794,
-0.558367133140564,
-0.15112392604351044,
0.4286620318889618,
-0.12407436221837997,
0.012844661250710487,
0.01666429080069065,
-0.4392659664154053,
-0.29674383997917175,
-0.044682763516902924,
-1.2676912546157837,
-0.47194918990135193,
-0.6112956404685974,
0.004008374642580748,
-0.5090136528015137,
0.26980191469192505,
1.1277185678482056,
0.4668298065662384,
-0.17723070085048676,
0.008999744430184364,
0.14905837178230286,
0.36696702241897583,
-0.13141173124313354,
0.19965258240699768,
0.4153164327144623,
-0.8011165857315063,
-0.022952256724238396,
-0.5346270799636841,
0.8317316770553589,
-0.3796390891075134,
0.24664977192878723,
-0.31749609112739563,
1.1089632511138916,
-0.09596920758485794,
0.11244207620620728,
0.052423492074012756,
-0.8111613392829895,
-0.5838059186935425,
-0.1409759521484375,
-0.08886489272117615,
0.6214213967323303,
0.00874595157802105,
0.21467937529087067,
-0.27802714705467224,
-0.3268948793411255,
0.08660532534122467,
-0.1933046281337738,
0.05688593536615372,
1.023126244544983,
-0.028002997860312462,
-0.15332721173763275,
-0.4373037815093994,
-0.6317035555839539,
-0.35583189129829407,
-0.6549516320228577,
0.3121543526649475,
0.12420091778039932,
0.47375261783599854,
-0.003171337768435478,
0.4848390221595764,
-0.21417218446731567,
-0.1226833164691925,
0.3803427815437317,
0.016162745654582977,
-0.17455428838729858,
-0.25404101610183716,
-0.4111154079437256,
-0.6184280514717102,
0.48917287588119507,
0.19921521842479706,
-0.04928614944219589,
0.19069328904151917,
-0.7859338521957397,
-0.07565607875585556,
-0.21771755814552307,
0.17623886466026306,
0.20710937678813934,
-0.09081155806779861,
-0.14045585691928864
] |
200069
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20standard
|
Primary standard
|
A primary standard in metrology is a standard that is sufficiently accurate such that it is not calibrated by or subordinate to other standards. Primary standards are defined via other quantities like length, mass and time. Primary standards are used to calibrate other standards referred to as working standards. See Hierarchy of Standards.
In chemistry
Standards are used in analytical chemistry. Here, a primary standard is typically a reagent which can be weighed easily, and which is so pure that its weight is truly representative of the number of moles of substance contained. Features of a primary standard include:
High purity
Stability (low reactivity)
Low hygroscopicity (to minimize weight changes due to humidity)
High equivalent weight (to minimize weighing errors)
Non-toxicity
Ready and cheap availability
(The last two are not as essential as the first four.)
Some examples of primary standards for titration of solutions, based on their high purity, are provided:
Arsenic trioxide for making sodium arsenite solution for standardisation of sodium periodate solution (until Ph. Eur. 3, Appendix 2001 also for iodine and cerium(IV) sulfate solutions, since Ph. Eur. 4, 2002 standardised by sodium thiosulfate)
Benzoic acid for standardisation of waterless basic solutions: ethanolic sodium and potassium hydroxide, TBAH, and alkali methanolates in methanol, isopropanol, or DMF
Potassium bromate (KBrO3) for standardisation of sodium thiosulfate solutions
Potassium hydrogen phthalate (usually called KHP) for standardisation of aqueous base and perchloric acid in acetic acid solutions
Sodium carbonate for standardisation of aqueous acids: hydrochloric, sulfuric acid and nitric acid solutions (but not acetic acid)
Sodium chloride for standardisation of silver nitrate solutions
Sulfanilic acid for standardisation of sodium nitrite solutions
Zinc powder, after being dissolved in sulfuric or hydrochloric acid, for standardization of EDTA solutions
Such standards are often used to make standard solutions. These primary standards are used in titration and are essential for determining unknown concentrations or preparing working standards.
See also
Technical standard
References
External links
Analytical Standards. Department of Chemistry, University of Adelaide, Australia.
Analytical chemistry
de:Urtitersubstanz
es:Patrón primario
|
[
0.5329588055610657,
0.06669300049543381,
0.1421242207288742,
0.4147208034992218,
-0.12730515003204346,
-0.1462857872247696,
0.0699690580368042,
-0.1058787927031517,
0.02793842926621437,
-0.3836524784564972,
-0.6359090805053711,
0.5677258372306824,
0.08019871264696121,
0.13040375709533691,
-0.2738092839717865,
0.23649652302265167,
0.6773821115493774,
0.16108126938343048,
-0.13466836512088776,
-0.05210857838392258,
-0.7377114295959473,
0.28639495372772217,
0.007809004746377468,
-0.5837832689285278,
-0.049195289611816406,
0.23644086718559265,
0.13909737765789032,
0.3438754379749298,
-0.25519827008247375,
0.21652977168560028,
0.5130881667137146,
0.3731101453304291,
-0.18557225167751312,
0.07161696255207062,
0.09294351935386658,
0.4152200222015381,
0.48605072498321533,
0.04864455386996269,
-0.1315951645374298,
-0.8324797749519348,
0.02693668007850647,
-0.24360407888889313,
0.16438910365104675,
0.11374998837709427,
-0.4461767077445984,
-0.44186899065971375,
-1.304512858390808,
-0.2727941870689392,
-0.622931957244873,
0.012707305140793324,
-0.736392080783844,
0.38579699397087097,
-0.1656140685081482,
0.5445814728736877,
-0.12706877291202545,
0.5217424035072327,
-0.28963860869407654,
-0.2792080342769623,
0.04719357565045357,
-0.06531417369842529,
0.41993266344070435,
-0.3192841708660126,
0.148904949426651,
0.4265933632850647,
0.570786714553833,
-0.0632438138127327,
-0.3046109676361084,
-0.0590050108730793,
0.191446453332901,
0.07076167315244675,
-0.4082006812095642,
-0.1455024927854538,
-0.3029775321483612,
0.2033960372209549,
-0.5509979724884033,
0.3491964042186737,
0.11660225689411163,
-0.35071319341659546,
-0.23348501324653625,
0.1297275274991989,
-0.37447884678840637,
0.33174484968185425,
0.3484991490840912,
-0.34167706966400146,
0.46956542134284973,
0.18749083578586578,
0.005318914540112019,
0.27631643414497375,
-0.037870995700359344,
0.7371613383293152,
0.596159040927887,
-0.4395461678504944,
0.4038483798503876,
-0.17401756346225739,
-0.28270676732063293,
-0.1345600038766861,
0.1516096442937851,
-0.44480714201927185,
0.1501741260290146,
-0.2609376609325409,
-0.36112719774246216,
0.18678835034370422,
0.21294213831424713,
-0.10837049037218094,
-0.5006409883499146,
-0.5635989308357239,
-0.11964171379804611,
-0.47426939010620117,
-0.1162966787815094,
0.011641902849078178,
-0.33243921399116516,
-0.08388523012399673,
-0.051469381898641586,
0.17946329712867737,
-0.45394575595855713,
0.29002267122268677,
0.42996978759765625,
-0.015037157572805882,
-0.35521644353866577,
0.14662952721118927,
0.2609652280807495,
0.33537203073501587,
0.023019524291157722,
-0.4501442611217499,
0.24854223430156708,
0.5352775454521179,
0.8021737337112427,
0.575688898563385,
-0.22323857247829437,
0.07295387983322144,
-0.3401012718677521,
0.4805111289024353,
-0.031051570549607277,
-0.11248241364955902,
-0.13423794507980347,
-0.2603731155395508,
0.30517107248306274,
0.07022002339363098,
-0.01414027251303196,
0.20954172313213348,
-0.40482956171035767,
-0.4636584520339966,
-0.001980473520234227,
-0.4491732716560364,
0.07276550680398941,
-0.21630039811134338,
0.1527637541294098,
-0.42329952120780945,
-0.08580336719751358,
-0.02681659162044525,
0.1680295318365097,
0.49166202545166016,
-0.040228862315416336,
-0.011468581855297089,
-0.2209446132183075,
0.3541204035282135,
0.7104019522666931,
0.15890707075595856,
-0.6693703532218933,
0.00029033381724730134,
0.0444120317697525,
0.05238771811127663,
-0.2561919093132019,
-0.009661463089287281,
0.313273549079895,
-0.37763503193855286,
0.07815523445606232,
0.776972234249115,
0.3801047205924988,
-0.1342533975839615,
0.1512414664030075,
-0.636807382106781,
-0.27869969606399536,
-0.06299100071191788,
-0.13920792937278748,
0.24188314378261566,
0.43535661697387695,
0.3164962828159332,
0.7414175868034363,
-0.5924232006072998,
-0.4790038764476776,
0.46146026253700256,
0.33913856744766235,
0.30311518907546997,
0.3690164387226105,
-0.018818434327840805,
0.3591515123844147,
-0.19191043078899384,
-0.07716722041368484,
-0.5660423636436462,
-0.07209078967571259,
-0.49450939893722534,
0.20143860578536987,
-0.7412075996398926,
0.7780366539955139,
-0.2541950047016144,
0.12983335554599762,
0.9526076912879944,
-0.5211154222488403,
0.1683163046836853,
0.48073846101760864,
0.1392396092414856,
0.012457085773348808,
0.09452389925718307,
-0.2383054941892624,
0.3552798330783844,
0.40408557653427124,
0.2537692189216614,
-0.36688584089279175,
-0.17659257352352142,
0.338095486164093,
-0.15791167318820953,
-0.2826498746871948,
-0.014012276194989681,
0.09039921313524246,
-0.11779220402240753,
-0.5883559584617615,
0.2691037952899933,
0.3972873091697693,
-0.5194627642631531,
0.6719486117362976,
-0.2872850298881531,
-0.3063465654850006,
0.38452595472335815,
-0.2032959908246994,
0.054830752313137054,
0.11782586574554443,
0.05198089778423309,
0.5976439714431763,
-0.5714492201805115,
0.23148946464061737,
-0.24686866998672485,
0.09720060229301453,
-0.2474943846464157,
-0.016807205975055695,
-0.1677447408437729,
-0.29836490750312805,
-0.02900664135813713,
0.6626765131950378,
-0.4357742965221405,
-0.007147504016757011,
0.016448406502604485,
-0.2503507137298584,
-0.03392321243882179,
0.31078821420669556,
-0.032468561083078384,
-0.6159775257110596,
0.06301511824131012,
-0.3831288516521454,
0.09665638208389282,
-0.02511645294725895,
0.15718317031860352,
0.15912370383739471,
-0.030627571046352386,
-0.37975171208381653,
-0.13522543013095856,
-0.28649041056632996,
0.03802694007754326,
0.16055269539356232,
0.23039045929908752,
0.13231250643730164,
0.18221399188041687,
-0.09086959064006805,
-0.2864411473274231,
-0.18786083161830902,
-0.6270464658737183,
-0.5983218550682068,
-0.5187099575996399,
0.17111267149448395,
0.476209431886673,
0.18628168106079102,
0.25241637229919434,
-0.19250252842903137,
-0.1602047234773636,
-0.5043709874153137,
-0.7793237566947937,
0.45544350147247314,
0.5022815465927124,
-0.44878050684928894,
-0.1823442429304123,
0.21598021686077118,
-0.03729645535349846,
0.357926607131958,
-0.49585846066474915,
-0.3609922528266907,
-0.42504945397377014,
0.18219302594661713,
-0.36788901686668396,
0.267001211643219,
-0.025654207915067673,
-0.440472275018692,
0.6683288812637329,
-0.11957567185163498,
-0.07977306097745895,
0.5667496919631958,
0.26153701543807983,
-0.12407515197992325,
-0.03567939251661301,
-0.1395767331123352,
-0.19990114867687225,
-0.7664319276809692,
0.18328455090522766,
0.5657318234443665,
-0.25431856513023376,
-0.2522655427455902,
0.15520769357681274,
-0.27078792452812195,
0.23443785309791565,
-6.143758296966553,
-0.3071485459804535,
-0.8385024666786194,
-0.49859896302223206,
-0.09160000085830688,
0.2486756592988968,
0.6334574818611145,
0.1976509541273117,
-0.04221610352396965,
0.07692664116621017,
0.22783365845680237,
-0.1047721728682518,
0.4190267026424408,
0.4896067976951599,
0.5219904780387878,
-0.2728132903575897,
0.10156185925006866,
0.30238497257232666,
0.17780865728855133,
0.72927325963974,
0.0014590250793844461,
-0.3188735544681549,
0.6134423017501831,
0.35113972425460815,
0.029481012374162674,
0.5777066946029663,
-0.7344546914100647,
0.552008330821991,
-0.20291393995285034,
0.022351497784256935,
0.6556024551391602,
-0.10721557587385178,
-0.16601048409938812,
-0.03695148602128029,
0.0798783227801323,
-0.06718834489583969,
0.2889980971813202,
0.45383507013320923,
-0.20341180264949799,
-0.20047695934772491,
-0.06628843396902084,
0.26570403575897217,
0.20942352712154388,
-0.26339593529701233,
0.08711864799261093,
0.3371232748031616,
-0.017737526446580887,
0.34031784534454346,
-0.3554459512233734,
0.6310400366783142,
-0.45823270082473755,
0.3455531895160675,
-0.23611943423748016,
-0.4253629446029663,
-0.4603569805622101,
-0.05555526167154312,
0.7816242575645447,
-0.07803577184677124,
-0.7603846192359924,
-0.19746722280979156,
0.11649704724550247,
-0.49095532298088074,
-0.025976644828915596,
-0.5828540921211243,
-0.3712817132472992,
0.009242324158549309,
-0.6696491241455078,
-0.5879213213920593,
0.10314442962408066,
0.5238023400306702,
-0.2345171868801117,
-0.010544824413955212,
0.18084736168384552,
-0.6385589838027954,
-0.19749346375465393,
-0.8223890066146851,
0.2081093192100525,
0.34043940901756287,
0.4073099195957184,
-0.3703671097755432,
-0.14225457608699799,
-0.6352429389953613,
-0.04324038326740265,
0.4838898777961731,
0.5069200396537781,
0.276828408241272,
-0.06755435466766357,
-0.03905339911580086,
0.14780865609645844,
-0.23999488353729248,
1.0122267007827759,
-0.4016677737236023,
0.3273084759712219,
0.14842189848423004,
0.19363650679588318,
0.4307393431663513,
0.3022586703300476,
0.050675809383392334,
0.6600590944290161,
-0.5609449148178101,
-0.05056516081094742,
-0.0361558273434639,
0.16298401355743408,
-0.3855312764644623,
-0.09559030085802078,
-0.05255661904811859,
-0.7903726100921631,
0.18702681362628937,
0.7795868515968323,
-0.4819415509700775,
-0.04839860647916794,
0.09345608949661255,
-0.22494390606880188,
-0.215175598859787,
-0.024329302832484245,
-0.2093147188425064,
-0.3278103172779083,
0.2844513952732086,
0.17956243455410004,
-0.10450229793787003,
0.07906472682952881,
0.1689918488264084,
0.09980922192335129,
-0.10595883429050446,
-0.7188259959220886,
0.07720375806093216,
-0.0951218381524086,
0.5623947381973267,
-0.08068916201591492,
0.1490669697523117,
0.36666011810302734,
0.3100051283836365,
0.05824210122227669,
-0.13116204738616943,
0.07597920298576355,
-0.08416718244552612,
-0.08602555096149445,
0.7503320574760437,
0.06286029517650604,
-0.4554436504840851,
0.477705717086792,
0.024504829198122025,
0.05766814947128296,
0.025480154901742935,
0.9359081983566284,
-0.4497864544391632,
0.09014087915420532,
-0.5392846465110779,
-0.18076620995998383,
0.32083889842033386,
0.7984223961830139,
-0.12778231501579285,
0.42128029465675354,
-0.10254903137683868,
-0.4745824337005615,
0.16222363710403442,
0.45793700218200684,
0.031809087842702866,
-0.28044629096984863,
-0.2691812217235565,
-0.25530874729156494,
0.11916191875934601,
-0.9736703038215637,
-0.4725164771080017,
0.4171591103076935,
-0.23682837188243866,
-0.9621105194091797,
0.27023181319236755,
0.013385393656790257,
0.28659552335739136,
0.10135287791490555,
-0.45748651027679443,
-0.23881736397743225,
-0.3261784017086029,
0.011606414802372456,
0.5827316045761108,
0.025698402896523476,
0.3901154696941376,
-0.16046683490276337,
-0.10540307313203812,
0.20816048979759216,
-0.31537264585494995,
-0.37408289313316345,
0.1398266851902008,
0.08713242411613464,
0.12303490936756134,
0.19946715235710144,
0.3455926775932312,
-0.2493419200181961,
-0.005384097807109356,
0.7635967135429382,
-0.18758295476436615,
0.5034359097480774,
0.013992915861308575,
-0.12655889987945557,
-0.38062262535095215,
0.11738287657499313,
0.484394371509552,
0.1975717842578888,
-0.042665235698223114,
0.03475278615951538,
0.4975568652153015,
-0.5943909287452698,
0.09495026618242264,
0.3492419123649597,
-0.8510358333587646,
0.3362175226211548,
0.08674143999814987,
-0.40271812677383423,
0.16967850923538208,
-0.21674089133739471,
-0.3747214376926422,
-0.07041016221046448,
0.08367825299501419,
-0.4829294681549072,
-0.4318043887615204,
0.19671300053596497,
-0.27726489305496216,
0.14207804203033447,
-0.41396471858024597,
0.6130093932151794,
0.1716187596321106,
-0.017238924279808998,
0.09131735563278198,
0.4505584239959717,
0.02118363417685032,
0.7391624450683594,
-0.1939864456653595,
0.22065511345863342,
-0.0590641014277935,
-0.38890010118484497,
-0.02316397801041603,
0.2064269632101059,
-0.13649755716323853,
-0.3082502782344818,
-0.20922228693962097,
-0.5877606272697449,
0.2184414565563202,
0.3027111291885376,
-0.145568385720253,
0.1752360612154007,
0.6660374402999878,
0.09066946804523468,
-0.3029429614543915,
-0.24496527016162872,
0.059064172208309174,
0.5897391438484192,
-0.7861122488975525,
-0.32609546184539795,
0.2978087365627289,
0.15018989145755768,
-0.32152608036994934,
-0.7569641470909119,
-0.36728373169898987,
0.3837280571460724,
0.1188117042183876,
-0.03436937928199768,
-0.22680199146270752,
0.14875558018684387,
0.24097906053066254,
0.22356170415878296,
-0.5981265306472778,
-0.15323469042778015,
-0.16328996419906616,
0.3702240586280823,
0.09761563688516617,
-0.16594310104846954,
0.4152781665325165,
0.045315857976675034,
-0.3709118664264679,
0.0474831722676754,
-0.6243433356285095,
0.7335889935493469,
0.3272072672843933,
0.6347302794456482,
-0.6090595722198486,
0.0037881990429013968,
0.1831844002008438,
0.12931646406650543,
0.4524356424808502,
-0.03642388433218002,
-0.40922319889068604,
0.392246276140213,
-0.275137722492218,
-0.1569119393825531,
-0.5519692897796631,
0.4200666844844818,
0.005201542284339666,
-0.6590898633003235,
-0.26142099499702454,
-0.7132726907730103,
0.12389509379863739,
-0.3221302926540375,
0.21510250866413116,
-0.5796962380409241,
0.008859172463417053,
-0.09374231100082397,
0.8279238343238831,
-0.013246985152363777,
0.046386249363422394,
0.03517908975481987,
0.8448193669319153,
0.013848250731825829,
-0.8539056181907654,
0.6284876465797424,
0.14315694570541382,
0.04631739854812622,
-0.3745550215244293,
0.05173927918076515,
-0.10459477454423904,
-0.1381867527961731,
0.027291426435112953,
0.43594780564308167,
0.7506746649742126,
-0.3337918221950531,
-0.3082161247730255,
0.25600191950798035,
-0.36489030718803406,
0.5027418732643127,
0.29199522733688354,
0.18862059712409973,
0.009498124942183495,
0.778125524520874,
-0.05241831764578819,
-0.5958075523376465,
0.4280087351799011,
-0.2547694146633148,
-0.004993084352463484,
0.10160304605960846,
0.13177639245986938,
0.6404584646224976,
0.27093207836151123,
0.18631944060325623,
-0.014894084073603153,
-0.5202898979187012,
-0.20009677112102509,
0.06668802350759506,
-0.4842291474342346,
-0.3777759075164795,
0.27229398488998413,
0.3870956599712372,
0.3002628684043884,
0.3625534176826477,
0.052477311342954636,
-0.33537814021110535,
0.08408255875110626,
-0.10351778566837311,
0.6524108052253723,
0.3490527868270874,
0.023556333035230637,
0.10625359416007996,
-0.19345130026340485,
0.7136142253875732,
-0.2540898025035858,
-0.10824676603078842,
-0.3209236264228821,
-0.05539701133966446,
-0.07560794800519943,
0.08354070782661438,
-0.45671117305755615,
-0.6020444631576538,
0.08960141986608505,
0.23417314887046814,
0.11984194070100784,
0.06194699928164482,
-0.09260678291320801,
0.8672839999198914,
-0.25879162549972534,
0.33754444122314453,
-0.07307794690132141,
-0.37711912393569946,
0.3878462016582489,
-0.0008733057184144855,
0.9977402687072754,
-0.12389814853668213,
-0.6015059947967529,
0.3688977062702179,
0.2641701102256775,
0.3178598880767822,
-0.5080881714820862,
-0.06672249734401703,
-0.3599674701690674,
0.08082745224237442,
-0.9937313199043274,
-0.11812849342823029,
0.07855474948883057,
-0.019634753465652466,
-0.23948976397514343,
-0.330199271440506,
0.22437827289104462,
-0.21298004686832428,
-0.5333850979804993,
0.21191374957561493,
-0.1943654716014862,
-0.3864913880825043,
0.11328437179327011,
0.012801355682313442,
0.5098893642425537,
0.015945525839924812,
-0.048349056392908096,
-0.40060681104660034,
0.22019778192043304,
0.12574107944965363,
-0.12747029960155487,
-0.2653674781322479,
0.09884127974510193,
0.3704887330532074,
0.8603990077972412,
-0.6073019504547119,
0.0035149736795574427,
0.5237361192703247,
-0.33315613865852356,
0.10112233459949493,
0.23099306225776672,
-0.23015588521957397,
-0.012876124121248722,
0.056163489818573,
-0.04462246969342232,
0.4263136088848114,
0.004774987231940031,
-0.4499233067035675,
-0.046260762959718704,
0.2331971824169159,
-0.2403477430343628,
-0.163600355386734,
-0.31353050470352173,
0.29910168051719666,
0.4183018207550049,
-0.12928053736686707,
0.27691444754600525,
-0.5016816854476929,
0.02891572378575802,
-0.4887298345565796,
0.13052552938461304,
-0.45192086696624756,
-0.061321359127759933,
-0.2956713140010834,
-0.007927492260932922,
0.19580313563346863,
-0.4457864463329315,
-0.022839799523353577,
-0.05926962569355965,
0.009675413370132446,
0.2382165789604187,
-0.29456645250320435,
0.1475406140089035,
-0.2302021086215973,
-0.20255820453166962,
-0.6713242530822754,
0.6637826561927795,
0.3945726752281189,
-0.39407166838645935,
-0.0013729537604376674,
-0.372985303401947,
-0.06852027028799057,
0.06808497756719589,
0.32522302865982056,
-0.0804605484008789,
0.1740393042564392,
0.7978123426437378
] |
200071
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Harry%27s%20Game
|
Old Harry's Game
|
Old Harry's Game is a UK radio comedy written and directed by Andy Hamilton, who also plays the cynical, world-weary Satan. "Old Harry" is one of many names for the devil. The show's title is a humorous play on the title of the 1982 TV series Harry's Game.
Beginning in 1995, four series, of six half-hour episodes each, were aired by 2001, and a two-part Christmas special followed in 2002. A fifth full series was frequently delayed because of a cast member's illness, but recording of the four episodes of series five took place in April 2005 (postponed from January). The first episode of that series was broadcast on 20 September 2005 on BBC Radio 4. James Grout (the Professor during the first four series) did not take part. Series 6 (comprising a further six episodes) began on BBC Radio 4 on 27 September 2007, and Series 7 aired on BBC Radio 4 in 2009. Christmas and New Year specials were broadcast on 23 and 30 December 2010 respectively, and a two-part Olympics special on 12 and 19 July 2012.
Apart from series 3 and 4, the episodes were not given official titles.
Andy Hamilton (Satan), James Grout (The Professor), Robert Duncan (Scumspawn), David Swift (God) and Michael Fenton Stevens had all worked together previously, in the UK television comedy series Drop the Dead Donkey between 1990 and 1998, which had been co-written by Hamilton. Both of the latter were written into the 1998 series by Hamilton when the run of Donkey ended that year. The majority of the guest and recurring actors also had roles in Drop the Dead Donkey, including Jasper Jacob (series one), Philip Pope (recurring), Nick Revell (recurring), Nigel Pegram, Penelope Nice (Deborah Whittingham, before being replaced by Felicity Montagu) and Geoffrey Whitehead (Roland).
A 30-minute animated version was created in 2012, as the pilot for a possible television series, by the UK animation house Flickerpix, but in the event a series was not commissioned.
Plot
The series is set mainly in Hell, and the plot usually centres on the relationships and conflicts between Satan, his various minions, and the damned with (occasionally) interventions by God and other denizens of Heaven. Satan himself is identified with the fallen angel in Christian mythology and portrayed as somewhat jaded from millennia in charge of Hell and the expectation that he will continue to be so for eternity. Although he enjoys some aspects of the job, such as the opportunity to play pranks in the world of the living, and devising ironic torments for those damned souls whom he believes deserve it, his greatest wish is to someday be accepted back into Heaven, and he often wistfully recalls his past as an archangel.
The series regularly features famous historical figures and celebrities, most of whom are portrayed as being less likeable than (or at least different from) the version recorded by history. This includes a foul-mouthed and extremely violent Jane Austen, a sexually predatory Florence Nightingale (who also ran a Victorian London opium cartel), a less-than-heroic Samson (who actually killed only one Philistine ... a schoolboy) and a vacuous Helen of Troy (accompanied by her plain-looking friend, Daphne).
This subversive approach was also applied to God (first name Nigel), who makes the occasional appearance, originally played by David Swift, then in series 7 by Timothy West. God is usually portrayed as being quick-tempered and vengeful; in the series he says he created the universe accidentally, when he was messing about with some matter and energy. He put it down to have a sip of his drink and then, kaboom! he had a universe on his hands. Life on Earth was created for a bet, as Earth was dull viewing; God, for a bit of fun, sprinkled some mutating bacteria into the oceans and ran a book with the other Angels to see which one would evolve into a creature that would develop a language first; the Angel Gabriel's bacteria were doing very well until they randomly mutated into carrots, and it was one of the Seraphim whose bacteria eventually became Homo sapiens. God seems rather annoyed that things 'got out of hand'. In later series, we learn that God also has a mobile phone (although only the Angel Gabriel is supposed to have the number), and that God sends e-mails, but refuses to read any that he receives as he once got taken in by a scam from Nigeria.
The Angels are also portrayed somewhat differently. The Angel who delivered the news that Mary was to give birth to the Messiah was in fact named Graham, while Gabriel is a separate entity who was credited with doing so due to a transcription error early in the making of the Bible. They are also presented as rather arrogant when dealing with Satan, but at the same time behaving as suck-ups around God. They are forbidden to indulge in physical pleasures, but are still tempted by them (which has been used against them).
Series 1 to 4
The first four series centred on the philosophical arguments between Satan and the somewhat idealistic main human character known as "The Professor" (played by James Grout). The Professor represents the undeserving damned, being a man of high moral virtue and having been consigned to Hell only on the technicality that he did not believe in God. The character was originally called Professor Richard Whittingham, although in series 2 he is referred to as Professor Richard Hope, when in episodes 5 & 6 Satan gets his book The Theory of Everything published. Generally, Satan seeks to prove to the Professor that mankind is inherently base or flawed, with the Professor taking the opposing position. Usually Satan travels to the living world to display the more contemptible sides of human nature, such as snipers shooting old ladies in Bosnia or prostitution in Thailand, to a generally horrified Professor. At other times he introduces the Professor to historical personages the Professor holds in high esteem but who are now languishing in Hell, such as Leonardo da Vinci, William Shakespeare and Jane Austen, showing him how petty and mendacious they really are. However, the Professor's idealism is usually shown to have some validity as well, and more often than not he wins the argument (although Satan always insists he hasn't).
The other main human character is Thomas Quentin Crimp (Jimmy Mulville), an execrable type with few (or no) morals, held out by Satan as an example of all that is detestable about humanity and often described (especially by God himself) as the most venal and corrupt human being who ever lived. In the first episode, it transpires that Thomas caused the car crash which landed him and the Professor in Hell. The latter, despite his moral idealism, is consigned to Hell because of his atheism (since, as Satan remarks caustically, God does not have a sense of humour). The fact of the afterlife — which the Professor originally optimistically views as a hallucination - does not change his views. Despite (or perhaps because of) their conflicting attitudes, the Professor and Thomas are billeted together by Satan.
Regular plot elements involve the Professor visiting, or being shown, his beloved wife Deborah as she gets on with her life following his death. His widow's eventual marriage to a corrupt Irish jockey and her near-fatal coma were important plot strands in series 3 and 4. Throughout the first four series, the Professor also has an ongoing bet with Satan that he can demonstrate that even Thomas has some decency within him; if he can do so, then Satan will allow Deborah and the Professor to be billeted together should Deborah be sent to Hell when she dies. These plot strands ended when Satan finally arranged for the Professor to be accepted into Heaven a short time after the events of the 2002 Christmas special (an incident not covered in the series).
Other characters featured are Satan's minions. Satan's personal assistant and most venomous demon, Gary (Steve O'Donnell), was featured in the first series because Thomas was on his list of tormentees. Thomas later manipulates Gary and convinces him to rebel against Satan, with a distinct lack of success. Gary is mentioned only once in later series and his absence is never explained (although the implication is that he fell from favour due to his rebellion). Scumspawn (Robert Duncan), featured from the second series onwards, takes Gary's place, having applied (repeatedly) to become Satan's new personal assistant. Although Satan initially refuses, he later relents, and Scumspawn proves a surprisingly effective assistant. His subplots usually involve attempts to become a better demon (with help from Thomas). Much of the humour surrounding Scumspawn derives from his sensitive, caring and highly artistic personality, which is a constant irritant to Satan, who often complains that Scumspawn does not act very much like a demon.
According to Andy Hamilton in an interview broadcast on 5 April 2008, on BBC Radio 7's "I Did It My Way", one episode in series 3 was partially re-recorded due to a tragic confluence of events. In the episode, Satan disrupts Deborah's wedding to Irish jockey Rory O'Donnell by taking the form of BBC reporter Jill Dando and accusing the presiding vicar of being a Satan worshipper (which he actually is). Later in the episode, Satan reveals that Jill Dando never existed at all and was just a disguise that he used to stir up unrest in the realm of the living. After the episode was originally broadcast, the 37-year-old reporter was murdered outside her home, and the episode was partially re-recorded for repeats with Satan manifesting himself instead as a different BBC reporter, Gaby Roslin. (The re-recorded lines are fairly obvious, as they were not performed in front of an audience.) A later episode in the third series referenced Satan's "Jill Dando" alter ego, and also had to have some lines re-recorded.
Christmas Special 2002
In a double-bill Special, broadcast on New Year's Eve 2002 (The Roll of the Dice) and New Year's Day 2003 (Knocking on Heaven's Door), Hope (Claire Skinner), an extraordinarily beautiful Salvation Army worker and tambourine player, is killed by accident years too early and sent to Hell by mistake. This results in Satan trying to have her brought back to life by taking her to Death. But he only gets as far as meeting the Welsh Death (Dai-the-Death), and contacting the Head Death on his mobile. After Death refuses to bring her back to life (for fear of legal recriminations), as a last resort Satan travels to Heaven (now protected with barbed wire, CCTV and Rottweilers). After talking to Saint Peter (who Satan implies had sex with call girls in Rome as well as stealing the other 100 pieces of silver which had been contracted by Judas Iscariot but went missing), Satan blackmails St Peter into letting Hope into Heaven.
While all this is going on, the Professor has been changed into a buzzing bluebottle and Thomas has been painted like a zebra and is awaiting the "attentions" of some special crocodiles (they have a sense of humour).
Series 5
Series Five retains some of the themes from earlier series, but most of the action does not revolve around Satan's relationships with his minions and the damned. Instead, the episodes focus on Satan's efforts to reduce overcrowding in Hell.
After an unsuccessful appeal to God in Episode One for planning permission to enlarge Hell, expanding Hell's demonic workforce or adjusting the entrance requirements, the action divides between Hell and various locations on Earth. The basic plot of the subsequent episodes involves Satan taking on the guise of a leading world figure in order to meet influential people, such as Queen Elizabeth II, whom he tries to convince to lead more of mankind to Heaven by encouraging them to change their ways. However, these efforts are largely unsuccessful, and finally abandoned after Satan successfully takes control of the world's media to promote messages of peace, co-operation and so on, only to find that this has no effect and humanity just carries on committing mortal sins regardless.
The subplot of each episode focuses on Scumspawn's ineffective attempts to run Hell in Satan's absence. This normally involves trying to cope with a strange new arrival in Hell, unionised demons, or overcrowding. He generally enlists Thomas's help (as well as that of Vlad the Impaler in one episode, though he has no lines) in trying to find a solution, which usually fails. At the end of the episode, Satan returns and sorts out whatever new problem Scumspawn has managed to create.
The final two episodes of the series feature a new arrival, Roland (Geoffrey Whitehead), a damned soul even more venal and corrupt than Thomas who tries to organise a rebellion of the demons in Hell with Thomas's help, with exactly the same degree of success that Gary and Thomas had in Series 1. In the end, after easily dealing with the insurrection, Satan decides he need not worry, as humans will soon be extinct anyway. In order to hasten mankind's demise, he turns himself into Jeb Bush and plots to convince Jeb's brother George Bush to launch a nuclear strike on the polar icecaps.
Series 6
For Series Six, Andy Hamilton returned to the style of the original series, with most of the action taking place in Hell. He introduces a new member of the damned: Edith Cordelia Barrington (Annette Crosbie), an academic and historian who has recently arrived in Hell after having apparently died by suicide due to an apparent overdose of barbiturates while watching Midsomer Murders. She is also Thomas's former mother-in-law, and as Edith and Thomas have a mutual hatred of each other, Satan decides they would be perfect dungeon-mates (the series temporarily ignoring the overcrowding issue).
Edith is not pleased with the situation, as Thomas had subjected her daughter to emotional abuse, to divorce, and had tried to obtain custody of her breast implants (on the grounds that he paid for them). She also insists that she did not take her own life, and Satan makes a deal with her: he grudgingly agrees to find out how she really died if she will write a definitive biography of Satan in return for new accommodation.
The basic plot of an episode generally involved Satan trying to find out more about Edith's death, while Edith interviewed members of the damned about Satan's past. These interviews closely followed the pattern of series 4, in which the Professor had interviewed famous historical personalities in attempting to win a bet with Satan (by showing that mankind was capable of redemption). There were also various sub-plots, including Scumspawn's attempts to uncover a "decent" side to Thomas's personality, in much the same way as the Professor had tried to in earlier series. Thus were the various aspects of the Professor's character re-distributed between Edith and Scumspawn.
Eventually, Satan does discover the true circumstances of Edith's death (she had been murdered: but that revelation, as well as the discovery of the murderer's identity and the motive for her murder, still does not make her happy). In the final episode, Thomas discovers a fact about his ancestry that makes him even more insufferable.
Following the initial broadcast of Series 6, selected episodes from the first six series were repeated on BBC Radio 7 on 5 April 2008, together with an interview with the show's writer and star, Andy Hamilton, in which he discusses the series up to that point, in an edition of Radio 7's occasional feature entitled "I Did It My Way".
Series 7
A seventh series aired from 19 February 2009, with recordings taking place at the BBC Radio Theatre in London. The cast was the same as in Series Six.
In the first episode, a dog named Scamp arrives unexpectedly in Hell. Satan attempts to talk to God about both the new arrival and a possible plan to ease the general overcrowding in Hell (involving destroying 75% of the damned), but he can't, because God is bored with Satan and indeed with his whole Creation, and has left two rather insufferable angels in charge as "site managers" (who are more interested in admiring their laminated "site manager" badges than in doing anything).
In the second episode, God goes away for some "me time", leaving the Archangel Gabriel in charge. Unfortunately, Heaven's new computer system is having software problems, causing a further unexpected arrival in Hell — a baby — and Satan's renewed attempts to get help from God bring him face to face with Gabriel. Meanwhile, Scumspawn decides the baby needs a name and dubs it "Satan Junior". Taking care of the dog Scamp begins to bring out the best in Thomas, while Satan's meeting with Gabriel about the baby brings some slight results.
In the fourth episode Timothy West guest-stars as God (previously played by David Swift), and after being apprised of the situation orders Satan to arrange with Gabriel for both the dog and the baby's immediate transfer to Heaven. Since people in both Heaven and Hell remain forever the same age as they were when they died, this would mean the baby would remain a baby and never have a chance to live a full life, a fact that distresses Scumspawn and Edith so much that they convince Satan to disobey God's orders and try to return the baby to the world of the living.
The fifth episode sees Satan trying to find adoptive parents for the baby (now called "Patrick"), while Edith has a major crisis of confidence concerning her completed biography of Satan, and the dog Scamp is successfully transferred to Heaven (with one or two minor incidents thanks to Thomas teaching him some unusual tricks). With the aid of some photoshopped pictures, Satan blackmails Gabriel into helping him about baby Patrick.
In the final episode, a very angry God returns to put Satan and Gabriel on trial for not obeying His instructions about what should be done with the baby, but the trial quickly degenerates into chaos (God remarks at one point, "This place is a madhouse!"). Events ultimately resolve into a relatively happy conclusion (that is, for everyone except Thomas and Gabriel).
Christmas and New Year Specials 2010
In Christmas Spirit, broadcast on 23 December 2010, Satan decides to ban Christmas. During a visitation to the world of Men he disguises himself as various religious figures, including the Pope, in order to more effectively denounce Christmas and then impersonates the new Editor of the Daily Mail newspaper (the previous Editor somehow got knocked down by a charging five-ton rhino while cycling around Hyde Park Corner) so as to publish made-up headlines undermining Christmas, such as "Mince Pies Cause Cancer" and "Taliban Targets Panto". However, in Hell the Spirit of Christmas is alive and well thanks to Scumspawn's efforts to cheer up Edith.
In Ring in the New, broadcast on 30 December 2010, Satan decides he needs a holiday. On Edith's advice he heads off to the English Lake District for some New Year solitude, leaving Scumspawn in charge of Hell. But Scumspawn isn't sure his leadership skills are up to the task, and a management seminar with Genghis Khan, Winston Churchill, Gandhi, Queen Elizabeth I and football manager Brian Clough proves no help. This is the only episode that ends relatively happily for Thomas.
Olympics Special 2012
In mid-2012 the BBC announced a two-part special with an Olympic theme, both parts of which were recorded on 8 July 2012: with Andy Hamilton, Annette Crosbie, Robert Duncan and Jimmy Mulville all returning in their established roles.
The first part was broadcast on 12 July 2012, in which Satan attempts to show Edith that the ancient Greeks and the original Games were not as altruistic as she originally thought, while Thomas's participation in the Infernal Games ends up a crushing and painful disaster (thanks to an incident involving a hippo and later a rhinoceros).
The second part was broadcast on 19 July 2012, in which Satan is blackmailed by Edith into taking her to the 2012 London Olympics to see her grand-niece competing, but Satan discovers that the grand-niece isn't quite as Edith remembers her. Meanwhile, Thomas tries to get himself certified insane in order to escape from continued punishment and instead be eternally consigned to Hell's TV Lounge.
Television Pilot 2012
Also in 2012, Andy Hamilton proposed a transfer of the show to television. A pilot episode was made for Sky TV (not for the BBC) by UK animation house Flickerpix, using stop motion animation. Based on scenes from some of the early radio episodes, it featured the voices of the radio cast (with James Grout's part recast following his death). The proposed series was not commissioned.
Episodes
Music
The opening and closing themes for each episode are taken from Christopher Young's soundtrack for the 1987 horror film Hellraiser ("Resurrection"). The episodes also make use of "Ave Satani" from Jerry Goldsmith's 1976 soundtrack to The Omen.
Audiobooks
Originally, two volumes of CDs, "Volume One" and "Volume Two" were released in 1999 and 2003, collecting selected episodes from series 1–4. From the 2002 Christmas Special onwards, the series were released on CD shortly after the broadcasts. In 2008 and 2009, the BBC finally went back and released series 1–4 in their entirety. The 2012 Olympics specials have been released via download on AudioGO but remain unreleased on CD.
Volume One - Series 1: Episodes 1, 5 and 6. Series 2: Episodes 1, 2 and 4.
Volume Two - Series 3: Episodes 1, 2 and 3. Series 4: Episodes 2, 3 and 4.
Christmas Special - Both 2002 Christmas Special Episodes, released August 2003.
Radio Series Five - The Complete Fifth Series, released November 2005.
Radio Series Six - The Complete Sixth Series, released November 2007.
Radio Series One And Two - The Complete First And Second Series (two separate box sets, but released together as a single entity), released in September 2008.
Radio Series Seven - The Complete Seventh Series, released March 2009.
Radio Series Three And Four - The Complete Third And Fourth Series (two separate box sets, but released together as a single entity), released in September 2009.
The Complete Series 1-7 - The complete series 1–7 in one box set, including the 2002 Christmas specials, released October 2010
Christmas Special - Both 2010 Christmas Special Episodes, released in October 2011.
References
External links
BBC Radio comedy programmes
Satirical radio programmes
1995 radio programme debuts
Bangsian fantasy
BBC Radio 4 programmes
The Devil in fiction
|
[
-0.07327643781900406,
0.3784205913543701,
0.3371559977531433,
-0.4276075065135956,
0.3377927243709564,
-0.14926055073738098,
0.18390214443206787,
-0.019138233736157417,
-0.0676790401339531,
0.09128598123788834,
-0.44799625873565674,
0.6783389449119568,
-0.29218918085098267,
0.3991044759750366,
0.10126093775033951,
0.43215951323509216,
0.20806467533111572,
0.26058533787727356,
-0.2395072877407074,
-0.6314535140991211,
-0.34728169441223145,
-0.3134591281414032,
0.22893862426280975,
-0.21834665536880493,
-0.25291624665260315,
0.1988312304019928,
0.08124521374702454,
-0.4714922606945038,
-0.890375018119812,
0.011979623697698116,
-0.09375371783971786,
0.009312786161899567,
0.31508636474609375,
-0.44351157546043396,
-0.019062833860516548,
0.12172391265630722,
-0.008979429490864277,
0.03236004710197449,
-0.46992045640945435,
-0.18590474128723145,
0.5375993251800537,
0.17708474397659302,
0.05453595519065857,
0.36236318945884705,
-0.4846246540546417,
0.15161937475204468,
-1.2465784549713135,
0.18979506194591522,
-0.5672427415847778,
-0.20076797902584076,
0.3386792540550232,
0.16058041155338287,
0.3634496331214905,
0.04276802018284798,
-0.07657526433467865,
0.49169033765792847,
-0.12320257723331451,
0.07703474909067154,
0.3350695073604584,
0.40701496601104736,
0.1591106653213501,
0.05718473345041275,
0.265635222196579,
0.3268299698829651,
-0.10969359427690506,
-0.10162632167339325,
-0.22572468221187592,
0.4194999635219574,
-0.24826088547706604,
-0.1837947517633438,
0.32927387952804565,
-0.3142513036727905,
-0.6750843524932861,
-0.291293203830719,
0.3130488991737366,
-0.4011859893798828,
0.24295058846473694,
0.047955237329006195,
0.2869621813297272,
0.2029658555984497,
-0.23658426105976105,
-0.2728489637374878,
0.8205657601356506,
0.560007631778717,
0.4304191768169403,
0.06593829393386841,
0.16936056315898895,
0.5682581067085266,
-0.5774837732315063,
0.09704884141683578,
0.29485002160072327,
-0.8420559167861938,
-0.22915714979171753,
0.03262670338153839,
-0.10919005423784256,
-0.2548760175704956,
0.4223317503929138,
-0.052097562700510025,
0.08201658725738525,
-0.1951410323381424,
0.039036646485328674,
0.5097579956054688,
0.2837923467159271,
-0.7815195918083191,
-0.332386314868927,
-0.057348478585481644,
-0.1585562825202942,
-0.7895054817199707,
0.3122260570526123,
0.1274629831314087,
-0.4174067974090576,
0.37035542726516724,
0.36629828810691833,
0.07525168359279633,
0.38613656163215637,
0.20969656109809875,
0.016498444601893425,
-0.35835179686546326,
-0.23945805430412292,
0.7312342524528503,
0.20250609517097473,
0.29847708344459534,
0.22472424805164337,
0.5195894241333008,
-0.3151666522026062,
0.15157923102378845,
-0.001950024743564427,
0.779434084892273,
0.017429232597351074,
-0.26956942677497864,
0.6589764952659607,
0.5291322469711304,
-0.15418434143066406,
-0.24359457194805145,
-0.16982288658618927,
0.2677488625049591,
0.21353498101234436,
-0.39318230748176575,
0.2232121080160141,
0.4968649446964264,
-0.2296631932258606,
-0.6007805466651917,
-0.3849981427192688,
0.13940295577049255,
0.032759469002485275,
0.04924046993255615,
-0.3898659944534302,
-0.31344226002693176,
0.3495783805847168,
0.4743907153606415,
0.31669381260871887,
0.22803561389446259,
0.1878471076488495,
-0.06086600199341774,
-0.5141786932945251,
0.1453229933977127,
0.19316205382347107,
-0.5353984236717224,
-0.40260159969329834,
0.2220257967710495,
0.25268295407295227,
-0.2658245861530304,
-0.15500448644161224,
-0.22181056439876556,
0.0007177626248449087,
-0.08260809630155563,
0.45463812351226807,
-0.17514267563819885,
-0.24546045064926147,
-0.4361046254634857,
-0.42972585558891296,
0.5535510778427124,
1.3042371273040771,
-0.8852439522743225,
0.1282072514295578,
0.6249873042106628,
0.8393999934196472,
0.20404930412769318,
0.5497435927391052,
-0.32908639311790466,
-0.4615936279296875,
-0.2686959505081177,
0.3199523389339447,
0.07438962161540985,
0.5360467433929443,
0.49974656105041504,
-0.18147951364517212,
0.20874451100826263,
0.42022866010665894,
-0.12114301323890686,
-0.4862028658390045,
-0.4057086408138275,
0.3933942914009094,
-0.11419690400362015,
0.3770080506801605,
-0.06047796085476875,
0.050130534917116165,
0.3724472224712372,
0.21913336217403412,
0.342200368642807,
-0.174753338098526,
-0.49228376150131226,
0.22190764546394348,
0.425322026014328,
-0.2529442608356476,
0.12443311512470245,
-0.046983979642391205,
-0.12282025814056396,
0.3867776393890381,
0.5885072946548462,
0.18428227305412292,
-0.5491544604301453,
0.12169934809207916,
0.16343286633491516,
-0.2217160314321518,
0.1781398355960846,
-0.3183783292770386,
0.19215817749500275,
0.03446175903081894,
-0.32895326614379883,
-0.11444573849439621,
0.2579999566078186,
-0.24987998604774475,
-0.015420730225741863,
-0.3405664265155792,
0.7037666440010071,
-0.46655431389808655,
-0.2812959551811218,
0.5175589323043823,
-1.0308226346969604,
-0.1770605742931366,
0.6819173097610474,
0.041813887655735016,
-0.26805785298347473,
-0.0461367629468441,
-0.3451751172542572,
0.009098545648157597,
-0.24653515219688416,
-0.03961872681975365,
-0.11536352336406708,
0.44191017746925354,
0.16215993463993073,
-0.1400420218706131,
0.48896270990371704,
-0.1853354275226593,
0.23100584745407104,
-0.333233505487442,
0.713274359703064,
-0.38610130548477173,
-0.15672500431537628,
0.4466656744480133,
0.18740303814411163,
0.3135272264480591,
0.22307418286800385,
-0.045735832303762436,
0.18454395234584808,
-0.2986847460269928,
0.16262860596179962,
0.18262870609760284,
0.6525489091873169,
-0.2621038854122162,
0.16827800869941711,
-0.03262922167778015,
0.12866844236850739,
-0.26128754019737244,
-0.8963590264320374,
-0.6394791007041931,
-0.6497900485992432,
-0.27279937267303467,
0.3130849301815033,
0.25557661056518555,
0.22138409316539764,
-0.43412458896636963,
0.13132601976394653,
-0.0796986073255539,
0.025644216686487198,
0.596633791923523,
0.4539746344089508,
-0.41333723068237305,
-0.3143094778060913,
-0.20754365622997284,
0.8598262071609497,
-0.06627658009529114,
-0.1968890130519867,
-0.8703275322914124,
-0.04484298825263977,
0.09076600521802902,
-0.19993090629577637,
0.05355318635702133,
0.131428062915802,
-0.11036063730716705,
0.9980606436729431,
-0.001381125533953309,
0.1810411512851715,
-0.4090896546840668,
0.14834831655025482,
-0.020460043102502823,
-0.19628901779651642,
-0.005220136139541864,
-0.12061838060617447,
-0.12232144922018051,
0.3627626299858093,
-0.5122354030609131,
0.13580381870269775,
0.3885900378227234,
-0.12980879843235016,
-0.7324957847595215,
-0.3762367069721222,
-5.936479568481445,
0.13706447184085846,
-0.10498547554016113,
0.015560254454612732,
0.9164871573448181,
-0.13067564368247986,
0.6001632213592529,
-0.24615943431854248,
-0.15820300579071045,
0.23568527400493622,
-0.3816662132740021,
-0.039240650832653046,
0.2860972285270691,
0.36921975016593933,
0.7303982973098755,
-0.3508015275001526,
0.2004699409008026,
-0.6805169582366943,
0.3070276379585266,
-0.25471338629722595,
-0.5466712713241577,
0.2974241077899933,
-0.10734990984201431,
0.467210590839386,
0.022364037111401558,
1.3681082725524902,
-0.46522971987724304,
-0.08734749257564545,
-0.20167924463748932,
0.1507222056388855,
-0.17012745141983032,
-0.3854452073574066,
-0.13572411239147186,
0.09766486287117004,
-0.37778380513191223,
-0.1471477597951889,
0.12011983245611191,
-0.12624110281467438,
0.09387342631816864,
-0.35294219851493835,
0.12015752494335175,
0.3949843645095825,
-0.5324707627296448,
0.5192076563835144,
0.6795842051506042,
-0.45552584528923035,
-0.3218327462673187,
-0.5557523369789124,
-0.22424434125423431,
-0.05236788094043732,
0.029495809227228165,
0.3392711877822876,
-0.0953960195183754,
-0.03438384085893631,
0.4446459412574768,
-0.7787383794784546,
0.13803477585315704,
0.051891110837459564,
0.186802938580513,
-0.36219561100006104,
0.14865611493587494,
-0.20497962832450867,
-0.23553991317749023,
0.6365324854850769,
-0.030522912740707397,
-0.11971025913953781,
0.5086801648139954,
-0.4496735632419586,
0.6686514019966125,
0.26167961955070496,
0.0037626815028488636,
-0.037934646010398865,
0.506551206111908,
-0.9590761065483093,
-0.06143484637141228,
0.32174909114837646,
-0.14250491559505463,
0.33258992433547974,
0.3335493803024292,
-0.5129584670066833,
-0.08156950771808624,
-0.5101202726364136,
-0.28491634130477905,
0.1834709644317627,
-0.0069501399993896484,
-0.6138362288475037,
-0.18387025594711304,
-0.14217260479927063,
-0.33239540457725525,
-0.14340251684188843,
0.4555477797985077,
-0.5271593928337097,
-0.08018128573894501,
0.34628984332084656,
0.4676898419857025,
1.0668816566467285,
-0.054923783987760544,
0.3883587718009949,
0.29919081926345825,
0.664251983165741,
0.5961465239524841,
-0.2938879728317261,
0.8532931208610535,
-0.4761770963668823,
0.2568952143192291,
0.08107180148363113,
0.2163582742214203,
0.4806736409664154,
0.4455699026584625,
0.06944888830184937,
-0.3090815544128418,
0.27060917019844055,
-0.1594744771718979,
0.19724848866462708,
-0.10904544591903687,
-0.25851306319236755,
0.026369335129857063,
-0.07368892431259155,
0.07975628226995468,
0.5076751708984375,
-0.0665561705827713,
-0.062176238745450974,
-0.19473795592784882,
-0.3477671444416046,
-1.2067493200302124,
-0.22124037146568298,
0.22173888981342316,
0.17619331181049347,
0.29025134444236755,
-0.4192083179950714,
-0.18109291791915894,
0.050776753574609756,
0.22474685311317444,
-0.3978292644023895,
0.44905275106430054,
-0.2856197655200958,
-0.5627257823944092,
-0.38412266969680786,
-0.17491424083709717,
-0.05979418754577637,
0.13680650293827057,
-0.8736098408699036,
0.1313808262348175,
0.5716223120689392,
0.03684280067682266,
-0.35607239603996277,
0.28621435165405273,
-0.07051686942577362,
0.028692932799458504,
0.10908392816781998,
-0.07802395522594452,
0.20425376296043396,
0.7821406126022339,
-0.684306800365448,
-0.04976293444633484,
-0.16546158492565155,
-0.11280791461467743,
-0.4750061333179474,
0.13561749458312988,
-0.06931409239768982,
-0.015405827201902866,
0.020164363086223602,
-1.422677993774414,
0.07029864192008972,
0.4857051372528076,
0.008181381039321423,
0.10521504282951355,
-0.41204914450645447,
-0.02859005331993103,
0.6217873096466064,
-0.19815950095653534,
0.29051560163497925,
-0.557270348072052,
0.10570590198040009,
0.5995969176292419,
0.0931369736790657,
-0.44409507513046265,
-0.024244222790002823,
0.09819531440734863,
-0.3975529670715332,
0.53260338306427,
0.22016753256320953,
-0.6823109984397888,
-0.10100650787353516,
0.5492871403694153,
-0.8922088742256165,
-0.2754276692867279,
0.0009381174459122121,
-0.2435445934534073,
-0.05581685155630112,
0.43744778633117676,
0.4895341992378235,
0.5629503130912781,
0.39067983627319336,
-0.9126349091529846,
-0.5947489142417908,
-0.21497197449207306,
-0.0014626042684540153,
0.09885348379611969,
-0.31452351808547974,
0.5986837148666382,
0.37154319882392883,
-0.5494922995567322,
-0.1762973666191101,
1.000037670135498,
-0.7778637409210205,
0.05567343905568123,
-0.4066148102283478,
-0.21403270959854126,
0.7137794494628906,
0.23128199577331543,
-0.6607055068016052,
-0.3308246433734894,
-0.04705469682812691,
-0.23047082126140594,
-0.5878581404685974,
0.16876520216464996,
-0.16662059724330902,
0.0832587257027626,
-0.18314887583255768,
-0.30348366498947144,
-0.18998196721076965,
-0.5159150958061218,
0.45040449500083923,
-0.3972063958644867,
-0.29656320810317993,
0.8233579397201538,
-1.0133272409439087,
-0.026403695344924927,
-0.1509069800376892,
0.3314253091812134,
-0.0771060511469841,
0.5859202742576599,
0.6749497056007385,
-0.12603479623794556,
-0.3182401955127716,
-0.08709552884101868,
0.31485480070114136,
-0.17445801198482513,
0.1039431244134903,
0.5377180576324463,
0.6101738810539246,
-0.29842445254325867,
-0.2752246558666229,
-0.05877729132771492,
0.2588977813720703,
0.330089807510376,
-0.26762691140174866,
-0.1490614414215088,
0.3385270833969116,
0.1397538036108017,
0.11259493231773376,
0.016195395961403847,
0.23651792109012604,
0.2720251679420471,
-1.017974615097046,
0.4458618462085724,
0.31623122096061707,
0.02690967172384262,
-0.032235145568847656,
-0.3368375897407532,
0.13429974019527435,
-0.029168076813220978,
0.2866000533103943,
-0.07573535293340683,
0.14624863862991333,
0.2713600993156433,
-0.9591042995452881,
0.06926599889993668,
-0.32365545630455017,
-0.6015037894248962,
-0.2908526360988617,
0.7026465535163879,
0.13463765382766724,
0.3626548945903778,
-0.19024209678173065,
-0.42277243733406067,
-0.5975944399833679,
-0.23056147992610931,
-0.07082325965166092,
-0.21444015204906464,
0.5686143040657043,
-0.18434181809425354,
-0.4216916859149933,
-0.35105493664741516,
-0.7753685712814331,
0.5390096306800842,
-0.3295746445655823,
0.36043715476989746,
-0.586897075176239,
-0.6612504720687866,
0.138852059841156,
0.12184661626815796,
0.039698485285043716,
0.0950637012720108,
0.4164440333843231,
-0.17473483085632324,
-0.17447197437286377,
0.31231027841567993,
-0.5065574645996094,
-0.5350117087364197,
0.3064071238040924,
0.4311199486255646,
-0.04614287614822388,
0.10144051909446716,
-0.08409128338098526,
-0.20904946327209473,
0.05998414754867554,
-0.7238624691963196,
0.21174181997776031,
0.3379155397415161,
0.06840643286705017,
-0.00850150641053915,
0.8303847312927246,
0.15028730034828186,
-0.4907858669757843,
0.061757009476423264,
-0.4377705156803131,
-0.0419272854924202,
0.2909447252750397,
0.23336033523082733,
-0.21398314833641052,
0.3903185725212097,
-0.25813236832618713,
-0.33715519309043884,
0.5284192562103271,
-0.14742964506149292,
0.4889068305492401,
0.3664548397064209,
-0.16538551449775696,
0.18164263665676117,
0.09885602444410324,
-0.28965264558792114,
0.9452118873596191,
-0.2441771924495697,
-0.15521268546581268,
0.5927780270576477,
-1.0127456188201904,
0.19773909449577332,
0.03229426592588425,
0.04840488359332085,
0.17376534640789032,
-0.3184734284877777,
-0.09928321838378906,
-0.31860587000846863,
-0.14155125617980957,
0.14768166840076447,
-0.40377146005630493,
-0.10591595619916916,
-0.095913365483284,
0.22818441689014435,
0.2254602015018463,
-0.11821167916059494,
-1.1284819841384888,
0.6382629871368408,
-0.3508644998073578,
0.1716955155134201,
-0.4502964913845062,
-0.37572726607322693,
-0.0031602829694747925,
0.042753107845783234,
-0.26305675506591797,
-0.14319197833538055,
0.006160361226648092,
0.29811882972717285,
0.46416351199150085,
0.24630747735500336,
-0.4888581335544586,
0.06601985543966293,
0.39563581347465515,
-0.04858606308698654,
-0.5443763732910156,
0.4477258026599884,
-0.16271644830703735,
-0.11802958697080612,
-0.1606307327747345,
0.5192408561706543,
0.03179284557700157,
-0.0016937064938247204,
0.4226700961589813,
-0.3555402457714081,
0.054642897099256516,
-0.11027419567108154,
0.20303495228290558,
0.08706764876842499,
-0.2322797030210495,
-0.23772360384464264,
0.10742491483688354,
-0.2740592062473297,
-0.6110697984695435,
-0.05052132532000542,
-0.5832251906394958,
-0.2487623691558838,
-0.02609739638864994,
-0.1498073786497116,
-0.5955923795700073,
-0.054316528141498566,
0.6366974711418152,
-0.3079204559326172,
0.5208703279495239,
-0.2665013372898102,
0.37507423758506775,
-0.036514148116111755,
0.7185589671134949,
-0.6870418787002563,
0.13088326156139374,
-0.18699631094932556,
0.07075104862451553,
-0.27186188101768494,
0.5865036249160767,
0.37978342175483704,
0.006586163770407438,
-0.011028207838535309,
-0.5335212349891663,
-0.45958641171455383,
-0.5137168169021606,
0.32700595259666443,
-0.2622292637825012,
0.22787077724933624,
-0.21021948754787445,
0.1630091667175293,
0.0512651726603508,
0.475210964679718,
-0.13641098141670227,
-0.7751826643943787,
-0.07794306427240372,
-0.07914143800735474,
0.06947481632232666,
-0.22360539436340332,
0.32955271005630493,
-0.21272633969783783,
-0.01630546897649765,
-0.19110150635242462,
-0.37311235070228577,
0.003759173210710287,
-0.48375093936920166,
0.7503170967102051,
0.5730109810829163,
0.3800990879535675,
-0.35758090019226074,
0.015355420298874378,
0.1574394702911377,
0.016733087599277496,
0.5406118631362915,
-0.5025500655174255,
0.15806305408477783,
0.22913874685764313,
-0.09260563552379608,
0.04717834293842316,
0.9070011973381042,
0.061017878353595734,
-0.7167839407920837,
0.2638813555240631,
-0.32264575362205505,
-0.27907249331474304,
-0.09442032873630524,
-0.06476861238479614,
0.14557164907455444,
0.7735853791236877,
0.6004548668861389
] |
200075
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20on%20the%20postage%20stamps%20of%20New%20Zealand
|
List of people on the postage stamps of New Zealand
|
This is a list of people on stamps of New Zealand.
Link
The year given is the year of issue of the first stamp depicting that person.
Data has been entered up to the end of 2002.
A
The Prince Andrew (1963)
The Princess Anne (1952)
Sean Astin (2001)
B
Brian Barratt-Boyes (1995)
Joseph Banks (1969)
Aunt Daisy (Maud Ruby Basham) (1994)
Albert Henry Baskerville (1995)
Jean Batten (1990)
James K. Baxter (1989)
Sean Bean (2001)
Princess Beatrice of York (1989)
Cate Blanchett (2001)
Evelyn Brooke (2015)
Peter Buck (1990)
C
Prince William (now Duke of Cambridge) (1985)
Sir Winston Churchill (1965)
James Cook (1940)
Whina Cooper (1995)
Barry Crump (1995)
D
Stewie Dempster (1992)
Jules Dumont d'Urville (1997)
E
The Duke of Edinburgh (1953)
Edward VII (1909)
Edward VIII (1940)
The Prince Edward (1973)
The Princess Elizabeth (now The Queen) (1943)
Queen Elizabeth (later The Queen Mother) (1937)
F
W. H. A. Feilding (1981)
Bernard Freyberg (1990)
G
George V (1915)
George VI (1937)
John Robert Godley (1950)
George Grey (1979)
Elizabeth Gunn (1969)
H
Richard Hadlee (1995)
Prince Harry (1985)
James Hector (1967)
Hone Heke (1990)
Sir Edmund Hillary (1994)
William Hobson (1990)
J
Robert Jack (1992)
K
Te Ruki Kawiti (1990)
Truby King (1957)
Charles Kingsford Smith (1958)
L
Christopher Lee (2001)
Danyon Loader (1996)
Jack Lovelock (1990)
M
Ian McKellen (2001)
Katherine Mansfield (1989)
The Princess Margaret (1943)
Samuel Marsden (1964)
Ngaio Marsh (1989)
Queen Mary (1935)
Bruce Mason (1989)
Viggo Mortensen (2001)
N
Grace Neill (1990)
George Nēpia (1990)
Āpirana Ngata (1980)
O
Miranda Otto (2002)
P
Richard Pearse (1990)
R
Ernest Rutherford, physicist (1971)
S
Richard John Seddon (1979)
Katherine Sheppard (1990)
George Smith (1995)
Peter Snell (2004)
Daniel Solander (1969)
Tommy Solomon (1991)
T
Blyth Tait (1996)
Abel Tasman (1940)
Hakopa Te Ata-o-tu (1980)
Te Hau-Takiri Wharepapa (1980)
Te Heu Heu Tukino IV (1980)
Kiri Te Kanawa (1995)
Te Puea Herangi (1980)
U
Charles Upham (1995)
V
Queen Victoria (1855)
Julius Vogel (1979)
W
John Walker (2004)
Anthony Wilding (1992)
The Prince of Wales (1950)
The Princess of Wales (1981)
Yvette Williams (2004)
Elijah Wood (2001)
Y
The Duchess of York (1989)
Notes
References
External links
See for illustrations of all New Zealand stamps
New Zealand, List of people on stamps of
Stamps
Stamps
Philately of New Zealand
|
[
0.059038639068603516,
0.6672512888908386,
-0.7903567552566528,
-0.32216113805770874,
-0.4512208104133606,
0.546082615852356,
0.7055692672729492,
0.3503071069717407,
-1.0158296823501587,
-0.21248114109039307,
0.11372784525156021,
0.05779920518398285,
0.02945510856807232,
0.4057566225528717,
0.14441168308258057,
0.3369322717189789,
-0.3924999237060547,
0.9145182371139526,
-0.2616592049598694,
0.16069132089614868,
0.01217165682464838,
-0.3933902978897095,
0.5102308392524719,
-0.6304337382316589,
-0.160737544298172,
0.35319283604621887,
0.7147040963172913,
0.3567838966846466,
-0.3868853449821472,
-0.36105677485466003,
-0.08530692011117935,
0.9169803261756897,
0.27280110120773315,
0.6156961917877197,
0.002069746609777212,
-1.3404183387756348,
0.6530725359916687,
-0.17516954243183136,
0.5840594172477722,
-0.24739965796470642,
-0.10248774290084839,
-0.7053794264793396,
0.12149890512228012,
0.5018883347511292,
0.41277843713760376,
-0.04729992151260376,
-1.5904978513717651,
-0.2826812267303467,
-1.0046712160110474,
0.2489859163761139,
0.1913117915391922,
-0.19518142938613892,
1.0548869371414185,
0.6346495747566223,
0.48169630765914917,
0.7496848106384277,
-0.4087117314338684,
0.35398805141448975,
-0.09590890258550644,
0.2637384533882141,
0.5231625437736511,
0.4865654408931732,
0.6331048607826233,
-0.07863083481788635,
0.6002575159072876,
0.2078486680984497,
0.14150992035865784,
0.6093335747718811,
0.05540601536631584,
-0.07344159483909607,
-0.32610467076301575,
-0.688479483127594,
0.7841476202011108,
0.42607054114341736,
-0.02990221418440342,
0.11674826592206955,
-0.01701050065457821,
-0.10233815014362335,
-0.17183232307434082,
-0.5426374673843384,
-0.40229350328445435,
0.07331888377666473,
-0.029753385111689568,
-0.1207541674375534,
0.4346589744091034,
-0.06311264634132385,
-0.39290523529052734,
-0.44739723205566406,
-0.10645636171102524,
1.1166597604751587,
-0.0671948567032814,
0.11163029074668884,
0.3476546108722687,
0.16785340011119843,
-0.29176247119903564,
-0.24267148971557617,
-0.49730634689331055,
0.23332351446151733,
0.3664827346801758,
0.29263198375701904,
0.2980040907859802,
-0.1177506297826767,
0.957276463508606,
-0.25683027505874634,
-0.5360235571861267,
-0.396777480840683,
-0.46293458342552185,
0.3336140215396881,
0.11012926697731018,
-0.9900830984115601,
-0.5114521384239197,
0.35260292887687683,
-0.4385082423686981,
0.11453613638877869,
-0.5597654581069946,
0.5831732749938965,
0.517879068851471,
-0.21467843651771545,
-0.2545126974582672,
0.16169321537017822,
-0.44795936346054077,
0.42267149686813354,
0.04630481079220772,
-0.10377982258796692,
-0.3641674518585205,
0.7286540865898132,
0.588065505027771,
0.1281406730413437,
0.6147463917732239,
0.8783966898918152,
0.17640681564807892,
1.2596895694732666,
-0.441834032535553,
-0.5875652432441711,
0.39701521396636963,
-0.638168454170227,
-0.14761938154697418,
0.19492608308792114,
0.07872376590967178,
0.3279297649860382,
-0.5867108702659607,
-0.21186771988868713,
-1.3153159618377686,
-0.06274571269750595,
0.3568088710308075,
-0.1671445071697235,
-0.7399981617927551,
-0.5591689348220825,
-0.1976301521062851,
0.24301593005657196,
0.008494561538100243,
-0.8054177165031433,
0.7159294486045837,
0.6819988489151001,
-0.10486264526844025,
-0.11934782564640045,
0.7089539766311646,
-0.597205638885498,
0.700951337814331,
-0.17247506976127625,
0.06210462376475334,
-0.004346197005361319,
0.2214902639389038,
0.6353987455368042,
0.24372568726539612,
0.4306044578552246,
0.17044350504875183,
0.20890727639198303,
0.15975554287433624,
-0.20096391439437866,
-0.9012847542762756,
-0.2357068508863449,
-0.09977683424949646,
-0.060280051082372665,
-0.7720087170600891,
0.043120838701725006,
0.4789787530899048,
0.4480656683444977,
0.11588242650032043,
-0.1770370602607727,
-0.552711009979248,
-0.4209899604320526,
0.18408778309822083,
-0.3971005380153656,
0.40030211210250854,
0.3808565139770508,
0.31103700399398804,
0.2870299816131592,
0.30877330899238586,
0.25884684920310974,
-0.0883985087275505,
-0.34801265597343445,
0.9034661054611206,
-0.47119787335395813,
0.7713932394981384,
-0.15294978022575378,
-0.09068556874990463,
0.0896221399307251,
0.4005541503429413,
0.4779745042324066,
-0.19187776744365692,
-0.20899918675422668,
0.4723275899887085,
0.05436253547668457,
-0.5728821158409119,
1.3395923376083374,
0.11982808262109756,
-0.004952313378453255,
0.7494906187057495,
0.33883729577064514,
0.23810075223445892,
0.07314952462911606,
0.18041205406188965,
0.174521341919899,
0.09253720194101334,
0.2377007007598877,
0.379472553730011,
-0.20731928944587708,
0.15861378610134125,
-0.6306648254394531,
0.675585150718689,
1.0032049417495728,
0.6414992213249207,
0.10582264512777328,
0.35190069675445557,
1.0167980194091797,
0.17184953391551971,
-0.07251500338315964,
0.2926030457019806,
-0.5291672945022583,
0.9057139754295349,
-0.13788002729415894,
0.29440557956695557,
-0.37511470913887024,
-0.43023166060447693,
0.021448969841003418,
0.19497939944267273,
-0.6623042225837708,
0.5020152926445007,
-0.05074328929185867,
0.3488427996635437,
0.6647471785545349,
-0.5818649530410767,
-0.055085767060518265,
-0.1535615175962448,
0.22908428311347961,
-0.4527983069419861,
-0.24238090217113495,
-0.31528621912002563,
-0.35928258299827576,
1.1216260194778442,
-0.2277146279811859,
0.09828252345323563,
-0.13127386569976807,
0.06657876819372177,
-0.19385534524917603,
-0.14559194445610046,
-0.32052361965179443,
-0.18515470623970032,
0.28942668437957764,
-0.825973629951477,
0.3736381530761719,
0.36272406578063965,
0.26347166299819946,
-0.5535610914230347,
-0.4901003837585449,
-0.023130938410758972,
-0.28755468130111694,
0.048164062201976776,
0.33543822169303894,
0.6327956318855286,
-0.14156895875930786,
-0.9757177233695984,
-1.975142240524292,
0.5956960916519165,
0.0521816611289978,
-0.6432083249092102,
0.31744658946990967,
-0.40950316190719604,
-0.010259464383125305,
0.11062345653772354,
0.8649572730064392,
0.18003122508525848,
-0.1317649781703949,
-0.2913530468940735,
-0.014735672622919083,
0.9467469453811646,
0.1638999581336975,
-0.40185976028442383,
-0.20163346827030182,
-0.6066006422042847,
-0.034884192049503326,
-0.7585789561271667,
-0.06839603930711746,
0.17665919661521912,
-0.021540263667702675,
0.08231451362371445,
0.6796908378601074,
0.1390731781721115,
-0.7168479561805725,
-0.03672163933515549,
-0.23961412906646729,
-0.2998962104320526,
-0.5437896251678467,
-0.4094649851322174,
-0.037145208567380905,
-0.14179939031600952,
-0.6045710444450378,
-4.3200531005859375,
0.24401642382144928,
-0.3306501805782318,
-0.009951797313988209,
-0.3819144666194916,
0.10632360726594925,
0.8785813450813293,
-0.5632781386375427,
-0.06923320144414902,
-0.270636647939682,
0.3860977590084076,
-0.3811832070350647,
-0.1729215383529663,
0.6260826587677002,
0.31260281801223755,
1.3509464263916016,
0.8368030190467834,
0.4338471591472626,
0.5194345116615295,
-0.1325235813856125,
0.19594363868236542,
0.3031574785709381,
-0.018750479444861412,
-0.19716385006904602,
0.31128591299057007,
1.1125377416610718,
-0.3679000735282898,
0.023059796541929245,
-0.1957557499408722,
0.2998279333114624,
-0.07255996763706207,
-0.16064926981925964,
-0.14280690252780914,
-1.045027494430542,
-0.1818733811378479,
-0.1865539401769638,
0.38824427127838135,
0.9515949487686157,
0.4889243543148041,
-0.8690345287322998,
-0.726948618888855,
0.5951374769210815,
-0.12464141100645065,
0.32850563526153564,
0.46274423599243164,
-0.04433925077319145,
-0.8120077252388,
-0.21246741712093353,
0.03562135249376297,
1.233971118927002,
-0.3732069134712219,
0.07815521955490112,
1.1400636434555054,
0.2415919452905655,
-0.3131626844406128,
-0.23379190266132355,
0.18587253987789154,
0.2954292595386505,
-0.8056208491325378,
0.38062161207199097,
0.38094091415405273,
-0.7048202753067017,
-0.1609877645969391,
-0.5677346587181091,
-0.2444898784160614,
-0.6345841884613037,
-0.6291748881340027,
0.21396218240261078,
0.1407695859670639,
-0.29638540744781494,
-0.7046301364898682,
0.04745826870203018,
-0.6033192873001099,
-0.830090343952179,
0.26356208324432373,
-0.5107858180999756,
-0.33751973509788513,
0.7085053324699402,
-0.0852997899055481,
-0.21380336582660675,
-0.582565188407898,
-0.44407668709754944,
-0.6884524822235107,
1.0058741569519043,
0.6106778383255005,
-0.547766923904419,
-0.8698720932006836,
-0.4667656719684601,
-0.9408540725708008,
-0.643061637878418,
-0.16874660551548004,
-0.2973859906196594,
0.3168644309043884,
0.7056888341903687,
0.46044787764549255,
0.46330419182777405,
1.3491955995559692,
-0.6843624711036682,
0.695277750492096,
-0.4791259765625,
-0.00031019453308545053,
-0.15202659368515015,
-0.1637236326932907,
-0.6420986652374268,
-0.5215725302696228,
-0.4437781274318695,
0.06297633796930313,
0.3459457457065582,
0.2035709023475647,
-0.11294449120759964,
-0.3207601308822632,
-0.70457923412323,
-0.7884958386421204,
-0.6924981474876404,
0.4067789614200592,
0.1703324168920517,
0.19897498190402985,
0.3379826545715332,
1.24625563621521,
0.010193172842264175,
0.6497713327407837,
-0.13087205588817596,
-0.35251301527023315,
-0.16324158012866974,
-0.36937186121940613,
-0.09177574515342712,
-0.11388455331325531,
-0.513139545917511,
-0.23383831977844238,
0.3735288679599762,
0.13853546977043152,
0.47994694113731384,
-0.843430757522583,
0.19473528861999512,
-0.15029118955135345,
-0.04762527719140053,
-0.11649841070175171,
-0.2126692235469818,
0.22729673981666565,
-0.5311287045478821,
0.007557745557278395,
-0.3747164011001587,
-0.3204084038734436,
0.5842992067337036,
0.0791485458612442,
0.6547113656997681,
0.007616928778588772,
-0.8289999961853027,
-0.2901737689971924,
0.4847166836261749,
-0.3630210757255554,
-0.46492624282836914,
-0.05431090295314789,
-0.9635706543922424,
-0.053716640919446945,
0.444269061088562,
-0.10699328780174255,
0.33029139041900635,
-0.6916491389274597,
-0.47211384773254395,
0.011464124545454979,
-0.5373612642288208,
-0.666344404220581,
0.6366319060325623,
0.19802716374397278,
-0.8125499486923218,
-0.5353009700775146,
0.021566415205597878,
-0.3798246681690216,
0.6062463521957397,
0.14900335669517517,
0.29088863730430603,
-0.9350106120109558,
0.08319409191608429,
0.9253764748573303,
-0.2430916130542755,
0.11625588685274124,
0.7800045013427734,
0.11065583676099777,
-0.03598657250404358,
-0.4364330470561981,
0.13000234961509705,
0.14416095614433289,
0.17933490872383118,
0.28761717677116394,
0.14791710674762726,
-0.08400725573301315,
0.15929362177848816,
-0.3321561813354492,
-0.08197501301765442,
0.16803787648677826,
1.0787075757980347,
-0.10934893041849136,
-0.245961531996727,
-0.828259289264679,
-0.6405031681060791,
-0.27331098914146423,
-0.08242631703615189,
0.2265206277370453,
-0.42993777990341187,
0.3079485297203064,
0.30951932072639465,
-0.0813373401761055,
0.16315443813800812,
0.09701884537935257,
-0.133144810795784,
0.25478461384773254,
0.24221432209014893,
-0.5742613077163696,
0.43728768825531006,
-0.5644558668136597,
-0.7183448672294617,
-0.1898423284292221,
0.10101743787527084,
-0.4865436553955078,
-0.20781227946281433,
0.6154041886329651,
0.42174822092056274,
0.2603008449077606,
-0.6801697611808777,
0.1746455430984497,
0.4181206226348877,
-0.3750486969947815,
-0.21901461482048035,
-0.2206662893295288,
0.45229268074035645,
0.38694238662719727,
-1.4822033643722534,
0.12316625565290451,
-0.28476059436798096,
-0.3462948501110077,
-0.086065873503685,
0.14513316750526428,
-0.045856915414333344,
-0.636701762676239,
0.7804921865463257,
-0.015802767127752304,
0.09262089431285858,
0.0807199776172638,
0.2992066442966461,
0.5846058130264282,
1.4933825731277466,
0.360397070646286,
-0.767578125,
-0.35527530312538147,
0.49767574667930603,
0.06019533798098564,
-0.24504564702510834,
-0.720740556716919,
-0.4795321524143219,
-0.22415779531002045,
-0.397560179233551,
-0.8719685077667236,
-0.7548614144325256,
0.7007369995117188,
-0.43678969144821167,
-0.3060457408428192,
0.9883249998092651,
0.26106083393096924,
-0.14369261264801025,
0.5684987902641296,
0.2546120285987854,
-0.10529579222202301,
0.6728378534317017,
0.5330212712287903,
0.6993231773376465,
0.11964456737041473,
-0.25511929392814636,
0.5451727509498596,
-0.10221906751394272,
-0.7172676920890808,
-0.18409085273742676,
-0.3578002452850342,
0.5097048878669739,
0.09299615770578384,
0.006276915781199932,
0.21038807928562164,
-0.9208909869194031,
0.18516290187835693,
-0.7741902470588684,
0.40207237005233765,
-0.012793878093361855,
0.3951095640659332,
-0.03425025939941406,
0.6577836275100708,
-0.6101351380348206,
-0.7516676783561707,
0.4562542140483856,
-0.4488889276981354,
0.018855206668376923,
-0.08587378263473511,
-0.40669679641723633,
-0.3525177240371704,
-0.24884578585624695,
0.8160020112991333,
0.23734253644943237,
-0.6079698801040649,
-0.35420122742652893,
-0.08388032019138336,
-0.06862523406744003,
-0.6280737519264221,
1.0986011028289795,
0.3530687093734741,
0.22674916684627533,
0.5128365755081177,
0.4476276934146881,
0.2227620780467987,
-0.6415892243385315,
-0.03771170973777771,
0.1375155746936798,
0.3668900430202484,
0.2022697627544403,
0.11380919069051743,
1.027364730834961,
-0.1342397928237915,
-0.8246236443519592,
0.7013908624649048,
-0.8835287094116211,
-0.18758359551429749,
0.43169161677360535,
-0.5456173419952393,
-0.44977277517318726,
0.6939773559570312,
0.34248778223991394,
-0.02555624395608902,
0.5717489719390869,
0.04952603951096535,
-0.674344003200531,
1.201033115386963,
0.01062588021159172,
0.1758284866809845,
0.4883505702018738,
-0.9060143828392029,
0.3220394551753998,
-0.6157094836235046,
-0.14262494444847107,
-0.1665513515472412,
0.16387459635734558,
0.003666134551167488,
0.9900490641593933,
-0.24474066495895386,
0.15807807445526123,
0.29863306879997253,
-0.6330277919769287,
-0.15928511321544647,
0.19127461314201355,
-0.5307482481002808,
0.24002324044704437,
0.4129399061203003,
-0.24856863915920258,
0.03657393157482147,
0.5764519572257996,
0.20501939952373505,
-0.3215538263320923,
-0.16928771138191223,
0.21900473535060883,
0.03331563621759415,
-0.48550185561180115,
0.3807985484600067,
-1.3518216609954834,
0.506923258304596,
-0.34777891635894775,
-0.002806653268635273,
0.20408232510089874,
-0.19397294521331787,
-0.17514511942863464,
-0.01796780899167061,
0.15920446813106537,
-0.5466777086257935,
0.5619180202484131,
0.3553221523761749,
0.29192036390304565,
-0.065176822245121,
-0.4071402847766876,
-0.2440137267112732,
0.3649503290653229,
0.04694128409028053,
-0.01273234374821186,
-0.24242018163204193,
-0.45426276326179504,
-0.15807119011878967,
0.08218821883201599,
-0.41929394006729126,
-0.8848450779914856,
0.6003321409225464,
-0.5078453421592712,
-0.2648473381996155,
0.0730658620595932,
0.2985277473926544,
0.4248148202896118,
0.27977675199508667,
-0.5120749473571777,
0.33805927634239197,
0.14937876164913177,
-1.0908936262130737,
0.05753267556428909,
-0.7894167900085449,
0.25125813484191895,
0.43466585874557495,
-1.0827603340148926,
-0.1411559283733368,
0.7245068550109863,
0.3564271032810211,
0.08609138429164886,
-0.18862168490886688,
0.3588780462741852,
-0.7286151051521301,
0.2866307497024536,
-0.4161650836467743,
0.23794065415859222,
-0.16259203851222992,
0.24186553061008453,
-0.014399783685803413,
0.33219826221466064,
-0.2849175035953522,
-0.0603337362408638,
0.33593615889549255,
-0.015374581329524517,
-0.6478004455566406,
-0.06428221613168716,
0.5532839298248291,
-0.7705724239349365,
0.0913846418261528,
0.7737510204315186,
-0.3833129405975342,
-0.6081287860870361,
-0.4986955523490906,
0.12074244767427444,
-0.5967895984649658,
-0.018735246732831,
-0.16520929336547852,
0.030774040147662163,
-0.4689991772174835,
-0.5510497093200684,
-0.6814530491828918,
-0.004878079518675804,
1.134630560874939,
0.6410531401634216,
0.18716305494308472,
0.01848895102739334,
-0.22428357601165771,
0.058502472937107086,
0.8944310545921326,
0.7391099333763123,
-3.2498176097869873,
0.26344871520996094,
0.09056663513183594,
-0.5256168842315674,
-0.6865333914756775,
0.5859178304672241,
0.18697887659072876,
-0.03714568912982941,
0.3605959415435791,
-0.7045490741729736,
0.201256662607193,
-0.15489521622657776,
0.22594159841537476,
-0.45817768573760986,
0.5005423426628113,
0.3308603763580322
] |
200077
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial%20type
|
Binomial type
|
In mathematics, a polynomial sequence, i.e., a sequence of polynomials indexed by non-negative integers in which the index of each polynomial equals its degree, is said to be of binomial type if it satisfies the sequence of identities
Many such sequences exist. The set of all such sequences forms a Lie group under the operation of umbral composition, explained below. Every sequence of binomial type may be expressed in terms of the Bell polynomials. Every sequence of binomial type is a Sheffer sequence (but most Sheffer sequences are not of binomial type). Polynomial sequences put on firm footing the vague 19th century notions of umbral calculus.
Examples
In consequence of this definition the binomial theorem can be stated by saying that the sequence { xn : n = 0, 1, 2, … } is of binomial type.
The sequence of "lower factorials" is defined by(In the theory of special functions, this same notation denotes upper factorials, but this present usage is universal among combinatorialists.) The product is understood to be 1 if n = 0, since it is in that case an empty product. This polynomial sequence is of binomial type.
Similarly the "upper factorials"are a polynomial sequence of binomial type.
The Abel polynomialsare a polynomial sequence of binomial type.
The Touchard polynomialswhere S(n, k) is the number of partitions of a set of size n into k disjoint non-empty subsets, is a polynomial sequence of binomial type. Eric Temple Bell called these the "exponential polynomials" and that term is also sometimes seen in the literature. The coefficients S(n, k) are "Stirling numbers of the second kind". This sequence has a curious connection with the Poisson distribution: If X is a random variable with a Poisson distribution with expected value λ then E(Xn) = pn(λ). In particular, when λ = 1, we see that the nth moment of the Poisson distribution with expected value 1 is the number of partitions of a set of size n, called the nth Bell number. This fact about the nth moment of that particular Poisson distribution is "Dobinski's formula".
Characterization by delta operators
It can be shown that a polynomial sequence { pn(x) : n = 0, 1, 2, … } is of binomial type if and only if all three of the following conditions hold:
The linear transformation on the space of polynomials in x that is characterized byis shift-equivariant, and
p0(x) = 1 for all x, and
pn(0) = 0 for n > 0.
(The statement that this operator is shift-equivariant is the same as saying that the polynomial sequence is a Sheffer sequence; the set of sequences of binomial type is properly included within the set of Sheffer sequences.)
Delta operators
That linear transformation is clearly a delta operator, i.e., a shift-equivariant linear transformation on the space of polynomials in x that reduces degrees of polynomials by 1. The most obvious examples of delta operators are difference operators and differentiation. It can be shown that every delta operator can be written as a power series of the form
where D is differentiation (note that the lower bound of summation is 1). Each delta operator Q has a unique sequence of "basic polynomials", i.e., a polynomial sequence satisfying
It was shown in 1973 by Rota, Kahaner, and Odlyzko, that a polynomial sequence is of binomial type if and only if it is the sequence of basic polynomials of some delta operator. Therefore, this paragraph amounts to a recipe for generating as many polynomial sequences of binomial type as one may wish.
Characterization by Bell polynomials
For any sequence a1, a2, a3, … of scalars, let
where Bn,k(a1, …, an−k+1) is the Bell polynomial. Then this polynomial sequence is of binomial type. Note that for each n ≥ 1,
Here is the main result of this section:
Theorem: All polynomial sequences of binomial type are of this form.
A result in Mullin and Rota, repeated in Rota, Kahaner, and Odlyzko (see References below) states that every polynomial sequence { pn(x) }n of binomial type is determined by the sequence { pn′(0) }n, but those sources do not mention Bell polynomials.
This sequence of scalars is also related to the delta operator. Let
Then
is the delta operator of this sequence.
Characterization by a convolution identity
For sequences an, bn, n = 0, 1, 2, …, define a sort of convolution by
Let be the nth term of the sequence
Then for any sequence ai, i = 0, 1, 2, ..., with a0 = 0, the sequence defined by p0(x) = 1 and
for n ≥ 1, is of binomial type, and every sequence of binomial type is of this form.
Characterization by generating functions
Polynomial sequences of binomial type are precisely those whose generating functions are formal (not necessarily convergent) power series of the form
where f(t) is a formal power series whose constant term is zero and whose first-degree term is not zero. It can be shown by the use of the power-series version of Faà di Bruno's formula that
The delta operator of the sequence is f−1(D), so that
A way to think about these generating functions
The coefficients in the product of two formal power series
and
are
(see also Cauchy product). If we think of x as a parameter indexing a family of such power series, then the binomial identity says in effect that the power series indexed by x + y is the product of those indexed by x and by y. Thus the x is the argument to a function that maps sums to products: an exponential function
where f(t) has the form given above.
Umbral composition of polynomial sequences
The set of all polynomial sequences of binomial type is a group in which the group operation is "umbral composition" of polynomial sequences. That operation is defined as follows. Suppose { pn(x) : n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... } and { qn(x) : n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... } are polynomial sequences, and
Then the umbral composition p o q is the polynomial sequence whose nth term is
(the subscript n appears in pn, since this is the n term of that sequence, but not in q, since this refers to the sequence as a whole rather than one of its terms).
With the delta operator defined by a power series in D as above, the natural bijection between delta operators and polynomial sequences of binomial type, also defined above, is a group isomorphism, in which the group operation on power series is formal composition of formal power series.
Cumulants and moments
The sequence κn of coefficients of the first-degree terms in a polynomial sequence of binomial type may be termed the cumulants of the polynomial sequence. It can be shown that the whole polynomial sequence of binomial type is determined by its cumulants, in a way discussed in the article titled cumulant. Thus
the nth cumulant
and
the nth moment.
These are "formal" cumulants and "formal" moments, as opposed to cumulants of a probability distribution and moments of a probability distribution.
Let
be the (formal) cumulant-generating function. Then
is the delta operator associated with the polynomial sequence, i.e., we have
Applications
The concept of binomial type has applications in combinatorics, probability, statistics, and a variety of other fields.
See also
List of factorial and binomial topics
Binomial-QMF (Daubechies wavelet filters)
References
G.-C. Rota, D. Kahaner, and A. Odlyzko, "Finite Operator Calculus," Journal of Mathematical Analysis and its Applications, vol. 42, no. 3, June 1973. Reprinted in the book with the same title, Academic Press, New York, 1975.
R. Mullin and G.-C. Rota, "On the Foundations of Combinatorial Theory III: Theory of Binomial Enumeration," in Graph Theory and Its Applications, edited by Bernard Harris, Academic Press, New York, 1970.
As the title suggests, the second of the above is explicitly about applications to combinatorial enumeration.
di Bucchianico, Alessandro. Probabilistic and Analytical Aspects of the Umbral Calculus, Amsterdam, CWI, 1997.
Polynomials
Factorial and binomial topics
|
[
0.013199944980442524,
-0.2075306475162506,
-0.5405178070068359,
0.21960341930389404,
-0.3556983470916748,
-0.048839546740055084,
-0.08568809926509857,
-0.216569721698761,
0.1164720430970192,
-0.6580986380577087,
-0.0850774422287941,
0.011917629279196262,
-0.5102590322494507,
0.3705904185771942,
0.0392933115363121,
0.6020743250846863,
-0.09567097574472427,
0.4832093119621277,
-0.5268224477767944,
-0.5847617983818054,
0.1404857337474823,
0.051185593008995056,
0.1610221266746521,
-0.552196741104126,
0.03270220011472702,
-0.03481866046786308,
-0.007469804957509041,
0.26656270027160645,
-0.15582282841205597,
0.436847448348999,
-0.38790079951286316,
0.7320771217346191,
0.3298490643501282,
0.7242118120193481,
0.003404175629839301,
-0.4261648654937744,
0.2818969190120697,
-0.3240705132484436,
-0.019334712997078896,
-0.5921749472618103,
0.47339925169944763,
-0.5127279162406921,
-0.04261696711182594,
0.2708229422569275,
-1.314237117767334,
-0.5462914109230042,
-1.8590213060379028,
0.3659859001636505,
-0.4375450015068054,
-0.616868257522583,
-0.28380224108695984,
0.003069724189117551,
0.1388719230890274,
0.7468494772911072,
0.09202457219362259,
0.833238959312439,
-0.3837944269180298,
-0.4898308217525482,
0.5003497004508972,
-0.10811492800712585,
0.38549891114234924,
-0.1349404901266098,
0.22703580558300018,
-0.044730402529239655,
0.45336467027664185,
0.4765019714832306,
-0.07116099447011948,
-0.007516610901802778,
-0.8351017832756042,
-0.09344425797462463,
-0.11572199314832687,
-0.41350093483924866,
-0.23848305642604828,
0.20556947588920593,
-0.6558922529220581,
0.3941526412963867,
-0.6224493384361267,
0.022912897169589996,
-0.47712624073028564,
0.17602822184562683,
-0.8159365057945251,
0.1649230718612671,
0.28602883219718933,
-0.155075803399086,
0.3267456293106079,
0.2274387776851654,
-0.29440492391586304,
0.4501607120037079,
-0.6166360378265381,
0.10632452368736267,
0.40347692370414734,
-0.014027442783117294,
0.20330724120140076,
-0.19232435524463654,
0.2236926257610321,
0.10871902108192444,
0.11734533309936523,
-0.05986744537949562,
0.8196287155151367,
0.1541692316532135,
-0.8701625466346741,
-0.3073931932449341,
0.01280544325709343,
-0.42256906628608704,
-0.6376779675483704,
-0.5860695242881775,
-0.27968302369117737,
-0.4378776550292969,
0.1977018117904663,
-0.10800912976264954,
-0.5130258202552795,
-0.04877496138215065,
0.223518505692482,
-0.2589224576950073,
-0.08544091880321503,
0.08919600397348404,
0.12931981682777405,
-0.06492791324853897,
-0.035894766449928284,
0.4756096303462982,
-0.24253852665424347,
0.30113255977630615,
-0.28617286682128906,
0.31637701392173767,
0.3889384865760803,
0.16893738508224487,
0.0604720301926136,
0.6666560173034668,
-0.2906778156757355,
-0.4665914475917816,
0.021168069913983345,
0.46696949005126953,
0.28015658259391785,
0.5794141292572021,
0.2687705159187317,
-0.686414897441864,
-1.1982439756393433,
-0.12982267141342163,
-0.3343743681907654,
-0.515230119228363,
-0.41834262013435364,
-0.21534238755702972,
-0.22022345662117004,
-0.3782980144023895,
0.10628066211938858,
-0.2302086353302002,
-0.5671460032463074,
-0.16061712801456451,
0.2243502289056778,
0.32390299439430237,
-0.09529639780521393,
0.02571495622396469,
-0.2524612545967102,
0.11452068388462067,
0.035078924149274826,
-0.29811713099479675,
0.22900629043579102,
0.35364750027656555,
-0.3579062223434448,
0.1589779108762741,
-0.41716864705085754,
-0.2516810894012451,
-0.05060310661792755,
-0.7401161789894104,
0.3695823550224304,
-0.6879032254219055,
0.6199132800102234,
0.6486276388168335,
-0.4544990062713623,
-0.25224965810775757,
-0.2312799096107483,
-0.856808602809906,
0.3746063709259033,
0.13459281623363495,
0.26346150040626526,
-0.010974755510687828,
0.09897138923406601,
-0.2431298941373825,
0.9962882399559021,
-0.06283263862133026,
-0.8593042492866516,
0.3314140737056732,
0.29280006885528564,
0.19694437086582184,
0.48956695199012756,
0.13406528532505035,
-0.3230751156806946,
0.36287829279899597,
0.5357427597045898,
-0.214692160487175,
0.17097634077072144,
0.27041730284690857,
-0.12636686861515045,
-0.9722668528556824,
0.7352330684661865,
0.23122656345367432,
-0.7623162865638733,
0.15163259208202362,
-0.12868641316890717,
0.07513295859098434,
-0.2907586991786957,
-0.46359431743621826,
0.5859784483909607,
-0.1758737862110138,
0.05339764803647995,
0.6335356831550598,
0.339708149433136,
0.2207667976617813,
-0.17009855806827545,
-0.029060838744044304,
0.10129094868898392,
0.11973672360181808,
0.19422076642513275,
-0.236161008477211,
-0.08714048564434052,
0.13124975562095642,
-0.6739891171455383,
0.4847601354122162,
0.1791822612285614,
0.09044995158910751,
0.8209747672080994,
-0.6697262525558472,
-0.20559892058372498,
0.1046617403626442,
-0.7449951767921448,
0.6698952317237854,
0.6821466684341431,
0.010230585001409054,
1.3081690073013306,
-0.5071865320205688,
0.10094241052865982,
-0.7325819730758667,
0.8717111349105835,
0.22460366785526276,
-0.1602143794298172,
0.45427948236465454,
0.1824290156364441,
-0.06712932139635086,
0.7165750861167908,
-0.27830827236175537,
0.10053369402885437,
0.49483487010002136,
-0.11971548199653625,
-0.4316868185997009,
0.20735956728458405,
-0.26170873641967773,
-0.2760298550128937,
0.1779821813106537,
-0.7402386665344238,
-0.04911012575030327,
0.23104126751422882,
0.17275458574295044,
0.19485622644424438,
-0.80106520652771,
-0.17615853250026703,
0.02338847517967224,
-0.050259605050086975,
0.17010726034641266,
0.7364943623542786,
0.6418250799179077,
-0.7669276595115662,
-0.2721637189388275,
-0.6083791851997375,
-0.28438475728034973,
-0.06899875402450562,
-0.2487156093120575,
-0.569510281085968,
-0.34010735154151917,
0.6114429235458374,
0.4895138144493103,
0.3134167790412903,
-0.028157398104667664,
-0.5438255071640015,
0.1309959441423416,
-0.4804917573928833,
-1.020357608795166,
0.2733726501464844,
0.29305124282836914,
-0.8034096956253052,
-0.4149310886859894,
-0.33399438858032227,
0.31670400500297546,
0.5238960981369019,
-0.5751828551292419,
-0.438203364610672,
-0.46580418944358826,
-0.31061846017837524,
-0.5820386409759521,
0.13437363505363464,
-0.6089106798171997,
-0.6127660870552063,
0.2672283947467804,
-0.5103088617324829,
-0.2092229127883911,
0.21101555228233337,
0.2395377904176712,
0.01914660446345806,
-0.06502976268529892,
-0.06198468431830406,
-0.36566805839538574,
-0.6047878861427307,
0.10846208781003952,
-0.29140278697013855,
-0.21451814472675323,
-0.05757356062531471,
0.5140124559402466,
-0.3913863003253937,
0.8264915347099304,
-5.611608505249023,
0.1550104171037674,
-0.2561236619949341,
0.1543659120798111,
-0.04787793010473251,
-0.14331309497356415,
0.7138880491256714,
0.0523894838988781,
-0.03955339640378952,
0.042922526597976685,
0.4909400939941406,
-0.6585004925727844,
0.001459229039028287,
0.4199450612068176,
0.18525896966457367,
-0.002831181511282921,
0.33082979917526245,
-0.06672447174787521,
0.022420065477490425,
0.7371141314506531,
-0.055165015161037445,
0.19363117218017578,
-0.31443649530410767,
-0.07695858925580978,
-0.14667369425296783,
0.08571941405534744,
0.009091409854590893,
0.4992544949054718,
-0.42220044136047363,
-0.2849503457546234,
-0.24236775934696198,
-0.6651487350463867,
-0.22586099803447723,
0.04063858464360237,
-0.27633872628211975,
0.25238537788391113,
0.6280592679977417,
0.5078805088996887,
0.247369185090065,
0.16160687804222107,
0.1823679804801941,
0.512779176235199,
0.24116326868534088,
-0.5921745896339417,
0.2225862592458725,
-0.07752162218093872,
0.12890483438968658,
-0.10306788980960846,
-0.5105139017105103,
0.1256038397550583,
0.17585690319538116,
-0.000006349441719066817,
0.2772832214832306,
-0.3822009265422821,
0.5121122002601624,
0.6253924369812012,
0.40066567063331604,
0.14942322671413422,
-0.539886474609375,
-0.026171239092946053,
0.4874670207500458,
-0.18928460776805878,
0.4188826382160187,
-0.30613788962364197,
-0.523991584777832,
-0.3464445471763611,
-0.8063433170318604,
0.505546510219574,
0.41300168633461,
0.16846001148223877,
-0.45631805062294006,
-0.372329443693161,
0.4297623932361603,
-0.29397401213645935,
0.3239927291870117,
-0.3187045454978943,
0.4412272274494171,
0.14248450100421906,
-0.15899161994457245,
-0.20019541680812836,
-0.2388097047805786,
-0.43761271238327026,
-0.33156365156173706,
-0.011032596230506897,
0.24744367599487305,
0.08070863038301468,
-0.2607446014881134,
0.12696482241153717,
-0.25793880224227905,
-0.04160529375076294,
0.4921523928642273,
-0.24255748093128204,
0.26723289489746094,
0.352693110704422,
0.3211553990840912,
0.5247284770011902,
0.7208123803138733,
-0.3694155216217041,
0.30796393752098083,
-0.19987022876739502,
0.7742499709129333,
-0.14011862874031067,
-0.4082891047000885,
-0.45465272665023804,
-0.22153501212596893,
0.0036177863366901875,
-0.22666937112808228,
0.5649861693382263,
0.7746029496192932,
-0.08627235889434814,
0.1304691880941391,
0.5196625590324402,
-0.4477252960205078,
-0.4590674638748169,
0.6882314682006836,
0.1349840760231018,
-0.5532952547073364,
0.26041555404663086,
0.9140263795852661,
0.19355106353759766,
0.08387786149978638,
0.6040814518928528,
-0.9947406649589539,
-0.1171083077788353,
-0.20728297531604767,
0.12463335692882538,
-0.431505024433136,
0.34812867641448975,
-0.41987520456314087,
-0.4271562099456787,
-0.15872502326965332,
0.4158555567264557,
-0.001348172896541655,
-0.08696364611387253,
0.15518046915531158,
0.3533874452114105,
-0.24092909693717957,
-0.03411722183227539,
-0.3421905040740967,
-0.8553963899612427,
1.0070127248764038,
0.14005599915981293,
0.043467674404382706,
-0.14624382555484772,
0.39803215861320496,
0.29012975096702576,
-0.21841561794281006,
-0.2996998131275177,
-0.09100999683141708,
0.09974216669797897,
0.21977552771568298,
-0.3656502962112427,
0.9565669298171997,
-0.004990259651094675,
-0.3636108934879303,
0.30088990926742554,
0.258312463760376,
0.34739750623703003,
0.04454074427485466,
-0.9886260032653809,
0.5484474897384644,
-0.014936204999685287,
-0.9016984701156616,
-0.5305027365684509,
0.13763029873371124,
0.6271318197250366,
-0.32433974742889404,
0.2535567283630371,
-0.2373158037662506,
0.630654513835907,
0.16040697693824768,
0.2880192995071411,
0.10280483216047287,
-0.19272877275943756,
-0.11079058051109314,
0.2724863290786743,
0.8725826740264893,
-0.15368697047233582,
0.1008988469839096,
0.10718756914138794,
0.15598849952220917,
0.266462117433548,
-0.49804675579071045,
1.254235863685608,
0.6162430644035339,
0.5655392408370972,
0.6196443438529968,
0.5792017579078674,
-1.1054415702819824,
-0.13523566722869873,
0.27637678384780884,
-0.3924022316932678,
0.4294789433479309,
0.08649266511201859,
0.03999390825629234,
-0.01099799107760191,
0.38415127992630005,
0.1888655126094818,
-0.6399365067481995,
-0.07217711210250854,
-0.20544064044952393,
0.25269225239753723,
-0.0946633517742157,
-0.013302193023264408,
0.48879408836364746,
-0.024952508509159088,
-0.1470615118741989,
-0.8006764054298401,
0.22937226295471191,
-0.041855134069919586,
-0.4714357256889343,
-0.557255744934082,
-0.49185803532600403,
-0.7576072812080383,
0.19515907764434814,
-0.23826292157173157,
0.19414132833480835,
-0.24541759490966797,
-0.06968908756971359,
-0.37626224756240845,
0.4527103900909424,
0.06456460058689117,
0.29740795493125916,
0.022037740796804428,
0.6654216647148132,
0.48920199275016785,
-0.08057261258363724,
-0.4313680827617645,
0.190805122256279,
0.23661072552204132,
0.3177919387817383,
-0.5175220966339111,
-0.4024837911128998,
-0.10651878267526627,
-0.375118225812912,
-0.9834169149398804,
-0.06655313819646835,
0.39011627435684204,
-0.5436629056930542,
-0.33803942799568176,
0.6241355538368225,
0.15218664705753326,
-0.01410840917378664,
-0.1442008763551712,
0.024034855887293816,
-0.01963779889047146,
0.1726716160774231,
-0.44218766689300537,
0.2036169469356537,
0.45930933952331543,
-0.5491268038749695,
0.12917864322662354,
-0.2472444772720337,
-0.009945154190063477,
0.7699080109596252,
0.44508790969848633,
0.25313976407051086,
-0.6886827349662781,
0.35862693190574646,
0.4711865484714508,
-0.03511799871921539,
0.11665350943803787,
-0.13281412422657013,
0.053745973855257034,
-0.15864349901676178,
0.2813023626804352,
-0.5232487916946411,
0.44735944271087646,
0.6196480393409729,
-0.07062167674303055,
-0.11535833030939102,
0.0030551375821232796,
0.16707006096839905,
0.716032087802887,
0.25364336371421814,
0.22955378890037537,
-0.3557063937187195,
0.4595471918582916,
-0.39038562774658203,
0.3801968991756439,
-0.6294656991958618,
-0.49503228068351746,
-0.11409420520067215,
-0.3665945529937744,
-0.4268339276313782,
0.25012868642807007,
-0.059510476887226105,
0.3436974883079529,
-0.3760685324668884,
0.5090662837028503,
-0.8156929612159729,
-0.2443292886018753,
-0.5028529763221741,
-0.16015830636024475,
-0.0940626785159111,
0.09477666020393372,
-0.0906481072306633,
0.5884038805961609,
-0.43049106001853943,
-0.01595403626561165,
-0.428873211145401,
0.19160129129886627,
0.3158118724822998,
-0.3515864610671997,
0.31275415420532227,
-0.05365119129419327,
0.13284513354301453,
-0.049739278852939606,
-0.010510345920920372,
-0.4028536081314087,
0.3810892701148987,
-0.022663023322820663,
0.19712215662002563,
-0.11009200662374496,
-0.5003309845924377,
0.4949214458465576,
0.5910708904266357,
-0.2474738210439682,
0.29262080788612366,
-0.13903537392616272,
0.3888399004936218,
0.4470801055431366,
0.21127262711524963,
-0.3506949245929718,
-0.8137344121932983,
0.38169777393341064,
-0.5151401162147522,
0.012254377827048302,
-0.5613460540771484,
-0.1694377213716507,
0.683108925819397,
0.4019611179828644,
-0.675510048866272,
0.5894491076469421,
-0.24148406088352203,
0.07509516179561615,
0.01273581013083458,
-0.47873738408088684,
0.32318079471588135,
0.03311976045370102,
1.036732792854309,
0.8579512238502502,
-0.48567870259284973,
0.3062840700149536,
-0.07378987967967987,
0.20960937440395355,
-0.3486708700656891,
-0.23159338533878326,
0.6848134398460388,
0.2900766432285309,
0.48617711663246155,
-0.05524953082203865,
0.26923662424087524,
0.04617142677307129,
-0.3891132175922394,
-0.1881517618894577,
-0.05523382127285004,
0.04902109131217003,
-0.28262072801589966,
-0.08919447660446167,
0.6178931593894958,
0.9176453351974487,
-0.6179957389831543,
0.13743256032466888,
0.18339301645755768,
0.005101518239825964,
0.4849240779876709,
-0.05749962478876114,
0.0016453550197184086,
0.05345680192112923,
-0.13036088645458221,
0.3847775459289551,
-0.18713754415512085,
0.17242395877838135,
0.10211155563592911,
-0.0013361215824261308,
0.18926212191581726,
0.5824424028396606,
-0.328499972820282,
0.02665048837661743,
0.203521728515625,
0.009379686787724495,
-0.6362213492393494,
-0.5001240372657776,
0.3115697503089905,
-0.7624040842056274,
0.14258581399917603,
-0.10394354909658432,
-0.23984690010547638,
0.48545128107070923,
0.5034160017967224,
-0.4180462062358856,
-0.433268666267395,
0.0599539652466774,
-0.37230297923088074,
-0.36042675375938416,
-0.2966582477092743,
0.9787787199020386,
0.5359570980072021,
0.03982963785529137,
0.16062390804290771,
-0.4630618989467621,
0.25596269965171814,
0.1845388412475586,
-0.6134071946144104,
-0.13442587852478027,
0.04815474897623062,
0.42431455850601196,
-0.557545006275177,
0.3299712538719177,
1.001654028892517,
-0.25998446345329285,
-0.41240811347961426,
0.3684915602207184,
-0.13420648872852325,
0.0120553532615304,
0.5938366055488586,
0.09571236371994019,
-0.09179436415433884,
0.2866118848323822,
-0.12717346847057343,
-0.338620662689209,
0.4367467164993286,
0.3840351402759552,
-0.02957814931869507,
0.3347318172454834,
0.2714079022407532,
-0.13146668672561646,
-0.12408877909183502,
0.41020241379737854,
-0.2245805412530899,
0.1810382902622223,
-0.03765997290611267,
1.106630563735962,
0.09153281897306442,
0.05271684750914574,
0.5465631484985352,
-0.10877642780542374,
0.047818031162023544,
-0.2863302528858185,
-0.2717069685459137,
-0.01910657249391079,
-0.6599223017692566,
0.22908912599086761,
-0.24088455736637115,
0.9651816487312317,
-0.18380877375602722,
-0.06927971541881561,
-0.5425469875335693,
0.27787601947784424,
0.09564580768346786,
-0.04428756982088089,
-0.34565263986587524,
-0.052448246628046036,
-0.7875251173973083,
0.15802784264087677,
0.30859968066215515,
-0.41001617908477783,
-0.15609703958034515,
0.4517926275730133
] |
200080
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthals%2C%20Bandits%20and%20Farmers
|
Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers
|
Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers: How Agriculture Really Began is a book on prehistoric agriculture and anthropology by the British science writer Colin Tudge.
The book is one of a series of long essays by respected contemporary Darwinian thinkers, which were published under the collective title Darwinism Today. The series was inspired by a course of 'Darwin Seminars' which took place at the London School of Economics−LSE in London in the late 1990s.
In Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers, Colin Tudge offers an explanation for the beginning of the population explosion. Tudge explains that farming was not suddenly invented 10,000 years ago, but had existed as what he called proto-farming or hobby farming for at least 30,000 years earlier. What happened 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent was the raising of sea level at the end of the last ice age over a relatively short period of time. This forced a population who were primarily hunter-gatherers to leave a rich prey region and to move inland. The new area was less able to support these immigrants as hunter-gatherers, and they were forced to increase their labors to extend their use of farming in order to maintain their population.
The following quote gives Tudge's explanation for what happened next:
"Hunter gatherers take from their environment only what their environment happens to produce; and if they take too much, the desirable prey species collapse. [...] But the whole point of agriculture is to manipulate the environment so as to increase the amount of food that it will provide. [...] And if you increase the food supply, you can increase your own population. But then, of course, the farmers find themselves in a vicious spiral. The more they farm, the more their population rises and the more they are obliged to farm, because only by farming can they feed the extra mouths."
See also
References
External links
Yale Press.edu: Short summary of the book
Edge.org: Biography of Colin Tudge
1999 non-fiction books
History books about agriculture
Anthropology books
Human evolution books
Hunter-gatherers
Neanderthals
Prehistoric agriculture
Hachette (publisher) books
|
[
0.3222634196281433,
0.5414237976074219,
-1.0945931673049927,
-0.14631566405296326,
-0.05284710228443146,
0.7391597628593445,
0.21179813146591187,
0.3226293623447418,
0.07974542677402496,
-0.13017261028289795,
0.0033845813013613224,
0.10074099153280258,
0.03874402493238449,
0.5843772888183594,
0.009609229862689972,
0.819180965423584,
-0.45443785190582275,
0.03360459581017494,
-0.23063240945339203,
0.0500764399766922,
0.16603991389274597,
-0.16457566618919373,
0.6352525353431702,
0.16321790218353271,
-0.024182729423046112,
-0.29365673661231995,
0.16049566864967346,
-0.18636389076709747,
-0.2982844412326813,
-0.2969488203525543,
-0.41167187690734863,
0.8349820375442505,
0.050144653767347336,
-0.8404710292816162,
-0.06303727626800537,
-0.1802164763212204,
-0.44159138202667236,
-0.35507872700691223,
0.08580261468887329,
-0.3595311641693115,
0.06229569762945175,
0.4949797987937927,
-0.11863961815834045,
0.8695382475852966,
-0.3562728762626648,
-0.3506266474723816,
-1.2733062505722046,
0.3345048725605011,
-0.6727045774459839,
-0.46428120136260986,
-0.11285443603992462,
0.2059333771467209,
0.7238617539405823,
0.17294420301914215,
0.06909208744764328,
0.701590359210968,
-1.1474424600601196,
-0.5813731551170349,
0.18179307878017426,
0.009972166270017624,
0.7888039946556091,
0.570308268070221,
-0.6123202443122864,
-0.12080308049917221,
-0.2176697850227356,
0.3758166432380676,
0.18638727068901062,
0.8064306378364563,
0.17347346246242523,
-0.6103947758674622,
-0.48762115836143494,
-0.31243619322776794,
0.06894807517528534,
0.8597084879875183,
0.03727960214018822,
-0.7083579301834106,
0.5401230454444885,
-0.04850747063755989,
0.3861532211303711,
-0.44192519783973694,
-0.17108291387557983,
0.10396609455347061,
0.8234152793884277,
0.1633058786392212,
0.5800396800041199,
0.19079166650772095,
-0.22813241183757782,
-0.06180746108293533,
-0.5390656590461731,
-0.15571078658103943,
-0.15081261098384857,
-0.010123430751264095,
0.24601715803146362,
0.500768780708313,
-0.4562443196773529,
0.09914097934961319,
-0.0395805649459362,
-0.4224478304386139,
0.07020802795886993,
0.24866075813770294,
0.07986238598823547,
0.3862207531929016,
0.7210943698883057,
0.05297282710671425,
-0.45826271176338196,
-0.20866909623146057,
0.09791845828294754,
-0.3874977231025696,
0.2745376527309418,
0.05083322897553444,
-0.40323981642723083,
0.37761470675468445,
-0.23040471971035004,
0.0618147999048233,
0.4387151002883911,
0.5331238508224487,
0.28486236929893494,
-0.6896924376487732,
-0.6742225885391235,
0.3435284495353699,
-0.3779674768447876,
0.8013260364532471,
-0.2629353106021881,
0.6053383946418762,
-0.5144170522689819,
-0.059331998229026794,
0.4246441423892975,
-0.20423656702041626,
-0.3379833996295929,
0.6367153525352478,
0.6864904165267944,
0.7063087821006775,
-0.4066953659057617,
0.07897710055112839,
-0.347562700510025,
-0.3254205584526062,
0.7442408800125122,
0.37540557980537415,
0.2985464930534363,
0.40116873383522034,
-0.7243880033493042,
-0.6985004544258118,
0.08268217742443085,
0.046011656522750854,
0.3746829330921173,
-0.0028882476035505533,
-0.2928122580051422,
0.017979418858885765,
-0.1563907265663147,
-0.07192479074001312,
-0.2639302909374237,
-0.3101279139518738,
-0.08696728199720383,
-0.08695075660943985,
-0.2582937479019165,
1.0205525159835815,
0.02965843304991722,
0.2312573492527008,
0.2823165953159332,
0.1229383796453476,
0.45210519433021545,
0.12545061111450195,
-0.40286359190940857,
-0.08976196497678757,
0.07629154622554779,
-0.3259411156177521,
0.7608674168586731,
0.41906505823135376,
0.042655766010284424,
0.3167414665222168,
-0.7246288061141968,
-0.0038525876589119434,
0.37279626727104187,
-0.7384853959083557,
0.1411902755498886,
0.3272874653339386,
0.5838309526443481,
0.6483836770057678,
0.2362801432609558,
0.01134713925421238,
-0.540622353553772,
-0.03206691890954971,
0.10815820842981339,
-0.28609901666641235,
0.6567697525024414,
-0.25191089510917664,
0.2621736228466034,
0.006112975999712944,
-0.1502625048160553,
0.04716693237423897,
-1.0526843070983887,
-0.45579013228416443,
0.8600425124168396,
-0.6016346216201782,
0.8496654629707336,
0.2932916581630707,
-0.0663999691605568,
0.6877253651618958,
-0.30652594566345215,
0.4438149929046631,
-0.37161266803741455,
-0.525144636631012,
-0.1428467482328415,
0.2939319312572479,
-0.40860313177108765,
0.32785743474960327,
-0.12993890047073364,
-0.40739864110946655,
0.72163325548172,
0.39809557795524597,
0.3687381446361542,
-0.06578551977872849,
0.39096876978874207,
0.16304519772529602,
-0.006151515990495682,
0.2490975707769394,
0.25163066387176514,
0.3678286671638489,
-0.21076664328575134,
-0.6357628703117371,
0.8317201137542725,
0.13568159937858582,
0.14919842779636383,
0.28579679131507874,
-0.16355350613594055,
0.5382831692695618,
0.15369215607643127,
0.3149542808532715,
0.22158479690551758,
-0.7930907011032104,
0.08794568479061127,
0.5137279033660889,
0.23950016498565674,
-0.7315124869346619,
0.1348101794719696,
-0.056002069264650345,
-0.6929963827133179,
-0.4377361834049225,
-0.2050955891609192,
0.1796341985464096,
0.3409002423286438,
0.10751228779554367,
-0.4294738471508026,
-0.28411924839019775,
-0.23642338812351227,
-0.3140594959259033,
0.08962564170360565,
0.5753424167633057,
-0.5735427737236023,
-0.2011987417936325,
0.045349277555942535,
1.0642836093902588,
0.27931854128837585,
-0.32745346426963806,
-0.46481940150260925,
0.15293356776237488,
-0.40693339705467224,
-0.3281394839286804,
1.0392743349075317,
0.15644070506095886,
-0.04785933345556259,
0.14428910613059998,
0.006891733035445213,
-0.15024754405021667,
0.310327410697937,
-0.43251898884773254,
-0.3951019048690796,
-0.9504569172859192,
0.3388241231441498,
0.06878659129142761,
0.6975412368774414,
0.05024160072207451,
-0.25931382179260254,
0.3595045804977417,
0.3055417239665985,
-0.5832216739654541,
0.0797753557562828,
-0.21120434999465942,
-0.2627314627170563,
-0.6037305593490601,
0.34855249524116516,
0.8968782424926758,
0.23731517791748047,
-0.2528485953807831,
-0.6466754674911499,
-0.33139568567276,
0.30944302678108215,
-0.08595054596662521,
0.39365506172180176,
0.10748344659805298,
-0.0569227896630764,
1.0594522953033447,
-0.9351474046707153,
-0.4502846598625183,
-0.15644732117652893,
0.7072202563285828,
-0.4390595257282257,
-0.1338454931974411,
0.4505600035190582,
-0.2104344218969345,
-0.44966357946395874,
0.4578305184841156,
-0.25808805227279663,
0.5245930552482605,
0.3841319680213928,
-0.16405032575130463,
0.039856698364019394,
-0.18626396358013153,
-5.530641078948975,
0.12374100834131241,
-0.2135199010372162,
0.032126642763614655,
0.5422975420951843,
0.6185182929039001,
0.7643435001373291,
-0.29985564947128296,
-0.3577776849269867,
-0.11444185674190521,
0.15880100429058075,
-0.1979215443134308,
-0.3374035656452179,
0.31556838750839233,
0.25291305780410767,
0.4684033989906311,
0.4100211262702942,
0.07008033990859985,
0.03688810393214226,
0.2166839838027954,
0.006092479452490807,
0.019509082660079002,
-0.47797316312789917,
0.30204570293426514,
0.06873349845409393,
1.0527777671813965,
-0.7318363785743713,
0.1149216890335083,
-0.5231227278709412,
0.28189900517463684,
0.22600872814655304,
-0.5626731514930725,
0.013142170384526253,
-0.07448870688676834,
-0.18551002442836761,
0.549060046672821,
0.5236326456069946,
0.5944101214408875,
0.22687441110610962,
0.04181895777583122,
-0.5759902596473694,
0.2830286920070648,
-0.19087627530097961,
0.12030905485153198,
0.35805007815361023,
-0.03193778917193413,
-0.4707011282444,
0.029202900826931,
-0.03909977525472641,
0.40684834122657776,
-0.34465545415878296,
0.2672591507434845,
0.6112543344497681,
0.3975801467895508,
-0.31619992852211,
-0.19195033609867096,
-0.015630332753062248,
-0.06065448001027107,
-0.3779734969139099,
0.13450007140636444,
0.059213556349277496,
-1.0026514530181885,
0.31164735555648804,
-0.4464910924434662,
-0.017276611179113388,
0.020169276744127274,
-0.2815411388874054,
-0.5551794767379761,
-0.06575220823287964,
0.3568458557128906,
-0.39095616340637207,
0.917941689491272,
-0.27955886721611023,
-0.8849404454231262,
-0.04286155849695206,
-0.23823827505111694,
-0.35153815150260925,
-0.020753255113959312,
-0.07540057599544525,
0.04391296207904816,
0.3447813391685486,
-0.6807001829147339,
-0.5803937315940857,
0.4780595004558563,
-0.01892116107046604,
-0.5086356997489929,
-0.18693166971206665,
-0.29751935601234436,
-1.0176725387573242,
0.04625670239329338,
-0.10560212284326553,
-0.14649803936481476,
-0.21244299411773682,
0.5925725698471069,
0.6272404789924622,
0.40010303258895874,
0.10202179849147797,
0.003225862979888916,
0.2838389575481415,
0.03584340587258339,
-0.020537348464131355,
-0.6704361438751221,
-0.14187884330749512,
-0.3556545674800873,
-0.67072993516922,
-0.049965228885412216,
-0.0012390107149258256,
0.585774838924408,
0.6252034306526184,
-0.22011710703372955,
0.25924918055534363,
0.31831517815589905,
-0.47055360674858093,
0.36480647325515747,
0.39372143149375916,
0.13975994288921356,
-0.016776325181126595,
-0.03999488055706024,
1.1189770698547363,
0.18571354448795319,
-0.10545548051595688,
-0.024895980954170227,
-0.37089961767196655,
-0.5214800834655762,
0.12465327978134155,
-0.5203336477279663,
1.2188613414764404,
0.15248101949691772,
-0.1559750735759735,
-0.2459402233362198,
-0.2805311679840088,
-0.058823466300964355,
-0.7393999695777893,
-0.09692173451185226,
-0.019185870885849,
-0.1866932213306427,
-0.5897024273872375,
-0.16855104267597198,
-0.29484736919403076,
0.42524105310440063,
-0.36225977540016174,
-0.5877578854560852,
0.2466827630996704,
0.4272139072418213,
-0.17822647094726562,
-0.03919842839241028,
0.1480759233236313,
-0.3073391318321228,
0.062271181493997574,
0.4391033947467804,
-0.17697013914585114,
0.20447196066379547,
0.6594460010528564,
-0.1975766122341156,
0.4111202657222748,
-0.465906023979187,
0.05873006954789162,
0.3444042205810547,
-0.6744487285614014,
-0.4666978418827057,
0.43456020951271057,
-0.3043549656867981,
-0.7470026016235352,
-0.018980473279953003,
0.4349003732204437,
-0.08732559531927109,
-0.12211062014102936,
-1.1305515766143799,
-0.429659366607666,
0.34206610918045044,
0.27336978912353516,
-0.27696728706359863,
-0.11614766716957092,
-0.16454407572746277,
0.5797531604766846,
-0.6910200119018555,
0.1414678543806076,
0.21203398704528809,
-0.22802264988422394,
-0.13025438785552979,
0.039120350033044815,
0.32481110095977783,
-0.41930127143859863,
-0.03839535638689995,
0.5584374070167542,
-0.4515833854675293,
-0.03806166350841522,
-0.10184365510940552,
-0.5545395016670227,
0.4517878293991089,
0.0058416095562279224,
0.7344199419021606,
0.9348298907279968,
0.23677532374858856,
-0.6468223929405212,
-0.6967403292655945,
-0.1173081025481224,
0.033504121005535126,
-0.014693111181259155,
-0.866622805595398,
0.4581184387207031,
0.6259748935699463,
0.3342885673046112,
0.5627478361129761,
0.195798859000206,
-0.942272424697876,
-0.598940908908844,
-0.7114319801330566,
-0.7599747180938721,
0.6296103000640869,
-0.2756085991859436,
-0.22224575281143188,
-0.012525220401585102,
0.5038673877716064,
-0.4707407057285309,
-0.05236823484301567,
0.18994973599910736,
0.1974785029888153,
-0.2864774465560913,
0.013535303063690662,
0.0963742583990097,
-0.06145216524600983,
-0.8945149183273315,
0.11488115787506104,
-0.7209089994430542,
0.5498476624488831,
0.2646116018295288,
-0.4146353304386139,
0.4240715503692627,
-0.6654792428016663,
-0.09401257336139679,
-0.05645499750971794,
0.3180195987224579,
0.1736954003572464,
-0.23041211068630219,
0.3510439693927765,
0.35045504570007324,
0.25915247201919556,
0.024882225319743156,
0.25679972767829895,
0.5127564072608948,
0.11739334464073181,
0.712225079536438,
-0.2215803563594818,
0.3407326638698578,
0.2392815798521042,
-0.17033563554286957,
-0.10417456924915314,
-0.4591635763645172,
-0.28671061992645264,
-0.3311308026313782,
0.16328148543834686,
-0.7280872464179993,
-0.237775057554245,
0.5259740948677063,
-0.8253145217895508,
-0.2127269059419632,
-0.04207237809896469,
-0.06153249740600586,
-0.5593525767326355,
0.14749374985694885,
0.04555888473987579,
-0.2616950571537018,
0.04093031957745552,
0.5986720323562622,
-0.25865134596824646,
0.4637841284275055,
-0.1713116616010666,
0.7128541469573975,
-0.4208587408065796,
-0.4015538990497589,
-0.6167518496513367,
0.24773390591144562,
0.7801355123519897,
0.5943339467048645,
-0.29870477318763733,
-0.0461915098130703,
-1.0588706731796265,
-0.2191150039434433,
-0.6599430441856384,
-0.24478599429130554,
-0.016788046807050705,
0.2246493697166443,
-0.49672454595565796,
0.257190078496933,
-0.7268706560134888,
-0.024288184940814972,
-0.5571449398994446,
0.2087758630514145,
-0.2557432949542999,
-0.5907221436500549,
-0.03372754901647568,
0.048085179179906845,
-0.532010018825531,
0.4973605275154114,
0.4953511953353882,
0.18242308497428894,
-0.4556470811367035,
-0.04309643432497978,
-0.5762266516685486,
-0.21599026024341583,
0.4678240120410919,
0.39264094829559326,
-0.14567042887210846,
0.26972872018814087,
-0.10771820694208145,
-0.01630305126309395,
0.621619701385498,
-0.09982646256685257,
0.3048810362815857,
0.17645107209682465,
-0.08035832643508911,
0.36376553773880005,
0.5594411492347717,
-0.5307135581970215,
0.10689844191074371,
0.0333879329264164,
-0.9835084676742554,
-0.14164018630981445,
0.289941668510437,
0.1573009043931961,
0.6491726040840149,
0.5605596899986267,
-0.3329349160194397,
0.11203920096158981,
0.648377001285553,
-0.5424600839614868,
-0.05012082681059837,
0.15915970504283905,
-0.02842525951564312,
0.0994289368391037,
0.6179283857345581,
-0.5338677763938904,
0.3282451927661896,
0.6459901928901672,
0.33600449562072754,
0.2954395115375519,
-0.8308873176574707,
0.45465412735939026,
0.8754579424858093,
-0.13631922006607056,
0.16833864152431488,
-0.11762920767068863,
-0.0833829939365387,
-0.37665513157844543,
0.016756482422351837,
-0.2278507798910141,
-0.30488723516464233,
0.31864771246910095,
0.30557680130004883,
0.682887613773346,
0.07523848861455917,
-0.07981903105974197,
-0.49862876534461975,
0.34751778841018677,
-0.20730513334274292,
-0.3262258768081665,
0.11072034388780594,
-0.47087568044662476,
0.36635082960128784,
0.33955273032188416,
0.018465707078576088,
-0.42494258284568787,
-0.12412185966968536,
0.2764330208301544,
0.1596071422100067,
0.008477570489048958,
-0.4121979773044586,
-0.23627735674381256,
0.17437587678432465,
0.530733048915863,
-0.32988113164901733,
0.10332387685775757,
0.16065476834774017,
0.5488689541816711,
0.06735295057296753,
0.387652188539505,
-0.01786147803068161,
-0.026887783780694008,
0.09266281127929688,
-0.5282073616981506,
-0.07540549337863922,
-0.09781652688980103,
-0.07853378355503082,
0.36950287222862244,
0.19835695624351501,
-0.33351433277130127,
0.24478094279766083,
-0.09072474390268326,
-0.5254936218261719,
-0.012684090994298458,
-1.1587880849838257,
-0.19363316893577576,
-0.012387746013700962,
-0.7538579702377319,
-0.24085575342178345,
-0.5330097675323486,
0.7744795680046082,
-0.12440206855535507,
0.0846770852804184,
0.26189109683036804,
0.0031069107353687286,
-0.22154191136360168,
0.4152052700519562,
-0.37422576546669006,
0.45146843791007996,
-0.6253858208656311,
0.1506909877061844,
-0.43365347385406494,
0.8018956780433655,
-0.030374618247151375,
-0.3622850477695465,
-0.20778051018714905,
0.31558966636657715,
0.0745178610086441,
0.16145578026771545,
-0.1943122148513794,
-0.5522825121879578,
-0.18108372390270233,
-0.6176323294639587,
0.21451658010482788,
-0.5274146795272827,
-0.2431795597076416,
-0.03236725181341171,
-0.5458109378814697,
-0.17340277135372162,
0.2742108702659607,
0.24077235162258148,
-0.239773228764534,
0.6716160774230957,
0.12119243294000626,
0.2883965075016022,
-0.7455553412437439,
-0.5826199054718018,
0.20562909543514252,
-0.3389134705066681,
0.7172583341598511,
0.7948670983314514,
0.27556276321411133,
-0.40616536140441895,
0.5254860520362854,
-0.4077407717704773,
0.6330255270004272,
0.05118194967508316,
-0.20413915812969208,
0.1897437423467636,
0.18280433118343353,
-0.19034253060817719,
-0.38606518507003784,
0.574816107749939,
-0.33429965376853943,
0.5405667424201965,
-0.34991034865379333,
-0.5052022933959961,
-0.17212346196174622,
-0.18658265471458435,
0.18507544696331024,
-0.7320811748504639,
0.36371347308158875,
-0.804253101348877
] |
200082
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kionga%20Triangle
|
Kionga Triangle
|
The Kionga Triangle (, ) was a small region of German East Africa situated at the mouth of the Ruvuma River. The Ruvuma served as the border between the German colony and Portuguese Mozambique, and the Kionga Triangle was the only section of German East Africa south of the river. Its principal settlement was Kionga (now Quionga) which had a population of 4,000 in 1910. It became a German possession in 1894 but came under Portuguese control in April 1916 during World War I. The post-war Treaty of Versailles reaffirmed that the river was the border between Tanganyika, then under British control, and Portuguese Mozambique. The triangle was the only territory that the treaty awarded to Portugal.
Today, the former Kionga Triangle forms part of Cabo Delgado Province in Mozambique.
See also
Postage stamps and postal history of Kionga
References
Further reading
Thomas, H. B., "The Kionga Triangle", Tanganyika Notes and Records Volume 31 1951, pages 47–50.
Former German colonies
Former Portuguese colonies
Military history of German East Africa
History of Mozambique
1894 establishments in the German colonial empire
1916 disestablishments in the German colonial empire
1916 establishments in Portuguese Mozambique
1894 establishments in Africa
|
[
0.062140535563230515,
-0.3195437490940094,
-0.6945781707763672,
-0.17332980036735535,
-0.13584373891353607,
0.6597852110862732,
0.3966037929058075,
-0.04880550876259804,
-0.6862258315086365,
-0.44851651787757874,
0.008731365203857422,
-0.29464948177337646,
-0.723609447479248,
0.6179280281066895,
0.006556980777531862,
0.24615636467933655,
0.20389334857463837,
-0.23765869438648224,
0.1915551722049713,
-0.4603738486766815,
-0.09780360013246536,
-0.07159332931041718,
-0.40422528982162476,
0.48346930742263794,
0.24453836679458618,
-0.26188305020332336,
0.9034124612808228,
0.35082146525382996,
0.6135505437850952,
-0.08060099929571152,
0.41252878308296204,
0.34953993558883667,
-0.5063157677650452,
0.08431190997362137,
0.31214675307273865,
0.17017340660095215,
-0.172703817486763,
-0.2305065393447876,
-0.0167426485568285,
-0.06400101631879807,
-0.035088300704956055,
0.29908668994903564,
0.33746418356895447,
0.368055522441864,
0.062384556978940964,
-0.3818504512310028,
-1.1429567337036133,
0.4008849561214447,
-0.33690887689590454,
0.015434885397553444,
-1.0921348333358765,
0.7792132496833801,
0.6122920513153076,
0.31619682908058167,
0.18085995316505432,
0.5585619211196899,
-0.3591247498989105,
0.40347349643707275,
0.5899056792259216,
-0.9921203851699829,
0.2874397933483124,
-0.021983154118061066,
-0.06210639700293541,
-0.14054127037525177,
-0.7436842918395996,
0.5928581953048706,
0.10587573796510696,
0.6281211972236633,
0.08924055844545364,
-0.6470015048980713,
0.0438980758190155,
0.2570655643939972,
0.1012958362698555,
0.04261915758252144,
-0.1676667332649231,
-0.06335798650979996,
-0.2770422697067261,
-0.1390066295862198,
0.2576289772987366,
0.50916588306427,
-0.4933002293109894,
-0.2752951979637146,
0.6071678996086121,
-0.9098626375198364,
0.7385363578796387,
0.12960150837898254,
-0.3434237837791443,
0.012248113751411438,
-0.4119871258735657,
0.09167256951332092,
-0.7958438992500305,
-0.4036749601364136,
-0.26888370513916016,
-0.08358518034219742,
-0.15211200714111328,
-0.08880604058504105,
0.1733396202325821,
0.402419775724411,
0.21170201897621155,
0.8228999972343445,
-0.18673384189605713,
-0.442046195268631,
0.6891903877258301,
0.2874126136302948,
-1.0775339603424072,
-0.7642711400985718,
-0.32492002844810486,
-0.18648678064346313,
-0.287374347448349,
-0.3680677115917206,
-0.7494395971298218,
-0.2347954362630844,
-0.09139202535152435,
-0.35880494117736816,
-0.4918361306190491,
0.06416375935077667,
-0.5376671552658081,
-0.19433411955833435,
-0.24867630004882812,
0.05142737552523613,
0.3450663983821869,
0.19776451587677002,
-0.45958006381988525,
0.7703760266304016,
0.0019373969407752156,
0.02862991765141487,
0.40459972620010376,
0.08510655164718628,
-0.8078156113624573,
0.696037232875824,
0.4693576991558075,
0.618598997592926,
0.1054677665233612,
0.04566105455160141,
0.00920501071959734,
-0.314616858959198,
0.1363750696182251,
0.27555108070373535,
0.29386353492736816,
-0.4057268500328064,
-1.004713773727417,
0.017445875331759453,
-0.5845667719841003,
0.12818558514118195,
0.11323479562997818,
0.02482299879193306,
-0.21169160306453705,
-0.5518481731414795,
0.27368682622909546,
-0.9919216632843018,
-0.11705365777015686,
-0.4228912591934204,
0.10444452613592148,
0.19892103970050812,
-0.27464982867240906,
0.4571652114391327,
0.09295232594013214,
-0.2828315198421478,
0.609550952911377,
0.06777604669332504,
0.5648800730705261,
0.39410609006881714,
0.22171632945537567,
0.5214970111846924,
0.16214336454868317,
0.3084529638290405,
0.3033176362514496,
-0.2319938987493515,
0.2938750386238098,
0.6288986206054688,
-0.09600087255239487,
0.11803826689720154,
0.0710560753941536,
-0.4238602817058563,
-0.644769012928009,
-0.2252388894557953,
-0.16026698052883148,
-0.05237331613898277,
0.21767927706241608,
0.12858207523822784,
-0.6166011095046997,
-0.055227477103471756,
-0.5681565999984741,
0.04639079049229622,
-0.018590562045574188,
0.48664477467536926,
0.42791491746902466,
0.23729458451271057,
-0.41191616654396057,
0.20086772739887238,
-0.2772934138774872,
-0.3792721927165985,
0.23584438860416412,
-0.08606115728616714,
1.1844226121902466,
0.014360422268509865,
-0.3032843768596649,
0.2965272068977356,
0.19140133261680603,
0.5644828081130981,
-0.15640071034431458,
-0.10998255759477615,
0.3987908363342285,
-0.44753047823905945,
-0.6786407232284546,
0.4361216127872467,
-0.3396829068660736,
0.09835868328809738,
-0.1475648283958435,
0.6127726435661316,
-0.16246771812438965,
-0.07735389471054077,
-0.09150107204914093,
-0.47785404324531555,
0.6616573333740234,
0.2353382259607315,
-0.045918241143226624,
-0.28444305062294006,
0.14769524335861206,
-0.6113627552986145,
0.4188244640827179,
0.5340743660926819,
0.019511252641677856,
-0.07940468192100525,
0.5077002644538879,
0.7785200476646423,
0.554983377456665,
0.5693545341491699,
0.6203563213348389,
-0.433490127325058,
-0.2583649158477783,
0.4440562427043915,
0.4634549915790558,
-0.42216870188713074,
0.4517362415790558,
-0.30384302139282227,
0.11679545789957047,
-0.8614349961280823,
0.2676250636577606,
0.02723446488380432,
0.2130654901266098,
-0.06595129519701004,
-0.8134912252426147,
-0.3766035735607147,
0.6085007190704346,
0.3820326328277588,
0.29124754667282104,
-0.23988822102546692,
-0.41799670457839966,
0.2490968555212021,
0.11585164070129395,
0.8412144780158997,
0.08714844286441803,
0.2289639115333557,
-0.16761423647403717,
-0.1994914710521698,
0.11539369821548462,
-0.7165973782539368,
0.7559809684753418,
-0.5479133129119873,
0.3344457149505615,
0.0262118112295866,
-0.2724374532699585,
0.15209266543388367,
0.07388847321271896,
-0.19209891557693481,
0.1480334848165512,
-0.6031423211097717,
0.5030441880226135,
0.4370194673538208,
0.4597165584564209,
-0.6026466488838196,
-0.20581647753715515,
-0.5674912333488464,
0.026842299848794937,
-0.438862144947052,
-0.08470648527145386,
0.04102257639169693,
-0.22568288445472717,
-0.03283623605966568,
0.466697096824646,
0.16219349205493927,
0.006892117206007242,
-1.2822526693344116,
0.06068405881524086,
0.12824223935604095,
-0.054316017776727676,
0.19247347116470337,
-0.5553238391876221,
-0.006264521740376949,
-0.2603518068790436,
-0.04808049649000168,
-0.38113388419151306,
0.2361769676208496,
-0.08507391065359116,
0.044451188296079636,
-0.696892499923706,
0.22043034434318542,
0.7007105946540833,
-0.6704460382461548,
-0.2885291874408722,
0.7132912874221802,
-0.6593008041381836,
0.0005201980238780379,
-0.21834063529968262,
0.19505247473716736,
-0.497761994600296,
0.2809314727783203,
-5.593626022338867,
0.3471512496471405,
-0.17196570336818695,
-0.055987171828746796,
-0.7262634634971619,
-0.049884501844644547,
0.4166252017021179,
0.3158010244369507,
0.34951627254486084,
-0.4679805636405945,
0.2392893135547638,
-0.43369144201278687,
-0.33634835481643677,
0.02484619989991188,
0.16887274384498596,
0.6170452833175659,
0.688530445098877,
0.3853347599506378,
0.3832390010356903,
0.0581514947116375,
-0.3945315182209015,
0.5807291865348816,
-0.403053879737854,
-0.26251158118247986,
-0.2315312623977661,
0.37340235710144043,
-0.4236489534378052,
-0.7221153378486633,
-0.9072219729423523,
-0.6997126340866089,
-0.5910980105400085,
-0.41919592022895813,
-0.3841971755027771,
-0.18722370266914368,
0.014110498130321503,
0.0080349026247859,
0.5309157371520996,
0.25948596000671387,
0.5618178248405457,
-0.1993105709552765,
-0.5016717910766602,
0.2637766897678375,
-0.16159158945083618,
0.20225858688354492,
0.4133429229259491,
-0.4074680805206299,
-0.5493195652961731,
-0.3053576946258545,
-0.164999321103096,
0.7054750919342041,
-0.20495842397212982,
0.1789351999759674,
0.4320906698703766,
0.34460708498954773,
0.2428266555070877,
0.28046026825904846,
0.15035483241081238,
-0.230427548289299,
-0.4878070652484894,
0.6266019344329834,
0.6431550979614258,
-0.6110544800758362,
-0.1490766704082489,
-0.5077025294303894,
-0.07338796555995941,
-0.2727073132991791,
-0.019871314987540245,
-0.0497855506837368,
0.07804850488901138,
0.3376668095588684,
0.2850094139575958,
0.08660423755645752,
-0.15225756168365479,
-0.8456842303276062,
-0.27163130044937134,
-0.4052925109863281,
-0.6858519911766052,
-0.28173258900642395,
-0.07710881531238556,
-0.28332170844078064,
-0.31251436471939087,
0.041365984827280045,
-0.13638059794902802,
0.42138075828552246,
0.32958582043647766,
-0.4538959264755249,
-0.5052396059036255,
0.2774087190628052,
-0.07936643809080124,
-0.02711203508079052,
0.04683335870504379,
-0.3399772047996521,
0.5275788903236389,
0.37773028016090393,
-0.3009362518787384,
0.6578221321105957,
0.21772417426109314,
-0.2023671418428421,
0.5019831657409668,
-0.33342429995536804,
0.49179911613464355,
-0.6022083759307861,
-0.49286606907844543,
0.10061559826135635,
-0.29269102215766907,
-0.006623693276196718,
-0.11946287751197815,
0.40662693977355957,
0.4366864562034607,
0.08738074451684952,
-0.03906504809856415,
-0.19216129183769226,
-0.21901556849479675,
-0.013263944536447525,
0.9266185164451599,
-0.3128177523612976,
0.20213912427425385,
0.9801355004310608,
0.739563524723053,
-0.10115066915750504,
0.016430070623755455,
0.2347894310951233,
0.03097744844853878,
0.08737915754318237,
0.20515520870685577,
0.28999897837638855,
-0.0069763087667524815,
-0.22384987771511078,
-0.4503633975982666,
0.6624007821083069,
0.06442669779062271,
-0.25287631154060364,
0.014668741263449192,
-0.5727877616882324,
0.17386968433856964,
-0.5538121461868286,
-0.6537255644798279,
-1.206412672996521,
0.451393723487854,
0.3847351372241974,
0.1095062643289566,
0.09750610589981079,
0.06450768560171127,
0.18234418332576752,
0.3831435441970825,
0.6067444682121277,
-0.3531564474105835,
-0.6452476382255554,
-0.7255620956420898,
0.16655243933200836,
-0.627611517906189,
-0.12684226036071777,
-0.23233908414840698,
-0.537885844707489,
-0.23796038329601288,
-0.1014288142323494,
0.021232672035694122,
-0.012279938906431198,
0.3251819610595703,
0.48387885093688965,
0.34835711121559143,
-0.7389580011367798,
-0.8655937314033508,
0.31480973958969116,
0.014758463017642498,
0.014692307449877262,
-0.25402185320854187,
-0.025278059765696526,
0.052327822893857956,
0.1922944039106369,
0.21041251718997955,
-0.9024178385734558,
-0.2758138179779053,
0.48267897963523865,
0.30070391297340393,
-0.21398258209228516,
-0.1999557912349701,
0.8125289082527161,
-0.08757922798395157,
0.08977647125720978,
-0.42734697461128235,
0.20289002358913422,
-0.3927847146987915,
0.5611997842788696,
0.144644096493721,
-0.3139439821243286,
-0.6525200605392456,
0.3404463827610016,
-0.2967366874217987,
0.08459875732660294,
0.8090150952339172,
0.31308865547180176,
-0.013433387503027916,
0.7280415892601013,
-0.1959361732006073,
-0.7812072038650513,
0.17355120182037354,
-0.13151347637176514,
-0.04161106422543526,
-0.4981960952281952,
-0.1494704931974411,
0.5631718635559082,
-0.18364247679710388,
0.5226346254348755,
-0.1473378688097,
-0.17092998325824738,
0.5353922247886658,
0.3626115322113037,
-0.5091830492019653,
0.24140270054340363,
-0.5866992473602295,
-0.44166871905326843,
-0.23763485252857208,
0.8000316023826599,
-0.5884376168251038,
0.4543071687221527,
0.13426877558231354,
-0.32895639538764954,
-0.08141443878412247,
0.4008243680000305,
-0.2531876266002655,
-0.13627174496650696,
-0.24299749732017517,
-0.6664015054702759,
-0.19245681166648865,
0.7838245034217834,
0.20374582707881927,
-0.22415071725845337,
0.30385681986808777,
0.31000909209251404,
-0.40747347474098206,
-0.337518572807312,
0.26706305146217346,
0.09814221411943436,
-0.2860269248485565,
0.42336955666542053,
0.23483309149742126,
-0.2438165694475174,
0.6150328516960144,
0.6016833782196045,
1.1005147695541382,
0.8632617592811584,
0.3469160795211792,
-0.6249757409095764,
0.19650867581367493,
0.3664534091949463,
0.25556740164756775,
-0.2935875654220581,
-0.946160614490509,
0.09557942301034927,
0.020464526489377022,
-0.07330798357725143,
-0.3028161823749542,
-0.7360326647758484,
0.7915802001953125,
0.29800689220428467,
0.1263563334941864,
0.3018060326576233,
0.1947617530822754,
0.2909187376499176,
0.40297403931617737,
0.06379035860300064,
0.13902989029884338,
-0.19298702478408813,
0.3779328167438507,
-0.07127425819635391,
-0.2250201404094696,
-0.06672393530607224,
0.6099402904510498,
-0.4559663236141205,
0.44233718514442444,
-0.05741387978196144,
0.32313117384910583,
0.1530909389257431,
0.06531942635774612,
0.25741642713546753,
-0.2073710411787033,
-0.4075236916542053,
0.2444424033164978,
-0.7664994597434998,
0.03388664498925209,
-0.16038770973682404,
0.20268143713474274,
0.1645294725894928,
0.46977663040161133,
-0.1110786497592926,
-0.6765780448913574,
-0.11073257029056549,
-0.3982269763946533,
-0.35768160223960876,
-0.16797122359275818,
-0.07954071462154388,
0.23676560819149017,
-0.07081092894077301,
0.2035749852657318,
0.21695709228515625,
0.19942353665828705,
-0.12458301335573196,
-0.3316810131072998,
-0.2639487683773041,
-0.4365512728691101,
0.8641402721405029,
-0.0657694861292839,
0.013674131594598293,
0.6668484807014465,
-0.14315107464790344,
-0.39884400367736816,
-0.40426865220069885,
0.33545342087745667,
-0.20315100252628326,
0.4643044173717499,
0.20751260221004486,
-0.46979382634162903,
0.5542474985122681,
-0.4400756061077118,
0.608802855014801,
0.626374363899231,
-0.21605953574180603,
0.3405643701553345,
0.27749568223953247,
0.10910414159297943,
0.3330726623535156,
0.5189749002456665,
0.290418416261673,
0.19643941521644592,
0.6507866382598877,
-0.20229695737361908,
-0.07874992489814758,
0.5025200247764587,
0.4566110372543335,
0.04126369208097458,
-0.4564761221408844,
-0.07365776598453522,
0.0026599904522299767,
-0.536640465259552,
-0.145529106259346,
0.2943861484527588,
-0.34938451647758484,
0.09955408424139023,
0.5877600908279419,
0.252185195684433,
0.6551645398139954,
0.2142791599035263,
-0.1933530569076538,
0.005146336276084185,
-0.032880429178476334,
0.12332795560359955,
0.27625980973243713,
0.6056690812110901,
0.4084746837615967,
0.626159131526947,
-0.09894109517335892,
-0.1789262592792511,
-0.2932957112789154,
0.2220294028520584,
0.5183613300323486,
0.14705267548561096,
-0.5394434928894043,
-0.26304349303245544,
0.1272604912519455,
-0.061174578964710236,
0.005141964182257652,
0.25001031160354614,
-0.21109387278556824,
-0.05671455338597298,
-0.11053526401519775,
-0.25666049122810364,
-0.9751181602478027,
0.04611240699887276,
0.1296500861644745,
0.3518185019493103,
0.1502685844898224,
0.2143038809299469,
0.15664660930633545,
0.22566449642181396,
0.2543851137161255,
-0.4836808741092682,
0.3525497317314148,
-0.08271895349025726,
0.83539879322052,
-0.18274174630641937,
0.10425502806901932,
-0.050237663090229034,
0.29478299617767334,
0.3379766345024109,
-0.8950109481811523,
0.30472803115844727,
-0.0798279419541359,
-0.47193071246147156,
-0.08690334111452103,
0.2069803774356842,
-0.6887997388839722,
-0.11601665616035461,
0.0399637334048748,
-0.45642033219337463,
0.28803732991218567,
-0.5741459131240845,
0.9452675580978394,
-0.143172487616539,
-0.37092477083206177,
-0.03802759572863579,
0.030748119577765465,
0.4240970313549042,
-0.02439441718161106,
-0.1985071897506714,
0.7601766586303711,
-0.46887990832328796,
0.1533612608909607,
-0.45954734086990356,
0.5166568756103516,
0.23835650086402893,
-0.29320791363716125,
-0.08604681491851807,
0.7473792433738708,
-0.16502000391483307,
0.7395279407501221,
0.00649686437100172,
-0.09705324470996857,
-0.04374260827898979,
-0.11003301292657852,
-0.33694523572921753,
-0.8512980937957764,
-0.18981362879276276,
0.2770722806453705,
-0.1010156124830246,
-0.6701132655143738,
0.11514803767204285,
0.35378479957580566,
-0.6782177090644836,
0.5335679650306702,
0.16723424196243286,
-0.41196244955062866,
0.14582392573356628,
-0.24077841639518738,
-0.8546703457832336,
-0.21004532277584076,
0.12041830271482468,
1.2540563344955444,
0.5073391199111938,
-0.37476783990859985,
0.3692701458930969,
-0.3750288486480713,
0.513392448425293,
0.08521395176649094,
-0.32582056522369385,
-0.3772567808628082,
-0.21518391370773315,
-0.7712306976318359,
-0.8500170111656189,
0.4160500764846802,
0.09644948691129684,
0.0033608004450798035,
0.035382360219955444,
-0.5732520222663879,
-0.30657604336738586,
-0.38568350672721863,
0.18104156851768494,
-1.0539982318878174,
0.09831534326076508,
-0.025459934026002884
] |
200085
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal%20direction
|
Cardinal direction
|
The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively. Relative to north, the directions east, south, and west are at 90 degree intervals in the clockwise direction.
The ordinal directions (also called the intercardinal directions) are northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). The intermediate direction of every set of intercardinal and cardinal direction is called a secondary intercardinal direction. These eight shortest points in the compass rose shown to the right are:
West-northwest (WNW)
North-northwest (NNW)
North-northeast (NNE)
East-northeast (ENE)
East-southeast (ESE)
South-southeast (SSE)
South-southwest (SSW)
West-southwest (WSW)
Points between the cardinal directions form the points of the compass. Arbitrary horizontal directions may be indicated by their azimuth angle value.
Location
Difference from bearing
To keep to a bearing is not, in general, the same as going in a straight direction along a great circle. Conversely, one can keep to a great circle and the bearing may change. Thus the bearing of a straight path crossing the North Pole changes abruptly at the Pole from North to South. When travelling East or West, it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and be going straight (without the need to steer). Anywhere else, maintaining latitude requires a change in direction, requires steering. This change in direction becomes increasingly negligible as one moves to a lower latitude
Magnetic compass
The Earth has a magnetic field which is approximately aligned with its axis of rotation. A magnetic compass is a device that uses this field to determine the cardinal directions. Magnetic compasses are widely used, but only moderately accurate. The north pole of the magnetic needle points toward the geographic north pole of the earth and vice versa. This is because the geographic north pole of the earth lies very close to the magnetic south pole of the earth. This south magnetic pole of the earth located at an angle of 17 degrees to the geographic north pole attracts the north pole of the magnetic needle and vice versa.
Sun
The position of the Sun in the sky can be used for orientation if the general time of day is known. In the morning the Sun rises roughly in the east (due east only on the equinoxes) and tracks southward (in the northern hemisphere) or northward (in the southern hemisphere). In the evening, the Sun sets in the west, again roughly and only due west exactly on the equinoxes. In the middle of the day, it is to the south for viewers in the northern hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the southern hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn. This method does not work very well when closer to the equator (i.e. between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn) since, in the northern hemisphere, the sun may be directly overhead or even to the north in summer. Conversely, at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere the sun may be to the south of the observer in summer. In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while the right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows. If they move clockwise, the sun will be in the south at midday, and if they move anticlockwise, then the sun will be in the north at midday. The sun rises from east and sets in West.
Because of the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what the location of the viewer, there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east. These days are the equinoxes. On all other days, depending on the time of year, the sun rises either north or south of true east (and sets north or south of true west). For all locations, the sun is seen to rise north of east (and set north of west) from the Northward equinox to the Southward equinox, and rise south of east (and set south of west) from the Southward equinox to the Northward equinox
Watch dial
There is a traditional method by which an analogue watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock dial takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12. The difference between local time and zone time, the equation of time, and (near the tropics) the non-uniform change of the Sun's azimuth at different times of day limit the accuracy of this method.
Sundial
A portable sundial can be used as a more accurate instrument than a watch for determining the cardinal directions. Because the design of a sundial takes account of the latitude of the observer, it can be used at any latitude. See: Sundial#Using a sundial as a compass.
Astronomy
Astronomy provides a method for finding direction at night. All the stars appear to lie on the imaginary Celestial sphere. Because of the rotation of the Earth, the Celestial Sphere appears to rotate around an axis passing through the North and South poles of the Earth. This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles, which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon.
In either hemisphere, observations of the night sky show that the visible stars appear to be moving in circular paths, caused by the rotation of the Earth. This is best seen in a long exposure photograph, which is obtained by locking the shutter open for most of the intensely dark part of a moonless night. The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be readily derived, and which corresponds to the Celestial pole, which lies directly above the position of the true pole (North or South) on the horizon.
A published photograph exposed for nearly 8 hours demonstrates this effect.
The Northern Celestial pole is currently (but not permanently) within a fraction of 1 degree of the bright star Polaris. The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years because of the precession of the equinoxes. Polaris is also known as the North Star, and is generically called a pole star or lodestar. Polaris is only visible during fair weather at night to inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere.
The asterism "Big Dipper" may be used to find Polaris. The 2 corner stars of the "pan" (those opposite from the handle) point above the top of the "pan" to Polaris.
While observers in the Northern hemisphere can use the star Polaris to determine the Northern celestial pole, the Octans constellation's South Star is hardly visible enough to use for navigation. For this reason, the preferred alternative is to use the constellation Crux (The Southern Cross). The southern celestial pole lies at the intersection of (a) the line along the long axis of crux (i.e. through Alpha Crucis and Gamma Crucis) and (b) a line perpendicularly bisecting the line joining the "Pointers" (Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri).
Gyrocompass
At the very end of the 19th century, in response to the development of battleships with large traversable guns that affected magnetic compasses, and possibly to avoid the need to wait for fair weather at night to precisely verify one's alignment with true north, the gyrocompass was developed for shipboard use. Since it finds true, rather than magnetic, north, it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields. Its major disadvantage is that it depends on technology that many individuals might find too expensive to justify outside the context of a large commercial or military operation. It also requires a continuous power supply for its motors, and that it can be allowed to sit in one location for a period of time while it properly aligns itself.
Satellite navigation
Near the end of the 20th century, the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. In contrast with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS receiver, if it has only one antenna, must be moving, typically at more than 0.1 mph (0.2 km/h), to correctly display compass directions. On ships and aircraft, GPS receivers are often equipped with two or more antennas, separately attached to the vehicle. The exact latitudes and longitudes of the antennas are determined, which allows the cardinal directions to be calculated relative to the structure of the vehicle. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable. The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable alignment with the cardinal directions.
Additional points
Degrees of rotation
The directional names are routinely associated with the degrees of rotation in the unit circle, a necessary step for navigational calculations (derived from trigonometry) and for use with Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) receivers. The four cardinal directions correspond to the following degrees of a compass:
North (N): 0° = 360°
East (E): 90°
South (S): 180°
West (W): 270°
Intercardinal directions
The intercardinal (intermediate, or, historically, ordinal) directions are the four intermediate compass directions located halfway between each pair of cardinal directions.
Northeast (NE), 45°, halfway between north and east, is the opposite of southwest.
Southeast (SE), 135°, halfway between south and east, is the opposite of northwest.
Southwest (SW), 225°, halfway between south and west, is the opposite of northeast.
Northwest (NW), 315°, halfway between north and west, is the opposite of southeast.
These eight directional names have been further compounded known as tertiary intercardinal directions, resulting in a total of 32 named points evenly spaced around the compass: north (N), north by east (NbE), north-northeast (NNE), northeast by north (NEbN), northeast (NE), northeast by east (NEbE), east-northeast (ENE), east by north (EbN), east (E), etc.
Usefulness
With the cardinal points thus accurately defined, by convention cartographers draw standard maps with north (N) at the top, and east (E) at the right. In turn, maps provide a systematic means to record where places are, and cardinal directions are the foundation of a structure for telling someone how to find those places.
North does not have to be at the top. Most maps in medieval Europe, for example, placed east (E) at the top. A few cartographers prefer south-up maps. Many portable GPS-based navigation computers today can be set to display maps either conventionally (N always up, E always right) or with the current instantaneous direction of travel, called the heading, always up (and whatever direction is +90° from that to the right).
In Canada, New Zealand, and the United States, each direction of travel along a numbered highway is assigned a cardinal direction. This cardinal direction may not necessarily match the road's orientation at every given location (see Wrong-way concurrency).
Beyond geography
Cardinal directions or cardinal points may sometimes be extended to include elevation (altitude, depth): north, south, east, west, up and down, or mathematically the six directions of the x-, y-, and z-axes in three-dimensional space. Topographic maps include elevation, typically via contour lines.
In astronomy, the cardinal points of an astronomical body as seen in the sky are four points defined by the directions toward which the celestial poles lie relative to the center of the disk of the object in the sky.
A line (a great circle on the celestial sphere) from the center of the disk to the North celestial pole will intersect the edge of the body (the "limb") at the North point. The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole. Similarly, a line from the center to the South celestial pole will define the South point by its intersection with the limb. The points at right angles to the North and South points are the East and West points. Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point. This is opposite to the order on a terrestrial map because one is looking up instead of down.
Similarly, when describing the location of one astronomical object relative to another, "north" means closer to the North celestial pole, "east" means at a higher right ascension, "south" means closer to the South celestial pole, and "west" means at a lower right ascension. If one is looking at two stars that are below the North Star, for example, the one that is "east" will actually be further to the left.
Germanic origin of names
During the Migration Period, the Germanic names for the cardinal directions entered the Romance languages, where they replaced the Latin names borealis (or septentrionalis) with north, australis (or meridionalis) with south, occidentalis with west and orientalis with east. It is possible that some northern people used the Germanic names for the intermediate directions. Medieval Scandinavian orientation would thus have involved a 45 degree rotation of cardinal directions.
north (Proto-Germanic *norþ-) from the proto-Indo-European *nórto-s 'submerged' from the root *ner- 'left, below, to the left of the rising sun' whence comes the Ancient Greek name Nereus.
east (*aus-t-) from the word for dawn. The proto-Indo-European form is *austo-s from the root *aues- 'shine (red)'. See Ēostre.
south (*sunþ-), derived from proto-Indo-European *sú-n-to-s from the root *seu- 'seethe, boil'. Cognate with this root is the word Sun, thus "the region of the Sun".
west (*wes-t-) from a word for "evening". The proto-Indo-European form is *uestos from the root *ues- 'shine (red)', itself a form of *aues-. Cognate with the root are the Latin words vesper and vesta and the Ancient Greek Hestia, Hesperus and Hesperides.
Cultural variations
In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with cardinal and intercardinal directions. For example, classical Greek culture characterized these winds as Anemoi.
In pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of the compass – cardinal and intercardinal directions – were given names. These often corresponded to the directional winds of the Mediterranean Sea (for example, southeast was linked to the Sirocco, a wind from the Sahara).
Particular colors are associated in some traditions with the cardinal points. These are typically "natural colors" of human perception rather than optical primary colors.
Many cultures, especially in Asia, include the center as a fifth cardinal point.
Northern Eurasia
Central Asian, Eastern European and North East Asian cultures frequently have traditions associating colors with four or five cardinal points.
Systems with five cardinal points (four directions and the center) include those from pre-modern China, as well as traditional Turkic, Tibetan and Ainu cultures. In Chinese tradition, the five cardinal point system is related to I Ching, the Wu Xing and the five naked-eye planets. In traditional Chinese astrology, the zodiacal belt is divided into the four constellation groups corresponding to the directions.
Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a mythological creature of that color. Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of the name of the corresponding direction.
Examples
East: Green (青 "qīng" corresponds to both green and blue); Spring; Wood
Qingdao (Tsingtao): "Green Island", a city on the east coast of China
Green Ukraine
South: Red; Summer; Fire
Red River (Asia): south of China
Red Ruthenia
Red Jews: a semi-mythological group of Jews
Red Croatia
Red Sea
West: White; Autumn; Metal
White Sheep Turkmen
Akdeniz, meaning 'White Sea': Mediterranean Sea in Turkish
Balts, Baltic words containing the stem balt- ("white")
White Ruthenia
White Croatia
North: Black; Winter; Water
Heilongjiang: "Black Dragon River" province in Northeast China, also the Amur River
Kara-Khitan Khanate: "Black Khitans" who originated in Northern China
Karadeniz, literally meaning 'Black Sea': Black Sea in Turkish
Black Hungarians
Black Ruthenia
Center: Yellow; Earth
Huangshan: "Yellow Mountain" in central China
Huang He: "Yellow River" in central China
Golden Horde: "Central Army" of the Mongols
Arabic world
Countries where Arabic is used refer to the cardinal directions as Ash Shamal (N), Al Gharb (W), Ash Sharq (E) and Al Janoob (S). Additionally, Al Wusta is used for the center. All five are used for geographic subdivision names (wilayahs, states, regions, governorates, provinces, districts or even towns), and some are the origin of some Southern Iberian place names (such as Algarve, Portugal and Axarquía, Spain).
Native Americans
In Mesoamerica and North America, a number of traditional indigenous cosmologies include four cardinal directions and a center. Some may also include "above" and "below" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions. Among the Hopi of the Southwestern United States, the four named cardinal directions are not North, South, East and West but are the four directions associated with the places of sunrise and sunset at the winter and summer solstices. Each direction may be associated with a color, which can vary widely between nations, but which is usually one of the basic colors found in nature and natural pigments, such as black, red, white, and yellow, with occasional appearances of blue, green, or other hues. There can be great variety in color symbolism, even among cultures that are close neighbors geographically.
India
Ten Hindu deities, known as the "Dikpālas", have been recognized in classical Indian scriptures, symbolizing the four cardinal and four intercardinal directions with the additional directions of up and down. Each of the ten directions has its own name in Sanskrit.
Indigenous Australia
Some indigenous Australians have cardinal directions deeply embedded in their culture. For example, the Warlpiri people have a cultural philosophy deeply connected to the four cardinal directions and the Guugu Yimithirr people use cardinal directions rather than relative direction even when indicating the position of an object close to their body. (For more information, see: Cultural use of cardinal rather than relative direction.)
The precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in Aboriginal stone arrangements.
Many aboriginal languages contain words for the usual four cardinal directions, but some contain words for 5 or even 6 cardinal directions.
Unique (non-compound) names of intercardinal directions
In some languages, such as Estonian, Finnish and Breton, the intercardinal directions have names that are not compounds of the names of the cardinal directions (as, for instance, northeast is compounded from north and east). In Estonian, those are kirre (northeast), kagu (southeast), edel (southwest), and loe (northwest), in Finnish koillinen (northeast), kaakko (southeast), lounas (southwest), and luode (northwest). In Japanese, there is the interesting situation that native Japanese words (yamato kotoba, kun readings of kanji) are used for the cardinal directions (such as minami for 南, south), but borrowed Chinese words (on readings of kanji) are used for intercardinal directions (such as tō-nan for 東南, southeast, lit. "east-south"). In the Malay language, adding laut (sea) to either east (timur) or west (barat) results in northeast or northwest, respectively, whereas adding daya to west (giving barat daya) results in southwest. Southeast has a special word: tenggara.
Sanskrit and other Indian languages that borrow from it use the names of the gods associated with each direction: east (Indra), southeast (Agni), south (Yama/Dharma), southwest (Nirrti), west (Varuna), northwest (Vayu), north (Kubera/Heaven) and northeast (Ishana/Shiva). North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka). The directions are named by adding "disha" to the names of each god or entity: e.g. Indradisha (direction of Indra) or Pitrdisha (direction of the forefathers i.e. south).
The cardinal directions of the Hopi language and the Tewa dialect spoken by the Hopi-Tewa are related to the places of sunrise and sunset at the solstices, and correspond approximately to the European intercardinal directions.
Non-compass directional systems
Use of the compass directions is common and deeply embedded in European and Chinese culture (see south-pointing chariot). Some other cultures make greater use of other referents, such as toward the sea or toward the mountains (Hawaii, Bali), or upstream and downstream (most notably in ancient Egypt, also in the Yurok and Karuk languages). Lengo (Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands) has four non-compass directions: landward, seaward, upcoast, and downcoast.
Some languages lack words for body-relative directions such as left/right, and use geographical directions instead.
See also
Azimuth
Classical compass winds – an early source of cardinal directions
Cultural synesthesia
Elevation – the mapping information ignored by the cardinal point system
Geocaching – an international hobby
Geographic Information System (GIS)
Latitude and Longitude
List of cartographers – famous map makers through history
List of international common standards
Magnetic deviation – explanation of the slight misalignment of a compass with the Earth's north and south poles
Orienteering – an international hobby/sport that depends on knowledge of cardinal directions and how to locate them
Relative direction
Uses of trigonometry
References
Orientation (geometry)
|
[
-0.3260462284088135,
0.16721691191196442,
0.3423812687397003,
-0.026930633932352066,
-0.038573019206523895,
0.6706036329269409,
0.7642635703086853,
0.6890818476676941,
-0.2072877734899521,
-0.7028800845146179,
-0.40883323550224304,
0.7961285710334778,
-0.1900750994682312,
0.2918453514575958,
-0.05919796973466873,
0.53883296251297,
0.6699361205101013,
0.3483557403087616,
-0.6214474439620972,
-0.07403381913900375,
-0.32949304580688477,
-0.08226955682039261,
0.31195706129074097,
-0.38277027010917664,
0.5053780674934387,
-0.2431424856185913,
-0.4441622197628021,
-0.014149434864521027,
0.1603759378194809,
0.31807252764701843,
0.06974021345376968,
0.6872329711914062,
-0.2435959279537201,
-0.4547975957393646,
-0.09995246678590775,
-0.2884413003921509,
0.6235487461090088,
-0.07945983856916428,
-0.13629506528377533,
-0.20361268520355225,
0.2857326567173004,
-0.21090741455554962,
0.11591115593910217,
-0.049229130148887634,
-0.04799717664718628,
-0.18628425896167755,
-1.1714980602264404,
0.2633647620677948,
-0.06965702027082443,
-0.02062864974141121,
-0.23604688048362732,
-0.06394501775503159,
-0.43828973174095154,
0.3829405903816223,
-0.33517953753471375,
0.1083301231265068,
-0.3443946838378906,
0.27369847893714905,
0.29196256399154663,
-0.5350030660629272,
-0.019447393715381622,
0.2712504267692566,
-0.0145295150578022,
1.0535485744476318,
-0.3789623975753784,
-0.12340162694454193,
-0.2709062397480011,
0.015752654522657394,
-0.4959973394870758,
-0.4444560408592224,
-0.32912781834602356,
0.4351235032081604,
-0.4061572253704071,
0.08987970650196075,
-0.6464319229125977,
-0.27547910809516907,
-0.45858466625213623,
-0.09627101570367813,
-0.12942415475845337,
-0.07499135285615921,
-0.02273198589682579,
0.19840236008167267,
0.33693698048591614,
-0.3184753954410553,
-0.2278321087360382,
-0.008009391836822033,
0.21839135885238647,
0.10144566744565964,
0.4384883642196655,
0.8101114630699158,
0.008216576650738716,
-0.3178495466709137,
0.25508761405944824,
0.34202536940574646,
-0.020428184419870377,
-0.8231919407844543,
0.7334809303283691,
-0.8763266801834106,
-0.05108894407749176,
-0.37225717306137085,
-0.19529034197330475,
0.07809866964817047,
0.21203547716140747,
-0.06849638372659683,
-0.2836233079433441,
-0.4304114580154419,
0.2716433107852936,
-0.41987553238868713,
0.11583953350782394,
0.3615877330303192,
-1.110190987586975,
0.13339516520500183,
0.21898283064365387,
0.028119739145040512,
-0.5333009362220764,
-0.4529578983783722,
0.3995768427848816,
-0.5422806739807129,
0.22484254837036133,
-0.3055034577846527,
-0.018732376396656036,
0.25167983770370483,
-0.032211173325777054,
-0.07149207592010498,
0.4309280812740326,
-0.1044161319732666,
0.2767309546470642,
0.00396679388359189,
-0.5218904614448547,
-0.4690728783607483,
-0.1754986047744751,
0.27964121103286743,
0.49396899342536926,
0.11041194945573807,
-0.19424593448638916,
-0.571814775466919,
-0.025977617129683495,
0.05973876640200615,
0.09489112347364426,
0.5343183279037476,
-0.44340017437934875,
-0.6166152954101562,
-0.3106819987297058,
-0.8161497712135315,
0.5673968195915222,
-0.26260921359062195,
0.1072770357131958,
-0.311320036649704,
-0.4400600790977478,
0.18454550206661224,
-0.11223261803388596,
0.20251114666461945,
-0.31947389245033264,
-0.2644415497779846,
-0.1971076875925064,
-0.2840060889720917,
0.3006007671356201,
0.7728817462921143,
-0.2856403887271881,
-0.30877211689949036,
-0.030153969302773476,
0.2222418636083603,
0.2416463941335678,
0.014348365366458893,
-0.3388885259628296,
0.023052958771586418,
0.46115246415138245,
0.4784368574619293,
-0.3850211501121521,
0.2517834007740021,
-0.33775919675827026,
-0.287144273519516,
0.4411129057407379,
0.47735700011253357,
-0.5476545691490173,
-0.06842073053121567,
0.5360612273216248,
0.10486994683742523,
0.5527915954589844,
-0.4147835075855255,
-0.3197876811027527,
0.4752046465873718,
0.26987290382385254,
0.12198358029127121,
-0.1532561182975769,
-0.11793048679828644,
0.17750902473926544,
0.06657853722572327,
0.21585752069950104,
-0.4160217344760895,
0.06357844173908234,
-0.7946164011955261,
-0.2501031458377838,
-0.3199388086795807,
0.6434216499328613,
-0.4726177155971527,
-0.639455258846283,
0.3987589180469513,
0.015543857589364052,
0.5867725014686584,
-0.09680618345737457,
-0.3688078820705414,
0.50783771276474,
0.5619691610336304,
-0.1275758147239685,
0.22360862791538239,
0.03966651111841202,
0.04316917434334755,
0.49214035272598267,
0.3556500971317291,
-0.3703062832355499,
-0.2901156544685364,
-0.026014143601059914,
0.14750777184963226,
0.32811254262924194,
-0.05471345782279968,
-0.3073582649230957,
-0.05306537076830864,
0.09931334853172302,
-0.15883511304855347,
0.7859222292900085,
-0.34046563506126404,
-0.34223467111587524,
0.21462255716323853,
-0.17939825356006622,
0.3483765125274658,
0.1770382523536682,
0.6189424395561218,
0.05939909443259239,
-0.1092832013964653,
0.2981921434402466,
-0.44407251477241516,
0.1367027461528778,
-0.1381804645061493,
-0.7441677451133728,
0.05772889778017998,
0.35003119707107544,
0.14936481416225433,
0.455282598733902,
-0.8116699457168579,
0.15363001823425293,
0.2210950255393982,
-0.5116647481918335,
0.40202596783638,
-0.2374555468559265,
-0.06810161471366882,
-0.4085426926612854,
-0.007818701677024364,
-0.090799979865551,
0.09264358133077621,
-0.2641647458076477,
-0.08631862699985504,
0.07970943301916122,
0.4102277159690857,
-0.01737692393362522,
-0.05802265182137489,
0.4207698106765747,
0.28517982363700867,
0.46632272005081177,
0.529522716999054,
-0.030900869518518448,
-0.10634257644414902,
0.056975241750478745,
-0.4924326241016388,
-0.0875910073518753,
-0.2957083582878113,
-0.03467821702361107,
0.3424438536167145,
0.5397171974182129,
0.30665478110313416,
-0.15199469029903412,
0.7022613286972046,
-0.2517480254173279,
0.07465541362762451,
-0.4599756598472595,
-0.7077495455741882,
0.6609761118888855,
0.21740658581256866,
-0.38712531328201294,
-0.3478391170501709,
-0.24456697702407837,
-0.035871472209692,
0.42388826608657837,
-0.3832688629627228,
0.4925065040588379,
-0.4858860969543457,
0.045351311564445496,
-0.47262540459632874,
0.07492095232009888,
-0.12970323860645294,
-0.5535848736763,
-0.0036237251479178667,
-0.23079867660999298,
-0.2546021342277527,
-0.21533514559268951,
0.3068457543849945,
0.3464182913303375,
-0.5436104536056519,
-0.12797823548316956,
-0.3474932312965393,
-0.2613475024700165,
-0.32807978987693787,
0.45340538024902344,
-0.11655561625957489,
0.23582243919372559,
-0.16214942932128906,
-0.3719700276851654,
0.8061619400978088,
-6.0111308097839355,
0.05977407097816467,
-0.7547935247421265,
-0.23218438029289246,
-0.13196171820163727,
0.253677099943161,
0.27005788683891296,
-0.04678943008184433,
0.28460097312927246,
-0.47978487610816956,
-0.43721893429756165,
-0.09602288901805878,
-0.7185930609703064,
-0.06766226887702942,
0.3309565782546997,
-0.035013023763895035,
0.0793135017156601,
-0.3120649456977844,
0.05152370035648346,
0.6947880983352661,
-0.039638832211494446,
-0.1399710774421692,
0.2546142339706421,
0.5214727520942688,
0.28811803460121155,
0.2815976142883301,
-0.17413438856601715,
-0.066884346306324,
-0.03946848213672638,
0.04938478767871857,
0.29142433404922485,
-0.2315269112586975,
-0.16180461645126343,
0.04087672755122185,
0.38524872064590454,
-0.457316130399704,
0.31908804178237915,
-0.3056071400642395,
0.793865978717804,
-0.15153872966766357,
0.09080713987350464,
0.3521619737148285,
0.2655123770236969,
0.04973313584923744,
0.18258146941661835,
-0.19570212066173553,
-0.3016164302825928,
0.6436859965324402,
-0.4665544629096985,
0.5398641228675842,
-0.289963036775589,
0.44308555126190186,
0.0631256029009819,
-0.3997759521007538,
0.4921264052391052,
-0.24593663215637207,
0.3790321946144104,
-0.5072811841964722,
-0.44947656989097595,
0.020085474476218224,
0.556492030620575,
-0.550075113773346,
-0.017117466777563095,
-0.22302360832691193,
0.2945716977119446,
-0.3540742099285126,
-0.7930338978767395,
0.16633407771587372,
0.3219637870788574,
-0.13366061449050903,
-0.23129849135875702,
-0.4374583661556244,
-0.1924768090248108,
-0.647760808467865,
-0.0714530423283577,
-0.1966218650341034,
-0.18684545159339905,
-0.06761575490236282,
0.3767203688621521,
-0.17835526168346405,
-0.33209580183029175,
-0.06746331602334976,
-0.2532397508621216,
0.38013842701911926,
-0.04100949317216873,
-0.21442954242229462,
-0.4164552390575409,
-0.10309873521327972,
-0.07711764425039291,
0.105523981153965,
0.813815712928772,
-0.39086371660232544,
0.7140172719955444,
-0.4412153661251068,
0.3015739321708679,
0.08412536233663559,
0.02192293293774128,
0.08296578377485275,
0.5661522746086121,
-0.29529520869255066,
0.40324169397354126,
-0.22894501686096191,
0.43669024109840393,
-0.08831611275672913,
-0.2839612066745758,
0.15907248854637146,
0.23432262241840363,
0.4396135210990906,
0.9151660799980164,
0.09125365316867828,
-0.06338074803352356,
0.09385085850954056,
0.07931511849164963,
-0.34491026401519775,
0.02245798520743847,
-0.009373155422508717,
-0.4264242947101593,
0.5555756092071533,
0.7485290169715881,
0.02865387685596943,
-0.030163560062646866,
0.19682087004184723,
-0.14819090068340302,
0.2076091170310974,
-0.38858720660209656,
0.3628058433532715,
-0.5562625527381897,
-0.07831038534641266,
0.5217418670654297,
0.22527970373630524,
0.3846055269241333,
0.27172303199768066,
0.5208777785301208,
-0.13954927027225494,
-0.10913761705160141,
0.016545811668038368,
0.6491751670837402,
-0.33164045214653015,
-0.602914571762085,
-0.23147636651992798,
0.036115627735853195,
0.43807247281074524,
-0.3723457157611847,
0.136198028922081,
0.12796299159526825,
-0.20454883575439453,
0.00016342094750143588,
-0.2514561712741852,
-0.3062491714954376,
0.6491050720214844,
0.22005151212215424,
0.1722477674484253,
0.22925391793251038,
0.24560856819152832,
-0.06365028768777847,
0.5036182403564453,
-0.3477630615234375,
0.18739572167396545,
-0.5079667568206787,
-0.1391535848379135,
0.2243116796016693,
0.02194848656654358,
-0.4109863042831421,
-0.4073387682437897,
0.11959781497716904,
-0.04712807014584541,
-0.33366113901138306,
-0.3656085729598999,
0.272903174161911,
0.8327786326408386,
0.636076033115387,
-0.17532779276371002,
-0.43897566199302673,
-0.7752395868301392,
-0.2382880598306656,
0.15604761242866516,
0.04365106672048569,
-0.15810196101665497,
-0.22144815325737,
-0.27980053424835205,
0.033183563500642776,
-0.4880026876926422,
0.04016222432255745,
0.18403269350528717,
0.1882680356502533,
-0.7974117398262024,
-0.3283993899822235,
-0.34265437722206116,
0.3125544786453247,
0.03354552015662193,
-0.10766473412513733,
-0.2187974750995636,
-0.7580715417861938,
-0.18564492464065552,
-0.2465243637561798,
-0.1580018848180771,
-0.10373125970363617,
0.8627510666847229,
-0.28016793727874756,
-0.25706833600997925,
-0.3670467734336853,
0.40695998072624207,
-0.7039265632629395,
0.3005927801132202,
0.5376155376434326,
-0.40056857466697693,
0.9369940161705017,
-0.07166042178869247,
-0.1493333876132965,
0.18522921204566956,
-0.055322982370853424,
0.004846571944653988,
-0.06027187407016754,
0.08907032757997513,
0.2908034324645996,
0.03739668428897858,
-0.3637081980705261,
-0.7620904445648193,
-0.7155992388725281,
-0.6014050841331482,
0.030504245311021805,
0.3665582239627838,
-0.28974729776382446,
0.28229713439941406,
0.13463817536830902,
-0.1564965844154358,
0.12840597331523895,
-0.15084291994571686,
0.812562882900238,
-0.017670510336756706,
0.3671710193157196,
-0.07510977238416672,
-0.10609593242406845,
0.46788057684898376,
-0.009840102866292,
0.10060033202171326,
-0.7415645122528076,
-0.0975940003991127,
-0.3859967291355133,
0.3369067311286926,
0.11633483320474625,
0.44952014088630676,
-0.11473038047552109,
-0.040714215487241745,
0.48378676176071167,
0.21815253794193268,
0.11426439881324768,
-0.7369540333747864,
-0.3123432397842407,
0.47040441632270813,
0.2580415606498718,
-0.5761746168136597,
-0.16077736020088196,
-0.5120469331741333,
0.47424060106277466,
0.48241251707077026,
0.16003048419952393,
-0.08185547590255737,
0.09481099247932434,
0.542392373085022,
0.20680657029151917,
-0.5343185067176819,
-0.493990421295166,
0.034232188016176224,
-0.14180444180965424,
0.03169621154665947,
-0.6113995909690857,
-0.1291188895702362,
0.044681113213300705,
-0.386226624250412,
0.37494271993637085,
-0.4361439049243927,
0.5691612958908081,
0.13010452687740326,
0.2345794141292572,
0.008217762224376202,
-0.0400812067091465,
-0.01704210601747036,
-0.2074989229440689,
-0.2463325411081314,
-0.543368399143219,
-0.11321228742599487,
-0.28604772686958313,
-0.2638974189758301,
0.14425893127918243,
-0.37675803899765015,
0.6709535121917725,
0.12981238961219788,
0.05717690289020538,
0.19042862951755524,
-0.48370134830474854,
0.1429923176765442,
0.012403396889567375,
0.4628036916255951,
0.04065186157822609,
0.7027063369750977,
0.30345582962036133,
0.690325140953064,
0.0038042112719267607,
-0.01912517100572586,
-0.5101807117462158,
0.659096896648407,
0.3383476138114929,
-0.4944930374622345,
-0.011963232420384884,
0.3877700865268707,
0.23739691078662872,
0.01080875564366579,
-0.16580843925476074,
-0.13553032279014587,
0.16041439771652222,
0.4433249831199646,
-0.37024354934692383,
0.5351195931434631,
0.03549628704786301,
0.24663764238357544,
0.7909111976623535,
-0.2915336787700653,
-0.01109350472688675,
0.5701484084129333,
0.377402126789093,
0.537452757358551,
0.2646048069000244,
-0.37554383277893066,
-0.2580139935016632,
-0.12702378630638123,
-0.4810561537742615,
-0.08188227564096451,
0.009492473676800728,
0.42979612946510315,
0.011016273871064186,
-0.15943662822246552,
-0.4043061137199402,
0.2814205586910248,
-0.2089766263961792,
-0.5577688813209534,
-0.120970219373703,
-0.583340585231781,
-0.12363211810588837,
0.4259722828865051,
0.6313925981521606,
0.6276942491531372,
-0.07232992351055145,
0.08044842630624771,
-0.35808083415031433,
0.2775445878505707,
0.2916119396686554,
0.23329542577266693,
-0.6692337989807129,
0.03884415701031685,
0.3415822982788086,
-0.5808107256889343,
0.45025405287742615,
-0.20196545124053955,
0.3783857524394989,
-0.015189283527433872,
0.3640928864479065,
0.4183605909347534,
-0.3661349415779114,
-0.2777709662914276,
-0.3516762852668762,
0.26125553250312805,
1.049804449081421,
-0.5251500010490417,
-0.07843989133834839,
0.12655498087406158,
0.5072304606437683,
-0.5562589764595032,
-0.28395771980285645,
-0.24796047806739807,
-0.22158001363277435,
0.746313214302063,
-0.29868176579475403,
0.45581239461898804,
0.15649333596229553,
0.2267228066921234,
0.04868731647729874,
0.6448671817779541,
-0.06573184579610825,
-0.3189338743686676,
-0.33318737149238586,
-0.4344497323036194,
-0.3306717276573181,
-0.4621298015117645,
-0.10255911201238632,
0.04286503791809082,
0.504702627658844,
-0.0885639414191246,
-0.7911434173583984,
0.10039353370666504,
0.6341400146484375,
-0.13370412588119507,
0.3417212665081024,
-0.46487778425216675,
0.07574433833360672,
0.2123315930366516,
-0.22640851140022278,
1.0091036558151245,
0.2737334966659546,
0.08806617558002472,
0.20530368387699127,
0.1516556590795517,
0.42427656054496765,
0.01416130643337965,
-0.5179045796394348,
-0.3741284906864166,
0.24882155656814575,
-0.12476520240306854,
-0.4207291603088379,
-0.09465056657791138,
-0.04173760861158371,
-0.4417719841003418,
0.04963989555835724,
-0.08021629601716995,
-0.39052441716194153,
-0.2490241378545761,
0.5781510472297668,
-0.1655673086643219,
0.6053943634033203,
-0.4894426167011261,
-0.1171819269657135,
-0.053314805030822754,
-0.2946304380893707,
0.8851907849311829,
-0.2686588168144226,
-0.3806135058403015,
0.4453248381614685,
0.39686843752861023,
-0.5481862425804138,
0.1710817664861679,
-0.09172314405441284,
-0.19600550830364227,
-0.7011747360229492,
0.2850140631198883,
-0.6065002679824829,
-0.8080379962921143,
0.3931554853916168,
0.4448275864124298,
-0.029182638972997665,
-0.3952189087867737,
-0.10799920558929443,
-0.2768956422805786,
-0.2671120762825012,
0.5768826603889465,
0.21657513082027435,
0.24756984412670135,
-0.10074367374181747,
0.0928817018866539,
-0.35976168513298035,
0.6060910820960999,
0.32279714941978455,
-0.019665027037262917,
0.4036911427974701,
0.31705188751220703,
0.22604718804359436,
-0.021083876490592957,
0.1703905314207077,
-0.2343125343322754,
0.35373249650001526,
0.8791561722755432
] |
200087
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DID%20%28disambiguation%29
|
DID (disambiguation)
|
DID is an acronym commonly used for dissociative identity disorder, a psychiatric condition.
DID, or did, may also refer to:
Art and entertainment
Dance India Dance, a reality dance show on Zee TV, first aired in 2009
Digital Image Design, a video game developer
Dog Is Dead, a five-piece indie pop band from Nottingham, England
Mathematics and science
Difference in differences, a statistical technique
Discharge ionization detector, a detector in gas chromatography
Dodecadodecahedron, a uniform polyhedron
Other uses
Decentralized identifiers, a type of identifier in web applications
Data item descriptions, a specification used by United States Department of Defense contractors
Direct inward dialing, in telephony
Développement International Desjardins, a subsidiary of the Quebec-based Desjardins Group, a financial services company
Dublin Institute of Design, a higher education college in Dublin, Ireland
DID, the National Rail code for Didcot Parkway railway station in the county of Oxfordshire, UK
See also
|
[
0.3183880150318146,
0.29333555698394775,
-0.4417203664779663,
0.021195493638515472,
-0.24755778908729553,
-0.1551731526851654,
0.373757541179657,
-0.16250665485858917,
-0.10006872564554214,
0.1806802600622177,
-0.04127714782953262,
0.10307086259126663,
-0.1831984668970108,
0.5163114666938782,
-0.10332353413105011,
0.41962864995002747,
0.1822744458913803,
0.44423359632492065,
-0.1521630734205246,
-0.2175978124141693,
-0.5794490575790405,
-0.2028513103723526,
-0.3809778094291687,
-0.7057592868804932,
0.14287956058979034,
0.2175264060497284,
0.061692867428064346,
-0.6621583700180054,
-0.26162534952163696,
0.06852798163890839,
0.26065337657928467,
0.2590855360031128,
0.1418652981519699,
-0.10279622673988342,
-0.3605506718158722,
0.4795454144477844,
-0.0020862522069364786,
-0.5227054357528687,
-0.29684603214263916,
-0.5150144696235657,
-0.03978299722075462,
-0.5358702540397644,
0.06550509482622147,
0.07212561368942261,
-0.7961512804031372,
0.014409366063773632,
-1.4486228227615356,
-0.0635380893945694,
-0.5822462439537048,
-0.04856906086206436,
-0.4632834196090698,
0.08132756501436234,
-0.11836927384138107,
0.536809504032135,
-0.2966286540031433,
-0.057736627757549286,
-0.5512511134147644,
-0.39218536019325256,
0.4015795886516571,
-0.33985111117362976,
0.6154226064682007,
-0.2720082402229309,
0.17564764618873596,
0.2671137750148773,
0.3679018020629883,
0.5869625210762024,
0.03975842893123627,
0.8877220749855042,
-0.998029887676239,
-0.42990177869796753,
-0.3968157172203064,
-0.4185318350791931,
-0.147660031914711,
0.11838801205158234,
-0.26886576414108276,
-0.014848098158836365,
0.1657228171825409,
-0.1963457614183426,
0.03142040967941284,
-0.17369751632213593,
-0.6213722229003906,
0.6608641743659973,
0.5135384798049927,
-0.5170295238494873,
0.4780580997467041,
-0.3073442578315735,
-0.3539213538169861,
0.634572446346283,
-0.2661420702934265,
0.26118430495262146,
0.4859839677810669,
0.011535447090864182,
0.5466518998146057,
-0.4234239459037781,
-0.27217379212379456,
0.5015448927879333,
0.13029593229293823,
-0.12514762580394745,
0.03617434576153755,
0.0767369195818901,
0.4345669746398926,
-0.2404247373342514,
-0.0021842485293745995,
-0.6853946447372437,
0.1079643964767456,
-0.4688091576099396,
0.006324203219264746,
-0.1957169473171234,
0.3404764235019684,
-0.17312359809875488,
-0.7580347061157227,
0.2777802050113678,
-0.3089936077594757,
-0.21643225848674774,
-0.46888941526412964,
0.3340321183204651,
0.5205551981925964,
0.40140458941459656,
-0.1601535975933075,
0.13979889452457428,
0.15967850387096405,
0.6641127467155457,
0.11351316422224045,
-0.07058506458997726,
0.4058401882648468,
0.22834543883800507,
0.31702446937561035,
0.7785291075706482,
-0.8169605135917664,
0.11348292976617813,
0.01359057892113924,
0.7633324265480042,
0.2813304662704468,
-0.14696557819843292,
-0.1803118735551834,
-0.19419875741004944,
0.2587282359600067,
0.4133043885231018,
0.14944687485694885,
0.01674879901111126,
-0.6842453479766846,
0.12974296510219574,
-0.98681640625,
0.16934339702129364,
0.020448509603738785,
0.23786452412605286,
0.41035664081573486,
0.2541651725769043,
0.16349828243255615,
0.19277000427246094,
0.35303905606269836,
-0.23124390840530396,
-0.05579178407788277,
0.05979472026228905,
0.3177946209907532,
0.1408054083585739,
0.0827164500951767,
-0.16297359764575958,
0.2635866105556488,
0.24481798708438873,
0.16983871161937714,
0.1779826581478119,
-0.23767393827438354,
0.12708906829357147,
0.033577803522348404,
-0.5629419684410095,
-0.0863259881734848,
0.1416071057319641,
0.026185352355241776,
0.03565452620387077,
-0.149648517370224,
-0.5231825113296509,
0.3572976291179657,
-0.026806708425283432,
0.5311411023139954,
0.20475174486637115,
-0.1691862940788269,
-0.08310204744338989,
0.4397883415222168,
0.19147449731826782,
-0.7114459276199341,
0.24851231276988983,
0.03373073786497116,
-0.542773962020874,
0.5624812841415405,
0.27508464455604553,
0.2903732359409332,
0.20731088519096375,
0.2066652923822403,
0.29932257533073425,
-0.6864351034164429,
-0.5764176249504089,
0.21442537009716034,
-0.6113986968994141,
0.9777365922927856,
0.009916317649185658,
-0.4052448272705078,
0.7271260023117065,
-0.05195673927664757,
0.20662745833396912,
0.16616445779800415,
-0.040418077260255814,
0.13630157709121704,
0.2114502638578415,
-0.31288576126098633,
0.8927088379859924,
0.25513923168182373,
0.21456444263458252,
-0.2411598116159439,
0.25714462995529175,
0.27545079588890076,
-0.44976183772087097,
0.2695063650608063,
-0.021069541573524475,
-0.1628420203924179,
-0.12013918161392212,
-0.07195749878883362,
-0.08612406253814697,
-0.15548181533813477,
-0.3169458508491516,
0.44256824254989624,
-0.4858577251434326,
-0.16541428864002228,
0.24681000411510468,
-0.30496418476104736,
0.7111907601356506,
0.305184930562973,
-0.01291306409984827,
0.8007588982582092,
-0.6829371452331543,
-0.1361190378665924,
0.22466948628425598,
0.3047868609428406,
-0.3590950667858124,
0.3390725553035736,
-0.11915897578001022,
0.3222340941429138,
-0.5150395035743713,
0.3788642883300781,
-0.3657144606113434,
0.13478992879390717,
0.15184004604816437,
-0.07540900260210037,
0.0692233145236969,
0.4008338451385498,
-0.04156564548611641,
0.11362919211387634,
-0.03401103615760803,
-0.1560070514678955,
0.6197490692138672,
0.17123815417289734,
0.3899979591369629,
0.2345234751701355,
-0.3521295487880707,
-0.03175807371735573,
0.3313582241535187,
0.023810889571905136,
0.03580125793814659,
-0.06918696314096451,
0.0004705397877842188,
-0.5863182544708252,
0.5152143239974976,
-0.1606743037700653,
-0.2658173739910126,
-0.002369245979934931,
-0.499001681804657,
-0.4381926357746124,
0.29602083563804626,
0.5660768151283264,
0.16166207194328308,
0.23354431986808777,
-0.10054706782102585,
-0.418935626745224,
-0.2329975664615631,
-1.071513295173645,
-0.20470267534255981,
0.18290892243385315,
0.1771841049194336,
-0.6496231555938721,
-0.4102654755115509,
0.0572749562561512,
0.2969881594181061,
0.11835423111915588,
-0.9385497570037842,
0.29610323905944824,
-0.22652597725391388,
-0.0308372862637043,
-0.19196537137031555,
-0.212190181016922,
-0.3199731409549713,
0.0028481981717050076,
0.26613137125968933,
-0.01589253544807434,
-0.2603570222854614,
0.31901034712791443,
-0.44484272599220276,
0.3231359124183655,
0.05922727659344673,
0.16473063826560974,
0.12869413197040558,
-0.5347568988800049,
0.15052737295627594,
0.04383072629570961,
-0.30053871870040894,
0.07372701168060303,
-0.248967245221138,
-0.23123586177825928,
0.23870085179805756,
-6.083475589752197,
0.11962839215993881,
-0.24962732195854187,
0.3818933963775635,
-0.10638678073883057,
0.37286314368247986,
0.648165225982666,
0.2777058780193329,
-0.3534848093986511,
-0.22094929218292236,
-0.013058886863291264,
0.0060648988001048565,
0.18786531686782837,
0.32773342728614807,
0.040707338601350784,
0.09481675922870636,
0.21426843106746674,
0.05175615847110748,
0.1854439526796341,
0.4974924921989441,
-0.20991189777851105,
0.4329082667827606,
-0.04677603393793106,
0.5149935483932495,
0.08153443783521652,
0.32055753469467163,
-0.4181082546710968,
0.5468143820762634,
-0.6769938468933105,
-0.2275225669145584,
0.1402568817138672,
0.04776078090071678,
-0.32070666551589966,
-0.19269554316997528,
-0.5291177034378052,
0.1897725611925125,
0.7155749201774597,
0.05096510052680969,
-0.2050493359565735,
-0.32446199655532837,
-0.35918930172920227,
-0.2044093906879425,
0.2777343988418579,
-0.2982620596885681,
0.3951461613178253,
0.5097637176513672,
-0.3749414384365082,
-0.5700480341911316,
-0.39324647188186646,
0.35109850764274597,
-0.3348004221916199,
-0.10431662201881409,
0.33384034037590027,
-0.10847235471010208,
0.1753120869398117,
-0.16215240955352783,
0.5145877003669739,
0.1466284543275833,
-0.4090087413787842,
0.5737385749816895,
0.9051482081413269,
-0.08913114666938782,
0.15430615842342377,
-0.7775095105171204,
-0.28771552443504333,
-0.0013181834947317839,
-0.2517465651035309,
-0.5579860806465149,
0.8584928512573242,
0.31889885663986206,
-0.40941330790519714,
0.6754186749458313,
0.11662548035383224,
-0.6229285597801208,
0.10772208124399185,
-0.18692432343959808,
0.23167115449905396,
-0.179214209318161,
-0.0935245007276535,
0.11136594414710999,
-0.34209534525871277,
-0.4252660572528839,
-0.0962485745549202,
-0.14033861458301544,
-0.007511449512094259,
-0.01732698269188404,
-0.26192793250083923,
0.4818291962146759,
-0.13353855907917023,
0.4198317527770996,
0.2676767408847809,
0.5096408724784851,
0.18804456293582916,
0.1550215780735016,
-0.1918358951807022,
0.8495071530342102,
0.27689141035079956,
0.31014540791511536,
0.3870057165622711,
-0.08978001773357391,
0.1146743968129158,
-0.4908275008201599,
-0.0044899024069309235,
-0.44779500365257263,
-0.15107788145542145,
-0.3859420120716095,
-0.7244076728820801,
0.29895180463790894,
0.46780186891555786,
-0.37709757685661316,
0.3073122203350067,
0.08633246272802353,
-0.39926719665527344,
-0.22911818325519562,
0.3613515794277191,
0.2698782980442047,
0.0862344354391098,
0.16012394428253174,
0.5116704106330872,
-0.22878511250019073,
0.2870284616947174,
0.41651949286460876,
-0.1944080889225006,
-0.2788943648338318,
-0.5612882375717163,
-0.24192550778388977,
0.05221749469637871,
0.4149359464645386,
0.061161164194345474,
0.4334533214569092,
0.2596352994441986,
0.6436032056808472,
0.08222400397062302,
-0.19188009202480316,
0.3519250452518463,
-0.4956839978694916,
-0.37992584705352783,
0.47966891527175903,
-0.13389284908771515,
-0.5404145121574402,
0.8358480930328369,
-0.5643366575241089,
-0.05316002666950226,
0.197243332862854,
0.46852847933769226,
-0.00039387893048115075,
-0.3046170473098755,
-0.6095160245895386,
0.20037388801574707,
0.48797425627708435,
0.5389717221260071,
-0.500768780708313,
0.7405006885528564,
-0.5626742243766785,
-0.05917659029364586,
0.26178231835365295,
0.447560578584671,
-0.14378148317337036,
-0.41606655716896057,
-0.07008948177099228,
-0.27381736040115356,
-0.13853302597999573,
-0.9527425765991211,
-0.4387800395488739,
0.6049715876579285,
-0.30940791964530945,
-0.3058064877986908,
-0.34038046002388,
0.027289608493447304,
0.6892205476760864,
-0.18774113059043884,
-0.27306485176086426,
-0.4829818308353424,
0.0898166075348854,
0.5047727227210999,
0.2629656195640564,
0.07700808346271515,
0.45040667057037354,
0.11774972081184387,
0.2579120099544525,
0.26931390166282654,
-0.21385012567043304,
-0.5216705203056335,
0.4369926452636719,
0.5049676299095154,
-0.49282410740852356,
0.10046488791704178,
0.22467145323753357,
-0.6636032462120056,
0.0043600513599812984,
0.17330414056777954,
-0.1122380718588829,
0.11601889133453369,
0.19525399804115295,
-0.302595317363739,
-0.027688683941960335,
0.11879770457744598,
0.24088077247142792,
0.13669142127037048,
-0.22003993391990662,
0.3562355637550354,
0.6279188394546509,
-0.003079312155023217,
-0.35089296102523804,
0.3313661217689514,
-1.342294454574585,
0.4432157576084137,
-0.10067423433065414,
-0.7570183873176575,
0.30846846103668213,
0.0031565011013299227,
-0.642497181892395,
-0.6899023652076721,
-0.30932071805000305,
0.12441285699605942,
0.018826261162757874,
0.2774275839328766,
-0.6939077377319336,
-0.3053022623062134,
-0.2961817979812622,
0.48799508810043335,
0.14243894815444946,
0.251618891954422,
0.2814754247665405,
0.06557434052228928,
-0.02965197153389454,
0.06456851214170456,
-0.2596915662288666,
0.3950498402118683,
0.10507218539714813,
-0.5386266112327576,
0.015533552505075932,
-0.21684271097183228,
0.3358469307422638,
-0.5878112316131592,
-0.6012519598007202,
0.1425967514514923,
0.29044273495674133,
-0.1384238302707672,
-0.2622818946838379,
0.3708576560020447,
0.344918817281723,
0.16602012515068054,
-0.9513338804244995,
-0.07826607674360275,
-0.12124309688806534,
0.17209649085998535,
-0.7236806154251099,
-0.37790539860725403,
0.4983358085155487,
-0.21952977776527405,
-0.23584072291851044,
-0.7114410400390625,
-0.43782839179039,
0.9192638993263245,
0.11760446429252625,
0.070375457406044,
-0.7184455990791321,
-0.0011196850100532174,
-0.04565344378352165,
0.00917665846645832,
0.12400761246681213,
0.06926155090332031,
0.4430709183216095,
-0.12157342582941055,
0.36632779240608215,
-0.13203760981559753,
0.05984847992658615,
0.6980646252632141,
-0.9044600129127502,
-0.19618862867355347,
-0.03796456381678581,
0.25776100158691406,
0.6154363751411438,
-0.1269601434469223,
-0.10696651041507721,
0.09229519218206406,
-0.38046637177467346,
0.10652642697095871,
-0.08465834707021713,
-0.13922546803951263,
0.024375811219215393,
0.40902355313301086,
0.12158413231372833,
-0.03904256597161293,
0.11952828615903854,
0.09324990957975388,
-0.38907313346862793,
-0.6140677332878113,
-0.3013104796409607,
-0.5171357989311218,
0.3837518095970154,
-0.15641896426677704,
0.20242728292942047,
-0.5705825686454773,
-0.2464473396539688,
-0.10863010585308075,
0.2968628406524658,
0.007936622947454453,
-0.44620853662490845,
-0.5057757496833801,
0.14694765210151672,
0.2296859472990036,
-0.4845128655433655,
-0.09206438064575195,
0.3163137137889862,
0.22033296525478363,
-0.5443775653839111,
0.19045200943946838,
-0.29302501678466797,
0.5372834205627441,
-0.20209160447120667,
0.10741225630044937,
0.9838895797729492,
-0.29770079255104065,
-0.19821152091026306,
0.24026095867156982,
-0.24611268937587738,
0.36278262734413147,
0.23909947276115417,
-0.016513541340827942,
-0.26929914951324463,
0.7688376307487488,
-0.010272924788296223,
-0.6881805062294006,
0.34283027052879333,
-0.018330473452806473,
0.06997551769018173,
0.2382355034351349,
0.1887524574995041,
0.935245156288147,
-0.010120570659637451,
-0.024901144206523895,
0.2818368971347809,
-0.4607903063297272,
-0.5967985987663269,
0.21325081586837769,
0.04404793307185173,
-0.1882452666759491,
0.29812827706336975,
0.006847793702036142,
0.3990858793258667,
0.1075538694858551,
0.30904391407966614,
-0.3188040256500244,
0.43364664912223816,
0.07698433846235275,
0.1593293845653534,
0.20444074273109436,
-0.03179815039038658,
0.05674370005726814,
0.22088657319545746,
0.1543606072664261,
-0.3328186571598053,
0.21947704255580902,
0.008314291946589947,
0.024727599695324898,
-0.20326370000839233,
0.019182495772838593,
-0.31805530190467834,
-0.06852062046527863,
0.280405730009079,
-0.22038233280181885,
0.36190253496170044,
0.017693262547254562,
-0.4327741861343384,
0.2195318341255188,
-0.10528057813644409,
-0.143783837556839,
0.18301314115524292,
0.5360020995140076,
0.03965308889746666,
-0.23466897010803223,
0.4207972586154938,
0.19165724515914917,
-0.10188773274421692,
0.8429461121559143,
0.32058843970298767,
0.04437271133065224,
-0.4441186487674713,
-0.1618584394454956,
0.1510070562362671,
-0.30603548884391785,
-0.20735906064510345,
0.1604212075471878,
-0.1876939982175827,
0.13252070546150208,
0.28624212741851807,
-0.03327430039644241,
0.25470390915870667,
0.08740218728780746,
-0.3438718914985657,
-0.047493793070316315,
-0.13535259664058685,
-0.022504040971398354,
0.20618510246276855,
-0.1544627547264099,
0.6961684823036194,
0.28390181064605713,
-0.22669053077697754,
-0.20250816643238068,
-0.06297314912080765,
0.15300366282463074,
-0.20933112502098083,
-0.45692557096481323,
0.30412766337394714,
-0.3710387349128723,
0.3127248287200928,
-0.583042323589325,
0.3227861821651459,
0.03633293882012367,
-0.07414405792951584,
-0.27752017974853516,
0.7338767051696777,
-0.00671644601970911,
-0.22274093329906464,
0.10855715721845627,
-0.16965223848819733,
0.09326167404651642,
-0.09479550272226334,
0.05761822685599327,
0.3970625400543213,
-0.11299910396337509,
0.0760502815246582,
-0.5570749640464783,
0.018570780754089355,
0.42062586545944214,
0.13546572625637054,
-0.2475806027650833,
0.34390661120414734,
-0.6077849268913269,
-0.014056576415896416,
-0.17954176664352417,
0.24322272837162018,
-0.5871025919914246,
0.38292190432548523,
-0.04673834145069122,
0.4745112955570221,
-0.15162836015224457,
-0.21608659625053406,
0.04692507162690163,
-0.3469633460044861,
-0.5460606813430786,
0.1026967465877533,
-0.7553590536117554,
0.23677560687065125,
-0.6356545090675354,
-0.421093225479126,
-0.22284582257270813,
0.16429315507411957,
0.5008558034896851,
0.024454232305288315,
-0.008951256051659584,
-0.2893361449241638,
-0.10763409733772278,
0.14759224653244019,
0.07774017006158829,
-0.33708542585372925,
0.30276191234588623,
0.31864139437675476
] |
200088
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20pence%20%28British%20coin%29
|
Five pence (British coin)
|
The British decimal five pence coin (often shortened to 5p in writing and speech) is a unit of currency equalling five one-hundredths of a pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s introduction on 23 April 1968, replacing the shilling in preparation for decimalisation in 1971. It remained the same size as the one shilling coin, which also remained legal tender, until a smaller version was introduced in June 1990 with the older coins being withdrawn on 31 December 1990. Four different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the latest design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The second and current reverse, featuring a segment of the Royal Shield, was introduced in 2008.
Five pence and ten pence coins are legal tender only up to the sum of £5; this means it is permissible to refuse payment of sums greater than this amount in 5p and 10p coins to settle a debt.
The five pence coin was originally minted from cupro-nickel (75% Cu, 25% Ni), but since 2011 it has been minted in nickel-plated steel due to the increasing price of metal. From January 2013, the Royal Mint began a programme to gradually remove the previous cupro-nickel coins from circulation with replacement by the nickel-plated steel versions.
As of March 2014, an estimated 3,847 million 5p coins were in circulation with an estimated face value of £192.370 million.
Design
The original reverse of the coin, designed by Christopher Ironside, and used from 1968 to 2008, is a crowned thistle (formally, The Badge of Scotland, a thistle royally crowned), with the numeral "5" below the thistle, and either (1968–1981) or (1982–2008) above the thistle.
To date, three different obverses have been used. In all cases, the inscription is , where 2013 is replaced by the year of minting. In the original design, both sides of the coin are encircled by dots, a common feature on coins, known as beading.
As with all new decimal currency, until 1984 the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse, in which the Queen wears the 'Girls of Great Britain and Ireland' Tiara.
Between 1985 and 1997, the portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used, in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem.
On 27 June 1990 a reduced size version of the five pence coin was introduced. The older larger coins were withdrawn on 31 December 1990. The design remained unchanged.
From 1998 to 2015, the portrait by Ian Rank-Broadley was used, again featuring the tiara, with a signature-mark below the portrait.
As of June 2015, coins bearing the portrait by Jody Clark have been seen in circulation.
In August 2005 the Royal Mint launched a competition to find new reverse designs for all circulating coins apart from the £2 coin. The winner, announced in April 2008, was Matthew Dent, whose designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from mid-2008. The designs for the 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p and 50p coins depict sections of the Royal Shield that form the whole shield when placed together. The shield in its entirety was featured on the now-obsolete round £1 coin. The 5p coin depicts the centre of the Royal shield, showing the meeting point of the four quarters. The coin's obverse remains largely unchanged, but the beading (the ring of dots around the coin's circumference), which no longer features on the coin's reverse, has also been removed from the obverse.
Status as legal tender
5p coins are legal tender for amounts up to and including £5. However, in the UK, "legal tender" has a very specific and narrow meaning which relates only to the repayment of debt to a creditor, not to everyday shopping or other transactions. Specifically, coins of particular denominations are said to be "legal tender" when a creditor must by law accept them in redemption of a debt. The term does not mean - as is often thought - that a shopkeeper has to accept a particular type of currency in payment. A shopkeeper is under no obligation to accept any specific type of payment, whether legal tender or not; conversely they have the discretion to accept any payment type they wish.
Mintages
Mintage figures below represent the number of coins of each date released for circulation. Mint Sets have been produced since 1982; where mintages on or after that date indicate 'none', there are examples contained within those sets.
References
External links
Royal Mint – 5p coin
Coins of the UK – Decimal 5p coins
Five Pence, Coin Type from United Kingdom
Coins of the United Kingdom
Currencies introduced in 1968
Five-cent coins
|
[
-0.26921921968460083,
0.0016723022563382983,
0.22066427767276764,
-0.21728123724460602,
-0.27647659182548523,
0.7861605286598206,
0.049319516867399216,
0.14421150088310242,
-0.38558652997016907,
0.2886531352996826,
-0.10614771395921707,
-0.27643826603889465,
0.5478658676147461,
0.8574011921882629,
-0.09719424694776535,
0.3330268859863281,
0.42161327600479126,
0.5289798974990845,
0.008765011094510555,
-0.4775114953517914,
-0.573695719242096,
0.44333386421203613,
0.061424922198057175,
-0.801060676574707,
-0.18103952705860138,
0.45975035429000854,
0.4910256266593933,
-0.5248119235038757,
-0.2009800672531128,
-0.24536015093326569,
0.03610464185476303,
0.7530640959739685,
0.40635815262794495,
0.19690729677677155,
0.4154856503009796,
-0.6666358113288879,
0.15423484146595,
-0.43957242369651794,
-0.4469113051891327,
-0.799659013748169,
0.06810005754232407,
-0.6041062474250793,
0.5646772980690002,
0.2885889708995819,
-0.7907945513725281,
-0.6596807241439819,
-1.0331957340240479,
-0.21765269339084625,
-0.809364378452301,
0.3299356698989868,
-0.15852057933807373,
0.6665076017379761,
0.07229191064834595,
0.0468633808195591,
0.6550962924957275,
0.6476814150810242,
-0.9034878611564636,
-0.2151327133178711,
0.37413641810417175,
-0.4389598071575165,
0.6868175268173218,
0.2159641832113266,
-0.20233316719532013,
0.1858976185321808,
0.13771194219589233,
-0.12257282435894012,
0.6629874110221863,
0.826887845993042,
-0.15287469327449799,
0.030886327847838402,
0.07793024182319641,
-0.16882631182670593,
-0.2654011845588684,
0.2528008818626404,
-0.367573618888855,
-0.3232559859752655,
0.003982395865023136,
-0.2287580519914627,
0.16263628005981445,
0.34303686022758484,
0.06462118029594421,
-0.08920125663280487,
0.9912270307540894,
0.09761453419923782,
0.36163079738616943,
0.11917395144701004,
-0.38743066787719727,
-0.06961674988269806,
0.10501378029584885,
1.3252304792404175,
-0.0634816437959671,
-0.20715828239917755,
0.4331616163253784,
0.11673567444086075,
-0.6484732031822205,
-0.37179383635520935,
0.0014505377039313316,
0.17600136995315552,
0.3508989214897156,
0.272219181060791,
0.3911070227622986,
-0.16697275638580322,
0.5622311234474182,
0.06452656537294388,
-0.41619014739990234,
-0.201851487159729,
-0.5341914892196655,
-0.5341333746910095,
0.3719906210899353,
-0.12203344702720642,
-0.09597643464803696,
-0.3246397376060486,
0.06134243682026863,
0.9027933478355408,
-0.40935587882995605,
-0.713470458984375,
0.35879307985305786,
-0.14535686373710632,
-0.2956787049770355,
-0.001987321535125375,
-0.016339700669050217,
0.08823685348033905,
0.19219842553138733,
0.06670253723859787,
0.7266380190849304,
-0.0316133052110672,
0.45897209644317627,
0.6124427318572998,
-0.21551460027694702,
0.1738978922367096,
0.624265193939209,
0.5855779051780701,
-0.2895295023918152,
-0.6087953448295593,
-0.7947443723678589,
-0.5005162954330444,
-0.18416590988636017,
0.1294441670179367,
-0.1363336145877838,
0.48780524730682373,
-0.12753064930438995,
0.5093773007392883,
-0.10731709003448486,
-0.12202268093824387,
0.3296833336353302,
0.09422261267900467,
-0.468485951423645,
0.1074243038892746,
-0.5501670837402344,
0.044244036078453064,
0.2190641313791275,
-0.018479451537132263,
0.4193662405014038,
-0.2764904797077179,
-0.1479627639055252,
-0.45202019810676575,
-0.23257383704185486,
0.05633660405874252,
0.14204195141792297,
0.26646706461906433,
-0.3299211859703064,
0.30550989508628845,
0.047273848205804825,
-0.23368409276008606,
0.17979246377944946,
-0.05621684715151787,
0.2203843593597412,
0.011954565532505512,
-0.5698951482772827,
0.7721405625343323,
-0.36981886625289917,
0.04801427572965622,
0.867388129234314,
-0.07566600292921066,
-0.2702285647392273,
-0.388360857963562,
-0.15024660527706146,
0.3657505512237549,
0.7492967844009399,
-0.17711155116558075,
-0.1847272515296936,
0.010141815058887005,
0.29325175285339355,
-0.4783647358417511,
-0.10996697843074799,
0.3123415410518646,
-0.14870278537273407,
-0.1003633514046669,
-0.1906895488500595,
0.17240658402442932,
-0.945946216583252,
-0.5352004766464233,
-0.477448970079422,
-0.524418294429779,
0.7677649855613708,
-0.5443618297576904,
0.10349461436271667,
0.1941690444946289,
0.1522405743598938,
0.33635765314102173,
-0.6370419859886169,
-0.006092437077313662,
0.6135287880897522,
0.002319162478670478,
-0.42985013127326965,
0.22193384170532227,
-0.12233304232358932,
0.015393199399113655,
0.5026644468307495,
0.31161701679229736,
0.26433873176574707,
-0.486186146736145,
0.3511858284473419,
-0.5913161039352417,
-0.36891666054725647,
0.18197958171367645,
0.4463801681995392,
0.09233289957046509,
-0.019957931712269783,
0.026968684047460556,
-0.04245993494987488,
0.24042671918869019,
0.49461889266967773,
0.1998298615217209,
-0.18022964894771576,
0.029248248785734177,
-0.1947638988494873,
0.14529897272586823,
0.0353727713227272,
-0.7219969630241394,
0.029371673241257668,
-0.07341455668210983,
0.008574297651648521,
-0.21772059798240662,
0.0012145150685682893,
-0.35086938738822937,
-0.36755526065826416,
-0.30088314414024353,
0.3638690114021301,
-0.2830235958099365,
-0.09461524337530136,
-0.1280062198638916,
-0.04550889506936073,
-0.09888878464698792,
0.20951806008815765,
0.646052896976471,
-0.0781584084033966,
0.4138834476470947,
0.034538667649030685,
-0.45755454897880554,
0.37130722403526306,
0.30481457710266113,
0.10813330113887787,
-0.175869882106781,
0.1508435308933258,
-0.283468633890152,
0.14451003074645996,
0.10517585277557373,
0.20041672885417938,
0.4478922188282013,
-0.28830981254577637,
0.44723963737487793,
0.5131422877311707,
0.12778134644031525,
0.13939720392227173,
-0.16005223989486694,
-0.7352609038352966,
0.007210616022348404,
0.1480596363544464,
0.18967552483081818,
0.3548731207847595,
0.4809885323047638,
-0.24837861955165863,
0.17924803495407104,
0.5479245185852051,
-0.37673380970954895,
0.3954416811466217,
0.08234786987304688,
-0.24318669736385345,
-0.6294537782669067,
-0.026725098490715027,
0.00862775556743145,
0.026248807087540627,
-0.9191921353340149,
0.4024931788444519,
-0.15832990407943726,
-0.07869169861078262,
-0.01654888316988945,
0.2210916429758072,
-0.5391908288002014,
-0.41640785336494446,
0.31009143590927124,
-0.3369804322719574,
0.18706297874450684,
0.11708027869462967,
-0.20221565663814545,
-0.62527996301651,
0.09690655022859573,
0.5172069668769836,
-0.3287346661090851,
0.19279564917087555,
0.5372615456581116,
0.29615938663482666,
0.016025984659790993,
0.5749556422233582,
-0.9914228320121765,
0.11252013593912125,
-0.05429725721478462,
-5.502670764923096,
-0.033416684716939926,
-1.0349172353744507,
0.16637997329235077,
-0.027551453560590744,
0.18401843309402466,
0.751964807510376,
0.0928078219294548,
-0.27732354402542114,
-0.14301346242427826,
-0.3782840371131897,
0.11313991248607635,
0.1253194957971573,
0.007824057713150978,
0.5300341844558716,
0.005134815350174904,
0.6793740391731262,
0.3975386917591095,
-0.044639091938734055,
0.15224948525428772,
0.1358272135257721,
0.07840953022241592,
0.10771088302135468,
0.7099264860153198,
-0.024287788197398186,
0.06404776871204376,
0.09506802260875702,
0.13868077099323273,
-0.7084236145019531,
-0.017524296417832375,
-0.016837749630212784,
0.1770883947610855,
0.20470623672008514,
-0.5793601870536804,
0.5038436651229858,
0.09944666922092438,
0.11059564352035522,
0.09670688956975937,
-0.07663867622613907,
-0.11360064148902893,
-0.2460729330778122,
0.8694394826889038,
0.859491229057312,
-0.12264235317707062,
0.7757830023765564,
0.16829721629619598,
-0.08511053025722504,
-0.12064852565526962,
-0.4633035957813263,
0.14994916319847107,
-0.46284589171409607,
0.47477251291275024,
-0.07344915717840195,
-0.0525481179356575,
0.0011521734995767474,
0.08877735584974289,
-0.3293773829936981,
0.13736183941364288,
-0.3390769064426422,
0.23540006577968597,
0.4937937557697296,
-0.196749746799469,
-0.005007071886211634,
0.3108660876750946,
-0.2590728998184204,
-0.8855782151222229,
-1.1967252492904663,
-0.38149699568748474,
0.30484914779663086,
0.40192461013793945,
-0.8689531683921814,
0.05331126227974892,
0.21283717453479767,
-0.5873603224754333,
0.5111379623413086,
-0.5904277563095093,
0.6126028895378113,
0.9556609392166138,
-0.18990902602672577,
1.390297532081604,
0.007016910705715418,
-0.7454960346221924,
-0.4004319906234741,
0.3891565203666687,
-0.4961395263671875,
-0.995769202709198,
-0.5633090138435364,
-0.03599093109369278,
-0.21863818168640137,
-0.2336273044347763,
0.12793178856372833,
-0.18983064591884613,
-0.09027475863695145,
-0.4844902455806732,
0.02671205624938011,
-0.6769699454307556,
-0.30711832642555237,
0.024510111659765244,
-0.17517881095409393,
-0.04579290375113487,
0.27698519825935364,
-0.04738573357462883,
0.17156189680099487,
-1.1725499629974365,
-0.45790809392929077,
-0.36037683486938477,
-0.1405162811279297,
0.2743827998638153,
0.1654932200908661,
-0.17612512409687042,
0.43848636746406555,
0.06331349909305573,
-0.6301363706588745,
0.6533908247947693,
0.13313181698322296,
-0.07091954350471497,
-0.3064464032649994,
-0.22142860293388367,
-0.14499515295028687,
-0.13582497835159302,
0.3265800476074219,
0.17586886882781982,
-0.3210292458534241,
-0.4014933705329895,
-0.10884801298379898,
-0.27966299653053284,
-0.1505959928035736,
-0.6599038243293762,
-0.0673990324139595,
0.5000826120376587,
0.5549966096878052,
0.4248667061328888,
-0.546271562576294,
0.008140304125845432,
0.10368408262729645,
0.05585310608148575,
-0.021737342700362206,
-0.06324275583028793,
-0.2504009008407593,
-0.42661526799201965,
0.6042856574058533,
-0.3214530646800995,
0.4136883318424225,
-0.17852964997291565,
0.6296122074127197,
0.1903296709060669,
0.0761612132191658,
-0.19011975824832916,
-0.038615625351667404,
0.8130568265914917,
0.031879816204309464,
0.14296889305114746,
0.1523577868938446,
-0.049953240901231766,
0.03078014776110649,
-0.36227983236312866,
-0.21399050951004028,
0.34051448106765747,
-0.1450384259223938,
0.17587226629257202,
0.06818220764398575,
0.22830918431282043,
-0.6591256260871887,
-0.3369753360748291,
0.7370809316635132,
-0.2410021722316742,
-0.860103189945221,
-0.07797469198703766,
0.8532333970069885,
0.8718476295471191,
0.2878572940826416,
-0.6055553555488586,
-0.5176255106925964,
-0.14233924448490143,
0.48572859168052673,
0.5626219511032104,
0.16949069499969482,
-0.12952592968940735,
0.0891386866569519,
-0.10046786814928055,
0.4958142340183258,
-0.000877584214322269,
-0.04042116180062294,
0.10558314621448517,
0.15699414908885956,
-0.06154578551650047,
-0.8012630343437195,
0.402034729719162,
-0.21833914518356323,
-0.1195075660943985,
0.061854779720306396,
-0.2047441303730011,
0.6503391861915588,
0.13777782022953033,
-0.7433515191078186,
-0.24218252301216125,
0.056815117597579956,
1.3999799489974976,
-0.274217814207077,
0.02570483833551407,
0.2768196165561676,
0.20669248700141907,
-0.11656926572322845,
-0.08775373548269272,
0.5600835084915161,
-0.5756387114524841,
0.7393282055854797,
0.14260075986385345,
-0.8409842252731323,
0.4895266592502594,
-0.25957557559013367,
-0.7434717416763306,
-0.5569956302642822,
0.1460171341896057,
-0.17072951793670654,
-0.18666890263557434,
0.29572102427482605,
-0.30410704016685486,
0.07121606916189194,
-0.7464566826820374,
-0.27720487117767334,
0.49496302008628845,
-0.9737828373908997,
-0.2978764772415161,
-0.1817382276058197,
0.1477266252040863,
0.2895130217075348,
0.02708185836672783,
0.1740134209394455,
0.04336927831172943,
-0.13613565266132355,
-0.3931294083595276,
0.3838191330432892,
0.27490562200546265,
0.36476126313209534,
0.6161932349205017,
-0.4601607918739319,
-0.0755099281668663,
-0.015061387792229652,
0.4331437349319458,
-0.07256023585796356,
0.7195128202438354,
0.8741768002510071,
-0.6915730237960815,
-0.5371312499046326,
0.23501594364643097,
0.9171126484870911,
-0.8699445128440857,
-0.6512627601623535,
1.1791856288909912,
-0.1478566825389862,
-0.661476731300354,
-0.5244501829147339,
-0.44990789890289307,
0.13492757081985474,
-0.3522781729698181,
0.2121773511171341,
-0.4018770456314087,
0.05579231306910515,
0.3149850368499756,
0.3264308571815491,
0.08225551247596741,
-1.0885720252990723,
0.09266878664493561,
0.3573826551437378,
0.2973115146160126,
0.08598201721906662,
-0.5554282069206238,
0.3209545612335205,
-0.7074592113494873,
0.1223646029829979,
-0.15568150579929352,
-0.2659721076488495,
0.5396661758422852,
0.7172960638999939,
0.22907349467277527,
-0.3227269947528839,
-0.6167387962341309,
-0.34163230657577515,
-0.8165625333786011,
0.278999000787735,
0.24649977684020996,
0.3973208963871002,
0.1149851381778717,
-0.15233531594276428,
-0.14690959453582764,
-0.6377205848693848,
-0.4348801374435425,
-0.05026615038514137,
0.07224875688552856,
-0.0058359419927001,
-0.04657848924398422,
-0.5932055711746216,
0.48228493332862854,
-0.3398990333080292,
0.5000661015510559,
0.07392323017120361,
0.15850190818309784,
0.3357672691345215,
0.014206727035343647,
0.1200588047504425,
1.2043567895889282,
0.0052490136586129665,
-0.4973212778568268,
-0.6017277240753174,
0.05275395140051842,
-0.22520852088928223,
0.28241637349128723,
0.09694410115480423,
-0.20658278465270996,
0.24195751547813416,
-0.24360163509845734,
0.11051567643880844,
0.41336315870285034,
-0.0806090459227562,
-0.6286552548408508,
0.8658952116966248,
-0.27233466506004333,
-0.3615913689136505,
0.576340913772583,
-0.028800150379538536,
0.4718044102191925,
0.8408950567245483,
-0.038369178771972656,
-0.7324033975601196,
0.11660001426935196,
-0.7593727707862854,
-0.3735080063343048,
0.15876679122447968,
0.3471333682537079,
0.32411468029022217,
0.7225836515426636,
-0.7831456065177917,
-0.3920125365257263,
-0.07077224552631378,
-0.39257651567459106,
-0.3994557857513428,
0.1972193568944931,
-0.05602985620498657,
0.9044910669326782,
0.029194694012403488,
0.4359312653541565,
-0.25946947932243347,
0.32284605503082275,
0.2364117056131363,
0.7451053261756897,
0.20376573503017426,
-0.8054035902023315,
0.6601136922836304,
0.289167195558548,
0.910531222820282,
-0.02543824538588524,
0.7390226721763611,
-0.4618633985519409,
0.2862410247325897,
0.20575347542762756,
-0.14092400670051575,
-0.19435511529445648,
-0.31678080558776855,
0.2818269431591034,
-0.38621270656585693,
-0.028058381751179695,
0.5744690895080566,
-0.28724226355552673,
-0.44407960772514343,
-0.008676798082888126,
0.15491601824760437,
-0.4151262640953064,
-0.495942622423172,
0.2369053065776825,
0.44484421610832214,
0.48391979932785034,
-0.08543886244297028,
0.31351161003112793,
0.20528928935527802,
-0.24650602042675018,
0.32052984833717346,
0.15804064273834229,
0.27710673213005066,
-0.2578170597553253,
-0.47489017248153687,
-0.5353471040725708,
-0.4895561635494232,
-0.5764318704605103,
0.0013745998730883002,
0.04572153091430664,
-0.06334373354911804,
0.0768132284283638,
-1.0478410720825195,
-0.35723158717155457,
0.2857828736305237,
-0.8667603135108948,
-0.38046860694885254,
-0.2777593731880188,
-1.324528455734253,
-0.8369995355606079,
0.13392464816570282,
0.5630772113800049,
0.44356390833854675,
-0.04764309898018837,
-0.2627239227294922,
0.5571337342262268,
-0.3419264256954193,
0.3821899890899658,
-0.3621010184288025,
0.6342534422874451,
-0.42062532901763916,
-0.31140366196632385,
-0.5059112906455994,
0.37095165252685547,
0.7868349552154541,
-0.734412670135498,
0.06217436119914055,
0.5782680511474609,
-0.629826545715332,
0.10062862932682037,
0.6927450895309448,
-0.14430135488510132,
-0.11570896208286285,
-0.7151353359222412,
0.05198930576443672,
0.5089550614356995,
-0.015552764758467674,
-0.05382090061903,
-0.17239125072956085,
0.01845201477408409,
0.6586984992027283,
0.2261085957288742,
-0.3535934090614319,
0.5434004664421082,
-1.19760000705719,
0.31022313237190247,
-0.717762291431427,
0.6050595045089722,
-0.24515290558338165,
0.18046250939369202,
0.6129525303840637,
0.7100739479064941,
-0.4824373126029968,
0.12357787042856216,
-0.2569400668144226,
-0.014746551401913166,
0.3840622901916504,
-0.3545859158039093,
0.09371677041053772,
0.5108000636100769,
-0.5258623361587524,
-0.2389535754919052,
-1.2059710025787354,
0.3714102804660797,
0.4839891791343689,
0.1840396523475647,
0.16394640505313873,
-0.36902496218681335,
0.6432745456695557,
-0.5502912402153015,
-0.48671528697013855,
-0.33858245611190796,
0.15554670989513397,
0.22678257524967194
] |
200089
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Morris
|
Philip Morris
|
Phil(l)ip or Phil Morris may refer to:
Companies
Altria, a conglomerate company previously known as Philip Morris Companies Inc., named after the tobacconist
Philip Morris USA, a tobacco company wholly owned by Altria Group
Philip Morris International, a tobacco company that spun off from Altria Group in 2008
Philip Morris (cigarette)
Film and TV
Philip Morris (1893–1949), American actor, known for his role in Home on the Range
Phil Morris (actor) (born 1959), American actor, best known for his role on Seinfeld
Philip Morris (archivist), English media recovery expert, known for recovering Doctor Who episodes
Sportspeople
Philip Morris (English cricketer) (1877–1945), English cricketer
Philip Morris (New Zealand cricketer) (born 1952), New Zealand cricketer
Philip Morris (racing driver) (born 1965), American short track racing racer
Phil Morris (speedway rider) (born 1975), British motorcycle speedway rider and TV game show participant
Others
Philip Morris (tobacconist) (1835–1873), British tobacconist and importer of cigarettes
Phil Morris (health activist) (born 1972), British health activist and cancer survivor
Philip Morris (priest) (born 1950), Archdeacon of Margam
Philip Richard Morris (1836–1902), English painter
Phillip Morris, prisoner, and lover of conman and escape artist Steven Jay Russell
Phillip Morris Napier, American politician in the state of Maine
Naugle v. Philip Morris, a 2009 court case
See also
I Love You Phillip Morris, a 2009 film adaptation of a book inspired by the lives of Morris and Russell
Morris, Philip
|
[
0.3298038840293884,
-0.06748391687870026,
0.058665238320827484,
-0.20127348601818085,
0.3361371159553528,
-0.10773275792598724,
-0.6468539834022522,
0.4761192500591278,
-0.5173563957214355,
0.25972115993499756,
-0.4110473692417145,
-0.17226167023181915,
0.1665564924478531,
0.663472056388855,
-0.01506037637591362,
0.562811553478241,
0.2514219284057617,
0.5489727854728699,
-0.42568159103393555,
-0.385341078042984,
-0.6003297567367554,
-0.11578574776649475,
0.3973206877708435,
-0.31153184175491333,
0.19958887994289398,
0.2888660132884979,
0.06596916168928146,
-0.6227315664291382,
-0.17733582854270935,
0.2702750861644745,
0.3266931176185608,
0.22932620346546173,
0.30265915393829346,
0.03402922302484512,
0.06066864728927612,
-0.5350035429000854,
-0.4320504665374756,
-0.27256375551223755,
-0.5152963995933533,
-0.7682463526725769,
-0.41066113114356995,
0.05775243416428566,
0.11393104493618011,
0.640924334526062,
-0.2873954772949219,
-0.39567264914512634,
-1.3733398914337158,
-0.29833635687828064,
-0.4809856116771698,
0.1984809786081314,
-0.14262035489082336,
-0.41702914237976074,
-0.6340185403823853,
0.531778872013092,
0.07740451395511627,
0.1983216255903244,
-0.7566022276878357,
-0.32035794854164124,
0.17721305787563324,
-0.20358163118362427,
0.4307500422000885,
-0.1291498839855194,
0.14594973623752594,
0.28585004806518555,
0.26450735330581665,
-0.1302284300327301,
-0.10223611444234848,
0.5932978987693787,
-1.1055666208267212,
-0.27953803539276123,
0.19315528869628906,
-0.00008213632099796087,
-0.24681231379508972,
-0.26716116070747375,
0.31671300530433655,
0.22976073622703552,
-0.13917481899261475,
-0.06504717469215393,
0.01094571128487587,
0.4012528359889984,
-0.24110551178455353,
0.5340866446495056,
0.5094295740127563,
0.34182265400886536,
0.08703874051570892,
0.6444824934005737,
-0.4451497197151184,
0.2097293585538864,
0.20715413987636566,
0.08542986214160919,
0.35177022218704224,
-0.10550941526889801,
0.7043167352676392,
-0.2819352447986603,
-0.45388442277908325,
-0.25277355313301086,
0.13255099952220917,
-0.35947859287261963,
0.46657025814056396,
0.02684927172958851,
-0.39570727944374084,
0.5655936598777771,
-0.26701870560646057,
-0.40960630774497986,
-0.796362578868866,
0.3478180766105652,
-0.13355593383312225,
0.18812228739261627,
0.24850089848041534,
-0.24008809030056,
-0.5437914133071899,
0.040838323533535004,
0.307038813829422,
0.27851665019989014,
0.07869690656661987,
0.6377167105674744,
0.1626157909631729,
0.01547752320766449,
-0.17048640549182892,
0.1158040463924408,
0.26961660385131836,
1.1426115036010742,
-0.137200266122818,
0.37289127707481384,
0.6059667468070984,
0.0760803073644638,
0.2869095206260681,
0.42285382747650146,
-0.31510764360427856,
0.054419972002506256,
0.36509254574775696,
0.36140772700309753,
-0.02634277381002903,
-0.13930562138557434,
-0.30914413928985596,
0.2262151688337326,
0.033794645220041275,
0.20564202964305878,
0.5088193416595459,
-0.10829596221446991,
-1.2855517864227295,
-0.4492652416229248,
-0.25763797760009766,
-0.00888573657721281,
0.005848579108715057,
-0.38808390498161316,
0.10942445695400238,
-0.22412540018558502,
-0.7519185543060303,
0.038848746567964554,
0.43553486466407776,
-0.3860226273536682,
0.03773104399442673,
-0.016846146434545517,
-0.21777421236038208,
0.1902763545513153,
0.7368325591087341,
-0.11066211760044098,
0.10424154996871948,
0.10981922596693039,
-0.44472408294677734,
-0.11184880882501602,
0.011333211325109005,
-0.2467564046382904,
0.34857237339019775,
-0.11748292297124863,
-0.1973126232624054,
-0.04388023540377617,
-0.545430600643158,
0.15148144960403442,
-0.16316163539886475,
-0.18060211837291718,
0.280489057302475,
-0.5221613645553589,
0.25321418046951294,
0.02030532993376255,
0.22323907911777496,
0.6321035027503967,
0.6249961853027344,
-0.12487528473138809,
-0.5907713174819946,
0.5589013695716858,
-0.11103413254022598,
-0.8612281680107117,
-0.27428415417671204,
0.07623310387134552,
0.1814831793308258,
-0.2677921652793884,
0.2806906998157501,
-0.20207463204860687,
-0.23784126341342926,
-0.34486597776412964,
0.2787202298641205,
-0.511486828327179,
0.736873209476471,
-0.22279036045074463,
-0.4789745509624481,
0.8705461025238037,
-0.2405591905117035,
0.06088310480117798,
-0.46271196007728577,
0.19740939140319824,
0.2860056757926941,
-0.20336496829986572,
-0.3894652724266052,
0.169834166765213,
0.24090859293937683,
-0.06419635564088821,
0.48789310455322266,
-0.04529966786503792,
0.545996904373169,
-0.2670997977256775,
0.475212037563324,
-0.3129120171070099,
0.34561270475387573,
-0.14077170193195343,
-0.16142870485782623,
0.17171071469783783,
0.17272594571113586,
0.16080322861671448,
0.9385597109794617,
-0.5098164677619934,
0.16270332038402557,
0.5149086713790894,
-0.43208956718444824,
0.6031744480133057,
0.07802671194076538,
-0.5257545709609985,
0.43226370215415955,
0.4508141279220581,
-0.15649551153182983,
-0.04598141461610794,
-0.04373352602124214,
-0.6461480855941772,
-0.16420133411884308,
-0.11533293128013611,
-0.4626144766807556,
-0.5760141611099243,
0.287849485874176,
-0.08095481246709824,
0.30958566069602966,
-0.20277628302574158,
-0.5486345887184143,
0.3623195290565491,
0.38365697860717773,
0.05219445377588272,
-0.8114473819732666,
0.08372613042593002,
0.1697019636631012,
-0.11065472662448883,
-0.12749667465686798,
0.3143366575241089,
0.13805226981639862,
-0.3490605652332306,
0.26122626662254333,
-0.08958429843187332,
-0.1413268893957138,
0.2966971695423126,
0.3366105854511261,
-0.00997942965477705,
-0.4544924199581146,
0.1013636589050293,
0.17348739504814148,
0.264883816242218,
-0.02786058560013771,
-0.27512216567993164,
-0.13161295652389526,
-0.23595990240573883,
0.4459625780582428,
0.11489910632371902,
0.9644724130630493,
-0.10471999645233154,
-0.48363399505615234,
-0.4829756021499634,
-0.06463535130023956,
-0.2503163516521454,
0.07965719699859619,
-0.145760640501976,
-0.004248561337590218,
-0.5175031423568726,
0.12234194576740265,
-0.1355624794960022,
0.11570516973733902,
-0.7884072065353394,
0.13320936262607574,
-0.06036354973912239,
-0.3529621362686157,
-0.3484732210636139,
0.0862450897693634,
-0.027293268591165543,
0.4224664866924286,
0.04309205338358879,
-0.5058653354644775,
-0.03715052455663681,
0.3347918689250946,
0.43777427077293396,
-0.38154491782188416,
0.20276185870170593,
0.10670782625675201,
-0.1429033726453781,
-0.41676291823387146,
0.29593637585639954,
-0.13042375445365906,
0.09340972453355789,
0.4131897985935211,
-0.5354098677635193,
-0.09186109155416489,
-0.02211552858352661,
-5.985871315002441,
-0.07276041060686111,
-0.0818333551287651,
-0.07464118301868439,
0.6493335962295532,
-0.19310057163238525,
0.3760647475719452,
-0.3626405596733093,
0.23553870618343353,
0.16673032939434052,
0.2434770166873932,
0.1057419702410698,
0.024817733094096184,
-0.11300800740718842,
0.3124397397041321,
0.775576114654541,
0.41647809743881226,
0.4769798815250397,
0.381325364112854,
-0.040754321962594986,
-0.11808983236551285,
-0.21515610814094543,
-0.027119284495711327,
0.4290612041950226,
-0.02317400462925434,
0.6349738836288452,
-0.19504143297672272,
0.11448244005441666,
-0.38086187839508057,
0.0445609875023365,
-0.33858224749565125,
-0.21246671676635742,
-0.1338861584663391,
-0.30757957696914673,
-0.11476913094520569,
-0.27690908312797546,
0.29129743576049805,
-0.10200918465852737,
-0.11915759742259979,
0.006897395942360163,
0.506316602230072,
0.4955635070800781,
0.05028649792075157,
-0.20307210087776184,
0.0034990154672414064,
-0.11645742505788803,
-0.4691542088985443,
-0.2780274450778961,
-0.2847079932689667,
0.517497181892395,
0.16677545011043549,
-0.07098624855279922,
0.24839089810848236,
-0.1841191202402115,
0.2233911007642746,
-0.09636564552783966,
0.08625861257314682,
-0.21660324931144714,
-0.32201358675956726,
0.5197539329528809,
0.5252725481987,
-0.3855809271335602,
0.060290995985269547,
-0.3058823347091675,
0.006539629772305489,
-0.25558099150657654,
-0.24503257870674133,
-0.5568651556968689,
0.8768157958984375,
-0.21624228358268738,
-0.09824133664369583,
0.25749191641807556,
0.3578357696533203,
-0.8318598866462708,
0.02587873488664627,
-0.1407501995563507,
-0.006718228571116924,
0.060495100915431976,
0.04982360079884529,
0.38246217370033264,
-0.44039615988731384,
0.2677519917488098,
0.09191428869962692,
-0.037437669932842255,
-0.41120678186416626,
-0.5909714102745056,
-0.4332210421562195,
0.20497682690620422,
-0.21531417965888977,
-0.08018254488706589,
0.2503476142883301,
-0.1861392855644226,
0.313632994890213,
0.5040141344070435,
-0.03636687994003296,
-0.0664646178483963,
0.5207439661026001,
0.9466873407363892,
-0.08471204340457916,
0.07711625844240189,
0.25645989179611206,
0.22946834564208984,
-0.1781020313501358,
-0.698336660861969,
-0.13808053731918335,
-0.06478700041770935,
-0.23231051862239838,
-0.06424829363822937,
0.33008435368537903,
-0.4376204013824463,
-0.04116959124803543,
0.08747991174459457,
-0.4198755621910095,
-0.8723357915878296,
0.21841229498386383,
-0.19579212367534637,
-0.5626445412635803,
0.4849415719509125,
0.12282058596611023,
-0.3479000926017761,
0.21987085044384003,
0.7310640811920166,
0.025943756103515625,
-0.3995107412338257,
-0.2092868685722351,
-0.5992274880409241,
0.23802317678928375,
0.07276177406311035,
0.14476041495800018,
0.3215677738189697,
0.37284624576568604,
0.614952027797699,
0.13700659573078156,
-0.23724068701267242,
0.29996976256370544,
-0.17981988191604614,
-0.1330457180738449,
0.1048387661576271,
-0.5229618549346924,
-0.29111891984939575,
-0.19090034067630768,
0.030619584023952484,
0.12842045724391937,
0.5983325839042664,
0.2797834575176239,
0.2336501181125641,
0.08764611929655075,
0.12377152591943741,
0.1525549441576004,
0.5933460593223572,
0.21747879683971405,
-0.3187074363231659,
0.9574045538902283,
0.24385352432727814,
-0.016257846727967262,
-0.42523911595344543,
-0.24612084031105042,
-0.011322305537760258,
-0.37900134921073914,
-0.4166296422481537,
0.06153454631567001,
-0.13588277995586395,
-0.8342856168746948,
-0.03603219985961914,
0.5620558261871338,
-0.4511547088623047,
-0.16096286475658417,
0.25426486134529114,
0.04285808280110359,
0.44994473457336426,
0.23604078590869904,
-0.1477876752614975,
-0.5481517910957336,
-0.19867338240146637,
0.12139151245355606,
0.41160789132118225,
-0.2635638415813446,
-0.1661032736301422,
-0.6641619801521301,
-0.07110793888568878,
0.6537488698959351,
-0.23460763692855835,
-0.5623518228530884,
0.4979782700538635,
0.6878421306610107,
-0.9172322750091553,
0.3466937243938446,
-0.43317168951034546,
-0.4670366942882538,
-0.07523474097251892,
-0.008736376650631428,
-0.2190571278333664,
0.5845661163330078,
0.7874742150306702,
0.013667931780219078,
-0.04639260098338127,
0.11162525415420532,
-0.11244003474712372,
-0.04432231932878494,
-0.37047162652015686,
0.06521699577569962,
0.28868746757507324,
-0.13697022199630737,
-0.021808594465255737,
-0.13524048030376434,
-0.5405343174934387,
0.10026627779006958,
-0.15076354146003723,
-0.11643069237470627,
0.39225372672080994,
-0.2617068588733673,
-0.472644567489624,
0.06262660026550293,
0.059600718319416046,
-0.28474122285842896,
0.19766579568386078,
0.19907435774803162,
-0.5976624488830566,
-0.0044105625711381435,
-0.33572375774383545,
0.25015315413475037,
-0.3685411214828491,
-0.3749033510684967,
0.11545757949352264,
0.04561317339539528,
1.176848292350769,
0.3893059194087982,
-0.3611047863960266,
0.5283759236335754,
-0.28856360912323,
0.1366538107395172,
-0.48874393105506897,
-0.31965234875679016,
0.3739898204803467,
0.08302224427461624,
0.5108839869499207,
0.25175216794013977,
0.38746848702430725,
0.29663488268852234,
0.45603758096694946,
-0.4347288906574249,
-0.11012700200080872,
-0.25965163111686707,
-0.9424477815628052,
0.1128532811999321,
0.35955312848091125,
0.4045352041721344,
-0.8124934434890747,
-0.6617414951324463,
0.31254827976226807,
0.5597018599510193,
-0.476472944021225,
0.12427295744419098,
-0.38472285866737366,
1.2002511024475098,
-0.0910084918141365,
-0.0035004522651433945,
-0.16810694336891174,
-0.14529547095298767,
-0.11626562476158142,
-0.25056421756744385,
-0.023959526792168617,
-0.7285048961639404,
0.27052319049835205,
0.13772240281105042,
0.5629192590713501,
-0.5049136877059937,
0.08122368156909943,
-0.3220214545726776,
-0.22233177721500397,
-0.12881909310817719,
-0.0799984261393547,
0.5986418724060059,
1.0742889642715454,
0.26783809065818787,
-0.0675714910030365,
-0.3576650321483612,
-1.1206393241882324,
-0.6713545918464661,
-0.28443455696105957,
-0.9451138973236084,
0.08227261900901794,
0.5354564189910889,
-0.0305780041962862,
0.4605311453342438,
-0.43916505575180054,
-0.2886800765991211,
-0.04811972379684448,
-0.38161754608154297,
0.0028408532962203026,
-0.06442201882600784,
0.36693403124809265,
-0.13954925537109375,
-0.5715487599372864,
-0.5962578058242798,
-0.00659392774105072,
0.2943510115146637,
-0.2381066232919693,
0.35366693139076233,
0.3240211308002472,
-0.4125671088695526,
0.40467965602874756,
0.5645819306373596,
-0.2042582482099533,
0.1288440078496933,
0.6681004762649536,
-0.11709948629140854,
-0.5107619762420654,
0.2271459847688675,
-0.448221892118454,
0.4581232964992523,
-0.4481859803199768,
-0.1981610506772995,
0.6170216798782349,
-0.44559746980667114,
-0.135728657245636,
0.536918044090271,
-0.8780403137207031,
0.2679084837436676,
0.03647308424115181,
0.4824935495853424,
0.24635273218154907,
0.5396543741226196,
-0.12104123830795288,
-0.44249364733695984,
0.556187093257904,
-0.16118553280830383,
-0.1586073935031891,
0.4984547793865204,
-0.2671540379524231,
0.8685083389282227,
0.12495338916778564,
-0.5732331275939941,
0.3257966935634613,
-0.1025625541806221,
0.0908404290676117,
-0.2127988040447235,
-0.3778899013996124,
-0.43139851093292236,
0.8967717885971069,
0.5241391062736511,
0.4157426953315735,
-0.3736494183540344,
-0.17952404916286469,
-0.5080829858779907,
0.7475306987762451,
0.2567099928855896,
-0.3265630900859833,
0.09106040745973587,
0.4769366681575775,
0.1073414608836174,
-0.35419487953186035,
-0.14669817686080933,
-0.2508423924446106,
-0.13641566038131714,
0.14602607488632202,
-0.07374275475740433,
-0.19619502127170563,
0.4821850061416626,
-0.07762876152992249,
0.24942484498023987,
0.4753838777542114,
0.7068616151809692,
-0.05254396051168442,
0.16263975203037262,
-0.25405803322792053,
0.06101229041814804,
-0.5161281824111938,
0.027778243646025658,
0.3677971065044403,
-0.053669918328523636,
-0.23883628845214844,
-0.2989993393421173,
0.01851717196404934,
-0.10146133601665497,
0.537612795829773,
0.5948489904403687,
0.7658435702323914,
0.023486338555812836,
0.47273415327072144,
-0.15879815816879272,
-0.45643317699432373,
0.1190643459558487,
-0.13313522934913635,
0.11760689318180084,
-0.14126189053058624,
-0.2793866991996765,
0.4440419375896454,
-0.6617339849472046,
0.18411999940872192,
0.057236287742853165,
-0.45985111594200134,
0.3629573583602905,
0.4129018187522888,
0.07946033775806427,
-0.020735610276460648,
0.06430546939373016,
0.7066249251365662,
-0.2538847327232361,
0.05902590975165367,
-0.28367355465888977,
0.11411074548959732,
0.28294020891189575,
0.030923612415790558,
-0.24443838000297546,
0.29427456855773926,
-0.881088137626648,
-0.115496926009655,
-0.40400272607803345,
0.4679981768131256,
0.03461179882287979,
-0.10370144248008728,
0.08754189312458038,
0.11928468942642212,
-0.03401631861925125,
0.06006154790520668,
0.31771326065063477,
-0.09330344200134277,
-0.1116451844573021,
0.0007247199537232518,
-0.02490021102130413,
-0.14842912554740906,
0.22278067469596863,
0.4773883521556854,
-0.44071874022483826,
0.12227553129196167,
0.6761194467544556,
0.19984814524650574,
-0.527706503868103,
0.326445996761322,
0.2168658971786499,
0.08480558544397354,
-0.7151429653167725,
-0.007194011006504297,
-0.4582659900188446,
-0.49686405062675476,
0.11768675595521927,
0.40226033329963684,
0.24103274941444397,
-0.12942247092723846,
0.18704822659492493,
-0.11220093071460724,
-0.5761554837226868,
-0.42036715149879456,
-0.051131416112184525,
0.19254077970981598,
0.17538055777549744,
-0.13646899163722992,
-0.7042849659919739,
0.2139720916748047,
0.025848200544714928,
-0.6272619366645813,
0.5186200141906738,
0.3599294126033783,
0.5436555743217468,
0.09040556848049164,
0.703643262386322,
-0.5184875130653381,
0.2704111933708191,
-0.17546823620796204
] |
200091
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic%20residue
|
Quadratic residue
|
In number theory, an integer q is called a quadratic residue modulo n if it is congruent to a perfect square modulo n; i.e., if there exists an integer x such that:
Otherwise, q is called a quadratic nonresidue modulo n.
Originally an abstract mathematical concept from the branch of number theory known as modular arithmetic, quadratic residues are now used in applications ranging from acoustical engineering to cryptography and the factoring of large numbers.
History, conventions, and elementary facts
Fermat, Euler, Lagrange, Legendre, and other number theorists of the 17th and 18th centuries established theorems and formed conjectures about quadratic residues, but the first systematic treatment is § IV of Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801). Article 95 introduces the terminology "quadratic residue" and "quadratic nonresidue", and states that if the context makes it clear, the adjective "quadratic" may be dropped.
For a given n a list of the quadratic residues modulo n may be obtained by simply squaring the numbers 0, 1, ..., . Because a2 ≡ (n − a)2 (mod n), the list of squares modulo n is symmetric around n/2, and the list only needs to go that high. This can be seen in the table below.
Thus, the number of quadratic residues modulo n cannot exceed n/2 + 1 (n even) or (n + 1)/2 (n odd).
The product of two residues is always a residue.
Prime modulus
Modulo 2, every integer is a quadratic residue.
Modulo an odd prime number p there are (p + 1)/2 residues (including 0) and (p − 1)/2 nonresidues, by Euler's criterion. In this case, it is customary to consider 0 as a special case and work within the multiplicative group of nonzero elements of the field Z/pZ. (In other words, every congruence class except zero modulo p has a multiplicative inverse. This is not true for composite moduli.)
Following this convention, the multiplicative inverse of a residue is a residue, and the inverse of a nonresidue is a nonresidue.
Following this convention, modulo an odd prime number there are an equal number of residues and nonresidues.
Modulo a prime, the product of two nonresidues is a residue and the product of a nonresidue and a (nonzero) residue is a nonresidue.
The first supplement to the law of quadratic reciprocity is that if p ≡ 1 (mod 4) then −1 is a quadratic residue modulo p, and if p ≡ 3 (mod 4) then −1 is a nonresidue modulo p. This implies the following:
If p ≡ 1 (mod 4) the negative of a residue modulo p is a residue and the negative of a nonresidue is a nonresidue.
If p ≡ 3 (mod 4) the negative of a residue modulo p is a nonresidue and the negative of a nonresidue is a residue.
Prime power modulus
All odd squares are ≡ 1 (mod 8) and thus also ≡ 1 (mod 4). If a is an odd number and m = 8, 16, or some higher power of 2, then a is a residue modulo m if and only if a ≡ 1 (mod 8).
For example, mod (32) the odd squares are
12 ≡ 152 ≡ 1
32 ≡ 132 ≡ 9
52 ≡ 112 ≡ 25
72 ≡ 92 ≡ 49 ≡ 17
and the even ones are
02 ≡ 82 ≡ 162 ≡ 0
22 ≡ 62≡ 102 ≡ 142≡ 4
42 ≡ 122 ≡ 16.
So a nonzero number is a residue mod 8, 16, etc., if and only if it is of the form 4k(8n + 1).
A number a relatively prime to an odd prime p is a residue modulo any power of p if and only if it is a residue modulo p.
If the modulus is pn,
then pka
is a residue modulo pn if k ≥ n
is a nonresidue modulo pn if k < n is odd
is a residue modulo pn if k < n is even and a is a residue
is a nonresidue modulo pn if k < n is even and a is a nonresidue.
Notice that the rules are different for powers of two and powers of odd primes.
Modulo an odd prime power n = pk, the products of residues and nonresidues relatively prime to p obey the same rules as they do mod p; p is a nonresidue, and in general all the residues and nonresidues obey the same rules, except that the products will be zero if the power of p in the product ≥ n.
Modulo 8, the product of the nonresidues 3 and 5 is the nonresidue 7, and likewise for permutations of 3, 5 and 7. In fact, the multiplicative group of the non-residues and 1 form the Klein four-group.
Composite modulus not a prime power
The basic fact in this case is
if a is a residue modulo n, then a is a residue modulo pk for every prime power dividing n.
if a is a nonresidue modulo n, then a is a nonresidue modulo pk for at least one prime power dividing n.
Modulo a composite number, the product of two residues is a residue. The product of a residue and a nonresidue may be a residue, a nonresidue, or zero.
For example, from the table for modulus 6
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (residues in bold).
The product of the residue 3 and the nonresidue 5 is the residue 3, whereas the product of the residue 4 and the nonresidue 2 is the nonresidue 2.
Also, the product of two nonresidues may be either a residue, a nonresidue, or zero.
For example, from the table for modulus 15
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 (residues in bold).
The product of the nonresidues 2 and 8 is the residue 1, whereas the product of the nonresidues 2 and 7 is the nonresidue 14.
This phenomenon can best be described using the vocabulary of abstract algebra. The congruence classes relatively prime to the modulus are a group under multiplication, called the group of units of the ring Z/nZ, and the squares are a subgroup of it. Different nonresidues may belong to different cosets, and there is no simple rule that predicts which one their product will be in. Modulo a prime, there is only the subgroup of squares and a single coset.
The fact that, e.g., modulo 15 the product of the nonresidues 3 and 5, or of the nonresidue 5 and the residue 9, or the two residues 9 and 10 are all zero comes from working in the full ring Z/nZ, which has zero divisors for composite n.
For this reason some authors add to the definition that a quadratic residue a must not only be a square but must also be relatively prime to the modulus n. (a is coprime to n if and only if a2 is coprime to n.)
Although it makes things tidier, this article does not insist that residues must be coprime to the modulus.
Notations
Gauss used and to denote residuosity and non-residuosity, respectively;
for example, and , or and .
Although this notation is compact and convenient for some purposes, a more useful notation is the Legendre symbol, also called the quadratic character, which is defined for all integers and positive odd prime numbers as
There are two reasons why numbers ≡ 0 (mod ) are treated specially. As we have seen, it makes many formulas and theorems easier to state. The other (related) reason is that the quadratic character is a homomorphism from the multiplicative group of nonzero congruence classes modulo to the complex numbers under multiplication. Setting allows its domain to be extended to the multiplicative semigroup of all the integers.
One advantage of this notation over Gauss's is that the Legendre symbol is a function that can be used in formulas. It can also easily be generalized to cubic, quartic and higher power residues.
There is a generalization of the Legendre symbol for composite values of , the Jacobi symbol, but its properties are not as simple: if is composite and the Jacobi symbol then , and if then but if we do not know whether or . For example: and , but and . If is prime, the Jacobi and Legendre symbols agree.
Distribution of quadratic residues
Although quadratic residues appear to occur in a rather random pattern modulo n, and this has been exploited in such applications as acoustics and cryptography, their distribution also exhibits some striking regularities.
Using Dirichlet's theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions, the law of quadratic reciprocity, and the Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) it is easy to see that for any M > 0 there are primes p such that the numbers 1, 2, ..., M are all residues modulo p.
For example, if p ≡ 1 (mod 8), (mod 12), (mod 5) and (mod 28), then by the law of quadratic reciprocity 2, 3, 5, and 7 will all be residues modulo p, and thus all numbers 1–10 will be. The CRT says that this is the same as p ≡ 1 (mod 840), and Dirichlet's theorem says there are an infinite number of primes of this form. 2521 is the smallest, and indeed 12 ≡ 1, 10462 ≡ 2, 1232 ≡ 3, 22 ≡ 4, 6432 ≡ 5, 872 ≡ 6, 6682 ≡ 7, 4292 ≡ 8, 32 ≡ 9, and 5292 ≡ 10 (mod 2521).
Dirichlet's formulas
The first of these regularities stems from Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet's work (in the 1830s) on the analytic formula for the class number of binary quadratic forms. Let q be a prime number, s a complex variable, and define a Dirichlet L-function as
Dirichlet showed that if q ≡ 3 (mod 4), then
Therefore, in this case (prime q ≡ 3 (mod 4)), the sum of the quadratic residues minus the sum of the nonresidues in the range 1, 2, ..., q − 1 is a negative number.
For example, modulo 11,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 (residues in bold)
1 + 4 + 9 + 5 + 3 = 22, 2 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 10 = 33, and the difference is −11.
In fact the difference will always be an odd multiple of q if q > 3. In contrast, for prime q ≡ 1 (mod 4), the sum of the quadratic residues minus the sum of the nonresidues in the range 1, 2, ..., q − 1 is zero, implying that both sums equal .
Dirichlet also proved that for prime q ≡ 3 (mod 4),
This implies that there are more quadratic residues than nonresidues among the numbers 1, 2, ..., (q − 1)/2.
For example, modulo 11 there are four residues less than 6 (namely 1, 3, 4, and 5), but only one nonresidue (2).
An intriguing fact about these two theorems is that all known proofs rely on analysis; no-one has ever published a simple or direct proof of either statement.
Law of quadratic reciprocity
If p and q are odd primes, then:
((p is a quadratic residue mod q) if and only if (q is a quadratic residue mod p)) if and only if (at least one of p and q is congruent to 1 mod 4).
That is:
where is the Legendre symbol.
Thus, for numbers a and odd primes p that don't divide a:
Pairs of residues and nonresidues
Modulo a prime p, the number of pairs n, n + 1 where n R p and n + 1 R p, or n N p and n + 1 R p, etc., are almost equal. More precisely, let p be an odd prime. For i, j = 0, 1 define the sets
and let
That is,
α00 is the number of residues that are followed by a residue,
α01 is the number of residues that are followed by a nonresidue,
α10 is the number of nonresidues that are followed by a residue, and
α11 is the number of nonresidues that are followed by a nonresidue.
Then if p ≡ 1 (mod 4)
and if p ≡ 3 (mod 4)
For example: (residues in bold)
Modulo 17
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
A00 = {1,8,15},
A01 = {2,4,9,13},
A10 = {3,7,12,14},
A11 = {5,6,10,11}.
Modulo 19
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18
A00 = {4,5,6,16},
A01 = {1,7,9,11,17},
A10 = {3,8,10,15},
A11 = {2,12,13,14}.
Gauss (1828) introduced this sort of counting when he proved that if p ≡ 1 (mod 4) then x4 ≡ 2 (mod p) can be solved if and only if p = a2 + 64 b2.
The Pólya–Vinogradov inequality
The values of for consecutive values of a mimic a random variable like a coin flip. Specifically, Pólya and Vinogradov proved (independently) in 1918 that for any nonprincipal Dirichlet character χ(n) modulo q and any integers M and N,
in big O notation. Setting
this shows that the number of quadratic residues modulo q in any interval of length N is
It is easy to prove that
In fact,
Montgomery and Vaughan improved this in 1977, showing that, if the generalized Riemann hypothesis is true then
This result cannot be substantially improved, for Schur had proved in 1918 that
and Paley had proved in 1932 that
for infinitely many d > 0.
Least quadratic non-residue
The least quadratic residue mod p is clearly 1. The question of the magnitude of the least quadratic non-residue n(p) is more subtle, but it is always prime, with 7 appearing for the first time at 71.
The Pólya–Vinogradov inequality above gives O( log p).
The best unconditional estimate is n(p) ≪ pθ for any θ>1/4, obtained by estimates of Burgess on character sums.
Assuming the Generalised Riemann hypothesis, Ankeny obtained n(p) ≪ (log p)2.
Linnik showed that the number of p less than X such that n(p) > Xε is bounded by a constant depending on ε.
The least quadratic non-residues mod p for odd primes p are:
2, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 5, 2, 3, 2, ...
Quadratic excess
Let p be an odd prime. The quadratic excess E(p) is the number of quadratic residues on the range (0,p/2) minus the number in the range (p/2,p) . For p congruent to 1 mod 4, the excess is zero, since −1 is a quadratic residue and the residues are symmetric under r ↔ p−r. For p congruent to 3 mod 4, the excess E is always positive.
Complexity of finding square roots
That is, given a number a and a modulus n, how hard is it
to tell whether an x solving x2 ≡ a (mod n) exists
assuming one does exist, to calculate it?
An important difference between prime and composite moduli shows up here. Modulo a prime p, a quadratic residue a has 1 + (a|p) roots (i.e. zero if a N p, one if a ≡ 0 (mod p), or two if a R p and gcd(a,p) = 1.)
In general if a composite modulus n is written as a product of powers of distinct primes, and there are n1 roots modulo the first one, n2 mod the second, ..., there will be n1n2... roots modulo n.
The theoretical way solutions modulo the prime powers are combined to make solutions modulo n is called the Chinese remainder theorem; it can be implemented with an efficient algorithm.
For example:
Solve x2 ≡ 6 (mod 15).
x2 ≡ 6 (mod 3) has one solution, 0; x2 ≡ 6 (mod 5) has two, 1 and 4.
and there are two solutions modulo 15, namely 6 and 9.
Solve x2 ≡ 4 (mod 15).
x2 ≡ 4 (mod 3) has two solutions, 1 and 2; x2 ≡ 4 (mod 5) has two, 2 and 3.
and there are four solutions modulo 15, namely 2, 7, 8, and 13.
Solve x2 ≡ 7 (mod 15).
x2 ≡ 7 (mod 3) has two solutions, 1 and 2; x2 ≡ 7 (mod 5) has no solutions.
and there are no solutions modulo 15.
Prime or prime power modulus
First off, if the modulus n is prime the Legendre symbol can be quickly computed using a variation of Euclid's algorithm or the Euler's criterion. If it is −1 there is no solution.
Secondly, assuming that , if n ≡ 3 (mod 4), Lagrange found that the solutions are given by
and Legendre found a similar solution if n ≡ 5 (mod 8):
For prime n ≡ 1 (mod 8), however, there is no known formula. Tonelli (in 1891) and Cipolla found efficient algorithms that work for all prime moduli. Both algorithms require finding a quadratic nonresidue modulo n, and there is no efficient deterministic algorithm known for doing that. But since half the numbers between 1 and n are nonresidues, picking numbers x at random and calculating the Legendre symbol until a nonresidue is found will quickly produce one. A slight variant of this algorithm is the Tonelli–Shanks algorithm.
If the modulus n is a prime power n = pe, a solution may be found modulo p and "lifted" to a solution modulo n using Hensel's lemma or an algorithm of Gauss.
Composite modulus
If the modulus n has been factored into prime powers the solution was discussed above.
If n is not congruent to 2 modulo 4 and the Kronecker symbol then there is no solution; if n is congruent to 2 modulo 4 and , then there is also no solution. If n is not congruent to 2 modulo 4 and , or n is congruent to 2 modulo 4 and , there may or may not be one.
If the complete factorization of n is not known, and and n is not congruent to 2 modulo 4, or n is congruent to 2 modulo 4 and , the problem is known to be equivalent to integer factorization of n (i.e. an efficient solution to either problem could be used to solve the other efficiently).
The above discussion indicates how knowing the factors of n allows us to find the roots efficiently. Say there were an efficient algorithm for finding square roots modulo a composite number. The article congruence of squares discusses how finding two numbers x and y where and suffices to factorize n efficiently. Generate a random number, square it modulo n, and have the efficient square root algorithm find a root. Repeat until it returns a number not equal to the one we originally squared (or its negative modulo n), then follow the algorithm described in congruence of squares. The efficiency of the factoring algorithm depends on the exact characteristics of the root-finder (e.g. does it return all roots? just the smallest one? a random one?), but it will be efficient.
Determining whether a is a quadratic residue or nonresidue modulo n (denoted or ) can be done efficiently for prime n by computing the Legendre symbol. However, for composite n, this forms the quadratic residuosity problem, which is not known to be as hard as factorization, but is assumed to be quite hard.
On the other hand, if we want to know if there is a solution for x less than some given limit c, this problem is NP-complete; however, this is a fixed-parameter tractable problem, where c is the parameter.
In general, to determine if a is a quadratic residue modulo composite n, one can use the following theorem:
Let , and . Then is solvable if and only if:
The Legendre symbol for all odd prime divisors p of n.
if n is divisible by 4 but not 8; or if n is divisible by 8.
Note: This theorem essentially requires that the factorization of n is known. Also notice that if , then the congruence can be reduced to , but then this takes the problem away from quadratic residues (unless m is a square).
The number of quadratic residues
The list of the number of quadratic residues modulo n, for n = 1, 2, 3 ..., looks like:
1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 3, 4, 6, 6, 4, 7, 8, 6, ...
A formula to count the number of squares modulo n is given by Stangl.
Applications of quadratic residues
Acoustics
Sound diffusers have been based on number-theoretic concepts such as primitive roots and quadratic residues.
Graph theory
Paley graphs are dense undirected graphs, one for each prime p ≡ 1 (mod 4), that form an infinite family of conference graphs, which yield an infinite family of symmetric conference matrices.
Paley digraphs are directed analogs of Paley graphs, one for each p ≡ 3 (mod 4), that yield antisymmetric conference matrices.
The construction of these graphs uses quadratic residues.
Cryptography
The fact that finding a square root of a number modulo a large composite n is equivalent to factoring (which is widely believed to be a hard problem) has been used for constructing cryptographic schemes such as the Rabin cryptosystem and the oblivious transfer. The quadratic residuosity problem is the basis for the Goldwasser-Micali cryptosystem.
The discrete logarithm is a similar problem that is also used in cryptography.
Primality testing
Euler's criterion is a formula for the Legendre symbol (a|p) where p is prime. If p is composite the formula may or may not compute (a|p) correctly. The Solovay–Strassen primality test for whether a given number n is prime or composite picks a random a and computes (a|n) using a modification of Euclid's algorithm, and also using Euler's criterion. If the results disagree, n is composite; if they agree, n may be composite or prime. For a composite n at least 1/2 the values of a in the range 2, 3, ..., n − 1 will return "n is composite"; for prime n none will. If, after using many different values of a, n has not been proved composite it is called a "probable prime".
The Miller–Rabin primality test is based on the same principles. There is a deterministic version of it, but the proof that it works depends on the generalized Riemann hypothesis; the output from this test is "n is definitely composite" or "either n is prime or the GRH is false". If the second output ever occurs for a composite n, then the GRH would be false, which would have implications through many branches of mathematics.
Integer factorization
In § VI of the Disquisitiones Arithmeticae Gauss discusses two factoring algorithms that use quadratic residues and the law of quadratic reciprocity.
Several modern factorization algorithms (including Dixon's algorithm, the continued fraction method, the quadratic sieve, and the number field sieve) generate small quadratic residues (modulo the number being factorized) in an attempt to find a congruence of squares which will yield a factorization. The number field sieve is the fastest general-purpose factorization algorithm known.
Table of quadratic residues
The following table lists the quadratic residues mod 1 to 75 (a means it is not coprime to n). (For the quadratic residues coprime to n, see , and for nonzero quadratic residues, see .)
See also
Euler's criterion
Gauss's lemma
Zolotarev's lemma
Character sum
Law of quadratic reciprocity
Quadratic residue code
Notes
References
The Disquisitiones Arithmeticae has been translated from Gauss's Ciceronian Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes.
A7.1: AN1, pg.249.
External links
Modular arithmetic
NP-complete problems
|
[
-0.25655269622802734,
-0.11346863210201263,
0.005423907656222582,
0.016393611207604408,
-0.47139787673950195,
0.054735034704208374,
0.029077962040901184,
-0.43963712453842163,
0.013029317371547222,
-0.4139972925186157,
-0.35393673181533813,
0.12785160541534424,
-0.1997489333152771,
0.3779659569263458,
0.14401352405548096,
0.8264173269271851,
0.4536267817020416,
0.38198980689048767,
-0.9433449506759644,
-0.4406849443912506,
0.3132680654525757,
0.19443346560001373,
0.5982789397239685,
-0.22168166935443878,
0.4486115276813507,
-0.014591203071177006,
0.33106353878974915,
0.19601601362228394,
-0.005337119568139315,
0.34331443905830383,
0.16052009165287018,
0.19406983256340027,
0.6760162115097046,
0.0865105614066124,
0.5259225368499756,
-0.23954832553863525,
0.46799030900001526,
-0.0887671411037445,
0.0004756173584610224,
-0.4308547377586365,
0.4495144188404083,
-0.07226183265447617,
0.23389512300491333,
0.6123066544532776,
-0.9425451755523682,
-0.5347859859466553,
-1.2881832122802734,
0.49364665150642395,
0.20317420363426208,
-0.24391311407089233,
-0.6333542466163635,
-0.02506048046052456,
0.24020572006702423,
0.5468241572380066,
-0.12618592381477356,
0.9259377717971802,
-0.5516815781593323,
-0.3087034225463867,
0.6044567227363586,
-0.3760068714618683,
0.0017027587164193392,
0.17282596230506897,
-0.0009553946438245475,
0.3010534346103668,
-0.062061503529548645,
0.9330852031707764,
-0.10216107219457626,
-0.12806345522403717,
-0.8473212718963623,
-0.1992739737033844,
-0.15740326046943665,
0.026121681556105614,
-0.517540454864502,
0.34710121154785156,
-0.6389409899711609,
-0.049885377287864685,
-0.23743964731693268,
0.005199923645704985,
0.05207030475139618,
0.272786021232605,
-0.6986888647079468,
0.311929851770401,
0.29805853962898254,
-0.3262058198451996,
0.32565855979919434,
-0.12451469153165817,
-0.43734416365623474,
0.05881441757082939,
-0.8172193765640259,
0.393037348985672,
0.36853012442588806,
-0.24926204979419708,
-0.029010940343141556,
0.13508041203022003,
-0.19982290267944336,
0.4750590920448303,
0.34593629837036133,
-0.7472652792930603,
0.23591889441013336,
0.4947916865348816,
-0.06739471107721329,
-0.11914539337158203,
0.1467670053243637,
-0.012460480444133282,
-0.7175130844116211,
-0.629925012588501,
-0.5305060148239136,
-0.3593345284461975,
0.4951949119567871,
0.052736327052116394,
-0.9855908155441284,
0.3669622242450714,
0.5631210803985596,
0.04754689708352089,
-0.23221507668495178,
0.050121840089559555,
-0.10746011137962341,
0.5876044631004333,
-0.2787873446941376,
0.15463653206825256,
-0.34807366132736206,
0.31453266739845276,
-0.24036288261413574,
0.750394344329834,
-0.08135510981082916,
0.22516106069087982,
0.29771682620048523,
0.9362955689430237,
-1.122916579246521,
-0.30096420645713806,
0.09345804899930954,
0.6967100501060486,
0.559500515460968,
-0.17429159581661224,
-0.23403838276863098,
-0.6866339445114136,
-0.5080569982528687,
-0.34782081842422485,
-0.5292279720306396,
-0.18592539429664612,
-0.7729964256286621,
-0.8364684581756592,
-0.012064231559634209,
-0.24561843276023865,
-0.028950851410627365,
-0.6382057070732117,
-0.3431602418422699,
0.04189231991767883,
0.2349090278148651,
0.44978034496307373,
-0.003426286159083247,
0.270114928483963,
-0.44890403747558594,
-0.32994821667671204,
-0.6614440679550171,
-0.317283034324646,
0.1632738560438156,
0.38791412115097046,
-0.44311290979385376,
0.25723910331726074,
-0.32963281869888306,
-0.08047300577163696,
-0.0919657051563263,
-0.7492898106575012,
0.14139050245285034,
-0.5122647285461426,
0.8067250847816467,
0.02165311947464943,
-0.08837483078241348,
0.24493446946144104,
-0.15310470759868622,
-0.4943335950374603,
0.5815284252166748,
0.09291751682758331,
-0.24946555495262146,
-0.04337174445390701,
0.20139311254024506,
-0.6116814613342285,
0.5981906056404114,
-0.0627128928899765,
-0.9843305945396423,
0.2337414026260376,
0.022053658962249756,
-0.07100380957126617,
0.13048167526721954,
-0.030529065057635307,
0.300727516412735,
-0.061336956918239594,
0.13131532073020935,
0.02697288617491722,
-0.320153146982193,
0.0015293622855097055,
-0.15060628950595856,
-1.0149600505828857,
1.3664922714233398,
0.22566360235214233,
-0.6749611496925354,
-0.31787770986557007,
-0.4435749053955078,
0.6085785627365112,
-0.14707531034946442,
-0.18566055595874786,
0.49021822214126587,
0.39347943663597107,
0.1081436276435852,
0.7519175410270691,
-0.30579957365989685,
0.15096072852611542,
-0.23819980025291443,
0.45870471000671387,
0.1441778689622879,
-0.3959617018699646,
0.49778318405151367,
-0.1760629415512085,
0.41732504963874817,
-0.03693826124072075,
-0.3622816503047943,
0.12572911381721497,
-0.13967716693878174,
0.2069607526063919,
0.8929529786109924,
-0.3315030336380005,
-0.013982855714857578,
0.3442174792289734,
-0.3130350708961487,
0.5859797596931458,
0.19561702013015747,
0.5601849555969238,
0.41415658593177795,
-0.18935991823673248,
-0.06626266986131668,
-0.16986411809921265,
0.3538624048233032,
0.27574750781059265,
-0.26969411969184875,
0.333034873008728,
0.37023958563804626,
-0.2169511318206787,
0.48505449295043945,
-0.8081262707710266,
-0.1442979872226715,
0.6789361834526062,
-0.5156121850013733,
-0.2517663240432739,
-0.017024384811520576,
0.16462217271327972,
-0.8139506578445435,
-0.06457184255123138,
0.153619647026062,
-0.19394585490226746,
-0.0004647899477276951,
-0.10782214254140854,
0.34122616052627563,
-0.5450582504272461,
-0.5696858167648315,
-0.07031899690628052,
-0.12307365238666534,
-0.3785180449485779,
0.44768795371055603,
0.234516441822052,
-0.14747123420238495,
-0.16917164623737335,
0.1849195808172226,
-0.6496066451072693,
-0.17900504171848297,
0.08226674795150757,
-0.7957767248153687,
-0.16340133547782898,
1.009111762046814,
0.17965778708457947,
0.007456444203853607,
-0.5509461760520935,
-0.7905436754226685,
-0.06570673733949661,
-0.7712365984916687,
-0.5605257749557495,
-0.2533283829689026,
-0.33558133244514465,
-0.9839007258415222,
-0.6029269695281982,
0.043971024453639984,
0.5354844927787781,
0.04118550568819046,
-0.7881015539169312,
-0.23517590761184692,
0.1339319795370102,
-0.2373480647802353,
-0.429647833108902,
0.2500254213809967,
-0.49390318989753723,
-0.6706714630126953,
0.08029785752296448,
-0.5327469110488892,
-0.2509220242500305,
0.7127423882484436,
0.3682311475276947,
-0.11258148401975632,
-0.29430699348449707,
0.2521767318248749,
-0.19359591603279114,
-0.5354606509208679,
-0.09494698792695999,
-0.3567104637622833,
0.03503034636378288,
-0.34253138303756714,
-0.6651604175567627,
-0.766780436038971,
0.45465344190597534,
-5.407298564910889,
0.1601330041885376,
-0.9664757251739502,
0.05843246355652809,
-0.04472333565354347,
0.06820781528949738,
-0.04740240424871445,
0.2316187024116516,
-0.07890582829713821,
-0.3004899024963379,
-0.008449985645711422,
-0.726227879524231,
-0.48069649934768677,
0.679841935634613,
0.18436063826084137,
0.04163895919919014,
0.3533119559288025,
-0.13174177706241608,
0.26814138889312744,
0.5267750024795532,
0.38740020990371704,
0.36149725317955017,
-0.35930579900741577,
-0.08890894055366516,
0.4939059913158417,
0.44492024183273315,
-0.7044171094894409,
0.30427199602127075,
-0.30518075823783875,
-0.20309597253799438,
-0.5928277969360352,
-0.26653358340263367,
-0.33798104524612427,
-0.6508541703224182,
-0.3144877254962921,
0.5367766618728638,
0.40438976883888245,
-0.3788716495037079,
0.10331106930971146,
-0.3639846742153168,
0.07724818587303162,
0.5352407097816467,
-0.09743446111679077,
-0.09173548221588135,
0.7050092816352844,
-0.012906784191727638,
-0.45033732056617737,
-0.02469007484614849,
-0.17648187279701233,
0.09416986256837845,
-0.45883914828300476,
0.6151257157325745,
0.6266815066337585,
0.054876908659935,
0.16142314672470093,
-0.41548222303390503,
-0.0028897372540086508,
-0.6387391090393066,
-0.5847179293632507,
0.16687700152397156,
0.1298275589942932,
-0.4083504378795624,
0.51694256067276,
-0.29469096660614014,
-0.1873728334903717,
-0.11629709601402283,
-0.6284072399139404,
-0.160220205783844,
0.34294483065605164,
0.059804949909448624,
-0.5572670698165894,
0.1383427232503891,
0.20700496435165405,
-0.18708661198616028,
0.21880106627941132,
0.013079640455543995,
0.039138313382864,
0.4309043884277344,
0.014790567569434643,
-0.07143672555685043,
-0.5240457653999329,
-0.31405171751976013,
-0.7142741084098816,
0.4562324583530426,
-0.0218096524477005,
-0.15423060953617096,
-0.4508381485939026,
-0.21267598867416382,
-0.24349723756313324,
0.2923010587692261,
0.7068001627922058,
-0.2972009479999542,
0.7647351026535034,
0.3586747944355011,
0.5980029106140137,
-0.05995798110961914,
0.51460200548172,
0.12666991353034973,
0.5536460280418396,
-0.08973802626132965,
0.5196357369422913,
-0.012682532891631126,
0.05255834013223648,
-0.1283404380083084,
-0.29731327295303345,
-0.15906311571598053,
-0.8053175806999207,
0.7074826955795288,
0.3309794068336487,
-0.2033510059118271,
-0.43768545985221863,
0.23278893530368805,
-0.6613495945930481,
-0.31038767099380493,
0.4281306266784668,
-0.17787548899650574,
-0.5443627238273621,
0.420645147562027,
0.8054724931716919,
-0.07000596821308136,
-0.22457103431224823,
0.13249105215072632,
0.20659908652305603,
-0.10609675198793411,
-0.8077536225318909,
-0.08000601828098297,
-0.11342275142669678,
0.3545040488243103,
-0.08061545342206955,
-0.5192037224769592,
-0.21206127107143402,
0.5947772860527039,
-0.4430285692214966,
0.026747826486825943,
0.021467482671141624,
-0.2681657373905182,
0.3385288119316101,
0.209428608417511,
-0.33464205265045166,
-0.617053210735321,
0.7707121968269348,
0.09116218239068985,
-0.23676753044128418,
-0.0650433748960495,
0.1490313559770584,
-0.0013736332766711712,
0.12674887478351593,
0.18296970427036285,
-0.5333324074745178,
0.6330800652503967,
-0.038659945130348206,
-0.369330495595932,
1.431825041770935,
-0.3843768835067749,
0.4654363989830017,
0.22392739355564117,
-0.08073820918798447,
0.6422936320304871,
0.04036376625299454,
-0.6506661772727966,
0.24669556319713593,
0.1010906845331192,
-0.4265593886375427,
-0.34579703211784363,
0.238973006606102,
-0.08918500691652298,
-0.6201559901237488,
0.08425077050924301,
-0.08126659691333771,
0.9822378754615784,
0.593147337436676,
0.09942269325256348,
0.126734659075737,
-0.1887204349040985,
0.5470927953720093,
-0.13190865516662598,
0.14904774725437164,
0.4678693115711212,
0.46113017201423645,
-0.07253769785165787,
0.3570035696029663,
-0.5586128234863281,
-0.2579704225063324,
0.9376139044761658,
1.3709694147109985,
0.22217394411563873,
-0.22311076521873474,
0.03946372866630554,
-0.2817135453224182,
-0.3269326388835907,
0.7878323197364807,
-0.11256147176027298,
-0.17963078618049622,
-0.38010528683662415,
-0.04614944010972977,
0.06608360260725021,
0.700789749622345,
0.7850708961486816,
-0.22468797862529755,
-0.4351853132247925,
-0.11296562850475311,
0.6666026711463928,
-0.7703325152397156,
0.7788512706756592,
1.090671420097351,
-0.06560251861810684,
-0.20030340552330017,
-0.4573557674884796,
-0.5567702054977417,
0.435274213552475,
-0.3471963703632355,
-0.41137704253196716,
0.08635230362415314,
-0.7290059328079224,
-0.37672877311706543,
0.5293062925338745,
0.03552970662713051,
-0.25158122181892395,
-0.4265807569026947,
-0.6660252213478088,
0.228843092918396,
-0.5788670778274536,
0.3904862105846405,
0.1577218621969223,
0.12785783410072327,
0.017971765249967575,
-0.07122593373060226,
-0.11412683874368668,
0.02480051852762699,
-0.41148656606674194,
0.2902752161026001,
-0.34224826097488403,
-0.2694433033466339,
-0.02576693519949913,
0.10028339177370071,
-0.5427439212799072,
-0.6661587357521057,
0.6128605604171753,
-0.6430981159210205,
-0.19432653486728668,
0.5461747050285339,
-0.07953626662492752,
0.2891746461391449,
-0.3844916820526123,
0.26923108100891113,
0.22881442308425903,
0.4612206220626831,
-0.6856145262718201,
-0.16749463975429535,
0.4912431240081787,
0.22615894675254822,
0.3415222764015198,
-0.6197872161865234,
-0.37647733092308044,
1.0657217502593994,
0.6620872616767883,
0.20112818479537964,
-0.2784905731678009,
0.6638508439064026,
0.8167526125907898,
-0.006234543398022652,
-0.4528343975543976,
-0.24513588845729828,
0.04205197095870972,
0.24387724697589874,
0.18400752544403076,
-0.3115418553352356,
0.08642283082008362,
0.9081957936286926,
-0.0704478770494461,
-0.3991422653198242,
-0.4340910315513611,
0.6542953848838806,
0.8979806900024414,
0.39737164974212646,
0.07638140022754669,
-0.2671346962451935,
0.6791975498199463,
-0.5263146162033081,
0.02580421045422554,
-0.49788859486579895,
-0.11959270387887955,
0.10653791576623917,
-0.39922818541526794,
0.2379418909549713,
0.21126823127269745,
0.1585206389427185,
0.3745027780532837,
0.06798472255468369,
0.322672963142395,
-0.9586637020111084,
-0.2767680585384369,
-0.024558141827583313,
-0.11724317073822021,
-0.3339242935180664,
0.4204379916191101,
0.6391584277153015,
0.6354917883872986,
0.07043812423944473,
-0.01093088835477829,
-0.4550494849681854,
0.36379268765449524,
0.2573191523551941,
-0.6202344298362732,
-0.11534430831670761,
0.23903504014015198,
0.7483949661254883,
-0.09677620232105255,
-0.3355958163738251,
-0.5637603998184204,
0.359424352645874,
0.04186195880174637,
-0.0890175998210907,
0.023739902302622795,
-0.04998521879315376,
-0.14771835505962372,
0.9378165602684021,
-0.22261874377727509,
-0.10575579851865768,
0.5862759351730347,
0.10697896033525467,
0.17020057141780853,
0.191926509141922,
-0.17609646916389465,
-0.7551694512367249,
0.348859965801239,
-0.2353462129831314,
-0.3758741617202759,
-0.17004507780075073,
0.22223912179470062,
0.4054935574531555,
0.08562485128641129,
-0.902627170085907,
0.5340928435325623,
0.05158255249261856,
-0.4652886688709259,
-0.17294597625732422,
-0.08991160988807678,
0.037641048431396484,
0.7424972057342529,
0.9188353419303894,
0.5634989142417908,
-0.49461811780929565,
0.2669181227684021,
-0.09782113879919052,
0.4319108724594116,
0.18276479840278625,
-0.5901641249656677,
-0.2617223858833313,
0.4744158983230591,
0.7016230821609497,
-0.0059135062620043755,
0.03365423530340195,
-0.2732466459274292,
-0.3734271228313446,
0.17627866566181183,
0.3348759114742279,
-0.36687523126602173,
0.6012288928031921,
0.7233789563179016,
0.09138873219490051,
0.38465583324432373,
0.15183502435684204,
-0.056464459747076035,
-0.1375432014465332,
0.3450721204280853,
0.7025395631790161,
-0.3195514678955078,
0.20946726202964783,
0.01193393487483263,
-0.04512134939432144,
0.7744531035423279,
0.00438436446711421,
0.1735604852437973,
0.14011971652507782,
-0.33931371569633484,
-0.03849930316209793,
0.3370024263858795,
-0.40309908986091614,
0.10803475230932236,
0.1970253586769104,
0.17972013354301453,
-0.6884571313858032,
-0.1786191314458847,
-0.08774124085903168,
-0.4143674075603485,
0.5936447978019714,
0.06533665210008621,
-0.6119697093963623,
0.592400312423706,
0.636868953704834,
-0.7851366400718689,
-0.6137170195579529,
-0.1363665610551834,
-0.28553155064582825,
0.24662251770496368,
-0.8208494186401367,
1.2770339250564575,
0.6548928022384644,
-0.0495605431497097,
0.28211942315101624,
-0.24281182885169983,
0.6252803802490234,
0.3904513418674469,
-0.8841530680656433,
-0.028880855068564415,
-0.2694142758846283,
0.09003207087516785,
-0.7947222590446472,
0.3989691436290741,
0.5661377310752869,
0.23642589151859283,
0.14382289350032806,
-0.009346473962068558,
-0.10750023275613785,
-0.37705036997795105,
-0.0700489804148674,
-0.25160667300224304,
-0.3922300934791565,
-0.11814393848180771,
0.059817150235176086,
-0.3894973695278168,
-0.10954113304615021,
0.7641281485557556,
-0.03967712074518204,
-0.5624063014984131,
0.5024834275245667,
0.08718279004096985,
0.36834457516670227,
0.3927522599697113,
-0.1441909521818161,
0.4447004497051239,
-0.3200986385345459,
0.10757381469011307,
-0.13776762783527374,
-0.42739468812942505,
0.7253282070159912,
0.36412718892097473,
0.1940295547246933,
-0.2652968168258667,
-0.21939998865127563,
0.17908717691898346,
-0.640492856502533,
0.6666779518127441,
-0.1235322505235672,
0.6909277439117432,
-0.34598058462142944,
-0.5471956729888916,
-0.7425230741500854,
0.2653430104255676,
0.6438509225845337,
-0.0003160207998007536,
0.09200146049261093,
0.05936792492866516,
0.1588309109210968,
-0.23145171999931335,
0.22341012954711914,
-1.007066011428833,
-0.18773253262043,
0.7433584332466125
] |
200093
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten%20pence%20%28British%20coin%29
|
Ten pence (British coin)
|
The British decimal ten pence coin (often shortened to 10p in writing and speech) has a value of ten one-hundredths of a pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin's introduction in 1968, to replace the florin (two shilling) coin in preparation for decimalisation in 1971. It remained the same size as the florin coin (which also remained legal tender) until a smaller version was introduced 30 September 1992, with the older coins being withdrawn on 30 June 1993. Four different portraits of the Queen have been used on the coin; the latest design by Jody Clark was introduced in 2015. The second and current reverse, featuring a segment of the Royal Shield, was introduced in 2008.
The ten pence coin was originally minted from cupro-nickel (75% Cu, 25% Ni), but since 2012 it has been minted in nickel-plated steel due to the increasing price of metal. From January 2013 the Royal Mint began a programme to gradually remove the previous cupro-nickel coins from circulation and replace them with the nickel-plated steel versions.
As of March 2014 there were an estimated 1,631 million 10p coins in circulation, with an estimated face value of £163.08 million.
10p coins are legal tender for amounts up to the sum of £5 when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.
Design
Obverse
To date, four different obverses have been used. In all cases, the inscription until 2015 was , followed by the year of minting. In the original design both sides of the coin are encircled by dots, a common feature on coins, known as beading.
As with all new decimal currency, until 1984 the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse, in which the Queen wears the 'Girls of Great Britain and Ireland' Tiara.
Between 1985 and 1997 the portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used, in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem.
On 30 September 1992 a reduced-size version of the 10 pence coin was introduced. The older and larger version of the coin was withdrawn from circulation on 30 June 1993. The design remained unchanged.
From 1998 to 2015 the portrait by Ian Rank-Broadley was used, again featuring the tiara, with a signature-mark below the portrait.
As of June 2015, coins bearing the portrait by Jody Clark have been seen in circulation.
Reverse
Original Reverse Design
The original reverse of the coin, designed by Christopher Ironside, and used from 1968 to 2008, is a crowned lion (formally, Part of the crest of England, a lion passant guardant royally crowned), with the numeral "10" below the lion, and either NEW PENCE (1968–1981) or TEN PENCE (1982–2008) above the lion.
Royal Shield Design
In August 2005 the Royal Mint launched a competition to find new reverse designs for all circulating coins apart from the £2 coin. The winner, announced in April 2008, was Matthew Dent, whose designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from mid-2008. The designs for the 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p and 50p coins depict sections of the Royal Shield that form the whole shield when placed together. The shield in its entirety was featured on the now-obsolete round £1 coin. The 10p coin depicts part of the first quarter of the shield, showing two of the lions passant from the Royal Banner of England, with the words TEN PENCE above the shield design. The coin's obverse remains largely unchanged, but the beading (the ring of dots around the coin's circumference), which no longer features on the coin's reverse, has also been removed from the obverse.
A to Z Design (Great British Coin Hunt)
In March 2018, new designs were released, one for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet. Anne Jessopp, chief executive of the Royal Mint, described the designs as "iconic themes that are quintessentially British". The A to Z coins were confirmed to have individual mintage figures of 220,000 on 14 October 2019 - a total of 5,720,000 for all 26.
A – Angel of the North
B – Bond... James Bond
C – Cricket
D – Double-decker bus
E – English breakfast
F – Fish and chips
G – Greenwich Mean Time
H – Houses of Parliament
I – Ice cream
J – Jubilee
K – King Arthur
L – Loch Ness
M – Mackintosh
N – NHS
O – Oak tree
P – Post box
Q – Queuing
R – Robin
S – Stonehenge
T – Tea
U – Union Flag
V – Village
W – World Wide Web
X – X marks the spot
Y – Yeoman Warder
Z – Zebra crossing
Status as legal tender
10p coins are legal tender for amounts up to and including £5. However, in the UK, "legal tender" has a very specific and narrow meaning which relates only to the repayment of debt to a creditor, not to everyday shopping or other transactions. Specifically, coins of particular denominations are said to be "legal tender" when a creditor must by law accept them in redemption of a debt. The term does not mean - as is often thought - that a shopkeeper has to accept a particular type of currency in payment. A shopkeeper is under no obligation to accept any specific type of payment, whether legal tender or not; conversely they have the discretion to accept any payment type they wish.
Mintages
Mintage figures below represent the number of coins of each date released for circulation. Mint Sets have been produced since 1982; where mintages on or after that date indicate 'none', there are examples contained within those sets.
Machin portrait
Maklouf portrait
Rank-Broadley portrait
Jody Clark portrait
References
External links
Royal Mint – 10p coin
Coins of the UK – Decimal 10p Coin
Ten Pence, Coin Type from United Kingdom
Coins of the United Kingdom
Currencies introduced in 1968
Ten-cent coins
|
[
-0.6222418546676636,
0.09605858474969864,
0.0786324292421341,
-0.21171599626541138,
-0.3427615165710449,
0.868431568145752,
0.03777294233441353,
0.4706108868122101,
-0.5039312243461609,
0.032200444489717484,
-0.08807521313428879,
-0.20397979021072388,
0.11084632575511932,
0.5112636089324951,
-0.08924174308776855,
0.6002761125564575,
0.33619245886802673,
0.5222660899162292,
-0.07115375250577927,
-0.49984174966812134,
-0.1448541134595871,
0.15319383144378662,
0.1760769784450531,
-1.1613653898239136,
0.044917088001966476,
0.09475097805261612,
0.4525718092918396,
-0.22879484295845032,
-0.3755532205104828,
0.029032837599515915,
-0.33186325430870056,
0.9892411828041077,
0.2544653117656708,
0.4336837828159332,
0.22612468898296356,
-0.4928830564022064,
0.27805212140083313,
-0.32228991389274597,
-0.09790339320898056,
-0.4885478615760803,
0.31013667583465576,
-0.6138173937797546,
0.045788850635290146,
0.26068174839019775,
-0.5429395437240601,
-0.5495625734329224,
-1.3689744472503662,
-0.2764216363430023,
-0.9141421318054199,
0.19433198869228363,
-0.2699802815914154,
0.9061890840530396,
0.05257560312747955,
0.020108038559556007,
0.6502371430397034,
0.7633070349693298,
-0.9460288882255554,
0.051482416689395905,
0.4138681888580322,
-0.06954585760831833,
0.6725136041641235,
0.2119292914867401,
-0.057182032614946365,
0.12132181972265244,
0.16153891384601593,
-0.22410349547863007,
0.4965624213218689,
0.8573423027992249,
-0.21634794771671295,
0.14805848896503448,
-0.39568883180618286,
-0.568668007850647,
-0.2769107520580292,
0.206267848610878,
-0.26287367939949036,
-0.2127353399991989,
-0.21301797032356262,
-0.23150542378425598,
0.0980706661939621,
0.4076390564441681,
0.21986764669418335,
-0.4573897123336792,
0.8276462554931641,
0.09037550538778305,
0.33778077363967896,
0.36462774872779846,
-0.19949008524417877,
0.08525030314922333,
0.3097984194755554,
1.3672046661376953,
0.16354456543922424,
-0.5837917923927307,
0.3505103290081024,
0.09367253631353378,
-0.5182573795318604,
-0.11006467789411545,
-0.09367858618497849,
0.21013745665550232,
0.0005318821640685201,
0.08018562942743301,
0.7204225659370422,
0.25079309940338135,
0.7069222927093506,
-0.11510323733091354,
-0.7463175058364868,
-0.2109908163547516,
-0.18602019548416138,
-0.4635249376296997,
0.4236968755722046,
-0.4715631306171417,
-0.15308767557144165,
0.1093621551990509,
0.1560400128364563,
1.3396867513656616,
-0.21584539115428925,
-0.30692076683044434,
0.5260652899742126,
-0.2517886757850647,
-0.18685705959796906,
0.08919905126094818,
0.04136846587061882,
0.30002734065055847,
0.13102386891841888,
-0.03393317013978958,
0.605002224445343,
0.18704001605510712,
0.29038384556770325,
0.6749117374420166,
0.47140780091285706,
0.2812498211860657,
0.47674450278282166,
0.28148576617240906,
-0.17328183352947235,
-0.5646390914916992,
-0.6223227977752686,
-0.49084654450416565,
0.06119132041931152,
-0.03781162202358246,
0.03951569274067879,
0.6745091676712036,
-0.26564595103263855,
0.6032024025917053,
-0.2999286651611328,
-0.33413901925086975,
0.6669149398803711,
-0.060608964413404465,
-0.1934170126914978,
-0.27544182538986206,
-0.5741715431213379,
0.1195807009935379,
0.11228720843791962,
-0.13515667617321014,
0.7484838962554932,
-0.028453795239329338,
-0.006758296396583319,
-0.6328781247138977,
-0.1624319851398468,
0.25294017791748047,
0.10215840488672256,
0.1705646961927414,
-0.45131030678749084,
0.17217934131622314,
0.18117806315422058,
0.01901540532708168,
0.23755523562431335,
0.06586499512195587,
0.4171960949897766,
-0.04964709281921387,
-0.4550754427909851,
0.27181166410446167,
-0.37676092982292175,
-0.12588462233543396,
0.92805415391922,
0.03715398907661438,
-0.42900586128234863,
-0.21723443269729614,
0.19900082051753998,
0.4286814332008362,
0.8448125720024109,
-0.41457033157348633,
-0.2887192666530609,
-0.12216942757368088,
0.6328856348991394,
0.02107548713684082,
0.08175796270370483,
0.040866561233997345,
0.09155382961034775,
-0.0034702864941209555,
-0.3452577590942383,
0.019374271854758263,
-1.1977583169937134,
-0.12517336010932922,
0.0033281513024121523,
-0.6291447877883911,
0.6081615686416626,
-0.5048010945320129,
-0.06636451184749603,
-0.24452421069145203,
0.4340921640396118,
0.48895958065986633,
-0.5448101162910461,
-0.25293076038360596,
0.2773793041706085,
0.07608100026845932,
-0.687739372253418,
0.3369602859020233,
-0.34115394949913025,
-0.004607565235346556,
0.5542005300521851,
0.30989816784858704,
0.4059223532676697,
-0.544795572757721,
0.33648884296417236,
-0.583945095539093,
-0.8876263499259949,
0.23959243297576904,
0.427109032869339,
0.13763849437236786,
0.1605691760778427,
-0.289800763130188,
-0.2560584247112274,
0.29006314277648926,
0.5457764267921448,
-0.25318023562431335,
-0.0851065143942833,
0.1515725553035736,
-0.5022742748260498,
0.06264559179544449,
0.17885105311870575,
-0.8750643730163574,
0.13020417094230652,
-0.22200646996498108,
-0.08013217151165009,
-0.2621361017227173,
-0.07467440515756607,
0.005497233010828495,
-0.48548439145088196,
-0.5192555785179138,
0.4547528028488159,
-0.07715670764446259,
-0.16388723254203796,
0.3942399024963379,
-0.21456632018089294,
-0.052500169724226,
-0.24887752532958984,
0.5510582327842712,
0.19668789207935333,
0.6038848757743835,
-0.1937941163778305,
-0.6595620512962341,
0.4185829162597656,
0.20908570289611816,
-0.21627308428287506,
0.08647982776165009,
-0.23305512964725494,
-0.3159952759742737,
-0.02110951580107212,
0.008097361773252487,
0.3651810884475708,
0.5784921646118164,
-0.48935550451278687,
0.42583921551704407,
0.7230574488639832,
0.39487820863723755,
-0.191765695810318,
-0.48634058237075806,
-0.8910594582557678,
-0.08477701991796494,
-0.2855992913246155,
-0.11698289960622787,
0.5457797646522522,
0.2185283601284027,
-0.47298985719680786,
0.09617852419614792,
0.8348456621170044,
-0.09861055016517639,
0.3776572346687317,
0.15738385915756226,
-0.32738298177719116,
-0.07503673434257507,
0.1821909248828888,
0.3533780574798584,
0.36749792098999023,
-0.7133888602256775,
-0.034539300948381424,
-0.4683850407600403,
0.06713607907295227,
-0.2957310378551483,
0.3252428472042084,
-0.4855695068836212,
-0.43950653076171875,
0.6230621933937073,
-0.3323882520198822,
0.1770334243774414,
0.09683863073587418,
-0.2077983319759369,
-0.23953010141849518,
0.1528627872467041,
0.4946448504924774,
-0.18655702471733093,
-0.10806044191122055,
0.37922149896621704,
0.12187027186155319,
-0.18086093664169312,
0.3774045407772064,
-0.6164343357086182,
-0.09887047111988068,
-0.34421753883361816,
-5.424132823944092,
0.22000424563884735,
-0.8607624769210815,
-0.13075628876686096,
-0.15464051067829132,
0.10808972269296646,
1.04627525806427,
-0.033454567193984985,
-0.4332144558429718,
-0.24821366369724274,
-0.26459330320358276,
-0.3726579248905182,
0.11133861541748047,
-0.03336877375841141,
0.6008636355400085,
0.2600497305393219,
0.9903668761253357,
0.123844213783741,
0.267269104719162,
0.0009012796799652278,
0.049634575843811035,
-0.13804592192173004,
0.23992501199245453,
0.4483732283115387,
0.3069106638431549,
0.5662460923194885,
0.39387011528015137,
0.25443074107170105,
-0.4259227216243744,
0.2697584331035614,
0.3772822618484497,
-0.11008740961551666,
0.3082742393016815,
-0.5062412023544312,
0.6013074517250061,
-0.22512304782867432,
0.26604899764060974,
0.1976182609796524,
0.1604214757680893,
-0.23744547367095947,
-0.2927461266517639,
0.9209071397781372,
0.6784391403198242,
-0.18870419263839722,
0.7694241404533386,
0.18434423208236694,
-0.1537877470254898,
-0.1791556179523468,
-0.32470425963401794,
0.0315050333738327,
-0.14513438940048218,
0.46156036853790283,
-0.269823282957077,
-0.7270647883415222,
-0.07241538166999817,
0.2348729521036148,
-0.25306421518325806,
0.30220314860343933,
-0.474931538105011,
-0.11530077457427979,
0.6855811476707458,
-0.30651000142097473,
-0.10760600864887238,
0.42899245023727417,
0.08680643141269684,
-0.7296338081359863,
-1.064117670059204,
-0.0071300421841442585,
0.3636535406112671,
0.2793583869934082,
-0.7526034116744995,
0.0011079502291977406,
0.1293504238128662,
-0.48526424169540405,
0.2703414559364319,
-0.45170193910598755,
0.5679489970207214,
1.0298974514007568,
0.010862183757126331,
0.7874758243560791,
-0.4937388002872467,
-0.5918872952461243,
-0.27752527594566345,
0.48052847385406494,
-0.233184352517128,
-0.7283226847648621,
-0.8277985453605652,
0.2726961672306061,
-0.48704859614372253,
-0.12033658474683762,
0.33707618713378906,
-0.145644873380661,
-0.075254425406456,
-0.4122280776500702,
0.04883603751659393,
-0.3625921905040741,
0.1992836743593216,
-0.30650827288627625,
-0.14848710596561432,
-0.010984659194946289,
0.23105134069919586,
-0.4238394796848297,
0.5261549949645996,
-0.9158070683479309,
-0.5459651947021484,
-0.047899577766656876,
-0.4763815104961395,
0.2888679504394531,
0.4079817533493042,
-0.22116094827651978,
0.4565696120262146,
0.23309995234012604,
-0.3069194555282593,
0.4881175756454468,
0.2328176498413086,
-0.40691542625427246,
-0.5968191623687744,
0.11500322818756104,
0.2071232944726944,
-0.4806482195854187,
0.11239553242921829,
0.07700987905263901,
-0.38667312264442444,
-0.6071387529373169,
-0.40827271342277527,
-0.08917194604873657,
0.09158721566200256,
-0.37736979126930237,
-0.19271337985992432,
0.345443993806839,
0.3106882870197296,
0.3749125599861145,
-0.5772244930267334,
-0.09425900131464005,
-0.12399838864803314,
0.18276838958263397,
0.019756147637963295,
-0.04072776436805725,
-0.0164195504039526,
-0.37682706117630005,
0.5422702431678772,
-0.3430413603782654,
0.4642024040222168,
-0.27278265357017517,
0.7720081210136414,
0.30776098370552063,
0.2256072759628296,
-0.3406393826007843,
-0.27343499660491943,
0.636189877986908,
0.2740305960178375,
0.20615842938423157,
-0.07855646312236786,
-0.19557282328605652,
-0.0018822615966200829,
-0.3477649390697479,
-0.17741353809833527,
0.27046307921409607,
-0.36372995376586914,
-0.05962918698787689,
-0.030379919335246086,
0.19168846309185028,
-0.6300375461578369,
-0.42078012228012085,
0.652860701084137,
-0.35200339555740356,
-0.28186070919036865,
-0.09500731527805328,
0.5317095518112183,
0.7682415843009949,
0.4457642138004303,
-0.8010538816452026,
-0.3789822459220886,
-0.2135479599237442,
0.2984198033809662,
0.4683762490749359,
0.243123859167099,
-0.3945077955722809,
-0.12623947858810425,
0.23927880823612213,
0.3409712612628937,
-0.16195063292980194,
0.10615121573209763,
0.26352304220199585,
-0.01984529197216034,
-0.1858067512512207,
-0.7960230112075806,
0.6139076948165894,
-0.38718968629837036,
-0.24796698987483978,
0.016418594866991043,
-0.16600362956523895,
0.5915356874465942,
0.22355538606643677,
-1.0511692762374878,
-0.36879587173461914,
-0.09938043355941772,
1.3453657627105713,
-0.278969943523407,
-0.34226128458976746,
0.2525728940963745,
0.1937701404094696,
-0.4330066442489624,
0.111378513276577,
0.3991917371749878,
-0.3570225238800049,
0.4486428499221802,
0.23654606938362122,
-1.0010303258895874,
0.3925655782222748,
-0.5515323877334595,
-0.923288881778717,
-0.2760802209377289,
0.3643086850643158,
0.02311515249311924,
-0.36328572034835815,
0.2958102524280548,
-0.05828859284520149,
0.15782517194747925,
-0.8520428538322449,
-0.11531425267457962,
0.3877585530281067,
-0.7920525074005127,
-0.018980838358402252,
0.23371313512325287,
0.42121660709381104,
0.7500414848327637,
-0.3212894797325134,
0.28375154733657837,
-0.37340742349624634,
-0.03349481523036957,
-0.2982211112976074,
0.16720528900623322,
0.6048939824104309,
0.3810703158378601,
0.670201301574707,
-0.48817357420921326,
-0.10673180967569351,
0.13590660691261292,
0.5533481240272522,
0.2020605504512787,
0.5700253248214722,
0.15717466175556183,
-0.4291025698184967,
-0.7764226794242859,
0.19085615873336792,
0.7641639709472656,
-1.0390751361846924,
-0.6717575788497925,
1.0111278295516968,
-0.2652727961540222,
-0.6755861043930054,
-0.6327125430107117,
-0.20959345996379852,
0.3039987087249756,
-0.7524464726448059,
0.19855239987373352,
-0.2720879912376404,
-0.06266937404870987,
0.18880975246429443,
0.3937304615974426,
0.3260324001312256,
-0.9462209939956665,
0.11108604073524475,
0.6002534031867981,
0.4715116322040558,
0.051651377230882645,
-0.5088925957679749,
0.5152499675750732,
-0.38328200578689575,
-0.14940056204795837,
-0.1825195848941803,
0.013024740852415562,
0.2269197255373001,
0.498549222946167,
-0.19265002012252808,
-0.16088521480560303,
-0.4377598464488983,
-0.05479729548096657,
-0.6034769415855408,
0.12527582049369812,
0.25351548194885254,
0.755075216293335,
0.017500946298241615,
0.036568980664014816,
-0.4649355709552765,
-0.5481844544410706,
-0.3878966271877289,
-0.49168670177459717,
0.019190261140465736,
0.20416595041751862,
-0.28983041644096375,
-0.6511564254760742,
-0.136705219745636,
-0.1381615847349167,
0.4969373941421509,
0.19458425045013428,
-0.08148351311683655,
0.16306407749652863,
0.15520627796649933,
0.02174132503569126,
1.1090790033340454,
0.23135578632354736,
-0.6396147012710571,
-0.3298833966255188,
-0.003712235251441598,
-0.29473206400871277,
0.09908831119537354,
0.06653235852718353,
-0.5600199699401855,
0.07754234224557877,
-0.010756616480648518,
0.22253918647766113,
0.6334208846092224,
-0.20808535814285278,
-0.8780934810638428,
0.6173155307769775,
-0.42163264751434326,
-0.5015932321548462,
0.8170400857925415,
-0.28825613856315613,
0.3396332859992981,
0.8190764784812927,
0.001960371620953083,
-0.6410499215126038,
0.04006043076515198,
-0.24564431607723236,
-0.6580135226249695,
0.2736986577510834,
0.45530736446380615,
0.32222220301628113,
0.5847199559211731,
-0.7373056411743164,
-0.11082480847835541,
-0.0070123071782290936,
-0.0988970473408699,
-0.3060609698295593,
-0.22870753705501556,
-0.3145085275173187,
1.0893166065216064,
0.148100808262825,
0.4164537489414215,
-0.14199119806289673,
0.036988649517297745,
0.20853199064731598,
0.4548540711402893,
-0.046317778527736664,
-0.9702010750770569,
1.22049081325531,
0.1175810843706131,
1.0669869184494019,
0.2515409588813782,
0.4514058828353882,
-0.3866367042064667,
0.12574368715286255,
0.02035893313586712,
-0.25339987874031067,
-0.07967691123485565,
-0.751630961894989,
0.10173438489437103,
-0.4343878924846649,
-0.08233274519443512,
0.6039035320281982,
-0.3953130543231964,
-0.35643041133880615,
-0.021898210048675537,
0.14442972838878632,
-0.1653190404176712,
-0.31298092007637024,
0.8848713636398315,
0.4830922484397888,
0.30796104669570923,
0.13848620653152466,
0.19847699999809265,
0.10538294911384583,
-0.2707071006298065,
0.7327246069908142,
0.22945372760295868,
0.8011839389801025,
-0.10102903842926025,
-0.5797904133796692,
-0.32141759991645813,
-0.5453030467033386,
-0.6660887598991394,
-0.12208667397499084,
-0.11766251176595688,
-0.11676696687936783,
-0.14783607423305511,
-0.7310976982116699,
-0.2936367094516754,
0.2581847012042999,
-0.67730313539505,
-0.026305437088012695,
-0.4188459813594818,
-1.2723625898361206,
-1.0185604095458984,
-0.037157006561756134,
0.3907044231891632,
-0.006209386512637138,
0.002982540987432003,
-0.029501190409064293,
0.357137531042099,
-0.3039068281650543,
0.40168142318725586,
-0.45942598581314087,
0.695255696773529,
-0.19209925830364227,
-0.09241283684968948,
-0.4474348723888397,
0.004318736493587494,
0.9808350205421448,
-0.6222193241119385,
0.19186827540397644,
0.5283026099205017,
-0.8372071385383606,
0.05147114396095276,
0.5899839997291565,
-0.029004795476794243,
-0.4211638569831848,
-0.922186017036438,
0.09258322417736053,
0.42552649974823,
0.06268800795078278,
0.3973323106765747,
-0.12925110757350922,
0.11205907166004181,
0.6287814974784851,
-0.14522910118103027,
-0.28782787919044495,
0.4306660294532776,
-0.9714295268058777,
0.5290777683258057,
-0.5143525004386902,
-0.09528949111700058,
-0.30353662371635437,
0.20245715975761414,
0.648482620716095,
0.5070846080780029,
-0.7771547436714172,
-0.12921766936779022,
-0.3258097469806671,
-0.04657765105366707,
0.46262863278388977,
-0.21685819327831268,
-0.07011432945728302,
0.5336436629295349,
-0.18571129441261292,
-0.13333232700824738,
-1.1246758699417114,
0.696636438369751,
0.3499360978603363,
0.15708959102630615,
0.25752782821655273,
-0.312295526266098,
0.5291755199432373,
-0.5441190600395203,
0.0038600326515734196,
-0.41428083181381226,
0.18149042129516602,
0.2917364239692688
] |
200097
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20pence
|
Five pence
|
Five pence may refer to:
Five pence (British coin), a decimal subdivision of the pound sterling
Five pence (Irish coin), a decimal subdivision of the now withdrawn Irish pound
|
[
-0.22973740100860596,
-0.3815184533596039,
-0.3159511089324951,
-0.26388898491859436,
-0.03494854271411896,
0.8258539438247681,
0.16733026504516602,
0.25626078248023987,
-0.32897573709487915,
-0.02466633729636669,
-0.011104299686849117,
-0.049843110144138336,
0.44371092319488525,
0.8785762190818787,
-0.29791906476020813,
0.22129681706428528,
0.5410947203636169,
0.5473464727401733,
0.036028098315000534,
-0.5598341226577759,
-0.52586829662323,
0.3940703272819519,
0.04948069527745247,
-0.7209258079528809,
-0.20037604868412018,
0.41721323132514954,
0.4006064832210541,
-0.5749599933624268,
-0.3133740723133087,
-0.21573497354984283,
-0.22039099037647247,
0.8949905633926392,
0.17150220274925232,
0.061834145337343216,
0.13565436005592346,
-0.8262944221496582,
0.2035062164068222,
-0.5637155175209045,
-0.7214887738227844,
-0.6881024241447449,
0.026400210335850716,
-0.489755779504776,
0.37968358397483826,
0.5313813090324402,
-0.6705678701400757,
-0.2809610664844513,
-1.3057575225830078,
-0.09652310609817505,
-0.7110235095024109,
0.515565037727356,
-0.06244035065174103,
0.29854729771614075,
-0.08854861557483673,
0.27587050199508667,
0.47199153900146484,
0.5609844326972961,
-1.1574541330337524,
-0.07427891343832016,
0.5984832048416138,
-0.6040111184120178,
0.45162642002105713,
0.48725569248199463,
-0.07740282267332077,
0.27509430050849915,
0.10744726657867432,
-0.17424225807189941,
0.704521656036377,
0.6197491884231567,
-0.35442429780960083,
0.20673060417175293,
0.21679815649986267,
-0.08604021370410919,
-0.20779508352279663,
0.10274824500083923,
-0.10365422070026398,
-0.3425913155078888,
0.15241554379463196,
-0.42748790979385376,
0.025775233283638954,
0.11189966648817062,
0.12364957481622696,
-0.08197284489870071,
0.9313830137252808,
0.1521839052438736,
0.27310076355934143,
0.1451409012079239,
-0.4464913308620453,
-0.1963946372270584,
-0.06718888133764267,
1.0398541688919067,
0.14188121259212494,
0.05099184438586235,
0.21993529796600342,
0.09824249893426895,
-0.734454870223999,
-0.026638444513082504,
0.26266637444496155,
0.1188344731926918,
0.33877161145210266,
0.1772356778383255,
0.24710024893283844,
-0.18947769701480865,
0.5850571393966675,
0.03355637192726135,
-0.5645711421966553,
-0.20414769649505615,
-0.4277195632457733,
-0.2562103867530823,
0.6150617003440857,
-0.21142777800559998,
-0.09000933915376663,
-0.11488615721464157,
0.3499090075492859,
1.0046526193618774,
-0.2743304669857025,
-0.6429846286773682,
0.3967081308364868,
-0.2978888750076294,
-0.4393831193447113,
0.11839722841978073,
-0.11706240475177765,
0.28024083375930786,
0.28504541516304016,
0.2706969082355499,
0.4855803847312927,
-0.1844102442264557,
0.466999888420105,
0.7559992074966431,
-0.08930109441280365,
-0.06373721361160278,
0.5437474846839905,
0.6365784406661987,
-0.5119046568870544,
-0.6235077977180481,
-0.7695538997650146,
-0.4901619255542755,
-0.026994405314326286,
0.017837194725871086,
0.045486390590667725,
0.6593639254570007,
-0.32801857590675354,
0.2740703523159027,
-0.3043211102485657,
0.020970836281776428,
0.46641284227371216,
-0.047612518072128296,
-0.3588448762893677,
0.11555080860853195,
-0.49219343066215515,
0.21138335764408112,
0.09130226820707321,
0.10859247297048569,
0.4773145020008087,
-0.16461779177188873,
-0.15547651052474976,
-0.1372627466917038,
-0.49284687638282776,
0.1601182520389557,
0.06526803225278854,
0.20279082655906677,
-0.5382487177848816,
0.27797603607177734,
0.13180312514305115,
-0.2491626888513565,
0.29179197549819946,
0.10502611100673676,
0.21169181168079376,
0.04153316468000412,
-0.8197577595710754,
0.6669336557388306,
-0.26703396439552307,
0.2144153118133545,
0.7078506350517273,
-0.13732580840587616,
-0.3157312870025635,
-0.09367872029542923,
0.06531071662902832,
0.2322741448879242,
0.6494496464729309,
-0.2808905839920044,
-0.17643503844738007,
0.27298420667648315,
0.43991753458976746,
-0.5395482778549194,
-0.300305038690567,
0.2357877641916275,
-0.07100440561771393,
-0.16824103891849518,
-0.33495473861694336,
-0.040948789566755295,
-1.0803807973861694,
-0.48468470573425293,
-0.42307183146476746,
-0.7263437509536743,
0.6522517800331116,
-0.6376689076423645,
0.1454235464334488,
0.5055180191993713,
0.020808899775147438,
0.33126962184906006,
-0.6036849021911621,
-0.22446955740451813,
0.7052779197692871,
0.09517266601324081,
-0.4964437186717987,
0.38467293977737427,
-0.214302197098732,
0.04410266503691673,
0.6023209095001221,
0.304271399974823,
0.6206390857696533,
-0.43586939573287964,
0.4704427421092987,
-0.5905824303627014,
-0.4139280617237091,
0.24101389944553375,
0.4019297957420349,
-0.027706541121006012,
0.07280658185482025,
-0.07160550355911255,
0.03282513469457626,
0.10025554150342941,
0.8149046301841736,
0.2554672956466675,
-0.024786319583654404,
0.16353784501552582,
-0.23841628432273865,
0.09471578150987625,
0.085676409304142,
-0.9287290573120117,
-0.13921546936035156,
-0.19356900453567505,
-0.1273813396692276,
-0.3717404305934906,
0.3062810003757477,
-0.3483731746673584,
-0.07436101883649826,
-0.13238294422626495,
0.29730528593063354,
-0.495120644569397,
-0.1992529183626175,
0.016465866938233376,
0.058106470853090286,
-0.03147071599960327,
0.21724489331245422,
0.5685849189758301,
0.04189489781856537,
0.38336798548698425,
0.07917304337024689,
-0.4381212592124939,
0.493155300617218,
0.3898775577545166,
0.24244257807731628,
-0.30887505412101746,
0.20733073353767395,
-0.29270824790000916,
0.12837383151054382,
-0.23412084579467773,
-0.05651000514626503,
0.4046964943408966,
-0.43497633934020996,
0.4146745502948761,
0.6599006652832031,
0.00016179814701899886,
0.41352614760398865,
-0.06254012882709503,
-0.8059841394424438,
-0.14921221137046814,
0.3238838315010071,
0.0910460576415062,
0.4413158893585205,
0.43402382731437683,
-0.42737215757369995,
0.1483200192451477,
0.4113534688949585,
-0.2118866890668869,
0.3120036721229553,
0.13388188183307648,
-0.5545661449432373,
-0.42999109625816345,
-0.25236979126930237,
0.03793061152100563,
0.07182877510786057,
-0.8354063034057617,
0.21452093124389648,
-0.12767431139945984,
-0.13074982166290283,
-0.18589019775390625,
0.0217082891613245,
-0.39649251103401184,
-0.08187419921159744,
0.3572632074356079,
-0.40301838517189026,
0.19424277544021606,
0.14269794523715973,
-0.13922551274299622,
-0.5943464636802673,
0.314113974571228,
0.336001992225647,
-0.3592940866947174,
0.23918655514717102,
0.5380606055259705,
0.2600660026073456,
0.0794430524110794,
0.4302918314933777,
-0.998546838760376,
0.028676969930529594,
-0.0385257862508297,
-5.555050373077393,
-0.04259390011429787,
-1.0757713317871094,
0.40779024362564087,
-0.05335194990038872,
-0.0019388663349673152,
0.9080701470375061,
0.01601908728480339,
-0.15378452837467194,
-0.1276792585849762,
-0.17631582915782928,
-0.13215358555316925,
0.1962541788816452,
0.07825282961130142,
0.4758123457431793,
-0.12055785208940506,
0.663651168346405,
0.07271134108304977,
-0.1604195386171341,
0.1352660208940506,
0.0758739486336708,
0.11213522404432297,
-0.0190779697149992,
0.7578781843185425,
-0.021130003035068512,
-0.196449413895607,
0.1190270259976387,
0.10710599273443222,
-0.5111799240112305,
-0.15115886926651,
-0.14701898396015167,
0.3192411959171295,
0.38183358311653137,
-0.35983678698539734,
0.2572450041770935,
-0.13351164758205414,
0.17597520351409912,
0.09705325961112976,
-0.004105118568986654,
-0.07631819695234299,
-0.27870503067970276,
0.6980436444282532,
0.8878875374794006,
-0.11969266831874847,
0.5720085501670837,
0.0703435093164444,
0.1990852952003479,
-0.1083955466747284,
-0.30423304438591003,
0.33288657665252686,
-0.4122508466243744,
0.3362882435321808,
0.11464878171682358,
0.060070864856243134,
0.058509599417448044,
-0.1461886614561081,
-0.18644742667675018,
-0.296237051486969,
-0.41604194045066833,
0.4714772701263428,
0.47685885429382324,
-0.4363974332809448,
0.2613248825073242,
0.22893303632736206,
-0.1510932594537735,
-0.6558873653411865,
-1.1263279914855957,
-0.3466061055660248,
0.22535130381584167,
0.3272101581096649,
-0.7224509716033936,
0.09119176864624023,
0.31367361545562744,
-0.6359265446662903,
0.4577754735946655,
-0.44668492674827576,
0.476837158203125,
1.1055426597595215,
0.05875048413872719,
1.1658570766448975,
-0.04832668602466583,
-0.5915178060531616,
-0.2999785840511322,
0.309552937746048,
-0.3288765251636505,
-0.5915052890777588,
-0.5335742831230164,
0.1266903579235077,
-0.5140514969825745,
-0.318525493144989,
0.4287654161453247,
-0.04869380220770836,
-0.06401458382606506,
-0.45948925614356995,
-0.06351321190595627,
-0.37451112270355225,
-0.4763851463794708,
0.006856581196188927,
-0.10481176525354385,
0.33055832982063293,
0.16914969682693481,
0.11425836384296417,
0.4592495858669281,
-0.9513757824897766,
-0.3844850957393646,
-0.22930975258350372,
-0.12300360202789307,
0.4800650179386139,
0.2798275351524353,
-0.35686030983924866,
0.4113468825817108,
0.010041854344308376,
-0.6331121921539307,
0.5931513905525208,
0.038057778030633926,
-0.10307825356721878,
-0.4200562834739685,
-0.2390575408935547,
0.21903006732463837,
-0.034790199249982834,
0.3006017804145813,
0.10176142305135727,
-0.23557420074939728,
-0.2950170040130615,
-0.11950775980949402,
-0.2511904239654541,
-0.1013866439461708,
-0.6118953227996826,
0.12690269947052002,
0.5855051279067993,
0.6173726916313171,
0.4045640826225281,
-0.5817120671272278,
0.0040183779783546925,
-0.0787799283862114,
-0.05264206975698471,
0.09384147822856903,
-0.3815639317035675,
-0.38964715600013733,
-0.56272292137146,
0.5112917423248291,
-0.6033629775047302,
0.3961382806301117,
-0.4349001348018646,
0.6512561440467834,
0.4480043053627014,
-0.26246580481529236,
-0.23298422992229462,
-0.15286891162395477,
0.8147092461585999,
0.060466572642326355,
0.17300882935523987,
0.19994232058525085,
0.06097999960184097,
-0.1599217653274536,
-0.4179669916629791,
-0.11505582183599472,
0.2266983985900879,
-0.17890827357769012,
-0.016884170472621918,
0.09751373529434204,
0.09882601350545883,
-0.668677568435669,
-0.23678217828273773,
0.7152537107467651,
-0.040608979761600494,
-0.7024154663085938,
-0.2447637915611267,
0.6792525053024292,
1.0405329465866089,
0.09601792693138123,
-0.563621997833252,
-0.5473373532295227,
-0.16614286601543427,
0.5179938673973083,
0.7255925536155701,
0.024520887061953545,
-0.07090484350919724,
0.005428391043096781,
0.1692785769701004,
0.8619571924209595,
0.17259173095226288,
0.01888062246143818,
0.24470046162605286,
0.4584297835826874,
-0.23818224668502808,
-0.6882771849632263,
0.7029284238815308,
-0.44326579570770264,
0.21742787957191467,
0.07763785868883133,
-0.0986102893948555,
0.602056086063385,
0.25564900040626526,
-0.5550118684768677,
-0.30830249190330505,
0.20131781697273254,
1.4304940700531006,
-0.3577825725078583,
0.11144687980413437,
0.5182456970214844,
0.2679196894168854,
-0.0346749871969223,
-0.2310245931148529,
0.690413236618042,
-0.5146812796592712,
0.7095141410827637,
-0.16164544224739075,
-0.7139073014259338,
0.3286430239677429,
-0.30865612626075745,
-0.6760912537574768,
-0.5313099026679993,
0.1703401803970337,
0.0910300686955452,
-0.21333636343479156,
0.39998412132263184,
-0.0482594259083271,
-0.08216655254364014,
-0.971361517906189,
0.14335814118385315,
0.3582485020160675,
-1.1058405637741089,
-0.05585233494639397,
-0.07590799778699875,
0.1570768803358078,
0.2646646201610565,
-0.03316353261470795,
0.1568600833415985,
0.20466873049736023,
-0.23286843299865723,
-0.2974103093147278,
0.4601949453353882,
0.2836230397224426,
0.3605775535106659,
0.21869437396526337,
-0.025434767827391624,
-0.04433751478791237,
-0.15940001606941223,
0.47122254967689514,
0.14115306735038757,
0.8203019499778748,
0.5893804430961609,
-0.4769667685031891,
-0.5535418391227722,
0.004030594602227211,
0.49372437596321106,
-0.9333078861236572,
-0.5778740644454956,
0.9502255320549011,
-0.30827596783638,
-0.7848108410835266,
-0.3126765787601471,
-0.36712753772735596,
0.06986744701862335,
-0.3964279890060425,
0.5472497344017029,
-0.20440056920051575,
0.04436473175883293,
0.42275333404541016,
0.3314131498336792,
-0.1465829759836197,
-1.0926614999771118,
0.09223534166812897,
0.4426157772541046,
0.10390929877758026,
-0.07166773080825806,
-0.701522171497345,
0.1658094823360443,
-0.5904298424720764,
0.1197223961353302,
-0.1919846534729004,
-0.11189665645360947,
0.3719276487827301,
0.8868188858032227,
0.21559646725654602,
-0.3522811830043793,
-0.7482737898826599,
-0.11841730028390884,
-1.0354573726654053,
0.11089596897363663,
-0.03229834884405136,
0.13414016366004944,
0.32642748951911926,
-0.1381145864725113,
-0.0023153237998485565,
-0.4274631142616272,
-0.30179092288017273,
-0.19113191962242126,
-0.05856475979089737,
0.007747796829789877,
-0.029284082353115082,
-0.4227675795555115,
0.42507970333099365,
-0.23925229907035828,
0.49668848514556885,
-0.059619005769491196,
-0.14404256641864777,
0.26972585916519165,
-0.026783959940075874,
0.05360955372452736,
0.7312771677970886,
-0.02538513019680977,
-0.6877978444099426,
-0.6108534932136536,
-0.14230044186115265,
-0.13725557923316956,
0.32398873567581177,
-0.10758423805236816,
-0.34690845012664795,
0.275295227766037,
-0.24123096466064453,
0.006448643282055855,
0.33866649866104126,
-0.13486868143081665,
-0.6817144155502319,
0.8110400438308716,
-0.3534092903137207,
-0.553760290145874,
0.40357479453086853,
0.15295174717903137,
0.48692137002944946,
0.7637469172477722,
0.0749516487121582,
-0.5808346271514893,
0.1596672534942627,
-0.6797991991043091,
-0.3414384722709656,
0.13161665201187134,
0.5986806154251099,
0.30548787117004395,
0.7300263047218323,
-0.8117455244064331,
-0.16535726189613342,
-0.12803606688976288,
-0.2511587142944336,
-0.3154175877571106,
-0.12274321168661118,
0.02423684485256672,
0.7623235583305359,
0.2325741946697235,
0.5341050028800964,
-0.21863622963428497,
0.4054783582687378,
-0.11638960242271423,
0.7820606827735901,
0.2634308636188507,
-1.119178056716919,
0.6317387819290161,
0.10218457132577896,
0.9717895984649658,
-0.2918936610221863,
0.682593584060669,
-0.3459184765815735,
0.11059492081403732,
0.4637709856033325,
-0.3133217394351959,
-0.08435466140508652,
-0.38366276025772095,
0.17116320133209229,
-0.3250867426395416,
0.05138344317674637,
0.40886110067367554,
-0.567779004573822,
-0.3823806047439575,
0.13323207199573517,
0.11869047582149506,
-0.353541761636734,
-0.6846176385879517,
0.24023687839508057,
0.2986391484737396,
0.32213765382766724,
-0.21265214681625366,
0.07509906589984894,
0.3267316222190857,
-0.05706841126084328,
0.6759079098701477,
0.3525307774543762,
0.37491941452026367,
-0.21819019317626953,
-0.3442310690879822,
-0.5097773671150208,
-0.44896042346954346,
-0.43219876289367676,
-0.07235199213027954,
0.01868865080177784,
0.09812136739492416,
0.2860912084579468,
-0.8999747633934021,
-0.4786323308944702,
0.10209660232067108,
-0.5519322156906128,
-0.2093016654253006,
0.03423940762877464,
-1.2004739046096802,
-0.6372379660606384,
0.01788206771016121,
0.5196274518966675,
0.560451328754425,
0.054248690605163574,
-0.38099148869514465,
0.3633512854576111,
-0.4186989963054657,
0.3231194019317627,
-0.4027460217475891,
0.8923225998878479,
-0.1970544010400772,
-0.4145524799823761,
-0.4720011353492737,
0.5845754742622375,
0.8966899514198303,
-0.7930711507797241,
-0.027212228626012802,
0.2410554438829422,
-0.8359569907188416,
-0.06067248061299324,
0.7578127980232239,
-0.16197042167186737,
-0.19941432774066925,
-1.1068800687789917,
0.20547229051589966,
0.6948552131652832,
0.040132325142621994,
-0.25248613953590393,
-0.12071425467729568,
-0.04820515587925911,
0.5760942101478577,
0.039896342903375626,
-0.25720489025115967,
0.5390658974647522,
-0.9404293894767761,
0.3080432415008545,
-0.5628134608268738,
0.4379614591598511,
-0.04334595799446106,
0.2074953317642212,
0.5706375241279602,
0.3445112407207489,
-0.26632818579673767,
0.20040182769298553,
-0.3199538588523865,
-0.04926813021302223,
-0.0066377827897667885,
-0.25241512060165405,
0.06054280698299408,
0.3710929751396179,
-0.16967234015464783,
-0.12024981528520584,
-1.0447479486465454,
0.35127705335617065,
0.5375458598136902,
-0.01141460333019495,
0.3713535964488983,
-0.16503219306468964,
0.4834754168987274,
-0.7463386654853821,
-0.5950583219528198,
-0.4537600874900818,
-0.11996733397245407,
0.16725389659404755
] |
200107
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone%20sandhi
|
Tone sandhi
|
Tone sandhi is a phonological change occurring in tonal languages, in which the tones assigned to individual words or morphemes change based on the pronunciation of adjacent words or morphemes. It usually simplifies a bidirectional tone into a one-direction tone. It is a type of sandhi, or fusional change, from the Sanskrit word for "joining".
Languages with tone sandhi
Tone sandhi occurs to some extent in nearly all tonal languages, manifesting itself in different ways. Tonal languages, characterized by their use of pitch to affect meaning, appear all over the world, especially in the Niger-Congo language family of Africa, and the Sino-Tibetan language family of East Asia, as well as other East Asian languages such as Tai-Kadai, Vietnamese, and Papuan languages. Tonal languages are also found in many Oto-Manguean and other languages of Central America, as well as in parts of North America (such as Athabaskan in British Columbia, Canada), and Europe.
Many North American and African tonal languages undergo "syntagmatic displacement," as one tone is replaced by another in the event that the new tone is present elsewhere in the adjacent tones. Usually, these processes of assimilation occur from left to right. In some languages of West Africa, for example, an unaccented syllable takes the tone from the closest tone to its left. However, in East and Southeast Asia, "paradigmatic replacement" is a more common form of tone sandhi, as one tone changes to another in a certain environment, whether or not the new tone is already present in the surrounding words or morphemes.
Many languages spoken in China have tone sandhi; some of it quite complex. Southern Min (Minnan), which includes Hokkien, Taiwanese, and Teochew, has a complex system, with in most cases every syllable changing into a different tone, and which tone it turns into sometimes depending on the final consonant of the syllable that bears it.
Take for example Taiwanese varieties of Hokkien, which have two tonemes (numbered 4 and 8 in the diagram above) that occur in checked syllables (those ending in a stop consonant) and five tonemes in syllables that do not end in a stop. In Taiwanese, within a phonological phrase, all its non-neutral-tone syllables save for the last undergo tone sandhi. Among the unchecked syllables, tone 1 becomes 7, 7 becomes 3, 3 becomes 2, and 2 becomes 1. Tone 5 becomes 7 or 3, depending on dialect. Stopped syllables ending in Pe̍h-ōe-jī , , or take the opposite tone (phonetically, a high tone becomes low, and a low tone becomes high) whereas syllables ending in a glottal stop (written in Pe̍h-ōe-jī by ) drop their final consonant to become tone 2 or 3.
The seven or eight tones of Hmong demonstrate several instances of tone sandhi. In fact the contested distinction between the seventh and eighth tones surrounds the very issue of tone sandhi (between glottal stop (-m) and low rising (-d) tones). High and high-falling tones (marked by -b and -j in the RPA orthography, respectively) trigger sandhi in subsequent words bearing particular tones. A frequent example can be found in the combination for numbering objects (ordinal number + classifier + noun): ib (one) + tus (classifier) + dev (dog) > ib tug dev (note tone change on the classifier from -s to -g).
What tone sandhi is and what it isn't
Tone sandhi is compulsory as long as the environmental conditions that trigger it are met. It is not to be confused with tone changes that are due to derivational or inflectional morphology. For example, in Cantonese, the word "sugar" () is pronounced tòhng ( or , with low (falling) tone), whereas the derived word "candy" (also written 糖) is pronounced tóng (, with mid rising tone). Such a change is not triggered by the phonological environment of the tone, and therefore is not an example of sandhi. Changes of morphemes in Mandarin into its neutral-tone are also not examples of tone sandhi.
In Hokkien (again exemplified by Taiwanese varieties), the words kiaⁿ (whose base-tone is high flat and means ‘to be afraid’) plus lâng (whose base-tone is upwardly curving and means ‘person, people’) can combine via either of two different tonal treatments with a corresponding difference in resulting meaning. A speaker can pronounce the lâng as a neutral-tone (= low here), which causes the kiaⁿ (because it does not go into neutral-tone and immediately precedes) to keep its base-tone (which differs, by the way, from for instance the Standard-Chinese third tone preceding a neutral-tone's more common of its two behaviors). The result means ‘to be frightful’ (written in Pe̍h-ōe-jī as kiaⁿ--lâng). However, one can instead NOT make the lâng neutral-tone, which both causes it (due to being the final non-neutral tone in the phonological phrase) to keep its base-tone and causes the kiaⁿ (because this comes earlier in the phrase than the last non-neutral-tone syllable) to take its sandhi-tone (that being mid flat, because its base-tone is high-flat). This latter treatment means ‘to be frightfully dirty’ or ‘to be filthy’ (written as kiaⁿ-lâng). The former treatment does not involve the application of the tone sandhi rules, but rather is a derivational process (that is, it derives a new word), while the latter treatment does involve the tone sandhi, which applies automatically (here as anywhere that a phrase contains more than one syllable not made neutral-tone).
Examples
Mandarin Chinese
Standard Chinese (Standard Mandarin) features several tone sandhi rules:
When there are two 3rd tones in a row, the first one becomes 2nd tone. E.g. 你好 (nǐ + hǎo > ní hǎo)
The neutral tone is pronounced at different pitches depending on what tone it follows.
不 (bù) is 4th tone except when followed by another 4th tone, when it becomes 2nd tone. E.g. 不是 (bù + shì > bú shì)
一 (yī) is 1st tone when it represents the ordinal "first". Examples: (dìyīgè). It changes when it represents the cardinal number "1", following a pattern of 2nd tone when followed by a 4th tone, and 4th tone when followed by any other tone. Examples: (for changing to the 2nd tone before a 4th tone) (yī + cì > yí cì), (yī + bàn > yí bàn), (yī + huìr > yí huìr); (for changing to the 4th tone before another tone) (yī + bān > yì bān), (yī + máo > yì máo).
Yatzachi Zapotec
Yatzachi Zapotec, an Oto-Manguean language spoken in Mexico, has three tones: high, middle and low. The three tones, along with separate classifications for morpheme categories, contribute to a somewhat more complicated system of tone sandhi than in Mandarin. There are two main rules for Yatzachi Zapotec tone sandhi, which apply in this order:
(This rule only applies to class B morphemes.) A low tone will change to a mid tone when it precedes either a high or a mid tone: /yèn nājō/ → yēn nājō "neck we say"
A mid tone will change to a high tone when it is after a low or mid tone, and occurs at the end of a morpheme not preceding a pause: /ẓīs gōlī/ → ẓís gōlī "old stick"
Molinos Mixtec
Molinos Mixtec, another Oto-Manguean language, has a much more complicated system of tone sandhi. The language has three tones (high, mid, or low, or 1, 2, or 3, respectively), and all roots are disyllabic, meaning that there are nine possible combinations of tones for a root or "couplet". The tone combinations are expressed here as a two digit number (high-low is represented as 13). Couplets are also classified into either class A or B, as well as verb or non-verb. A number of specific rules depending on these three factors determine tone change. One example of a rule follows:
"Basic 31 becomes 11 when following any couplet of Class B but does not change after Class A (except that after 32(B') it optionally remains 31"
ža²ʔa² (class B) "chiles" + ži³či¹ (class A) "dry" > ža²ʔa²ži¹či¹ "dry chiles"
Akan
Akan, a Niger-Congo language spoken in Ghana, has two tones: high and low. The low tone is default. In Akan, tones at morpheme boundaries assimilate to each other through tone sandhi, the first tone of the second morpheme changing to match the final tone of the first morpheme.
For example:
àkókɔ́ + òníní > àkókɔ́óníní "cockerel"
ǹsóró + m̀má > ǹsóróḿmá "star(s)"
Transcription
Sinologists sometimes use reversed Chao tone letters to indicate sandhi, with the left-facing letters of the IPA on the left for the underlying tone, and reversed right-facing letters on the right for the realized tone. For example, the Mandarin example of nǐ + hǎo > ní hǎo above would be transcribed:
The individual Unicode components of the reversed tone letters are .
See also
Downdrift
Downstep
Floating tone
Tone terracing
Vowel harmony
References
Phonology
Tonal languages
|
[
-0.6041688919067383,
0.3914449214935303,
-0.7229815721511841,
-0.4921107590198517,
-0.7088543176651001,
0.767940104007721,
0.5250689387321472,
0.289292573928833,
-0.2394358217716217,
-0.33517807722091675,
-0.16916389763355255,
0.05127394199371338,
0.32481449842453003,
0.45767688751220703,
0.18931640684604645,
0.07393084466457367,
0.6598929166793823,
0.28913813829421997,
0.07034638524055481,
0.081275574862957,
-0.014136109501123428,
0.24990585446357727,
0.32249048352241516,
-0.3656415641307831,
0.439222514629364,
-0.540176272392273,
0.3880833685398102,
0.48356086015701294,
0.23225870728492737,
-0.314074844121933,
-0.3034982681274414,
1.2493133544921875,
-0.17047284543514252,
0.060484278947114944,
-0.04399742931127548,
-0.5702275633811951,
-0.14443695545196533,
-0.35628271102905273,
0.16383138298988342,
-0.34774860739707947,
-0.3372190594673157,
-0.004732521250844002,
0.045632004737854004,
0.0891900360584259,
-0.12622326612472534,
-0.23460540175437927,
-1.6652356386184692,
-0.18472492694854736,
-0.6293294429779053,
-0.046135611832141876,
-0.32257604598999023,
0.3579963445663452,
0.2836935818195343,
-0.17231690883636475,
-0.14125417172908783,
0.6266849040985107,
-1.2391523122787476,
0.05709956958889961,
0.8642037510871887,
0.334323912858963,
0.4027152359485626,
-0.4732872247695923,
-0.6151189804077148,
-0.21600304543972015,
0.46872207522392273,
0.5460576415061951,
-0.5314675569534302,
-0.007652933243662119,
-0.7260867357254028,
-0.12901069223880768,
-0.5439437627792358,
-0.4495380222797394,
-0.022216452285647392,
0.38448965549468994,
-0.60970139503479,
0.4919149875640869,
-0.15846504271030426,
0.2863592803478241,
0.04807620868086815,
-0.12498694658279419,
-0.6843658685684204,
0.28297513723373413,
0.8189212679862976,
-0.29027238488197327,
0.2856205105781555,
-0.27642107009887695,
-0.5633172988891602,
0.33939775824546814,
-0.2965743839740753,
0.5441548228263855,
0.07363157719373703,
-0.5161420106887817,
0.3750607669353485,
0.5230481624603271,
-0.15339073538780212,
0.09551352262496948,
0.47560974955558777,
0.32840844988822937,
0.41059449315071106,
0.42594635486602783,
-0.31292524933815,
0.540595293045044,
0.7415460348129272,
0.3979056775569916,
-0.8710075616836548,
-0.5237038135528564,
-0.13043737411499023,
-0.09874850511550903,
-0.1302020400762558,
-0.34404081106185913,
-0.4751984775066376,
-0.033142056316137314,
0.0523599311709404,
-0.24510352313518524,
-0.818878710269928,
-0.4620182514190674,
-0.1055305078625679,
0.3018221855163574,
-0.3405357599258423,
-0.052960656583309174,
0.18164488673210144,
0.0217682346701622,
0.3083937466144562,
-0.2756972014904022,
-0.358864426612854,
0.3453613519668579,
0.1509859412908554,
0.24214346706867218,
0.19200845062732697,
0.5498217940330505,
-0.12992694973945618,
0.7770742774009705,
0.6517457365989685,
0.05017726123332977,
0.2576310932636261,
-0.4959753155708313,
0.8369138240814209,
0.227258563041687,
0.33441242575645447,
-0.12536074221134186,
-0.853559136390686,
0.27812719345092773,
-1.1720824241638184,
-0.1765163242816925,
0.5050700306892395,
0.49286577105522156,
-0.518409013748169,
-0.019877402111887932,
-0.4021781086921692,
-0.1460760533809662,
0.4805603325366974,
-0.10421266406774521,
-0.17367035150527954,
0.24668799340724945,
-0.1641671508550644,
0.2636905610561371,
-0.48058781027793884,
-0.19066224992275238,
0.2624536156654358,
-0.012423628009855747,
-0.5531288385391235,
-0.0035772521514445543,
-0.09612724184989929,
-0.0708618238568306,
0.3764065206050873,
-0.32352331280708313,
0.13044646382331848,
0.27197739481925964,
-0.21279029548168182,
0.8698281049728394,
-0.15819624066352844,
0.02576194703578949,
0.24225196242332458,
-0.39833730459213257,
-0.3893967270851135,
-0.5026443004608154,
-0.012713254429399967,
0.21310101449489594,
0.4842410683631897,
-0.27742618322372437,
-0.6121957898139954,
0.46174612641334534,
0.3699601888656616,
0.26562508940696716,
0.23258276283740997,
-0.20549821853637695,
0.2227174937725067,
-0.4278368353843689,
-0.07465974986553192,
-0.298455148935318,
-0.6562706828117371,
-0.2943840026855469,
0.24684064090251923,
-0.05364220589399338,
0.7685914039611816,
0.16949762403964996,
-0.38613161444664,
0.5018675327301025,
0.934300422668457,
0.7457072734832764,
-0.2120528370141983,
-0.7309399843215942,
0.009571535512804985,
0.2643333375453949,
0.46837061643600464,
0.8776271343231201,
-0.0725908875465393,
0.09241638332605362,
0.3429281413555145,
0.039547622203826904,
0.036880072206258774,
-0.24980460107326508,
0.6333882808685303,
-0.17845803499221802,
-0.03956834599375725,
0.18240338563919067,
0.06706158071756363,
-0.3018970191478729,
-0.10062223672866821,
-0.4204951822757721,
0.3492184579372406,
-0.49633604288101196,
-0.08953645080327988,
0.0725695863366127,
-0.23525476455688477,
0.08353854715824127,
0.23506328463554382,
0.25089675188064575,
0.6324543952941895,
-0.4382972717285156,
0.19857962429523468,
-0.5054808259010315,
-0.1873691976070404,
-0.18525797128677368,
-0.18178756535053253,
-0.3503611385822296,
-0.018801646307110786,
-0.281220018863678,
0.06893691420555115,
-0.2862556278705597,
0.19678741693496704,
0.07138730585575104,
-0.40898120403289795,
-0.07273376733064651,
0.291361927986145,
0.08446069061756134,
0.008679678663611412,
0.2815777659416199,
-0.946846067905426,
0.11043202131986618,
0.5933412909507751,
0.5744046568870544,
-0.39920538663864136,
-0.5193476676940918,
-0.6575499773025513,
0.05086332559585571,
-0.14477026462554932,
0.3197011351585388,
0.6755445003509521,
-0.32200929522514343,
-0.04464723542332649,
0.4100435972213745,
0.6750713586807251,
-0.17668922245502472,
-0.42749372124671936,
-0.3801617920398712,
-0.04632209241390228,
-0.12154468894004822,
0.5441299080848694,
-0.20233584940433502,
0.6285377740859985,
-0.10887523740530014,
-0.5612660050392151,
-0.3959360122680664,
-0.7681222558021545,
-0.7724431157112122,
0.3942033648490906,
-0.2679733335971832,
-0.8496334552764893,
-0.23207998275756836,
0.2998785078525543,
0.46876928210258484,
0.09080062061548233,
-0.46797609329223633,
-0.22243386507034302,
-0.4202556908130646,
0.45358505845069885,
-0.2471647709608078,
0.5466493368148804,
-0.6513128876686096,
-0.11831783503293991,
0.28345227241516113,
-0.10632917284965515,
0.05050715059041977,
0.3884941041469574,
0.055946942418813705,
0.0052600824274122715,
0.4338671863079071,
0.6402180790901184,
-0.25510263442993164,
-0.21408164501190186,
-0.14491860568523407,
-0.1851808875799179,
-0.1302100121974945,
-0.7624838948249817,
0.4178953766822815,
-0.6554623246192932,
0.2834145128726959,
-5.3648810386657715,
0.5295199155807495,
-0.23395942151546478,
-0.3774702548980713,
-0.17593322694301605,
0.4085792005062103,
0.9771456122398376,
-0.31381386518478394,
0.06411952525377274,
0.17882290482521057,
-0.6446869373321533,
-0.08088661730289459,
-0.08487080037593842,
0.2336576282978058,
-0.018468840047717094,
-0.5096330642700195,
0.10846111923456192,
0.03236324340105057,
0.113643579185009,
0.7531383633613586,
0.07445792108774185,
0.4201737344264984,
0.1766853630542755,
0.7605796456336975,
0.09414974600076675,
0.9166029691696167,
0.0801534429192543,
0.16686728596687317,
-0.4910537898540497,
-0.22126714885234833,
-0.24575026333332062,
-0.48913076519966125,
0.4561617076396942,
-0.07092329859733582,
0.0018781684339046478,
0.3562973737716675,
0.6066734790802002,
0.4653434157371521,
0.8259062170982361,
-0.27977290749549866,
-0.33941033482551575,
0.48760440945625305,
0.13772667944431305,
-0.03423856198787689,
0.24863086640834808,
0.2556520998477936,
-0.7792035341262817,
-0.5046677589416504,
-0.0584426149725914,
0.7597516775131226,
-0.37072113156318665,
-0.19694772362709045,
0.14395706355571747,
0.19687527418136597,
0.5205336213111877,
0.87617027759552,
0.1710577756166458,
-0.5339624285697937,
-0.0882992371916771,
0.08082180470228195,
0.33757710456848145,
-0.9326773285865784,
-0.7285484075546265,
-0.8189690113067627,
0.720533013343811,
-0.5487339496612549,
-0.6571744084358215,
-0.17864392697811127,
0.2974921464920044,
0.5189791321754456,
-0.5339710116386414,
-0.09752258658409119,
0.45510250329971313,
-0.4044860601425171,
0.22827495634555817,
-0.7964802384376526,
-0.22913327813148499,
-0.10359858721494675,
0.0028332166839390993,
0.4197121858596802,
-0.19433338940143585,
0.12529423832893372,
-0.34002774953842163,
0.3752782940864563,
0.09845604747533798,
-0.21867382526397705,
-0.2223280519247055,
0.13234640657901764,
-0.0592106357216835,
-0.17147786915302277,
0.8078102469444275,
-0.07882753014564514,
-0.07729613780975342,
-0.11472181230783463,
0.36086708307266235,
0.16116245090961456,
0.5635145306587219,
0.02713559754192829,
0.8797669410705566,
-0.9076705574989319,
0.5185900330543518,
-1.0204700231552124,
-0.1963573396205902,
0.0306411050260067,
-0.026653535664081573,
-0.03266236558556557,
-1.112203598022461,
0.10401394963264465,
0.9853150248527527,
0.00830344669520855,
-0.041729990392923355,
0.02369418926537037,
-0.4761078357696533,
-0.02149505354464054,
0.4280378818511963,
0.3772156238555908,
-0.5593668222427368,
0.5078458786010742,
0.2355702668428421,
0.2793762981891632,
0.5789903402328491,
0.14781279861927032,
-0.2081286609172821,
-0.49428534507751465,
0.12217048555612564,
-0.30540651082992554,
-0.06345105916261673,
0.38591212034225464,
-0.2705414593219757,
-0.11615799367427826,
0.27129775285720825,
-0.020558858290314674,
-0.18530508875846863,
0.21619878709316254,
0.2305220067501068,
-0.4069126844406128,
-0.4129047691822052,
0.37938013672828674,
0.10012990981340408,
-0.29062288999557495,
0.2245919555425644,
-0.47386643290519714,
-0.4200790524482727,
-0.3030852675437927,
1.0113115310668945,
0.24106837809085846,
-0.10193761438131332,
-0.9024885296821594,
-0.7054193019866943,
0.33022576570510864,
0.3642488121986389,
-0.5345156192779541,
-0.23838578164577484,
-0.5457401871681213,
-0.5506613254547119,
0.16589219868183136,
-0.2747872471809387,
0.28532615303993225,
-0.2580887973308563,
0.06490923464298248,
0.00518176332116127,
-0.4340851306915283,
-0.7904374599456787,
-0.20765835046768188,
-0.14021453261375427,
-1.2217707633972168,
-0.19946248829364777,
-0.13909314572811127,
-0.09132900089025497,
0.5389866828918457,
-0.37712839245796204,
-0.2700687348842621,
-0.6378791332244873,
-0.28591248393058777,
0.3171183168888092,
-0.37409141659736633,
0.012860512360930443,
0.3302690386772156,
0.07091404497623444,
-0.083855539560318,
-0.2674046754837036,
-0.09439463168382645,
-0.2919761538505554,
0.7930229902267456,
0.2452913224697113,
0.033368367701768875,
-0.006237818393856287,
0.13079236447811127,
-0.9552290439605713,
-0.3882371187210083,
0.03919805958867073,
-0.22417281568050385,
0.22177654504776,
-0.03869909420609474,
-0.30852314829826355,
0.006283449940383434,
-0.03259773924946785,
0.4892757833003998,
-0.1195845678448677,
-0.6536127924919128,
0.9534256458282471,
0.2350190430879593,
-0.12823213636875153,
0.23815542459487915,
0.7271627187728882,
-0.8868950009346008,
0.17928054928779602,
0.24566687643527985,
-1.003726840019226,
0.032472431659698486,
0.27827325463294983,
-1.2999416589736938,
-0.5968343615531921,
-0.24713119864463806,
0.2053367644548416,
-0.3141661584377289,
0.23831728100776672,
-0.8164393305778503,
0.046928249299526215,
-0.6438273787498474,
0.5804705023765564,
-0.4734657406806946,
-0.4735471308231354,
-0.31720075011253357,
-0.3187786638736725,
-0.27535349130630493,
0.40925711393356323,
-0.24100616574287415,
0.7746678590774536,
-0.3217117488384247,
0.10771695524454117,
0.06489982455968857,
0.624704897403717,
0.4429701864719391,
-0.6190687417984009,
-0.25539013743400574,
-0.9922225475311279,
-0.34557676315307617,
0.23698793351650238,
0.862135648727417,
0.7813376784324646,
0.7186422348022461,
0.6703703999519348,
0.19635751843452454,
-0.8166645169258118,
0.6224286556243896,
0.2847630977630615,
-0.6969782710075378,
-0.2913249135017395,
0.636469304561615,
0.7707299590110779,
-0.3003956377506256,
-0.9818251729011536,
-0.14921706914901733,
0.6196416616439819,
-0.02669341117143631,
0.29718029499053955,
-0.4139406681060791,
-0.19089375436306,
0.1217888593673706,
0.43304911255836487,
-0.3172791004180908,
0.05818285793066025,
0.09132576733827591,
-0.1878644824028015,
0.05209971219301224,
-0.1728844791650772,
0.588704526424408,
1.109579086303711,
-0.7389512062072754,
0.14227601885795593,
-0.5487252473831177,
-0.10880278050899506,
-0.14727099239826202,
0.2800270915031433,
0.02421078458428383,
-0.5429109930992126,
-0.19443528354167938,
-0.3591979444026947,
-0.33363527059555054,
-0.07404929399490356,
-0.1321503221988678,
0.2410626858472824,
-0.21716807782649994,
0.2185080349445343,
-0.35767510533332825,
0.3712238073348999,
-0.19795948266983032,
-0.5174627900123596,
-0.012353458441793919,
-0.2674064636230469,
0.12757521867752075,
0.03359826281666756,
0.6525474190711975,
-0.452075719833374,
0.037348777055740356,
0.14852558076381683,
0.5126743316650391,
0.05504611134529114,
-0.26605093479156494,
-0.4786720871925354,
1.1569246053695679,
0.301675021648407,
-0.37949344515800476,
-0.07623643428087234,
0.04847274348139763,
0.20037974417209625,
-0.6978002786636353,
0.23971129953861237,
-0.07026110589504242,
-0.18180517852306366,
0.6956661939620972,
0.5137898325920105,
1.2952141761779785,
0.42933571338653564,
0.18574003875255585,
0.49374938011169434,
-0.28721266984939575,
0.4934777021408081,
0.36867213249206543,
0.4427005648612976,
-0.8426163196563721,
0.984469473361969,
0.2641415596008301,
-0.5034258365631104,
0.6722938418388367,
-0.0011874163756147027,
-0.3544440269470215,
0.35907167196273804,
0.16602741181850433,
0.5062240958213806,
0.33334028720855713,
-0.17594575881958008,
-0.7102683186531067,
-0.04879102110862732,
-0.4294074475765228,
0.15767143666744232,
0.07907150685787201,
-0.2476499229669571,
0.4059687554836273,
0.6949004530906677,
0.5033356547355652,
0.0119319511577487,
-0.24511918425559998,
0.2638324499130249,
-0.4819585382938385,
-0.005783463828265667,
0.37148958444595337,
0.12105128169059753,
0.3674622178077698,
0.24041882157325745,
0.26543065905570984,
0.7590638399124146,
-0.08122354000806808,
-0.14910216629505157,
-0.08598460257053375,
-0.05453644320368767,
-0.22958987951278687,
-0.1514815390110016,
0.1323973685503006,
-0.4597591757774353,
0.9026272296905518,
0.19960550963878632,
0.04862908273935318,
0.45175063610076904,
0.2647245526313782,
0.27447354793548584,
-0.4442998468875885,
0.0541316457092762,
-0.2146337628364563,
0.18031862378120422,
0.606812596321106,
-0.2849709093570709,
-0.0608028806746006,
0.4637696444988251,
0.383707195520401,
0.31254392862319946,
-0.2311975210905075,
-0.1747627854347229,
0.3459014892578125,
-0.0990728959441185,
0.17290917038917542,
-0.5121294260025024,
-0.4364500939846039,
0.22929027676582336,
-0.13040661811828613,
0.047620728611946106,
0.6058275103569031,
-0.19482870399951935,
0.529678225517273,
0.04683009162545204,
-0.5093603730201721,
0.26081207394599915,
-0.16930721700191498,
-0.5798518061637878,
0.02994759939610958,
-0.4432307183742523,
0.5125707983970642,
-0.017975350841879845,
-0.4145285487174988,
0.6502279043197632,
0.5684341788291931,
0.46930137276649475,
0.5368078351020813,
-0.577656090259552,
0.6829003691673279,
-0.49516382813453674,
0.3879842460155487,
-0.7024827599525452,
0.3949768543243408,
1.0591117143630981,
0.30800285935401917,
-0.11332639306783676,
0.7928850054740906,
-0.043056685477495193,
0.13630753755569458,
0.2961414158344269,
-0.3345460593700409,
-0.37633371353149414,
-0.23310570418834686,
-0.13694249093532562,
0.021536855027079582,
-0.15709292888641357,
0.470890074968338,
0.42785465717315674,
-0.22112174332141876,
0.5071917176246643,
0.5637120008468628,
-0.6602834463119507,
0.055807288736104965,
-0.3020026981830597,
0.5934269428253174,
-0.46627089381217957,
0.37314456701278687,
-0.19501490890979767,
0.23241069912910461,
-0.46050339937210083,
0.12781451642513275,
0.009587989188730717,
-0.2877025604248047,
0.2065296471118927,
-0.7100706696510315,
-0.3218097686767578,
0.15442156791687012,
-1.4227298498153687,
0.0070565203204751015,
-0.5509039163589478,
-0.5298641920089722,
-0.4792189598083496,
0.08493310958147049,
0.2683453857898712,
-0.6365295052528381,
0.41210871934890747,
0.01030090544372797,
0.11078240722417831,
-0.01770165003836155,
0.46419358253479004,
-0.6679580807685852,
-0.1701788753271103,
0.3144528567790985
] |
200108
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse%20Lynch%20Williams
|
Jesse Lynch Williams
|
Jesse Lynch Williams (August 17, 1871 – September 14, 1929) was an American author and dramatist. He won the first Pulitzer Prize for Drama for his play Why Marry? (1917). He was a journalist for three New York publications and co-founded the Princeton Alumni Weekly and the Princeton Triangle Club.
Early life
Born in Sterling, Illinois on August 17, 1871 to Elizabeth Brown (Riddle) and Rev. Meade Creighton Williams, pastor of a Presbyterian church in St. Louis, Missouri. His father wrote Early Mackinac and was the editor of a Presbyterian journal. Jesse's brothers were David. R. Williams, of St. Louis, and Terrell Williams, a law school professor of Washington University in St. Louis.
His grandfather, also Jesse Lynch Williams, was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln as the government director of the roads. He was an engineer and constructor for the Union Pacific Railroad.
Education and career
Williams studied at Beloit Academy. He began his literary career in college. He won the Nassau Literary Magazine short story contest in his junior year. He received his bachelor's degree in 1892. As a graduate student at Princeton University, he wrote Princeton Stories (1895) which often featured the daily life of an undergraduate football player. He graduated from Princeton with a master's degree in 1895. In 1898, he wrote The History of Princeton University with John de Witt. He and Booth Tarkington co-founded the Triangle Club at Princeton and edited The Lit. For three years, beginning in 1900, he co-founded and was the first editor of the Princeton Alumni Weekly. Robert Frost wrote a recommendation to the University of Michigan regarding his suitability for the Fellowship of Creative Arts. Frost indicated that Williams was relevant, open-minded, practical, a "good all-around participator", and, along with his wife, good company. During the 1925–1926 academic year, he held the Fellowship in Creative Arts at the University of Michigan. He received an honorary Doctor of Letters from Princeton in 1919.
Beginning in 1893, he was a reporter for The New York Sun, and wrote fiction on the side. He joined the staff at the New York Commercial Advertiser (The New York Globe) from 1895 to 1897, followed by the Scribner's Magazine. From 1900 to 1903, he was the editor of the Princeton Alumni Weekly, after which he worked full-time writing plays and novels.
He wrote a number of short stories starting in the 1890s. He wrote four plays and six novels by 1929, including Why Marry? (1917), for which he was awarded the first Pulitzer Prize for Drama. He wrote the play The Stolen Story (1906), based upon his times as a reporter, which he first wrote as a short story, The Stolen Story and Other Newspaper Stories. He wrote the play The Stolen Story (1906), based upon his times as a reporter. His plays Why Marry? (1917) and Why Not (1922), and Lovely Lady (1925) were produced on Broadway. Why Not explores the experiences of divorce. Lovely Lady is about the attempts of a lady to attract the attentions of a lawyer and his son. His novels and stories include Princeton Stories, The Adventures of a Freshman (1899), The Girl and the Game (1908), The Married Life of the Frederic Carrolls (1910), and She Knew She Was Right.
He was a member of the Authors League of America, the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and other organizations, in which he sometimes had a leadership role.
Marriage and children
He was married to Alice Laidlaw (1872–1960, daughter of Elizabeth C. Onderdonk and Henry Bell Laidlaw, on June 1, 1898 in New York. They had three children, Henry Meade, Jesse Lynch, and Laidlaw Onderdonk Williams. They lived in Princeton, New Jersey. Alice graduated from Veltin School for Girls in 1892. She was a member of the Audubon Society and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and a number of organizations, including sitting on the executive board of the New Jersey Equal Franchise Society. She wrote a book entitled Sunday Suppers (1912).
Death
Williams died of a heart attack on September 14, 1929 at the home of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Douglas Robinson in Jordanville, New York or Herkimer, New York.
References
External links
1871 births
1929 deaths
Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners
American dramatists and playwrights
People from Sterling, Illinois
Writers from Illinois
Princeton University alumni
|
[
-0.23424305021762848,
0.3447275757789612,
-1.1215416193008423,
-0.10726061463356018,
0.5203680396080017,
0.6797634959220886,
1.0574500560760498,
0.3057829737663269,
-0.1747623085975647,
-0.6517373919487,
0.008425948210060596,
0.49965161085128784,
-0.3282789885997772,
0.4504840075969696,
-0.6662419438362122,
0.42607825994491577,
-0.3957667350769043,
-0.17045751214027405,
-0.17748074233531952,
-0.6557584404945374,
-0.65443354845047,
-0.1868770867586136,
0.6402316689491272,
0.07071857899427414,
-0.2125392109155655,
0.03438491374254227,
-0.3314239978790283,
-0.38150644302368164,
0.1953354924917221,
0.5191986560821533,
-0.12133395671844482,
0.41143205761909485,
0.4719754755496979,
-0.131260484457016,
-0.9321082234382629,
0.10722942650318146,
-1.008008360862732,
-0.13667258620262146,
0.16640421748161316,
0.22390955686569214,
-0.306618332862854,
0.030069587752223015,
0.12454304099082947,
-0.6716526746749878,
0.16950684785842896,
0.0717402994632721,
-2.130255699157715,
0.0889718309044838,
-0.9303672909736633,
-0.6510729193687439,
-0.2870246171951294,
0.6242583990097046,
0.8388862013816833,
0.21799413859844208,
-0.4670138657093048,
0.3707921504974365,
-0.38986286520957947,
-0.07929270714521408,
-0.03966112062335014,
-0.10136573016643524,
0.2609179615974426,
0.1326635181903839,
0.6000921130180359,
0.002073214389383793,
0.13945762813091278,
-0.028147874400019646,
0.013255798257887363,
0.25144681334495544,
0.0732550248503685,
0.049705903977155685,
0.2768336236476898,
0.6649045944213867,
0.8117538690567017,
0.20473170280456543,
0.02528754249215126,
-0.40026238560676575,
0.5421602725982666,
0.04727396368980408,
0.01298479363322258,
-0.02456364408135414,
-0.2562507390975952,
-0.070352703332901,
0.7616167664527893,
0.6954208016395569,
-0.0930429995059967,
-0.1012691780924797,
-0.6922512054443359,
-0.10726553201675415,
-0.3566698729991913,
-0.3772232234477997,
-0.8870259523391724,
0.08464749902486801,
-0.5855677127838135,
0.029142392799258232,
-0.2528783679008484,
0.1297292858362198,
0.006172535941004753,
0.5616669654846191,
-0.4672625660896301,
0.06558547914028168,
0.06059291586279869,
-0.16691341996192932,
0.8878065943717957,
0.31785956025123596,
-0.3082121014595032,
0.30019229650497437,
0.4146425724029541,
-0.16242395341396332,
0.2993810176849365,
0.04642458260059357,
-0.33456873893737793,
0.1587764173746109,
0.17812198400497437,
0.030724922195076942,
0.032064855098724365,
0.5059398412704468,
0.25824594497680664,
-0.3124486804008484,
-0.36177492141723633,
-0.4530290961265564,
-0.8738285303115845,
-0.051446251571178436,
0.0739133208990097,
0.44407033920288086,
-1.0930169820785522,
0.24019134044647217,
0.07517754286527634,
0.4009965658187866,
0.05224485695362091,
0.21009206771850586,
0.6167885065078735,
0.73855060338974,
-0.28774136304855347,
-0.3764554560184479,
-0.19158783555030823,
-0.0008055134094320238,
0.1415170580148697,
-0.17197109758853912,
-0.21945621073246002,
0.31515172123908997,
-0.21041692793369293,
-0.1828915923833847,
-0.7081043124198914,
-0.12267793715000153,
0.25332528352737427,
-0.7582061886787415,
0.40701180696487427,
0.22618520259857178,
-0.1632508635520935,
-0.22953088581562042,
-0.2120741754770279,
0.17569440603256226,
-0.09727386385202408,
-0.1279764175415039,
-0.3034002482891083,
-0.02369929850101471,
0.267138808965683,
0.1725914031267166,
0.2322022020816803,
0.2830612063407898,
0.1477764993906021,
0.4468376338481903,
0.02255072444677353,
-0.05798440799117088,
0.09733200073242188,
-0.2940257787704468,
0.5475403070449829,
-0.543927788734436,
-0.553526759147644,
0.1536150574684143,
0.015486834570765495,
0.42316022515296936,
0.3147055506706238,
-0.19731932878494263,
-0.1259244829416275,
0.25030869245529175,
0.7659242153167725,
0.5800851583480835,
0.06712999939918518,
-0.35283342003822327,
-0.7799187898635864,
0.17168401181697845,
0.0998152494430542,
0.500432014465332,
-0.027907783165574074,
0.22242361307144165,
0.46759963035583496,
-0.41770511865615845,
0.3182711601257324,
-0.2610923647880554,
-0.544722855091095,
-0.7009848952293396,
-0.021833019331097603,
-0.1703454703092575,
0.8376922607421875,
0.416665256023407,
-0.04652392119169235,
0.6557086110115051,
0.1130945160984993,
0.43229004740715027,
0.296740859746933,
-0.3542209267616272,
-0.2532404363155365,
-0.3665767014026642,
-0.2996985912322998,
0.046566441655159,
0.21476289629936218,
-0.019467849284410477,
0.03857334330677986,
0.2775562107563019,
0.4338301718235016,
-0.5998149514198303,
0.29419323801994324,
0.7249675989151001,
-0.5680939555168152,
-0.7275451421737671,
-0.1530505120754242,
-0.3373541235923767,
0.9219069480895996,
-0.4607211649417877,
0.5674062967300415,
0.09729607403278351,
0.4698496460914612,
0.23027652502059937,
0.11792487651109695,
0.9261525273323059,
-0.6185909509658813,
-0.09801938384771347,
-0.012638875283300877,
-0.748032808303833,
-0.4568459689617157,
0.5376703143119812,
-0.18862506747245789,
-0.9037095308303833,
0.6376572251319885,
0.18530769646167755,
-0.07147092372179031,
-0.6123354434967041,
-0.015324327163398266,
-0.3673965334892273,
0.37486258149147034,
0.09427570551633835,
-0.26914867758750916,
-0.08801420032978058,
0.4700101613998413,
-0.05784216895699501,
-0.1335834562778473,
-0.44636037945747375,
0.2174622118473053,
0.07729750871658325,
0.3691662549972534,
0.6722820401191711,
0.006256097927689552,
-0.07965132594108582,
-0.24560095369815826,
0.19975407421588898,
-0.24111464619636536,
0.01564943417906761,
0.20379498600959778,
-0.27138757705688477,
0.02085844986140728,
0.2825443744659424,
-0.09905208647251129,
0.046032290905714035,
0.17530867457389832,
-0.6103281378746033,
-0.6687999963760376,
-0.4954095482826233,
-0.39444205164909363,
-0.22361569106578827,
0.6732358932495117,
-0.1398422122001648,
-0.10771405696868896,
0.4975254535675049,
0.15174441039562225,
0.19169418513774872,
0.2130335122346878,
-0.2325347661972046,
-0.9496045708656311,
-0.9626709818840027,
0.3630351126194,
0.888788640499115,
-0.052218250930309296,
-0.34001424908638,
-0.29695063829421997,
-0.7472031116485596,
-0.17708970606327057,
-0.3419574201107025,
-0.35692474246025085,
-0.0667528584599495,
-0.5148162245750427,
0.711288571357727,
-0.07647627592086792,
0.2231140285730362,
-0.16115239262580872,
0.5712360739707947,
-0.1810554563999176,
-0.4925919473171234,
-0.26890796422958374,
-0.3475620746612549,
-0.29150623083114624,
0.26127728819847107,
-0.004120884463191032,
0.020860720425844193,
0.7580754160881042,
0.22308531403541565,
-0.30832839012145996,
0.20929183065891266,
-5.476338863372803,
0.20166689157485962,
-0.438399076461792,
-0.6244215369224548,
0.5448112487792969,
-0.1282799392938614,
0.37739530205726624,
0.3963299095630646,
-0.012795627117156982,
-0.23782208561897278,
0.41093552112579346,
0.13603223860263824,
-0.01037685852497816,
0.34900256991386414,
0.388170063495636,
0.5470759868621826,
0.7337302565574646,
-0.3952628970146179,
0.1476535201072693,
0.5925855040550232,
0.02074238285422325,
-0.5882723331451416,
-0.38016948103904724,
0.49976474046707153,
0.28158092498779297,
0.05664728954434395,
-0.06755629181861877,
0.24669083952903748,
-0.7834221720695496,
-0.09128297120332718,
0.18172046542167664,
-0.14533735811710358,
-0.386642724275589,
-0.08934131264686584,
0.04505091533064842,
-0.4650735557079315,
0.14568302035331726,
0.16524022817611694,
-0.16812576353549957,
0.0016686179442331195,
-0.3446368873119354,
-0.10913475602865219,
-1.334033489227295,
-0.350219190120697,
-0.1987704187631607,
-0.0753905400633812,
-0.16620449721813202,
-0.034188251942396164,
-0.07963799685239792,
0.5649814605712891,
0.28307050466537476,
-0.09477560222148895,
0.22277353703975677,
0.4009547531604767,
0.27902308106422424,
-0.16249950230121613,
0.213518887758255,
-0.38952744007110596,
-0.7464269995689392,
0.2892623543739319,
0.3865611255168915,
-0.4506177008152008,
0.3525436818599701,
-0.27126702666282654,
-0.5008760690689087,
-0.7145704627037048,
-0.1552048623561859,
0.039406269788742065,
-0.08180490136146545,
-0.05962906777858734,
0.23191846907138824,
1.1064296960830688,
0.45256316661834717,
-1.2851473093032837,
-0.19824035465717316,
0.02410939335823059,
0.04043451324105263,
-0.20931965112686157,
-1.0369511842727661,
-0.4084276854991913,
0.33118772506713867,
-0.4079163074493408,
0.02611534297466278,
0.5990479588508606,
0.8644386529922485,
0.26208439469337463,
-0.1462857872247696,
0.6383890509605408,
-0.9020692706108093,
-0.37497326731681824,
-0.016318747773766518,
0.4301198720932007,
0.26678869128227234,
0.26655569672584534,
0.3415059447288513,
0.21114136278629303,
0.44784316420555115,
0.19670148193836212,
0.15159353613853455,
0.19536350667476654,
-0.4851095676422119,
-0.4856346547603607,
0.28975898027420044,
-0.7051842212677002,
0.5113385915756226,
0.02396285906434059,
0.019200894981622696,
0.45840877294540405,
0.8634371757507324,
0.07079261541366577,
-0.15015314519405365,
0.1407109647989273,
-0.4627392292022705,
-0.10267685353755951,
0.11682511121034622,
-0.5402477383613586,
0.6555048227310181,
0.09189142286777496,
0.3036363422870636,
0.45640134811401367,
-0.04837055504322052,
0.8567692637443542,
-0.012871157377958298,
-0.38105660676956177,
-0.26107197999954224,
-0.7696414589881897,
0.4576389789581299,
-0.002633144613355398,
-0.1689729392528534,
-0.04027518630027771,
-0.14141802489757538,
0.3775516152381897,
0.11323455721139908,
0.4926726818084717,
-0.6975801587104797,
-0.5191770792007446,
-0.7092087268829346,
-0.48944395780563354,
-0.2909609377384186,
0.23695826530456543,
0.06170130893588066,
-0.3679458200931549,
-0.4881499409675598,
-0.13178138434886932,
0.8143912553787231,
-0.22128675878047943,
-0.19281664490699768,
-0.3044813871383667,
-0.7752659320831299,
0.5384368300437927,
-0.7306514978408813,
-0.34055235981941223,
0.3312162458896637,
-0.46824881434440613,
-0.27758437395095825,
-0.06875278800725937,
-0.2789953052997589,
-0.10574229061603546,
0.19308897852897644,
0.1890861541032791,
-0.219758540391922,
-0.2445845752954483,
-0.6327294111251831,
0.13735775649547577,
-0.128844752907753,
0.11919593811035156,
-0.5214555859565735,
-0.011645062826573849,
-0.5869719982147217,
0.31504619121551514,
0.22910176217556,
-0.3999594748020172,
0.14521105587482452,
0.12908586859703064,
0.6815198659896851,
-0.21749505400657654,
-0.4348323345184326,
-0.09041407704353333,
-0.0030567175708711147,
-0.06078258156776428,
-0.2733890116214752,
-0.022862955927848816,
-0.9145810604095459,
-0.30260327458381653,
0.5188249945640564,
-0.11945535987615585,
-0.30491331219673157,
-0.4288666844367981,
-0.5799936056137085,
0.29020363092422485,
-0.01497738342732191,
-0.41661974787712097,
0.11328373104333878,
1.0479450225830078,
-0.35032278299331665,
0.24925602972507477,
0.41509443521499634,
-0.441487193107605,
0.1110774427652359,
-0.4135463833808899,
0.09575887024402618,
0.1970357894897461,
-0.154180109500885,
-0.35274308919906616,
-0.21504470705986023,
-1.1065138578414917,
-0.2449759542942047,
-0.22130407392978668,
-0.46265941858291626,
0.8411999344825745,
0.031419336795806885,
-0.27908509969711304,
0.0035775199066847563,
0.35971522331237793,
0.09087803214788437,
0.40393123030662537,
0.6949547529220581,
0.26374006271362305,
-0.48458796739578247,
-0.48800626397132874,
-0.10522577166557312,
-0.6081384420394897,
-0.11191980540752411,
0.012133358977735043,
-0.25387558341026306,
0.396129846572876,
-0.12490960955619812,
-0.404182106256485,
0.6208212971687317,
-0.003104203613474965,
-0.30067119002342224,
0.0804649293422699,
0.008414573967456818,
0.5828575491905212,
-0.15584717690944672,
-0.17521308362483978,
-0.02719234861433506,
0.036631301045417786,
-0.48841241002082825,
-0.14510619640350342,
0.5223729610443115,
1.5274633169174194,
0.4390549063682556,
0.26350879669189453,
0.33993634581565857,
-0.20461367070674896,
-0.07333572953939438,
0.12921550869941711,
-0.06156156212091446,
0.10102676600217819,
0.8794782161712646,
0.1709163635969162,
-0.35933348536491394,
0.20873188972473145,
0.5872321724891663,
-0.21995818614959717,
-0.18181976675987244,
0.5753685235977173,
-0.09741897135972977,
0.19692689180374146,
0.36077556014060974,
-0.030802903696894646,
0.064607635140419,
-0.12992002069950104,
-0.034042976796627045,
0.14292335510253906,
0.17256824672222137,
0.16569730639457703,
0.6770087480545044,
-0.6139219403266907,
-0.4424174726009369,
0.03100592829287052,
-0.4712236821651459,
0.5701379776000977,
-0.31314796209335327,
0.676279604434967,
0.1395690143108368,
-0.11952663213014603,
0.23270665109157562,
-0.06990808993577957,
-0.7750418186187744,
-0.12185957282781601,
-0.4473685026168823,
-0.2927395701408386,
-0.38014325499534607,
-0.014854846522212029,
0.06621327996253967,
-0.07956022024154663,
-0.09349267184734344,
-0.5341185331344604,
-0.34101906418800354,
0.4506685137748718,
0.43382227420806885,
0.07372284680604935,
0.050987277179956436,
-0.09553433954715729,
-0.008025035262107849,
0.8708798885345459,
-0.06233084201812744,
-0.0735974833369255,
-0.5114430785179138,
0.24035035073757172,
0.20686694979667664,
-0.020035913214087486,
0.2890816628932953,
-0.39153337478637695,
-0.3084268867969513,
-0.06390773504972458,
-0.6255386471748352,
0.19651873409748077,
0.48868367075920105,
-0.1523808091878891,
0.7142114043235779,
0.5720047950744629,
-0.21512743830680847,
0.12289177626371384,
0.7367458939552307,
0.009189169853925705,
-0.43427029252052307,
-0.33057117462158203,
-0.45699945092201233,
0.4689008593559265,
0.654583752155304,
-0.5362399816513062,
0.37030723690986633,
0.6675177216529846,
-0.06803442537784576,
-0.07275192439556122,
-0.4218886196613312,
0.32191595435142517,
0.22965407371520996,
-0.6122257113456726,
-0.18284930288791656,
0.8596198558807373,
0.21113340556621552,
-0.1126013994216919,
0.25616058707237244,
-0.31730663776397705,
-0.11927323788404465,
0.21765770018100739,
0.16990020871162415,
0.07377342879772186,
0.5121527314186096,
0.636324405670166,
0.12978826463222504,
-0.37980151176452637,
-0.14507733285427094,
0.38705819845199585,
-0.3980885446071625,
-0.28085362911224365,
0.5160233974456787,
0.6397809982299805,
0.2395351082086563,
-0.6221278309822083,
0.4963950514793396,
-0.32813966274261475,
0.011729015037417412,
0.28279516100883484,
-0.6586220264434814,
-0.09884782880544662,
-0.642180323600769,
-0.1867378056049347,
1.2763453722000122,
-0.6652781367301941,
-0.3171862065792084,
0.10821902751922607,
0.5903760194778442,
-0.31922081112861633,
-0.4062715172767639,
0.5157866477966309,
0.3474067747592926,
0.07896094769239426,
-0.20525749027729034,
0.8095243573188782,
0.7735510468482971,
0.4084000587463379,
0.78529292345047,
-0.1489444077014923,
0.059999991208314896,
-0.2279062569141388,
-0.10301002115011215,
0.20407700538635254,
-0.15822350978851318,
-0.25493326783180237,
0.16176629066467285,
0.08607157319784164,
-0.05715459957718849,
0.01850239373743534,
0.3097360134124756,
-0.8032619953155518,
0.143977552652359,
-0.7190971374511719,
-0.09335392713546753,
0.07741273194551468,
-0.042460326105356216,
0.34027037024497986,
-0.8895580768585205,
1.4596716165542603,
0.033084649592638016,
0.002890021540224552,
0.3684277832508087,
-0.20113219320774078,
0.27500393986701965,
-0.22067609429359436,
-0.12685450911521912,
0.42311590909957886,
-0.4468047618865967,
0.37605348229408264,
-0.9606431126594543,
0.18238303065299988,
0.04228414595127106,
0.747527539730072,
-0.6118614077568054,
0.1388925164937973,
-0.4756813049316406,
-0.0275975801050663,
0.7547742128372192,
0.0958152562379837,
-0.013702883385121822,
-0.5577173233032227,
0.07178185135126114,
0.4459249973297119,
0.009536814875900745,
-0.23635509610176086,
-0.29416438937187195,
0.28324976563453674,
-0.20013274252414703,
-0.0187241043895483,
0.13913191854953766,
0.3937709629535675,
0.24245880544185638,
0.04595222324132919,
-0.01783524826169014,
0.10020816326141357,
-0.13752242922782898,
-0.328717440366745,
0.2884826958179474,
0.7138564586639404,
0.4350416958332062,
-0.4555140435695648,
0.5348442196846008,
0.009232752025127411,
-0.008295731619000435,
-0.09071096777915955,
0.25890612602233887,
-0.04699643328785896,
0.16145694255828857,
-0.12461893260478973,
0.09706893563270569,
0.8062912821769714,
-0.33464154601097107,
-0.39236071705818176,
-0.3615330457687378,
-0.1544436514377594,
0.22558704018592834,
-0.04296507313847542,
-0.2619875967502594,
-0.5477913618087769,
0.39850375056266785,
-0.22831223905086517
] |
200114
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny%20%28British%20decimal%20coin%29
|
Penny (British decimal coin)
|
The British decimal one penny (1p) coin is a unit of currency equalling one-hundredth of a pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin's introduction on 15 February 1971, the day British currency was decimalised. Four different portraits of the Queen have been used on the obverse; the latest design by Jody Clark was introduced in 2015. The second and current reverse, designed by Matthew Dent, features a segment of the Royal Shield and was introduced in 2008. The penny is the lowest value coin (in real terms) ever to circulate in the United Kingdom.
The penny was originally minted from bronze, but since 1992 has been minted in copper-plated steel due to increasing copper prices.
There are an estimated 10.5 billion 1p coins in circulation as of 2016, with a total face value of around £105,000,000.
1p coins are legal tender only for amounts up to the sum of 20p when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.
Etymology
The word penny is derived from the Old English word penig, which itself comes from the proto-Germanic panninga. The correct plural form for multiple penny coins is pennies (e.g. fifty pennies). The correct term for monetary amounts of pennies greater than one penny is pence (e.g. one pound and twenty pence).
History
Prior to 1971, the United Kingdom had been using the pounds, shillings, and pence currency system. Decimalisation was announced by Chancellor James Callaghan on 1 March 1966; one pound would be subdivided into 100 pence, instead of 240 pence as previously was the case.
This required new coins to be minted, to replace the pre-decimal ones. The original specification for the 1p coin was set out in the Decimal Currency Act 1969, which was replaced by the Currency Act 1971. Both mandated the weight of the coin to be 3.564 grams ±0.0750g, and 2.032 cm ±0.125 mm in diameter. Subsequently, the Currency Act 1983 allows for the standards of the 1p coin to be changed by royal proclamation.
The new 1p coins began production in December 1968 in the newly built Royal Mint facility in Llantrisant, South Wales. 1,521,666,250 1p coins were minted between 1968 and the end of 1971. On 15 February 1971, the United Kingdom officially switched to a decimal currency and the new coins entered circulation. The coins continue to be minted at this facility today.
Metallic composition
The coin was originally minted in bronze (composition 97% copper, 2.5% zinc, 0.5% tin) between 1971 and September 1992. However, increasing world metal prices necessitated a change of composition. Since 1992, the coins are minted in steel and electroplated in copper, making them magnetic. Rising world prices for copper had caused the metal value of the pre-1992 copper 1p coin to exceed 1p (for example, in May 2006, the intrinsic metal value of a pre-1992 1p coin was about 1.5 pence). Melting coins is illegal in the United Kingdom and is punishable by a fine, or up to two years imprisonment.
Obverse designs
To date, four different obverses have been used, all of which feature a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II. The outer inscription on the coin is , where 2013 is replaced by the year of minting. In the original design both sides of the coin are encircled by dots, a common feature on coins, known as beading.
Anticipation of a switch to a decimalised currency led to the commissioning of a new Royal Portrait by artist Arnold Machin, which was approved by the Queen in 1964. This featured the Queen wearing the 'Girls of Great Britain and Ireland' Tiara and was used until 1984. A modified form of this portrait has appeared on British Postage stamps since 1967.
Between 1985 and 1997 a portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used. The portrait is couped, and depicts the Queen wearing the George IV State Diadem. Unlike previous portraits, the Queen is wearing jewellery, earrings and a necklace. The initials of Maklouf are shown below the neck of the Queen. His middle name, David, is included so that the mark is not confused with the initials of the Royal Mint.
In 1997, a competition to design the obverse of the 1997 Golden Wedding crown – a coin issued to celebrate the Queen's and Prince Philip's 50th wedding anniversary – was held. The standard of entry was so high that following this competition, the Royal Mint held another to design the new portrait. Ian Rank-Broadley won this competition, and his design was used between 1998 and 2015. His design again featured the tiara, with a signature-mark below the portrait. The depiction of the Queen was seen as more realistic, with Rank Broadley himself saying "There is no need to flatter her. She is a 70-year-old woman with poise and bearing".In 2014, the Royal Mint again held a competition to design a new portrait. Designer Jody Clark won this competition, with a portrait of the Queen wearing the George IV State Diadem and the initials feature under the neck of the Queen. The portrait was sketched without an official sitting, only using reference material for inspiration.
Reverse designs
Despite no official government confirmation of a switch to decimalised currency, the Royal Mint began the design process for decimal coins in 1962. They invited the Royal Academy, the Royal Institute of British Architects, the Faculty of the Royal Designers for Industry and the Royal College of Art to nominate artists to design the hypothetical new coins. British sculptor Christopher Ironside won this competition, and his design was chosen to feature on the potential decimalised currency. His design for the 1p coin featured a Scottish theme, with a coin depicting a thistle above a Scottish flag inside a shield and a Scottish lion inside a shield. However, Chancellor James Callaghan's announcement that the United Kingdom would decimalise its currency included an open competition to find the new designs. Over 80 artists and 900 different designs were submitted. Ironside entered this competition with a further, different style of designs and won.
The reverse of the coin, which was minted from 1971 to 2008, featured a crowned portcullis with chains (an adaptation of the Badge of Henry VII which is now the Badge of the Palace of Westminster), with the numeral "1" written below the portcullis, and either (1971–1981) or (1982–2008) above the portcullis.
In August 2005 the Royal Mint launched a competition to find new reverse designs for all circulating coins apart from the £2 coin. The winner, announced in April 2008, was Matthew Dent, whose designs were gradually introduced into circulating British coinage from mid-2008. The designs for the 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p and 50p coins depict sections of the Royal Shield that form much of the whole shield when placed together. The entire shield was featured on the now-obsolete round £1 coin. The 1p coin depicts the left section between the first and third quarter of the shield, representing England and Northern Ireland.
The coin's obverse remains largely unchanged, but the beading (the ring of dots around the coin's circumference), which no longer features on the coin's reverse, has also been removed from the obverse.
Status
Legal tender
1p coins are legal tender for amounts up to and including 20 pence. However, in the UK, "legal tender" has a very specific and narrow meaning which relates only to the repayment of debt to a creditor, not to everyday shopping or other transactions. Specifically, coins of particular denominations are said to be "legal tender" when a creditor must by law accept them in redemption of a debt. The term does not mean – as is often thought – that a shopkeeper has to accept a particular type of currency in payment. A shopkeeper is under no obligation to accept any specific type of payment, whether legal tender or not; conversely, they have the discretion to accept any payment type they wish.
Speculation on withdrawal
The proposed withdrawal of the 1p coins has been subject of media speculation, such as in 2015 when the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, proposed the withdrawal of the 1p coin. This was vetoed by Prime Minister David Cameron, because of the potential unpopularity with the public.
In March 2018, the Government launched a consultation on the future of payments in the British economy. One question focused on the denominational mix of coins, including 'dormant' denominations. This prompted speculation that the 1p and 2p coins could be withdrawn from circulation. Analysis from staff at the Bank of England concluded that fears about the withdrawal were 'unfounded' and that there would be no significant impact on prices if copper coins were scrapped, noting the sharp decline in usage of copper coins. It is estimated that 60% of copper coins are only spent once, before being removed from the cash cycle, as they are saved or binned. Approximately 8% of 1p coins are estimated to be thrown away entirely, requiring the annual minting of new 1p and 2p coins with a face value of £500m to replace coins falling out of circulation. Further, potential inflationary effects from the rounding of prices caused by scrapping the 1p would likely be minimal, given only 3% of payments by value are made in cash and card payments would continue to be made unrounded.
There was concern raised by some charities and businesses over the scrapping of 1p coins. Charities feared that the number of donations made in collection pots would fall and some business models could be severely impacted, for example traditional seaside arcades. However, in May 2019 Chancellor Phillip Hammond announced the outcome of a 2018 consultation, suggesting there were no plans to scrap copper coins and that he wanted the public to "have choice over how they spend their money". No 1p coins were minted in 2018, as the Treasury said that there were already enough in circulation.
Value
The penny has the lowest value in real terms of any coin in the history of the United Kingdom, since at least 1707. All previous low-value coins were withdrawn before their purchasing power fell below that of the penny. The purchasing power of previous lowest-value coins is:
Mintages
Machin portrait
Maklouf portrait
The composition was changed to copper-plated steel for the 1992 issue.
Rank-Broadley portrait
Clark portrait
Data taken from the Royal Mint mintage statistics. The latest estimate from the Royal Mint of the total number of 1p coins in circulation was in March 2016 and there were an estimated 10.5 billion 1p coins in circulation, with a total face value of around £105,000,000.
See also
History of the British penny (1714–1901)
History of the British penny (1901–1970)
References
External links
Royal Mint - 1p coin
Coins from United Kingdom / Coin Type: One Penny - Online Coin Club
Coins of the United Kingdom
Pennies
Currencies introduced in 1971
Decimalisation
|
[
-0.08669508993625641,
0.1379564106464386,
0.28222936391830444,
-0.05407308042049408,
-0.5086880326271057,
0.5314909219741821,
-0.21609541773796082,
0.31942296028137207,
-0.5049722194671631,
0.3379053771495819,
-0.260490357875824,
-0.3680665194988251,
0.16962409019470215,
0.31370481848716736,
0.05179692432284355,
0.37756863236427307,
0.25767412781715393,
0.4065144956111908,
-0.2026437222957611,
-0.20802278816699982,
-0.1485069990158081,
0.27836644649505615,
-0.015352757647633553,
-0.6864069104194641,
-0.11970329284667969,
0.3615548014640808,
0.723112940788269,
-0.4087267518043518,
-0.35747426748275757,
-0.17375564575195312,
0.016888875514268875,
0.6418601870536804,
0.14692893624305725,
0.4516262412071228,
0.38569319248199463,
-0.4530896842479706,
-0.07321314513683319,
-0.17750756442546844,
-0.17105534672737122,
-0.8773338794708252,
0.25462085008621216,
-0.5025319457054138,
0.3672788143157959,
0.051244884729385376,
-0.6257029175758362,
-0.525354266166687,
-1.1820006370544434,
-0.3364841043949127,
-0.901780903339386,
0.1447215974330902,
-0.5179116129875183,
0.7956075668334961,
-0.15661188960075378,
0.21663914620876312,
0.654016375541687,
0.8338625431060791,
-0.7795653939247131,
-0.19810615479946136,
0.13875269889831543,
0.009066076017916203,
0.43822720646858215,
0.3059134781360626,
-0.2565854787826538,
0.19507311284542084,
0.5618810057640076,
-0.2037302553653717,
0.36346083879470825,
0.7574470043182373,
-0.26050320267677307,
-0.33978763222694397,
-0.41749778389930725,
-0.6723992228507996,
-0.19265170395374298,
0.38769492506980896,
-0.21572837233543396,
-0.06564508378505707,
-0.07718219608068466,
-0.2459593564271927,
0.14594803750514984,
0.2224569022655487,
0.07537519931793213,
0.08818017691373825,
0.8016260862350464,
0.10868152976036072,
0.3226367235183716,
0.40279051661491394,
-0.28658995032310486,
0.03917025774717331,
0.2784613370895386,
1.559666395187378,
0.02847137860953808,
-0.39073967933654785,
0.6209069490432739,
0.0012612666469067335,
-0.5266485214233398,
-0.16816683113574982,
-0.42344585061073303,
0.034643009305000305,
0.4705730378627777,
-0.2597615420818329,
0.3174176514148712,
-0.07666345685720444,
0.4785332977771759,
-0.06974093616008759,
-0.27603721618652344,
-0.17100076377391815,
-0.3358427882194519,
-0.46884509921073914,
0.36477339267730713,
-0.4126721918582916,
-0.02634589932858944,
-0.32685521245002747,
0.13839024305343628,
1.0104480981826782,
-0.10709415376186371,
-0.1518612802028656,
0.4076255261898041,
0.16566753387451172,
-0.34217989444732666,
0.1622052639722824,
0.3874613046646118,
0.39108312129974365,
0.12201981246471405,
-0.1467200070619583,
0.6784632205963135,
0.1548447161912918,
0.3966465890407562,
0.9594323039054871,
-0.20335106551647186,
0.2920249402523041,
0.4332861602306366,
0.770497739315033,
-0.41008028388023376,
-0.41538113355636597,
-0.5741664171218872,
-0.3632100820541382,
0.04917314276099205,
0.07003085315227509,
-0.06272367388010025,
0.5346418023109436,
-0.240467831492424,
0.5515284538269043,
-0.1475011110305786,
-0.5614384412765503,
0.15281857550144196,
-0.15438665449619293,
-0.09478496015071869,
-0.17418330907821655,
-0.38583165407180786,
0.027680307626724243,
0.303157240152359,
-0.25197792053222656,
0.4870500862598419,
-0.054514385759830475,
-0.35311275720596313,
-0.6621145009994507,
-0.09329183399677277,
0.3130277693271637,
-0.014790317043662071,
0.29273051023483276,
-0.5297426581382751,
0.15079113841056824,
-0.04541122168302536,
-0.21475568413734436,
0.06025386229157448,
0.13492035865783691,
0.47465118765830994,
-0.048528969287872314,
-0.17326869070529938,
0.11548730731010437,
-0.23453369736671448,
-0.2881637513637543,
0.4498402178287506,
0.7018336653709412,
-0.4404747486114502,
-0.37411195039749146,
0.2661237120628357,
0.6559029817581177,
0.9285929203033447,
-0.18998289108276367,
-0.3756762444972992,
0.1531078815460205,
0.32459425926208496,
0.28807201981544495,
0.3119864761829376,
0.23184774816036224,
0.21009786427021027,
-0.05773809179663658,
-0.23614610731601715,
-0.10990555584430695,
-0.665584146976471,
-0.17875702679157257,
-0.2303166687488556,
-0.7282580733299255,
0.7696104049682617,
-0.3888101875782013,
-0.30686336755752563,
0.2638111412525177,
-0.08819792419672012,
0.6838136315345764,
-0.3485223650932312,
-0.02307639643549919,
0.27656763792037964,
-0.05833980441093445,
-0.4405585527420044,
0.30617472529411316,
0.005415508523583412,
0.2393508106470108,
0.22722919285297394,
0.061129797250032425,
0.3273269534111023,
-0.5983455777168274,
0.42803311347961426,
-0.13527271151542664,
-0.5065216422080994,
0.4582322835922241,
0.13224677741527557,
0.10774164646863937,
0.24272982776165009,
-0.20044764876365662,
0.1776951551437378,
0.22311259806156158,
0.43442296981811523,
0.043472085148096085,
0.004012404941022396,
0.10413166880607605,
-0.1581364870071411,
0.0317944772541523,
0.37345966696739197,
-0.6062279939651489,
0.03398354724049568,
-0.26329103112220764,
0.21540045738220215,
-0.1932487040758133,
-0.27029767632484436,
-0.19420002400875092,
-0.577385425567627,
-0.46710383892059326,
0.4067049026489258,
0.10253578424453735,
0.16361384093761444,
0.2875838279724121,
-0.17976005375385284,
-0.018261106684803963,
0.13771367073059082,
0.6488754153251648,
-0.09469273686408997,
0.4077180027961731,
0.011881163343787193,
-0.6485720872879028,
0.5643798112869263,
0.10911299288272858,
-0.06605198234319687,
0.1304863840341568,
-0.1166405901312828,
-0.4759642779827118,
-0.10940693318843842,
0.2718917727470398,
0.588430643081665,
0.5690125823020935,
-0.336739182472229,
0.08669279515743256,
0.5855014324188232,
0.24998727440834045,
-0.4010174870491028,
-0.35916054248809814,
-1.0710936784744263,
0.07522624731063843,
-0.3561619222164154,
0.04601450264453888,
0.5546034574508667,
0.5777269005775452,
-0.3933604657649994,
0.1462509036064148,
0.5697048902511597,
-0.30328431725502014,
0.5068522095680237,
0.21429868042469025,
-0.5737417340278625,
-0.625903308391571,
0.49789464473724365,
0.055432651191949844,
0.08591616153717041,
-0.577861487865448,
0.011888877488672733,
-0.3615078628063202,
0.055780358612537384,
-0.3542242646217346,
0.10093741118907928,
-0.5116273164749146,
-0.1152588427066803,
0.6547924876213074,
-0.27629682421684265,
-0.010206744074821472,
0.2245616316795349,
0.044733062386512756,
-0.21092462539672852,
-0.016710346564650536,
0.6540469527244568,
-0.28357720375061035,
-0.20030555129051208,
0.6708323359489441,
0.14609190821647644,
-0.2729684114456177,
0.3820062577724457,
-0.790473461151123,
-0.17662939429283142,
-0.5627483129501343,
-5.559895992279053,
0.19637729227542877,
-0.7872609496116638,
-0.17833814024925232,
-0.2123003900051117,
0.27918776869773865,
0.6627095937728882,
0.27403441071510315,
-0.5831354856491089,
0.030419597402215004,
-0.006676153279840946,
-0.11395208537578583,
0.11565794050693512,
-0.1141241192817688,
1.0733842849731445,
0.6380146741867065,
1.1491594314575195,
0.3105553388595581,
0.31506356596946716,
0.0643564984202385,
0.013578870333731174,
-0.30945509672164917,
0.16647017002105713,
0.5888677835464478,
0.05596594139933586,
0.36840254068374634,
0.12399432808160782,
0.35679879784584045,
-0.45086899399757385,
0.39596027135849,
0.30523160099983215,
-0.09286615252494812,
0.1090615764260292,
-0.8631184101104736,
0.5766449570655823,
-0.030412131920456886,
0.5093788504600525,
0.08363339304924011,
-0.18810692429542542,
-0.39111948013305664,
0.06912120431661606,
0.6645328402519226,
0.7583138346672058,
-0.2523016631603241,
0.40380430221557617,
0.006435038987547159,
-0.10920187830924988,
-0.37386342883110046,
-0.7988601326942444,
0.07493078708648682,
-0.32647788524627686,
0.3894590139389038,
-0.08808931708335876,
-0.7438883781433105,
-0.124356709420681,
0.4786292612552643,
-0.19441255927085876,
0.5694054365158081,
-0.6644174456596375,
0.003914703149348497,
0.23821882903575897,
-0.1309727281332016,
-0.11683911085128784,
0.12942422926425934,
-0.07864341884851456,
-0.8084208369255066,
-1.372484564781189,
-0.13931263983249664,
0.5968158841133118,
0.5390123128890991,
-0.8447263836860657,
-0.13507945835590363,
0.08685910701751709,
-0.5140105485916138,
0.17897266149520874,
-0.48098665475845337,
0.6949840188026428,
0.9560814499855042,
-0.15064910054206848,
0.5634774565696716,
-0.1851559430360794,
-0.5964720249176025,
-0.2572704255580902,
0.8180391192436218,
-0.09039228409528732,
-0.6475707292556763,
-0.7850341200828552,
0.07468782365322113,
-0.03572004288434982,
-0.011341847479343414,
0.33019691705703735,
0.0927068293094635,
0.05106401816010475,
-0.13338550925254822,
0.017539821565151215,
-0.5477559566497803,
0.2647112011909485,
-0.1493828147649765,
-0.03601587191224098,
-0.6266254782676697,
0.5602388381958008,
-0.42884063720703125,
0.4538499712944031,
-1.3557813167572021,
-0.5964922904968262,
-0.14247280359268188,
-0.5018718838691711,
0.002798748202621937,
0.14533370733261108,
-0.31001096963882446,
0.03989284858107567,
0.03335046395659447,
-0.23847460746765137,
0.14337126910686493,
0.09702937304973602,
0.051383111625909805,
-0.5208929777145386,
0.030332257971167564,
0.0506075918674469,
-0.25667914748191833,
0.036784250289201736,
0.009619452990591526,
-0.25716474652290344,
-0.8850191235542297,
-0.4110609292984009,
-0.08896566182374954,
0.03526419773697853,
-0.18357686698436737,
-0.0667729452252388,
0.10929123312234879,
0.49513405561447144,
0.3975435197353363,
-0.6798650622367859,
-0.03013259917497635,
-0.11958286911249161,
0.10171782225370407,
-0.08544862270355225,
0.458386093378067,
0.03720677271485329,
-0.04269848391413689,
0.6144904494285583,
-0.502113938331604,
0.45897015929222107,
0.10245157778263092,
0.7096229195594788,
0.10834396630525589,
0.15004320442676544,
-0.3095283508300781,
-0.2171572744846344,
0.631618320941925,
0.4734928011894226,
-0.2334408462047577,
0.24693244695663452,
-0.36051714420318604,
0.12227391451597214,
0.1344514787197113,
0.13490864634513855,
0.43360403180122375,
-0.20961730182170868,
-0.3926147222518921,
0.04285936802625656,
0.24067097902297974,
-0.7341589331626892,
0.035554297268390656,
0.7897451519966125,
-0.2910652160644531,
-0.5265952348709106,
0.09657119959592819,
0.47586655616760254,
0.9315252304077148,
0.5903574824333191,
-0.9032660126686096,
-0.5352500081062317,
-0.04263277351856232,
0.3402343988418579,
0.40014851093292236,
-0.03264674171805382,
-0.4527236521244049,
-0.0905742347240448,
-0.1422038972377777,
0.08302955329418182,
-0.45249858498573303,
-0.26260367035865784,
0.29128167033195496,
-0.15845824778079987,
-0.2643774151802063,
-0.44815924763679504,
0.6044958233833313,
-0.33753329515457153,
-0.3910452425479889,
0.11929070949554443,
-0.22690320014953613,
0.8896142244338989,
0.2540545165538788,
-1.0258978605270386,
-0.2228148877620697,
-0.20135615766048431,
0.7484298944473267,
-0.43500518798828125,
-0.40359121561050415,
-0.12038693577051163,
0.26670676469802856,
-0.3716520071029663,
-0.03204901143908501,
0.2538093030452728,
-0.3271755874156952,
0.2547832131385803,
0.1184755265712738,
-0.9052836894989014,
0.4863373637199402,
-0.47663408517837524,
-0.646658182144165,
-0.1513914167881012,
0.44997283816337585,
-0.3501739799976349,
-0.056224990636110306,
0.14197894930839539,
-0.16158677637577057,
0.16609744727611542,
-0.6614342331886292,
-0.636957585811615,
0.5198318362236023,
-0.5989457368850708,
-0.02394053339958191,
0.07125319540500641,
0.16931815445423126,
0.9020209908485413,
-0.322342187166214,
0.17375801503658295,
-0.40412071347236633,
-0.4158485531806946,
-0.3294166922569275,
0.23955540359020233,
0.2963685393333435,
0.5564995408058167,
1.0039974451065063,
-0.4462330639362335,
-0.026408690959215164,
0.2838720381259918,
0.3680579960346222,
0.015463616698980331,
0.4600728452205658,
0.41593047976493835,
-0.6970013976097107,
-0.6573532223701477,
0.29452353715896606,
0.8335630297660828,
-1.007524013519287,
-0.6992131471633911,
1.0767748355865479,
-0.26388755440711975,
-0.6512681245803833,
-0.4629383087158203,
-0.21337538957595825,
0.3631536066532135,
-0.4789011478424072,
0.30945461988449097,
-0.26687926054000854,
0.2515644133090973,
0.12758514285087585,
0.45100489258766174,
0.018862927332520485,
-0.8548827767372131,
-0.10161444544792175,
0.51907879114151,
0.4557935893535614,
-0.11023634672164917,
-0.2831125259399414,
0.41964206099510193,
-0.3206162452697754,
0.292003870010376,
0.05793444812297821,
-0.15411637723445892,
0.48014476895332336,
0.5542943477630615,
-0.19006909430027008,
-0.0756354108452797,
-0.44173136353492737,
-0.029683660715818405,
-0.26496386528015137,
-0.21596093475818634,
-0.03747875615954399,
0.8936758637428284,
0.01811045967042446,
0.06788036227226257,
-0.3500949740409851,
-0.3408235013484955,
-0.4276786148548126,
-0.3815404176712036,
0.08939064294099808,
0.12231636047363281,
-0.12078512459993362,
-0.5112919211387634,
-0.29786503314971924,
-0.5247488617897034,
0.338932067155838,
-0.12334286421537399,
0.11418072134256363,
-0.1177547350525856,
0.05924785137176514,
-0.011678165756165981,
1.055716872215271,
-0.14290201663970947,
-0.550567626953125,
-0.39075902104377747,
0.06291849166154861,
-0.19438064098358154,
-0.03617687150835991,
0.12560923397541046,
-0.6429775357246399,
0.24481834471225739,
-0.17876999080181122,
0.14506591856479645,
0.4679785668849945,
-0.06581904739141464,
-0.8153534531593323,
1.0077474117279053,
-0.16939783096313477,
-0.3770047724246979,
0.8551880121231079,
-0.01924344152212143,
0.23182007670402527,
0.9494232535362244,
-0.1934904307126999,
-0.8017593622207642,
0.1382955014705658,
-0.44999557733535767,
-0.5465793609619141,
0.20522545278072357,
0.2946423292160034,
0.39094486832618713,
0.2916959524154663,
-0.5308563113212585,
0.13730818033218384,
0.04823284596204758,
-0.40524429082870483,
-0.3824571967124939,
-0.23384910821914673,
-0.17895856499671936,
1.1382793188095093,
0.47402000427246094,
0.40886762738227844,
-0.11129963397979736,
-0.009648882783949375,
-0.12035492062568665,
0.25392475724220276,
-0.10694780200719833,
-0.5612422227859497,
0.7064035534858704,
0.2723829448223114,
0.7774684429168701,
0.1790975034236908,
0.3055868148803711,
-0.5356616973876953,
0.09269513189792633,
-0.44519755244255066,
0.020093878731131554,
-0.3509889543056488,
-0.0023802497889846563,
0.07472740858793259,
-0.16911447048187256,
0.0014014039188623428,
0.42051056027412415,
-0.2413339465856552,
-0.39127087593078613,
-0.07645014673471451,
0.31629738211631775,
-0.19607079029083252,
-0.2858112156391144,
0.5601285696029663,
0.5083246827125549,
0.4189367890357971,
-0.08139090985059738,
0.5755873918533325,
0.1253892481327057,
-0.2902849316596985,
0.6268097162246704,
0.5876172184944153,
0.25053849816322327,
-0.16608275473117828,
-0.22600829601287842,
-0.266100138425827,
-0.46701857447624207,
-0.8058799505233765,
-0.05818746238946915,
-0.24254991114139557,
0.28662896156311035,
-0.13986484706401825,
-0.7444449067115784,
-0.09419015794992447,
0.2269057184457779,
-0.7760065197944641,
-0.35965943336486816,
-0.4173876941204071,
-1.0412214994430542,
-1.2297377586364746,
-0.154642254114151,
0.5525946617126465,
0.10916280001401901,
0.23749877512454987,
-0.037269603461027145,
0.3154362440109253,
-0.1855965554714203,
0.35556384921073914,
-0.17436791956424713,
0.5303032398223877,
-0.14654934406280518,
0.42014655470848083,
-0.5746703147888184,
0.25797131657600403,
0.9452903270721436,
-0.7393681406974792,
0.1687181144952774,
0.3473338782787323,
-0.648536205291748,
-0.3137376308441162,
0.4524184763431549,
-0.2499239295721054,
-0.4355815351009369,
-0.718677282333374,
0.05517030879855156,
-0.19483782351016998,
0.017204714938998222,
0.23177239298820496,
0.024891668930649757,
0.02059173211455345,
0.6479090452194214,
0.15953481197357178,
-0.1928178369998932,
0.5908039212226868,
-1.22872793674469,
0.3628820776939392,
-0.5088774561882019,
0.14417757093906403,
-0.2145436704158783,
0.1430824100971222,
0.1693067103624344,
0.43606844544410706,
-0.6908313632011414,
-0.011133963242173195,
0.07234414666891098,
-0.27685362100601196,
0.03257836773991585,
-0.14892414212226868,
0.09738153964281082,
0.43751779198646545,
-0.2859657406806946,
-0.2714448869228363,
-0.9312604069709778,
0.5020105838775635,
0.2754347324371338,
0.1714049130678177,
0.2202502191066742,
-0.09055817872285843,
0.5996048450469971,
-0.08877520263195038,
0.015935782343149185,
-0.3825291693210602,
-0.003974496386945248,
0.5088049173355103
] |
200115
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajectory
|
Trajectory
|
A trajectory or flight path is the path that an object with mass in motion follows through space as a function of time. In classical mechanics, a trajectory is defined by Hamiltonian mechanics via canonical coordinates; hence, a complete trajectory is defined by position and momentum, simultaneously.
The mass might be a projectile or a satellite. For example, it can be an orbit — the path of a planet, asteroid, or comet as it travels around a central mass.
In control theory, a trajectory is a time-ordered set of states of a dynamical system (see e.g. Poincaré map). In discrete mathematics, a trajectory is a sequence of values calculated by the iterated application of a mapping to an element of its source.
Physics of trajectories
A familiar example of a trajectory is the path of a projectile, such as a thrown ball or rock. In a significantly simplified model, the object moves only under the influence of a uniform gravitational force field. This can be a good approximation for a rock that is thrown for short distances, for example at the surface of the moon. In this simple approximation, the trajectory takes the shape of a parabola. Generally when determining trajectories, it may be necessary to account for nonuniform gravitational forces and air resistance (drag and aerodynamics). This is the focus of the discipline of ballistics.
One of the remarkable achievements of Newtonian mechanics was the derivation of the laws of Kepler. In the gravitational field of a point mass or a spherically-symmetrical extended mass (such as the Sun), the trajectory of a moving object is a conic section, usually an ellipse or a hyperbola. This agrees with the observed orbits of planets, comets, and artificial spacecraft to a reasonably good approximation, although if a comet passes close to the Sun, then it is also influenced by other forces such as the solar wind and radiation pressure, which modify the orbit and cause the comet to eject material into space.
Newton's theory later developed into the branch of theoretical physics known as classical mechanics. It employs the mathematics of differential calculus (which was also initiated by Newton in his youth). Over the centuries, countless scientists have contributed to the development of these two disciplines. Classical mechanics became a most prominent demonstration of the power of rational thought, i.e. reason, in science as well as technology. It helps to understand and predict an enormous range of phenomena; trajectories are but one example.
Consider a particle of mass , moving in a potential field . Physically speaking, mass represents inertia, and the field represents external forces of a particular kind known as "conservative". Given at every relevant position, there is a way to infer the associated force that would act at that position, say from gravity. Not all forces can be expressed in this way, however.
The motion of the particle is described by the second-order differential equation
On the right-hand side, the force is given in terms of , the gradient of the potential, taken at positions along the trajectory. This is the mathematical form of Newton's second law of motion: force equals mass times acceleration, for such situations.
Examples
Uniform gravity, neither drag nor wind
The ideal case of motion of a projectile in a uniform gravitational field in the absence of other forces (such as air drag) was first investigated by Galileo Galilei. To neglect the action of the atmosphere in shaping a trajectory would have been considered a futile hypothesis by practical-minded investigators all through the Middle Ages in Europe. Nevertheless, by anticipating the existence of the vacuum, later to be demonstrated on Earth by his collaborator Evangelista Torricelli, Galileo was able to initiate the future science of mechanics. In a near vacuum, as it turns out for instance on the Moon, his simplified parabolic trajectory proves essentially correct.
In the analysis that follows, we derive the equation of motion of a projectile as measured from an inertial frame at rest with respect to the ground. Associated with the frame is a right-hand coordinate system with its origin at the point of launch of the projectile. The -axis is tangent to the ground, and the axis is perpendicular to it ( parallel to the gravitational field lines ). Let be the acceleration of gravity. Relative to the flat terrain, let the initial horizontal speed be and the initial vertical speed be . It will also be shown that the range is , and the maximum altitude is . The maximum range for a given initial speed is obtained when , i.e. the initial angle is 45. This range is , and the maximum altitude at the maximum range is .
Derivation of the equation of motion
Assume the motion of the projectile is being measured from a free fall frame which happens to be at (x,y) = (0,0) at t = 0. The equation of motion of the projectile in this frame (by the equivalence principle) would be . The co-ordinates of this free-fall frame, with respect to our inertial frame would be . That is, .
Now translating back to the inertial frame the co-ordinates of the projectile becomes That is:
(where v0 is the initial velocity, is the angle of elevation, and g is the acceleration due to gravity).
Range and height
The range, R, is the greatest distance the object travels along the x-axis in the I sector. The initial velocity, vi, is the speed at which said object is launched from the point of origin. The initial angle, θi, is the angle at which said object is released. The g is the respective gravitational pull on the object within a null-medium.
The height, h, is the greatest parabolic height said object reaches within its trajectory
Angle of elevation
In terms of angle of elevation and initial speed :
giving the range as
This equation can be rearranged to find the angle for a required range
(Equation II: angle of projectile launch)
Note that the sine function is such that there are two solutions for for a given range . The angle giving the maximum range can be found by considering the derivative or with respect to and setting it to zero.
which has a nontrivial solution at , or . The maximum range is then . At this angle , so the maximum height obtained is .
To find the angle giving the maximum height for a given speed calculate the derivative of the maximum height with respect to , that is
which is zero when . So the maximum height is obtained when the projectile is fired straight up.
Orbiting objects
If instead of a uniform downwards gravitational force we consider two bodies orbiting with the mutual gravitation between them, we obtain Kepler's laws of planetary motion. The derivation of these was one of the major works of Isaac Newton and provided much of the motivation for the development of differential calculus.
Catching balls
If a projectile, such as a baseball or cricket ball, travels in a parabolic path, with negligible air resistance, and if a player is positioned so as to catch it as it descends, he sees its angle of elevation increasing continuously throughout its flight. The tangent of the angle of elevation is proportional to the time since the ball was sent into the air, usually by being struck with a bat. Even when the ball is really descending, near the end of its flight, its angle of elevation seen by the player continues to increase. The player therefore sees it as if it were ascending vertically at constant speed. Finding the place from which the ball appears to rise steadily helps the player to position himself correctly to make the catch. If he is too close to the batsman who has hit the ball, it will appear to rise at an accelerating rate. If he is too far from the batsman, it will appear to slow rapidly, and then to descend.
Notes
See also
Aft-crossing trajectory
Displacement (geometry)
Galilean invariance
Orbit (dynamics)
Orbit (group theory)
Orbital trajectory
Planetary orbit
Porkchop plot
Projectile motion
Range of a projectile
Rigid body
World line
References
External links
Projectile Motion Flash Applet :)
Trajectory calculator
An interactive simulation on projectile motion
Projectile Lab, JavaScript trajectory simulator
Parabolic Projectile Motion: Shooting a Harmless Tranquilizer Dart at a Falling Monkey by Roberto Castilla-Meléndez, Roxana Ramírez-Herrera, and José Luis Gómez-Muñoz, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Trajectory, ScienceWorld.
Java projectile-motion simulation, with first-order air resistance.
Java projectile-motion simulation; targeting solutions, parabola of safety.
Ballistics
Mechanics
|
[
0.09224606305360794,
0.02151825651526451,
-0.05134763941168785,
0.5128137469291687,
0.021784139797091484,
0.35148829221725464,
-0.1018608957529068,
0.3285951316356659,
-0.4692920446395874,
-0.8298391103744507,
-0.4108113944530487,
0.2999621331691742,
-0.06707803905010223,
0.31401875615119934,
0.170746847987175,
-0.08566846698522568,
0.24820362031459808,
-0.04778039827942848,
-0.3018539547920227,
-0.12070188671350479,
-0.4291638433933258,
0.24271860718727112,
0.4235295355319977,
-0.42786937952041626,
0.09393082559108734,
-0.587800145149231,
-0.20993849635124207,
0.37469035387039185,
0.06381791830062866,
0.13945341110229492,
-0.4163561761379242,
0.4097401201725006,
-0.1214989721775055,
-0.11059766262769699,
0.07170433551073074,
-0.44582420587539673,
0.20452144742012024,
0.1417931467294693,
-0.6033739447593689,
-0.6696972846984863,
-0.003980310633778572,
0.12252967059612274,
-0.11281634122133255,
0.2661731541156769,
-0.16218459606170654,
-0.5130918025970459,
-1.1617313623428345,
0.02299216017127037,
-0.3746638894081116,
-0.20431655645370483,
0.36267438530921936,
0.4205724895000458,
-0.08401879668235779,
0.7862907648086548,
-0.0673779547214508,
0.15847709774971008,
-0.36460110545158386,
-0.3236826956272125,
0.05730457976460457,
-0.2105312943458557,
0.4973127543926239,
0.3326786756515503,
0.040129225701093674,
0.7916284203529358,
0.03691217675805092,
0.09113351255655289,
0.3226563036441803,
-0.08534213155508041,
-0.1219882145524025,
-0.7916551828384399,
-0.15838682651519775,
-0.2495194971561432,
0.1451641470193863,
0.6948769688606262,
-0.7615693211555481,
-0.6512749791145325,
0.3795939087867737,
-0.08993813395500183,
-0.12095712870359421,
-0.09171516448259354,
0.13831940293312073,
0.7896859049797058,
-0.14729319512844086,
0.2153266817331314,
0.014557146467268467,
0.2636091709136963,
-0.7004560232162476,
0.1544022560119629,
-0.3531034290790558,
0.9133955240249634,
0.46071773767471313,
-0.133855402469635,
0.06570911407470703,
0.01656300760805607,
0.4330032765865326,
-0.4232390522956848,
0.3605823814868927,
-0.2916433811187744,
0.25935888290405273,
-0.07529149949550629,
-0.4404357671737671,
-0.24917572736740112,
0.23993344604969025,
-0.15019004046916962,
0.5275132060050964,
-0.09511613100767136,
0.2708102762699127,
-0.2571728527545929,
0.20204298198223114,
0.1712011992931366,
-0.6448054313659668,
0.18301448225975037,
-0.5618937611579895,
0.15710724890232086,
-0.5629662871360779,
0.25384417176246643,
-0.2426779866218567,
-0.06986866891384125,
0.2571389675140381,
-0.30585038661956787,
-0.30123841762542725,
0.5970147848129272,
0.4704081118106842,
-0.42867863178253174,
0.3062647879123688,
0.4087959825992584,
0.6662799715995789,
0.33391326665878296,
-0.7285075783729553,
-0.12914015352725983,
0.004163197707384825,
0.4044414162635803,
-0.20456786453723907,
0.5460896492004395,
-0.127966046333313,
-0.055294521152973175,
0.3585766851902008,
0.10736704617738724,
-0.046098943799734116,
0.15254990756511688,
-0.8617998361587524,
-0.5760340690612793,
-0.4624474048614502,
-0.22787180542945862,
0.5792950391769409,
-0.14225497841835022,
0.15985335409641266,
-1.0786067247390747,
-0.7661741375923157,
-0.012931505218148232,
-0.26552340388298035,
0.1942741423845291,
0.01536438800394535,
-0.10882456600666046,
-0.3718337118625641,
-0.05121641978621483,
0.36277711391448975,
0.7717881798744202,
-0.9093776941299438,
0.008206871338188648,
0.2805538773536682,
0.3531716763973236,
-0.1293753832578659,
-0.48970848321914673,
0.13205470144748688,
-0.29961642622947693,
0.5763313174247742,
0.28053414821624756,
0.08263145387172699,
-0.19657714664936066,
-0.5825982093811035,
-0.23603513836860657,
0.4147382378578186,
0.16876402497291565,
-0.29552701115608215,
0.015940841287374496,
0.6119570732116699,
-0.13841193914413452,
0.6840860247612,
-0.0726553276181221,
-0.3684791922569275,
0.2011401653289795,
0.34912967681884766,
-0.1353396475315094,
0.09516245126724243,
-0.6870177388191223,
0.4451650381088257,
-0.03468933701515198,
-0.19896025955677032,
0.23291805386543274,
-0.42886385321617126,
-0.2808762490749359,
-0.20437291264533997,
-0.9885815978050232,
0.9928997755050659,
-0.311076283454895,
-0.28508657217025757,
0.39881882071495056,
-0.3260490298271179,
0.8423347473144531,
-0.46859559416770935,
-0.012382290326058865,
0.35338854789733887,
-0.26893350481987,
-0.44720226526260376,
0.31513869762420654,
0.7056089043617249,
0.22663575410842896,
-0.07626723498106003,
0.004907737486064434,
0.1621943563222885,
-0.04907238110899925,
0.15702448785305023,
-0.417258083820343,
0.0489606149494648,
0.18247266113758087,
-0.7239965796470642,
0.35237985849380493,
-0.18768192827701569,
-0.017017316073179245,
0.6818839907646179,
-0.12424745410680771,
-0.1015290841460228,
0.03230408951640129,
-0.3025311529636383,
0.6594185829162598,
0.2627194821834564,
0.37864333391189575,
0.016489697620272636,
-0.6852167248725891,
0.09171465039253235,
-0.1621580421924591,
0.19799259305000305,
-0.010920611210167408,
-0.598910927772522,
0.19214247167110443,
0.17918309569358826,
-0.6292554140090942,
0.15581932663917542,
-0.3235109746456146,
-0.05079791322350502,
0.7047770619392395,
-0.15738247334957123,
0.36462685465812683,
-0.4191465377807617,
-0.16897043585777283,
0.30114054679870605,
-0.17133380472660065,
-0.1931898146867752,
-0.03740627318620682,
-0.7531772255897522,
0.3105098605155945,
0.15356874465942383,
0.02614477649331093,
-0.5959697365760803,
-0.2081390917301178,
-0.07864739000797272,
-0.09548743069171906,
0.5478544235229492,
0.369981586933136,
0.1440826803445816,
0.18589037656784058,
0.5251063108444214,
0.3106932044029236,
-0.45902779698371887,
-0.853908360004425,
-0.21654818952083588,
-0.11005019396543503,
0.08046478033065796,
1.2180962562561035,
0.4573679268360138,
0.08831287920475006,
-0.2174028605222702,
-0.2356427013874054,
-0.13658423721790314,
-0.6100720763206482,
0.8145179748535156,
0.14377200603485107,
-0.3509688675403595,
-0.36957401037216187,
-0.024079332128167152,
0.7836878895759583,
0.7867459058761597,
-0.23255904018878937,
0.360218346118927,
-0.19060203433036804,
0.1309145987033844,
0.5034646391868591,
-0.18212763965129852,
0.17473039031028748,
-0.3122444748878479,
0.08991698920726776,
-0.38270696997642517,
0.13277247548103333,
0.3180793523788452,
0.625264048576355,
0.27003419399261475,
-0.36800575256347656,
0.26760196685791016,
-0.28293344378471375,
-0.46733370423316956,
0.11254990100860596,
-0.5695255994796753,
-0.21353426575660706,
0.12022602558135986,
0.0345899797976017,
-0.2818138897418976,
0.6049549579620361,
-5.937148094177246,
-0.1170334443449974,
-0.08280783146619797,
-0.320578008890152,
0.01796845905482769,
0.7175338864326477,
0.6509435176849365,
-0.2500658333301544,
-0.5581804513931274,
-0.16522690653800964,
0.02944229729473591,
-0.0691443458199501,
0.0024595940485596657,
0.36287274956703186,
0.5620501637458801,
-0.16927509009838104,
0.13432368636131287,
0.36531150341033936,
-0.18785622715950012,
0.4576801061630249,
-0.18642830848693848,
-0.7098169922828674,
0.02341841533780098,
0.31982922554016113,
-0.16863663494586945,
-0.4291059076786041,
-0.4219721555709839,
0.037813395261764526,
0.06381235271692276,
0.3224759101867676,
0.1542896181344986,
-0.3931657075881958,
-0.050165411084890366,
-0.4096272587776184,
0.12953883409500122,
-0.30110904574394226,
0.178918719291687,
0.057616736739873886,
0.3159583508968353,
-0.02924192324280739,
-0.4051581621170044,
0.6041821241378784,
0.12096570432186127,
-0.4154012203216553,
0.043631475418806076,
-0.4434899091720581,
0.07054553180932999,
0.2753628194332123,
0.12794402241706848,
0.5354049205780029,
-0.024074837565422058,
0.10012253373861313,
0.15758390724658966,
-0.5897302031517029,
-0.1256888508796692,
-0.02617693692445755,
0.5779634714126587,
-0.04536871984601021,
-0.47349679470062256,
0.1663544923067093,
0.5356374979019165,
-0.8492952585220337,
0.12763287127017975,
-0.4867975413799286,
-0.4291500747203827,
0.2277023047208786,
-0.5908311605453491,
0.08327018469572067,
0.3759240508079529,
0.06254067271947861,
-0.33986347913742065,
0.1429593414068222,
0.029768791049718857,
-0.7458906769752502,
0.3557042181491852,
-0.1630486100912094,
0.059096574783325195,
-0.39990052580833435,
0.13076306879520416,
-0.16210395097732544,
-0.21024468541145325,
-0.39228948950767517,
-0.005833012517541647,
-0.24405741691589355,
0.21321432292461395,
-0.03642487898468971,
-0.29539451003074646,
-0.7124695181846619,
-0.2027789056301117,
-0.19683431088924408,
1.1354221105575562,
-0.2699328362941742,
0.8045791387557983,
0.2117297351360321,
0.5039980411529541,
0.09674861282110214,
0.051585596054792404,
-0.29513445496559143,
0.650029718875885,
-0.497211754322052,
0.18913665413856506,
0.019871003925800323,
0.31271517276763916,
0.16651210188865662,
-0.42061543464660645,
0.06823451817035675,
-0.3312146067619324,
0.25850969552993774,
0.6989010572433472,
0.33617672324180603,
0.17160363495349884,
0.24278897047042847,
-0.03242315351963043,
-0.1664896458387375,
-0.3164058327674866,
0.051926810294389725,
-0.967463493347168,
0.27071601152420044,
0.40617868304252625,
-0.11273051798343658,
-0.07460595667362213,
-0.06048746407032013,
-0.7514932751655579,
0.14971652626991272,
-0.020515479147434235,
0.00808198843151331,
-0.058535151183605194,
0.18194164335727692,
0.44577839970588684,
-0.07058495283126831,
0.2803778052330017,
0.6476256251335144,
0.11923819035291672,
0.09217547625303268,
0.19373518228530884,
-0.3069601356983185,
0.4341949224472046,
0.37002474069595337,
0.19732676446437836,
-0.7110085487365723,
0.17493104934692383,
0.0001203596984851174,
0.13637115061283112,
-0.15863218903541565,
0.858352780342102,
0.19047407805919647,
-0.10421175509691238,
0.11518126726150513,
0.010540719144046307,
0.19201019406318665,
0.2463332712650299,
-0.46255025267601013,
-0.20780079066753387,
-0.3012631833553314,
0.017190661281347275,
-0.4133348762989044,
-0.3395947813987732,
-0.3256710171699524,
0.22848479449748993,
-0.39921000599861145,
0.5252745747566223,
0.016602305695414543,
-0.7552196979522705,
-0.22959810495376587,
-0.5098416209220886,
0.5716378092765808,
-0.44120779633522034,
-0.08660726994276047,
0.2214604616165161,
0.15879997611045837,
-0.008343108929693699,
-0.790558397769928,
0.03593789413571358,
-0.7375075817108154,
-0.31380459666252136,
0.1036233976483345,
0.058848705142736435,
0.20289002358913422,
-0.1365831196308136,
-0.37481603026390076,
-0.13396809995174408,
-0.12189609557390213,
0.3346225917339325,
0.05380873382091522,
0.11721424013376236,
-0.6442608833312988,
-0.049305640161037445,
0.49641257524490356,
-0.3295299708843231,
-0.2988450825214386,
0.16361179947853088,
0.5554262399673462,
-0.38321200013160706,
-0.19377000629901886,
0.3644489347934723,
-0.31482285261154175,
0.08027676492929459,
0.5253173112869263,
-0.4361741244792938,
-0.12072350829839706,
0.012313620187342167,
0.28493180871009827,
-0.06946354359388351,
0.572411060333252,
0.28767356276512146,
-0.390686571598053,
-0.0062603759579360485,
0.07418114691972733,
0.44502511620521545,
-0.02497338317334652,
-0.5397924780845642,
-0.26281899213790894,
-0.13597701489925385,
0.2251608520746231,
-0.1829875260591507,
0.23628319799900055,
0.35808447003364563,
-0.3520396053791046,
0.21028999984264374,
-0.1556117683649063,
0.22889937460422516,
0.5846882462501526,
-0.885934054851532,
-0.025788312777876854,
-0.03667457029223442,
0.456219345331192,
0.45863863825798035,
-0.5980326533317566,
0.697996973991394,
-0.227204829454422,
-0.3565686345100403,
-0.3124412000179291,
-0.3280259668827057,
-0.3677869439125061,
0.012809239327907562,
-0.7534610033035278,
-0.21726571023464203,
-0.5283017754554749,
0.12238401174545288,
-0.4386468529701233,
0.1436702013015747,
0.7977370619773865,
-0.1267835944890976,
0.1708790808916092,
0.3259945809841156,
0.7426775097846985,
0.4643579423427582,
-0.8663883209228516,
-0.36978015303611755,
0.17823144793510437,
0.11456386744976044,
-0.43389397859573364,
-0.6819081902503967,
-0.23602664470672607,
0.3768746554851532,
0.3142155408859253,
-0.6716623902320862,
-0.5135746598243713,
0.24342560768127441,
0.4556442201137543,
0.1504392921924591,
-0.4325956106185913,
-0.7954402565956116,
-0.5193682909011841,
0.10127028822898865,
0.001922400901094079,
0.05853104591369629,
0.42404282093048096,
0.07809865474700928,
-0.33714374899864197,
0.5095160007476807,
0.07405418157577515,
0.28200584650039673,
0.2991761863231659,
0.6094696521759033,
0.21790920197963715,
0.2001233696937561,
0.006334192585200071,
-0.01856325939297676,
-0.14321285486221313,
-0.613050103187561,
0.20181463658809662,
-0.1276596188545227,
-0.40268856287002563,
0.34496572613716125,
0.09569700062274933,
0.9579711556434631,
0.009041748009622097,
-0.22670026123523712,
0.26298442482948303,
-0.5056770443916321,
0.3570002019405365,
-0.06451147049665451,
0.5286073684692383,
0.04157005995512009,
0.2387697994709015,
0.08998363465070724,
0.08136878907680511,
-0.10319530963897705,
0.06190746650099754,
-0.741168200969696,
0.16696855425834656,
0.36477214097976685,
-0.7488203644752502,
0.3410354554653168,
-0.18784651160240173,
0.4152938723564148,
-0.4025062322616577,
0.3772194981575012,
0.14927226305007935,
0.4401914179325104,
-0.004167372360825539,
-0.05661331117153168,
0.3706997036933899,
-0.19520187377929688,
-0.22455956041812897,
0.3674421012401581,
-0.560758650302887,
0.2911275327205658,
0.21674859523773193,
-0.06155809387564659,
0.5632807612419128,
0.2320270985364914,
-0.640302300453186,
-0.3280819058418274,
-0.0691264197230339,
-0.5032808780670166,
0.09380922466516495,
-0.6591318249702454,
0.24807249009609222,
0.7462970018386841,
0.09099791944026947,
-0.06032712012529373,
0.5339867472648621,
-0.23986069858074188,
-0.2155044972896576,
0.03558725118637085,
-0.4746089279651642,
-0.44147545099258423,
0.32425108551979065,
0.4170336127281189,
0.3794945776462555,
0.17955072224140167,
0.6061070561408997,
-0.2633090615272522,
0.035478442907333374,
0.44178298115730286,
0.7093538045883179,
-0.4904966950416565,
-0.0063887774012982845,
0.2407102733850479,
-0.08403497189283371,
0.42684850096702576,
0.13990776240825653,
0.24080951511859894,
-0.26141536235809326,
0.7160804271697998,
0.3094422519207001,
-0.3891400992870331,
0.061807867139577866,
-0.218362495303154,
0.8398910760879517,
0.4246826171875,
-0.23513296246528625,
0.31147778034210205,
-0.5102049708366394,
0.228321373462677,
-0.5674833059310913,
0.03331697732210159,
-0.08481566607952118,
-0.02226775512099266,
1.0120381116867065,
-0.6171850562095642,
0.542569637298584,
-0.24106882512569427,
-0.07225635647773743,
0.010713189840316772,
0.5471739172935486,
-0.0949152261018753,
-0.7284161448478699,
0.1614406853914261,
-0.3816184401512146,
0.061098262667655945,
-0.46092870831489563,
0.17664703726768494,
-0.009821586310863495,
0.09838353842496872,
0.004459804389625788,
0.2129257172346115,
-0.14246752858161926,
0.578018069267273,
-0.19693304598331451,
0.5647827386856079,
0.010759010910987854,
-0.022347720339894295,
0.17322000861167908,
-0.14301982522010803,
0.6660647988319397,
0.2244996577501297,
0.0761638805270195,
-0.11582299321889877,
0.15181033313274384,
-0.2613223195075989,
0.5425950884819031,
-0.6485143303871155,
-0.00007325480692088604,
-0.10211265087127686,
0.7033578157424927,
-0.8691208362579346,
0.6828621029853821,
0.5753084421157837,
-0.6637791395187378,
0.0645301565527916,
0.198573499917984,
0.5008736848831177,
-0.18040567636489868,
0.12227258831262589,
-0.42160752415657043,
0.03832441568374634,
-0.2977113723754883,
-0.09208570420742035,
-0.018486062064766884,
-0.2981237471103668,
0.1873674839735031,
-0.3007725179195404,
-0.47377023100852966,
0.06316816806793213,
0.2111550122499466,
-0.47341057658195496,
-0.07605093717575073,
-0.2848222851753235,
0.2729337811470032,
-0.7832458019256592,
0.8133242726325989,
-0.011084887199103832,
-0.47807130217552185,
0.43085962533950806,
0.36818647384643555,
0.4268158972263336,
-0.3582070767879486,
-0.2439318150281906,
-0.07900547236204147,
-0.14299872517585754,
0.05005331337451935,
-0.43991389870643616,
-0.030934372916817665,
0.1597127467393875,
0.1486274152994156,
-0.6169688105583191,
0.5713292956352234,
0.2601737380027771,
-0.1143621951341629,
0.3602171242237091,
-0.2586881220340729,
-0.2200274020433426,
-0.04522107541561127,
0.04836801812052727,
-0.4655216336250305,
-0.35860779881477356,
0.5796082019805908
] |
200117
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmen%20Soviet%20Socialist%20Republic
|
Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic
|
The Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (, Türkmenistan Sowet Sotsialistik Respublikasy; , Turkmenskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika), also commonly known as Turkmenistan or Turkmenia, was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union located in Central Asia existed as a republic from 1925 to 1991. Initially, on 7 August 1921, it was established as the Turkmen Oblast of the Turkestan ASSR before being made, on 13 May 1925, a separate republic of the USSR as the Turkmen SSR.
Since then the borders of the Turkmenia were unchanged. On 22 August 1990, Turkmenia declared its sovereignty over Soviet laws. On 27 October 1991, it became independent as Turkmenistan.
Geographically, Turkmenia was bordered between Iran, Afghanistan to the south, Caspian Sea to the west, Kazakhstan to the north and Uzbekistan to the east.
History
Annexation to Russia
Russian attempts to encroach upon Turkmen territory began in earnest in the latter part of the nineteenth century. In 1869 the Russian Empire established a foothold in present-day Turkmenistan with the foundation of the Caspian Sea port of Krasnovodsk (now Türkmenbaşy). From there and other points, they marched on and subdued the Khiva Khanate in 1873. Because Turkmen tribes, most notably the Yomud, were in the military service of the Khivan khan, Russian forces undertook punitive raids against Khorazm, in the process slaughtering hundreds of Turkmen and destroying their settlements. In 1881 the Russians under General Mikhail Skobelev besieged and captured Geok Tepe, one of the last Turkmen strongholds, northwest of Ashgabat. With the Turkmen defeat (which is now marked by the Turkmen as a national day of mourning and a symbol of national pride), the annexation of what is present-day Turkmenistan met with only weak resistance. Later the same year, the Russians signed the Treaty of Akhal with Qajar Iran and established what essentially remains the current border between Turkmenistan and Iran. In 1897 a similar agreement was signed between the Russians and Afghans.
Following annexation to Russia, the area was administered as the Transcaspian Region by corrupt and malfeasant military officers and officials appointed by the Turkestan Governor-Generalship in Tashkent. In the 1880s, a railroad was built from Krasnovodsk to Ashgabat and later extended to Tashkent. Urban areas began to develop along the railway. Although the Transcaspian Region essentially was a colony of Russia, it remained a backwater, except for Russian concerns with British colonialist intentions in the region and with possible uprisings by the Turkmen.
Creation of an SSR
Because the Turkmen generally were indifferent to the advent of Soviet rule in 1917, little revolutionary activity occurred in the region in the years that followed. However, the years immediately preceding the revolution had been marked by sporadic Turkmen uprisings against Russian rule, most prominently the anti-tsarist revolt of 1916 that swept through the whole of Turkestan. Their armed resistance to Soviet rule was part of the larger Basmachi Revolt throughout Central Asia from the 1920s into the early 1930s, which included most of the future USSR dependencies. Opposition was fierce and resulted in the death of large numbers of Turkmen. Soviet sources describe this struggle as a minor chapter in the republic's history.
In October 1924, when Central Asia was divided into distinct ethno-national political entities. The Transcaspian Oblast of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkestan ASSR) along with the Charjew, Kerki and a part of the Shirabad provinces of the Bukharan People's Republic and the Turkmen (Daşoguz) province of Khorezm People's Republic were unified to create the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR), a full-fledged constituent republic of the Soviet Union where Turkmen made up roughly 80% of the population. During the forced collectivization and settlement of nomadic and semi-nomadic groups along with other socioeconomic changes of the first decades of Soviet rule, pastoral nomadism ceased to be an economic alternative in Turkmenistan, and by the late 1930s, the majority of Turkmen had become sedentary. Efforts by the Soviet state to undermine the traditional Turkmen way of life resulted in significant changes in familial and political relationships, religious and cultural observances, and intellectual developments. Significant numbers of Russians and other Europeans, as well as groups from various nationalities mainly from the Caucasus, migrated to urban areas. Modest industrial capabilities were developed, and limited exploitation of Turkmenistan's natural resources was initiated.
Under Soviet rule, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as superstition and "vestiges of the past". Most religious schooling and religious observance were banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. An official Muslim Board of Central Asia with a headquarters in Tashkent was established during World War II to supervise the Islamic faith in Central Asia. For the most part, the Muslim Board functioned as an instrument of propaganda whose activities did little to enhance the Muslim cause. Atheist indoctrination stifled religious development and contributed to the isolation of the Turkmen from the international Muslim community. Some religious customs, such as Muslim burial and male circumcision, continued to be practiced throughout the Soviet period, but most religious belief, knowledge, and customs were preserved only in rural areas in "folk form" as a kind of unofficial Islam not sanctioned by the state-run Spiritual Directorate.
Pre-independence
The Soviet regime's policy of indigenization (korenizatsiia) involved the promotion of national culture and language and the creation of a native administration for each ethnic group in its own territory. During the 1920s, as happened throughout the Soviet Union, there was forthright support and funding for the creation of native language theatres, publishing houses, newspapers as well as universal public schooling, and this was the case for the Turkmen minorities during Soviet administration of Turkmen/Transcaspian province of the Turkestan ASSR and the Bukharan People's Republic and the Khorezm (Kivan) People's Republic and continued after the creation of the majority-Turkmen national republic.
In the 1920s the Turkmen SSR standardised the Turkmen language (as prior to this, the vast majority of the population was not literate and those that were tended to use the Chaghtai or Persian languages for writing, though in the late 19th and early 20th century there was growing interest in the use of Ottoman Turkish register for writing as it is an Oghuz language and closer linguistically). Rigorous debate in the national press and in various literary and educational journals over Teke, Yomut, and other regional and tribal dialects was followed by centralised decision-making around the creation of a particular national standard, the simplification of the Arabo-Persian alphabet, and the eventual transition to the Cyrillic alphabet.
Beginning in the 1930s, Moscow kept the republic under firm control. The nationalities policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) fostered the development of a Turkmen political elite and promoted Russification. The previous nationality policies of the 1920s and early 1930s involved promoting the use of the Turkmen language for administration in all areas of the state, party, and economy (along with the longer-lasting system of preferential quotas and advancement for ethnic Turkmen in government, party, and industrial jobs with the aim of achieving a majority Turkmen bureaucracy) and attempts at requiring non-Turkmen to learn the Turkmen language. From the 1930s onward, the nationality policy favoured use of the Turkmen language in areas of government "closest to the people": education, health, etc, paired with an acceptance that knowledge of the Russian language would be required for most government work as well as advancement in many careers: the government would no longer work to make knowledge of Russian superfluous to advancement and would cease active efforts to have Turkmen be the language of administration, and from 1938 onwards non-Russian students throughout the Soviet Union would be required to become fluent in Russian in order to advance through secondary and tertiary education.
Non-Turkmen cadre both in Moscow and Turkmenia closely supervised the national cadre of government officials and bureaucrats; generally, the Turkmen leadership staunchly supported Soviet policies. Moscow initiated nearly all political activity in the republic, and, except for a corruption scandal in the mid-1980s that ousted longtime First Secretary Muhammetnazar Gapurow, Turkmenistan remained a quiet Soviet republic. Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and perestroika did not have a significant impact on Turkmenistan, as many people there were self-dependent, and settlers of the territory and the Soviet Union's ministers rarely intertwined. The republic found itself rather unprepared for the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the independence that followed in 1991.
When other constituent republics of the Soviet Union advanced claims to sovereignty in 1988 and 1989, Turkmenia's leadership also began to criticize Moscow's economic and political policies as exploitative and detrimental to the well-being and pride of the Turkmen. By a unanimous vote of its Supreme Soviet, Turkmenistan declared its sovereignty in August 1990. In March 1990, Turkmenistan participated in the internationally-observed referendum on the future of the Soviet Union, where 98% percent of participants voted in support of the preservation of the Soviet Union. After the August 1991 coup in Moscow, Turkmenia's communist leader Saparmurat Niyazov called for a popular referendum on independence. The official result of the referendum was 94 percent in favor of independence. The republic's Supreme Soviet then declared Turkmenistan's independence from the Soviet Union and the establishment of the Republic of Turkmenistan on 27 October 1991. Turkmenistan gained independence from the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991.
Politics
As with the other Soviet republics, Turkmenistan had followed the Marxist–Leninist ideology governed by the republic's sole party, Communist Party of Turkmenistan, a republican branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
The politics of Turkmenistan took place in the framework of a one-party socialist republic. The Supreme Soviet was a unicameral legislature of the republic headed by a Chairman, with its superiority to both the executive and judicial branches and its members meet in Ashkhabad.
Political leadership
First Secretaries of the Communist Party of Turkmenistan
Ivan Mezhlauk (19 November 1924 – 1926) (acting until 20 February 1925)
Shaymardan Ibragimov (June 1926 – 1927)
Nikolay Paskutsky (1927 – 1928)
Grigory Aronshtam (11 May 1928 – August 1930)
Yakov Popok (August 1930 – 15 April 1937)
Anna Mukhamedov (April – October 1937)
Yakov Chubin (October 1937 – November 1939)
Mikhail Fonin (November 1939 – March 1947)
Shadzha Batyrov (March 1947 – July 1951)
Sukhan Babayev (July 1951 – 14 December 1958)
Dzhuma Durdy Karayev (14 December 1958 – 4 May 1960)
Balysh Ovezov (13 June 1960 – 24 December 1969)
Muhammetnazar Gapurow (24 December 1969 – 21 December 1985)
Saparmurat Niyazov (21 December 1985 – 16 December 1991)
Chairmen of the Council of People's Commissars
Kaikhaziz Atabayev (20 February 1925 – 8 July 1937)
Aitbay Khudaybergenov (October 1937 – 17 October 1945)
Sukhan Babayev (17 October 1945 – 15 March 1946)
Chairmen of the Council of Ministers
Sukhan Babayev (15 March 1946 – 14 July 1951)
Balysh Ovezov (14 July 1951 – 14 January 1958) (1st time)
Dzhuma Durdy Karayev (14 January 1958 – 20 January 1959)
Balysh Ovezov (20 January 1959 – 13 June 1960) (2nd time)
Abdy Annaliyev (13 June 1960 – 26 March 1963)
Muhammetnazar Gapurow (26 March 1963 – 25 December 1969)
Oraz Orazmuhammedow (25 December 1969 – 17 December 1975)
Bally Yazkuliyev (17 December 1975 – 15 December 1978)
Chary Karriyev (15 December 1978 – 26 March 1985)
Saparmurat Niyazov (26 March 1985 – 4 January 1986)
Annamurat Hojamyradow (4 January 1986 – 17 November 1989)
Han Ahmedow (5 December 1989 – 27 October 1991)
Notes
References
Former socialist republics
Republics of the Soviet Union
Communism in Turkmenistan
States and territories established in 1921
States and territories established in 1925
States and territories disestablished in 1991
1925 disestablishments in the Soviet Union
1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union
Former polities of the Cold War
|
[
0.16516363620758057,
-0.08841920644044876,
-0.5847806930541992,
0.09810943901538849,
-0.25398457050323486,
0.22777687013149261,
0.25102898478507996,
0.38432344794273376,
-0.2505638301372528,
0.2703215479850769,
-0.433909147977829,
-0.012708786875009537,
-0.7998744249343872,
0.6728305220603943,
-0.7918726801872253,
0.3939301073551178,
0.6787946224212646,
0.7389323711395264,
-0.12861832976341248,
-0.10107661783695221,
-0.0250349473208189,
0.46927812695503235,
0.8459511995315552,
-0.18645618855953217,
0.3749130964279175,
-0.13510775566101074,
0.6352753043174744,
0.08345383405685425,
-0.3471428453922272,
0.14799898862838745,
-0.4009567201137543,
0.2544734477996826,
-0.27766260504722595,
0.08367207646369934,
0.14104297757148743,
0.45590102672576904,
-0.18199899792671204,
0.022142862901091576,
-0.4935746490955353,
-0.9560567140579224,
0.1351766139268875,
0.0684584304690361,
-0.06065201386809349,
0.4976591467857361,
0.2910022437572479,
-1.137949824333191,
-0.5379724502563477,
0.7677742838859558,
-0.6511543393135071,
-0.1928551197052002,
-0.5097586512565613,
0.07679763436317444,
-0.05832596495747566,
-0.4046694338321686,
0.4043198525905609,
-0.04120264947414398,
-0.963192343711853,
-0.3716951608657837,
-0.25969424843788147,
0.289778470993042,
0.37969011068344116,
0.3834467828273773,
0.11275582015514374,
0.2624473571777344,
0.3389812707901001,
0.136300191283226,
0.09041135758161545,
0.04530267417430878,
0.23759984970092773,
-0.21557839214801788,
-0.24636980891227722,
0.6777148246765137,
0.14675985276699066,
0.05292004719376564,
-0.10730350017547607,
-1.1492573022842407,
0.03205485641956329,
-0.16724242269992828,
0.17209072411060333,
0.16046974062919617,
0.1923832893371582,
0.48252037167549133,
0.4562959671020508,
0.16243857145309448,
0.5081977844238281,
-0.854461133480072,
-0.9974799752235413,
-0.21501636505126953,
-0.1272708773612976,
0.39501839876174927,
-0.01155008189380169,
0.3124862313270569,
0.4580916166305542,
-0.043470598757267,
-0.688620924949646,
-0.17458821833133698,
-0.6265289187431335,
0.8443245887756348,
-0.3923623263835907,
0.1494291126728058,
-0.22652104496955872,
1.0012224912643433,
-0.02385682798922062,
-0.39838671684265137,
-0.151932030916214,
-0.07563129812479019,
-0.0785234123468399,
0.3085739314556122,
-0.13816367089748383,
0.12049440294504166,
-0.4908132553100586,
0.23382870852947235,
0.06804891675710678,
0.3426150679588318,
0.3127851188182831,
0.062218114733695984,
-0.07157767564058304,
-0.6602916717529297,
0.22952762246131897,
-0.11776083707809448,
-0.6880159974098206,
0.4548819661140442,
0.049684084951877594,
0.03485609218478203,
0.29047852754592896,
-0.3188471496105194,
0.23645004630088806,
-0.05539149045944214,
-0.6052554845809937,
0.5748940706253052,
0.3093624711036682,
1.0094774961471558,
-0.8357601761817932,
0.48697203397750854,
-0.21081651747226715,
0.20853497087955475,
0.5884535908699036,
0.039240762591362,
0.10388148576021194,
0.41077950596809387,
-0.6665313243865967,
0.11132247000932693,
-0.5185966491699219,
0.21877896785736084,
-0.4032555818557739,
-0.7157117128372192,
0.6914057731628418,
-0.32768014073371887,
-0.25275933742523193,
-0.24319687485694885,
-0.031554870307445526,
-0.4535396695137024,
-0.26564550399780273,
0.32965853810310364,
-0.31928524374961853,
-0.1672796756029129,
0.950994074344635,
0.1489986777305603,
0.9487887620925903,
0.46606558561325073,
0.13314463198184967,
0.17727045714855194,
-0.06769643723964691,
-0.22422881424427032,
-0.15349437296390533,
-0.39239776134490967,
-0.04159785807132721,
0.6878936290740967,
0.39681339263916016,
0.057632897049188614,
-0.5134392976760864,
0.14575213193893433,
-0.024726277217268944,
0.4412146210670471,
0.3603176772594452,
-0.23400834202766418,
0.5243108868598938,
0.5550408959388733,
-0.15495748817920685,
-0.3718714118003845,
-0.6675661206245422,
0.3660179376602173,
-0.20157335698604584,
0.7361353039741516,
0.3959178924560547,
0.5908915400505066,
0.07958714663982391,
0.06212789937853813,
-0.6754752993583679,
-0.4467039108276367,
-0.15259389579296112,
-0.7052507996559143,
-0.15429113805294037,
-0.3572518229484558,
0.9368890523910522,
0.11608926206827164,
-0.192371666431427,
0.6901265978813171,
-0.26617497205734253,
0.6785300374031067,
-0.03177804499864578,
-0.6160252690315247,
-0.3841100335121155,
-0.12559302151203156,
-0.2231762558221817,
0.6366089582443237,
0.2827005684375763,
0.42804694175720215,
0.20599186420440674,
0.3744935393333435,
0.6271357536315918,
-0.6107170581817627,
-0.1525402069091797,
-0.09908278286457062,
-0.3178372383117676,
-0.518096923828125,
-0.44479256868362427,
0.8215764760971069,
-0.06804549694061279,
0.34770509600639343,
1.3244028091430664,
-0.6226842403411865,
0.3848332464694977,
0.6025792956352234,
0.0980391576886177,
-0.0037131435237824917,
0.26661261916160583,
0.5468865036964417,
0.07215233147144318,
-0.12794552743434906,
-0.17425508797168732,
-0.3528381586074829,
0.3798474669456482,
0.027985285967588425,
0.05274268239736557,
-0.28021183609962463,
-0.4701416492462158,
-0.1380567103624344,
0.3540821969509125,
-0.4658661484718323,
-0.06034987047314644,
0.33257341384887695,
0.0999549925327301,
0.06177416816353798,
0.2441895306110382,
-0.1537860929965973,
-0.7911466956138611,
0.40790361166000366,
-0.34226298332214355,
-0.4085809886455536,
-0.10559018701314926,
-0.11554258316755295,
0.19812415540218353,
-0.6645239591598511,
0.040376730263233185,
0.2691625952720642,
-0.11784118413925171,
-0.3309783339500427,
0.18849770724773407,
0.0976518765091896,
-0.21892444789409637,
0.33044886589050293,
-0.20519429445266724,
0.17977061867713928,
-0.33356553316116333,
-0.2077278196811676,
-0.027265721932053566,
-0.46728983521461487,
0.3359886109828949,
0.2804999351501465,
0.6400277018547058,
0.3496498465538025,
-0.7970715165138245,
0.0999516174197197,
0.011692716740071774,
-0.08244610577821732,
0.13963302969932556,
0.193891242146492,
-0.6377683281898499,
-0.7482825517654419,
-0.5129799246788025,
1.0068877935409546,
0.30866891145706177,
-0.40972477197647095,
-0.8211646676063538,
-0.35033756494522095,
-0.7001835107803345,
-0.2794945538043976,
0.22679686546325684,
-0.4223838150501251,
-0.3679775893688202,
0.3456502854824066,
-0.3844480514526367,
0.2639825642108917,
-0.6574551463127136,
0.524850606918335,
-0.30222347378730774,
0.15334276854991913,
0.8954319953918457,
-0.17380021512508392,
-1.003609299659729,
0.35569366812705994,
-0.598116397857666,
0.09216297417879105,
0.3161584436893463,
-0.007958863861858845,
-0.8885544538497925,
-0.04633181914687157,
-5.512316703796387,
0.08323051035404205,
-0.26651477813720703,
-0.3640642762184143,
0.6363056898117065,
0.1502353847026825,
0.5354369282722473,
-0.38970518112182617,
0.07881258428096771,
0.2367755025625229,
-0.41260525584220886,
0.26334348320961,
-0.09488996863365173,
0.6323684453964233,
0.6442768573760986,
-0.01566615328192711,
0.3976246416568756,
0.1332324594259262,
0.17291833460330963,
-0.3043769896030426,
-0.3077206611633301,
-0.19623737037181854,
0.06313496828079224,
0.6308266520500183,
0.7317907214164734,
-0.12288463860750198,
0.16044358909130096,
-0.1751360297203064,
-0.3259431719779968,
-0.468305766582489,
-0.564640462398529,
-0.4953782558441162,
0.44855034351348877,
-0.3105032742023468,
0.3671949803829193,
-0.31213703751564026,
0.7009537220001221,
1.0076247453689575,
0.4227142632007599,
-0.4289186894893646,
-0.014635764062404633,
0.24726279079914093,
0.3191857635974884,
0.08263619244098663,
0.4804985821247101,
0.023501688614487648,
-0.1492621749639511,
-0.02203238382935524,
-1.05447518825531,
0.8555624485015869,
0.01579776592552662,
-0.1722874492406845,
0.21969658136367798,
-0.06057668849825859,
0.023142313584685326,
-0.2819081246852875,
0.10352740436792374,
-0.09901983290910721,
-0.6547519564628601,
0.6577035188674927,
-0.1085343137383461,
-0.24200989305973053,
0.17136867344379425,
-0.8044989705085754,
-0.22655890882015228,
0.19625665247440338,
-0.6275623440742493,
0.034058794379234314,
0.2561253011226654,
0.3635960519313812,
-0.7742753028869629,
0.5880245566368103,
-0.9318816661834717,
-0.7424321174621582,
0.2601069211959839,
-0.2340541034936905,
-0.13701383769512177,
-0.02947010099887848,
-0.06628517806529999,
0.2099289894104004,
0.02867840975522995,
-0.23167063295841217,
0.05767692252993584,
0.9195792078971863,
0.18110588192939758,
-0.016294732689857483,
0.8207335472106934,
0.25280293822288513,
-0.5213680267333984,
-0.21984867751598358,
0.6630933880805969,
-0.8948122262954712,
0.5705735087394714,
0.00371753447689116,
0.1229628175497055,
0.20671944320201874,
0.2504233121871948,
-0.0046072243712842464,
0.15333913266658783,
-0.5117997527122498,
0.32709911465644836,
-0.22564953565597534,
-0.3097115159034729,
-0.7020354866981506,
-0.28379732370376587,
-0.37897178530693054,
-0.38492894172668457,
0.3170925974845886,
0.8241407871246338,
-0.42500436305999756,
0.17967382073402405,
0.16293759644031525,
-0.2186228334903717,
-0.20969216525554657,
0.5865192413330078,
-0.24568305909633636,
-0.07399969547986984,
0.0021945841144770384,
-0.4672536253929138,
0.7421591877937317,
-0.10981959849596024,
0.09950771927833557,
-0.2917934060096741,
0.688249409198761,
-0.21953418850898743,
-0.056840796023607254,
0.3602063059806824,
0.45135992765426636,
0.3220618665218353,
-0.21110546588897705,
0.58333420753479,
-0.16243977844715118,
-0.03680068999528885,
-0.4850020408630371,
0.43528473377227783,
0.05038034915924072,
-0.52948397397995,
-0.31477952003479004,
-0.12779316306114197,
-0.28678715229034424,
-0.28998926281929016,
-0.6714845299720764,
0.009139841422438622,
0.4310169816017151,
0.08135101199150085,
0.1270982176065445,
0.024802112951874733,
0.29520827531814575,
-0.41888487339019775,
-0.15496425330638885,
-0.5652376413345337,
-0.13912267982959747,
0.17552883923053741,
-0.34937387704849243,
0.06553522497415543,
0.049023840576410294,
0.7747297883033752,
0.194959357380867,
0.38656288385391235,
-0.5037102699279785,
-0.14038506150245667,
-0.8531591296195984,
-0.4362266957759857,
0.6273978352546692,
0.3411109447479248,
-0.021485187113285065,
-0.6030452251434326,
-0.185191348195076,
0.17455948889255524,
1.0554786920547485,
0.302803635597229,
-0.15526776015758514,
-0.2846784293651581,
-0.16014134883880615,
0.1310545653104782,
-0.18092283606529236,
0.11921538412570953,
-0.12320813536643982,
-0.5081819891929626,
-0.17425647377967834,
0.0006723205442540348,
0.1735876202583313,
-0.27948084473609924,
0.3780874013900757,
0.4385761618614197,
0.2782142758369446,
-0.3068315088748932,
-0.038912583142519,
-0.2648864686489105,
0.09700509160757065,
0.4121936857700348,
0.0630464032292366,
0.22235336899757385,
-0.38038963079452515,
-0.07146968692541122,
-0.20282255113124847,
0.13490749895572662,
0.8421576023101807,
-0.03588658198714256,
0.18407166004180908,
0.20208758115768433,
-0.05621025338768959,
0.13318189978599548,
-0.02650204300880432,
0.1438649594783783,
-0.031572144478559494,
0.7843064665794373,
-0.32721656560897827,
-0.2517797648906708,
-0.19203175604343414,
-0.6797442436218262,
-0.41665175557136536,
-0.058880358934402466,
0.6237725019454956,
-0.8776395916938782,
0.3044155538082123,
0.249479740858078,
-0.2640199661254883,
-0.41537192463874817,
-0.39585861563682556,
-0.27927473187446594,
0.06103994697332382,
0.2479647547006607,
-0.017401041463017464,
-0.9079596996307373,
0.25066542625427246,
0.3048844039440155,
-0.37929990887641907,
-0.3779522180557251,
-0.2116808146238327,
-0.04440183565020561,
-0.43592193722724915,
0.2940293550491333,
-0.7288691401481628,
-0.2836010456085205,
-0.6103581190109253,
0.4257223606109619,
-0.18871667981147766,
-0.3282409906387329,
0.42080259323120117,
0.0672440379858017,
0.7956199049949646,
0.12094464153051376,
-0.6244602799415588,
-0.6319413185119629,
0.0052406364120543,
-0.054271988570690155,
0.16018907725811005,
-0.28126317262649536,
0.3831027150154114,
0.4417587220668793,
0.30127623677253723,
-0.802990198135376,
-0.35840851068496704,
0.44842445850372314,
-0.2717060446739197,
-0.1333753764629364,
0.3131248652935028,
0.1461397260427475,
0.3030194938182831,
-0.3179052770137787,
-0.1588459014892578,
-0.24137932062149048,
-0.05431549251079559,
-0.1755654513835907,
0.06951452791690826,
0.13263501226902008,
-0.43627843260765076,
0.4929043650627136,
-0.5322328805923462,
-0.46078383922576904,
-0.5097717642784119,
0.3986641764640808,
0.05267726629972458,
-0.18380378186702728,
0.3268175423145294,
0.03908718004822731,
-0.1289159208536148,
-0.1366863250732422,
0.46727660298347473,
-0.9364334940910339,
-0.2768155038356781,
-0.21649964153766632,
-0.10476680099964142,
0.019677480682730675,
-1.207290530204773,
0.21678543090820312,
-0.2968790531158447,
-0.8239400386810303,
-0.14455252885818481,
-0.0505097471177578,
-0.34771639108657837,
-0.166514053940773,
0.24638432264328003,
-0.133010596036911,
-0.49307647347450256,
0.23254507780075073,
-0.08987684547901154,
-0.22976082563400269,
0.4541148543357849,
-0.5189708471298218,
-0.3759395480155945,
0.16677547991275787,
-0.18793608248233795,
0.15645180642604828,
0.18427874147891998,
-0.031334035098552704,
0.11004036664962769,
-0.017416397109627724,
0.46762824058532715,
0.3587852716445923,
0.10092194378376007,
0.6950653791427612,
0.08997604995965958,
-0.4520748555660248,
-0.15086324512958527,
0.6692384481430054,
-0.8111951351165771,
0.02108759805560112,
0.25446707010269165,
0.45103204250335693,
0.5623020529747009,
-0.28299203515052795,
0.5706564784049988,
-0.3571735620498657,
0.9353360533714294,
-0.05377613380551338,
-0.0982138141989708,
0.38187694549560547,
0.28772538900375366,
0.1202450543642044,
-0.06856997311115265,
-0.4097879230976105,
0.36353960633277893,
-0.20827116072177887,
-0.5778677463531494,
0.30711430311203003,
-0.6268629431724548,
-0.14732657372951508,
0.9544869065284729,
0.4234924912452698,
0.20648857951164246,
-0.5317988395690918,
-0.12058345228433609,
0.6091460585594177,
0.237201988697052,
0.1184508353471756,
0.11196016520261765,
0.23115482926368713,
-0.1821141093969345,
0.792983889579773,
-0.5763073563575745,
-0.2531462013721466,
-0.46900397539138794,
-0.06650833040475845,
-0.5805636048316956,
0.2197856456041336,
-0.6156005859375,
-0.08463617414236069,
-0.17047761380672455,
0.4421193599700928,
0.030879218131303787,
0.20712733268737793,
0.18801483511924744,
0.5418519377708435,
0.2151845544576645,
0.2947371006011963,
-0.2039528340101242,
0.056355319917201996,
0.04624255746603012,
0.4961336553096771,
-0.23601680994033813,
-0.07185915112495422,
0.428971529006958,
0.10056261718273163,
0.24560238420963287,
0.795570433139801,
0.6828939914703369,
-0.07015586644411087,
-0.27537989616394043,
0.2751549482345581,
0.5307610034942627,
0.3958071172237396,
-1.240626335144043,
-0.062260810285806656,
0.0909765437245369,
0.26470300555229187,
-0.12260785698890686,
0.32468339800834656,
-0.09296143054962158,
-0.733829140663147,
-0.7396641969680786,
0.32699352502822876,
-0.12098806351423264,
0.06380797922611237,
-0.4075804650783539,
-0.6801348924636841,
0.4774240255355835,
0.7358400821685791,
-0.15949341654777527,
0.47921058535575867,
0.0017747044330462813,
0.1478016972541809,
0.29814156889915466,
-0.06577879190444946,
0.6667571067810059,
-0.20128919184207916,
0.04940915107727051,
-0.32850292325019836,
0.6876564025878906,
0.22871708869934082,
0.4629691541194916,
0.22644837200641632,
0.28189563751220703,
-0.08214583992958069,
0.20190127193927765,
0.769449770450592,
-0.7191107869148254,
0.38349324464797974,
-0.7074186205863953,
-0.2185577005147934,
-0.8216842412948608,
0.3124685287475586,
0.4269190728664398,
-0.0023650818038731813,
-0.3367604911327362,
0.10507414489984512,
0.6772984862327576,
-0.6522915363311768,
0.44277721643447876,
-0.35123300552368164,
-0.41198891401290894,
-0.22866420447826385,
0.03791525959968567,
-0.4683489203453064,
0.6849307417869568,
0.01121029257774353,
0.5895703434944153,
0.22272776067256927,
-0.5821579098701477,
0.3165096342563629,
0.156778484582901,
0.32507655024528503,
0.08179651945829391,
0.24246244132518768,
0.07443325221538544,
-0.6076553463935852,
0.2968471944332123,
-0.9916774034500122,
0.21302039921283722,
0.018318403512239456,
-0.40827491879463196,
0.46837806701660156,
-0.14772292971611023,
0.2027456909418106,
-0.39310193061828613,
0.28417813777923584,
-0.42049098014831543,
0.027274344116449356,
0.06181749328970909
] |
200118
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%20pence%20%28British%20decimal%20coin%29
|
Two pence (British decimal coin)
|
The British decimal two pence coin (often shortened to 2p in writing and speech) is a unit of currency equalling 2/100ths of a pound sterling. Since the coin's introduction on 15 February 1971, the year British currency was decimalised, its obverse has featured four profiles of Queen Elizabeth II. In 2008 the design on its reverse changed from the original depiction of a plume ostrich feathers with a coronet to a segment of the Royal Shield.
The two pence coin was originally minted from bronze, but changed in 1992 to copper-plated steel.
As of March 2014 there were an estimated 6.55 billion 2p coins in circulation corresponding to a value of £131 million.
2p coins are legal tender for amounts only up to the sum of 20p when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.
Composition
From its first minting in 1971 until 1992, two pence coins were made from bronze. In 1992, this was changed to copper-plated steel because of the increasing price of copper used to make bronze. Both the bronze and steel versions were made in 1992 only.
By May 2006 the pre-1992 (97% copper) coins contained 3p worth of copper each. In May 2006, about 2.55 billion such coins remained in circulation, and the Royal Mint warned that tampering with coinage is illegal in the UK. During 2008, the value of copper fell dramatically from these peaks.
Design
Reverse
The original reverse of the coin, designed by Christopher Ironside, and used from 1971 to 2008, is the Badge of the Prince of Wales: a plume of ostrich feathers within a coronet, above the German motto ("I serve"). The numeral "2" is written below the badge, and either (1971–1981) or (from 1982) is written above. A small number of 1983 mintage coins exist with the "New Pence" wording. It was originally planned that an alternative version of the 2p would be minted with a design representing Northern Ireland; these plans never came to fruition. The same design was also re-cut in 1993 producing two minor varieties for that year.
In August 2005 the Royal Mint launched a competition to find new reverse designs for all circulating coins apart from the £2 coin. The winner, announced in April 2008, was Matthew Dent, whose designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from mid-2008. The designs for the 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p and 50p coins depict sections of the Royal Shield that form the whole shield when placed together. The shield in its entirety was featured on the now-obsolete round £1 coin. The redesigned 2p coin depicts the second quarter of the shield, showing the Lion Rampant from the Royal Banner of Scotland, with the words above.
The beading was removed from both sides of the coin in the 2008 redesign.
Obverse
To date, five different obverses have been used: four different portraits and the removal of the beaded border in 2008. In all cases, the inscription is , where 2013 is replaced by the year of minting. In the original design both sides of the coin are encircled by dots, a common feature on coins, known as beading.
Four different portraits of the Queen have been used on the coin:
As with all new decimal currency, until 1984 the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse, in which the Queen wears the 'Girls of Great Britain and Ireland' Tiara.
Between 1985 and 1997 the portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used, in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem. In 1992 the metal used in minting this coin was switched from bronze to copper-plated steel, with a single year of using both alloys in 1998.
From 1998 to 2015 the portrait by Ian Rank-Broadley was used, again featuring the tiara, with a signature-mark below the portrait.
As of June 2015, coins bearing the portrait by Jody Clark have been seen in circulation.
Status as legal tender
2p coins are legal tender for amounts up to and including 20 pence. However, in the UK, "legal tender" has a very specific and narrow meaning which relates only to the repayment of debt to a creditor, not to everyday shopping or other transactions. Specifically, coins of particular denominations are said to be "legal tender" when a creditor must by law accept them in redemption of a debt. The term does not mean - as is often thought - that a shopkeeper has to accept a particular type of currency in payment. A shopkeeper is under no obligation to accept any specific type of payment, whether legal tender or not; conversely they have the discretion to accept any payment type they wish.
Mintages
Mintage figures below represent the number of coins of each date released for circulation. Mint Sets have been produced since 1982; where mintages on or after that date indicate 'none', there are examples contained within those sets.
References
External links
Royal Mint – 2p coin
Two Pence, Coin Type from United Kingdom
Coins of the United Kingdom
Currencies introduced in 1971
Decimalisation
Two-cent coins
|
[
-0.16147305071353912,
-0.08421951532363892,
-0.1700173318386078,
-0.36082330346107483,
-0.5221162438392639,
0.6401944756507874,
0.19248442351818085,
0.1979694962501526,
-0.24102267622947693,
0.1563844084739685,
-0.1788380891084671,
-0.314647376537323,
-0.021113667637109756,
0.24189746379852295,
0.1437971144914627,
0.40414899587631226,
0.26783376932144165,
0.3107334077358246,
-0.1308484673500061,
-0.3632400333881378,
-0.15395797789096832,
0.41292163729667664,
0.07654985785484314,
-0.7995045185089111,
-0.278847873210907,
0.4953371584415436,
0.8209822177886963,
-0.5598776936531067,
-0.4993670582771301,
-0.3539961874485016,
-0.07444179058074951,
0.6132147312164307,
0.09762191772460938,
0.2287527173757553,
0.3390510082244873,
-0.11772329360246658,
0.21514321863651276,
-0.337859183549881,
-0.06380970031023026,
-0.4821987450122833,
0.36260077357292175,
-0.18817515671253204,
0.2265799343585968,
0.13074955344200134,
-0.7178162932395935,
-0.6853722333908081,
-1.2005771398544312,
-0.4224569499492645,
-0.8429422974586487,
-0.08526071906089783,
-0.2514825463294983,
0.7512981295585632,
0.16674402356147766,
0.1969032883644104,
0.5367851853370667,
0.8751600980758667,
-0.6899682283401489,
-0.10285153239965439,
0.09516272693872452,
-0.3213118612766266,
0.9680116772651672,
0.45367273688316345,
-0.2950599193572998,
-0.06475827842950821,
0.18632307648658752,
-0.40056028962135315,
0.3021197021007538,
1.0997154712677002,
-0.031527526676654816,
-0.1435023993253708,
-0.12996737658977509,
-0.2900349795818329,
-0.41253358125686646,
0.31791046261787415,
-0.23812304437160492,
-0.13060522079467773,
0.138899028301239,
-0.1614091694355011,
0.06292254477739334,
0.15994279086589813,
0.05350084230303764,
-0.06711535900831223,
0.8069866895675659,
0.12152528017759323,
0.5125197172164917,
0.19081054627895355,
-0.2389628142118454,
0.10573097318410873,
0.11026749014854431,
1.402359962463379,
-0.21537049114704132,
-0.3110830783843994,
0.2975257337093353,
-0.10057375580072403,
-0.5833718776702881,
-0.17877274751663208,
-0.25542280077934265,
0.2628840208053589,
0.377246618270874,
0.14413432776927948,
0.5619001388549805,
-0.27790337800979614,
0.45403343439102173,
-0.025562625378370285,
-0.40604519844055176,
-0.4397123456001282,
-0.6021443605422974,
-0.7442024350166321,
0.5070478916168213,
-0.2667289674282074,
-0.15388916432857513,
-0.23561958968639374,
0.20624910295009613,
0.907399594783783,
-0.3748481869697571,
-0.4578458070755005,
0.21695870161056519,
-0.18173930048942566,
-0.5753029584884644,
0.2248920351266861,
0.2262982428073883,
0.25755980610847473,
-0.24330991506576538,
-0.23508267104625702,
0.47713541984558105,
-0.19996756315231323,
0.0608779601752758,
0.6828426718711853,
-0.3113284111022949,
0.6139358878135681,
0.4900197982788086,
0.3161749243736267,
-0.1741465926170349,
-0.5642582774162292,
-0.39877498149871826,
-0.9646468162536621,
0.06156410649418831,
0.0976494625210762,
-0.04034053534269333,
0.6941747665405273,
-0.14779040217399597,
0.8064625859260559,
-0.1887986958026886,
-0.304361492395401,
0.3743603229522705,
-0.0756305605173111,
-0.23961736261844635,
0.030492564663290977,
-0.30839768052101135,
-0.013658690266311169,
0.3496307134628296,
-0.1908225268125534,
0.6065984964370728,
0.005593930836766958,
-0.4052504301071167,
-0.3636317551136017,
-0.17490483820438385,
-0.12600989639759064,
-0.013154522515833378,
0.3590887784957886,
-0.07356772571802139,
-0.09295139461755753,
-0.05336983501911163,
-0.14883191883563995,
0.07720717042684555,
0.08013591915369034,
0.5930896997451782,
-0.02197974920272827,
-0.3755335211753845,
0.3831484615802765,
-0.055917710065841675,
-0.4364924430847168,
0.7385258078575134,
0.09942232817411423,
-0.6413105726242065,
-0.23162618279457092,
0.06433574855327606,
0.5665367245674133,
0.9256898164749146,
-0.16843923926353455,
-0.3025985062122345,
-0.11070189625024796,
0.24649754166603088,
-0.12155529856681824,
0.7057289481163025,
0.011109071783721447,
0.20724031329154968,
-0.2166786789894104,
-0.2733686566352844,
0.2166968733072281,
-0.884899914264679,
-0.4646000564098358,
-0.4011989235877991,
-0.4513203203678131,
0.5100722908973694,
-0.5029140710830688,
-0.4493473768234253,
0.00008990858623292297,
0.1887977570295334,
0.37026315927505493,
-0.6443299055099487,
0.03740530088543892,
0.2698739469051361,
0.016854500398039818,
-0.23817342519760132,
0.2988279461860657,
0.05247541144490242,
0.11699297279119492,
0.6872139573097229,
0.3688697814941406,
0.2934592664241791,
-0.7680610418319702,
0.4627440869808197,
-0.24210205674171448,
-0.5588250756263733,
0.12303755432367325,
0.5328027606010437,
-0.20059767365455627,
0.13693390786647797,
-0.08891655504703522,
-0.04106456786394119,
0.3361895680427551,
0.23895564675331116,
-0.09870003163814545,
-0.037276092916727066,
0.23930591344833374,
-0.08688240498304367,
0.26786938309669495,
0.07793059200048447,
-0.5432371497154236,
0.0044050258584320545,
0.30044397711753845,
0.611674964427948,
-0.25686609745025635,
0.07363584637641907,
-0.1121249869465828,
-0.33923470973968506,
-0.6170035600662231,
0.18709924817085266,
-0.07048674672842026,
0.021622197702527046,
0.45115187764167786,
-0.2654153108596802,
-0.20779109001159668,
0.047141969203948975,
0.7489468455314636,
0.16319622099399567,
0.6557363867759705,
0.03281518444418907,
-0.6140902042388916,
0.6662779450416565,
0.15843342244625092,
0.018912505358457565,
-0.15920473635196686,
0.002947852248325944,
-0.22239172458648682,
-0.08730315417051315,
0.16181492805480957,
0.2614232003688812,
0.3533940315246582,
-0.25265777111053467,
0.16106417775154114,
0.610270082950592,
0.160393625497818,
-0.2720646560192108,
-0.30831772089004517,
-1.1030687093734741,
0.17873410880565643,
-0.11589687317609787,
-0.13521260023117065,
0.7147899270057678,
0.5771546959877014,
-0.43428894877433777,
0.11699623614549637,
0.4119251072406769,
0.0012670079013332725,
0.42744848132133484,
-0.00866954866796732,
-0.4264625608921051,
-0.6350160837173462,
0.3701549768447876,
0.07468964159488678,
0.45495903491973877,
-0.7573343515396118,
-0.06052889674901962,
-0.18992237746715546,
0.20827104151248932,
-0.4328668713569641,
0.14406715333461761,
-0.4034042954444885,
-0.08736946433782578,
0.4192750155925751,
-0.2600580155849457,
0.09695282578468323,
-0.018576644361019135,
0.08548622578382492,
-0.5539063215255737,
0.087591253221035,
0.5846304893493652,
-0.44448918104171753,
0.06105735898017883,
0.3293553292751312,
0.10794055461883545,
0.13244077563285828,
0.6609982848167419,
-1.035028100013733,
-0.38077300786972046,
-0.2740546762943268,
-5.528785228729248,
0.1315479725599289,
-0.8478936553001404,
0.09456820785999298,
0.12175168842077255,
0.18666741251945496,
0.654154360294342,
0.037091340869665146,
-0.5446245670318604,
-0.045741550624370575,
-0.27498769760131836,
-0.26243796944618225,
0.19184532761573792,
-0.11827027797698975,
0.6765915751457214,
0.38222378492355347,
0.844143807888031,
0.10941638797521591,
0.16014251112937927,
-0.037655867636203766,
0.28198978304862976,
-0.09030506014823914,
0.22129599750041962,
0.6165645122528076,
0.4471713602542877,
0.5043652057647705,
-0.09686362743377686,
0.11568424850702286,
-0.16166387498378754,
0.020261410623788834,
0.5475332736968994,
0.48805341124534607,
0.2647923529148102,
-0.2516787052154541,
0.5010080337524414,
0.03418569266796112,
0.19481691718101501,
0.03190698102116585,
0.26984724402427673,
-0.23893454670906067,
-0.1194867193698883,
0.815647304058075,
0.7385830879211426,
0.2544177770614624,
0.7597681283950806,
-0.08019854128360748,
-0.24598091840744019,
-0.15916074812412262,
-0.5715272426605225,
-0.0028451813850551844,
-0.4250069558620453,
0.47215646505355835,
-0.37749552726745605,
-0.5415663123130798,
-0.23983855545520782,
0.12673957645893097,
-0.6481198668479919,
0.2931850552558899,
-0.4356497526168823,
0.13218992948532104,
0.17741042375564575,
-0.360074907541275,
-0.09371595084667206,
0.2422303557395935,
-0.2797692120075226,
-0.7450854778289795,
-1.0301918983459473,
-0.23532137274742126,
0.3854944705963135,
0.6958816051483154,
-0.7444226145744324,
-0.16381080448627472,
-0.003814693307504058,
-0.6163088083267212,
0.6120930910110474,
-0.13411448895931244,
0.5481838583946228,
0.8968816995620728,
-0.21315187215805054,
0.9587656855583191,
-0.10007794201374054,
-0.4094082713127136,
-0.323659747838974,
0.9801010489463806,
-0.06429041922092438,
-0.6036425828933716,
-0.6435038447380066,
0.2719626724720001,
-0.5986546874046326,
-0.3760231137275696,
-0.006973184645175934,
0.030504008755087852,
0.1294032335281372,
-0.34833091497421265,
-0.13417178392410278,
-0.628640353679657,
-0.538720428943634,
-0.31177985668182373,
-0.12547437846660614,
-0.27046072483062744,
0.5299042463302612,
-0.3405301570892334,
0.2529025375843048,
-1.3688116073608398,
-0.6440921425819397,
-0.20859429240226746,
-0.2866705656051636,
0.2584052085876465,
-0.10149266570806503,
-0.23963025212287903,
-0.0004901255015283823,
0.3600875437259674,
-0.5438351035118103,
0.5343382954597473,
-0.13417892158031464,
-0.21111637353897095,
-0.606248676776886,
-0.3375352919101715,
-0.13341401517391205,
0.017007533460855484,
0.08785773813724518,
0.4675826132297516,
-0.4226492643356323,
-0.8712906837463379,
-0.37903714179992676,
-0.11549976468086243,
-0.29836174845695496,
-0.3539295494556427,
-0.02897864766418934,
0.39256203174591064,
0.478646457195282,
0.5898298025131226,
-0.6073852181434631,
-0.27110183238983154,
-0.2709623873233795,
-0.19184520840644836,
-0.2400302141904831,
0.15224353969097137,
-0.2579326033592224,
-0.6791757345199585,
0.7613866925239563,
-0.30372896790504456,
0.6500204205513,
-0.3450949192047119,
0.49416056275367737,
0.07593473792076111,
0.07602768391370773,
-0.44828978180885315,
-0.09064440429210663,
0.36176592111587524,
0.2836538851261139,
-0.3620375394821167,
0.11239287257194519,
-0.49216869473457336,
0.1343303918838501,
-0.2117813229560852,
-0.18010464310646057,
0.571610152721405,
-0.13845621049404144,
-0.18314871191978455,
0.11645803600549698,
-0.18730835616588593,
-0.5083027482032776,
0.17485223710536957,
0.7056551575660706,
-0.23227012157440186,
-0.3296152949333191,
-0.24391306936740875,
0.36410605907440186,
1.0106648206710815,
0.39789319038391113,
-1.0033302307128906,
-0.055739499628543854,
0.015609611757099628,
0.37367019057273865,
0.43891435861587524,
0.09751066565513611,
-0.5925503969192505,
0.0015437621623277664,
-0.2402482032775879,
0.2951510548591614,
-0.38433361053466797,
-0.24885831773281097,
0.4084312617778778,
0.031236713752150536,
-0.15550050139427185,
-0.7109566926956177,
0.361890971660614,
-0.42236825823783875,
-0.4594660997390747,
0.22544360160827637,
-0.3197064697742462,
0.87353515625,
-0.11450445652008057,
-0.9896579384803772,
-0.2892281413078308,
0.22895070910453796,
1.3756482601165771,
-0.3037315309047699,
-0.2859678566455841,
0.16342918574810028,
0.3278367817401886,
-0.31962716579437256,
-0.1118035539984703,
0.4131065905094147,
-0.5077685713768005,
0.4112660586833954,
0.28839975595474243,
-0.7615610957145691,
0.44988182187080383,
-0.21973323822021484,
-0.8609156608581543,
-0.4539479911327362,
0.24412165582180023,
-0.3096059262752533,
0.23259222507476807,
0.3057483434677124,
-0.15329617261886597,
0.07446150481700897,
-0.8208819031715393,
-0.3134053945541382,
0.362164169549942,
-0.7463650107383728,
-0.004639578517526388,
0.17557920515537262,
0.183719664812088,
0.37008312344551086,
-0.20111744105815887,
0.14553743600845337,
-0.26825934648513794,
-0.2586766481399536,
-0.37465715408325195,
0.13837943971157074,
0.11627577245235443,
0.5546374320983887,
0.681563138961792,
-0.28841865062713623,
-0.03516518324613571,
0.2123229205608368,
0.1900462955236435,
-0.04052117094397545,
0.5177974700927734,
0.6693293452262878,
-0.46407654881477356,
-0.6957306265830994,
0.4709053039550781,
0.783957302570343,
-0.9793433547019958,
-0.7891305685043335,
1.1383410692214966,
-0.2000056803226471,
-0.5604823231697083,
-0.653373658657074,
0.011014931835234165,
0.36397412419319153,
-0.43836233019828796,
0.1795966774225235,
-0.07298614829778671,
0.02633732557296753,
0.36617332696914673,
0.21998895704746246,
0.496554434299469,
-0.7327728271484375,
0.020635560154914856,
0.30139464139938354,
0.27708715200424194,
0.5426114797592163,
-0.4393325746059418,
0.48353129625320435,
-0.2462800294160843,
0.053275953978300095,
-0.08458261936903,
-0.23965105414390564,
0.2063768059015274,
0.3490825295448303,
-0.03727218881249428,
-0.15045936405658722,
-0.37706348299980164,
-0.16805660724639893,
-0.13715589046478271,
0.4424670934677124,
0.039578549563884735,
0.7873609066009521,
-0.17747586965560913,
0.13103999197483063,
-0.29641905426979065,
-0.23134952783584595,
-0.22697462141513824,
-0.314060777425766,
0.15705272555351257,
0.1293269693851471,
-0.5106512904167175,
-0.45970210433006287,
-0.20772892236709595,
-0.7005046606063843,
0.631626307964325,
-0.19763369858264923,
-0.31875079870224,
-0.08783794194459915,
-0.43319687247276306,
0.32041114568710327,
1.1679563522338867,
0.00872799102216959,
-0.29180708527565,
-0.5740870237350464,
0.08355817943811417,
-0.23809882998466492,
-0.18194454908370972,
0.06596493721008301,
-0.30555394291877747,
-0.035825375467538834,
-0.3131846487522125,
0.27376216650009155,
0.5541898012161255,
-0.14983738958835602,
-0.8142020106315613,
0.663894534111023,
0.25323042273521423,
-0.5436332821846008,
0.7424317002296448,
-0.24844448268413544,
0.22738440334796906,
0.8665070533752441,
-0.041846245527267456,
-0.5111861824989319,
0.11031906306743622,
-0.11829536408185959,
-0.6138330698013306,
0.23536807298660278,
0.441497802734375,
0.3957308828830719,
0.5013232231140137,
-0.40003660321235657,
-0.09931128472089767,
0.015198885463178158,
-0.5926814675331116,
-0.11033127456903458,
-0.11414341628551483,
-0.03952127695083618,
0.8860663771629333,
-0.1799154281616211,
0.5995944738388062,
-0.2885356545448303,
0.29924070835113525,
0.07306153327226639,
0.3731045722961426,
-0.04872092232108116,
-0.8411768674850464,
0.8761689066886902,
0.24995017051696777,
1.2712923288345337,
0.2761717140674591,
-0.04934225603938103,
0.07887664437294006,
0.1616700291633606,
-0.3006000518798828,
0.05067374184727669,
-0.29958322644233704,
-0.2597420811653137,
0.28608131408691406,
-0.00589774688705802,
0.5790184736251831,
0.6663244366645813,
-0.322480708360672,
-0.4350227117538452,
-0.4034745991230011,
0.07623736560344696,
-0.09950700402259827,
-0.3294961452484131,
0.33898746967315674,
0.3590814471244812,
0.3999251127243042,
-0.05219149962067604,
0.04467559978365898,
0.5892061591148376,
-0.16472011804580688,
0.49581626057624817,
0.3893636167049408,
0.46715247631073,
-0.029040057212114334,
-0.18974575400352478,
-0.18518158793449402,
-0.7511854767799377,
-1.022505760192871,
0.23807409405708313,
-0.32025277614593506,
0.16895002126693726,
-0.09054043889045715,
-0.9423938393592834,
-0.029097100719809532,
0.40824636816978455,
-0.6692739129066467,
-0.5651903748512268,
-0.7669972777366638,
-0.8583441972732544,
-1.0756951570510864,
0.023750923573970795,
0.6614491939544678,
0.11557424068450928,
0.1547219157218933,
0.33633294701576233,
0.28705117106437683,
-0.15158438682556152,
0.3976692259311676,
-0.4461566209793091,
0.7581306099891663,
-0.2125483751296997,
0.18937352299690247,
-0.3667818307876587,
0.27426621317863464,
1.1325442790985107,
-0.8199263215065002,
-0.041397575289011,
0.5223369598388672,
-0.2542860805988312,
0.2616426348686218,
0.46150219440460205,
-0.34616249799728394,
-0.23702754080295563,
-0.4639821946620941,
0.23516753315925598,
0.2084134966135025,
0.06177721917629242,
0.1648673266172409,
-0.1459408849477768,
0.22677350044250488,
0.7784715294837952,
-0.010095479898154736,
-0.04050225019454956,
0.7913556098937988,
-0.7577852010726929,
0.37748804688453674,
-0.34193316102027893,
0.13858869671821594,
-0.12775786221027374,
-0.21926972270011902,
0.4138401448726654,
0.33214548230171204,
-0.9558417201042175,
0.0821392834186554,
0.09777476638555527,
-0.07347749918699265,
0.17742127180099487,
0.04563886299729347,
0.17623040080070496,
0.026117878034710884,
-0.3237111270427704,
-0.34535887837409973,
-0.5641427636146545,
0.4144957959651947,
0.6028626561164856,
0.7356374263763428,
-0.08500558137893677,
-0.1270827054977417,
0.5202754735946655,
-0.30715543031692505,
-0.18731573224067688,
-0.6223508715629578,
0.4042675495147705,
0.17710499465465546
] |
200119
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Dowiyogo
|
Bernard Dowiyogo
|
Bernard Annen Auwen Dowiyogo (14 February 1946 – 9 March 2003) was a Nauruan politician who served as President of Nauru on seven separate occasions. During this time, he also served as a Member of Parliament for the constituency of Ubenide.
Background and early career
Dowiyogo was born in Nauru on 14 February 1946. He first became an elected member of Nauru's 18-seat parliament in 1973. Particularly in his earlier years in the Parliament of Nauru Dowiyogo was seen as an opponent of Nauru's first post-independence President, Hammer DeRoburt. Dowiyogo founded the Nauru Institute of Media and Communications which operated between 1984 and 1996 but due to financial difficulties was closed in 1997.
President of Nauru
He served his first term as President from 1976 to 1978 after ousting Hammer DeRoburt. Over the next 25 years, Dowiyogo served as President several times, for periods as long as six years (1989–1995) and as short as 8 days (in January 2003). He was the youngest president in Nauru. During the 1980s, he sharply criticized France and the United States for atomic weapons testing in Nauru.
In 1990, Dowiyogo was awarded the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal.
Death
He died in office in March 2003 (having been president on this occasion since January 2003) at George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C. from heart complications brought on by his struggle with diabetes, a common ailment on Nauru. At the time of the deterioration of his final illness, he had been engaged in protracted negotiations with the United States Government.
Family
Dowiyogo had eight children with his wife, Christina Dowiyogo (died March 2008):
Clara Augusta Alefaio (née Dowiyogo) who served at the Nauru education Department but now resides in New Zealand
Valdon Kape Dowiyogo, who served as Speaker of the Parliament of Nauru,
Jesaulenko Dowiyogo, who served as diplomat and later Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Nauru Fisheries and Marine Resources Authority,
Junior Dowiyogo who served as Commissioner for Police in the Nauru Police Force
Peter Jason Dowiyogo who worked at the Nauru Post Office, David Dowiyogo who is employed at the Republic of Nauru Hospital
Jeff Dowiyogo who currently resides in Australia
Zita Dowiyogo who now Serves at the Nauru Immigration Office.
References
1946 births
2003 deaths
Deaths from diabetes
Democratic Party of Nauru politicians
Members of the Parliament of Nauru
Nauruan politicians of Japanese descent
Nauruan people of i-Kiribati descent
Nauruan politicians
Presidents of Nauru
|
[
-0.3575463593006134,
0.4167761504650116,
-0.5524755716323853,
-0.19515693187713623,
-0.45959994196891785,
0.8520086407661438,
0.5553750991821289,
-0.17420686781406403,
-0.4538985788822174,
0.2766539454460144,
0.22328491508960724,
0.4096999168395996,
-0.3489653766155243,
0.8108478784561157,
0.33949142694473267,
-0.199393168091774,
-0.1836390495300293,
0.37193188071250916,
-0.4044249653816223,
-0.05459491163492203,
-0.3776874542236328,
-0.34841546416282654,
-0.25061237812042236,
0.3408450186252594,
0.06127644702792168,
0.5897282958030701,
0.35657188296318054,
0.013276376761496067,
0.28614360094070435,
-0.2264641374349594,
0.23615460097789764,
0.7018109560012817,
0.0230900589376688,
-0.09935605525970459,
-0.5002003312110901,
-0.2808515727519989,
0.11108896881341934,
-0.7644985914230347,
-0.4587737023830414,
0.39237967133522034,
-0.26255711913108826,
0.30103495717048645,
0.386305570602417,
0.5468335747718811,
0.19062386453151703,
-0.7712494134902954,
-1.2200052738189697,
-0.10908694565296173,
-0.5901084542274475,
0.033485621213912964,
-0.4314694404602051,
0.2045285403728485,
0.6045577526092529,
-0.15557774901390076,
0.44335246086120605,
-0.013615093193948269,
-0.3440314531326294,
0.1778852343559265,
-0.6877976655960083,
-0.5595645904541016,
-0.12644141912460327,
-0.17771682143211365,
0.1708792746067047,
-0.3805530071258545,
0.2240123152732849,
0.09815108776092529,
0.28550034761428833,
0.11726094037294388,
-0.4211692810058594,
-0.10572955012321472,
-0.2937426269054413,
0.2899119555950165,
0.3009845018386841,
0.44566890597343445,
0.38998979330062866,
-0.48605868220329285,
0.24204225838184357,
-0.07273674756288528,
0.14795508980751038,
0.11515434831380844,
-0.6635605692863464,
-0.5873653292655945,
0.5729475617408752,
0.4825187027454376,
-0.1484360694885254,
0.05414247140288353,
0.04538772255182266,
0.425411194562912,
-0.048960261046886444,
0.6837918758392334,
-1.24080491065979,
-0.5662381052970886,
-0.20379282534122467,
-0.06988870352506638,
-0.5900350213050842,
-0.1817682683467865,
-0.10464680194854736,
0.5073196291923523,
-0.0642647072672844,
0.006581591442227364,
-0.03881257027387619,
-0.6453859806060791,
0.34859731793403625,
-0.06295391917228699,
-0.8679096698760986,
-0.5150157809257507,
-0.5741844177246094,
-0.2800813615322113,
-0.35434502363204956,
-1.4070889949798584,
-0.6210196018218994,
0.28801241517066956,
-0.2933850884437561,
0.06643380224704742,
0.35755792260169983,
0.24723531305789948,
-0.14334966242313385,
-0.43565115332603455,
-0.17196990549564362,
-0.2722761929035187,
0.0029084496200084686,
0.35220012068748474,
-0.11994269490242004,
-0.23279239237308502,
-0.47928887605667114,
0.15643663704395294,
0.022351352497935295,
-0.15330897271633148,
-0.516273558139801,
0.6474564671516418,
0.58022141456604,
0.5140576362609863,
-0.47906067967414856,
-0.22536517679691315,
-0.2641432285308838,
-0.5721710324287415,
0.4903658330440521,
-0.2330939918756485,
0.18357011675834656,
-0.31406325101852417,
-0.3184707462787628,
-0.044831860810518265,
-1.5786888599395752,
0.04365969076752663,
0.5199554562568665,
0.4137982130050659,
0.06344152987003326,
-0.15258543193340302,
0.014916591346263885,
-0.3216082453727722,
-0.17235495150089264,
0.11263266205787659,
0.33028414845466614,
-0.12702350318431854,
-0.3311401307582855,
0.6507953405380249,
0.5713330507278442,
-0.21307721734046936,
0.2570537328720093,
0.22359724342823029,
0.6829745769500732,
0.18940474092960358,
-0.2270103543996811,
0.1351901888847351,
0.4771389365196228,
0.15081758797168732,
0.03774522989988327,
0.01792338117957115,
0.3379918932914734,
0.22402244806289673,
-0.44958415627479553,
-0.13570381700992584,
0.1104385256767273,
-0.7243991494178772,
-0.5089249014854431,
0.30924245715141296,
0.5822428464889526,
-0.06552106887102127,
0.06629320979118347,
-0.24824965000152588,
-0.6722901463508606,
-0.7232972979545593,
0.23062171041965485,
0.4743499755859375,
0.48371878266334534,
0.2321736365556717,
0.27256909012794495,
-0.009580804966390133,
1.0825470685958862,
0.33479228615760803,
-0.2758994400501251,
-0.5236857533454895,
0.23884429037570953,
-0.3779345452785492,
0.2542266547679901,
0.651271641254425,
-0.20755822956562042,
1.0962696075439453,
0.16518643498420715,
0.5585635304450989,
-0.5333406925201416,
0.5907569527626038,
-0.279869019985199,
-0.6570382118225098,
-0.2637152373790741,
1.77448308467865,
0.28296494483947754,
0.6870093941688538,
-0.047251105308532715,
1.5474510192871094,
0.4340832829475403,
-0.4942880868911743,
-0.3052383363246918,
0.41309529542922974,
-0.23098820447921753,
-0.5332907438278198,
0.17811517417430878,
-0.11756578087806702,
-0.07337020337581635,
-0.03220187872648239,
0.37193161249160767,
0.49429458379745483,
-0.24199281632900238,
1.2984355688095093,
0.7128742933273315,
1.0160936117172241,
0.09454169869422913,
0.1629251390695572,
-0.21225948631763458,
-0.3559584319591522,
0.6781599521636963,
0.30318447947502136,
0.4814320206642151,
-0.6885846853256226,
0.31764206290245056,
0.21193896234035492,
0.28052639961242676,
-0.32374414801597595,
0.2573617100715637,
-0.22907966375350952,
0.6298844218254089,
-0.118484266102314,
-0.3524673283100128,
0.29586225748062134,
0.0946410596370697,
0.6212443113327026,
-0.20134763419628143,
0.026006357744336128,
-0.038872361183166504,
0.3641508221626282,
0.37799444794654846,
0.30220115184783936,
0.6661137342453003,
0.07574412226676941,
0.6032366752624512,
-0.33975932002067566,
-0.46547257900238037,
-0.32602065801620483,
-0.1544000506401062,
0.09006933867931366,
0.17870266735553741,
-0.3495197296142578,
0.032403986901044846,
0.26287275552749634,
0.05819382146000862,
-0.3559667468070984,
0.35819411277770996,
-0.2967759370803833,
0.007095406763255596,
-0.25623536109924316,
-0.23255912959575653,
-0.24817098677158356,
-0.3912736475467682,
-1.5326100587844849,
0.452921986579895,
-0.14274898171424866,
-0.5350122451782227,
0.4203980565071106,
-0.5197484493255615,
-0.5718631148338318,
1.265259861946106,
0.6089264750480652,
-0.34622010588645935,
-0.04682895913720131,
-0.33779746294021606,
0.10912276059389114,
-0.13917729258537292,
-0.5944867134094238,
-0.5126962661743164,
0.21060816943645477,
-0.5087709426879883,
0.36094844341278076,
0.11726849526166916,
-0.11085938662290573,
-0.28917136788368225,
-0.10739415138959885,
-0.4205860197544098,
-0.5443227291107178,
0.8636612296104431,
-0.7690214514732361,
0.5415635108947754,
-0.18889528512954712,
-0.38685426115989685,
0.22024744749069214,
0.49550727009773254,
-0.011565086431801319,
0.26422449946403503,
-0.6156322360038757,
-5.087084770202637,
-0.005655108951032162,
0.33223962783813477,
0.003157274331897497,
-0.08129914104938507,
0.45907628536224365,
0.3924908936023712,
-0.36643099784851074,
0.6016887426376343,
-0.7768200039863586,
0.12865900993347168,
0.258099764585495,
0.17017419636249542,
0.4486880302429199,
0.3717633783817291,
0.6008666157722473,
0.5797616243362427,
-0.3256324529647827,
0.846512496471405,
0.4654264450073242,
-0.05508740618824959,
0.054005470126867294,
-0.5924589037895203,
0.013312242925167084,
0.3183569610118866,
0.15957511961460114,
0.12115001678466797,
-0.3237925171852112,
-0.6800022125244141,
-0.7133259177207947,
-0.025849847123026848,
0.4618420898914337,
-0.06389445066452026,
0.2673511505126953,
-0.660971462726593,
-0.333403617143631,
0.4585912525653839,
0.7986125349998474,
-0.10260892659425735,
-0.14948682487010956,
0.09304153174161911,
-0.4185379147529602,
-0.35374099016189575,
0.236341193318367,
0.023658260703086853,
-0.043844159692525864,
-0.6011453866958618,
-0.37718433141708374,
-0.293571412563324,
0.5913125872612,
-0.23582053184509277,
0.3042280375957489,
0.6743090748786926,
0.046075038611888885,
0.20665699243545532,
0.2208583801984787,
-0.030442574992775917,
-0.04274239018559456,
-1.2249428033828735,
0.7537463307380676,
0.43996819853782654,
-0.3854779005050659,
-0.12990802526474,
-0.3156994581222534,
-0.6710702180862427,
0.017347609624266624,
0.437758207321167,
0.32162368297576904,
0.03427530825138092,
-0.3264385461807251,
-0.20112720131874084,
0.4895859658718109,
-0.19792164862155914,
-0.8308704495429993,
0.1671958714723587,
-0.5556460618972778,
-0.17599593102931976,
0.6678544282913208,
-0.8846786618232727,
-0.4862450659275055,
-0.21928787231445312,
-0.3037111461162567,
-0.5422220826148987,
0.82952880859375,
0.22856739163398743,
-0.3853354752063751,
-0.03296748921275139,
0.43628495931625366,
0.209889218211174,
0.16366475820541382,
-0.15927748382091522,
-0.3452627956867218,
0.11053716391324997,
0.2302873134613037,
0.40210413932800293,
-0.2079232931137085,
-0.0029114270582795143,
-0.09802330285310745,
0.7084640264511108,
-0.5800447463989258,
-0.43610680103302,
-0.07210839539766312,
-0.1978757679462433,
-0.39014166593551636,
0.36038854718208313,
0.3944908678531647,
-0.31288930773735046,
-0.3859042525291443,
0.19750037789344788,
0.6528944373130798,
0.5955025553703308,
0.06644771993160248,
-0.22478550672531128,
0.36703428626060486,
0.6334795355796814,
0.018863152712583542,
-0.3681075870990753,
0.2603602111339569,
0.41885659098625183,
0.5518118739128113,
0.1416524052619934,
0.5042409896850586,
-0.2016914188861847,
0.06351970881223679,
0.46514326333999634,
-0.0036791686434298754,
0.24739721417427063,
-0.08190181851387024,
-0.27853521704673767,
0.2524614930152893,
0.2333819568157196,
0.6770428419113159,
0.2410222589969635,
-0.25409427285194397,
0.4213877022266388,
-0.1726314127445221,
-0.16505461931228638,
-0.8626949191093445,
0.22758954763412476,
-0.00946600642055273,
-0.164829820394516,
-0.6013975143432617,
0.3467976450920105,
0.4287779927253723,
0.41131046414375305,
0.054214563220739365,
-0.2545703947544098,
-0.18534307181835175,
-0.45238131284713745,
0.7267977595329285,
-0.30990371108055115,
-0.38126620650291443,
0.4560292661190033,
-0.7806479334831238,
-0.2492441087961197,
-0.21587297320365906,
-0.3949732184410095,
-0.24983546137809753,
-0.4519731104373932,
0.020257486030459404,
0.5268229246139526,
-0.46483927965164185,
-1.1918458938598633,
-0.04901867359876633,
-0.07805722206830978,
0.4314917325973511,
-0.5446251034736633,
0.03736938163638115,
-0.5212029218673706,
0.857225775718689,
0.21209463477134705,
-0.21176187694072723,
-0.43283000588417053,
0.014434645883738995,
0.12530511617660522,
-0.7942438721656799,
0.368078351020813,
0.5412126779556274,
-0.0719471275806427,
-0.012507552281022072,
-0.547927975654602,
0.37263205647468567,
-0.07160204648971558,
-0.12974035739898682,
0.30262675881385803,
-0.4911407232284546,
-0.5555301308631897,
-0.22777564823627472,
0.08131440728902817,
0.13180740177631378,
0.06013161689043045,
0.4123605191707611,
-0.026301251724362373,
0.4054099917411804,
-0.17163214087486267,
-0.5353031754493713,
-0.22396023571491241,
-0.45257341861724854,
-0.13713301718235016,
-0.5081357955932617,
-0.0656794086098671,
0.21119838953018188,
-0.198922798037529,
0.13748431205749512,
-0.5881311297416687,
-0.5302764773368835,
0.07714841514825821,
0.09110535681247711,
0.3596491813659668,
0.2546079754829407,
-0.31620025634765625,
-0.6130838990211487,
-0.37761378288269043,
0.718451976776123,
-0.3123641908168793,
0.15577800571918488,
0.23736704885959625,
-0.0030786253046244383,
-0.1050039604306221,
-0.8678262829780579,
-0.39859288930892944,
-0.15465876460075378,
-0.24591147899627686,
0.16546782851219177,
-0.4569137394428253,
0.4454476833343506,
0.3331405222415924,
-0.0556345209479332,
0.37796854972839355,
0.3021555244922638,
-0.3949410915374756,
-0.5389170050621033,
0.2503616213798523,
0.4322863519191742,
-0.33157315850257874,
0.07568065077066422,
0.026647767052054405,
0.5419524908065796,
0.13014698028564453,
-0.04227890446782112,
0.09266520291566849,
1.4352242946624756,
0.500784158706665,
-0.6127423644065857,
0.20258332788944244,
0.2219240367412567,
0.17112013697624207,
-0.36729952692985535,
-0.4443211853504181,
0.42396190762519836,
0.16992127895355225,
0.27278193831443787,
-0.47237658500671387,
-0.2887508273124695,
-0.06542764604091644,
-0.6930928826332092,
-0.2886796295642853,
-0.04937168210744858,
0.7218360304832458,
-0.1774158775806427,
-0.023585570976138115,
0.40069082379341125,
0.3172191083431244,
-0.1486155390739441,
0.08595579117536545,
0.6451985239982605,
-0.4639793634414673,
0.11750885844230652,
0.181132972240448,
-0.5125975012779236,
-0.6751594543457031,
-0.23421669006347656,
-0.42668721079826355,
0.0790572240948677,
-0.2630947232246399,
0.08946938067674637,
0.03813157603144646,
0.18438127636909485,
0.13455303013324738,
-0.6138918399810791,
0.25819316506385803,
-0.1113765761256218,
0.08828024566173553,
-0.056881580501794815,
-0.1579250544309616,
-0.8280359506607056,
-0.08854503184556961,
0.1808518022298813,
-0.24100741744041443,
-0.05440893769264221,
-0.34905704855918884,
0.3774254620075226,
-0.27661335468292236,
0.4424703121185303,
-0.4027039110660553,
0.2943136990070343,
-0.020579591393470764,
0.8542776107788086,
-0.5773812532424927,
-0.36504054069519043,
0.00900739524513483,
0.1938447207212448,
0.689302384853363,
0.15859484672546387,
0.13633255660533905,
-0.5557424426078796,
-0.16411390900611877,
-0.37121522426605225,
-0.0699114203453064,
0.2818257808685303,
0.4275731146335602,
0.14601589739322662,
0.17946135997772217,
0.0014505292056128383,
-0.8706238269805908,
0.18466463685035706,
0.4258424639701843,
-0.5917667746543884,
-0.34575963020324707,
-0.011670850217342377,
0.25919806957244873,
-0.5807416439056396,
0.3596305251121521,
0.02022990956902504,
1.059746503829956,
0.8466110825538635,
-0.19071064889431,
0.20448853075504303,
0.14386767148971558,
0.3520636260509491,
-0.5732648968696594,
-0.27274593710899353,
-0.2399563193321228,
-0.010258859023451805,
-0.10691158473491669,
-0.2062574028968811,
-0.11693815886974335,
-0.6131766438484192,
0.12085936218500137,
0.3949946165084839,
0.2824653387069702,
1.3786801099777222,
-0.29834938049316406,
-0.09347552806138992,
0.7021906971931458,
0.06224439665675163,
-0.3360081911087036,
0.9931164383888245,
0.3667071461677551,
0.024883177131414413,
0.4865773320198059,
-0.043887365609407425,
0.27488765120506287,
-0.573578417301178,
-0.346780389547348,
0.23555660247802734,
0.47580686211586,
-0.13952521979808807,
0.09584660828113556,
-0.5792684555053711,
-0.205909863114357,
-0.6699094176292419,
0.5973407626152039,
0.4148692786693573,
0.6804091930389404,
-0.649890661239624,
0.18048876523971558,
-0.236418217420578,
-0.12420868873596191,
0.14512386918067932,
0.2367079108953476,
-0.4373674988746643,
-0.0014707461232319474,
-0.10052631795406342,
0.17352333664894104,
0.144103541970253,
0.2969323992729187,
-0.45948880910873413,
-0.36312443017959595,
0.09316840767860413,
-0.2488192915916443,
0.3106572926044464,
0.22714464366436005,
-0.013872753828763962,
0.0465322770178318,
-0.05322946235537529,
-0.21056655049324036,
0.42488816380500793,
-0.34997230768203735,
0.022386668249964714,
0.8239341378211975,
-0.1297009438276291,
-0.36326536536216736,
0.7321217060089111,
-0.26113271713256836,
0.023356737568974495,
-0.4375174939632416,
1.0766884088516235,
0.8120231628417969,
-0.49205127358436584,
-0.3874194025993347,
0.6327096819877625,
-0.30321037769317627,
0.05912081152200699,
-0.16158869862556458,
0.06060557812452316,
-0.5468172430992126,
0.50740647315979,
-1.0104836225509644,
0.7980144023895264,
-0.03635143116116524,
0.3354945480823517,
-0.6867055892944336,
0.5487348437309265,
-0.4350709915161133,
0.5831632614135742,
0.6311407089233398,
-0.3850899040699005,
-0.3243744671344757,
-0.13258510828018188,
0.1329350471496582,
-0.02111443504691124,
0.13640093803405762,
0.4164302945137024,
0.33864280581474304,
-0.21423789858818054,
-0.17800459265708923,
0.3196936845779419,
-0.2547273635864258,
0.4869111478328705,
-0.49873730540275574,
-0.40951669216156006,
0.026785263791680336,
-0.3597765862941742,
-0.33870479464530945,
-0.28079745173454285,
0.728003203868866,
0.8082718849182129,
0.3452143669128418,
-0.13643194735050201,
-0.14722967147827148,
-0.3550264537334442,
0.25580549240112305,
-0.26800909638404846,
-2.8131775856018066,
-0.2872152328491211,
0.14413979649543762,
-0.30375492572784424,
0.0014706854708492756,
-0.6267701387405396,
0.39321354031562805,
-0.3128466010093689,
0.4126026928424835,
-0.652521014213562,
0.639979362487793,
-0.3037847578525543,
0.28074324131011963,
-0.08693311363458633,
0.4679539203643799,
-0.14448118209838867
] |
200121
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Buddhism
|
Timeline of Buddhism
|
The purpose of this timeline is to give a detailed account of Buddhism from the birth of Gautama Buddha to the present.
Timeline of events
Dates
6th–5th century BCE
4th century BCE
3rd century BCE
2nd century BCE
1st century BCE
1st century
2nd century
3rd century
4th century
5th century
6th century
7th century
8th century
9th century
10th century
11th century
12th century
13th century
14th century
15th century
16th century
17th century
18th century
19th century
20th century
21st century
See also
History of Buddhism
History of Hinduism
Ordination of women in Buddhism
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Timeline of Jainism
Timeline of Zen Buddhism in the United States
References
Sources
Printed sources
Web-sources
External links
Theravada Buddhist Chronology
Asakawa, K and Lodge, Henry Cabot (Ed.). Japan From the Japanese Government History. (In Progress at Project Gutenberg)
Buddhist Bark Texts Found, BuddhaNet.
A Buddhist Time-line
Rock cut canon in China
First Sri Lankan Buddhist mission to Germany 1957
Buddhism
|
[
0.3440743088722229,
0.2420443445444107,
-0.650766909122467,
-0.37490659952163696,
-0.42437124252319336,
-0.16256274282932281,
1.0210518836975098,
0.24813055992126465,
-0.5092800855636597,
-0.19278599321842194,
-0.5198120474815369,
-0.15780003368854523,
-0.15848158299922943,
0.20778051018714905,
-0.31389015913009644,
-0.16439317166805267,
0.8328117728233337,
0.025057930499315262,
0.24538525938987732,
-0.31696832180023193,
-0.41466930508613586,
0.25081658363342285,
-0.002452691551297903,
0.042876724153757095,
0.07550172507762909,
-0.30812662839889526,
-0.07177485525608063,
-0.11763747781515121,
-0.21500426530838013,
-0.46785154938697815,
-0.2683826982975006,
0.2715819180011749,
0.1850569099187851,
0.10304208099842072,
-0.0697823241353035,
-0.1222657859325409,
0.1557016521692276,
0.41729679703712463,
-0.33317041397094727,
-0.18678981065750122,
-0.24851980805397034,
0.055817313492298126,
0.03343096747994423,
0.18511828780174255,
-0.02121788263320923,
-0.2936626076698303,
-1.4682259559631348,
0.2443045824766159,
-0.8121666312217712,
0.1789785623550415,
-0.40093353390693665,
-0.11132169514894485,
0.44149544835090637,
0.09129037708044052,
-0.05856595188379288,
0.4854744076728821,
-0.7349885702133179,
0.2337058186531067,
-0.13613811135292053,
0.19117315113544464,
0.2634153664112091,
0.030514907091856003,
0.6036356091499329,
-0.23949015140533447,
-0.055321089923381805,
-0.18763937056064606,
-0.30348706245422363,
0.32895907759666443,
0.19807569682598114,
-0.28205716609954834,
-0.003745475085452199,
-0.24169082939624786,
-0.10927069932222366,
0.8834615349769592,
-0.5433807969093323,
-0.7553421258926392,
0.21539850533008575,
-0.10541749745607376,
-0.0682767778635025,
-1.0168646574020386,
-0.5323905348777771,
0.556902289390564,
0.304852157831192,
-0.06139155849814415,
0.272216796875,
-0.4582713842391968,
-0.2189406007528305,
-0.3329935371875763,
-0.16916432976722717,
0.27118268609046936,
-0.0693884789943695,
0.5486733317375183,
0.5554537773132324,
0.17261001467704773,
-0.5802455544471741,
-0.5589017868041992,
-0.20039331912994385,
0.09503728896379471,
0.48374876379966736,
-0.27035096287727356,
-0.17719070613384247,
0.5537039637565613,
0.4710415303707123,
-0.4463011622428894,
-0.30688565969467163,
-0.4979694187641144,
0.1458643227815628,
0.24240368604660034,
-0.433158278465271,
-0.10203477740287781,
-0.7592511773109436,
0.29301735758781433,
-0.33783113956451416,
0.3423597514629364,
-0.04989323765039444,
0.44661760330200195,
-0.26698631048202515,
-0.9567102193832397,
-0.1931307464838028,
-0.32811951637268066,
-0.23259803652763367,
0.723626971244812,
0.10507410764694214,
0.2653590440750122,
0.2631775438785553,
0.3809548020362854,
0.7456165552139282,
0.5090096592903137,
-0.292201429605484,
0.20731283724308014,
-0.3727545738220215,
0.583016037940979,
-0.25244587659835815,
-0.46701353788375854,
-0.3389902412891388,
-0.01490689255297184,
0.9302042722702026,
0.7658360004425049,
-0.054711584001779556,
0.21954970061779022,
-0.3765462338924408,
-0.09501634538173676,
-0.8229694366455078,
0.10338912904262543,
0.43681710958480835,
-0.2725076377391815,
-0.003304216545075178,
-0.13986338675022125,
-0.81853848695755,
-0.2123662680387497,
-0.5932065844535828,
0.07872727513313293,
-0.06126492843031883,
0.13611096143722534,
0.018776098266243935,
0.8213607668876648,
0.6535660028457642,
0.5803398489952087,
-0.06477633863687515,
-0.18920107185840607,
0.1689678430557251,
-0.33962053060531616,
0.23675790429115295,
-0.05830995365977287,
0.2225034087896347,
-0.4466440975666046,
0.30747145414352417,
0.6873632073402405,
-0.16116315126419067,
-0.42049944400787354,
-0.6461430191993713,
-0.10450092703104019,
-0.3008771538734436,
-0.13208025693893433,
-0.524745523929596,
0.183790922164917,
0.2937368154525757,
0.461887389421463,
-0.22397667169570923,
0.0045053050853312016,
-0.9126883149147034,
0.2813395857810974,
0.16681262850761414,
-0.21470385789871216,
0.5595550537109375,
-0.0060823229141533375,
0.3510895371437073,
0.7086591124534607,
0.2862616181373596,
0.4139426052570343,
-0.4148107171058655,
0.18613603711128235,
0.11398603022098541,
-0.4665159285068512,
0.647603452205658,
0.33199068903923035,
0.07491619139909744,
1.1841038465499878,
-0.03466849774122238,
0.700057327747345,
0.004898293409496546,
-0.22357474267482758,
-0.2479557991027832,
0.3190750181674957,
-0.040904704481363297,
0.49025893211364746,
-0.20037484169006348,
0.32500988245010376,
1.1843035221099854,
0.22030553221702576,
0.28420954942703247,
0.28243115544319153,
-0.343488872051239,
0.02765311673283577,
-0.1863519698381424,
0.604128360748291,
-0.26872435212135315,
-0.055562570691108704,
-0.017833370715379715,
-0.8380563855171204,
0.7174351811408997,
0.19069254398345947,
0.4576190412044525,
-0.012457030825316906,
0.3283575773239136,
1.0071940422058105,
0.07027464359998703,
0.5832152366638184,
0.258727103471756,
-0.775999903678894,
0.2454693615436554,
-0.533854067325592,
0.26758354902267456,
0.24074900150299072,
0.4561365246772766,
-0.13457797467708588,
-0.1864803284406662,
-0.6986262202262878,
0.30103689432144165,
-0.2319859117269516,
0.768524169921875,
-0.41388359665870667,
-0.1009107306599617,
0.17240986227989197,
0.10248949378728867,
-0.09292523562908173,
-0.2886017858982086,
-0.13310422003269196,
-1.0576587915420532,
-0.1054074689745903,
0.2296888530254364,
0.31305739283561707,
0.5314524173736572,
0.19810667634010315,
-0.424763560295105,
-0.11533309519290924,
-0.5342206358909607,
0.16845302283763885,
0.35922110080718994,
0.40588587522506714,
0.07509901374578476,
-0.156717911362648,
0.3554711937904358,
0.1617833822965622,
-0.34124991297721863,
-0.2822934687137604,
0.03897174075245857,
-0.30234941840171814,
0.4973803758621216,
0.03178419917821884,
0.46792158484458923,
-0.6303586363792419,
-0.5287254452705383,
-0.3037475645542145,
-0.015195980668067932,
-0.9781688451766968,
0.36106443405151367,
0.2769573926925659,
-0.26069360971450806,
-0.3020198941230774,
-0.2657879590988159,
0.4886038303375244,
0.08773399889469147,
-0.6760095953941345,
-0.28689876198768616,
-0.3450660705566406,
-0.12116910517215729,
-0.4714053273200989,
0.4160606265068054,
0.34336310625076294,
0.5622534155845642,
0.4684360921382904,
-0.1423095464706421,
-0.5822023153305054,
0.6264286637306213,
0.522796630859375,
0.03995734825730324,
0.04458639398217201,
-0.1920323520898819,
-0.33676207065582275,
-0.5841149091720581,
0.02364557608962059,
0.33937573432922363,
0.3680119812488556,
0.34972071647644043,
0.6621024012565613,
-0.24772115051746368,
0.12335404753684998,
-5.770647048950195,
-0.18166476488113403,
-0.010836748406291008,
-0.673729658126831,
-0.33525627851486206,
0.20180290937423706,
0.6943301558494568,
0.1167915016412735,
-0.09151463955640793,
-0.43927136063575745,
-0.15018689632415771,
0.21518109738826752,
0.03889954090118408,
0.39875534176826477,
-0.15466618537902832,
0.6112555265426636,
0.23388439416885376,
0.4813094139099121,
-0.08325950801372528,
0.3587520122528076,
-0.23188498616218567,
-0.5027129054069519,
-0.010045858100056648,
0.9628127813339233,
-0.2550932765007019,
0.41271695494651794,
-0.29473140835762024,
0.014919158071279526,
-0.08579730987548828,
0.18564854562282562,
0.16847464442253113,
-0.638802170753479,
0.14547227323055267,
-0.13180431723594666,
-0.4276209771633148,
0.09286485612392426,
0.3471972346305847,
0.6640163064002991,
0.2326047271490097,
-0.1822841614484787,
-0.34330862760543823,
-0.1785515397787094,
0.09060496836900711,
0.4213353991508484,
0.13451726734638214,
0.14799632132053375,
-0.4873913526535034,
0.12582173943519592,
-0.3578837215900421,
0.818469226360321,
-0.20526012778282166,
-0.018229084089398384,
0.9457447528839111,
-0.4101960062980652,
0.11967161297798157,
-0.297343373298645,
0.3393101990222931,
-0.0873064249753952,
-0.2099444568157196,
-0.49024537205696106,
0.2668168246746063,
-0.5160900354385376,
0.40170425176620483,
-0.732450544834137,
0.24360570311546326,
-0.42042893171310425,
-1.0228137969970703,
-0.23861050605773926,
0.15652064979076385,
0.3234955370426178,
-0.9638060927391052,
0.28431934118270874,
-0.4838928282260895,
-0.6950893998146057,
0.1031026616692543,
-0.5463201403617859,
-0.1370309740304947,
0.3926513195037842,
0.11593381315469742,
0.429238885641098,
-0.12877900898456573,
-0.0883815810084343,
0.0021364849526435137,
0.30761411786079407,
0.4770039916038513,
0.03154097869992256,
0.16881051659584045,
-0.7466954588890076,
-0.741322934627533,
0.060077812522649765,
0.8889018297195435,
-0.2315405160188675,
-0.664017379283905,
0.5892418026924133,
0.45738646388053894,
0.3861553966999054,
-0.032097723335027695,
0.13359421491622925,
0.8187915086746216,
-0.6873071789741516,
0.3997451066970825,
-0.34654274582862854,
-0.10581027716398239,
-0.12983833253383636,
-0.5526707172393799,
-0.07388713955879211,
-0.4351804554462433,
0.7136012315750122,
0.25693848729133606,
-0.20667283236980438,
0.2802050709724426,
-0.04823549464344978,
-0.032664909958839417,
-0.14416523277759552,
0.5283125638961792,
0.07715075463056564,
0.029191292822360992,
0.24231500923633575,
0.3649483025074005,
-0.04025537148118019,
0.2613596022129059,
0.148599773645401,
-0.2416798323392868,
0.3851814568042755,
-0.08071843534708023,
-0.27545398473739624,
-0.1478802114725113,
0.31151533126831055,
-0.04885540157556534,
-0.17974688112735748,
0.5094997882843018,
-0.14121589064598083,
0.4170571267604828,
0.46453213691711426,
-0.06607472151517868,
-0.14800165593624115,
0.1761809140443802,
-0.5215781927108765,
-0.37408289313316345,
-0.30875492095947266,
-0.31658998131752014,
-0.03822304680943489,
-0.2219078689813614,
0.6588186025619507,
-0.04173170030117035,
0.01836676150560379,
-0.07294249534606934,
-0.15508782863616943,
-0.1479414403438568,
0.3196188509464264,
0.4290704131126404,
-0.5341070890426636,
0.4143613278865814,
0.006310093682259321,
-0.98285311460495,
0.09101802110671997,
-0.210245743393898,
0.1544858068227768,
-0.3166114389896393,
0.19438397884368896,
0.07391734421253204,
-0.5520711541175842,
-0.32986509799957275,
0.019540343433618546,
-0.17465098202228546,
-0.08994798362255096,
0.24625621736049652,
-0.19775094091892242,
-0.13144025206565857,
0.046614550054073334,
0.6613360643386841,
-0.20209798216819763,
-0.5577564239501953,
-0.25207164883613586,
1.0698796510696411,
0.21728190779685974,
0.3799899220466614,
0.5977014303207397,
-0.2938309907913208,
-0.20469316840171814,
0.18114474415779114,
-0.5848080515861511,
-0.17444859445095062,
0.6737548112869263,
0.05452968180179596,
-0.38780447840690613,
-0.14110463857650757,
-0.6336159110069275,
-0.7386420965194702,
0.061133645474910736,
0.5235301852226257,
0.49094194173812866,
-0.036775730550289154,
0.06921849399805069,
-0.05786474421620369,
-0.6859743595123291,
0.16354899108409882,
-0.061007604002952576,
0.21272768080234528,
-0.04550506919622421,
0.5481493473052979,
0.24250246584415436,
-0.2189050167798996,
0.10777359455823898,
0.7363283634185791,
-0.7181203365325928,
0.43368762731552124,
0.19734787940979004,
-0.24004504084587097,
-0.06686105579137802,
0.08525246381759644,
-0.24546264111995697,
-0.04058381915092468,
-0.2642950713634491,
0.04968622699379921,
-0.1252676546573639,
-0.2681921124458313,
-0.47925806045532227,
-0.13441310822963715,
-0.6079705357551575,
0.8841790556907654,
0.08040430396795273,
-0.17145991325378418,
-0.15928597748279572,
0.16520343720912933,
0.669460654258728,
0.17017851769924164,
-0.5725811123847961,
0.03886359930038452,
-0.2762535810470581,
-0.49921172857284546,
-0.29423248767852783,
-0.5372494459152222,
-0.41461044549942017,
-0.29899895191192627,
-0.41934269666671753,
-0.18419310450553894,
0.5155962705612183,
0.013977917842566967,
0.557581901550293,
-0.17194832861423492,
0.8189065456390381,
-0.06341834366321564,
-0.5369215607643127,
-0.7029231786727905,
0.18964023888111115,
0.16455036401748657,
-0.0905105397105217,
-0.1820736974477768,
0.3504403829574585,
0.02087913639843464,
-0.2197171002626419,
-0.3681986629962921,
-0.6057431101799011,
0.7481256723403931,
-0.24395453929901123,
-0.5265675187110901,
-0.22377468645572662,
-0.19163022935390472,
-0.33606085181236267,
0.060309406369924545,
-0.10037165135145187,
-0.23200656473636627,
-0.519245982170105,
0.37314289808273315,
0.03399089723825455,
-0.22015969455242157,
0.08368775248527527,
0.32904237508773804,
-0.4438875615596771,
-0.44834718108177185,
-0.6625242233276367,
-0.017876919358968735,
-0.0941629633307457,
0.40085849165916443,
0.06983833014965057,
-0.14840570092201233,
0.09579989314079285,
-0.1206279918551445,
-0.19260282814502716,
0.2134750485420227,
-0.5984271764755249,
0.0607433021068573,
0.052987147122621536,
0.08597025275230408,
-0.8560415506362915,
0.3862387537956238,
-0.42026033997535706,
-0.21627560257911682,
-0.22100123763084412,
-0.8174270391464233,
-0.022516712546348572,
0.12096509337425232,
0.2117704302072525,
-0.24882864952087402,
0.581785261631012,
0.11829184740781784,
0.05804507061839104,
-0.532500147819519,
-0.47475919127464294,
0.3555174767971039,
0.21926264464855194,
0.6651515364646912,
0.21500878036022186,
0.1739462912082672,
0.4295751750469208,
-0.027255771681666374,
-0.2734498083591461,
-0.2505192160606384,
0.45583951473236084,
0.6063456535339355,
0.435285359621048,
0.4275289475917816,
0.296794593334198,
-0.2217044085264206,
0.12159959971904755,
0.4637412130832672,
-0.3921346366405487,
-0.18050995469093323,
0.00685066357254982,
-0.15987703204154968,
0.2920370101928711,
0.24223561584949493,
-0.3364415764808655,
0.02882414311170578,
-0.017830446362495422,
-0.27620795369148254,
-0.5700302720069885,
-0.24826191365718842,
-0.06112833693623543,
0.6452363133430481,
0.35779207944869995,
-0.0458180196583271,
0.6886293292045593,
0.22304579615592957,
-0.4308551251888275,
0.07565122842788696,
-0.09816957265138626,
-0.13040533661842346,
0.833565890789032,
0.4878937005996704,
0.5302445292472839,
-0.0349070280790329,
0.10558779537677765,
0.0319778211414814,
0.039484355598688126,
0.02339307777583599,
0.304302841424942,
-0.1381826549768448,
0.2158476561307907,
0.37888196110725403,
0.3180438280105591,
0.5069110989570618,
-0.08429548144340515,
0.577701985836029,
-0.2278309315443039,
0.24291087687015533,
0.1608590930700302,
0.15160039067268372,
-0.5417405366897583,
0.03037872724235058,
0.3005755841732025,
-0.11211440712213516,
0.14604604244232178,
0.2887077331542969,
0.32552310824394226,
-0.4072612226009369,
-0.4603138566017151,
-0.06542247533798218,
0.4873954653739929,
-0.10992427170276642,
0.3539707660675049,
-0.23387578129768372,
0.14638999104499817,
0.04955745115876198,
0.015925025567412376,
0.3764367401599884,
-0.20180226862430573,
-0.011317289434373379,
-0.36691442131996155,
-0.11004643142223358,
-0.39350906014442444,
-0.05071442201733589,
-1.1273540258407593,
0.14506199955940247,
0.3242822289466858,
-0.13198459148406982,
0.4272434115409851,
-0.6391012668609619,
0.2938600480556488,
-0.7172266244888306,
-0.37945079803466797,
0.389270544052124,
0.05440155416727066,
-0.3600093722343445,
0.49544939398765564,
-0.4671725928783417,
0.5949965715408325,
0.5547049641609192,
-0.11129526048898697,
-0.06881806999444962,
0.2369270771741867,
0.12445664405822754,
0.15822531282901764,
-0.3261070251464844,
0.22985172271728516,
-0.5717970728874207,
-0.5839071869850159,
-0.5457101464271545,
0.62868732213974,
0.050899069756269455,
-0.10984161496162415,
0.11601006984710693,
-0.09811754524707794,
-0.2754114270210266,
0.19592903554439545,
0.10771182924509048,
-0.2886526882648468,
0.08313081413507462,
-0.04163171350955963,
-0.47065818309783936,
-0.3493938744068146,
-0.01670713536441326,
0.4282069802284241,
-0.5644643902778625,
-0.8133411407470703,
0.3362809121608734,
0.8694437146186829,
-0.5961884260177612,
0.24322377145290375,
0.22234801948070526,
-0.1808827519416809,
-0.5721913576126099,
0.15767644345760345,
-0.25928276777267456,
-0.1500329077243805,
0.4924793839454651,
0.5871177911758423,
0.15474867820739746,
-0.994376003742218,
-0.24473519623279572,
0.19847479462623596,
0.6633841395378113,
0.6475722193717957,
-0.5799643993377686,
-0.4307137131690979,
0.06964795291423798,
-0.014495705254375935,
-0.6694738864898682,
0.8630549907684326,
0.2986982762813568,
0.3525651693344116,
0.3034375309944153,
-0.5470852255821228,
0.18105095624923706,
0.03640509396791458,
0.32934972643852234,
0.2738872170448303,
0.6839548349380493,
0.0026041599921882153
] |
200125
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfpenny%20%28British%20decimal%20coin%29
|
Halfpenny (British decimal coin)
|
The British decimal halfpenny (p) coin was introduced in February 1971, at the time of decimalisation, and was worth one two-hundredth of a pound sterling. It was ignored in banking transactions, which were carried out in units of 1p.
The decimal halfpenny had the same value as 1.2 pre-decimal pence, and was introduced to enable the prices of some low-value items to be more accurately translated to the new decimal currency. The possibility of setting prices including an odd half penny also made it more practical to retain the pre-decimal sixpence in circulation (with a value of new pence) alongside the new decimal coinage.
The halfpenny coin's obverse featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II; the reverse featured an image of St Edward's Crown. It was minted in bronze (like the 1p and 2p coins). It was the smallest decimal coin in both size and value. The size was in proportion to the 1p and 2p coins. It soon became Britain's least favourite coin. The Treasury had continued to argue that the halfpenny was important in the fight against inflation (preventing prices from being rounded up). The coin was demonetised and withdrawn from circulation in December 1984.
Design
The reverse of the coin, designed by Christopher Ironside, was a representation of St Edward's Crown, with the numeral "" below the crown, and either (1971–1981) or (1982–1984) above the crown.
Only one design of obverse was used on the halfpenny coin. The inscription around the portrait on the obverse was , where 19xx was the year of minting. Both sides of the coin are encircled by dots, a common feature on coins, known as beading.
As on all decimal coins produced before 1984, the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse; in this portrait the Queen wears the 'Girls of Great Britain and Ireland' Tiara.
Status
The half penny coin was legal tender for amounts not exceeding 20 pence. However, legal tender in the UK has a very narrow meaning, that is unlikely to affect everyday transactions. Legal tender means that a debtor can not be successfully sued for non-payment of a debt if he has offered unconditionally to pay in legal tender. The defendant in such a case would be able to raise a defence of tender before claim.
A shopkeeper, for example, was not under any obligation to accept half penny coins for payment; conversely they have the discretion to accept payment in just half penny coins if they so wished.
Mintages
Annual number of coins released into general circulation (excludes proof sets)
1971 ~ 1,394,188,251
1972 ~ In proof sets only
1973 ~ 365,680,000
1974 ~ 365,448,000
1975 ~ 197,600,000
1976 ~ 412,172,000
1977 ~ 66,368,000
1978 ~ 59,532,000
1979 ~ 219,132,000
1980 ~ 202,788,000
1981 ~ 46,748,000
1982 ~ 190,752,000
1983 ~ 7,600,000
1984 ~ In proof sets and 'uncirculated' sets only
Mintage figures above represent the number of coins of each date released for circulation. Mint Sets have been produced since 1982; where mintages on or after that date indicate 'none', there are examples contained within those sets.
Proposed quarter penny coin
A decimal quarter-penny coin (to be struck in aluminium) was also proposed (which would have allowed the pre-decimal threepence to continue to circulate with a value of new pence), but was never produced.
See also
Halfpenny (Irish decimal coin)
References
External links
British Halfpenny pictures
CoinWiki - Decimal Half Pennies
Coin Type: Half Penny, United Kingdom - Online Coin Club
Halfpenny
Currencies introduced in 1971
Decimalisation
Half-cent coins
|
[
-0.25818514823913574,
-0.10016848891973495,
0.39603981375694275,
-0.1565077304840088,
-0.4997190237045288,
0.687915563583374,
-0.5215491652488708,
0.31750449538230896,
-0.3246585726737976,
0.6667996644973755,
-0.23684930801391602,
-0.2467973530292511,
0.12477703392505646,
0.5594182014465332,
0.16699407994747162,
0.3162001669406891,
0.394455224275589,
0.17463169991970062,
-0.5183200240135193,
-0.709243655204773,
-0.12629365921020508,
0.4564903676509857,
-0.22126378118991852,
-0.25280770659446716,
-0.42105942964553833,
0.4607691466808319,
0.47179776430130005,
-0.3844357132911682,
0.1545208841562271,
0.18176615238189697,
0.4331824481487274,
0.6543675661087036,
0.4363320469856262,
0.3024439215660095,
0.31236371397972107,
-0.16327792406082153,
0.017786171287298203,
-0.27804723381996155,
-0.2169235348701477,
-0.6899428367614746,
0.3970833122730255,
0.16429324448108673,
0.2507154643535614,
0.4643680453300476,
-0.6570563912391663,
-0.5519161820411682,
-1.0707253217697144,
-0.11864232271909714,
-0.7383620142936707,
-0.20972733199596405,
-0.35473117232322693,
0.7551196217536926,
0.01788339577615261,
0.2139870971441269,
0.3292462229728699,
0.9410026669502258,
-0.6177138686180115,
0.03514665737748146,
-0.24715028703212738,
-0.2330116629600525,
0.6860631704330444,
0.05868353694677353,
-0.18463236093521118,
-0.11188134551048279,
0.25353309512138367,
-0.4569285809993744,
0.36431604623794556,
1.226342797279358,
0.1453448086977005,
-0.36059221625328064,
-0.3223457336425781,
-0.513124942779541,
-0.20098555088043213,
0.07246104627847672,
-0.3517534136772156,
-0.0011403834214434028,
0.07132717967033386,
-0.2196798175573349,
0.37490415573120117,
0.2204962819814682,
0.1219797283411026,
0.03626116365194321,
0.693812370300293,
-0.06846145540475845,
0.5994006991386414,
-0.018709000200033188,
-0.16026750206947327,
-0.17984220385551453,
0.22472374141216278,
1.447547435760498,
-0.1609177440404892,
-0.4106474220752716,
0.748848021030426,
-0.12199569493532181,
-0.7390016317367554,
-0.27082112431526184,
-0.27922049164772034,
0.29136916995048523,
0.8364596366882324,
-0.5817518830299377,
0.24302256107330322,
-0.11531054228544235,
0.41483163833618164,
-0.26813602447509766,
-0.4765089750289917,
-0.3403012454509735,
-0.318661093711853,
-0.9507026076316833,
0.4906056821346283,
-0.41976580023765564,
-0.046310052275657654,
-0.42748400568962097,
0.21156425774097443,
1.0819939374923706,
-0.044216256588697433,
-0.22272802889347076,
0.07556610554456711,
-0.05356316268444061,
-0.5372408628463745,
0.2987283766269684,
0.20060418546199799,
0.4937470853328705,
-0.05869043245911598,
-0.15700484812259674,
0.7497431039810181,
0.1697137951850891,
0.6147176027297974,
1.1180758476257324,
-0.24453648924827576,
0.07136444002389908,
0.6419224143028259,
0.8571376204490662,
-0.7816883325576782,
-0.10998009890317917,
-0.22943317890167236,
-0.40128663182258606,
0.22099550068378448,
-0.2586307227611542,
-0.18722113966941833,
0.3498343825340271,
0.16330614686012268,
0.5986663699150085,
-0.01364066544920206,
-0.274522602558136,
0.18114618957042694,
-0.09567286819219589,
0.10964301973581314,
0.007148809265345335,
-0.632856011390686,
-0.40475767850875854,
0.3320649266242981,
-0.5759338140487671,
0.8768813610076904,
-0.09225892275571823,
-0.21468576788902283,
-0.5367825627326965,
-0.36966583132743835,
0.22706229984760284,
-0.1774260699748993,
0.10165175050497055,
0.12716460227966309,
-0.035718660801649094,
0.09707433730363846,
-0.23784734308719635,
-0.04765544459223747,
0.2879141867160797,
0.3914262652397156,
0.28583037853240967,
-0.33978646993637085,
0.1783546507358551,
-0.2681288421154022,
-0.17541426420211792,
0.6998074054718018,
0.18005646765232086,
-0.4430656433105469,
-0.34645357728004456,
0.060530610382556915,
0.4654255211353302,
0.5651881098747253,
-0.22369392216205597,
-0.17058858275413513,
-0.06352236121892929,
0.5040727257728577,
0.3064630627632141,
0.45184916257858276,
0.27017852663993835,
0.20762693881988525,
-0.07642191648483276,
0.08091054111719131,
0.3803703188896179,
-1.0005611181259155,
-0.16830801963806152,
-0.38470160961151123,
-0.632642924785614,
0.9907016158103943,
-0.15238644182682037,
-0.332441121339798,
0.02179461345076561,
0.3127383589744568,
0.8806266784667969,
-1.0624369382858276,
-0.10918667912483215,
0.7197046875953674,
-0.04918406903743744,
-0.516295850276947,
0.1603488028049469,
0.016117975115776062,
-0.009418658912181854,
0.38213926553726196,
0.30691736936569214,
0.2580733001232147,
-0.4961211085319519,
0.16019964218139648,
0.06231044977903366,
-0.4556174576282501,
0.6307970881462097,
0.07886447012424469,
0.11768714338541031,
0.06645190715789795,
-0.6979407072067261,
-0.5115795135498047,
0.42110738158226013,
0.4960360527038574,
0.047134362161159515,
-0.14471541345119476,
0.5590189695358276,
0.1309148222208023,
0.20247387886047363,
0.38617607951164246,
-0.3358193337917328,
-0.13294053077697754,
-0.3525775074958801,
0.08432888984680176,
-0.01267266646027565,
0.012119680643081665,
0.1492847353219986,
-0.5447719693183899,
-0.5016759634017944,
-0.20830833911895752,
0.18213850259780884,
0.2424105554819107,
-0.14009153842926025,
-0.05210051313042641,
-0.2094765156507492,
-0.2863309681415558,
0.8792477250099182,
-0.09549862891435623,
0.612473726272583,
-0.2798554599285126,
-0.5062021017074585,
0.5722045302391052,
0.3805326819419861,
-0.015008675865828991,
0.14687451720237732,
-0.5909482836723328,
-0.2194192111492157,
0.1488860547542572,
-0.12184980511665344,
0.28613272309303284,
0.5000659227371216,
0.029665231704711914,
0.18722058832645416,
0.6043349504470825,
0.1913122683763504,
-0.2173113226890564,
-0.6701384782791138,
-1.064719557762146,
-0.10202090442180634,
-0.2174968123435974,
-0.4107202887535095,
0.5223053693771362,
0.1342732012271881,
-0.08370362222194672,
0.534920334815979,
0.46414318680763245,
-0.3428160846233368,
0.3616980016231537,
0.12152598798274994,
-0.6983487606048584,
-0.6836472153663635,
0.26054373383522034,
0.35275939106941223,
-0.023015430197119713,
-0.7566865086555481,
-0.38871505856513977,
0.22648371756076813,
0.31748905777931213,
-0.15586398541927338,
0.1586799919605255,
-0.6211308836936951,
-0.1729263812303543,
0.7656288146972656,
-0.35706275701522827,
-0.13419046998023987,
0.12224328517913818,
0.31741154193878174,
-0.29313895106315613,
-0.0009608450927771628,
0.7667030096054077,
0.003399807959794998,
-0.03525363653898239,
0.270052045583725,
0.3281240165233612,
-0.2261483520269394,
0.22170399129390717,
-0.8879836797714233,
-0.5514295101165771,
-0.5744372010231018,
-5.337071895599365,
0.17408233880996704,
-0.5711369514465332,
-0.36901286244392395,
-0.2558082938194275,
0.21154090762138367,
0.7283300161361694,
0.09430577605962753,
-0.45783552527427673,
-0.34181079268455505,
-0.28615838289260864,
-0.41502198576927185,
0.10145218670368195,
0.2967526614665985,
1.0324013233184814,
0.5805202722549438,
0.924360454082489,
0.17198063433170319,
-0.13887278735637665,
0.07176218926906586,
0.22088320553302765,
-0.3512169122695923,
-0.05366512015461922,
0.383149653673172,
0.18373490869998932,
0.925627589225769,
0.04352526366710663,
0.3435731530189514,
-0.35953405499458313,
0.2660244405269623,
0.22793303430080414,
-0.11665472388267517,
0.6453230977058411,
-0.1774415820837021,
0.4077807068824768,
-0.02555074356496334,
0.2474520355463028,
0.4527382254600525,
-0.26407530903816223,
-0.26794955134391785,
-0.01383991353213787,
0.7217236757278442,
0.6136735081672668,
-0.19762369990348816,
0.7181988954544067,
0.08851397782564163,
-0.15554451942443848,
0.03239946812391281,
-0.7237775921821594,
0.049352191388607025,
-0.029458435252308846,
0.519605815410614,
-0.3581791818141937,
-0.5967785716056824,
-0.4657106399536133,
0.17111560702323914,
-0.42155563831329346,
0.3295515775680542,
-0.6794883012771606,
0.11055143177509308,
0.3505187928676605,
-0.04961933568120003,
0.09263736009597778,
-0.05488487705588341,
-0.04293809458613396,
-0.3848278224468231,
-1.307847261428833,
-0.5354259014129639,
0.4589915871620178,
0.6659982800483704,
-0.23324713110923767,
0.22075198590755463,
0.07777660340070724,
-0.365215003490448,
0.1599148064851761,
-0.6005807518959045,
0.6629070043563843,
0.3784789443016052,
-0.2981353998184204,
0.933451771736145,
0.08383695781230927,
-0.8218551874160767,
0.03408561274409294,
0.8619478940963745,
-0.31611424684524536,
-0.510075032711029,
-0.6886870861053467,
0.1956963986158371,
-0.7676924467086792,
-0.12434474378824234,
0.45857033133506775,
-0.19532263278961182,
-0.08378224074840546,
-0.18727274239063263,
-0.28309881687164307,
-0.25141701102256775,
0.07897517830133438,
-0.09296458959579468,
-0.3208938539028168,
-0.021981246769428253,
0.5019373893737793,
-0.4578012526035309,
0.34651675820350647,
-1.1269489526748657,
-0.8086845874786377,
0.00899292342364788,
-0.44822341203689575,
0.0782213881611824,
-0.23196491599082947,
-0.09528284519910812,
-0.26670101284980774,
0.06191243231296539,
-0.05751144886016846,
0.2064005732536316,
0.12223902344703674,
-0.32508841156959534,
-0.5237364172935486,
-0.5911547541618347,
0.4310447573661804,
-0.32498234510421753,
0.5013672709465027,
0.018382985144853592,
-0.4802313446998596,
-0.7560929656028748,
-0.4119383990764618,
-0.04833000525832176,
0.007265444844961166,
-0.37579378485679626,
0.15180306136608124,
0.2555577754974365,
0.3623215854167938,
0.5495764017105103,
-0.45884817838668823,
-0.1285148710012436,
-0.040882762521505356,
0.09076954424381256,
-0.3732038736343384,
0.21880920231342316,
0.10122575610876083,
-0.16774967312812805,
0.4086700677871704,
-0.6260730028152466,
0.20738565921783447,
-0.21682696044445038,
0.5158165693283081,
0.3156459629535675,
0.21797384321689606,
-0.49413153529167175,
-0.1826978474855423,
0.38515374064445496,
0.17119130492210388,
-0.38241270184516907,
-0.10288310050964355,
-0.23728357255458832,
-0.15529102087020874,
-0.24932728707790375,
0.04496096819639206,
0.36891597509384155,
-0.18567684292793274,
-0.47558414936065674,
0.17235694825649261,
-0.211892232298851,
-0.5978363752365112,
-0.11773403733968735,
0.5822089910507202,
0.06073984503746033,
-0.15044575929641724,
-0.6053025722503662,
0.3649217188358307,
0.9641180634498596,
0.4770077168941498,
-0.7318780422210693,
-0.08523786813020706,
-0.09868774563074112,
0.6494355797767639,
0.01102488860487938,
0.2373308688402176,
-0.8594078421592712,
-0.5419449210166931,
-0.03570111095905304,
0.06378746777772903,
-0.2898447811603546,
-0.06851300597190857,
0.2779689431190491,
-0.019060272723436356,
-0.3557598888874054,
-0.8850359916687012,
0.502295970916748,
-0.3016749620437622,
0.09675963968038559,
-0.07968303561210632,
-0.07144641876220703,
0.7216286659240723,
0.39741069078445435,
-0.9432224631309509,
-0.2188723087310791,
-0.22626584768295288,
0.8460417985916138,
-0.4272325038909912,
-0.4610317051410675,
0.19901375472545624,
0.3384498953819275,
0.007966138422489166,
-0.3420560359954834,
0.9982738494873047,
-0.17323671281337738,
0.10925433784723282,
0.23494432866573334,
-0.8409056663513184,
0.4954982399940491,
-0.3663310110569,
-0.2701421082019806,
-0.4454730153083801,
0.3323102295398712,
-0.254079669713974,
0.20427186787128448,
-0.05636032298207283,
-0.031571462750434875,
0.1836884617805481,
-0.6466885805130005,
-0.5067629218101501,
0.3212720453739166,
-0.9544466733932495,
-0.047478049993515015,
0.1311320662498474,
0.468627005815506,
0.6065978407859802,
-0.5273162126541138,
0.05462460592389107,
-0.09199057519435883,
-0.6007558107376099,
-0.5937414169311523,
-0.019182370975613594,
0.17264428734779358,
0.5198609232902527,
0.6978302597999573,
-0.14174769818782806,
-0.049285877496004105,
-0.15063603222370148,
0.1388331949710846,
0.227852925658226,
0.5320916771888733,
0.5306782126426697,
-0.5942418575286865,
-0.8616319298744202,
0.33623379468917847,
0.7449935078620911,
-0.7375076413154602,
-0.7029035687446594,
1.085203766822815,
-0.22658893465995789,
-0.3390474319458008,
-0.542885959148407,
-0.20234516263008118,
0.19308479130268097,
-0.14586007595062256,
0.05852685868740082,
-0.027823785319924355,
0.34474948048591614,
0.3119398355484009,
0.3171122372150421,
0.7704916596412659,
-0.8149347305297852,
-0.15759000182151794,
0.918628990650177,
0.8960773348808289,
0.23392720520496368,
-0.42984268069267273,
0.24278081953525543,
0.07194484770298004,
0.5489709973335266,
0.10510626435279846,
-0.3468729555606842,
0.127250075340271,
0.8838023543357849,
-0.3184945285320282,
-0.2735336720943451,
-0.6563280820846558,
0.028786342591047287,
-0.4547421634197235,
-0.27685555815696716,
0.16801321506500244,
1.1497348546981812,
-0.3027913272380829,
-0.18726657330989838,
-0.6951188445091248,
-0.18636773526668549,
-0.30431851744651794,
-0.3791782855987549,
0.004960264544934034,
0.416208416223526,
-0.023685717955231667,
-0.6122496128082275,
-0.24552032351493835,
-0.3013868033885956,
0.4110950529575348,
-0.35264715552330017,
0.2791883945465088,
-0.3014010787010193,
0.04153404012322426,
0.1681019514799118,
1.0145628452301025,
0.017579779028892517,
-0.12700173258781433,
-0.31254318356513977,
0.09089093655347824,
-0.022419705986976624,
0.3465825915336609,
0.04953501373529434,
-0.2772693336009979,
0.34954971075057983,
-0.08395136892795563,
0.01112007163465023,
0.21053075790405273,
-0.4969033896923065,
-0.6111204624176025,
0.7475137114524841,
-0.07963710278272629,
-0.27706387639045715,
0.8081117868423462,
0.14514435827732086,
0.49528107047080994,
0.6796655058860779,
0.27542775869369507,
-1.0004197359085083,
-0.11672737449407578,
-0.6857867240905762,
-0.24556700885295868,
0.2638871967792511,
0.05418602004647255,
0.21401910483837128,
0.4903256893157959,
-0.5340264439582825,
-0.028628718107938766,
0.22798626124858856,
-0.3408377468585968,
-0.21925131976604462,
-0.44607415795326233,
0.08479095995426178,
0.788242757320404,
0.5180293917655945,
0.22918784618377686,
-0.42142269015312195,
-0.26286596059799194,
0.005783496890217066,
0.716873288154602,
0.03958413004875183,
-0.7699692249298096,
0.8120982050895691,
0.6645092964172363,
1.0231480598449707,
0.11555354297161102,
0.2508854866027832,
-0.4587511420249939,
0.014860681258141994,
-0.21016980707645416,
0.2186635136604309,
-0.41316819190979004,
0.021599015220999718,
-0.11338935047388077,
-0.015102175064384937,
0.1306803822517395,
0.407227098941803,
-0.36165332794189453,
-0.3555699288845062,
-0.0287519171833992,
0.06203007698059082,
-0.35269737243652344,
-0.30011871457099915,
0.9108140468597412,
0.3801896870136261,
0.4297299087047577,
0.33241915702819824,
0.39408084750175476,
-0.02107502892613411,
-0.07575054466724396,
0.4645535945892334,
0.6805853247642517,
0.5956290364265442,
-0.011544822715222836,
-0.21496501564979553,
-0.6803202629089355,
-0.5167319178581238,
-1.389811396598816,
-0.02260364033281803,
-0.8392447233200073,
0.2804718613624573,
-0.3762223422527313,
-0.6569222211837769,
-0.5360777378082275,
0.347516268491745,
-0.8589905500411987,
-0.5615246891975403,
-0.4406534731388092,
-0.7612038850784302,
-1.0873006582260132,
-0.03664611652493477,
0.40646761655807495,
0.17574012279510498,
0.22728493809700012,
-0.08834812790155411,
0.17485235631465912,
-0.13843455910682678,
0.6018095016479492,
-0.08965523540973663,
0.5570144653320312,
-0.44072046875953674,
-0.16080641746520996,
-0.24673406779766083,
0.4023754894733429,
0.5581745505332947,
-0.5563655495643616,
-0.059077437967061996,
0.520257294178009,
-0.4030241370201111,
-0.24206286668777466,
0.5864787697792053,
-0.38430118560791016,
-0.7234601974487305,
-0.47953152656555176,
-0.1139802411198616,
-0.2177657037973404,
0.08334288746118546,
0.4159132242202759,
-0.18201665580272675,
0.10758759826421738,
0.4860672950744629,
0.16256083548069,
-0.06899157911539078,
0.7560386657714844,
-0.991051435470581,
0.14082755148410797,
-0.5098863840103149,
0.039434634149074554,
-0.160720095038414,
0.2539472281932831,
0.8839470744132996,
0.2061890959739685,
-0.8828968405723572,
-0.17204463481903076,
-0.01543434802442789,
-0.19969052076339722,
0.5839604139328003,
-0.23439933359622955,
0.0031621328089386225,
0.5670095682144165,
-0.1442270278930664,
-0.0043365308083593845,
-1.1108864545822144,
0.7006824612617493,
0.34132006764411926,
0.6078660488128662,
0.08661869168281555,
-0.5791427493095398,
0.5487638711929321,
-0.4699370265007019,
-0.4403515160083771,
-0.20516231656074524,
0.004150973632931709,
0.4281279444694519
] |
200127
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chobham%20armour
|
Chobham armour
|
Chobham armour is the informal name of a composite armour developed in the 1960s at the British tank research centre on Chobham Common, Surrey. The name has since become the common generic term for composite ceramic vehicle armour. Other names informally given to Chobham armour include "Burlington" and "Dorchester." "Special armour" is a broader informal term referring to any armour arrangement comprising "sandwich" reactive plates, including Chobham armour.
Although the construction details of the Chobham armour remain a secret, it has been described as being composed of ceramic tiles encased within a metal framework and bonded to a backing plate and several elastic layers. Owing to the extreme hardness of the ceramics used, they offer superior resistance against shaped charges such as high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds and they shatter kinetic energy penetrators.
The armour was first tested in the context of the development of a British prototype vehicle, the FV4211, and first applied on the preseries of the American M1. Only the M1 Abrams, Challenger 1, and Challenger 2 tanks have been disclosed as being thus armoured. The framework holding the ceramics is usually produced in large blocks, giving these tanks, and especially their turrets, a distinctive angled appearance.
Protective qualities
Due to the extreme hardness of the ceramics used, they offer superior resistance against a shaped charge jet and they shatter kinetic energy penetrators (KE-penetrators). The (pulverised) ceramic also strongly abrades any penetrator. Against lighter projectiles the hardness of the tiles causes a "shatter gap" effect: a higher velocity will, within a certain velocity range (the "gap"), not lead to a deeper penetration but destroy the projectile itself instead. Because the ceramic is so brittle the entrance channel of a shaped charge jet is not smooth—as it would be when penetrating a metal—but ragged, causing extreme asymmetric pressures which disturb the geometry of the jet, on which its penetrative capabilities are critically dependent as its mass is relatively low. This initiates a vicious circle as the disturbed jet causes still greater irregularities in the ceramic, until in the end it is defeated. The newer composites, though tougher, optimise this effect as tiles made with them have a layered internal structure conducive to it, causing "crack deflection". This mechanism—using the jet's own energy against it—has caused the effects of Chobham to be compared to those of reactive armour. This should not be confused with the effect used in Non-Explosive Reactive Armour: that of sandwiching an inert but soft elastic material such as rubber, between two armour plates. The impact of either a shaped charge jet or long-rod penetrator after the first layer has been perforated and while the rubber layer is being penetrated will cause the rubber to deform and expand, so deforming both the back and front plates. Both attack methods will suffer from obstruction to their expected paths, so experiencing a greater thickness of armour than there is nominally, thus lowering penetration. Also for rod penetrations, the transverse force experienced due to the deformation may cause the rod to shatter, bend, or just change its path, again lowering penetration. All versions of Chobham armour have incorporated a large volume of non-energetic reactive armour (NERA) plates, with additional hard armour either ahead of the NERA (intended to protect the NERA elements and disrupt the penetrator before it encounters the NERA) and/or behind the NERA (intending to catch the fragments of long rods or HEAT jets after they have been fractured or disrupted by the front plate and NERA. This is another factor favouring a slab-sided or wedge-like turret: the amount of material the expanding plates push into the path of an attack increases as they are placed closer to parallel to the direction of that attack. Silicon carbide is better suited to protect against larger projectiles than boron carbide as the latter material suffers a phase collapse when impacted by a projectile travelling at a speed over 850 m/s. Silicon carbide was at that time only used in some prototype land vehicles, such as the MBT-70. The ceramics can be created by pressureless sintering or hot pressing. A high density is required, so residual porosity must be minimised in the final part.
A matrix using a titanium alloy is extremely expensive to manufacture but the metal is favoured for its lightness, strength and resistance to corrosion, which is a constant problem.
The backing plate can be made from steel, but, as its main function is to improve the stability and stiffness of the assemblage, aluminium is more weight-efficient in light AFVs only to be protected against light anti-tank weapons. A deformable composite backing plate can combine the function of a metal backing plate and an elastic layer.
Heavy metal modules
The armour configuration of the first western tanks using Chobham armour was optimised to defeat shaped charges as guided missiles were seen as the greatest threat. In the eighties however they began to face the improved Soviet 3BM-32, then 3BM-42 kinetic energy penetrators which the ceramic layer was not particularly effective against: the original ceramics had a resistance against penetrators of about a third compared to that against HEAT rounds; for the newest composites it is about one-tenth. A typical example, the 3BM-42 is a segmented projectile which frontal segments are sacrificed in expanding the NERA plates in the front of the armour array, leaving a hole for the rear segment to strike the ceramic with full efficiency. For this reason many modern designs include additional layers of heavy metals to add more density to the overall armour package.
The introduction of more effective ceramic composite materials allows for a larger width of these metal layers within the armour shell: given a certain protection level provided by the composite matrix, it can be thinner. Because these metal layers are denser than the rest of the composite array, increasing their thickness requires reducing the armour thickness in non-critical areas of the vehicle. They typically form an inner layer placed below the much more expensive matrix, to prevent extensive damage to it should the metal layer strongly deform but not defeat a penetrator. They can also be used as the backing plate for the matrix itself, but this compromises the modularity and thus tactical adaptability of the armour system: ceramic and metal modules can then no longer be replaced independently. Furthermore, due to their extreme hardness, they deform insufficiently and would reflect too much of the impact energy, and in a too wide cone, to the ceramic tile, damaging it even further. Metals used include a tungsten alloy for the Challenger 2 or, in the case of the M1A1HA (Heavy Armor) and later American tank variants, a depleted uranium alloy. Some companies offer titanium carbide modules.
These metal modules function on the principle of perforated armour (typically employing perpendicular rods), with many expansion spaces reducing the weight by up to one third while keeping the protective qualities fairly constant. The depleted uranium alloy of the M1 has been described as "arranged in a type of armour matrix" and a single module as a "stainless-steel shell surrounding a layer (probably an inch or two thick) of depleted uranium, woven into a wire-mesh blanket".
Such modules are also used by tanks not equipped with Chobham armour. The combination of a composite matrix and heavy metal modules is sometimes informally referred to as "second generation Chobham".
Development and application
The concept of ceramic armour goes back to 1918, when Major Neville Monroe Hopkins discovered that a plate of ballistic steel was much more resistant to penetration if covered with a thin (1–2 millimetres) layer of enamel. Additionally, the Germans experimented with ceramic armour in World War I.
Since the early sixties there were, in the US, extensive research programmes ongoing aimed at investigating the prospects of employing composite ceramic materials as vehicle armour. This research mainly focused on the use of an aluminium metal matrix composite reinforced by silicon carbide whiskers, to be produced in the form of large sheets. The reinforced light metal sheets were to be sandwiched between steel layers. This arrangement had the advantage of having a good multiple-hit capability and of being able to be curved, allowing the main armour to benefit from a sloped armour effect. However, this composite with a high metal content was primarily intended to increase the protection against KE-penetrators for a given armour weight; its performance against shaped charge attack was mediocre and would have to be improved by means of a laminate spaced armour effect, as researched by the Germans within the joint MBT-70 project.
An alternative technology developed in the US was based on the use of glass modules to be inserted into the main armour; although this arrangement offered a better shaped charge protection, its multiple hit capability was poor. A similar system using glass inserts in the main steel armour was from the late fifties researched for the Soviet Obiekt 430 prototype of the T-64; this was later developed into the "Combination K" type, having a ceramic compound mixed with the silicon oxide inserts, which offered about 50% better protection against both shaped charge and KE-penetrator threats, compared with a steel armour of the same weight. It was, later in several improved forms, incorporated into the glacis of many subsequent Soviet main battle tank designs. After an initial period of speculation in the West as to its true nature, the characteristics of this type were disclosed when the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the introduction of a market system forced the Russian industries to find new customers by highlighting its good qualities; it is today rarely referred to as Chobham armour. Special armour much more similar to Chobham appeared in 1983 under the name of BDD on the T-62M upgrade to the T-62, was first integrated to an armour array in 1986 on the T-72B, and has been a feature of every Soviet/Russian MBT since. In its original iteration, it is built directly into the cast steel turret of the T-72 and required lifting it to perform repairs.
In the United Kingdom another line of ceramic armour development had been started in the early 1960s, meant to improve the existing cast turret configuration of the Chieftain that already offered excellent heavy penetrator protection; the research by a team headed by Gilbert Harvey of the Fighting Vehicles Research and Development Establishment (FVRDE), therefore was strongly oriented at optimising the ceramic composite system for defeating shaped charge attack. The British system consisted of a honeycomb matrix with ceramic tiles backed by ballistic nylon, placed on top of the cast main armour. In July 1973 an American delegation, in search of a new armour type for the XM815 tank prototype, now that the MBT-70 project had failed, visited Chobham Common to be informed about the British system, the development of which had then cost about £6,000,000; earlier information had already been divulged to the US in 1965 and 1968. It was very impressed by the excellent shaped-charge protection combined with the penetrator impact damage limitation, inherent to the principle of using tiles. The Ballistic Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, which later became a part of the Army Research Laboratory, initiated the development of a version that year named Burlington, adapted to the specific American situation, characterised by a much higher projected tank production run and the use of a thinner rolled steel main armour. The increased threat posed by a new generation of Soviet guided missiles armed with a shaped charge warhead—as demonstrated in the Yom Kippur War of October 1973, when even older-generation missiles caused considerable tank losses on the Israeli side—made Burlington the preferred choice for the armour configuration of the XM1 (the renamed XM815) prototype.
However, on 11 December 1974 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the Federal Republic of Germany and the US about the common future production of a main battle tank; this made any application of Chobham armour dependent on the eventual choice for a tank type. Earlier in 1974 the Americans had asked the Germans to redesign the existing Leopard 2 prototypes, considered by them too lightly armoured, and had suggested adoption of Burlington for this purpose, of which type the Germans had already been informed in March 1970; the Germans however in response in 1974 initiated a new armour development programme of their own. Having already designed a system that in their opinion offered satisfactory protection against shaped charges, consisting of multiple-laminate spaced armour with the spaces filled with ceramic polystyrene foam as fitted to the Leopard 1A3, they put a clear emphasis on improving KE-penetrator protection, reworking the system into a perforated metal module armour. A version with added Burlington was considered, including ceramic inserts in the various spaces, but rejected as it would push vehicle weight well over sixty metric tonnes, a weight then seen as prohibitive by both armies. The US Army in the summer of 1974 faced the choice between the German system and their own Burlington, a decision made more difficult by the fact that Burlington offered, compared with steel armour, no weight advantage against KE-penetrators: the total armour system would have a RHA equivalence against them of about 350 mm (compared to about 700 mm against shaped charges). No consensus developing, General Creighton Abrams himself decided the issue in favour of Burlington. Eventually each army procured its own national tank design, the project of a common tank failing in 1976. In February 1978 the first tanks protected by Burlington left the factory when the first of eleven pilot M1 tanks were delivered by Chrysler Corporation to the US Army.
Beside these state projects, private enterprise in the US during the seventies also developed ceramic armour types, like the Noroc armour made by the Protective Products Division of the Norton Company, consisting of boron carbide sheets backed by resin-bonded glass cloth.
In the United Kingdom application of Chobham armour was delayed by the failure of several advanced tank projects: first that of a joint German-British main battle tank; then the purely British MBT-80 programme. A first directive to prepare Chobham armour technology for application in 1975 was already given in 1969. It was determined by a study of a possible Chobham-armour protected MICV that a completely new design using only Chobham armour for the most vulnerable front and side sectors (thus without an underlying steel main armour) could be 10% lighter for the same level of protection against KE-ammunition, but to limit costs it was decided to base the first design on the conventional Chieftain. The prototype, FV 4211 or the "Aluminium Chieftain", was fitted with a welded aluminium add-on armour, in essence a box on the front hull and front and side turret to contain the ceramic modules, of which box the fifty millimetre thick inner wall due to its relative softness could serve as their backing plate. The extra weight of the aluminium was limited to less than two tonnes and it was shown that it was not overly susceptible to cracking, as first feared. Ten test vehicles were ordered but only the original one had been built when the project was cancelled in favour of the more advanced programmes. However, the Iranian government ordered 1,225 vehicles of an upgraded Chieftain type, the Shir-2 (FV 4030/3), using the same technology of adding Chobham armour to the main cast armour, bringing total weight to 62 metric tonnes. When this order was cancelled in February 1979 because of the Iranian Revolution, the British government, under pressure to modernise its tank fleet to maintain a qualitative superiority relative to the Soviet tank forces, decided to use the sudden surplus production capacity to procure a number of vehicles very close in design to the Shir-2, called the Challenger 1. On 12 April 1983 the first British tank protected by Chobham armour was delivered to the Royal Hussars.
In France from 1966 GIAT Industries performed experiments aimed at developing a light vehicle ceramic armour, in 1970 resulting in the CERALU-system consisting of aluminium-backed alumina weldable to the vehicle, offering a 50% increase in weight-efficiency against ballistic threats compared to steel plate. An improved version was later applied in helicopter seats.
The latest version of Chobham armour is used on the Challenger 2 (called Dorchester armour), and (though the composition most probably differs) the M1 Abrams series of tanks, which according to official sources is currently protected by silicon carbide tiles. Given the publicly stated protection level for the earliest M1: 350 mm steel equivalence against KE-penetrators (APFSDS), it seems to have been equipped with alumina tiles.
Though it is often claimed to be otherwise, the original production model of the Leopard 2 did not use Chobham armour, but a combined spaced armour and perforated armour configuration, cheaper in terms of procurement, maintenance and replacement than a ceramic armour system. For many modern tanks, such the Italian Ariete, it is yet unknown which type is used. There was a general trend in the eighties away from ceramic armour towards perforated armour, but even many tanks from the seventies like the Leopard 1A3 and A4, the French AMX 32 and AMX 40 prototypes used the latter system; the Leclerc has an improved version.
Aerospace applications
The first ceramic plates found application in the aerospace sector: in 1965, the helicopter UH-1 Huey was modified with HFC (Hard-Faced-Composite) around the seats of pilot and copilot, protecting them against small arms fire. The plates were in boron carbide, which, though exceedingly costly, due to its superior lightness has remained the material of choice for aerospace applications. An example among many, the modern V-22 Osprey is protected similarly.
See also
Case-hardening
Notes
References
Further reading
Jeffrey J. Swab (Editor), Dongming Zhu (General Editor), Waltraud M. Kriven (General Editor); Advances in Ceramic Armor: A Collection of Papers Presented at the 29th International Conference on Advanced Ceramics and Composites, January 23–28, 2005, Cocoa Beach, Florida, Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings, Volume 26, Number 7;
External links
Article on DSTL/QinetiQ Chertsey and Longcross Test Track (Chobham Tank Research Centre)
Vehicle armour
Composite materials
British inventions
Science and technology in the United Kingdom
History of the tank
Military equipment introduced in the 1960s
|
[
-0.1588662713766098,
0.50344318151474,
-0.13942161202430725,
-0.300158828496933,
-0.252942830324173,
0.46399155259132385,
0.2759045958518982,
-0.41766101121902466,
-0.13156013190746307,
0.22319282591342926,
-0.5259710550308228,
0.49462461471557617,
0.3883231282234192,
-0.17713725566864014,
-0.4617884159088135,
0.43518349528312683,
0.6881215572357178,
-0.07119498401880264,
0.07922761142253876,
-0.16243430972099304,
0.16458852589130402,
-0.42562592029571533,
0.002701623598113656,
0.4649645984172821,
0.08483660966157913,
0.14838510751724243,
0.6735973954200745,
0.1758318394422531,
0.4753042459487915,
0.21666698157787323,
0.10005592554807663,
0.8541474938392639,
0.24331337213516235,
-0.5245822668075562,
0.09525696188211441,
0.09286091476678848,
-0.06605753302574158,
0.06398667395114899,
-0.13374020159244537,
-0.9800217747688293,
0.46742263436317444,
0.30477139353752136,
0.30093634128570557,
0.32580655813217163,
-0.30353230237960815,
0.07687226682901382,
-0.9116365313529968,
0.5671764016151428,
-0.6952654719352722,
-0.14444893598556519,
-0.12846194207668304,
0.3693165183067322,
-0.12018616497516632,
-0.12116116285324097,
0.42900484800338745,
0.5023496150970459,
-0.8210309743881226,
-0.216363787651062,
0.5810807347297668,
-0.14840573072433472,
0.22881054878234863,
-0.007390785962343216,
-0.08257371187210083,
0.12593455612659454,
-0.38255301117897034,
0.24170781672000885,
-0.11103098094463348,
0.48393499851226807,
-0.1260678768157959,
-0.152661994099617,
-0.29225268959999084,
-0.4750203788280487,
0.24444596469402313,
0.20274560153484344,
-0.669062614440918,
0.04200085252523422,
-0.11384961754083633,
-0.1774570345878601,
-0.13400927186012268,
0.1426076889038086,
0.46466195583343506,
0.13486717641353607,
-0.20598074793815613,
0.13284584879875183,
0.2938201129436493,
0.3962007164955139,
-0.6696587204933167,
0.33519190549850464,
-0.5145756006240845,
0.5461608171463013,
-0.20754624903202057,
0.036902979016304016,
0.898012101650238,
0.857524573802948,
0.1363239586353302,
-0.38875192403793335,
-0.10980219393968582,
0.2134876847267151,
0.468660444021225,
0.09269865602254868,
-0.3013424873352051,
0.6562170386314392,
0.27965596318244934,
-0.19643530249595642,
-1.5866845846176147,
0.005857327952980995,
-0.6550462245941162,
-0.18011239171028137,
-0.2376253753900528,
0.05747680738568306,
-0.7133460640907288,
-0.39978018403053284,
-0.6046071648597717,
-0.15148942172527313,
-0.3230113387107849,
0.4704441428184509,
-0.11885999143123627,
-0.14987456798553467,
-0.3291166126728058,
0.15063674747943878,
-0.22661124169826508,
1.3659939765930176,
-0.3428337574005127,
0.6121293902397156,
0.139034703373909,
-0.02700909413397312,
0.4785018563270569,
0.8431761264801025,
-0.24789707362651825,
0.1432093232870102,
-0.02966775745153427,
0.8887710571289062,
-0.5289740562438965,
0.32965904474258423,
-0.08217021822929382,
0.20533987879753113,
0.4763828217983246,
0.33965182304382324,
0.05162153020501137,
0.6268160939216614,
-1.0064102411270142,
-0.43797096610069275,
0.5120465755462646,
-0.4656749367713928,
0.3695051074028015,
-0.35457420349121094,
-0.1680625081062317,
-0.02256152778863907,
-0.3188683092594147,
-0.7382124662399292,
0.3728594481945038,
-0.4071446657180786,
-0.20024865865707397,
-0.11274930834770203,
-0.23113641142845154,
0.7205362319946289,
0.594284176826477,
-0.6976356506347656,
0.6075499653816223,
-0.08843780308961868,
-0.2514796853065491,
-0.20590002834796906,
-0.24640332162380219,
0.2142159640789032,
0.08595883846282959,
0.3731324374675751,
0.3696402311325073,
-0.2463054358959198,
0.10411087423563004,
0.46719813346862793,
-0.8125590682029724,
0.053589411079883575,
0.14432160556316376,
-0.040242306888103485,
0.24301430583000183,
0.1510249674320221,
0.6733719706535339,
0.4528006315231323,
0.5470380187034607,
-0.27473002672195435,
-0.6006835103034973,
-0.12133410573005676,
0.2681134045124054,
-0.012971851974725723,
0.4381304383277893,
0.6665915250778198,
0.3555983006954193,
-0.22786860167980194,
-0.3833491802215576,
0.6775330305099487,
-1.0900992155075073,
-0.43624216318130493,
0.49289053678512573,
-0.6440737247467041,
1.537146806716919,
0.3503773510456085,
-0.3472050130367279,
-0.00528144184499979,
0.237183079123497,
1.2670598030090332,
0.3938902020454407,
0.00013808393850922585,
0.13186323642730713,
-0.22526238858699799,
-0.15315048396587372,
-0.5284445285797119,
0.007118052337318659,
0.1010582223534584,
0.44380950927734375,
0.08552572131156921,
0.24940112233161926,
-0.18452805280685425,
-0.07429596036672592,
-0.0817166194319725,
-0.11142230778932571,
0.5337239503860474,
0.0194559209048748,
0.5007258057594299,
0.047189414501190186,
-1.2692641019821167,
0.6747824549674988,
-0.14252184331417084,
-0.1076400950551033,
-0.33380427956581116,
0.01439201645553112,
0.8488880395889282,
-0.35003265738487244,
0.13573288917541504,
0.35023054480552673,
-0.2844749689102173,
-0.22000719606876373,
-0.027575859799981117,
-0.002097650431096554,
0.062377724796533585,
-0.05456412956118584,
-0.5026039481163025,
-0.06220684200525284,
-0.5194041132926941,
0.4377739131450653,
-0.14237186312675476,
-0.13892529904842377,
0.31142669916152954,
-0.9966296553611755,
-0.04620672017335892,
0.06601153314113617,
-0.2702814042568207,
0.3897475302219391,
0.08428355306386948,
-0.1277095377445221,
-0.10661029070615768,
0.04376641660928726,
0.4046858251094818,
0.3904881179332733,
0.03223230689764023,
-0.09338487684726715,
-0.30938467383384705,
-0.18305647373199463,
-0.21122761070728302,
-0.2817988991737366,
-0.0383153036236763,
-0.6173078417778015,
0.4818716049194336,
-0.16801442205905914,
0.49741390347480774,
-0.04750821366906166,
-0.4773971140384674,
-0.07591801881790161,
-0.31657707691192627,
0.5955919027328491,
-0.38628876209259033,
0.33044910430908203,
-0.4861721992492676,
-0.5990207195281982,
-0.15906131267547607,
0.12840034067630768,
-0.3634198009967804,
-0.20935384929180145,
0.49587664008140564,
-0.28334659337997437,
-0.4357232451438904,
0.053763024508953094,
0.9362456798553467,
0.3414309322834015,
-0.6887184977531433,
-0.08351066708564758,
-0.054550837725400925,
-0.20011907815933228,
-0.1699344962835312,
-0.37781795859336853,
-0.6013583540916443,
-0.1866428256034851,
0.15955868363380432,
-0.8854423761367798,
0.29688769578933716,
-0.021266931667923927,
0.6651307344436646,
-0.32508084177970886,
-0.34060683846473694,
0.3401585817337036,
0.0016729086637496948,
-0.6077606678009033,
0.09994786977767944,
-0.3005811274051666,
0.17032010853290558,
0.07899226993322372,
-0.023064468055963516,
-0.40917471051216125,
0.17351607978343964,
-5.445448398590088,
0.16826944053173065,
0.06645475327968597,
-0.37082943320274353,
0.8093089461326599,
0.3538029193878174,
-0.19827359914779663,
-0.16057275235652924,
-0.12519210577011108,
-0.8791367411613464,
-0.341516375541687,
-0.0166215468198061,
0.3925464451313019,
0.2584977149963379,
0.46741312742233276,
0.33977529406547546,
0.37251439690589905,
-0.15695464611053467,
0.8703718781471252,
0.12661053240299225,
0.10986900329589844,
-0.04739741235971451,
-0.09474107623100281,
-0.03606757894158363,
-0.5287103056907654,
0.757230281829834,
-0.6658114790916443,
0.04348498955368996,
-0.6110243797302246,
0.18228504061698914,
0.03684598580002785,
-0.33822739124298096,
0.15129077434539795,
0.05532730370759964,
-0.6970600485801697,
0.04325924813747406,
0.46047544479370117,
0.8314815163612366,
0.30411484837532043,
-0.41268983483314514,
0.06887385994195938,
0.23148113489151,
0.15216940641403198,
0.06939835101366043,
0.6052698493003845,
-0.513320803642273,
-0.17861145734786987,
-0.3807222843170166,
0.4442743957042694,
0.4938739836215973,
0.06032302603125572,
0.13548290729522705,
0.87298583984375,
0.17428074777126312,
0.02834090031683445,
-0.34588107466697693,
0.3945222496986389,
0.1881566047668457,
0.36379116773605347,
0.037693679332733154,
-0.4143800437450409,
-0.35774022340774536,
-0.05867137387394905,
-0.4666242301464081,
0.7246189117431641,
-0.14395661652088165,
-0.292153924703598,
-0.060821205377578735,
0.31307387351989746,
-0.1250852793455124,
-0.21858195960521698,
0.5905280113220215,
-0.00008811458246782422,
-1.1431015729904175,
0.12758727371692657,
-0.6673176288604736,
0.4888477921485901,
-0.855646550655365,
-0.11159726977348328,
0.6789758801460266,
0.3406752049922943,
-0.8214953541755676,
-0.6140128374099731,
-0.538329005241394,
-0.021013755351305008,
-0.8898950815200806,
0.008616399951279163,
0.11231227219104767,
0.17823638021945953,
-0.16189271211624146,
0.7026784420013428,
-0.5014442801475525,
0.19485580921173096,
0.3007739782333374,
1.0133038759231567,
0.07434999942779541,
-0.08015644550323486,
0.5509958267211914,
0.4563734531402588,
-0.3067430853843689,
-0.47488677501678467,
-0.9772533178329468,
0.11136017739772797,
-0.33339184522628784,
-0.15257617831230164,
-0.1583302915096283,
-0.17878496646881104,
-0.4016628861427307,
0.71237713098526,
-0.136418879032135,
0.23529952764511108,
-0.49728691577911377,
-0.7366907000541687,
-0.6006281971931458,
0.37854692339897156,
0.04267595335841179,
-0.03155325725674629,
-0.2577447295188904,
0.30704087018966675,
-0.07833881676197052,
0.002519463887438178,
0.18815936148166656,
-0.37446504831314087,
0.16220799088478088,
-0.5340701937675476,
-0.4802904427051544,
0.345682829618454,
-0.1823887825012207,
-0.34582462906837463,
-0.2755863070487976,
0.1805713027715683,
0.5716003775596619,
-0.4278008043766022,
0.707460880279541,
-0.5342521071434021,
-0.09661570191383362,
-0.32039129734039307,
-0.3321049213409424,
0.0849311351776123,
-0.19239524006843567,
0.2369392067193985,
-0.3512662351131439,
-0.13658647239208221,
0.5225856304168701,
0.4757152795791626,
0.6610625982284546,
-0.071050725877285,
0.03680688887834549,
-0.1787799596786499,
0.9247139096260071,
0.09894991666078568,
-0.3287937045097351,
-0.3849876821041107,
-0.3636602759361267,
-0.4858474135398865,
0.14321401715278625,
-0.07903201133012772,
0.21752922236919403,
-0.3111010491847992,
-0.14384277164936066,
0.3917069137096405,
0.2929055988788605,
-0.9184805154800415,
-0.14508582651615143,
0.3232077658176422,
-0.29151055216789246,
0.2807854413986206,
-0.9189292192459106,
-0.17685045301914215,
0.06663589924573898,
-0.006427111569792032,
-0.5563618540763855,
-0.9441159963607788,
-0.22291767597198486,
0.4070919156074524,
0.12177863717079163,
0.3422699570655823,
-0.1520344763994217,
-0.2737579047679901,
0.17771263420581818,
0.14361147582530975,
0.21694889664649963,
0.04243861883878708,
0.7828947901725769,
0.4315938353538513,
-0.5714916586875916,
-0.9678168296813965,
-0.025949105620384216,
0.020408503711223602,
-0.16266053915023804,
-0.16785453259944916,
-0.37357601523399353,
0.7794305086135864,
0.6284143924713135,
-0.625455379486084,
0.24834148585796356,
-0.39989715814590454,
0.006307987496256828,
-0.07374589890241623,
-0.781757116317749,
0.09185300767421722,
1.0141996145248413,
-0.5918660163879395,
0.7292216420173645,
0.1848166584968567,
-0.42126575112342834,
0.36266422271728516,
0.2695281207561493,
-0.59385085105896,
0.533289909362793,
-0.2231164127588272,
-1.1371725797653198,
0.0878758430480957,
0.7477350831031799,
-0.39275723695755005,
0.15576042234897614,
-0.6347158551216125,
0.4078437089920044,
-0.3396163284778595,
-0.05787500739097595,
-0.1130995824933052,
-0.2519490420818329,
-0.312214732170105,
-0.13624770939350128,
-1.0405470132827759,
0.26999059319496155,
0.09089188277721405,
-0.5705341696739197,
0.13927750289440155,
-0.3809989392757416,
-0.30549877882003784,
-0.11640730500221252,
0.10681646317243576,
0.2269761860370636,
0.4549030661582947,
-0.021828535944223404,
0.0815647691488266,
-0.4459456503391266,
0.13162660598754883,
0.20157493650913239,
0.5078434944152832,
0.8818386197090149,
0.044691842049360275,
-0.38477542996406555,
-0.5010045766830444,
0.23978467285633087,
0.7512950897216797,
-0.2818866968154907,
-0.5048114061355591,
0.3367007076740265,
0.15053848922252655,
-0.31643375754356384,
-0.7980849742889404,
-0.3166739046573639,
1.150068998336792,
-0.7317081093788147,
-0.22905613481998444,
-0.9564698338508606,
0.22989654541015625,
0.3212984800338745,
-0.2892162799835205,
0.4802733361721039,
-0.4239346981048584,
0.1268204152584076,
0.15340299904346466,
-0.16750088334083557,
0.22683051228523254,
-0.44586777687072754,
0.367170512676239,
-0.426211416721344,
0.05295431241393089,
0.042222823947668076,
0.06910597532987595,
0.3633914291858673,
0.4559743404388428,
-0.00676979124546051,
0.5262157917022705,
-0.5510019659996033,
0.8822540640830994,
0.23944398760795593,
-0.4241011142730713,
0.4056037664413452,
0.42502036690711975,
-0.546238899230957,
-0.5215810537338257,
-0.4416443407535553,
0.2257997989654541,
-0.25155341625213623,
0.11938422173261642,
-0.02623560093343258,
-0.0064155631698668,
-0.24166715145111084,
-0.12298504263162613,
0.18226414918899536,
-0.009906766004860401,
0.2534165382385254,
-0.5525588393211365,
-0.18761815130710602,
-0.25856971740722656,
0.4676556885242462,
-0.8189253211021423,
0.8687567710876465,
0.10299738496541977,
-0.015499466098845005,
0.5038454532623291,
0.4678322374820709,
-0.10401834547519684,
-0.4908628761768341,
0.06550395488739014,
0.11589868366718292,
0.04462006688117981,
-0.00791342556476593,
-0.20558960735797882,
0.7587162256240845,
-0.9245653748512268,
-0.023557761684060097,
0.37598228454589844,
-0.4129350483417511,
0.1110745295882225,
0.17290668189525604,
-0.018155794590711594,
0.14242492616176605,
0.36780276894569397,
0.5788295865058899,
-0.45459482073783875,
0.8588230609893799,
-0.5917220711708069,
-0.5043459534645081,
-0.1146506741642952,
0.5565268993377686,
0.24723994731903076,
-0.03415840119123459,
-0.5002449154853821,
0.9416409134864807,
0.13684339821338654,
-0.04566798731684685,
0.19159604609012604,
-0.4574039876461029,
-0.18981628119945526,
0.9719692468643188,
-0.23123431205749512,
-0.03664787858724594,
-0.3395715355873108,
-0.48269128799438477,
-0.6593683362007141,
0.5261321067810059,
-0.0023429335560649633,
-0.1617753654718399,
0.3570844233036041,
0.21085841953754425,
0.0428452230989933,
0.35344260931015015,
0.40112462639808655,
0.04210129752755165,
-0.10517501085996628,
0.13831281661987305,
0.25907278060913086,
-0.14103202521800995,
-0.6498121023178101,
-0.04496729001402855,
0.23855552077293396,
0.10982174426317215,
0.07048743963241577,
0.12727558612823486,
-0.5432958006858826,
-0.08686422556638718,
-0.05324408784508705,
-0.5209766626358032,
0.24090740084648132,
0.9078993201255798,
0.07898038625717163,
0.10643726587295532,
-0.584639310836792,
0.05872195586562157,
-0.31977036595344543,
0.02953765168786049,
0.15851645171642303,
0.2871328592300415,
0.4096345007419586,
-0.0006779218674637377,
-0.009825716726481915,
0.24745653569698334,
-0.1341911107301712,
-0.706620454788208,
0.5380546450614929,
-0.24451668560504913,
-0.6565054059028625,
0.608040452003479,
-0.19263288378715515,
-0.18901179730892181,
0.29682958126068115,
-0.6477361917495728,
-0.1093895360827446,
0.7916712760925293,
-0.5523799061775208,
0.09722113609313965,
0.02586418390274048,
0.7068241834640503,
0.38105469942092896,
0.5999433994293213,
-0.3491557240486145,
0.42686858773231506,
-0.1835571676492691,
0.195688396692276,
-0.2590554654598236,
0.10584983974695206,
-0.3091844618320465,
0.2981323003768921,
-0.7112288475036621,
-0.05943463742733002,
-0.23246125876903534,
-0.5679686665534973,
0.2317321002483368,
-0.20527225732803345,
-0.5679407119750977,
-0.10340993106365204,
0.270291805267334,
-0.555001974105835,
0.10603509843349457,
-0.2519316077232361,
0.27181607484817505,
-0.2406792789697647,
0.3312458395957947,
0.3775688409805298,
-0.2437688261270523,
0.039272576570510864,
0.9762267470359802,
-0.26476171612739563,
-0.8280906677246094,
0.4026959538459778,
-0.030514243990182877,
0.09013987332582474,
-0.9693312048912048,
-0.0981682687997818,
-0.146677628159523,
0.136454775929451,
0.6080228090286255,
0.7121379971504211,
0.001896612928248942,
0.15152902901172638,
0.4865332841873169,
-0.18608859181404114,
0.5382763743400574,
-0.14657433331012726,
0.05865015834569931,
-0.1936349719762802,
-0.2240862250328064,
0.2524530291557312,
-0.4479811191558838,
0.8068649768829346,
0.07005561888217926,
-0.14655959606170654,
0.6153973937034607,
-0.8840748071670532,
0.41578784584999084,
0.46262237429618835,
-0.19518080353736877,
-0.02407377026975155,
-0.5892893075942993,
-0.031048398464918137
] |
200128
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE%20Systems
|
BAE Systems
|
BAE Systems plc (BAE) is a British multinational arms, security, and aerospace company based in London, England. It is the largest defence contractor in Europe, and ranked the seventh-largest in the world based on applicable 2021 revenues. As of 2017, it is the biggest manufacturer in Britain. Its largest operations are in the United Kingdom and United States, where its BAE Systems Inc. subsidiary is one of the six largest suppliers to the US Department of Defense. Other major markets include Australia, Canada, India, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Qatar, Oman and Sweden, where Saudi Arabia is regularly among its top three sources of revenue. The company was formed on 30 November 1999 by the £7.7 billion purchase of and merger with Marconi Electronic Systems (MES)—the defence electronics and naval shipbuilding subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc (GEC)—by British Aerospace, an aircraft, munitions and naval systems manufacturer.
BAE is the successor to various aircraft, shipbuilding, armoured vehicle, armaments and defence electronics companies. These include The Marconi Company, the first commercial company devoted to the development and use of radio; A.V. Roe and Company, one of the world's first aircraft companies; de Havilland, manufacturer of the Comet, the world's first commercial jet airliner; Hawker Siddeley, manufacturer of the Harrier, the world's first VTOL attack aircraft; British Aircraft Corporation, co-manufacturer of the Concorde supersonic transport; Supermarine, manufacturer of the Spitfire; Yarrow Shipbuilders, builder of the Royal Navy's first destroyers; Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, builder of the world's first battlecruiser; and Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering, builder of the Royal Navy's first submarines.
Since its formation in 1999, BAE has made a number of acquisitions, most notably of United Defense and Armor Holdings of the United States, and sold its shares in Airbus, Astrium, AMS and Atlas Elektronik. It is involved in several major defence projects, including the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, the Eurofighter Typhoon, the , and the s. BAE Systems is listed on the London Stock Exchange's FTSE 100 Index.
History
Heritage
BAE Systems was formed on 30 November 1999, by the £7.7 billion acquisition of Marconi Electronic Systems (MES) by British Aerospace. As a result, BAE Systems is the successor to many of the most famous British aircraft, defence electronics and warship manufacturers. Predecessor companies built the Comet, the world's first commercial jet airliner; the Harrier "jump jet", the world's first operational Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing (VTOL) aircraft; the "groundbreaking" Blue Vixen radar carried by Sea Harrier FA2s and which formed the basis of the Eurofighter's CAPTOR radar; and co-produced the Concorde supersonic airliner with Aérospatiale.
British Aerospace was a civil and military aircraft manufacturer, as well as a provider of military land systems. The company had emerged from the massive consolidation of UK aircraft manufacturers since World War II. British Aerospace was formed on 29 April 1977, by the nationalisation and merger of The British Aircraft Corporation (BAC), the Hawker Siddeley Group and Scottish Aviation. Both BAC and Hawker Siddeley were themselves the result of various mergers and acquisitions.
Marconi Electronic Systems was the defence subsidiary of British engineering firm the General Electric Company (GEC), dealing largely in military systems integration, as well as naval and land systems. Marconi's heritage dates back to Guglielmo Marconi's Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company, founded in 1897. GEC purchased English Electric (which included Marconi) in 1968 and thereafter used the Marconi brand for its defence businesses (as GEC-Marconi and later Marconi Electronic Systems). GEC's own defence heritage dates back to World War I, when its contribution to the war effort included radios and bulbs. World War II consolidated this position, as the company was involved in important technological advances, notably the cavity magnetron for radar. Between 1945 and 1999, GEC-Marconi/Marconi Electronic Systems became one of the world's most important defence contractors. GEC's major defence related acquisitions included Associated Electrical Industries in 1967, Yarrow Shipbuilders in 1985, Plessey companies in 1989, parts of Ferranti's defence business in 1990, the rump of Ferranti when it went into receivership in 1993/1994, Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering in 1995 and Kværner Govan in 1999. In June 1998, MES acquired Tracor, a major American defence contractor, for £830 million (approx. US$1.4 billion c. 1998).
Formation
The 1997 merger of American corporations Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, which followed the forming of Lockheed Martin, the world's largest defence contractor in 1995, increased the pressure on European defence companies to consolidate. In June 1997 British Aerospace Defence managing director John Weston commented "Europe... is supporting three times the number of contractors on less than half the budget of the U.S.". European governments wished to see the merger of their defence manufacturers into a single entity, a 'European Aerospace and Defence Company'.
As early as 1995 British Aerospace and the German aerospace and defence company DaimlerChrysler Aerospace (DASA) were said to be keen to create a transnational aerospace and defence company. The two companies envisaged including Aérospatiale, the other major European aerospace company, but only after its privatisation. The first stage of this integration was seen as the transformation of Airbus from a consortium of British Aerospace, DASA, Aérospatiale and Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA into an integrated company; in this aim British Aerospace and DASA were united against the various objections of Aérospatiale. As well as Airbus, British Aerospace and DASA were partners in the Panavia Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft projects. Merger discussions began between British Aerospace and DASA in July 1998, just as French participation became more likely with the announcement that Aérospatiale was to merge with Matra and emerge with a diluted French government shareholding. A merger was agreed between British Aerospace chairman Richard Evans and DASA CEO Jürgen Schrempp.
Meanwhile, GEC was also under pressure to participate in defence industry consolidation. Reporting the appointment of George Simpson as GEC managing director in 1996, The Independent said "some analysts believe that Mr Simpson's inside knowledge of BAe, a long-rumoured GEC bid target, was a key to his appointment. GEC favours forging a national 'champion' defence group with BAe to compete with the giant US organisations." When GEC put MES up for sale on 22 December 1998, British Aerospace abandoned the DASA merger in favour of purchasing its British rival. The merger of British Aerospace and MES was announced on 19 January 1999. Evans stated that in 2004 that his fear was that an American defence contractor would acquire MES and challenge both British Aerospace and DASA. The merger created a vertically integrated company which The Scotsman described as "[a combination of British Aerospace's] contracting and platform-building skills with Marconi's coveted electronics systems capability", for example combining the manufacturer of the Eurofighter with the company that provided many of the aircraft's electronic systems; British Aerospace was MES' largest customer. In contrast, DASA's response to the breakdown of the merger discussion was to merge with Aérospatiale to create the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS), a horizontal integration.
Seventeen undertakings were given by BAE Systems to the Department of Trade and Industry which prevented a reference of the merger to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission. These were largely to ensure that the integrated company would tender sub-contracts to external companies on an equal basis with its subsidiaries. Another condition was the "firewalling" of former British Aerospace and MES teams on defence projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF). In 2007 the government announced it had agreed to release BAE Systems from ten of the undertakings due to "a change in circumstances".
BAE Systems inherited the UK government owned "golden" share that was established when British Aerospace was privatised. This unique share prevents amendments of certain parts of the company's Articles of Association without the permission of the Secretary of State. These Articles require that no foreign person or persons acting together may hold more than 15% of the company's shares.
2000s
BAE Systems' first annual report identified Airbus, support services to militaries and integrated systems for air, land and naval applications as key areas of growth. It also stated the company's desire to both expand in the US and participate in further consolidation in Europe. BAE Systems described 2001 as an "important year" for its European joint ventures, which were reorganised considerably. The company has described the rationale for expansion in the US; "[it] is by far the largest defence market with spend running close to twice that of the Western European nations combined. Importantly, US investment in research and development is significantly higher than in Western Europe." When Dick Olver was appointed chairman in July 2004 he ordered a review of the company's businesses which ruled out further European acquisitions or joint ventures and confirmed a "strategic bias" for expansion and investment in the US. The review also confirmed the attractiveness of the land systems sector and, with two acquisitions in 2004 and 2005, BAE moved from a limited land systems supplier to the second largest such company in the world. This shift in strategy was described as "remarkable" by the Financial Times. Between 2008 and early 2011 BAE acquired five cybersecurity companies in a shift in strategy to take account of reduced spending by governments on "traditional defence items such as warships and tanks".
In 2000 Matra Marconi Space, a joint BAE Systems/Matra company, was merged with the space division of DASA to form Astrium. On 16 June 2003 BAE sold its 25% share of Astrium for £84 million, however due to the lossmaking status of the company, BAE Systems invested an equal amount for "restructuring". BAE Systems sold its 54% majority share of BAE Systems Canada, an electronics company, in April for CA$310 (approx. £197 million as of December 2010). In November 2001, the company announced the closure of the Avro Regional Jet (Avro RJ) production line at Woodford and the cancellation of the Avro RJX, an advanced series of the aircraft family, as the business was "no longer viable". The final Avro RJ to be completed became the last British civil airliner. In November 2001 BAE sold its 49.9% share of Thomson Marconi Sonar to Thales for £85 million. A further step of European defence consolidation was the merger of BAE's share of Matra BAe Dynamics and the missile division of Alenia Marconi Systems (AMS) into MBDA in December. MBDA thus became the world's second largest missile manufacturer. Although EADS (now Airbus SE) was later reported to be interested in acquiring full control of MBDA, BAE said that, unlike Airbus, MBDA is a "core business".
In June 2002, BAE Systems confirmed it was in takeover discussions with TRW, an American aerospace, automotive and defence business. This was prompted by Northrop Grumman's £4.1 billion (approx. US$6 billion c. 2002) hostile bid for TRW in February 2002. A bidding war between BAE Systems, Northrop and General Dynamics ended on 1 June when Northrop's increased bid of £5.1 billion was accepted. On 11 December 2002, the company issued a shock profit warning due to cost overruns of the Nimrod MRA4 maritime reconnaissance/attack aircraft and the projects. On 19 February 2003 BAE took a charge of £750 million against these projects and the Ministry of Defence (MoD) agreed to pay a further £700 million of the cost. In 2000 the company had taken a £300 million "loss charge" on the Nimrod contract which was expected to cover "all the costs of completion of the current contract". The troubled Nimrod project would ultimately be cancelled as part of the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR).
The UK government, following a cabinet row described as "one of the most bitter Cabinet disputes over defence contracts since the Westland helicopter affair in 1985", ordered 20 BAE Hawk trainer aircraft with 24 options in July 2003 in a deal worth £800 million. The deal was significant because it was a factor in India's decision to finalise a £1 billion order for 66 Hawks in March 2004. Also in July 2003 BAE Systems and Finmeccanica announced their intention to set up three joint venture companies, to be collectively known as Eurosystems. These companies would have pooled the avionics, C4ISTAR and communications businesses of the two companies. However the difficulties of integrating the companies in this way led to a re-evaluation of the proposal; BAE Systems' 2004 Annual Report states that "recognising the complexity of the earlier proposed Eurosystems transaction with Finmeccanica we have moved to a simpler model". The main part of this deal was the dissolution of AMS and the establishment of SELEX Sensors and Airborne Systems; BAE Systems sold its 25% share of the latter to Finmeccanica for €400 million (approx. £270 million c. 2007) in March 2007.
In May 2004, it was reported that the company was considering selling its shipbuilding divisions, BAE Systems Naval Ships and BAE Systems Submarines. It was understood that General Dynamics wished to acquire the submarine building facilities at Barrow-in-Furness, while VT Group was said to be interested in the remaining yards on the Clyde. Instead, in 2008 BAE Systems merged its Surface Fleet arm with the shipbuilding operations of VT Group to form BVT Surface Fleet, an aim central to the British Government's Defence Industrial Strategy.
On 4 June 2004, BAE Systems outbid General Dynamics for Alvis Vickers, the UK's main manufacturer of armoured vehicles. Alvis Vickers was merged with the company's RO Defence unit to form BAE Systems Land Systems. Recognising the lack of scale of this business compared to General Dynamics, BAE Systems executives soon identified the US defence company United Defense Industries (UDI), a major competitor to General Dynamics, as a main acquisition target. On 7 March 2005 BAE announced the £2.25 billion (approx. US$4.2 billion c. 2005) acquisition of UDI. UDI, now BAE Systems Land and Armaments, manufactures combat vehicles, artillery systems, naval guns, missile launchers and precision guided munitions.
In December 2005, BAE Systems announced the sale of its German naval systems subsidiary, Atlas Elektronik, to ThyssenKrupp and EADS. The Financial Times described the sale as "cut price" because French company Thales bid €300 million, but was blocked from purchasing Atlas by the German government on national security grounds. On 31 January 2006 the company announced the sale of BAE Systems Aerostructures to Spirit AeroSystems, Inc, having said as early as 2002 that it wished to dispose of what it did not regard as a "core business".
On 18 August 2006 Saudi Arabia signed a contract worth £6 billion to £10 billion for 72 Eurofighter Typhoons, to be delivered by BAE Systems. On 10 September 2006 the company was awarded a £2.5 billion contract for the upgrade of 80 Royal Saudi Air Force Tornado IDSs. One of BAE Systems' major aims, as highlighted in the 2005 Annual Report, was the granting of increased technology transfer between the UK and the US. The F-35 (JSF) programme became the focus of this effort, with British government ministers such as Lord Drayson, Minister for Defence Procurement, suggesting the UK would withdraw from the project without the transfer of technology that would allow the UK to operate and maintain F-35s independently. On 12 December 2006, Lord Drayson signed an agreement which allows "an unbroken British chain of command" for operation of the aircraft. On 22 December 2006 BAE received a £947 million contract to provide guaranteed availability of Royal Air Force (RAF) Tornados.
In May 2007 the company announced its subsidiary BAE Systems Inc. was to purchase Armor Holdings for £2.3 billion (approx. US$4.5 billion c. 2007) and completed the deal on 31 July 2007. The company was a manufacturer of tactical wheeled vehicles and a provider of vehicle and individual armour systems and survivability technologies. BAE Systems (and British Aerospace previously) was a technology partner to the McLaren Formula One team from 1996 to December 2007. The partnership originally focused on McLaren's F1 car's aerodynamics, eventually moving on to carbon fibre techniques, wireless systems and fuel management. BAE Systems' main interest in the partnership was to learn about the high speed build and operations processes of McLaren.
The company announced the acquisition of Tenix Defence, a major Australian defence contractor in January 2008. The purchase was completed on 27 June for A$775 million (£373 million) making BAE Systems Australia that country's largest defence contractor. The MoD awarded BAE Systems a 15-year munitions contract in August 2008 worth up to £3 billion, known as Munition Acquisition Supply Solution (MASS). The contract guaranteed supply of 80% of the UK Armed Forces' ammunition and required BAE to modernise its munitions manufacturing facilities. BAE Systems expanded its intelligence and security business with the £531 million purchase of Detica Group in July 2008. It continued this strategy with purchases of Danish cyber and intelligence company ETI for approximately $210 million in December 2010, and Norkom Group PLC the following month for €217 million. The latter provides counter fraud and anti-money laundering solutions to the global financial services industry where its software assists institutions to comply with regulations on financial intelligence and monitoring.
Airbus shareholding
BAE Systems inherited British Aerospace's share of Airbus Industrie, which consisted of two factories at Broughton and Filton. These facilities manufactured wings for the Airbus family of aircraft. In 2001 Airbus was incorporated as Airbus SAS, a joint stock company. In return for a 20% share in the new company BAE Systems transferred ownership of its Airbus plants (known as Airbus UK) to the new company.
Despite repeated suggestions as early as 2000 that BAE Systems wished to sell its 20% share of Airbus, the possibility was denied by the company. However, on 6 April 2006 it was reported that it was indeed to sell its stake, then "conservatively valued" at £2.4 billion. Due to the slow pace of informal negotiations, BAE Systems exercised its put option which saw investment bank Rothschild appointed to give an independent valuation. Six days after this process began, Airbus announced delays to the A380 with significant effects on the value of Airbus shares. On 2 June 2006 Rothschild valued the company's share at £1.87 billion, well below its own analysts' and even EADS' expectations. The BAE Systems board recommended that the company proceed with the sale. Shareholders voted in favour and the sale was completed on 13 October. This saw the end of UK-owned involvement in civil airliner production. Airbus Operations Ltd (the former Airbus UK) continues to be the Airbus "Centre of Excellence" for wing production, employing over 9,500.
2010s
In February 2010 BAE Systems announced a £592 million writedown of the former Armor Holdings business following the loss of the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles contract in 2009. It was outbid by Oshkosh Corporation for the £2.3 billion ($3.7 billion) contract. Land and Armaments had been the "star performer" of BAE Systems' subsidiaries, growing from sales of £482 million in 2004 to £6.7 billion in 2009.
BAE Systems inherited British Aerospace's 35% share of Saab AB, with which it produced and marketed the Gripen fighter aircraft. In 2005 it reduced this share to 20.5% and in March 2010 announced its intention to sell the remainder. The Times stated that the decision brought "to an end its controversial relationship with the Gripen fighter aircraft". Several of the export campaigns for the aircraft were subject to allegations of bribery and corruption.
The company continued its move into support services in May 2010 with the purchase of the marine support company Atlantic Marine for $352 million. In September 2010 BAE Systems announced plans to sell the Platform Solutions division of BAE Systems Inc., which the Financial Times estimated could yield as much as £1.3 billion. Despite "considerable expressions of interest", the sale was abandoned in January 2011. The purchases of s, the Astute-class submarines, and the Type 26 frigates were all confirmed in the 2010 SDSR. A new generation of nuclear missile submarines, the Dreadnought-class, was ordered in 2016.
BAE Systems sold the regional aircraft leasing and asset management arm of its Regional Aircraft business in May 2011. This unit leases the BAe 146/Avro RJ family, BAe ATP, Jetstream and BAe 748. The company retained the support and engineering activities of the business. In September 2011, BAE Systems began consultation with unions and workers over plans to cut nearly 3,000 jobs, mostly in the company's military aircraft division.
In its 2012 half-year report, the company revealed a 10% decline in revenue in the six months up to 30 June due to falling demand for armaments. In May 2012 the governments of the UK and Saudi Arabia reached an agreement on an arms package which saw a £1.6 billion contract awarded to BAE for the delivery of 55 Pilatus PC-21 and 22 BAE Systems Hawk aircraft. The Sultanate of Oman ordered Typhoon and Hawk aircraft worth £2.5 billion in December 2012.
In September 2012, it was reported that BAE Systems and EADS had entered merger talks which would have seen BAE shareholders own 40% of the resulting organisation. On 10 October 2012, the companies said the merger talks had been called off. The Guardian reported that this was due to the German Government's concern about the "potential size of the French shareholding in the combined company, as well as disagreements over the location of the group's headquarters".
In November 2013, BAE Systems announced that shipbuilding would cease in Portsmouth in 2014 with the loss of 940 jobs, and a further 835 jobs would be lost at Filton, near Bristol, and at the shipyards in Govan, Rosyth, and Scotstoun in Scotland. On 9 October 2014, the company announced the loss of 440 management jobs across the country, with 286 of the job cuts in Lancashire.
In July 2014 it announced the acquisition of US intelligence company Signal Innovations Group Inc. to augment imagery and data analysis technologies in its Intelligence & Security business. In August 2014, BAE was awarded a £248 million contract from the British government to build three new offshore patrol vessels. In October 2014, BAE Systems won a £600 million contract from the MoD to maintain Portsmouth naval base for five years. During 2014 BAE Systems acquired US-based cybersecurity firm Silversky for $232.5 million.
During Theresa May's visit to Turkey in January 2017, BAE and TAI officials signed an agreement, worth about £100 million, for BAE to provide assistance in developing the TAI TFX aircraft. On 10 October 2017, BAE announced that it would lay off nearly 2,000 out of its approximately 35,000 employees in Britain, mainly due to an order shortage for the Typhoon fighter.
In 2019 BAE Systems sold a 55% share of its UK land business to Rheinmetall. The resultant joint venture (JV), Rheinmetall BAE Systems Land (RBSL), was established in July 2019 following regulatory approval and is headquartered at the existing facility in Telford, Shropshire.
2020s
In August 2020 BAE Systems completed the purchase of United Technologies' military GPS businesses for $1.9 billion and Raytheon’s military airborne radios business for $275 million. The sale of these 2 business was a condition of the merger approval which saw their 2 parent companies merge to form Raytheon Technologies.
In November 2020, the MoD announced the award of a 20 year, £2.4 billion munitions contract to BAE. This will see BAE manufacture 39 different munitions for the UK armed forces and supersedes the 2008 MASS contract.
Products
BAE Systems plays a significant role in the production of military equipment. In 2017, 98% of BAE Systems' total sales were military related.
It plays important roles in military aircraft production. The company's Typhoon fighter is one of the main front line aircraft of the RAF. The company is a major partner in the F-35 Lightning II programme. Its Hawk advanced jet trainer aircraft has been widely exported. In July 2006, the British government declassified the HERTI (High Endurance Rapid Technology Insertion), an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) which can navigate autonomously. It is currently developing a sixth-generation jet fighter aircraft for the RAF marketed as the "Tempest" along with the MoD, Rolls-Royce, Leonardo S.p.A. and MBDA. It is intended to enter service from 2035 replacing the Typhoon aircraft in service with the RAF.
BAE Systems Land and Armaments manufactures the M2/M3 Bradley fighting vehicle family, the US Navy Advanced Gun System (AGS), M113 armoured personnel carrier (APC), M109 Paladin, Archer, M777 howitzer, the British Army's Challenger 2, Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle, Panther Command and Liaison Vehicle, and the SA80 assault rifle.
Major naval projects include the Astute-class submarines, Type 26 frigates and Dreadnought-class submarines.
BAE Systems is indirectly engaged in production of nuclear weapons – through its share of MBDA it is involved with the production and support of the ASMP missile, an air-launched nuclear missile which forms part of the French nuclear deterrent. The company is also the UK's only nuclear submarine manufacturer and thus produces a key element of the United Kingdom's nuclear weapons capability.
Areas of business
BAE Systems defines its "principal markets" to be Australia, Saudi Arabia, the UK and the US.
United Kingdom
BAE Systems is the main supplier to the UK MoD; in 2009/2010 BAE Systems companies in the list of Top 100 suppliers to the MoD received contracts totalling £3.98 billion, with total revenue being higher when other subsidiary income is included. In comparison, the second largest supplier is Babcock International Group and its subsidiaries, with a revenue of £1.1 billion from the MoD. Oxford Economic Forecasting states that in 2002 the company's UK businesses employed 111,578 people, achieved export sales of £3 billion and paid £2.6 billion in taxes. These figures exclude the contribution of Airbus UK.
After its creation, BAE Systems had a difficult relationship with the MoD. This was attributed to deficient project management by the company, but also in part to the deficiencies in the terms of "fixed price contracts". CEO Mike Turner said in 2006 "We had entered into contracts under the old competition rules that frankly we shouldn't have taken". These competition rules were introduced by Lord Levene during the 1980s to shift the burden of risk to the contractor and were in contrast to "cost plus contracts" where a contractor was paid for the value of its product plus an agreed profit.
BAE Systems was operating in "the only truly open defence market", which meant that it was competing with US and European companies for British defence projects, while they were protected in their home markets. The US defence market is competitive, however largely between American firms, while foreign companies are excluded. In December 2005 the MoD published the Defence Industrial Strategy (DIS) which has been widely acknowledged to recognise BAE Systems as the UK's "national champion". The government claimed the DIS would "promote a sustainable industrial base, that retains in the UK those industrial capabilities needed to ensure national security."
After the publication of the DIS BAE Systems CEO Mike Turner said "If we didn't have the DIS and our profitability and the terms of trade had stayed as they were... then there had to be a question mark about our future in the UK". Lord Levene said in the balance between value for money or maintaining a viable industrial base the DIS "tries as well as it can to steer a middle course and to achieve as much as it can in both directions. ...We will never have a perfect solution."
United States
The attraction of MES to British Aerospace was largely its ownership of Tracor, a major American defence contractor.
BAE Systems Inc. now sells more to the US Department of Defense (DOD) than to the UK MoD. The company has been allowed to buy important defence contractors in the US, however its status as a UK company requires that its US subsidiaries are governed by American executives under Special Security Arrangements. The company faces fewer impediments in this sense than its European counterparts, as there is a high degree of integration between the US and UK defence establishments. BAE Systems' purchase of Lockheed Martin Aerospace Electronic Systems in November 2000 was described by John Hamre, CEO of the Center for Strategic and International Studies and former Deputy Secretary of Defense, as "precedent setting" given the advanced and classified nature of many of that company's products.
The possibility of a merger between BAE Systems Inc. and major North American defence contractors has long been reported, including Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed Martin, and Raytheon.
Rest of the world
BAE Systems Australia is one of the largest defence contractors in Australia, having more than doubled in size with the acquisition of Tenix Defence in 2008. The Al Yamamah agreements between the UK and Saudi Arabia require "the provision of a complete defence package for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia"; BAE Systems employs 5,300 people in the kingdom. BAE Systems' interests in Sweden are a result of the purchases of Alvis Vickers and UDI, which owned Hägglunds and Bofors respectively; the companies are now part of BAE Systems AB.
Shareholders
As of 21 February 2018 BAE Systems listed the following as "significant" shareholders: Axa and its group of companies 5.00%, Barclays 3.98%, BlackRock 5.00%, Capital Group Companies 10.11%, Franklin Templeton Investments and affiliates 4.92%, Invesco 4.97% and Silchester International Investors 3.01%.
Organisation
BAE Systems has its head office and its registered office in City of Westminster, London. In addition to its central London offices, it has an office in Farnborough, Hampshire, that houses functional specialists and support functions.
Corporate governance
BAE Systems' chairman is Sir Roger Carr. The executive directors are Charles Woodburn (CEO), Brad Greve and Tom Arsenault. The non-executive directors are Chris Grigg, Ewan Kirk, Ian Tyler, Nicole Piasecki, Stephen Pearce, Jane Griffiths, Nick Anderson, Carolyn Fairbairn, Crystal E. Ashby, and Elizabeth Corley.
The company's first CEO, John Weston, was forced to resign in 2002 in a boardroom "coup" and was replaced by Mike Turner. The Business reported that Weston was ousted when non-executive directors informed the chairman that they had lost confidence in him. Further, it was suggested that at least one non-executive director was encouraged to make such a move by the MoD due to the increasingly fractious relationship between BAE Systems and the government. As well as the terms of the Nimrod contract, Weston had fought against the MOD's insistence that one of the first three Type 45 destroyers should be built by VT Group. The Business said he considered this "competition-policy gone mad".
It is understood that Turner had a poor working relationship with senior MoD officials, for example with former Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon. The first meeting between Olver and Hoon was said to have gone well; a MoD official commented "He is a man we can do business with". It has been suggested that relations between Turner and Olver were tense. On 16 October 2007 the company announced that Mike Turner would retire in August 2008. The Times called his departure plans "abrupt" and a "shock", given previous statements that he wished to retire in 2013 at the age of 65. Despite suggestions that BAE Systems would prefer an American CEO due to the increasing importance of the United States defence market to the company and the opportunity to make a clean break from corruption allegations and investigations related to the Al-Yamamah contracts, the company announced on 27 June 2008 that it had selected the company's chief operating officer, Ian King, to succeed Turner with effect from 1 September 2008. The Financial Times noted that King's career at Marconi distances him from the British Aerospace-led Al Yamamah project.
Charles Woodburn succeeded Ian King as CEO on 1 July 2017. Woodburn joined BAE Systems in May 2016 as Chief Operating Officer and Executive Board Director following over 20 years' international experience in senior management positions in the oil and gas industry.
Financial information
Financial information for the company is as follows:
Corruption investigations
Serious Fraud Office
BAE Systems has been investigated by the Serious Fraud Office (SFO) for the use of corruption to help sell arms to Chile, Czech Republic, Romania, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Tanzania and Qatar. In response, BAE Systems' 2006 Corporate Responsibility Report states "We continue to reject these allegations... We take our obligations under the law extremely seriously and will continue to comply with all legal requirements around the world. In June 2007 Lord Woolf was selected to lead what the BBC described as an "independent review.... [an] ethics committee to look into how the defence giant conducts its arms deals". The report, Ethical business conduct in BAE Systems plc – the way forward, made 23 recommendations, measures which the company committed to implement. The finding stated that "in the past BAE did not pay sufficient attention to ethical standards in the way it conducted business", and was described by the BBC as "an embarrassing admission".
In September 2009, the SFO announced that it intended to prosecute BAE Systems for offences relating to overseas corruption. The Guardian claimed that a penalty more than £500 million might be an acceptable settlement package. On 5 February 2010, BAE Systems agreed to pay criminal fines of £257 million (US$400 million) to the US and £30 million to the UK. The $400 million fine was a result of a plea bargain with the US Department of Justice (DOJ) whereby BAE Systems was convicted of felony conspiracy to defraud the United States government. This was one of the largest fines in the history of the DOJ. Judge Bates said the company's conduct involved "deception, duplicity and knowing violations of law, I think it's fair to say, on an enormous scale". BAE Systems did not directly admit to bribery, and is thus not internationally blacklisted from future contracts. Some of the £30 million penalty the company will pay in fines to the UK will be paid ex gratia for the benefit of the people of Tanzania. On 2 March 2010, Campaign Against Arms Trade (CAAT) and Corner House Research were successful in gaining a High Court injunction on the SFO's settlement with BAE Systems; however in April 2010 the two organisations withdrew their application for a judicial review.
Saudi Arabia
Both BAE Systems and its predecessor (BAe) have long been the subject of allegations of bribery in relation to its business in Saudi Arabia. The UK National Audit Office (NAO) investigated the Al Yamamah contracts and has so far not published its conclusions, the only NAO report ever to be withheld. The MoD has stated "The report remains sensitive. Disclosure would harm both international relations and the UK's commercial interests." The company has been accused of maintaining a £60 million Saudi slush fund. In November 2006, Saudi Arabia put pressure on the British government to end the SFO investigation by suspending negotiations over a new deal for seventy-two Typhoon fighter jets. On 14 December 2006 it was announced that the SFO was "discontinuing" its investigation into the company. It stated that representations to its Director and the Attorney General Lord Goldsmith had led to the conclusion that the wider public interest "to safeguard national and international security" outweighed any potential benefits of further investigation. The termination of the investigation has been controversial. In June 2007, the BBC's Panorama alleged BAE Systems "paid hundreds of millions of pounds to the ex-Saudi ambassador to the US, Prince Bandar bin Sultan" in return for his role in the Al Yamamah deals. In late June 2007 the DOJ began a formal investigation into BAE's compliance with anti-corruption laws. On 19 May 2008 BAE Systems confirmed that its CEO Mike Turner and non-executive director Nigel Rudd had been detained "for about 20 minutes" at two US airports the previous week and that the DOJ had issued "a number of additional subpoenas in the US to employees of BAE Systems plc and BAE Systems Inc as part of its ongoing investigation". The Times suggested that such "humiliating behaviour by the DOJ" is unusual toward a company that is co-operating fully.
A judicial review of the decision by the SFO to drop the investigation was granted on 9 November 2007. On 10 April 2008 the High Court ruled that the SFO "acted unlawfully" by dropping its investigation. The Times described the ruling as "one of the most strongly worded judicial attacks on government action" which condemned how "ministers 'buckled' to 'blatant threats' that Saudi cooperation in the fight against terror would end unless the ...investigation was dropped." On 24 April the SFO was granted leave to appeal to the House of Lords against the ruling. There was a two-day hearing before the Lords on 7 and 8 July 2008. On 30 July the House of Lords unanimously overturned the High Court ruling, stating that the decision to discontinue the investigation was lawful.
Others
In September 2005 The Guardian reported that banking records showed that BAE Systems paid £1 million to Augusto Pinochet, the former Chilean dictator. The Guardian has also reported that "clandestine arms deals" have been under investigation in Chile and the UK since 2003 and that British Aerospace and BAE Systems made a number of payments to Pinochet advisers.
BAE Systems is alleged to have paid "secret offshore commissions" of over £7 million to secure the sale of HMS London and HMS Coventry to the Romanian Navy. The company received a £116 million contract for the refurbishment of the ships prior to delivery; however the British taxpayer only received the scrap value of £100,000 each from the sale.
BAE Systems ran into controversy in 2002 over the abnormally high cost of a radar system sold to Tanzania. The sale was criticised by several opposition MPs and the World Bank; Secretary of State for International Development Clare Short declared that BAE Systems had "ripped off" developing nations.
In January 2007, details of an investigation by the SFO into BAE Systems' sales tactics in regard to South Africa were reported, highlighting the £2.3 billion deal to supply Hawk trainers and Gripen fighters as suspect. In May 2011, as allegations of bribery behind South Africa's Gripen procurement continued, the company's partner Saab AB issued strong denials of any illicit payments being made; however in June 2011 Saab announced that BAE Systems had made unaccounted payments of roughly $3.5 million to a consultant; this revelation prompted South African opposition parties to call for a renewed inquiry. The Gripen's procurement by the Czech Republic was also under investigation by the SFO in 2006 over allegations of bribery.
Criticism
Espionage
In September 2003 The Sunday Times reported that BAE Systems had hired a private security contractor to collate information about individuals working at CAAT and their activities. In February 2007, it was reported that the corporation had again obtained private confidential information from CAAT.
The company was reported in 2012 to have been the target of Chinese cyber espionage that may have stolen secrets related to the F-35 Lightning II.
Cluster bombs
In 2003, BAE Systems was criticised for its role in the production of cluster bombs, due to the long term risk for injury or death to civilians. Following the 2008 Oslo Convention on Cluster Munitions BAE Systems was among the first defence contractors to stop their manufacture and by 2012 the majority of the munitions had been destroyed.
Saudi war in Yemen
Saudi Arabia is BAE's third biggest market. The Independent reported that BAE-supplied aircraft were used to bomb Red Cross and MSF hospitals in Yemen." The chairman of BAE Systems, Sir Roger Carr, rejected criticism over BAE's continued work in Saudi Arabia, saying "We will stop doing it when they tell us to stop doing it. ... We maintain peace by having the ability to make war and that has stood the test of time." BAE Systems sold weaponry worth £17.6bn to Saudis during Yemen war.
Political influence and donations
Former Foreign Secretary Robin Cook said of his time in office that he "came to learn that the chairman of BAE appeared to have the key to the garden door to number 10. Certainly I never knew No 10 to come up with any decision which would be incommoding to BAE."
In the United States BAE Systems is a significant political donor to both Democratic and Republican candidates and organisations. In 2016 its political action committee (PAC) contributions were the second largest of any foreign corporation after UBS. In January 2021 following the 2021 United States Capitol attack BAE Systems announced that it was suspending political donations in the US. On 30 March it once again began making large political contributions, including one to the National Republican Senatorial Committee.
See also
Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom
References
Further reading
Hartley, Keith. The Political Economy of Aerospace Industries: A Key Driver of Growth and International Competitiveness? (Edward Elgar, 2014); 288 pages; the industry in Britain, continental Europe, and the US with a case study of BAE Systems.
External links
Aerospace companies of the United Kingdom
Aircraft manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Air traffic controller schools
British brands
British Shipbuilders
British companies established in 1999
Technology companies established in 1999
Manufacturing companies established in 1999
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
Defence companies of the United Kingdom
Electronics companies of the United Kingdom
Manufacturing companies of the United Kingdom
Collier Trophy recipients
Companies based in Farnborough
1999 establishments in England
|
[
0.19455018639564514,
0.19938983023166656,
0.5307126641273499,
-0.3888269364833832,
0.15816116333007812,
0.5362632274627686,
0.049094509333372116,
-0.07640250772237778,
-0.1543990820646286,
0.542137622833252,
-0.8525648713111877,
0.26674237847328186,
-0.1603194773197174,
0.20476894080638885,
-0.007258957251906395,
0.07555507123470306,
0.2977406680583954,
0.026640035212039948,
-0.08727733790874481,
-0.09564822912216187,
-0.3633405268192291,
0.2802012860774994,
0.7876271605491638,
0.05110909417271614,
-0.04174361377954483,
-0.026528216898441315,
0.2475358545780182,
0.14029186964035034,
0.17043307423591614,
0.5088465213775635,
0.32865965366363525,
0.13831296563148499,
-0.5423926711082458,
-0.2585655450820923,
-0.10527043044567108,
-0.04152002930641174,
-0.38673293590545654,
0.6103149056434631,
-0.3567364811897278,
-1.0525726079940796,
-0.383227676153183,
0.18012982606887817,
-0.13064725697040558,
0.07606030255556107,
0.10167883336544037,
-0.3135897219181061,
-1.2008651494979858,
-0.18421688675880432,
-0.36070913076400757,
-0.07744495570659637,
-0.6225829124450684,
0.45558229088783264,
-0.07872878760099411,
-0.12207356840372086,
0.592574417591095,
0.20739805698394775,
-0.6252416968345642,
-0.4325358271598816,
-0.07760662585496902,
-0.34089958667755127,
0.3026365041732788,
0.1351323127746582,
0.15934643149375916,
0.30889347195625305,
0.5864839553833008,
-0.15050062537193298,
0.35567739605903625,
0.07692208141088486,
-0.3836521506309509,
0.034760501235723495,
-0.13937190175056458,
-0.3702929615974426,
-0.03929010033607483,
0.06851708143949509,
-0.4213293194770813,
-0.14966878294944763,
-0.020518913865089417,
-0.4948040843009949,
0.4629857838153839,
0.8615570664405823,
0.39663219451904297,
0.6227297782897949,
0.6033776998519897,
0.24467211961746216,
0.4207606911659241,
0.5995883345603943,
-0.7661684155464172,
0.03421732783317566,
-0.29196375608444214,
0.7391772270202637,
0.22013519704341888,
0.15871486067771912,
0.56495600938797,
0.24394093453884125,
0.049280647188425064,
-0.36858218908309937,
0.014726242050528526,
0.21953299641609192,
0.20129874348640442,
-0.05543462559580803,
-0.27616190910339355,
0.3430481553077698,
-0.0798536017537117,
-0.8950052261352539,
0.18739110231399536,
-0.3830263912677765,
-0.5144608616828918,
-0.5004963874816895,
-0.06325023621320724,
0.061067644506692886,
-0.567861020565033,
-0.6935668587684631,
0.4971606135368347,
0.04296446591615677,
-0.08565529435873032,
1.1918760538101196,
-0.05501806363463402,
-0.2290441393852234,
0.4337976574897766,
0.3162928521633148,
1.038700819015503,
0.5534809231758118,
-0.5132758617401123,
0.3599916100502014,
0.244180366396904,
0.20240150392055511,
0.45792245864868164,
0.22000077366828918,
-0.904511570930481,
-0.3044081926345825,
0.24339304864406586,
0.5463497042655945,
-0.7934834957122803,
0.40722352266311646,
-0.047921471297740936,
0.3979884684085846,
0.6473636031150818,
0.0288340225815773,
0.140746608376503,
0.3752795159816742,
-0.9559229016304016,
-0.48763981461524963,
-0.28543052077293396,
-0.544603705406189,
0.1819649487733841,
-0.26594409346580505,
0.2722299098968506,
-0.22584521770477295,
-0.6637643575668335,
-0.02911444939672947,
-0.09643645584583282,
-0.24459536373615265,
-0.6652944087982178,
0.032939519733190536,
-0.28214702010154724,
0.14281770586967468,
1.0938788652420044,
0.17863285541534424,
-0.21725676953792572,
-0.36126789450645447,
-0.16301888227462769,
-0.05272254720330238,
0.15018895268440247,
0.31820011138916016,
0.16928108036518097,
-0.3413371443748474,
0.15362532436847687,
-0.2795204818248749,
0.05848893150687218,
0.0025398132856935263,
-0.08854766190052032,
-0.4855024814605713,
0.3865416944026947,
-0.19528567790985107,
0.32230427861213684,
-0.17005768418312073,
0.37859371304512024,
0.6484889388084412,
0.14683076739311218,
0.021676119416952133,
-0.5843347907066345,
0.28914543986320496,
0.3543054163455963,
0.32058894634246826,
0.3528839945793152,
0.015421255491673946,
0.5362511277198792,
-0.6513687372207642,
-0.3321825861930847,
0.22001375257968903,
-0.6327272653579712,
-0.2614898383617401,
0.4699452221393585,
-0.40368756651878357,
0.37838369607925415,
-0.29502490162849426,
-0.3474898636341095,
0.9767901301383972,
-0.8110373020172119,
0.5149479508399963,
0.12462786585092545,
0.26168835163116455,
-0.30716508626937866,
-0.3846527934074402,
-0.09517215192317963,
0.021531542763113976,
0.2587253153324127,
0.10745308548212051,
0.38632190227508545,
0.37815138697624207,
0.10399161279201508,
-0.7088047862052917,
-0.2601352334022522,
0.22829346358776093,
0.15130841732025146,
-0.3500114381313324,
-0.5108821392059326,
0.07890003174543381,
0.07259830832481384,
-0.2870417535305023,
0.8980826735496521,
0.08316317200660706,
0.07777705788612366,
0.2335624098777771,
0.02625478431582451,
0.2804288864135742,
-0.10732901841402054,
-0.10347356647253036,
0.35930392146110535,
-0.3781757652759552,
0.45090508460998535,
0.27680912613868713,
0.019501136615872383,
-0.34788545966148376,
0.22723127901554108,
-0.10410561412572861,
-0.9754447340965271,
-0.22551119327545166,
0.04294290766119957,
-0.14436031877994537,
0.37463244795799255,
0.04530024901032448,
-0.6701659560203552,
0.3991380035877228,
0.42844194173812866,
-0.5289543271064758,
0.16285768151283264,
-0.18253938853740692,
0.054765887558460236,
0.35633280873298645,
-0.02454335242509842,
-0.036205511540174484,
-0.040053222328424454,
0.278890460729599,
-0.48787209391593933,
-0.25858715176582336,
-0.2627626061439514,
0.5244852304458618,
-0.18030214309692383,
0.14839398860931396,
-0.5559093356132507,
-0.13166821002960205,
-0.14470884203910828,
0.3951028883457184,
0.03704139590263367,
-0.8019705414772034,
-0.6957573294639587,
-0.5769966840744019,
0.22654855251312256,
0.018118366599082947,
0.5427087545394897,
-0.4846979081630707,
0.10180884599685669,
-0.343721866607666,
-0.12310772389173508,
-0.5646994709968567,
0.3121837079524994,
-0.02775275520980358,
0.00554049015045166,
-0.0763985812664032,
0.7495006918907166,
0.4466651678085327,
-0.34697458148002625,
-0.7276667356491089,
0.12121090292930603,
0.1544150561094284,
0.18400979042053223,
-0.22268742322921753,
-0.3702305853366852,
0.34410223364830017,
0.17688080668449402,
0.09168609231710434,
-0.9294916987419128,
0.31347784399986267,
0.22412003576755524,
0.3140886425971985,
-0.1546350121498108,
0.08243720233440399,
0.28472328186035156,
-0.37978148460388184,
-0.19046176970005035,
0.7841554284095764,
-0.2868826389312744,
-0.15434427559375763,
0.38282933831214905,
-0.7283785343170166,
0.0016312269726768136,
-0.42296549677848816,
-5.7436676025390625,
-0.3653711974620819,
-0.15166178345680237,
-0.4387762248516083,
1.1766114234924316,
0.11853951215744019,
0.47191497683525085,
-0.20009423792362213,
0.14432884752750397,
-0.1617247611284256,
0.33413827419281006,
-0.02719111368060112,
0.16076114773750305,
0.04337712749838829,
0.3191148340702057,
0.7712253332138062,
0.4371003806591034,
0.36550188064575195,
0.8571443557739258,
-0.024825867265462875,
0.16685917973518372,
-0.988464891910553,
-0.2924822270870209,
-0.03982260823249817,
-0.5131261944770813,
0.07222156226634979,
-0.3510981798171997,
-0.13182592391967773,
-0.4468764364719391,
0.12258730083703995,
-0.10910805314779282,
-0.11830265820026398,
-0.3961261808872223,
-0.0236488226801157,
0.09165070950984955,
-0.5274100303649902,
0.5269449353218079,
0.37159594893455505,
0.10697216540575027,
-0.22423964738845825,
0.8195433020591736,
0.33310040831565857,
0.2537660002708435,
0.1781615912914276,
0.36680468916893005,
-0.3390524983406067,
-0.6011713147163391,
0.08341673016548157,
-0.2602115571498871,
0.6724734306335449,
0.13571800291538239,
0.5096021294593811,
0.37534260749816895,
-0.3240198493003845,
-0.1622033268213272,
-0.10988078266382217,
0.1504248082637787,
-0.08509966731071472,
-0.07147932797670364,
0.5407930612564087,
-0.21235336363315582,
-0.20942576229572296,
0.0025294735096395016,
-0.4796110987663269,
-0.2859552502632141,
-0.19072945415973663,
-0.4591619670391083,
-0.5547534823417664,
0.3479321300983429,
-0.5893995761871338,
-0.1673087179660797,
-0.12967711687088013,
-0.293488085269928,
-0.7170002460479736,
-0.029411640018224716,
-0.4367687404155731,
0.5322179794311523,
-0.10866159200668335,
0.2649632692337036,
0.09339884668588638,
0.2727258503437042,
-0.12548041343688965,
0.41627827286720276,
-0.1966019868850708,
0.06584631651639938,
-0.2209979146718979,
-0.5106761455535889,
0.15214566886425018,
0.050719957798719406,
-0.0009217754122801125,
0.47022050619125366,
-0.18797282874584198,
0.4722006618976593,
0.40779435634613037,
0.8318648338317871,
-0.3211706280708313,
0.03177032247185707,
0.39441239833831787,
0.6670144200325012,
-0.8647420406341553,
-0.27807924151420593,
-0.04782947152853012,
-0.08430679142475128,
-0.6680316925048828,
-0.005331267602741718,
-0.25131064653396606,
0.13529165089130402,
-0.27241620421409607,
0.5212280750274658,
-0.0070565263740718365,
0.5538864135742188,
-0.49643847346305847,
-0.4267011284828186,
-0.16966034471988678,
-0.203843891620636,
-0.3619494140148163,
-1.0489696264266968,
0.6044309735298157,
0.04358329623937607,
-0.044219862669706345,
-0.5100415349006653,
0.4477197825908661,
-0.12003958970308304,
-0.08126798272132874,
-0.46702152490615845,
-0.7184978723526001,
-0.2667909860610962,
0.14421243965625763,
-0.038802165538072586,
-0.09346677362918854,
-0.08141439408063889,
0.6468971967697144,
0.053230274468660355,
0.4094626009464264,
-0.11010313779115677,
-0.24939295649528503,
-0.4488629698753357,
-0.1248512864112854,
0.07850727438926697,
-0.2782863676548004,
0.23530733585357666,
0.1743515282869339,
0.41390982270240784,
0.23205915093421936,
0.6442814469337463,
0.23651723563671112,
0.11297784745693207,
0.21502341330051422,
0.15282368659973145,
0.4896453320980072,
0.3533598482608795,
-0.8526896834373474,
0.26933613419532776,
-0.13775703310966492,
-0.41362354159355164,
-0.23565366864204407,
0.05783206969499588,
0.25904175639152527,
-0.033414632081985474,
-0.47406142950057983,
0.14306077361106873,
0.4296835958957672,
-0.7339736819267273,
-0.5345770120620728,
0.5631582140922546,
-0.07887417078018188,
-0.2287585437297821,
-0.5538992881774902,
0.2399887591600418,
0.5120453238487244,
0.4188082218170166,
-0.33568841218948364,
-0.41459348797798157,
-0.49787500500679016,
0.3524976372718811,
0.5156802535057068,
-0.10974173992872238,
-0.7146297097206116,
-0.5807037949562073,
0.3505748510360718,
0.22826148569583893,
0.5233951807022095,
-0.8838409781455994,
0.769192636013031,
-0.0038378529716283083,
-0.583743155002594,
0.09514115005731583,
-0.3968944847583771,
-0.39466041326522827,
-0.7955588102340698,
0.5937492847442627,
-0.419464111328125,
0.5512487888336182,
0.24665693938732147,
-0.4333638846874237,
-0.3248804211616516,
-0.15362390875816345,
0.3685370087623596,
-0.3776114583015442,
-0.8081977963447571,
-0.1270054280757904,
0.8596130013465881,
-0.28199487924575806,
-0.0858466848731041,
-0.12050879746675491,
-0.3577583432197571,
0.647186279296875,
-0.1718706637620926,
0.1096799224615097,
0.4434760510921478,
-0.6122795939445496,
-0.5560851693153381,
0.21843647956848145,
0.5618031024932861,
-1.189680814743042,
-0.09703510254621506,
0.18715305626392365,
0.009913426823914051,
-0.3919425904750824,
-0.4626171886920929,
-0.3606812357902527,
0.09257539361715317,
-0.5100330114364624,
-0.16217119991779327,
-0.6559985280036926,
0.7760702967643738,
0.5679029226303101,
-0.2693523168563843,
0.15115654468536377,
-0.2588736116886139,
-0.6928102374076843,
-0.01316511258482933,
-0.25038474798202515,
0.08728999644517899,
0.4386788010597229,
0.2836962044239044,
-0.5501099824905396,
0.15481267869472504,
0.49595561623573303,
0.2545630931854248,
-0.01000738050788641,
0.3585163354873657,
0.19023515284061432,
-0.35727614164352417,
-0.21464136242866516,
0.026461374014616013,
0.9553072452545166,
-0.38758254051208496,
-0.4351915419101715,
0.2519514560699463,
0.03969234228134155,
-0.06134425848722458,
-0.42124730348587036,
0.2113601118326187,
0.5313994288444519,
-0.26646751165390015,
0.032123442739248276,
-0.4511885643005371,
-0.24746762216091156,
-0.4315406084060669,
-0.36567097902297974,
0.02195378951728344,
-0.6260966062545776,
-0.06917141377925873,
0.20633353292942047,
0.7016680240631104,
-0.4634902775287628,
-0.32921236753463745,
0.2347765564918518,
-0.22373636066913605,
-0.03537629917263985,
-0.017792345955967903,
0.3977431654930115,
0.9026635885238647,
0.4082471430301666,
-0.357975572347641,
0.5779732465744019,
-0.44895920157432556,
0.0066750189289450645,
0.31239449977874756,
-0.4442712068557739,
0.2600526511669159,
0.17513348162174225,
-0.5434501767158508,
0.17840060591697693,
-1.025892734527588,
0.6518405675888062,
0.012586616910994053,
-0.19180727005004883,
0.11626671254634857,
-0.08568751066923141,
-0.014096739701926708,
-0.2951112687587738,
-0.0034720718394964933,
-0.7843100428581238,
-0.009813523851335049,
-0.08217541128396988,
0.2714190185070038,
0.5677604675292969,
0.4446682929992676,
-0.6898342370986938,
0.13546207547187805,
0.16006936132907867,
-0.3996291756629944,
0.443939745426178,
0.048171285539865494,
-0.2997370660305023,
-0.5752560496330261,
0.3315739035606384,
0.035866718739271164,
-0.3362797498703003,
-0.38305842876434326,
0.20960555970668793,
0.568077564239502,
-0.2683533728122711,
-0.0594559870660305,
0.46971264481544495,
-0.7020530700683594,
0.38720327615737915,
-0.10291854292154312,
0.23072923719882965,
0.42149195075035095,
0.38876932859420776,
-0.061409007757902145,
-0.006773571949452162,
1.2083123922348022,
-0.4138588607311249,
0.19878225028514862,
0.0609230101108551,
0.03573743999004364,
0.10021137446165085,
-0.07999511808156967,
0.07044054567813873,
0.5558053255081177,
0.01103047002106905,
-0.2851928174495697,
0.3280976712703705,
-0.20242978632450104,
-0.38669776916503906,
0.7217977046966553,
0.6713975071907043,
0.4913816750049591,
0.07867777347564697,
-0.10937221348285675,
-0.7537877559661865,
0.4263466000556946,
0.39187005162239075,
0.5872358083724976,
0.13568204641342163,
0.48951250314712524,
0.152078777551651,
-0.06648354232311249,
0.40067240595817566,
0.15925420820713043,
-0.06979580968618393,
-0.08582861721515656,
0.3928968608379364,
0.04604686424136162,
0.39330437779426575,
-0.32537931203842163,
-0.047762081027030945,
0.5496460795402527,
0.6755469441413879,
0.19111964106559753,
-0.26666444540023804,
0.08072449266910553,
0.39959028363227844,
-1.188472867012024,
0.4326433837413788,
0.24517489969730377,
-0.036212656646966934,
0.41216176748275757,
-0.03498800843954086,
0.563508152961731,
-0.32840460538864136,
0.1547933965921402,
0.11276014149188995,
-0.00963224284350872,
-0.11537051200866699,
0.13268068432807922,
0.03434467315673828,
0.33577537536621094,
0.3184486925601959,
-0.6331148147583008,
0.14607518911361694,
-0.41486385464668274,
-0.29129666090011597,
0.35738855600357056,
-0.05662752315402031,
0.31869301199913025,
-0.10555106401443481,
-0.44426319003105164,
-0.3374611437320709,
0.11291512101888657,
-0.15460850298404694,
0.20835785567760468,
0.025160491466522217,
0.290402889251709,
-0.11723434925079346,
0.16016437113285065,
0.583580732345581,
0.29385095834732056,
0.1345539391040802,
0.04609520733356476,
0.07552405446767807,
-0.15890802443027496,
-0.3696081340312958,
0.512673020362854,
-0.35392889380455017,
0.1584022045135498,
0.3544446527957916,
0.00040479746530763805,
0.041560906916856766,
-0.09571241587400436,
-0.6826306581497192,
-0.15893347561359406,
0.4651176333427429,
-0.2209196239709854,
0.13019120693206787,
-0.0695539265871048,
0.07764861732721329,
-0.5400981307029724,
0.35983970761299133,
0.12244518101215363,
-0.11787276715040207,
-0.21758320927619934,
0.8775728940963745,
0.3387337923049927,
-0.7713550329208374,
1.1434814929962158,
0.17089541256427765,
0.07901062816381454,
-0.017735503613948822,
0.3470505475997925,
-0.6785480380058289,
-0.4241810142993927,
-0.18817387521266937,
0.30248239636421204,
-0.39258384704589844,
-0.6308863759040833,
0.015917262062430382,
-0.12395074963569641,
0.4719477593898773,
-0.03405661880970001,
0.2555716633796692,
-0.4111141264438629,
-0.4500879943370819,
-0.4755047857761383,
-0.8165816068649292,
0.33124515414237976,
0.38983458280563354,
-0.5348358154296875,
0.2966066300868988,
-0.436402291059494,
0.5225274562835693,
0.2559698820114136,
0.028342727571725845,
-0.4756471514701843,
0.009791268035769463,
-0.07546453177928925
] |
200129
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair%20loss
|
Hair loss
|
Hair loss, also known as alopecia or baldness, refers to a loss of hair from part of the head or body. Typically at least the head is involved. The severity of hair loss can vary from a small area to the entire body. Inflammation or scarring is not usually present. Hair loss in some people causes psychological distress.
Common types include male- or female-pattern hair loss, alopecia areata, and a thinning of hair known as telogen effluvium. The cause of male-pattern hair loss is a combination of genetics and male hormones; the cause of female pattern hair loss is unclear; the cause of alopecia areata is autoimmune; and the cause of telogen effluvium is typically a physically or psychologically stressful event. Telogen effluvium is very common following pregnancy.
Less common causes of hair loss without inflammation or scarring include the pulling out of hair, certain medications including chemotherapy, HIV/AIDS, hypothyroidism, and malnutrition including iron deficiency. Causes of hair loss that occurs with scarring or inflammation include fungal infection, lupus erythematosus, radiation therapy, and sarcoidosis. Diagnosis of hair loss is partly based on the areas affected.
Treatment of pattern hair loss may simply involve accepting the condition, which can also include shaving one's head. Interventions that can be tried include the medications minoxidil (or finasteride) and hair transplant surgery. Alopecia areata may be treated by steroid injections in the affected area, but these need to be frequently repeated to be effective. Hair loss is a common problem. Pattern hair loss by age 50 affects about half of men and a quarter of women. About 2% of people develop alopecia areata at some point in time.
Terminology
Baldness is the partial or complete lack of hair growth, and part of the wider topic of "hair thinning". The degree and pattern of baldness varies, but its most common cause is androgenic hair loss, alopecia androgenetica, or alopecia seborrheica, with the last term primarily used in Europe.
Hypotrichosis
Hypotrichosis is a condition of abnormal hair patterns, predominantly loss or reduction. It occurs, most frequently, by the growth of vellus hair in areas of the body that normally produce terminal hair. Typically, the individual's hair growth is normal after birth, but shortly thereafter the hair is shed and replaced with sparse, abnormal hair growth. The new hair is typically fine, short and brittle, and may lack pigmentation. Baldness may be present by the time the subject is 25 years old.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of hair loss include hair loss in patches usually in circular patterns, dandruff, skin lesions, and scarring. Alopecia areata (mild – medium level) usually shows in unusual hair loss areas, e.g., eyebrows, backside of the head or above the ears, areas the male pattern baldness usually does not affect. In male-pattern hair loss, loss and thinning begin at the temples and the crown and hair either thins out or falls out. Female-pattern hair loss occurs at the frontal and parietal.
People have between 100,000 and 150,000 hairs on their head. The number of strands normally lost in a day varies but on average is 100. In order to maintain a normal volume, hair must be replaced at the same rate at which it is lost. The first signs of hair thinning that people will often notice are more hairs than usual left in the hairbrush after brushing or in the basin after shampooing. Styling can also reveal areas of thinning, such as a wider parting or a thinning crown.
Skin conditions
A substantially blemished face, back and limbs could point to cystic acne. The most severe form of the condition, cystic acne, arises from the same hormonal imbalances that cause hair loss and is associated with dihydrotestosterone production. Seborrheic dermatitis, a condition in which an excessive amount of sebum is produced and builds up on the scalp (looking like an adult cradle cap), is also a symptom of hormonal imbalances, as is an excessively oily or dry scalp. Both can cause hair thinning.
Psychological
Hair thinning and baldness cause psychological stress due to their effect on appearance. Although societal interest in appearance has a long history, this particular branch of psychology came into its own during the 1960s and has gained momentum as messages associating physical attractiveness with success and happiness grow more prevalent.
The psychology of hair thinning is a complex issue. Hair is considered an essential part of overall identity: especially for women, for whom it often represents femininity and attractiveness. Men typically associate a full head of hair with youth and vigor. Although they may be aware of pattern baldness in their family, many are uncomfortable talking about the issue. Hair thinning is therefore a sensitive issue for both sexes. For sufferers, it can represent a loss of control and feelings of isolation. People experiencing hair thinning often find themselves in a situation where their physical appearance is at odds with their own self-image and commonly worry that they appear older than they are or less attractive to others. Psychological problems due to baldness, if present, are typically most severe at the onset of symptoms.
Hair loss induced by cancer chemotherapy has been reported to cause changes in self-concept and body image. Body image does not return to the previous state after regrowth of hair for a majority of patients. In such cases, patients have difficulties expressing their feelings (alexithymia) and may be more prone to avoiding family conflicts. Family therapy can help families to cope with these psychological problems if they arise.
Causes
Although not completely understood, hair loss can have many causes:
Pattern hair loss
Male pattern hair loss is believed to be due to a combination of genetics and the male hormone dihydrotestosterone. The cause in female pattern hair loss remains unclear.
Infection
Dissecting cellulitis of the scalp
Fungal infections (such as tinea capitis)
Folliculitis from various causes
Demodex folliculitis, caused by Demodex folliculorum, a microscopic mite that feeds on the sebum produced by the sebaceous glands, denies hair essential nutrients and can cause thinning. Demodex folliculorum is not present on every scalp and is more likely to live in an excessively oily scalp environment.
Secondary syphilis
Drugs
Temporary or permanent hair loss can be caused by several medications, including those for blood pressure problems, diabetes, heart disease and cholesterol. Any that affect the body's hormone balance can have a pronounced effect: these include the contraceptive pill, hormone replacement therapy, steroids and acne medications.
Some treatments used to cure mycotic infections can cause massive hair loss.
Medications (side effects from drugs, including chemotherapy, anabolic steroids, and birth control pills)
Trauma
Traction alopecia is most commonly found in people with ponytails or cornrows who pull on their hair with excessive force. In addition, rigorous brushing and heat styling, rough scalp massage can damage the cuticle, the hard outer casing of the hair. This causes individual strands to become weak and break off, reducing overall hair volume.
Frictional alopecia is hair loss caused by rubbing of the hair or follicles, most infamously around the ankles of men from socks, where even if socks are no longer worn, the hair often will not grow back.
Trichotillomania is the loss of hair caused by compulsive pulling and bending of the hairs. Onset of this disorder tends to begin around the onset of puberty and usually continues through adulthood. Due to the constant extraction of the hair roots, permanent hair loss can occur.
Traumas such as childbirth, major surgery, poisoning, and severe stress may cause a hair loss condition known as telogen effluvium, in which a large number of hairs enter the resting phase at the same time, causing shedding and subsequent thinning. The condition also presents as a side effect of chemotherapy – while targeting dividing cancer cells, this treatment also affects hair's growth phase with the result that almost 90% of hairs fall out soon after chemotherapy starts.
Radiation to the scalp, as when radiotherapy is applied to the head for the treatment of certain cancers there, can cause baldness of the irradiated areas.
Pregnancy
Hair loss often follows childbirth in the postpartum period without causing baldness. In this situation, the hair is actually thicker during pregnancy owing to increased circulating oestrogens. Approximately three months after giving birth (typically between 2 and 5 months), oestrogen levels drop and hair loss occurs, often particularly noticeably around the hairline and temple area. Hair typically grows back normally and treatment is not indicated. A similar situation occurs in women taking the fertility-stimulating drug clomiphene.
Other causes
Autoimmune disease. Alopecia areata is an autoimmune disorder also known as "spot baldness" that can result in hair loss ranging from just one location (Alopecia areata monolocularis) to every hair on the entire body (Alopecia areata universalis). Although thought to be caused by hair follicles becoming dormant, what triggers alopecia areata is not known. In most cases the condition corrects itself, but it can also spread to the entire scalp (alopecia totalis) or to the entire body (alopecia universalis).
Skin diseases and cancer. Localized or diffuse hair loss may also occur in cicatricial alopecia (lupus erythematosus, lichen plano pilaris, folliculitis decalvans, central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia, postmenopausal frontal fibrosing alopecia, etc.). Tumours and skin outgrowths also induce localized baldness (sebaceous nevus, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma).
Hypothyroidism (an under-active thyroid) and the side effects of its related medications can cause hair loss, typically frontal, which is particularly associated with thinning of the outer third of the eyebrows (also seen with syphilis). Hyperthyroidism (an over-active thyroid) can also cause hair loss, which is parietal rather than frontal.
Sebaceous cysts. Temporary loss of hair can occur in areas where sebaceous cysts are present for considerable duration (normally one to several weeks).
Congenital triangular alopecia – It is a triangular, or oval in some cases, shaped patch of hair loss in the temple area of the scalp that occurs mostly in young children. The affected area mainly contains vellus hair follicles or no hair follicles at all, but it does not expand. Its causes are unknown, and although it is a permanent condition, it does not have any other effect on the affected individuals.
Hair growth conditions. Gradual thinning of hair with age is a natural condition known as involutional alopecia. This is caused by an increasing number of hair follicles switching from the growth, or anagen, phase into a resting phase, or telogen phase, so that remaining hairs become shorter and fewer in number. An unhealthy scalp environment can play a significant role in hair thinning by contributing to miniaturization or causing damage.
Air and water pollutants, environmental toxins, conventional styling products and excessive amounts of sebum have the potential to build up on the scalp.. This debris can block hair follicles and cause their deterioration and consequent miniaturization of hair. It can also physically restrict hair growth or damage the hair cuticle, leading to hair that is weakened and easily broken off before its natural lifecycle has ended.
Obesity. Obesity-induced stress, such as that induced by a high-fat diet (HFD), targets hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs) to accelerate hair thinning in mice. It is likely that similar molecular mechanism play a role in human hair loss.
Other causes of hair loss include:
Alopecia mucinosa
Biotinidase deficiency
Chronic inflammation
Diabetes
Pseudopelade of Brocq
Telogen effluvium
Tufted folliculitis
Genetics
Genetic forms of localized autosomal recessive hypotrichosis include:
Pathophysiology
Hair follicle growth occurs in cycles. Each cycle consists of a long growing phase (anagen), a short transitional phase (catagen) and a short resting phase (telogen). At the end of the resting phase, the hair falls out (exogen) and a new hair starts growing in the follicle, beginning the cycle again.
Normally, about 40 (0–78 in men) hairs reach the end of their resting phase each day and fall out. When more than 100 hairs fall out per day, clinical hair loss (telogen effluvium) may occur. A disruption of the growing phase causes abnormal loss of anagen hairs (anagen effluvium).
Diagnosis
Because they are not usually associated with an increased loss rate, male-pattern and female-pattern hair loss do not generally require testing. If hair loss occurs in a young man with no family history, drug use could be the cause.
The pull test helps to evaluate diffuse scalp hair loss. Gentle traction is exerted on a group of hairs (about 40–60) on three different areas of the scalp. The number of extracted hairs is counted and examined under a microscope. Normally, fewer than three hairs per area should come out with each pull. If more than ten hairs are obtained, the pull test is considered positive.
The pluck test is conducted by pulling hair out "by the roots". The root of the plucked hair is examined under a microscope to determine the phase of growth, and is used to diagnose a defect of telogen, anagen, or systemic disease. Telogen hairs have tiny bulbs without sheaths at their roots. Telogen effluvium shows an increased percentage of hairs upon examination. Anagen hairs have sheaths attached to their roots. Anagen effluvium shows a decrease in telogen-phase hairs and an increased number of broken hairs.
Scalp biopsy is used when the diagnosis is unsure; a biopsy allows for differing between scarring and nonscarring forms. Hair samples are taken from areas of inflammation, usually around the border of the bald patch.
Daily hair counts are normally done when the pull test is negative. It is done by counting the number of hairs lost. The hair from the first morning combing or during washing should be counted. The hair is collected in a clear plastic bag for 14 days. The strands are recorded. If the hair count is >100/day, it is considered abnormal except after shampooing, where hair counts will be up to 250 and be normal.
Trichoscopy is a noninvasive method of examining hair and scalp. The test may be performed with the use of a handheld dermoscope or a video dermoscope. It allows differential diagnosis of hair loss in most cases.
There are two types of identification tests for female pattern baldness: the Ludwig Scale and the Savin Scale. Both track the progress of diffused thinning, which typically begins on the crown of the head behind the hairline, and becomes gradually more pronounced. For male pattern baldness, the Hamilton–Norwood scale tracks the progress of a receding hairline and/or a thinning crown, through to a horseshoe-shaped ring of hair around the head and on to total baldness.
In almost all cases of thinning, and especially in cases of severe hair loss, it is recommended to seek advice from a doctor or dermatologist. Many types of thinning have an underlying genetic or health-related cause, which a qualified professional will be able to diagnose.
Management
Hiding hair loss
Head
One method of hiding hair loss is the comb over, which involves restyling the remaining hair to cover the balding area. It is usually a temporary solution, useful only while the area of hair loss is small. As the hair loss increases, a comb over becomes less effective.
Another method is to wear a hat or a hairpiece such as a wig or toupee. The wig is a layer of artificial or natural hair made to resemble a typical hair style. In most cases the hair is artificial. Wigs vary widely in quality and cost. In the United States, the best wigs—those that look like real hair—cost up to tens of thousands of dollars. Organizations also collect individuals' donations of their own natural hair to be made into wigs for young cancer patients who have lost their hair due to chemotherapy or other cancer treatment in addition to any type of hair loss.
Eyebrows
Though not as common as the loss of hair on the head, chemotherapy, hormone imbalance, forms of hair loss, and other factors can also cause loss of hair in the eyebrows. Loss of growth in the outer one third of the eyebrow is often associated with hypothyroidism. Artificial eyebrows are available to replace missing eyebrows or to cover patchy eyebrows. Eyebrow embroidery is another option which involves the use of a blade to add pigment to the eyebrows. This gives a natural 3D look for those who are worried about an artificial look and it lasts for two years. Micropigmentation (permanent makeup tattooing) is also available for those who want the look to be permanent.
Medications
Treatments for the various forms of hair loss have limited success. Three medications have evidence to support their use in male pattern hair loss: minoxidil, finasteride, and dutasteride. They typically work better to prevent further hair loss, than to regrow lost hair.
Minoxidil (Rogaine) is a nonprescription medication approved for male pattern baldness and alopecia areata. In a liquid or foam, it is rubbed into the scalp twice a day. Some people have an allergic reaction to the propylene glycol in the minoxidil solution and a minoxidil foam was developed without propylene glycol. Not all users will regrow hair. The longer the hair has stopped growing, the less likely minoxidil will regrow hair. Minoxidil is not effective for other causes of hair loss. Hair regrowth can take 1 to 6 months to begin. Treatment must be continued indefinitely. If the treatment is stopped, hair loss resumes. Any regrown hair and any hair susceptible to being lost, while Minoxidil was used, will be lost. Most frequent side effects are mild scalp irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, and unwanted hair in other parts of the body.
Finasteride (Propecia) is used in male-pattern hair loss in a pill form, taken 1 milligram per day. It is not indicated for women and is not recommended in pregnant women (as it is known to cause birth defects in fetuses). Treatment is effective starting within 6 weeks of treatment. Finasteride causes an increase in hair retention, the weight of hair, and some increase in regrowth. Side effects in about 2% of males, include decreased sex drive, erectile dysfunction, and ejaculatory dysfunction. Treatment should be continued as long as positive results occur. Once treatment is stopped, hair loss resumes.
Corticosteroids injections into the scalp can be used to treat alopecia areata. This type of treatment is repeated on a monthly basis. Oral pills for extensive hair loss may be used for alopecia areata. Results may take up to a month to be seen.
Immunosuppressants applied to the scalp have been shown to temporarily reverse alopecia areata, though the side effects of some of these drugs make such therapy questionable.
There is some tentative evidence that anthralin may be useful for treating alopecia areata.
Hormonal modulators (oral contraceptives or antiandrogens such as spironolactone and flutamide) can be used for female-pattern hair loss associated with hyperandrogenemia.
Surgery
Hair transplantation is usually carried out under local anaesthetic. A surgeon will move healthy hair from the back and sides of the head to areas of thinning. The procedure can take between four and eight hours, and additional sessions can be carried out to make hair even thicker. Transplanted hair falls out within a few weeks, but regrows permanently within months. Hair transplants, takes tiny plugs of skin, each which contains a few hairs, and implants the plugs into bald sections. The plugs are generally taken from the back or sides of the scalp. Several transplant sessions may be necessary.
Surgical options, such as follicle transplants, scalp flaps, and hair loss reduction, are available. These procedures are generally chosen by those who are self-conscious about their hair loss, but they are expensive and painful, with a risk of infection and scarring. Once surgery has occurred, six to eight months are needed before the quality of new hair can be assessed.
Scalp reduction is the process is the decreasing of the area of bald skin on the head. In time, the skin on the head becomes flexible and stretched enough that some of it can be surgically removed. After the hairless scalp is removed, the space is closed with hair-covered scalp. Scalp reduction is generally done in combination with hair transplantation to provide a natural-looking hairline, especially those with extensive hair loss.
Hairline lowering can sometimes be used to lower a high hairline secondary to hair loss, although there may be a visible scar after further hair loss.
Wigs are an alternative to medical and surgical treatment; some patients wear a wig or hairpiece. They can be used permanently or temporarily to cover the hair loss. High-quality, natural-looking wigs and hairpieces are available.
Chemotherapy
Hypothermia caps may be used to prevent hair loss during some kinds of chemotherapy, specifically, when taxanes or anthracyclines are administered. It is not recommended to be used when cancer is present in the skin of the scalp or for lymphoma or leukemia. There are generally only minor side effects from scalp cooling given during chemotherapy.
Embracing baldness
Instead of attempting to conceal their hair loss, some people embrace it by either doing nothing about it or sporting a shaved head. The general public became more accepting of men with shaved heads in the early 1950s, when Russian-American actor Yul Brynner began sporting the look; the resulting phenomenon inspired many of his male fans to shave their heads. Male celebrities then continued to bring mainstream popularity to shaved heads, including athletes such as Michael Jordan and Zinedine Zidane and actors such as Dwayne Johnson, Ben Kingsley, and Jason Statham. Baldness in females, however, is still viewed as less "normal" in various parts of the world.
Alternative medicine
Dietary supplements are not typically recommended. There is only one small trial of saw palmetto which shows tentative benefit in those with mild to moderate androgenetic alopecia. There is no evidence for biotin. Evidence for most other alternative medicine remedies is also insufficient. There was no good evidence for ginkgo, aloe vera, ginseng, bergamot, hibiscus, or sophora as of 2011.
Many people use unproven treatments to treat hair loss. Egg oil, in Indian, Japanese, Unani (Roghan Baiza Murgh) and Chinese traditional medicine, was traditionally used as a treatment for hair loss.
Research
Research is looking into connections between hair loss and other health issues. While there has been speculation about a connection between early-onset male pattern hair loss and heart disease, a review of articles from 1954 to 1999 found no conclusive connection between baldness and coronary artery disease. The dermatologists who conducted the review suggested further study was needed.
Environmental factors are under review. A 2007 study indicated that smoking may be a factor associated with age-related hair loss among Asian men. The study controlled for age and family history, and found statistically significant positive associations between moderate or severe male pattern hair loss and smoking status.
Vertex baldness is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) and the relationship depends upon the severity of baldness, while frontal baldness is not. Thus, vertex baldness might be a marker of CHD and is more closely associated with atherosclerosis than frontal baldness.
Hair follicle aging
A key aspect of hair loss with age is the aging of the hair follicle. Ordinarily, hair follicle renewal is maintained by the stem cells associated with each follicle. Aging of the hair follicle appears to be primed by a sustained cellular response to the DNA damage that accumulates in renewing stem cells during aging. This damage response involves the proteolysis of type XVII collagen by neutrophil elastase in response to DNA damage in hair follicle stem cells. Proteolysis of collagen leads to elimination of the damaged cells and, consequently, to terminal hair follicle miniaturization.
Etymology
The term alopecia () is from the Classical Greek ἀλώπηξ, alōpēx, meaning "fox". The origin of this usage is because this animal sheds its coat twice a year, or because in ancient Greece foxes often lost hair because of mange.
See also
Alopecia in animals
Lichen planopilaris
List of conditions caused by problems with junctional proteins
References
External links
Conditions of the skin appendages
External signs of ageing
Hair diseases
Human hair
Radiation health effects
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate
|
[
0.30560562014579773,
0.2995990514755249,
-0.12048809230327606,
-0.1196817085146904,
0.15142305195331573,
0.14549104869365692,
0.817070722579956,
0.4630325734615326,
-0.3697321116924286,
-0.46975278854370117,
-0.5248191952705383,
0.1815585196018219,
0.07972918450832367,
0.3727642595767975,
-0.8081262707710266,
0.259673535823822,
0.6144543886184692,
1.1077150106430054,
-0.5076093673706055,
0.39733222126960754,
-0.2312302440404892,
-0.4828828275203705,
0.2282385677099228,
0.06535821408033371,
0.07247691601514816,
-0.18187358975410461,
0.1510310024023056,
-0.0019118101336061954,
-0.28706592321395874,
-0.09816066175699234,
-0.41983264684677124,
-0.3901434540748596,
0.5199882388114929,
-0.21535785496234894,
-0.3042781949043274,
0.2030676305294037,
0.2847020924091339,
-0.7466866374015808,
-0.7638567090034485,
-0.20949065685272217,
-0.5265766382217407,
0.2979882061481476,
-0.17636024951934814,
0.5242801308631897,
-0.10404889285564423,
-0.17145772278308868,
-0.6923456192016602,
1.0166805982589722,
-0.5637969970703125,
0.1657968908548355,
-0.6739097237586975,
-0.39513999223709106,
0.7319620847702026,
0.2234455645084381,
0.28472763299942017,
0.36322909593582153,
-0.6499444246292114,
-0.07461615651845932,
0.056562840938568115,
-0.2822040915489197,
0.4738028347492218,
-0.31940820813179016,
-0.32685691118240356,
0.16570746898651123,
0.5715450644493103,
0.009305741637945175,
-0.08875151723623276,
0.40094614028930664,
-0.6484254002571106,
-0.0782196894288063,
-0.06135302782058716,
0.05851622298359871,
0.15940316021442413,
-0.11671335995197296,
-1.0784499645233154,
0.36512959003448486,
-0.16754841804504395,
-0.5905409455299377,
0.6905125379562378,
-0.7811373472213745,
-0.13656851649284363,
-0.01062481477856636,
0.3276950418949127,
0.28669166564941406,
0.03469087556004524,
0.004118957091122866,
-0.5382707118988037,
0.5821837782859802,
0.04441991448402405,
0.36338698863983154,
-0.0766431987285614,
0.3139256536960602,
0.8094269633293152,
0.6858689785003662,
0.24370919167995453,
-0.693390429019928,
0.4886830151081085,
0.05810747668147087,
0.02168124169111252,
-0.018971187993884087,
0.3729715049266815,
-0.08527670055627823,
0.48427924513816833,
-0.032936353236436844,
0.030745387077331543,
-0.5026840567588806,
-0.12069512158632278,
0.4736933708190918,
0.3340316116809845,
-0.28105852007865906,
-0.15077391266822815,
0.4903259873390198,
-0.3439771831035614,
0.037830717861652374,
-0.9405488967895508,
0.2613496780395508,
0.20502589643001556,
0.31686124205589294,
-0.20092590153217316,
-0.4404239058494568,
-0.5395745038986206,
0.31412890553474426,
0.028395945206284523,
-0.6608797907829285,
-0.7186476588249207,
0.7266831994056702,
-0.21756285429000854,
0.4838610589504242,
-0.285275399684906,
0.18142761290073395,
0.13116922974586487,
0.3322925567626953,
-0.16187770664691925,
-0.343535840511322,
-0.00788204651325941,
-0.198469877243042,
0.45037463307380676,
0.5459386706352234,
0.9802892804145813,
-0.4079514741897583,
-0.7560343146324158,
-0.6718095541000366,
-1.2116460800170898,
0.3675861954689026,
-0.06373819708824158,
-0.40442582964897156,
0.08361821621656418,
0.08522147685289383,
-0.05474573373794556,
0.15032456815242767,
0.2601325213909149,
-0.10179808735847473,
-0.47268080711364746,
-0.45296284556388855,
0.15862278640270233,
-0.028194060549139977,
0.4750732481479645,
-0.452770471572876,
0.4970976412296295,
0.2851126194000244,
0.5750319361686707,
-0.014654546044766903,
-0.08628110587596893,
0.1061965823173523,
-0.04369509592652321,
-0.11039009690284729,
0.39197954535484314,
0.32598400115966797,
0.12665443122386932,
0.6384391188621521,
-0.12135277688503265,
0.45490971207618713,
0.5141936540603638,
-0.10134147107601166,
-0.10090047121047974,
0.41218841075897217,
-0.5041091442108154,
0.07489730417728424,
0.1491866409778595,
0.10060068219900131,
-0.6145787239074707,
0.6115010380744934,
0.26837921142578125,
0.2982470989227295,
0.4654381275177002,
-0.18925787508487701,
0.5908955931663513,
0.22276045382022858,
-0.36765170097351074,
-0.8795143961906433,
-0.13715827465057373,
-0.7145074009895325,
0.24722111225128174,
-0.2604188621044159,
0.8822202682495117,
-0.18928305804729462,
-0.883501410484314,
0.720571756362915,
-0.048707641661167145,
0.690126895904541,
0.5362066626548767,
0.00722099095582962,
0.5995258092880249,
0.3187471330165863,
-0.8967316746711731,
0.46819737553596497,
0.20652128756046295,
0.5208269953727722,
0.05334114655852318,
0.23163509368896484,
0.3524438738822937,
-0.7253760099411011,
0.23631446063518524,
0.04245340824127197,
-0.13601700961589813,
0.3593541085720062,
-0.5042454600334167,
-0.09258335083723068,
-0.12543164193630219,
-0.06329362839460373,
0.4557998776435852,
0.13396792113780975,
-0.7430419921875,
0.3484373092651367,
0.35742905735969543,
1.0543394088745117,
-0.21665865182876587,
-0.1133032962679863,
1.0361027717590332,
-0.7767040133476257,
0.3985196650028229,
0.11232104897499084,
-0.06940100342035294,
0.5112348198890686,
-0.7425296902656555,
0.1384255737066269,
0.6390004754066467,
-0.5448957681655884,
0.4317284822463989,
-0.43667036294937134,
-0.14660674333572388,
0.13163051009178162,
0.007463246118277311,
-0.027804991230368614,
0.40687116980552673,
0.0945858508348465,
0.03597945719957352,
0.4494633674621582,
0.11191681027412415,
0.11100074648857117,
0.7790077328681946,
0.5421351194381714,
0.303745836019516,
-0.15350204706192017,
-0.09199543297290802,
-0.21925505995750427,
-0.12191665172576904,
-0.3359377086162567,
0.3131970465183258,
-0.5133896470069885,
-0.04666169360280037,
0.1375339925289154,
0.20098255574703217,
-0.2805698812007904,
-0.6371066570281982,
-0.11372699588537216,
-0.5063386559486389,
-0.22491760551929474,
0.36379966139793396,
-0.4518752098083496,
0.48957115411758423,
0.3339287042617798,
-0.8318837881088257,
-0.5796566605567932,
-0.23456597328186035,
-0.20300611853599548,
0.44898462295532227,
-0.368198037147522,
-0.4778215289115906,
0.18792948126792908,
0.36557406187057495,
0.905968964099884,
-0.29388228058815,
-0.14143894612789154,
-0.44802340865135193,
0.048777058720588684,
-0.24828661978244781,
0.35873502492904663,
-0.11785151809453964,
0.32321256399154663,
-0.7099898457527161,
0.36179524660110474,
-0.14437821507453918,
0.16120779514312744,
0.429190993309021,
-0.024951443076133728,
0.3784728944301605,
-0.3145250380039215,
0.36994364857673645,
-0.6258596181869507,
-0.12017899006605148,
0.20978373289108276,
-0.40122610330581665,
-0.22682945430278778,
-0.7231348156929016,
0.09721671044826508,
-0.054585471749305725,
-0.3630690276622772,
-5.276064872741699,
0.4856717586517334,
-0.03046845644712448,
-0.061869554221630096,
-0.26596641540527344,
-0.15655846893787384,
-0.004800339229404926,
0.1858060508966446,
-0.5066459774971008,
0.19468112289905548,
-0.0924253761768341,
0.05833150073885918,
0.23272542655467987,
0.6397945880889893,
0.20752251148223877,
0.4571360647678375,
-0.04685373604297638,
-0.2995299696922302,
-0.05180472135543823,
0.4151645302772522,
0.12232628464698792,
0.5306957960128784,
-0.2933393120765686,
0.3973148465156555,
0.022787949070334435,
0.25772368907928467,
0.20856739580631256,
0.32939302921295166,
-0.9680992364883423,
-0.3824652433395386,
0.09884750097990036,
-0.13250750303268433,
0.18310989439487457,
0.171155646443367,
-0.06019207090139389,
0.054374583065509796,
0.17045673727989197,
0.049605656415224075,
-0.15464812517166138,
-0.4116066098213196,
-0.13967777788639069,
0.12376010417938232,
0.09970463812351227,
0.5517423748970032,
1.0383660793304443,
-0.0306931734085083,
0.12384355068206787,
-0.7728513479232788,
0.1697281301021576,
0.5042682886123657,
0.008807663805782795,
0.3230878412723541,
0.4488297998905182,
0.2619561553001404,
-0.2541211247444153,
0.12401261925697327,
0.6520817279815674,
-0.3382216989994049,
-1.0623955726623535,
-0.3647117614746094,
-0.3541150987148285,
-0.07606031000614166,
0.25039854645729065,
-0.7230690121650696,
0.5876222848892212,
-0.12823210656642914,
-0.39858582615852356,
-0.6606529355049133,
0.6879379153251648,
-0.11299164593219757,
-0.1636291742324829,
0.4523792564868927,
0.3143702447414398,
-0.6633889079093933,
0.009970560669898987,
-0.5194485187530518,
-0.3701423406600952,
0.36966627836227417,
0.08499767631292343,
-0.6062285900115967,
-0.052045125514268875,
-0.2783810496330261,
-0.3852386176586151,
0.17559915781021118,
-0.3703787624835968,
-0.4191727936267853,
0.16976945102214813,
0.44577518105506897,
-0.23244629800319672,
0.20770753920078278,
1.398901104927063,
0.4514796733856201,
-0.3370942175388336,
-0.3954602777957916,
-0.13468816876411438,
0.5134941339492798,
-0.06429004669189453,
0.4281356632709503,
1.0382639169692993,
-0.12837237119674683,
-0.021770989522337914,
-0.45830121636390686,
0.09686239808797836,
-0.5020955204963684,
-0.14919550716876984,
-0.33620697259902954,
-0.5430827736854553,
0.43414783477783203,
1.0893853902816772,
-0.9000410437583923,
0.4083787798881531,
0.13858240842819214,
-0.35838696360588074,
0.04657265543937683,
0.5131857395172119,
-0.25730016827583313,
-0.4821535348892212,
0.4443581700325012,
0.5165119171142578,
-0.6498411893844604,
0.7349534034729004,
0.5271540284156799,
-0.20531445741653442,
-0.08746045082807541,
0.36170175671577454,
-0.45277729630470276,
0.19401632249355316,
0.21830111742019653,
-0.5306317210197449,
0.11562243849039078,
0.351515531539917,
0.6827387809753418,
0.66340172290802,
0.17788253724575043,
-0.5374780297279358,
-0.6017636656761169,
-0.18435685336589813,
0.009396105073392391,
-0.6237622499465942,
-1.2270773649215698,
0.33724546432495117,
-0.19597779214382172,
-0.038495685905218124,
0.6660219430923462,
0.9931028485298157,
0.10389362275600433,
-0.7271342277526855,
0.00009674538887338713,
-0.40851595997810364,
0.24080494046211243,
-0.10578029602766037,
-0.48793676495552063,
0.055616144090890884,
-0.35142070055007935,
0.04214659333229065,
0.4420885145664215,
0.2903674840927124,
0.5452497005462646,
-0.4631820321083069,
-0.25497230887413025,
-0.17254063487052917,
-0.09973477572202682,
-1.108711838722229,
0.57520592212677,
-0.2083773910999298,
-0.40294983983039856,
-0.7197247743606567,
-0.4670363664627075,
-0.1056286171078682,
0.8611725568771362,
0.01264306902885437,
0.033088568598032,
-0.9912161231040955,
-0.9180536866188049,
0.531047523021698,
0.10129255056381226,
-0.47217896580696106,
0.024188566952943802,
0.09632745385169983,
0.2528013586997986,
-0.02975126914680004,
-0.4632973074913025,
-0.31570348143577576,
0.4941277801990509,
0.3479328453540802,
0.1888098269701004,
-0.3060823380947113,
-0.04059727489948273,
-0.8938754796981812,
-0.09544042497873306,
-0.023316582664847374,
-0.3952008783817291,
0.07815796881914139,
0.10149410367012024,
-0.33232417702674866,
0.274943083524704,
-0.1510947197675705,
0.24046510457992554,
-0.2107994109392166,
-0.017185518518090248,
-0.06867459416389465,
0.6054101586341858,
-0.4483000636100769,
0.11914271116256714,
0.23479299247264862,
-0.9760351777076721,
0.10982359200716019,
-0.10896976292133331,
-1.1970610618591309,
0.7176244258880615,
-0.3168014883995056,
-0.3114311099052429,
0.07980508357286453,
0.6764975786209106,
0.05360793322324753,
0.06436316668987274,
0.06936970353126526,
-0.463273286819458,
-0.33773258328437805,
-0.3455186188220978,
0.044891271740198135,
0.3109106719493866,
-0.06343228369951248,
0.2783948481082916,
-0.5735520720481873,
-0.371608704328537,
0.29271480441093445,
-0.0743127316236496,
1.1304296255111694,
-0.11180480569601059,
0.27909550070762634,
-0.025609688833355904,
-0.3523613214492798,
-0.10841099172830582,
0.18254996836185455,
-0.10928745567798615,
-0.0534742996096611,
0.325691282749176,
0.68326336145401,
-0.03272576630115509,
0.8904727101325989,
0.8229239583015442,
0.18454593420028687,
0.04584406316280365,
-0.08714654296636581,
0.1062183529138565,
-0.6563283205032349,
-0.5179316997528076,
-0.7315205931663513,
0.6796011924743652,
1.0325337648391724,
-0.05349469929933548,
-0.5534310340881348,
-0.12176302820444107,
0.0798669159412384,
-0.3175005614757538,
-0.12125891447067261,
-0.9362521767616272,
-0.18810170888900757,
0.3011036217212677,
0.2395050823688507,
0.14071552455425262,
0.6492183804512024,
0.008912631310522556,
0.7148014903068542,
-0.23786817491054535,
-0.2862548530101776,
0.5268943309783936,
0.20738492906093597,
-0.5490112900733948,
0.07103362679481506,
-0.27121061086654663,
0.42097070813179016,
-0.02989531308412552,
0.03801684454083443,
0.36818984150886536,
-0.24518762528896332,
-0.6635758280754089,
0.2301340252161026,
-0.3125809133052826,
0.16595134139060974,
-0.46199896931648254,
0.041708655655384064,
-0.9004164934158325,
0.23889893293380737,
-0.10912847518920898,
0.39657971262931824,
0.07713543623685837,
-0.8637197017669678,
-0.03306155651807785,
-0.4229870140552521,
0.16245949268341064,
0.2296217530965805,
0.3049107789993286,
0.2173193395137787,
0.13210801780223846,
-0.06843963265419006,
1.261976718902588,
-0.04235011339187622,
-0.005828637629747391,
-0.8694086074829102,
0.16074120998382568,
0.04717511311173439,
-0.5572221875190735,
0.06085967272520065,
0.2147795706987381,
0.4355093538761139,
-1.029612421989441,
-0.0028530398849397898,
-0.16705432534217834,
0.2048778086900711,
0.18868061900138855,
-0.34898078441619873,
0.8872295618057251,
0.007409863639622927,
-0.091326043009758,
0.3238134980201721,
0.15345236659049988,
0.38496124744415283,
0.30975040793418884,
0.05438518896698952,
0.2665896713733673,
0.281894326210022,
-0.5426721572875977,
0.5150440335273743,
0.3187544345855713,
0.1190301701426506,
0.1869998574256897,
0.5012466907501221,
0.6488267183303833,
0.10886142402887344,
-0.3500314950942993,
0.05473673716187477,
0.6905586123466492,
0.16122755408287048,
-0.6696833968162537,
0.6087234616279602,
-0.6090556383132935,
-0.9810089468955994,
0.51303631067276,
0.873210072517395,
0.81385338306427,
0.20832891762256622,
0.015999210998415947,
-0.22526948153972626,
0.47177523374557495,
-0.9182589054107666,
0.24438856542110443,
0.04140929877758026,
-0.8768879175186157,
0.4780171811580658,
-0.6538733243942261,
0.07197663933038712,
-0.6106948852539062,
0.07773194462060928,
0.049668457359075546,
0.5748778581619263,
-0.43573105335235596,
-0.3240826725959778,
-0.09008811414241791,
-0.3534294366836548,
0.049111708998680115,
-0.2439190000295639,
0.24469093978405,
0.2206529676914215,
-0.7649325132369995,
0.4879384934902191,
-0.0171247199177742,
-0.14468742907047272,
0.7190464735031128,
0.010898498818278313,
0.47740280628204346,
-0.013971556909382343,
-0.018618617206811905,
0.13011658191680908,
-0.17144760489463806,
0.03690331429243088,
0.342613160610199,
0.06623492389917374,
-0.46658018231391907,
-0.3081638514995575,
-0.3045262396335602,
-0.47150659561157227,
-0.22635428607463837,
-0.6538981795310974,
-0.5885494351387024,
-0.07712271064519882,
0.3764631748199463,
0.2348971664905548,
0.16010968387126923,
0.4182024300098419,
-0.234993115067482,
-0.2825870215892792,
0.4676811397075653,
-0.3604305386543274,
-0.01223353948444128,
-0.12924647331237793,
0.30087801814079285,
-0.1586557775735855,
-0.1697262078523636,
-0.2778758108615875,
0.5227131843566895,
0.32204949855804443,
0.6258973479270935,
-0.9587830901145935,
0.3543972373008728,
0.02492426708340645,
0.09015903621912003,
-0.7549638748168945,
0.19049949944019318,
-0.2264488786458969,
-0.39113649725914,
-0.4353500008583069,
0.4571995139122009,
0.4059908986091614,
-0.3480900824069977,
0.09817831218242645,
-0.5985315442085266,
-0.5828614830970764,
-0.5425483584403992,
0.4786624014377594,
-0.6519410014152527,
0.35571399331092834,
-0.002090007998049259,
0.15850599110126495,
-0.062240976840257645,
0.5524030923843384,
-0.19936616718769073,
-0.12797683477401733,
0.5244140625,
-1.0445464849472046,
0.5341803431510925,
-0.45293620228767395,
0.3712744116783142,
-0.08228933066129684,
-0.23713470995426178,
0.6885719299316406,
0.019895432516932487,
0.038138095289468765,
0.0288710780441761,
0.23336391150951385,
-1.242331624031067,
-0.03293220326304436,
-0.09925439208745956,
-0.8337774872779846,
-0.09828262031078339,
-0.1535593569278717,
0.562438428401947,
-0.30378618836402893,
-0.5073981881141663,
0.47608238458633423,
-0.5952833890914917,
0.6256559491157532,
0.08125518262386322,
0.15994291007518768,
-0.17222164571285248,
-0.701400101184845,
-0.6230772137641907,
-0.744675874710083,
0.3137298822402954
] |
200130
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chobham%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Chobham (disambiguation)
|
Chobham is a village in Surrey, England
Chobham may also refer to:
Chobham Common, located near Chobham, Surrey, location of a British tank research centre
Chobham armour, composite armour for tanks
Chobham F.C., a former English football club (1905–2011)
Chobham Academy, an academy in the East Village of Stratford, London
Chobham Manor, a neighbourhood in Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, London built 2012–2013
See also:
Cobham (disambiguation)
|
[
-0.2617167532444,
0.2733260989189148,
-0.10620872676372528,
-0.3170691132545471,
-0.27569881081581116,
0.5661036968231201,
0.18678365647792816,
-0.18324919044971466,
-0.49190962314605713,
0.2101445496082306,
-0.34448951482772827,
0.08686777204275131,
0.2636091411113739,
0.0001898519549285993,
-0.8116892576217651,
0.3270131051540375,
0.40811532735824585,
-0.00007849705434637144,
-0.02216254733502865,
-0.6745494604110718,
0.5164465308189392,
0.05081615597009659,
-0.3188526928424835,
0.11174599081277847,
0.16022668778896332,
0.04968101903796196,
0.30667349696159363,
-0.0013228291645646095,
0.07312986254692078,
0.189565509557724,
-0.47396641969680786,
0.7502204775810242,
0.4096055030822754,
-0.5931951403617859,
0.12088615447282791,
-0.1853388547897339,
0.0840759128332138,
-0.2894507348537445,
0.17198731005191803,
-0.7622464895248413,
0.24429522454738617,
-0.26307612657546997,
-0.060831181704998016,
0.16830013692378998,
-0.34401050209999084,
0.19097661972045898,
-1.1599949598312378,
0.30014365911483765,
-0.39009901881217957,
-0.12142489105463028,
-0.12919576466083527,
0.10568627715110779,
-0.4853539764881134,
0.255110502243042,
0.2175067812204361,
0.06030014902353287,
-0.4489506781101227,
-0.34280678629875183,
1.0096975564956665,
0.22639591991901398,
0.33210885524749756,
-0.02140515111386776,
-0.19050386548042297,
0.44817468523979187,
-0.3825128972530365,
-0.1762550175189972,
-0.12991276383399963,
0.41234028339385986,
-0.49180367588996887,
-0.2464192509651184,
-0.0666402131319046,
-0.1995183378458023,
0.03649736940860748,
0.07889757305383682,
-0.5882760882377625,
-0.21188825368881226,
-0.43149039149284363,
0.14750128984451294,
0.354970246553421,
-0.08646590262651443,
0.3663765490055084,
-0.3714953064918518,
0.08924803882837296,
0.07912907004356384,
0.5265817642211914,
0.3628841042518616,
-0.5798788666725159,
0.1283739060163498,
-0.3838179409503937,
0.5874375104904175,
-0.033786021173000336,
-0.1052742525935173,
0.2621884346008301,
0.4165440797805786,
-0.09815632551908493,
-0.3181338310241699,
0.17336170375347137,
-0.24750643968582153,
0.3277965188026428,
-0.13254959881305695,
-0.5036971569061279,
0.6948875188827515,
0.3847183585166931,
-0.005377412308007479,
-0.8438835740089417,
-0.1217750832438469,
-0.3562304675579071,
0.13885889947414398,
0.01034512184560299,
0.2312687337398529,
-0.780132532119751,
0.0640651285648346,
-0.13065220415592194,
0.10343124717473984,
-0.24265509843826294,
0.1807372272014618,
0.013162601739168167,
-0.33809369802474976,
-0.0555163212120533,
0.19894100725650787,
0.040228165686130524,
1.2439520359039307,
0.13260804116725922,
0.579366147518158,
0.29928213357925415,
-0.034389011561870575,
0.3869819939136505,
0.5966475009918213,
-0.3077847361564636,
0.43816444277763367,
-0.20273840427398682,
0.5088342428207397,
-0.27526775002479553,
0.21998019516468048,
0.1249641701579094,
-0.18429827690124512,
-0.11453556269407272,
0.21226578950881958,
0.16656240820884705,
0.5826441049575806,
-0.9223405122756958,
-0.1423937976360321,
0.20134902000427246,
0.13908109068870544,
0.4018436074256897,
0.2663874328136444,
-0.39286473393440247,
-0.16495294868946075,
-0.19037091732025146,
-0.27110305428504944,
0.019989298656582832,
0.2369873970746994,
-0.3520781099796295,
-0.09870901703834534,
-0.2577079236507416,
0.4778745472431183,
0.5702546834945679,
-0.23569750785827637,
0.12542825937271118,
0.19571536779403687,
-0.3072161078453064,
-0.029718982055783272,
0.4319709837436676,
-0.023911766707897186,
0.06450130045413971,
-0.2222461700439453,
0.4699186086654663,
-0.4386061429977417,
-0.29113057255744934,
0.34080347418785095,
-0.8835936188697815,
-0.40204644203186035,
0.7214388847351074,
0.09231137484312057,
0.08507892489433289,
0.1717175543308258,
1.0798134803771973,
0.2192324846982956,
0.3356497287750244,
-0.01862960122525692,
-0.6017499566078186,
-0.15839987993240356,
0.08934978395700455,
-0.3565507233142853,
0.20930898189544678,
0.910735011100769,
-0.11647604405879974,
-0.15762829780578613,
0.10550835728645325,
0.6268656849861145,
-0.3864973783493042,
-0.1147208884358406,
0.09353911131620407,
-0.4974188804626465,
0.8270982503890991,
0.36263370513916016,
-0.07881297916173935,
0.3403107523918152,
0.3998734652996063,
0.6736074090003967,
-0.09282153844833374,
-0.2708011567592621,
-0.016109243035316467,
-0.23608455061912537,
-0.23785141110420227,
0.2711176574230194,
0.16470448672771454,
0.19104216992855072,
0.24752123653888702,
-0.17779389023780823,
0.064945288002491,
-0.16577067971229553,
0.16366060078144073,
-0.06991032510995865,
0.014070496894419193,
-0.10234116017818451,
-0.23672530055046082,
0.14880667626857758,
0.330676406621933,
-1.1854532957077026,
0.6973726749420166,
0.07266615331172943,
0.4237797260284424,
-0.3294432461261749,
0.10931524634361267,
0.9945225715637207,
0.07563281804323196,
0.5046375393867493,
0.16478127241134644,
-0.30417487025260925,
-0.20267581939697266,
0.5326091647148132,
0.2278658002614975,
0.011126713827252388,
0.16249673068523407,
-0.3909797966480255,
0.09472641348838806,
-0.5167103409767151,
0.5951030254364014,
-0.16417382657527924,
-0.05499674007296562,
0.29437533020973206,
-0.8037006258964539,
0.0971594974398613,
0.21520866453647614,
-0.08316773176193237,
0.521663248538971,
0.3240557014942169,
-0.5527755618095398,
-0.1705481857061386,
-0.12225840240716934,
0.2687421143054962,
0.4958890974521637,
0.2835651636123657,
-0.33414968848228455,
-0.15097622573375702,
0.19740673899650574,
0.2806938886642456,
-0.38151535391807556,
0.024906102567911148,
-0.4685392379760742,
0.4373086094856262,
-0.04643471539020538,
0.3704756200313568,
0.07193296402692795,
-0.2571384012699127,
-0.2734896242618561,
-0.4417077600955963,
1.257840871810913,
-0.11234262585639954,
-0.04634178429841995,
-0.45109495520591736,
-0.5839942693710327,
-0.02518434263765812,
-0.12357906997203827,
-0.49606314301490784,
-0.23087236285209656,
0.32944005727767944,
-0.04617726057767868,
-0.39160996675491333,
-0.06302792578935623,
0.6919099688529968,
-0.09174393117427826,
-0.6051992774009705,
0.2752480208873749,
0.09096188843250275,
0.18155105412006378,
-0.07416436076164246,
-0.13215994834899902,
-0.3957446217536926,
-0.17504999041557312,
0.14544661343097687,
-0.28874167799949646,
0.14427217841148376,
0.4963509738445282,
0.4024563133716583,
-0.23620861768722534,
-0.44862332940101624,
0.20368178188800812,
-0.1226717010140419,
-0.4927997589111328,
0.6242215037345886,
0.030918430536985397,
-0.33902445435523987,
0.3417370617389679,
0.005071310792118311,
-0.05463052913546562,
0.18357868492603302,
-5.947012901306152,
0.4133773744106293,
-0.14056502282619476,
-0.1863488405942917,
0.695636510848999,
0.18926528096199036,
-0.17352423071861267,
-0.3332817554473877,
-0.4711209833621979,
-0.7197201251983643,
0.10783230513334274,
-0.24231570959091187,
0.2785378098487854,
0.23197199404239655,
0.5803027749061584,
-0.11009228229522705,
0.691971480846405,
0.09389626979827881,
0.7345147132873535,
-0.21786843240261078,
-0.30483904480934143,
0.3357275128364563,
0.19545114040374756,
0.17286397516727448,
-0.45816707611083984,
0.8051910996437073,
-0.3773369789123535,
0.1487434208393097,
-0.7971624732017517,
-0.6099240183830261,
-0.02619888074696064,
0.07637842744588852,
0.036800432950258255,
0.2254430204629898,
-0.6253164410591125,
0.3765619397163391,
0.21095998585224152,
0.5920847654342651,
0.3544909656047821,
0.0016725730383768678,
0.2103651463985443,
0.07499540597200394,
0.2625580132007599,
-0.13391689956188202,
0.389570415019989,
-0.18641893565654755,
-0.3126683235168457,
0.29088088870048523,
-0.2518107295036316,
0.4798899292945862,
0.06022507697343826,
-0.11763639748096466,
0.8275777101516724,
-0.021275179460644722,
0.03858107328414917,
-0.394163578748703,
0.6905481219291687,
0.1328047215938568,
0.015536488965153694,
0.3183971643447876,
-0.0341864749789238,
-0.2510574460029602,
0.0891725942492485,
-0.5100053548812866,
-0.0038037302438169718,
-0.14179085195064545,
0.09499622136354446,
0.10949862748384476,
0.2707533836364746,
-0.06637197732925415,
-0.567682683467865,
-0.016791271045804024,
0.1908380091190338,
-1.1225509643554688,
-0.002321410458534956,
-0.48320281505584717,
-0.006150444503873587,
-0.1768239289522171,
-0.40051543712615967,
0.5733174085617065,
0.19022276997566223,
-0.6534017324447632,
-0.2572878301143646,
-0.40170949697494507,
0.17354902625083923,
-0.6263075470924377,
-0.4852469265460968,
0.585487425327301,
0.16860522329807281,
-0.10539299994707108,
0.33325591683387756,
-0.34006455540657043,
0.2802620530128479,
0.39614880084991455,
0.5216451287269592,
0.34918487071990967,
-0.10374882072210312,
-0.0058614290319383144,
0.3794126510620117,
-0.0219977255910635,
-0.30097222328186035,
-0.7328819036483765,
0.12610739469528198,
-0.5843024253845215,
-0.2683067321777344,
-0.22360821068286896,
-0.40138736367225647,
-0.09068955481052399,
0.5648940205574036,
-0.12040936946868896,
0.5437749028205872,
-0.3420106768608093,
-0.5905805826187134,
-0.8713959455490112,
0.40274569392204285,
-0.33448415994644165,
-0.14312030375003815,
-0.060010574758052826,
-0.03087262250483036,
0.1219862625002861,
0.11782678961753845,
0.16829465329647064,
-0.301941841840744,
0.057559166103601456,
-0.7865847945213318,
-0.1885342299938202,
0.47064971923828125,
0.08004626631736755,
-0.46985292434692383,
0.019739722833037376,
-0.009486434981226921,
0.3697184920310974,
-0.005577242001891136,
0.21707461774349213,
-0.5390210747718811,
0.24579037725925446,
-0.4038190543651581,
-0.05238543450832367,
-0.17033018171787262,
-0.16655117273330688,
0.7973723411560059,
-0.43861743807792664,
-0.27300596237182617,
0.4629936218261719,
0.2719590365886688,
0.18743355572223663,
0.07156726717948914,
0.13731873035430908,
-0.19080710411071777,
0.5899013876914978,
0.09838277846574783,
-0.051388636231422424,
-0.2567744553089142,
-0.08886117488145828,
-0.21330302953720093,
0.16171687841415405,
-0.46456465125083923,
0.44157254695892334,
-0.34703394770622253,
0.10363344103097916,
0.0173497311770916,
-0.0904008001089096,
-0.8085823059082031,
-0.2961609661579132,
0.39734503626823425,
-0.43594011664390564,
0.3743318021297455,
-0.5046175122261047,
-0.11845497786998749,
0.3055916428565979,
-0.020307868719100952,
-0.5357024669647217,
-0.48907360434532166,
-0.21315036714076996,
0.4542025029659271,
0.04754709452390671,
0.7126282453536987,
0.02819509245455265,
-0.15244467556476593,
-0.07799997925758362,
0.09320636093616486,
-0.024303708225488663,
0.015433918684720993,
0.5976921319961548,
0.25140807032585144,
-0.4949362576007843,
-0.3685561418533325,
-0.13504168391227722,
0.13740919530391693,
-0.7257813215255737,
-0.17168636620044708,
-0.436454176902771,
0.53426593542099,
0.7747800350189209,
0.2595958113670349,
-0.07740897685289383,
0.3887825906276703,
-0.1700333207845688,
-0.17624567449092865,
-0.167509064078331,
-0.11951513588428497,
0.37930575013160706,
-0.17331010103225708,
0.4080411493778229,
0.4349108040332794,
-0.6055406928062439,
0.5694411993026733,
0.255823016166687,
-0.6511151194572449,
0.5824152827262878,
-0.11569134891033173,
-1.1891306638717651,
-0.0192963145673275,
0.5207358598709106,
-0.29788243770599365,
-0.12955211102962494,
-0.234259232878685,
0.22112150490283966,
-0.5261332392692566,
-0.17727676033973694,
-0.2130463421344757,
0.059379734098911285,
0.16940736770629883,
0.08411644399166107,
-0.45391592383384705,
0.1898920089006424,
0.15732288360595703,
-0.32358497381210327,
0.595845103263855,
-0.2834785282611847,
-0.6066238880157471,
-0.022176122292876244,
0.009179347194731236,
0.2255878448486328,
0.15819792449474335,
-0.25978296995162964,
-0.029284320771694183,
-0.4518357217311859,
0.06813996285200119,
0.3010960519313812,
0.6809357404708862,
0.8297581672668457,
0.25056329369544983,
-0.4467089772224426,
-0.3957965672016144,
-0.048008568584918976,
0.5550422668457031,
-0.10568808019161224,
-0.5311393737792969,
0.6584395170211792,
0.3210485279560089,
-0.20025795698165894,
-0.5048114061355591,
-0.25682324171066284,
1.0080852508544922,
-0.37257125973701477,
-0.35867464542388916,
-0.7902687788009644,
0.16664600372314453,
0.28557097911834717,
0.11585647612810135,
0.011279547587037086,
-0.06579970568418503,
0.1897570639848709,
-0.22047089040279388,
0.07813882827758789,
-0.1089370995759964,
-0.3530029356479645,
0.09671299904584885,
-0.966671884059906,
-0.12903396785259247,
-0.08455929160118103,
-0.1250878870487213,
0.5133847594261169,
0.32866278290748596,
0.06244216859340668,
0.24848055839538574,
-0.7066969275474548,
0.1512708067893982,
0.0564427375793457,
-0.22946561872959137,
0.13665223121643066,
0.4185790717601776,
-0.6343218684196472,
-0.3659575283527374,
-0.12427594512701035,
0.14955727756023407,
-0.1322217732667923,
0.02576962113380432,
0.2602821886539459,
-0.5102993845939636,
-0.254916787147522,
-0.086172915995121,
0.00799620058387518,
-0.3188055753707886,
-0.1797914206981659,
-0.0035342148039489985,
0.21978704631328583,
-0.07948765903711319,
0.016728412359952927,
-1.1837084293365479,
0.684673547744751,
0.2462460696697235,
-0.5838539004325867,
0.11052043735980988,
0.4959769546985626,
-0.4840047359466553,
-0.5457837581634521,
-0.15803468227386475,
0.1348210871219635,
0.22241418063640594,
-0.1298002451658249,
0.018687425181269646,
0.9249640703201294,
-0.2230859398841858,
0.09486822038888931,
0.23784153163433075,
-0.2931433320045471,
0.2791338264942169,
0.30401796102523804,
0.2634638547897339,
-0.013789139688014984,
0.6935943961143494,
0.5176241397857666,
-0.22666038572788239,
0.4641629755496979,
-0.448585569858551,
-0.47376224398612976,
0.013114468194544315,
0.8253821134567261,
0.5459046959877014,
-0.3017427325248718,
-0.4289049506187439,
0.7262815833091736,
-0.31160256266593933,
-0.19018596410751343,
-0.20744945108890533,
-0.32849884033203125,
-0.27165085077285767,
0.18541227281093597,
-0.02806258760392666,
0.03172442689538002,
-0.06773646175861359,
-0.004444229882210493,
-0.6525956392288208,
0.0714855045080185,
0.1267634928226471,
-0.07285309582948685,
-0.1433418095111847,
-0.11161992698907852,
-0.13413959741592407,
0.05275838077068329,
0.2809126377105713,
-0.2735702693462372,
-0.15174555778503418,
0.2761457860469818,
0.08132334798574448,
-0.24057379364967346,
-0.7214701175689697,
0.016349777579307556,
0.14177465438842773,
-0.11858289688825607,
0.08433599025011063,
0.15544918179512024,
-0.10983845591545105,
-0.4603804647922516,
0.24820755422115326,
-0.44978901743888855,
0.0867399275302887,
0.6565119028091431,
-0.03580167517066002,
0.13269151747226715,
-0.43241938948631287,
-0.09867145866155624,
-0.5554033517837524,
-0.1665033996105194,
-0.0433313362300396,
0.3635269105434418,
0.16888336837291718,
-0.15909160673618317,
-0.3104846179485321,
0.3056285083293915,
-0.13786306977272034,
-0.4359886050224304,
0.7033443450927734,
-0.5720321536064148,
-0.39826732873916626,
0.30954617261886597,
-0.5540439486503601,
-0.03726530820131302,
0.208513081073761,
-0.6629295349121094,
-0.16867297887802124,
0.5673965215682983,
-0.5125977993011475,
0.12867727875709534,
-0.015179445967078209,
0.4197673201560974,
0.9323362708091736,
0.6629191637039185,
-0.33739447593688965,
-0.05622689425945282,
-0.3499482274055481,
0.2533918619155884,
-0.2865120470523834,
0.040626831352710724,
-0.1395527720451355,
-0.16650618612766266,
-0.6571870446205139,
0.45445117354393005,
0.08948420733213425,
-0.29312199354171753,
0.07149406522512436,
0.29956114292144775,
-0.15757419168949127,
-0.1810055524110794,
0.22452642023563385,
-0.27718034386634827,
0.22413809597492218,
-0.3379037380218506,
0.10740918666124344,
-0.039815887808799744,
0.636044979095459,
0.30087003111839294,
0.03132757544517517,
-0.09873542189598083,
0.6252480149269104,
-0.19664150476455688,
-1.1694055795669556,
0.47900858521461487,
-0.19708670675754547,
0.11722905188798904,
-0.5833812952041626,
0.2680637240409851,
-0.5496850609779358,
0.14301614463329315,
0.5554738640785217,
0.8136786818504333,
-0.38392990827560425,
-0.22803641855716705,
-0.12025678902864456,
0.016720522195100784,
0.2424791306257248,
0.15933376550674438,
-0.21162797510623932,
0.4458388686180115,
-0.4530628025531769,
-0.13815854489803314,
-0.5956748127937317,
0.5674085021018982,
0.7391698956489563,
0.18245668709278107,
0.48829060792922974,
-0.6119216084480286,
0.7637987732887268,
-0.048192448914051056,
-0.03218846768140793,
0.013016749173402786,
-0.22072190046310425,
0.2739134430885315
] |
200136
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static%20electricity
|
Static electricity
|
Static electricity is an imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material or between materials. The charge remains until it is able to move away by means of an electric current or electrical discharge. Static electricity is named in contrast with current electricity, where the electric charge flows through an electrical conductor or space, and transmits energy.
A static electric charge can be created whenever two surfaces contact and have worn and separated, and at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electric current (and is therefore an electrical insulator). The effects of static electricity are familiar to most people because people can feel, hear, and even see the spark as the excess charge is neutralized when brought close to a large electrical conductor (for example, a path to ground), or a region with an excess charge of the opposite polarity (positive or negative). The familiar phenomenon of a static shockmore specifically, an electrostatic dischargeis caused by the neutralization of a charge.
Causes
Materials are made of atoms that are normally electrically neutral because they contain equal numbers of positive charges (protons in their nuclei) and negative charges (electrons in "shells" surrounding the nucleus). The phenomenon of static electricity requires a separation of positive and negative charges. When two materials are in contact, electrons may move from one material to the other, which leaves an excess of positive charge on one material, and an equal negative charge on the other. When the materials are separated they retain this charge imbalance.
Contact-induced charge separation
Electrons can be exchanged between materials on contact; materials with weakly bound electrons tend to lose them while materials with sparsely filled outer shells tend to gain them. This is known as the triboelectric effect and results in one material becoming positively charged and the other negatively charged. The polarity and strength of the charge on a material once they are separated depends on their relative positions in the triboelectric series. The triboelectric effect is the main cause of static electricity as observed in everyday life, and in common high-school science demonstrations involving rubbing different materials together (e.g., fur against an acrylic rod). Contact-induced charge separation causes your hair to stand up and causes "static cling" (for example, a balloon rubbed against the hair becomes negatively charged; when near a wall, the charged balloon is attracted to positively charged particles in the wall, and can "cling" to it, appearing to be suspended against gravity).
Pressure-induced charge separation
Applied mechanical stress generates a separation of charge in certain types of crystals and ceramics molecules.
Heat-induced charge separation
Heating generates a separation of charge in the atoms or molecules of certain materials. All pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. The atomic or molecular properties of heat and pressure response are closely related.
Charge-induced charge separation
A charged object brought close to an electrically neutral object causes a separation of charge within the neutral object. Charges of the same polarity are repelled and charges of the opposite polarity are attracted. As the force due to the interaction of electric charges falls off rapidly with increasing distance, the effect of the closer (opposite polarity) charges is greater and the two objects feel a force of attraction. The effect is most pronounced when the neutral object is an electrical conductor as the charges are more free to move around. Careful grounding of part of an object with a charge-induced charge separation can permanently add or remove electrons, leaving the object with a global, permanent charge. This process is integral to the workings of the Van de Graaff generator, a device commonly used to demonstrate the effects of static electricity.
Removal and prevention
Removing or preventing a buildup of static charge can be as simple as opening a window or using a humidifier to increase the moisture content of the air, making the atmosphere more conductive. Air ionizers can perform the same task.
Items that are particularly sensitive to static discharge may be treated with the application of an antistatic agent, which adds a conducting surface layer that ensures any excess charge is evenly distributed. Fabric softeners and dryer sheets used in washing machines and clothes dryers are an example of an antistatic agent used to prevent and remove static cling.
Many semiconductor devices used in electronics are particularly sensitive to static discharge. Conductive antistatic bags are commonly used to protect such components. People who work on circuits that contain these devices often ground themselves with a conductive antistatic strap.
In the industrial settings such as paint or flour plants as well as in hospitals, antistatic safety boots are sometimes used to prevent a buildup of static charge due to contact with the floor. These shoes have soles with good conductivity. Anti-static shoes should not be confused with insulating shoes, which provide exactly the opposite benefit some protection against serious electric shocks from the mains voltage.
Static discharge
The spark associated with static electricity is caused by electrostatic discharge, or simply static discharge, as excess charge is neutralized by a flow of charges from or to the surroundings.
The feeling of an electric shock is caused by the stimulation of nerves as the neutralizing current flows through the human body. The energy stored as static electricity on an object varies depending on the size of the object and its capacitance, the voltage to which it is charged, and the dielectric constant of the surrounding medium. For modelling the effect of static discharge on sensitive electronic devices, a human being is represented as a capacitor of 100 picofarads, charged to a voltage of 4,000 to 35,000 volts. When touching an object this energy is discharged in less than a microsecond. While the total energy is small, on the order of millijoules, it can still damage sensitive electronic devices. Larger objects will store more energy, which may be directly hazardous to human contact or which may give a spark that can ignite flammable gas or dust.
Lightning
Lightning is a dramatic natural example of static discharge. While the details are unclear and remain a subject of debate, the initial charge separation is thought to be associated with contact between ice particles within storm clouds. In general, significant charge accumulations can only persist in regions of low electrical conductivity (very few charges free to move in the surroundings), hence the flow of neutralizing charges often results from neutral atoms and molecules in the air being torn apart to form separate positive and negative charges, which travel in opposite directions as an electric current, neutralizing the original accumulation of charge. The static charge in air typically breaks down in this way at around 10,000 volts per centimeter (10 kV/cm) depending on humidity. The discharge superheats the surrounding air causing the bright flash, and produces a shock wave causing the clicking sound. The lightning bolt is simply a scaled-up version of the sparks seen in more domestic occurrences of static discharge. The flash occurs because the air in the discharge channel is heated to such a high temperature that it emits light by incandescence. The clap of thunder is the result of the shock wave created as the superheated air expands explosively.
Electronic components
Many semiconductor devices used in electronics are very sensitive to the presence of static electricity and can be damaged by a static discharge.
The use of an antistatic strap is mandatory for researchers manipulating nanodevices.
Further precautions can be taken by taking off shoes with thick rubber soles and permanently staying with a metallic ground.
Static build-up in flowing flammable and ignitable materials
Discharge of static electricity can create severe hazards in those industries dealing with flammable substances, where a small electrical spark might ignite explosive mixtures.
The flowing movement of finely powdered substances or low conductivity fluids in pipes or through mechanical agitation can build up static electricity.
The flow of granules of material like sand down a plastic chute can transfer charge, which can be easily measured using a multimeter connected to metal foil lining the chute at intervals, and can be roughly proportional to particulate flow. Dust clouds of finely powdered substances can become combustible or explosive. When there is a static discharge in a dust or vapor cloud, explosions have occurred. Among the major industrial incidents that have occurred are: a grain silo in southwest France, a paint plant in Thailand, a factory making fiberglass moldings in Canada, a storage tank explosion in
Glenpool, Oklahoma in 2003, and a portable tank filling operation and a tank farm in Des Moines, Iowa and Valley Center, Kansas in 2007.
The ability of a fluid to retain an electrostatic charge depends on its electrical conductivity. When low conductivity fluids flow through pipelines or are mechanically agitated, contact-induced charge separation called flow electrification occurs.
Fluids that have low electrical conductivity (below 50 picosiemens per meter), are called accumulators. Fluids having conductivity above 50 pS/m are called non-accumulators. In non-accumulators, charges recombine as fast as they are separated and hence electrostatic charge accumulation is not significant. In the petrochemical industry, 50 pS/m is the recommended minimum value of electrical conductivity for adequate removal of charge from a fluid.
Kerosines may have conductivity ranging from less than 1 picosiemens per meter to 20 pS/m. For comparison, deionized water has a conductivity of about
10,000,000 pS/m or 10 µS/m.
Transformer oil is part of the electrical insulation system of large power transformers and other electrical apparatus. Re-filling of large apparatus requires precautions against electrostatic charging of the fluid, which may damage sensitive transformer insulation.
An important concept for insulating fluids is the static relaxation time. This is similar to the time constant τ (tau) within an RC circuit. For insulating materials, it is the ratio of the static dielectric constant divided by the electrical conductivity of the material. For hydrocarbon fluids, this is sometimes approximated by dividing the number 18 by the electrical conductivity of the fluid. Thus a fluid that has an electrical conductivity of 1 pS/m has an estimated relaxation time of about 18 seconds. The excess charge in a fluid dissipates almost completely after four to five times the relaxation time, or 90 seconds for the fluid in the above example.
Charge generation increases at higher fluid velocities and larger pipe diameters, becoming quite significant in pipes 8 inches (200 mm) or larger. Static charge generation in these systems is best controlled by limiting fluid velocity. The British standard BS PD CLC/TR 50404:2003 (formerly BS-5958-Part 2) Code of Practice for Control of Undesirable Static Electricity prescribes pipe flow velocity limits. Because water content has a large impact on the fluids dielectric constant, the recommended velocity for hydrocarbon fluids containing water should be limited to 1 meter per second.
Bonding and earthing are the usual ways charge buildup can be prevented. For fluids with electrical conductivity below 10 pS/m, bonding and earthing are not adequate for charge dissipation, and anti-static additives may be required.
Fueling operations
The flowing movement of flammable liquids like gasoline inside a pipe can build up static electricity. Non-polar liquids such as gasoline, toluene, xylene, diesel, kerosene and light crude oils exhibit significant ability for charge accumulation and charge retention during high velocity flow. Electrostatic discharges can ignite the fuel vapor.
When the electrostatic discharge energy is high enough, it can ignite a fuel vapor and air mixture. Different fuels have different flammable limits and require different levels of electrostatic discharge energy to ignite.
Electrostatic discharge while fueling with gasoline is a present danger at gas stations. Fires have also been started at airports while refueling aircraft with kerosene. New grounding technologies, the use of conducting materials, and the addition of anti-static additives help to prevent or safely dissipate the buildup of static electricity.
The flowing movement of gases in pipes alone creates little, if any, static electricity. It is envisaged that a charge generation mechanism only occurs when solid particles or liquid droplets are carried in the gas stream.
In space exploration
Due to the extremely low humidity in extraterrestrial environments, very large static charges can accumulate, causing a major hazard for the complex electronics used in space exploration vehicles. Static electricity is thought to be a particular hazard for astronauts on planned missions to the Moon and Mars. Walking over the extremely dry terrain could cause them to accumulate a significant amount of charge; reaching out to open the airlock on their return could cause a large static discharge, potentially damaging sensitive electronics.
Ozone cracking
A static discharge in the presence of air or oxygen can create ozone. Ozone can degrade rubber parts. Many elastomers are sensitive to ozone cracking. Exposure to ozone creates deep penetrative cracks in critical components like gaskets and O-rings. Fuel lines are also susceptible to the problem unless preventive action is taken. Preventive measures include adding anti-ozonants to the rubber mix, or using an ozone-resistant elastomer. Fires from cracked fuel lines have been a problem on vehicles, especially in the engine compartments where ozone can be produced by electrical equipment.
Energies involved
The energy released in a static electricity discharge may vary over a wide range. The energy in joules can be calculated from the capacitance (C) of the object and the static potential V in volts (V) by the formula E = ½CV2. One experimenter estimates the capacitance of the human body as high as 400 picofarads, and a charge of 50,000 volts, discharged e.g. during touching a charged car, creating a spark with energy of 500 millijoules. Another estimate is 100–300 pF and 20,000 volts, producing a maximum energy of 60 mJ. IEC 479-2:1987 states that a discharge with energy greater than 5000 mJ is a direct serious risk to human health. IEC 60065 states that consumer products cannot discharge more than 350 mJ into a person.
The maximal potential is limited to about 35–40 kV, due to corona discharge dissipating the charge at higher potentials. Potentials below 3000 volts are not typically detectable by humans. Maximal potential commonly achieved on human body range between 1 and 10 kV, though in optimal conditions as high as 20–25 kV can be reached. Low relative humidity increases the charge buildup; walking 20 feet (6 m) on vinyl floor at 15% relative humidity causes buildup of voltage up to 12 kV, while at 80% humidity the voltage is only 1.5 kV.
As little as 0.2 millijoules may present an ignition hazard; such low spark energy is often below the threshold of human visual and auditory perception.
Typical ignition energies are:
0.017 mJ for hydrogen,
0.2–2 mJ for hydrocarbon vapors,
1–50 mJ for fine flammable dust,
40–1000 mJ for coarse flammable dust.
The energy needed to damage most electronic devices is between 2 and 1000 nanojoules.
A relatively small energy, often as little as 0.2–2 millijoules, is needed to ignite a flammable mixture of a fuel and air. For the common industrial hydrocarbon gases and solvents, the minimum ignition energy required for ignition of vapor–air mixture is lowest for the vapor concentration roughly in the middle between the lower explosive limit and the upper explosive limit, and rapidly increases as the concentration deviates from this optimum to either side. Aerosols of flammable liquids may be ignited well below their flash point. Generally, liquid aerosols with particle sizes below 10 micrometers behave like vapors, particle sizes above 40 micrometers behave more like flammable dusts. Typical minimal flammable concentrations of aerosols lay between 15 and 50 g/m3. Similarly, presence of foam on the surface of a flammable liquid significantly increases ignitability. Aerosol of flammable dust can be ignited as well, resulting in a dust explosion; the lower explosive limit usually lies between 50 and 1000 g/m3; finer dusts tend to be more explosive and requiring less spark energy to set off. Simultaneous presence of flammable vapors and flammable dust can significantly decrease the ignition energy; a mere 1 vol.% of propane in air can reduce the required ignition energy of dust by 100 times. Higher than normal oxygen content in atmosphere also significantly lowers the ignition energy.
There are five types of electrical discharges:
Spark, responsible for the majority of industrial fires and explosions where static electricity is involved. Sparks occur between objects at different electric potentials. Good grounding of all parts of the equipment and precautions against charge buildups on equipment and personnel are used as prevention measures.
Brush discharge occurs from a nonconductive charged surface or highly charged nonconductive liquids. The energy is limited to roughly 4 millijoules. To be hazardous, the voltage involved must be above about 20 kilovolts, the surface polarity must be negative, a flammable atmosphere must be present at the point of discharge, and the discharge energy must be sufficient for ignition. Further, because surfaces have a maximal charge density, an area of at least 100 cm2 has to be involved. This is not considered to be a hazard for dust clouds.
Propagating brush discharge is high in energy and dangerous. Occurs when an insulating surface of up to 8 mm thick (e.g. a teflon or glass lining of a grounded metal pipe or a reactor) is subjected to a large charge buildup between the opposite surfaces, acting as a large-area capacitor.
Cone discharge, also called bulking brush discharge, occurs over surfaces of charged powders with resistance above 1010 ohms, or also deep through the powder mass. Cone discharges aren't usually observed in dust volumes below 1 m3. The energy involved depends on the grain size of the powder and the charge magnitude, and can reach up to 20 mJ. Larger dust volumes produce higher energies.
Corona discharge, considered non-hazardous.
See also
Electrical charge
Electrostatic discharge
Electrostatic generator
Electrostatics
Triboelectrification
Van de Graaff generator
Wimshurst machine
References
External links
Electricity
Electrostatics
pl:Elektrostatyka#Elektryczność statyczna
|
[
0.3610774576663971,
-0.28918638825416565,
0.17973379790782928,
0.3442403972148895,
-0.5584515333175659,
0.021974651142954826,
0.07960887998342514,
0.09428885579109192,
-0.3831467628479004,
-0.18141095340251923,
-0.38878053426742554,
0.4711071848869324,
-0.721343994140625,
0.6311260461807251,
0.30245834589004517,
0.6057561039924622,
0.04110253229737282,
0.4401717483997345,
-0.23425531387329102,
0.3231867551803589,
-0.11988645046949387,
0.039741501212120056,
0.44769415259361267,
-0.1343230903148651,
0.5260870456695557,
-0.7272948026657104,
0.22417902946472168,
0.30509504675865173,
0.004803402349352837,
0.08829925209283829,
-0.08095201104879379,
0.4779472053050995,
-0.4023839831352234,
0.014552443288266659,
-0.026425043120980263,
0.07885928452014923,
-0.11265242844820023,
-0.10014207661151886,
-0.26250943541526794,
-0.33187365531921387,
0.12871623039245605,
0.10303797572851181,
0.34546753764152527,
0.11608473211526871,
-0.1311711072921753,
-0.12171134352684021,
-1.2147139310836792,
-0.12063596397638321,
-0.5661633014678955,
0.1257784217596054,
-0.6642036437988281,
0.450054407119751,
0.2538660764694214,
0.6196498274803162,
-0.4150960445404053,
0.29115620255470276,
-0.8675162196159363,
0.0155407739803195,
0.10252098739147186,
-0.6270678639411926,
0.2135705202817917,
-0.008132301270961761,
-0.4547106623649597,
0.3017251491546631,
0.5678080916404724,
-0.002095682779327035,
-0.0826309472322464,
0.19014324247837067,
0.037022534757852554,
-0.21142631769180298,
-0.3432841897010803,
-0.171126589179039,
-0.19265134632587433,
-0.17280572652816772,
-0.13206541538238525,
-0.22924549877643585,
0.3244915008544922,
-0.3349781632423401,
-0.31575191020965576,
0.6579258441925049,
-0.17834147810935974,
0.745781421661377,
0.3394355773925781,
-0.38279762864112854,
0.4692639112472534,
0.08718244731426239,
-0.8087118268013,
1.147108793258667,
-0.35609230399131775,
0.562919020652771,
0.3059038817882538,
0.13269856572151184,
0.5180513858795166,
-0.21535837650299072,
-0.04954018071293831,
0.3089256286621094,
0.4219135046005249,
-0.3135066628456116,
-0.17566975951194763,
0.24892409145832062,
0.5010852217674255,
0.08580538630485535,
0.12567831575870514,
0.07690414786338806,
0.23599082231521606,
-0.33036983013153076,
0.10313616693019867,
-0.34996137022972107,
0.3365616202354431,
0.10916879773139954,
-0.8936062455177307,
-0.09317269921302795,
-0.35858169198036194,
-0.060855962336063385,
-0.5316256284713745,
-0.07348890602588654,
0.08041639626026154,
0.6546173095703125,
0.1347944140434265,
-0.00048707856331020594,
0.39032119512557983,
0.22398927807807922,
-0.3463766276836395,
0.030208759009838104,
-0.3194434940814972,
0.42648711800575256,
0.3217845857143402,
0.5193024277687073,
-0.7390592694282532,
0.06393150985240936,
0.2813818156719208,
0.9596148133277893,
0.037014562636613846,
-0.038839202374219894,
0.10106019675731659,
-0.5895704627037048,
0.31367602944374084,
0.4511508643627167,
0.5011992454528809,
0.23181676864624023,
-0.551344096660614,
-0.02480946108698845,
-0.17223294079303741,
-0.07486843317747116,
-0.06477955728769302,
-0.39218318462371826,
-0.4363562762737274,
-0.4073087275028229,
0.09537841379642487,
-0.17493440210819244,
-0.4647979736328125,
0.19632895290851593,
-0.34753575921058655,
0.3913695514202118,
-0.6672872304916382,
-0.30540376901626587,
-0.01878461055457592,
0.16021086275577545,
-0.24500849843025208,
0.06419117003679276,
-0.23816370964050293,
0.17616544663906097,
-0.1752784252166748,
0.29668518900871277,
0.13587209582328796,
-0.411453515291214,
0.3925461173057556,
0.3453531563282013,
0.20984762907028198,
-0.004066424909979105,
-0.1522093564271927,
-0.06910299509763718,
0.03542736545205116,
0.04760892316699028,
-0.4971253573894501,
0.23367808759212494,
-0.1412641406059265,
0.14445382356643677,
0.7265228033065796,
-0.1992034614086151,
-0.67985999584198,
0.4618508517742157,
0.3556990921497345,
-0.1508956104516983,
0.08192335069179535,
-0.002117394469678402,
0.11045126616954803,
-0.3042732775211334,
-0.037318501621484756,
-0.5281965136528015,
-0.2553868293762207,
-0.11792922765016556,
-0.2768411934375763,
-0.9757157564163208,
1.2503187656402588,
-0.22120393812656403,
-0.7765672206878662,
0.5618529319763184,
-0.19626663625240326,
0.018885290250182152,
0.01592923328280449,
-0.07827233523130417,
0.034864600747823715,
-0.06883417814970016,
-0.2400018721818924,
0.2991187274456024,
0.35600462555885315,
0.09085791558027267,
0.40719956159591675,
0.2472173422574997,
0.1327246129512787,
-0.5703781843185425,
0.8524073362350464,
-0.6160181760787964,
-0.24833059310913086,
0.17231617867946625,
-0.9561577439308167,
0.06361833214759827,
-0.020076721906661987,
0.30143770575523376,
0.47945886850357056,
0.21565918624401093,
-0.2614743411540985,
0.5973355174064636,
-0.18195517361164093,
0.2996799945831299,
0.41395145654678345,
0.009122202172875404,
0.3034290671348572,
-0.5678361654281616,
0.15289418399333954,
0.45840635895729065,
0.23141154646873474,
-0.4998689889907837,
-0.24511484801769257,
0.3930978775024414,
0.10117175430059433,
-0.2705278992652893,
-0.06149902939796448,
-0.1363820880651474,
-0.2128717005252838,
0.7689493894577026,
-0.5905520915985107,
0.6516340374946594,
-0.030915502458810806,
0.0551607608795166,
0.07642984390258789,
0.4016556739807129,
-0.4562198519706726,
0.07721631973981857,
0.10731435567140579,
0.2057630866765976,
0.34849071502685547,
-0.10199107229709625,
-0.11702015995979309,
-0.6250861883163452,
-0.5375803112983704,
-0.1725180745124817,
0.40112051367759705,
0.12216128408908844,
-0.056943442672491074,
-0.33793020248413086,
-0.06809209287166595,
-0.34102076292037964,
-0.2369714230298996,
-0.7888106107711792,
-0.1677316278219223,
-0.03381789103150368,
-0.06539937853813171,
0.5166143178939819,
0.7989250421524048,
0.19561178982257843,
-0.2614286243915558,
-0.24560916423797607,
-0.2326396256685257,
-0.2986046075820923,
0.07853076606988907,
0.3279494047164917,
-0.3426653742790222,
0.17057858407497406,
0.37749457359313965,
0.6133387088775635,
0.2522062063217163,
-0.6141958236694336,
-0.028733566403388977,
-0.3169704079627991,
0.04537505656480789,
0.053770698606967926,
0.03818902373313904,
-0.44894734025001526,
-0.6421886682510376,
-0.42297324538230896,
-0.35864323377609253,
0.19906334578990936,
-0.12375405430793762,
0.7121437788009644,
0.3086272180080414,
0.06570529192686081,
0.5249997973442078,
-0.45394599437713623,
-0.5306105017662048,
-0.14589384198188782,
-0.8126163482666016,
-0.018325036391615868,
-0.5434110760688782,
-0.40595439076423645,
-0.2979612350463867,
-0.3959348499774933,
-5.861293792724609,
0.19763250648975372,
-0.1704704463481903,
-0.2562319040298462,
-0.050300270318984985,
0.2814684212207794,
0.5567998290061951,
0.41317811608314514,
-0.22856834530830383,
0.5829222798347473,
-0.496236652135849,
0.22181391716003418,
-0.2882411479949951,
0.5283899903297424,
0.711755633354187,
0.3495711386203766,
0.7287111282348633,
-0.24695967137813568,
0.30147022008895874,
0.16953128576278687,
-0.626366913318634,
0.48366206884384155,
0.165699303150177,
0.388703316450119,
0.09385153651237488,
0.1970299780368805,
-0.451402485370636,
0.005873698275536299,
-0.2583291530609131,
0.32980868220329285,
-0.13603761792182922,
-0.5644410252571106,
0.09103015810251236,
-0.637543261051178,
0.6434317827224731,
0.46764543652534485,
0.15414515137672424,
0.024019362404942513,
-0.08179055154323578,
-0.2803109884262085,
-0.3525698781013489,
0.6265225410461426,
-0.0031820188742130995,
0.37441641092300415,
0.10698090493679047,
-0.07653529942035675,
-0.3717421591281891,
-0.22428642213344574,
-0.20935730636119843,
0.8482521772384644,
-0.7266354560852051,
0.5213407278060913,
0.7623778581619263,
-1.105628490447998,
0.363779753446579,
0.23120322823524475,
0.7118811011314392,
0.01589137129485607,
-0.4007363021373749,
-0.1957317590713501,
-0.056287895888090134,
-0.21673713624477386,
-0.26941487193107605,
0.006884451024234295,
-0.39427101612091064,
0.41869720816612244,
-0.4935721158981323,
-0.4104953706264496,
0.8952183127403259,
-0.041816215962171555,
-0.4179506301879883,
0.21070539951324463,
0.12532906234264374,
-0.5640445947647095,
0.21245092153549194,
-0.08172175288200378,
0.0005082646966911852,
0.47930908203125,
0.358851820230484,
0.05416693538427353,
-0.849126398563385,
-0.27846449613571167,
-0.4053073823451996,
0.24103593826293945,
0.3063727021217346,
-0.24762849509716034,
-0.13107919692993164,
-0.4955463707447052,
-0.07619211077690125,
0.21635450422763824,
1.116225242614746,
0.09057504683732986,
0.41250789165496826,
-0.1379188895225525,
0.4386846125125885,
0.8123857975006104,
0.2008621245622635,
0.07508940249681473,
0.15738242864608765,
-0.5621975064277649,
0.3688306510448456,
-0.28664669394493103,
0.12972775101661682,
-0.13126756250858307,
0.09813178330659866,
-0.3600958585739136,
-0.5999859571456909,
0.2255564033985138,
0.1023499146103859,
-0.14762729406356812,
0.3318926692008972,
0.5294078588485718,
-0.5086012482643127,
0.20329995453357697,
-0.012555155903100967,
0.405587762594223,
-0.43993425369262695,
0.9224998354911804,
0.2739452123641968,
-0.4376954436302185,
0.187691792845726,
-0.09140637516975403,
-0.18116091191768646,
-0.7193458676338196,
-0.35518181324005127,
0.2473728358745575,
-0.2272987961769104,
0.32789531350135803,
0.11276546865701675,
-0.2964358925819397,
0.5219234824180603,
0.5679146647453308,
-0.06167193129658699,
0.08348478376865387,
0.09451864659786224,
-0.47643110156059265,
0.4487585723400116,
0.12687774002552032,
0.01048782467842102,
-0.32234278321266174,
0.37695401906967163,
-0.08972136676311493,
0.12774474918842316,
-0.06520962715148926,
0.5031020045280457,
0.04657446965575218,
-0.1962147057056427,
-0.44672611355781555,
0.3045331537723541,
0.16738349199295044,
0.4486510753631592,
-0.3587523400783539,
-0.15373516082763672,
-0.25496265292167664,
-0.2608489990234375,
-0.17895932495594025,
-0.04878848046064377,
-0.26584213972091675,
-0.23005026578903198,
-0.4316999912261963,
0.04741804301738739,
0.2355741262435913,
-1.2611089944839478,
-0.17766760289669037,
0.02758892998099327,
-0.09648888558149338,
-0.6515786051750183,
0.049477268010377884,
0.45105651021003723,
0.14389948546886444,
-0.31538519263267517,
-0.8861880302429199,
-0.3546520173549652,
-0.3819946348667145,
0.27682074904441833,
0.24631860852241516,
-0.19298280775547028,
-0.07746428996324539,
0.3363215923309326,
-0.6427308917045593,
0.5537523031234741,
-0.05289086326956749,
-0.2607922852039337,
0.468537300825119,
0.35353177785873413,
-0.5927583575248718,
-0.07845023274421692,
0.46415814757347107,
0.12249916046857834,
-0.30950289964675903,
0.6815587282180786,
0.40887394547462463,
0.06653054058551788,
-0.014891560189425945,
0.043527375906705856,
-0.3298763036727905,
0.07666926831007004,
-0.0370522141456604,
-0.11545435339212418,
-0.5189287066459656,
0.06858949363231659,
0.23953835666179657,
-0.812393069267273,
0.3055053651332855,
-0.18542324006557465,
-0.2514149248600006,
-0.19904620945453644,
0.2735603153705597,
-0.3287336230278015,
-0.18017786741256714,
-0.6056933403015137,
-0.16831231117248535,
-0.33532124757766724,
0.13632051646709442,
-0.30427828431129456,
0.27731260657310486,
0.05532364919781685,
-0.4472927451133728,
-0.17017605900764465,
-0.08393490314483643,
-0.4165634214878082,
0.14518147706985474,
-0.33138105273246765,
-0.23909945785999298,
0.4378371238708496,
-0.4408716857433319,
0.6208739876747131,
-0.32420212030410767,
0.4156162440776825,
-0.3663105070590973,
-0.2803986668586731,
-0.1482958346605301,
0.22698871791362762,
-0.13758984208106995,
-0.4046022593975067,
0.28797757625579834,
-0.12332966923713684,
-0.23153790831565857,
-0.07621845602989197,
-0.2317671775817871,
0.3654387295246124,
0.5561639666557312,
-0.013331535272300243,
-0.21584388613700867,
0.22436584532260895,
0.1905839592218399,
0.7064959406852722,
-1.1066664457321167,
-0.46256324648857117,
-0.051772065460681915,
-0.1315501481294632,
0.028240231797099113,
-1.1457992792129517,
-0.1487279087305069,
0.23822619020938873,
-0.1557915210723877,
-0.04844373092055321,
-0.5076829195022583,
0.5191236734390259,
-0.15373645722866058,
-0.2622687518596649,
-0.5942798852920532,
-0.2673247754573822,
0.009342441335320473,
0.2492586374282837,
-0.14431940019130707,
-0.21591924130916595,
-0.3475475311279297,
0.6007700562477112,
-0.4459327161312103,
0.6108859777450562,
0.23539923131465912,
0.9159822463989258,
0.3164292573928833,
0.42968639731407166,
0.32628053426742554,
-0.21879880130290985,
-0.5101785659790039,
-0.30842670798301697,
-0.36128899455070496,
-0.2133321911096573,
0.011781725101172924,
0.5411340594291687,
-0.13271529972553253,
0.6212080121040344,
0.398652046918869,
0.5947780013084412,
-0.39949730038642883,
-0.30286768078804016,
-0.3501017689704895,
-0.48334476351737976,
-0.039740074425935745,
0.6847993731498718,
-0.45788753032684326,
-0.2933022379875183,
0.29634803533554077,
-0.301374614238739,
0.14886535704135895,
-0.22442442178726196,
-0.38652732968330383,
-0.7515280842781067,
0.726866602897644,
0.10907997190952301,
-0.9938492178916931,
0.37694165110588074,
-0.30258139967918396,
0.07351789623498917,
-0.18357421457767487,
0.06788188964128494,
-0.3690064549446106,
0.4145978093147278,
0.37759125232696533,
-0.6984641551971436,
0.6605006456375122,
0.057874616235494614,
-0.09548310935497284,
0.78721684217453,
-0.4615488648414612,
0.4142210781574249,
0.35169199109077454,
0.07259344309568405,
0.06950725615024567,
0.3312496840953827,
-0.5698969960212708,
-0.29602447152137756,
0.3412703573703766,
-0.3187587559223175,
-0.17382311820983887,
-0.5834894776344299,
0.15612122416496277,
1.0913079977035522,
0.20971032977104187,
-0.4516028165817261,
0.24259789288043976,
-0.008186104707419872,
-0.09211968630552292,
0.6512382626533508,
-0.27336764335632324,
-0.569625735282898,
0.7958146333694458,
0.4283466339111328,
0.7144001722335815,
0.22034931182861328,
0.2296382337808609,
-0.3835347294807434,
0.47278401255607605,
0.46982622146606445,
0.47055283188819885,
-0.3192870318889618,
0.3230726718902588,
0.5256979465484619,
0.2254607081413269,
0.5074054002761841,
-0.4217230975627899,
-0.40861108899116516,
-0.39701035618782043,
0.7864698767662048,
0.08679036796092987,
-0.15383164584636688,
0.12381520122289658,
-0.39652514457702637,
0.7657607793807983,
0.07047130167484283,
-0.06211019307374954,
0.4957643747329712,
-0.14520175755023956,
0.5792826414108276,
-0.3803442716598511,
-0.06156259402632713,
0.16021905839443207,
0.511048436164856,
0.2942737340927124,
-0.569640576839447,
0.7382978796958923,
0.04037442058324814,
-0.24029380083084106,
0.650285005569458,
0.6948738098144531,
-0.19240856170654297,
0.28812935948371887,
-0.15177476406097412,
0.8245187401771545,
-0.4425400495529175,
-0.4266713261604309,
0.14896425604820251,
-0.22604237496852875,
0.3158877491950989,
0.2459573894739151,
-0.27185121178627014,
0.30964672565460205,
0.4411032795906067,
-0.20497094094753265,
0.10026412457227707,
-0.19977982342243195,
0.23525188863277435,
-0.08619192987680435,
0.0030964300967752934,
0.5337731242179871,
-0.1570846438407898,
-0.5779204368591309,
0.2773997187614441,
0.42714130878448486,
0.014319024048745632,
0.670357346534729,
-0.8844391107559204,
0.4656182825565338,
-0.3121365010738373,
0.44928526878356934,
-0.6399921774864197,
0.41383376717567444,
0.3116152882575989,
0.13555791974067688,
0.18024329841136932,
-0.20448800921440125,
-0.31617698073387146,
0.011159817688167095,
-0.020498555153608322,
-0.5127894282341003,
-0.14951886236667633,
-0.25900834798812866,
0.06756418943405151,
-0.4560944139957428,
-0.023742683231830597,
-0.24352547526359558,
-0.14572183787822723,
-0.10691747069358826,
0.2834204137325287,
0.06000567227602005,
-0.07347512245178223,
-0.15661406517028809,
-0.33546018600463867,
0.5213204622268677,
-0.359111487865448,
0.07060500979423523,
-0.2268664836883545,
-0.2691400945186615,
-0.13487523794174194,
0.09672912210226059,
0.21807950735092163,
-0.5122261643409729,
0.4779053330421448,
0.01512145809829235,
-0.16256697475910187,
-0.24897906184196472,
-0.2175067514181137,
-0.1439056247472763,
-0.2303636521100998,
0.08454859256744385,
-0.39243021607398987,
0.18279391527175903,
0.160624697804451,
-0.6219038963317871,
-0.28141966462135315,
-0.03281981125473976,
-0.1998026818037033,
-0.20527122914791107,
0.39749807119369507,
-0.2260749638080597,
-0.13155338168144226,
0.3920786380767822
] |
200137
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Rock%20Canyon%20National%20Conservation%20Area
|
Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area
|
The Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area in Clark County, Nevada, is an area managed by the Bureau of Land Management as part of its National Landscape Conservation System, and protected as a National Conservation Area. It is about west of Las Vegas, and is easily seen from the Las Vegas Strip. More than three million people visit the area each year.
The conservation area showcases a set of large red rock formations: a set of sandstone peaks and walls which were formed by thrust faults including the Keystone Thrust. The walls are up to high, making them a popular hiking and rock climbing destination. The highest point is La Madre Mountain, at .
A one-way loop road, long, provides vehicle access to many of the features in the area. Several side roads and parking areas allow access to many of the area trails. A visitor center is at the start of the loop road. The loop road is also popular for bicycle touring; it begins with a moderate climb, then is mostly downhill or flat.
The Rocky Gap Road in Red Rock Canyon NCA is a side-canyon accessible only by an unmaintained primitive road from the scenic loop which mostly only off-road or high clearance vehicles can access. State Route 159 cuts through the Cottonwood Valley, also a sidetrail of the Old Spanish trail. The Wilson Cliffs, a massive escarpment, can be seen to the west from SR 159.
Toward the southern end of the National Conservation Area are Spring Mountain Ranch State Park; Bonnie Springs Ranch, which was recently sold (2019) and closed to the public, which includes a replica of a western ghost town; and the town of Blue Diamond.
History
Native Americans
The first humans were attracted to the Red Rock area due to its resources of water, plant, and animal life that could not be easily found in the surrounding desert. Hunters and gatherers such as the historical Southern Paiute and the much older Archaic, or Desert Culture Native Americans, have successively occupied this area.
As many as six different Native American cultures may have been present at Red Rock over the millennia. The following chronology is an approximation, from the present to ancient pre-history:
Southern Paiute- 900 to modern times
Patayan Culture - 900 to early historic times in the 1800s
Anasazi - 1 AD to 1150.
Pinto/Gypsum- (Archaic) 3500 BC to 1 AD.
San Dieguito - 7000 to 5500 BC.
Paleo-Indians (Tule Springs)- 11,000 to 8000 BC.
Numerous petroglyphs, as well as pottery fragments, remain today throughout the area. In addition, several roasting pits used by the early Native Americans at Red Rock provide further evidence of human activity in the past.
Modern history
In the early 20th century, around the time the first European Americans settled in nearby Las Vegas, the Excelsior Company operated a small sandstone quarry near the northern area of the scenic loop. It proved to be uneconomical and was shut down. Evidence of the quarry's existence includes some of the huge sandstone blocks that have been left behind.
The Red Rocks have been a film location for such movies as Roy Rogers and his horse Trigger in Bells of San Angelo (1947) and was a location for The Stalking Moon with Gregory Peck in 1968.
In 1967, the Bureau of Land Management designated as the Red Rock Recreation Lands. In 1973, the U.S. House of Representatives subcommittee on Federal Conservation Areas held a special hearing in the Foley Federal Office Building in downtown Las Vegas to review a legislative resolution sponsored by Nevada's lone Congressman, David Towell (R-NV) to establish the Red Rock Conservation Area by transferring Federal land to the State of Nevada. Testimony in favor of the bill was given by the Sierra Club and a high school student and environmental activist, Dennis Causey. The subcommittee unanimously approved the resolution, sending it to the full Committee on the Interior and subsequently to the full House, followed by favorable action by the U S. Senate and approval by President George H.W. Bush. Further legislation in 1990 changed the status of the Red Rock Recreation Lands to a National Conservation Area, a status that also provides funds to maintain and protect it. The Federal area was adjacent to the Red Rock State Park.
The Howard Hughes Corporation, developer of Summerlin, has transferred land adjacent to the protected area, to provide a buffer between development and the conservation area. On the west side, Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area is adjacent to the Spring Mountains National Recreation Area.
Biology
The conservation area is one of the easternmost parts of the Mojave Desert; the lowest elevation of the area, from , is in the Lower Sonoran Zone, while the area from up is in the Upper Sonoran Zone. The character of the sandstone layers is such that a number of year-round springs may be found in the recesses of the side canyons.
Some 600 species of plants are known in the area. Common types in the valley floor include the Joshua tree, Mojave yucca, banana yucca, creosote, and blackbrush. Higher up the Utah juniper and Sonoran scrub oak (also called scrub live oak) come to dominate. Agave is easy to spot in red rock niches, with its thick low leaves and flowering stem that reaches twice the height of a man. The Calico Tanks trail has a plaque about prehistoric agave roasting pits. Ponderosa pines may be found at the top of the valley, where it connects to the Spring Mountains.
Wild burros are a familiar sight, as are rabbits and ground squirrels. Desert bighorn sheep are occasionally seen at higher elevations. During rare spring and summer rainstorms, tiny red-spotted toads can be seen emerging from pools of water.
The Conservation Area is protected habitat for the desert tortoise. A habitat at the Visitor Center houses eight females and two males.
Climate
Geology
The Red Rock area has a complex geological history, which over millions of years, helped create the region's dramatic landscape.
The Red Rock area was under an ocean basin during the Paleozoic Era 600 million years ago. Up to of limey sediments were deposited and eventually lithified to limestone.
During the Mesozoic Era 250 million years ago, the earth's crust started to rise due to tectonic shifts, and marine shales and sandstones were deposited. As the basin became isolated evaporite formations of salt and gypsum were deposited. Oxidation of the iron minerals in the sediments resulted in the red colors of some of the rocks. Deposition by streams and in swamp environments resulted in the formation of petrified wood in the area.
By 180 million years ago, the climate continued to change and the area became a desert with vast expanses of huge shifting sand dunes. These dunes accumulated over a broad area, up to thick, and were lithified, cemented with calcium carbonate and iron oxides. They developed as the colorful Aztec Sandstone.
During a mountain-building period called the Laramide orogeny around 66 million years ago, the Keystone Thrust Fault developed. The Keystone is part of a series of thrust faults which ran through much of western North America and through the Red Rock Conservation Area. The movement of this fault forced the older gray sedimentary rock over the younger red rocks, forming the varicolored landscape that can be seen in the mountain today. The thrust is exposed over a distance of along the Red Rock escarpment.
The Lee Canyon thrust plate may contain over 4,000 ft (1,200 m) of terrigenous rocks at the base. The Wheeler Pass thrust may contain at least 11,000 ft (3,300 m) of these rocks as well.
Recreational activities
Red Rock provides a wide variety of recreational activities, the most popular being hiking, biking, rock scrambling, and rock climbing. Horseback riding and camping are also allowed on specific trails and in designated areas. Automobile and motorcycle clubs often conduct group drives through the 13-mile scenic drive. ATV use is not permitted in the area.
Aside from the obvious dangers from climbing rock faces and cliffs, visitors are informed that temperatures can routinely exceed in the summer, so they must bring plenty of water. Visitors hiking into the backcountry off established trails are advised against traveling alone, and should inform other people of their plans. Risks include the presence of venomous rattlesnakes and flash flooding/lightning from thunderstorms.
Rock climbing
Although the Yosemite-size walls offer a host of challenging lines, technical climbing activity in Red Rock was not recorded before 1968. The first modern routes, climbed in the early 1970s, are described in several books. The rock is Aztec Sandstone, a relatively solid variety with a hard surface varnish. Many climbs involve ascents of single crack systems hundreds of feet long.
The climbs of Red Rock cover a broad range of length and difficulty. The long, easy routes had made the area a common climbing training ground, but the canyon also offers many difficult climbs as well. In recent decades, this broad appeal and the classic nature of many routes has made the area an international destination for rock climbers.
Popular sport climbing areas include the Calico Hills and Sandstone Quarry. Red Rock has a multitude of traditional climbing areas, including single-pitch areas such as Brass Wall and Necromancer Wall, along with multi-pitch areas such as Eagle Wall, Aeolian Wall, Mescalito, and Solar Slab. Long free and big-wall aid routes are found on features such as the Rainbow Wall and Buffalo Wall. Bouldering is popular in Red Rock as well, primarily at the Kraft Boulders and Black Velvet Canyon.
Hiking
Red Rock has hiking trails and picnic areas. Trails are changed and diverted depending upon the needs of the ecosystem. In early spring, depending upon the precipitation, waterfalls may be seen on the edge of the canyons. Popular trails within the vicinity of the scenic drive loop include the Moenkopi Loop, Calico Hills, Calico Tanks, Turtlehead Peak, Keystone Thrust, White Rock/La Madre Springs Loop, and the Ice Box Canyon trail.
Wildfire history
Several significant wildfires have burned within the Red Rock Canyon NCA in recent years, including:
1998 – A fire occurred in the loop area. By 2003, regrowth has made it difficult to find the burn area.
June 25, 2005 – The Goodsprings fire consumed more than , burning into Red Rock NCA's southern area.
July 22, 2005 – Lightning caused an fire in the loop area.
September 6, 2006 – Another fire was started by lightning in the loop near the visitor center and burned around .
July 2013 – The Carpenter I fire. Burned mainly in the Spring Mountains National Recreation Area, but encroached on the northwest portion of Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area. It can be easily viewed from SR 157 Kyle Canyon Road. Caused by lightning in Trout Canyon nearby.
Damage caused by wildfires, as well as evidence of the ability of the desert to heal itself over time, is visible from the loop road.
Recent fires were in part fueled by the thick growth of invasive species red brome and cheat grasses. The Bureau of Land Management has not developed plans to control these species, because control methods, such as using herbicides, can be costly and damaging to native plants.
See also
La Madre Mountains Wilderness
Notes
References
Urioste, Joanne, The Red Rocks of Southern Nevada, American Alpine Club, 1984
Clinesmith, Larry L. and Elsie L. Sellars, Red Rock Canyon Plants, Red Rock Canyon Interpretive Association, 2001
Handren, Jerry, Red Rocks Climber's Guide II, 2016
External links
BLM's Red Rock Canyon Site
Flowers of RRCNCA by BLM
Red Rock Canyon Interpretive Association
Spring Mountains
Canyons and gorges of Nevada
Landforms of Clark County, Nevada
Protected areas of Clark County, Nevada
Bike paths in Nevada
Tourist attractions in the Las Vegas Valley
Climbing areas of Nevada
Geologic formations with imbedded sand dunes
Protected areas of the Mojave Desert
Protected areas of Nevada
National Conservation Areas of the United States
Bureau of Land Management areas in Nevada
Units of the National Landscape Conservation System
Badlands of the United States
|
[
-0.08706444501876831,
0.6628418564796448,
-0.7809048891067505,
-0.2846364676952362,
0.2645818591117859,
0.3335649073123932,
0.8337640166282654,
0.5434985756874084,
0.036743029952049255,
-0.1856335997581482,
-0.2099306732416153,
0.4579353332519531,
-0.35116058588027954,
0.7885445356369019,
-0.5149995684623718,
0.3492196798324585,
0.37773028016090393,
0.7797746062278748,
0.8864853978157043,
-0.04357047751545906,
0.2828413248062134,
-1.0764919519424438,
-0.4581855237483978,
0.01102517917752266,
-0.4619271755218506,
0.02809678576886654,
0.2668513059616089,
-0.11493685096502304,
-0.01901089958846569,
0.3246922791004181,
-0.1285673826932907,
0.36742648482322693,
-0.28610920906066895,
-0.599168598651886,
0.1394576132297516,
-0.11026623845100403,
0.3888714611530304,
-0.6176292300224304,
0.3802214562892914,
0.3268066346645355,
0.8300076723098755,
-0.20490585267543793,
0.1408110111951828,
-0.0373058058321476,
0.2660733163356781,
0.4208293855190277,
-1.8967028856277466,
-0.02686236798763275,
0.13911575078964233,
-0.37000975012779236,
-0.6217011213302612,
0.5054295063018799,
0.30157941579818726,
0.22684402763843536,
0.602270781993866,
0.4865618944168091,
-0.4802490770816803,
0.32129955291748047,
0.07738891988992691,
0.16108204424381256,
-0.275171160697937,
0.32136374711990356,
-0.14552977681159973,
0.07383731752634048,
-0.4560362696647644,
0.3410789668560028,
0.46426647901535034,
0.39922893047332764,
-0.09480983018875122,
-0.049463119357824326,
-0.11354247480630875,
-0.09450523555278778,
0.3122016489505768,
0.02430957555770874,
-0.6239002346992493,
0.4994411766529083,
-0.5449661612510681,
0.2513361871242523,
-0.40356379747390747,
-0.06505317986011505,
0.673582911491394,
0.5444458723068237,
0.790424644947052,
-0.16053836047649384,
0.2123517394065857,
0.23537535965442657,
-0.5976009368896484,
-0.02193346992135048,
-0.032194796949625015,
0.7258204817771912,
-1.3490254878997803,
0.2818543612957001,
0.2122385948896408,
-0.06440947204828262,
0.4172903597354889,
-0.6445160508155823,
0.20456945896148682,
0.3026638329029083,
-0.13733986020088196,
1.3269580602645874,
-0.2534162998199463,
0.15681983530521393,
0.9026867151260376,
0.01189423631876707,
-0.7941332459449768,
-0.21220456063747406,
-0.4744648337364197,
0.1598043292760849,
-0.3091604709625244,
-0.7187647819519043,
0.21780890226364136,
0.031946226954460144,
-0.2864164113998413,
-0.22018757462501526,
-0.024999286979436874,
0.203367680311203,
0.43214115500450134,
-0.4411761462688446,
0.4666633903980255,
0.08469869196414948,
0.6638168096542358,
0.6076231598854065,
-0.3020175099372864,
0.17368440330028534,
-0.2791326344013214,
0.5997937917709351,
0.587749183177948,
-0.05122396722435951,
0.22184744477272034,
0.22073106467723846,
-0.6113436818122864,
0.7695778608322144,
0.5556347370147705,
-0.09175320714712143,
0.17809075117111206,
-0.5169827342033386,
0.16005480289459229,
-0.13159474730491638,
0.27275756001472473,
0.19769899547100067,
-0.4118518829345703,
-0.4600520730018616,
-1.2862125635147095,
-0.45607781410217285,
1.1195106506347656,
0.07963824272155762,
-0.1436133086681366,
-0.7946068048477173,
-0.021081624552607536,
-0.07927688956260681,
0.18006911873817444,
-0.5412082672119141,
0.028570326045155525,
0.4357694685459137,
-0.7147921919822693,
0.552872359752655,
0.33726733922958374,
-0.08329600095748901,
1.05409836769104,
0.3332149088382721,
0.06258560717105865,
0.3543734848499298,
0.33992817997932434,
0.3788451552391052,
-0.08465386182069778,
-0.018138336017727852,
0.48098519444465637,
-0.08548767864704132,
-0.3275383710861206,
0.48711127042770386,
-0.8820578455924988,
-0.05178384482860565,
0.3087671399116516,
-0.3267965018749237,
0.37848126888275146,
-0.6240776181221008,
0.42886653542518616,
0.9141092300415039,
0.09910164028406143,
-0.06709573417901993,
-0.8504852652549744,
0.42519351840019226,
0.1190962865948677,
0.34682032465934753,
0.2604300379753113,
-0.520876407623291,
0.9057343602180481,
-0.08712577819824219,
-0.47699683904647827,
-0.25968673825263977,
-0.6669119000434875,
-0.262922465801239,
0.016084488481283188,
-0.4617878198623657,
1.0286941528320312,
0.31015345454216003,
-0.35488981008529663,
0.46903517842292786,
0.5521649718284607,
0.7548721432685852,
0.04498816281557083,
-0.24145203828811646,
0.31060686707496643,
-0.7956230044364929,
-0.9846938252449036,
1.2017914056777954,
0.1490955352783203,
-0.283728688955307,
0.6765491366386414,
0.00976619403809309,
0.41842329502105713,
0.45635461807250977,
0.23091766238212585,
0.4822162389755249,
0.11776947230100632,
0.10137038677930832,
0.3742903470993042,
-0.23683448135852814,
0.045662544667720795,
-0.7074543237686157,
0.6502643823623657,
0.48413801193237305,
-0.05325790494680405,
0.05510808154940605,
-0.6735508441925049,
0.785697340965271,
0.16901689767837524,
0.8687262535095215,
0.5909457802772522,
-0.31413453817367554,
0.057663969695568085,
-0.41629260778427124,
-0.056078728288412094,
-0.3927059769630432,
0.1666017770767212,
0.0698026791214943,
-0.45844724774360657,
-0.25501400232315063,
-0.2821868658065796,
-0.053565748035907745,
-0.12281971424818039,
-0.5128991603851318,
-0.46241459250450134,
0.2395162284374237,
0.0036292520817369223,
0.32019945979118347,
0.3996492028236389,
0.40623676776885986,
-0.8225942850112915,
0.013165798969566822,
0.33192580938339233,
0.5576271414756775,
0.04980537295341492,
-0.2969486117362976,
-0.1526765674352646,
0.31327351927757263,
-0.3122122883796692,
-0.3578881323337555,
-0.21001367270946503,
-0.2210933268070221,
-0.07649457454681396,
0.31945404410362244,
-0.5742635726928711,
0.34690606594085693,
0.16509108245372772,
-0.45976459980010986,
-0.3908379375934601,
0.043598856776952744,
0.011889094486832619,
0.07457005977630615,
-0.2818605899810791,
0.2855689525604248,
-0.3524278998374939,
-0.5809321403503418,
0.20243681967258453,
0.5236836671829224,
-0.4383334219455719,
0.10527613013982773,
-0.6538152694702148,
-0.05806896835565567,
0.34569764137268066,
0.45339956879615784,
-0.4454393982887268,
-0.2907896637916565,
-1.0622838735580444,
0.18107664585113525,
0.3705923855304718,
-0.5577021241188049,
-0.8099735379219055,
-0.045009613037109375,
-0.24993500113487244,
-0.3201615512371063,
0.524482786655426,
0.7162638306617737,
-0.6925813555717468,
0.03635274991393089,
0.059610601514577866,
-0.2669313848018646,
1.0502402782440186,
0.20883587002754211,
-0.3428850769996643,
0.1844942718744278,
-0.8627731800079346,
-0.2792201340198517,
-0.017575575038790703,
0.17265404760837555,
-0.2447752058506012,
-0.4199898838996887,
-4.647174835205078,
0.7672349810600281,
-0.23100444674491882,
-0.4865160584449768,
0.07634083181619644,
-0.30092811584472656,
0.21126075088977814,
0.07437269389629364,
-0.09921180456876755,
-0.03017180785536766,
0.03246816620230675,
-0.0683446004986763,
0.5602896809577942,
0.5389155149459839,
0.6512944102287292,
0.09611331671476364,
0.5399123430252075,
0.02163289114832878,
0.04923366382718086,
0.15713723003864288,
-0.44362521171569824,
0.38642120361328125,
-0.21316178143024445,
0.09660539031028748,
0.32841408252716064,
0.7239267826080322,
-0.46195802092552185,
-0.31313082575798035,
-0.8885746598243713,
-0.12723815441131592,
0.2509280741214752,
-0.07411903887987137,
-0.643324613571167,
0.08847486972808838,
-0.6754605770111084,
0.578553318977356,
0.8473899960517883,
0.1783914566040039,
0.17614427208900452,
-0.43230342864990234,
-0.12416542321443558,
0.07431168854236603,
-0.9335328340530396,
-0.09368357807397842,
0.42909958958625793,
-0.005382241681218147,
-0.7515461444854736,
-0.3633355498313904,
0.12244858592748642,
0.3906661570072174,
-0.08361851423978806,
-0.07650136202573776,
1.4907947778701782,
0.3708936870098114,
0.16988609731197357,
-0.2464342564344406,
0.45652642846107483,
-0.19419808685779572,
-0.20967677235603333,
0.6248241066932678,
0.4700687527656555,
-0.4636234641075134,
0.189924418926239,
-0.2589850425720215,
-0.017814727500081062,
-0.5627540349960327,
-0.014866680838167667,
0.014787090010941029,
0.1820746511220932,
0.20222139358520508,
0.16887521743774414,
0.4465824067592621,
-0.7196617722511292,
-0.8927130699157715,
0.20422202348709106,
-0.7805802822113037,
-0.3599211275577545,
-0.3400556445121765,
-0.41775622963905334,
0.6098606586456299,
0.038373079150915146,
0.009895754046738148,
0.4522792100906372,
0.3071548044681549,
0.0226252730935812,
-0.5668917894363403,
0.3508570194244385,
0.121311254799366,
0.2342289686203003,
-0.7066062092781067,
0.39052873849868774,
0.17502696812152863,
0.027310434728860855,
0.11401540786027908,
-0.38670405745506287,
0.1667267084121704,
1.2188031673431396,
-0.13813313841819763,
0.010583418421447277,
-0.2026122659444809,
1.1077120304107666,
-0.6288578510284424,
0.5249729156494141,
-0.4864755868911743,
-0.6117849349975586,
-1.0199217796325684,
0.2306658923625946,
0.3827736973762512,
0.0057040429674088955,
-0.033084508031606674,
-0.35456106066703796,
0.32670602202415466,
-0.13545630872249603,
-0.20505686104297638,
0.7636634707450867,
0.4487651586532593,
-0.04583171382546425,
0.437522292137146,
0.5485561490058899,
0.5621187686920166,
0.7203816175460815,
0.246779203414917,
0.4675840139389038,
-0.3165143132209778,
0.44232189655303955,
-0.06521297991275787,
0.4405133128166199,
-0.04538533464074135,
-0.5074428915977478,
-0.2666921317577362,
0.17903204262256622,
-0.017284991219639778,
0.06660676002502441,
0.15666842460632324,
-0.05026516690850258,
-0.22884789109230042,
-0.9746164083480835,
-0.3930051326751709,
0.24676485359668732,
0.5399894714355469,
0.07002367079257965,
0.4477742314338684,
-0.7361646294593811,
0.5881075263023376,
0.1726435124874115,
0.6172634363174438,
-0.49897533655166626,
-0.4046817123889923,
-1.1543940305709839,
0.2676202058792114,
-0.7165069580078125,
-0.42777955532073975,
-0.7308026552200317,
-0.7096197605133057,
0.7335084080696106,
-0.2510700821876526,
-0.5360024571418762,
0.39167332649230957,
0.31451553106307983,
-0.44455042481422424,
0.3050609230995178,
-0.22673581540584564,
-0.6197630167007446,
0.65056312084198,
-0.07249448448419571,
-0.6457560062408447,
-0.15435118973255157,
-0.6917600631713867,
-0.6077438592910767,
1.3201026916503906,
0.5610277056694031,
-0.030104761943221092,
-0.31020307540893555,
-0.1432909220457077,
0.5968372821807861,
-0.05335848405957222,
0.1511339396238327,
0.22169575095176697,
0.22228537499904633,
-0.43493595719337463,
-0.2776537239551544,
-0.21051540970802307,
0.07145112007856369,
0.3205249309539795,
-0.16237232089042664,
-0.7933623194694519,
-0.8907303810119629,
-0.13447488844394684,
-0.09171535819768906,
-0.042486608028411865,
0.2863796055316925,
-0.2053948938846588,
0.405509889125824,
0.024959390982985497,
-0.563964307308197,
-0.5743452906608582,
-0.07878240942955017,
0.2786067724227905,
-0.06046698987483978,
-0.5575082302093506,
0.356526255607605,
0.4638676047325134,
-0.7108049392700195,
0.68528813123703,
-0.09884582459926605,
-1.0746221542358398,
0.4473464787006378,
0.9707767367362976,
-1.3456937074661255,
0.46046823263168335,
0.1803307682275772,
-0.9379669427871704,
0.01039671991020441,
0.11166201531887054,
-0.12261494249105453,
0.29922446608543396,
0.797290563583374,
-0.6253736615180969,
-0.2871602475643158,
0.02900005504488945,
-0.3040122985839844,
-0.1593431830406189,
0.17853687703609467,
-0.316074013710022,
-0.522309422492981,
0.029732121154665947,
0.1792217344045639,
-1.092694878578186,
0.8155235648155212,
-0.5929082632064819,
-0.09747223556041718,
0.06604553014039993,
0.30209144949913025,
0.26677584648132324,
-0.14660848677158356,
0.5841965675354004,
-0.5409045815467834,
0.5030779242515564,
-0.1043420061469078,
-0.10433196276426315,
0.16587446630001068,
1.4560216665267944,
0.10977395623922348,
-1.016594409942627,
-0.41479411721229553,
0.0360695905983448,
0.2316088229417801,
-0.09327366203069687,
-0.7488998174667358,
0.17016935348510742,
0.671458899974823,
-0.4922375977039337,
-0.4356878399848938,
-0.1831161081790924,
0.9938921928405762,
-0.14258024096488953,
-0.20635482668876648,
0.09210766106843948,
0.04315679892897606,
0.2806204557418823,
0.4786491394042969,
-0.33175426721572876,
-0.30997174978256226,
0.4133335053920746,
0.5471489429473877,
-0.365029513835907,
0.342082142829895,
-0.8410246968269348,
0.3942708671092987,
-1.2249362468719482,
0.020605936646461487,
-0.5054235458374023,
0.04327411204576492,
0.21374478936195374,
-0.44811248779296875,
0.08403944969177246,
0.7143688201904297,
-0.7936228513717651,
-0.2554279565811157,
-0.37805262207984924,
0.2423934042453766,
0.08040347695350647,
-0.015351947396993637,
-0.2626180648803711,
0.44058382511138916,
-0.7224180698394775,
-0.7348037362098694,
-0.014896342530846596,
-1.0479859113693237,
-0.3498844802379608,
-0.3412911891937256,
-0.12812452018260956,
-0.06550849974155426,
-0.2562173306941986,
0.390020489692688,
0.13567690551280975,
0.3406814932823181,
0.11908870190382004,
-0.3214987814426422,
-0.12880820035934448,
-0.6177171468734741,
1.4299637079238892,
-0.6513704061508179,
-0.30483278632164,
0.48321816325187683,
-0.13478730618953705,
0.13588106632232666,
-0.07773369550704956,
-0.20920009911060333,
0.11203238368034363,
-0.106160968542099,
0.32251524925231934,
0.32248395681381226,
0.7134100198745728,
-0.5758858919143677,
0.2628905773162842,
0.5338217616081238,
-0.3922140300273895,
0.2858533263206482,
0.1207091361284256,
-0.16500601172447205,
-0.2850237190723419,
0.6113851070404053,
0.45649421215057373,
-0.2439742535352707,
1.3609668016433716,
-0.398078054189682,
0.24329493939876556,
0.8980717062950134,
-0.10483787953853607,
0.11932720988988876,
-0.7879907488822937,
-0.5834177136421204,
-0.26119861006736755,
-0.6418488621711731,
-0.18963848054409027,
0.12205743044614792,
-0.27570751309394836,
-0.4798680543899536,
0.12797518074512482,
-0.00802296306937933,
0.32689526677131653,
0.3134620785713196,
0.2000112235546112,
-0.17877748608589172,
-0.35135403275489807,
-0.003444717964157462,
-0.21012970805168152,
-0.4074656069278717,
-0.09008034318685532,
-0.39646264910697937,
-0.012175163254141808,
0.05994577705860138,
-0.36501747369766235,
0.4660075902938843,
-0.1131734699010849,
0.028530053794384003,
-0.1794566810131073,
-0.41089963912963867,
-0.86286461353302,
-0.2112475484609604,
0.04217548295855522,
-0.15873956680297852,
0.3737868368625641,
-0.1256788969039917,
-0.6625295281410217,
0.36324065923690796,
-0.29437899589538574,
-0.3440524935722351,
0.33768120408058167,
0.480213463306427,
0.34666261076927185,
0.23336851596832275,
-0.11377567797899246,
0.8428887128829956,
-0.10976126790046692,
0.4367079436779022,
-0.07787328213453293,
-0.034476835280656815,
0.5633550882339478,
0.08593721687793732,
0.6098694205284119,
-0.40221214294433594,
-0.7373471856117249,
0.6179707646369934,
0.19433505833148956,
-0.12194891273975372,
0.8352141380310059,
0.2444194108247757,
-0.2335764318704605,
0.679558515548706,
-0.25895896553993225,
-0.41991615295410156,
0.016847241669893265,
-0.2263086438179016,
0.10954872518777847,
-0.06795655936002731,
0.6720589995384216,
0.6806716322898865,
-0.4902461767196655,
0.5276883244514465,
0.0847429633140564,
0.55655437707901,
-0.1540994644165039,
-0.7073438167572021,
0.6438000798225403,
-0.9141166806221008,
0.36418861150741577,
-0.16464856266975403,
0.31124961376190186,
0.00985649786889553,
0.47064149379730225,
-0.08531981706619263,
0.7184044718742371,
-0.7832045555114746,
0.03609791398048401,
0.7760550379753113,
-0.559361457824707,
0.0462665893137455,
-0.6314100623130798,
0.00312055298127234,
-0.9189968109130859,
0.20606552064418793,
1.0189235210418701,
-0.17182080447673798,
-0.37532174587249756,
-0.07463779300451279,
0.09027626365423203,
-0.3728278577327728,
0.6905948519706726,
0.12509292364120483,
-1.024610161781311,
-0.8786463737487793,
0.3216682970523834,
-0.7813562750816345,
-1.117821455001831,
-0.03430934250354767,
1.5589070320129395,
0.6561518311500549,
-0.6286981701850891,
0.024100976064801216,
-0.36432960629463196,
0.31451380252838135,
0.015114540234208107,
-2.1426985263824463,
0.04261872172355652,
-0.7126755714416504,
-1.2143902778625488,
-0.209562286734581,
0.39096376299858093,
0.14656272530555725,
-0.10365758091211319,
-0.23241473734378815,
-0.22422537207603455,
-0.25893527269363403,
-0.2256886214017868,
0.6179823279380798,
-0.6329746842384338,
0.09219962358474731,
0.16513389348983765
] |
200138
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpress
|
Interpress
|
Interpress is a page description language developed at Xerox PARC, based on the Forth programming language and an earlier graphics language called JaM. PARC was unable to commercialize Interpress. Two of its creators, Chuck Geschke and John Warnock, left Xerox, formed Adobe Systems, and produced a similar language called PostScript. Interpress is used in some Xerox printers most notable was the DocuTech Network Production Publisher, and is supported in Xerox Ventura Publisher. Interpress is also used as the output format for PARC's InterScript system, which is an editable word processor format for rich text documents.
Interpress describes the desired or ideal appearance of a document that has been completely composed by some other process (emitter). All line ending, hyphenation, and line justification decisions, and in fact all decisions about the shapes and positions of the images, are made before creating the master. Since Interpress describes a document in a device-independent manner, a master can be printed on a variety of devices, each of which renders its best approximation to the ideal represented by the master.
Functional Sets
Interpess is so extensive, some printer manufacturers may prefer to support only a part of it, perhaps to reduce development time and cost or to improve performance. Recognizing this and also the potential for chaos if every printer were to implement a different portion of the language, Interpress was designed to have defined three standard function sets:
Commercial Set
designed for text and form-printing applications, such as might be required in a data center using basic text or scanned images.
Publication Set
includes all the Commercial Set plus curved lines, filled outlines, rectangular clipping, synthetic graphics, and gray-level color capabilities.
Professional Graphics Set
consist of all of the imaging facilities (types, literals, and operators of the base language), full-color encoding, and Printing Instructions (which were expanded by Ernest L. Legg)
Printing Instructions
This feature set allows the ability to instruct the printer which media to use (paper size, type, color), number of copies, sides printed on as well as finishing actions such as stapling. These instructions are optional and their operation is dependent on the printer capability.
Example
A more complex structure would include Nested Blocks and CONTENTINSTRUCTIONS, a token used to distinguish content-instructions bodies from page bodies. In general, the content instructions are given precedence over the document instructions. Nested Blocks {BEGIN..END} allow for constructing large documents out of smaller ones.
Fonts
These are definitions that often found in the preamble since they usually apply to the entire document.
References
External links
A Usenet post from 1985 describing the history of Interpress and comparing it with PostScript
http://www.daube.ch/docu/pdl02.html
http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/xns/standards/XSIG_038306_Introduction_to_Interpress_Jun1983.pdf
Computer printing
Concatenative programming languages
Digital press
Digital typography
Page description languages
Stack-based virtual machines
Stack-oriented programming languages
Technical communication
Vector graphics
Xerox
|
[
-0.09978185594081879,
0.21533262729644775,
0.30044424533843994,
0.21321725845336914,
-0.21972380578517914,
0.16331413388252258,
-0.3561888635158539,
0.4455608129501343,
-0.023618459701538086,
-0.9367843270301819,
-0.15992650389671326,
0.33161503076553345,
-0.8520471453666687,
-0.09515538811683655,
0.6537781953811646,
-0.21560341119766235,
-0.2675321400165558,
0.7302277684211731,
-0.5910724401473999,
-0.6139839291572571,
0.06347440183162689,
-0.4326052665710449,
-0.36382803320884705,
-0.7946738004684448,
0.5407239198684692,
0.15779654681682587,
-0.02269766479730606,
-0.20897987484931946,
-0.09478215873241425,
0.031404174864292145,
0.15846312046051025,
0.16205953061580658,
-0.12860842049121857,
-0.3287566304206848,
-0.416567862033844,
-0.46935945749282837,
-0.30697381496429443,
0.4019254148006439,
-0.2248518019914627,
-0.6885871291160583,
0.028520116582512856,
-0.1910254806280136,
0.4191710352897644,
-0.2135957032442093,
0.258603036403656,
-0.17867706716060638,
-1.793224573135376,
0.3199091851711273,
-1.000573992729187,
0.10895498842000961,
-0.7828389406204224,
0.739483118057251,
0.19692334532737732,
0.48887690901756287,
0.16278915107250214,
0.22989016771316528,
-0.7161645293235779,
-0.3799353837966919,
0.5673726201057434,
-0.24289292097091675,
0.31887495517730713,
0.24557863175868988,
0.002992476336658001,
0.006302155088633299,
0.10002345591783524,
0.052050404250621796,
-0.3117183446884155,
0.11776985973119736,
-0.38123390078544617,
-0.5387733578681946,
0.5390201210975647,
-0.3968748152256012,
0.2050248682498932,
0.2652294337749481,
0.20604433119297028,
0.010272997431457043,
-0.054540831595659256,
-0.25919610261917114,
0.03194934129714966,
0.6416414976119995,
-0.024904893711209297,
1.1647148132324219,
0.8300963044166565,
-0.18573325872421265,
0.6559774279594421,
-0.14709654450416565,
-0.6036517024040222,
0.40687528252601624,
-0.268219918012619,
0.17267504334449768,
-0.005417791660875082,
-0.3298116624355316,
0.5194563865661621,
0.40674886107444763,
0.7458135485649109,
-0.32323265075683594,
-0.27138251066207886,
-0.040139421820640564,
-0.3618704080581665,
0.27925756573677063,
-0.22632531821727753,
0.5509745478630066,
0.025165805593132973,
-0.315923273563385,
-0.5203813314437866,
0.04142415151000023,
-0.586113452911377,
-0.7103139162063599,
0.4503014385700226,
-0.004516496788710356,
0.23075897991657257,
-0.27136215567588806,
-0.021694408729672432,
-0.17450061440467834,
0.0003594829177018255,
0.15922708809375763,
0.2598928213119507,
0.12285102903842926,
0.5300471782684326,
0.08376167714595795,
0.19972144067287445,
0.8299802541732788,
0.3126875162124634,
0.049673426896333694,
-0.2985404431819916,
0.33481988310813904,
0.2464737743139267,
0.45087793469429016,
-0.304760217666626,
0.32326140999794006,
-0.0004365497443359345,
0.9810125231742859,
0.241342693567276,
-0.20167937874794006,
0.030478186905384064,
-0.30392521619796753,
0.7023627161979675,
-0.19303904473781586,
-0.26782774925231934,
-0.031908147037029266,
0.13313841819763184,
-0.14127133786678314,
-0.32455509901046753,
-0.4331907629966736,
0.2037191390991211,
-0.22653263807296753,
-0.03418055549263954,
-0.43443405628204346,
0.00979562383145094,
-0.41451194882392883,
-0.17396323382854462,
-0.2534339427947998,
-0.025538887828588486,
0.15079571306705475,
-0.09061675518751144,
0.8705966472625732,
0.42352598905563354,
-0.2481888085603714,
0.23316819965839386,
-0.2824840545654297,
-0.03239919990301132,
0.8132239580154419,
-0.3465840220451355,
-0.367136687040329,
-0.39686575531959534,
-0.07171379774808884,
-0.061637993901968,
0.21094995737075806,
0.44709518551826477,
0.2747575342655182,
-0.16407917439937592,
0.346456378698349,
0.10730313509702682,
0.4012598693370819,
0.2729097604751587,
0.4292137026786804,
1.030796766281128,
0.6562250256538391,
0.09235932677984238,
-0.006529774982482195,
-0.5573791265487671,
-0.2021763175725937,
0.04411294683814049,
0.0037826630286872387,
0.4828440546989441,
-0.059004202485084534,
0.5540664792060852,
-0.12630271911621094,
-0.19539757072925568,
-0.2135259360074997,
-0.8408754467964172,
-0.39903971552848816,
0.07651148736476898,
-0.5455447435379028,
1.170392394065857,
-0.17716258764266968,
-0.6732046604156494,
0.8724329471588135,
0.1722630262374878,
0.7565548419952393,
-0.1278407722711563,
0.24831321835517883,
0.7927037477493286,
-0.4167355000972748,
-0.037007708102464676,
-0.03477109223604202,
-0.020755691453814507,
0.12052402645349503,
-0.9409409165382385,
0.4668216109275818,
0.32787463068962097,
-0.2511681914329529,
0.4456482529640198,
-0.005138704087585211,
0.016862573102116585,
-0.43948566913604736,
-0.3102753460407257,
0.14590148627758026,
-0.2544831931591034,
0.27582988142967224,
1.158848524093628,
-0.3840187191963196,
-0.2092568725347519,
0.6249428391456604,
-0.8019458651542664,
0.4027065634727478,
0.3577529489994049,
0.20410487055778503,
1.030813217163086,
-0.38788720965385437,
-0.12316783517599106,
-0.44062089920043945,
0.09008114039897919,
-0.7038353681564331,
-0.3559108376502991,
-0.12984949350357056,
0.18093973398208618,
-0.34425732493400574,
0.17028053104877472,
0.0055926586501300335,
0.405632346868515,
0.16127654910087585,
-0.27678507566452026,
-0.21617825329303741,
0.340596079826355,
-0.1686612218618393,
-0.13139966130256653,
0.3455547094345093,
0.06662730127573013,
0.3795146942138672,
0.4625738561153412,
0.5892126560211182,
-0.33418703079223633,
-0.38200169801712036,
0.04192357137799263,
0.36519309878349304,
0.013286675326526165,
0.39866310358047485,
-0.1382492333650589,
0.9849603176116943,
-0.2161736786365509,
-0.28651973605155945,
-0.33751294016838074,
0.2683723270893097,
-0.22319673001766205,
-1.2337956428527832,
-0.1740039736032486,
-0.1467665731906891,
-0.005982183385640383,
0.18180407583713531,
0.2758186459541321,
-0.396730899810791,
-0.1886371374130249,
0.11884584277868271,
-0.2763863801956177,
-0.478975385427475,
0.07220456749200821,
0.16240684688091278,
-0.6099769473075867,
-0.5236714482307434,
-0.03538837656378746,
0.15353721380233765,
0.4392828941345215,
-0.07218769937753677,
-0.09643281996250153,
-0.09458335489034653,
0.2061944454908371,
-0.6046802401542664,
-0.7727261781692505,
-0.4183809757232666,
-0.15588095784187317,
0.13765862584114075,
-0.05783549323678017,
0.4255102574825287,
0.36292728781700134,
0.5164191722869873,
0.3463454246520996,
0.23967228829860687,
0.19511596858501434,
-0.33694198727607727,
0.08215560764074326,
0.7589396238327026,
-0.27733075618743896,
-0.40088358521461487,
0.47698524594306946,
-0.17601992189884186,
-0.11085271835327148,
-0.3668852150440216,
-5.704527854919434,
0.4492361545562744,
-0.14958199858665466,
-0.3265543282032013,
-0.4687884449958801,
-0.1254587471485138,
0.29832369089126587,
-0.5036567449569702,
0.18713520467281342,
0.33821770548820496,
-0.09134215116500854,
0.48186182975769043,
0.06311257183551788,
0.056988105177879333,
0.3707180619239807,
1.0004584789276123,
-0.004688368644565344,
0.17351360619068146,
0.061894528567790985,
0.17744340002536774,
-0.22185666859149933,
-0.23776468634605408,
0.1642015129327774,
0.45067527890205383,
0.45647913217544556,
-0.13440094888210297,
-0.5916016697883606,
-0.08286339789628983,
0.08361499756574631,
0.26470381021499634,
0.43589067459106445,
-0.11922961473464966,
-0.08473961800336838,
-0.18639929592609406,
-0.518240749835968,
-0.1635591834783554,
1.1614271402359009,
0.22802022099494934,
0.218727707862854,
-0.8015304207801819,
0.15468339622020721,
0.7245783805847168,
0.1884198635816574,
-0.6775840520858765,
0.2924043834209442,
-0.4222323000431061,
-0.5275399088859558,
-0.024780550971627235,
-0.006681365426629782,
0.8603547811508179,
-0.6061437726020813,
-0.08474471420049667,
-0.2040860503911972,
0.13295751810073853,
0.10126477479934692,
0.05724737420678139,
0.1532481461763382,
-0.28056105971336365,
-0.8540853261947632,
0.08455777168273926,
0.7224166393280029,
-0.8236086368560791,
-0.6636760234832764,
-0.5975193381309509,
-0.10358315706253052,
-0.3809592127799988,
-0.4611956477165222,
-0.10296274721622467,
0.2981968820095062,
0.10102280974388123,
-0.09520748257637024,
0.15439890325069427,
-0.2595619857311249,
-0.9274650812149048,
-0.11638056486845016,
-0.559698760509491,
0.25887686014175415,
-0.03966229781508446,
-0.3361774981021881,
0.26795080304145813,
0.18062207102775574,
-0.24239765107631683,
-0.20206592977046967,
0.3341216742992401,
-0.30795833468437195,
-0.07315059751272202,
-0.2525485157966614,
-0.06902462244033813,
-0.51038658618927,
0.250823974609375,
0.7150138020515442,
-0.5517188310623169,
-0.3122677206993103,
0.06635256111621857,
0.23553204536437988,
-0.32776838541030884,
0.5424541234970093,
0.3943328857421875,
0.21943439543247223,
-0.24765759706497192,
0.5279906392097473,
-0.19363345205783844,
0.15405283868312836,
-0.7345688939094543,
0.28257596492767334,
0.07419075071811676,
-0.5296478271484375,
-0.04007262736558914,
0.688201367855072,
0.3568379878997803,
-0.42156103253364563,
0.38395509123802185,
-0.006399751175194979,
-0.29032713174819946,
0.4266126751899719,
0.6287451982498169,
-0.12527456879615784,
0.10221382230520248,
-0.14080362021923065,
-0.2329745590686798,
-0.4844508171081543,
0.2877661883831024,
-0.08442262560129166,
-0.029908420518040657,
-0.35666707158088684,
-0.25175997614860535,
0.29067307710647583,
0.35809025168418884,
-0.13553957641124725,
-0.5338245034217834,
-0.07840282469987869,
-0.21585965156555176,
0.15400387346744537,
-0.19920723140239716,
-0.3170280456542969,
-0.7807890176773071,
-0.3033575415611267,
0.22743655741214752,
0.6443102359771729,
-0.44873473048210144,
0.1796785145998001,
-0.01607559062540531,
-0.04254594072699547,
-0.2019970864057541,
0.6665149331092834,
0.2819330096244812,
-0.4744541049003601,
-0.21655994653701782,
-0.5527194142341614,
0.19143515825271606,
0.12287850677967072,
-0.5768582224845886,
-0.216207817196846,
0.18018335103988647,
-0.3745036721229553,
-0.02245052345097065,
-0.07928493618965149,
0.48996302485466003,
0.3667987585067749,
-0.38240528106689453,
0.3171781003475189,
0.5030470490455627,
-1.1837338209152222,
-0.17911182343959808,
0.6828683018684387,
-0.47776710987091064,
0.04718947410583496,
-0.6184131503105164,
-0.6154906153678894,
0.1755865216255188,
0.08655533939599991,
-0.3699408769607544,
-0.11266236007213593,
-0.4481462836265564,
0.4465666115283966,
0.20395004749298096,
0.00536442082375288,
-0.29773491621017456,
0.2940797805786133,
0.5703327059745789,
0.0006921933963894844,
-0.45640912652015686,
0.12056959420442581,
0.40105491876602173,
0.03007260337471962,
-0.6263503432273865,
0.0763801783323288,
-0.16782158613204956,
-0.4161842167377472,
-0.5659171342849731,
-0.04407970979809761,
0.3549351692199707,
0.007763751316815615,
-0.039145465940237045,
-0.18363909423351288,
-0.5233270525932312,
-0.08510769158601761,
0.28059399127960205,
0.10529842227697372,
-1.0009346008300781,
-0.15961997210979462,
0.4223460257053375,
-0.23242338001728058,
0.547288715839386,
-0.10375016927719116,
-0.29854071140289307,
0.08220485597848892,
0.0034180874936282635,
-0.27605655789375305,
0.21501818299293518,
-0.16377979516983032,
-0.3155893087387085,
-0.12555226683616638,
-0.2521333396434784,
0.06669038534164429,
0.72535240650177,
0.35750576853752136,
-0.4644293785095215,
-0.42694196105003357,
-0.37954264879226685,
-0.2233140766620636,
0.14935879409313202,
-0.5241729021072388,
-0.12385544180870056,
-0.698202908039093,
0.8446871042251587,
0.4973808825016022,
-0.38875314593315125,
0.5913676023483276,
0.013554396107792854,
0.11727303266525269,
0.03040199726819992,
0.09690260142087936,
0.5705528855323792,
-0.1457509994506836,
-0.1761038452386856,
-0.5527128577232361,
-0.17978495359420776,
0.3276945948600769,
-0.2723735570907593,
0.3336729109287262,
0.39265286922454834,
-0.08511114120483398,
-0.38622769713401794,
-0.3148556053638458,
0.10019685328006744,
-0.04145493358373642,
-0.4465945363044739,
-0.7592934966087341,
-0.0175256859511137,
0.2553979456424713,
-0.6416541337966919,
-0.26811888813972473,
-0.2611912190914154,
0.9989395141601562,
0.1187046691775322,
-0.3068932890892029,
0.25492823123931885,
-0.5416516661643982,
0.13202235102653503,
0.26863062381744385,
-0.47408461570739746,
-0.31674060225486755,
0.5053117871284485,
0.3113514184951782,
0.1638307422399521,
0.3500928580760956,
-0.7386986017227173,
0.20830608904361725,
-0.6483615040779114,
0.28169623017311096,
-0.15347865223884583,
0.16952884197235107,
0.4496613144874573,
0.02415069192647934,
-0.38673844933509827,
0.14023834466934204,
-0.2212333381175995,
0.26875039935112,
0.01721302419900894,
-0.5822480320930481,
-0.042235393077135086,
0.2091955691576004,
-0.42794662714004517,
0.3638474643230438,
-0.6096253991127014,
0.12917068600654602,
-0.25051698088645935,
-0.1315130740404129,
0.4668969511985779,
-0.30076470971107483,
0.8042704463005066,
-0.007790947332978249,
-0.05099166929721832,
-0.15890543162822723,
-0.07879471033811569,
0.053321029990911484,
-0.11854343861341476,
-0.33144399523735046,
-0.10359244793653488,
-0.5168781280517578,
0.7642880082130432,
0.4997697174549103,
-1.1596840620040894,
0.4369984567165375,
-0.02688879892230034,
-0.18317314982414246,
0.16676391661167145,
-0.27892962098121643,
0.3218492865562439,
0.0512242391705513,
-0.1445768028497696,
0.12253258377313614,
0.028429746627807617,
-0.19662320613861084,
0.21457549929618835,
0.7832638621330261,
-0.24115529656410217,
0.7546254396438599,
0.10857417434453964,
0.11120579391717911,
0.3606199622154236,
0.1738600730895996,
0.011149833910167217,
-0.458699494600296,
0.8082083463668823,
-0.08750057965517044,
-0.030162448063492775,
0.07498544454574585,
-0.13491091132164001,
0.45919355750083923,
-0.130353182554245,
-0.4831923544406891,
-0.09306748956441879,
-0.02337314561009407,
-0.6637876629829407,
0.23317557573318481,
-0.02629069611430168,
-0.4690786302089691,
0.41868337988853455,
0.5072422623634338,
0.7985595464706421,
-0.19848087430000305,
-0.29409563541412354,
-0.6961285471916199,
0.26385465264320374,
0.07688464969396591,
0.6965174674987793,
0.020719265565276146,
0.4999372959136963,
0.008366742171347141,
-0.028707092627882957,
-0.049630306661129,
0.02249535731971264,
-0.19912995398044586,
-0.5178251266479492,
-0.029800862073898315,
0.11903347820043564,
-0.01760566234588623,
-0.057997725903987885,
-0.12025731056928635,
0.9393782019615173,
0.5278117656707764,
-0.24793200194835663,
-0.40389785170555115,
0.47203513979911804,
0.7918132543563843,
-0.21966338157653809,
0.23001940548419952,
0.13770896196365356,
-0.2437216192483902,
0.7264872789382935,
-0.3278234302997589,
0.7819092273712158,
-0.37777233123779297,
-0.17502251267433167,
0.8606734275817871,
0.29660564661026,
-0.20901678502559662,
0.3107174336910248,
-0.2846260666847229,
-0.2675120532512665,
0.08222992718219757,
-0.2704058587551117,
0.4825611412525177,
-0.08947072178125381,
0.13361600041389465,
0.5418400764465332,
0.1988469362258911,
-0.11887665838003159,
-0.2152024209499359,
-0.19558481872081757,
0.13850612938404083,
0.29957664012908936,
0.49730056524276733,
-0.07360763847827911,
-0.6137927174568176,
1.1615551710128784,
-0.20361191034317017,
-0.27089905738830566,
0.15637342631816864,
-0.015327543951570988,
0.4172808825969696,
-0.39452311396598816,
0.0469546876847744,
0.125141903758049,
-0.4689071476459503,
-0.027171483263373375,
-1.177305817604065,
0.06941526383161545,
0.6430831551551819,
0.34488508105278015,
-0.2250620275735855,
-0.28131338953971863,
-0.5036984086036682,
0.5751113891601562,
0.5095616579055786,
-0.14925925433635712,
0.33093535900115967,
-0.04641431197524071,
-0.08574895560741425,
0.13773946464061737,
0.44421494007110596,
0.41471248865127563,
-0.20882940292358398,
0.09661934524774551,
0.5012696981430054,
0.16642199456691742,
-0.0037604505196213722,
0.7032899260520935,
0.2995191216468811,
-0.20998384058475494,
-0.265342116355896,
0.7859748005867004,
-0.1264740377664566,
0.10109484940767288,
-0.8171023726463318,
0.8749285340309143,
0.1850980818271637,
-0.34878867864608765,
-0.21565182507038116,
0.03888191655278206,
-0.14260365068912506,
0.08886145055294037,
-0.3799198865890503,
0.2327357679605484,
-0.4768460690975189,
-0.4540676772594452,
-0.5185880661010742,
0.3370959758758545,
0.5003747940063477,
-0.41706594824790955,
-0.07029031217098236,
-0.10054311901330948,
0.35930564999580383,
0.6852571964263916,
-0.08931772410869598,
-0.8854367733001709,
0.05678968504071236,
0.27446210384368896
] |
200139
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huperzia%20porophila
|
Huperzia porophila
|
Huperzia porophila, the rock clubmoss or rock firmoss, grows throughout the Appalachian province of the Eastern United States and central Canada, from Ontario south to Georgia and Alabama. It is rare east of the Appalachians, being most common in a north–south belt along the western plateau area.
Huperzia porophila grows only on or over rock and requires cool, moist, shaded, acid spots. It is a beautiful sight growing over boulders and outcrops. It is often confused with the shining firmoss (Huperzia lucidula) whose range it largely shares and which also often grows on rocks. The rock firmoss leaves, 3–8 mm long, are generally not shiny like those of the shining firmoss, and the ascending 12–15 cm stems are seldom branched. Unlike H. lucidula, it only grows as individual plants and not as dense colonies. One of the best sites for viewing this species is in the Hocking Hills in southeast Ohio.
This species is of hybrid origin, the parents being Huperzia lucidula and Huperzia selago.
H. porophila hybridizes with H. lucidula to produce the sterile hybrid H. × bartleyi.
References
External links
NRCS: United States Department of Agriculture Plants Profile: Huperzia porophila
porophila
Firmoss, Rock
Plants described in 1900
Flora of Ontario
|
[
-0.6328991055488586,
0.7416219115257263,
-0.16460825502872467,
-0.5894502997398376,
-0.13002058863639832,
0.3396115303039551,
0.35555827617645264,
0.5367519855499268,
-0.015170569531619549,
0.14375261962413788,
-0.21217870712280273,
-0.5231015086174011,
-0.7540253400802612,
0.5389202237129211,
-0.34468814730644226,
0.644487738609314,
0.3452330529689789,
1.1205381155014038,
0.07546216249465942,
-0.06736340373754501,
0.2049407958984375,
-0.7746294140815735,
0.3560296893119812,
-0.47336268424987793,
0.41767337918281555,
-0.5413892269134521,
0.789648711681366,
-0.19066984951496124,
0.5273972749710083,
0.07127588242292404,
-0.28497985005378723,
0.8758333325386047,
0.624969482421875,
-0.46256527304649353,
0.6293464303016663,
0.5792532563209534,
0.9955054521560669,
-0.18436583876609802,
0.3157930076122284,
-0.5655704140663147,
0.7292793989181519,
-0.25835245847702026,
1.155396580696106,
0.33383771777153015,
-0.053230177611112595,
-0.17457593977451324,
-1.2645461559295654,
1.273454189300537,
-1.1460647583007812,
-0.12859109044075012,
-0.06380558013916016,
0.3136703073978424,
1.5572807788848877,
-0.18318861722946167,
0.025946466252207756,
1.0506268739700317,
-1.3174203634262085,
0.18693852424621582,
0.6926840543746948,
-0.1182827353477478,
-0.8704391717910767,
0.47470733523368835,
0.018196716904640198,
-0.27964547276496887,
0.7759135365486145,
0.6108660697937012,
-0.13564161956310272,
0.7838488817214966,
-0.8861554861068726,
0.07946036756038666,
-0.9478291869163513,
-0.2907285988330841,
0.5033349394798279,
0.02458689920604229,
-0.06374505162239075,
0.7958695292472839,
-0.5393823981285095,
0.33857664465904236,
0.4461905360221863,
0.0859433189034462,
0.050998058170080185,
0.11812089383602142,
0.7193005681037903,
0.05390486493706703,
0.34219181537628174,
-0.004915602970868349,
-1.0399701595306396,
0.12502896785736084,
-0.3369470238685608,
0.7041685581207275,
-1.0239561796188354,
-0.10065165162086487,
0.17299020290374756,
0.6632788181304932,
0.07133808732032776,
-0.06985493749380112,
-0.5309769511222839,
0.11412709206342697,
-0.0034631183370947838,
0.6400145292282104,
-0.23663868010044098,
0.5848943591117859,
0.37008559703826904,
0.10249663889408112,
-0.8542264699935913,
0.8207329511642456,
-0.574621856212616,
-0.5336578488349915,
0.13206946849822998,
0.260466068983078,
-0.3133072257041931,
0.9581305384635925,
-0.36861589550971985,
0.09690229594707489,
-0.7051618695259094,
1.199361801147461,
0.1299085021018982,
-0.3609124720096588,
-0.3099342882633209,
-0.23756588995456696,
-0.04171916842460632,
0.587251603603363,
-0.47317084670066833,
0.16554786264896393,
-0.7798364162445068,
0.6087149381637573,
-0.4200426936149597,
0.49643853306770325,
-0.3550890386104584,
0.5826784372329712,
0.002443726174533367,
0.8050407767295837,
-0.05232134833931923,
-0.14028899371623993,
-0.07442476600408554,
-0.34677889943122864,
0.14279057085514069,
0.12600485980510712,
1.0790058374404907,
0.4673326313495636,
-1.1211457252502441,
-0.3702387809753418,
-0.5185156464576721,
0.2041190266609192,
0.15267521142959595,
0.41021913290023804,
-0.10824309289455414,
-0.596926212310791,
-0.1455121785402298,
-0.5158336162567139,
0.7330083250999451,
-0.09822148829698563,
0.005877235438674688,
-0.04214758053421974,
-0.7037719488143921,
0.01763366535305977,
0.5080463886260986,
-0.48766931891441345,
0.919455885887146,
0.07219664007425308,
-0.2727568447589874,
-0.07263358682394028,
-0.32888534665107727,
-0.2020639032125473,
0.2820497155189514,
0.2877899408340454,
0.6041379570960999,
-0.05131443217396736,
-0.5123314261436462,
1.2894097566604614,
-0.536548376083374,
-0.10553604364395142,
0.7832725644111633,
-0.19427166879177094,
0.4036274552345276,
0.07783306390047073,
0.205992192029953,
0.1507216840982437,
0.7494347095489502,
-0.2931816577911377,
-0.7406966686248779,
0.8944194912910461,
0.4906107187271118,
0.22790959477424622,
0.11419881135225296,
-0.12385118007659912,
0.5661407709121704,
0.48638400435447693,
0.3443218469619751,
-0.345697283744812,
-0.617352306842804,
-0.6214368939399719,
0.1373814344406128,
0.03553817793726921,
1.1106395721435547,
0.44606664776802063,
-0.2426929920911789,
-0.12556375563144684,
0.7317846417427063,
0.548889696598053,
-0.4543898403644562,
-0.30355697870254517,
0.6096682548522949,
-0.7685994505882263,
-1.5913267135620117,
0.64930260181427,
0.16710598766803741,
-0.2965846657752991,
0.5860463976860046,
-0.33337920904159546,
0.18502508103847504,
-0.6052902340888977,
0.8367930054664612,
-0.44383400678634644,
0.036271609365940094,
-0.4219256043434143,
-0.09442134201526642,
0.5156437754631042,
-0.2531951665878296,
-0.330422043800354,
0.9073113203048706,
-0.34247827529907227,
-0.10798610001802444,
0.7453004121780396,
-0.5985974073410034,
0.11112291365861893,
0.5783276557922363,
-0.2262951135635376,
0.40283751487731934,
-0.00413049291819334,
0.17640680074691772,
-0.22941340506076813,
-0.16074465215206146,
-0.8418979048728943,
-0.3654114902019501,
-0.21810628473758698,
0.167871356010437,
-0.727534830570221,
0.4970526695251465,
-0.23375535011291504,
-0.10493313521146774,
0.3365383744239807,
-0.8746957182884216,
-0.005688983481377363,
0.23761926591396332,
-0.055374063551425934,
0.33834683895111084,
-0.2876381278038025,
-0.13264848291873932,
0.4890393614768982,
0.22377456724643707,
0.8639106154441833,
0.17941920459270477,
-0.31347256898880005,
0.13985931873321533,
0.462642103433609,
0.29966142773628235,
0.4157632887363434,
0.08683988451957703,
-0.2536556124687195,
-0.0757753923535347,
-0.40111419558525085,
-0.15666727721691132,
0.2680535912513733,
-0.04557459428906441,
-0.4238061010837555,
-0.14931343495845795,
0.11390113830566406,
0.2548331916332245,
-0.5540273785591125,
0.14212800562381744,
-0.405542254447937,
-0.9672732353210449,
0.17959502339363098,
-0.5266485810279846,
0.2069092094898224,
-1.373314619064331,
-0.469293475151062,
-1.3118183612823486,
-0.1319846659898758,
0.4419710338115692,
1.20052969455719,
0.14919018745422363,
-0.8578361868858337,
0.059776995331048965,
-0.22606047987937927,
0.8820486664772034,
0.35225263237953186,
-0.1390998214483261,
-0.7766249775886536,
-0.21832618117332458,
0.07516203075647354,
-0.3844517469406128,
0.6479101777076721,
-0.33963996171951294,
0.6049969792366028,
0.09697771072387695,
0.8049418330192566,
0.6966787576675415,
-0.18618500232696533,
-0.2126447856426239,
-0.36992889642715454,
-0.033323850482702255,
-0.3457772433757782,
-0.16280429065227509,
-0.0012902556918561459,
-0.0170150063931942,
-0.4943074882030487,
-3.7283718585968018,
0.9657518267631531,
-0.7305517196655273,
0.3370402455329895,
0.4839446544647217,
-0.4180885851383209,
-0.21117225289344788,
-0.45149290561676025,
-0.6659238338470459,
-0.3365861177444458,
-0.20333123207092285,
0.14703944325447083,
-0.34109991788864136,
0.42694002389907837,
0.5934742093086243,
0.5467275381088257,
0.19778048992156982,
-0.08234723657369614,
0.26273173093795776,
-0.18869712948799133,
-0.1434520184993744,
0.28766298294067383,
0.015604129061102867,
0.166180819272995,
0.1024540513753891,
0.1454528570175171,
0.09203650802373886,
-0.4118921458721161,
-0.5420267581939697,
0.20044247806072235,
0.02676856517791748,
-0.5846863985061646,
0.030226849019527435,
-0.15789669752120972,
-0.6213838458061218,
-0.0031425682827830315,
-0.018918106332421303,
-0.33361175656318665,
0.0049027325585484505,
-0.8699679970741272,
-0.49996548891067505,
0.021828798577189445,
-0.29090526700019836,
0.09745622426271439,
0.9957943558692932,
-0.03660484775900841,
-0.026083828881382942,
-0.29655560851097107,
-0.20884224772453308,
1.2776827812194824,
0.24915502965450287,
0.0810699462890625,
0.7189555168151855,
0.42240655422210693,
-0.11167041212320328,
0.35890069603919983,
0.5935217142105103,
-0.3690818250179291,
-0.5449154376983643,
0.02242758870124817,
0.36812925338745117,
0.0655105859041214,
-0.23071756958961487,
-0.5368196964263916,
0.17517611384391785,
-1.0191365480422974,
-0.33277612924575806,
0.8934000134468079,
0.576455295085907,
-0.051176607608795166,
0.6028380990028381,
0.537010133266449,
-0.10595760494470596,
-1.038288950920105,
0.010068022646009922,
-0.8036355972290039,
-0.13117767870426178,
0.0356249138712883,
-0.628688395023346,
0.9373369812965393,
0.30536141991615295,
0.2629017233848572,
-0.5602445602416992,
0.1814194917678833,
-0.2525043487548828,
-0.44857704639434814,
0.3734196722507477,
0.33530616760253906,
-1.2890154123306274,
-0.7591918110847473,
0.13239923119544983,
-0.7670978903770447,
0.32734429836273193,
0.07761690765619278,
0.1651829034090042,
0.5835917592048645,
1.3535975217819214,
0.40213263034820557,
0.4744071364402771,
-1.015856385231018,
0.7143238186836243,
-0.6445146203041077,
-0.1791830062866211,
-0.5441580414772034,
0.33075809478759766,
-0.4259297847747803,
-0.2665063142776489,
0.8184802532196045,
1.0667017698287964,
0.36915770173072815,
0.7769117951393127,
-0.18786881864070892,
-0.6087249517440796,
-0.8071520328521729,
0.8632991909980774,
-0.10349097102880478,
-0.4300224781036377,
-0.0021694889292120934,
1.2232037782669067,
-0.09583000093698502,
0.3121679127216339,
0.494873970746994,
-0.1325502097606659,
-0.07724828273057938,
-0.25185418128967285,
-0.200331449508667,
0.1015792191028595,
-0.3738384544849396,
-1.0097508430480957,
-0.2745461165904999,
-0.15892615914344788,
-0.2731931805610657,
-0.6911523342132568,
0.2184986174106598,
-0.4859672486782074,
-0.269962877035141,
-0.5350381135940552,
0.21396802365779877,
-0.2063596248626709,
-0.04297681897878647,
-0.12338695675134659,
0.21981899440288544,
-0.328718364238739,
0.14389638602733612,
0.5120537877082825,
1.267581582069397,
-0.28209546208381653,
0.2892128527164459,
-0.8265035152435303,
0.5212276577949524,
-0.04309442266821861,
-1.0516650676727295,
-0.4632130265235901,
-1.662866473197937,
0.6196401715278625,
0.4646504819393158,
-0.3592698276042938,
0.5125063061714172,
0.43428269028663635,
-1.0745799541473389,
-0.18961657583713531,
0.1541660726070404,
-0.6916651725769043,
-0.2242768257856369,
0.08274922519922256,
-0.8390812873840332,
0.14691762626171112,
-0.5606299042701721,
-0.9072737097740173,
0.8683972358703613,
-0.17552202939987183,
0.8116726875305176,
-0.762241005897522,
-0.3590851426124573,
0.5704774260520935,
0.1669769436120987,
-0.2796576917171478,
-0.020734472200274467,
0.5642712712287903,
-0.18429379165172577,
-1.1133322715759277,
-0.3678269386291504,
-0.26484400033950806,
0.19522559642791748,
0.5334877967834473,
-0.7921556830406189,
-0.4393801689147949,
-0.5993728041648865,
-0.314138799905777,
0.010381529107689857,
0.16857106983661652,
0.2710702121257782,
0.3600965142250061,
0.045695941895246506,
-0.23875084519386292,
-0.709499716758728,
-0.10199858993291855,
1.0296881198883057,
-0.6657640933990479,
-1.6272459030151367,
0.5484423637390137,
0.2558572590351105,
-0.6006699204444885,
0.4847843647003174,
0.29449549317359924,
-0.7097423076629639,
1.4135147333145142,
0.16192705929279327,
-1.323382019996643,
0.639998733997345,
0.4190535247325897,
-0.6714839935302734,
-0.6238606572151184,
0.05174402520060539,
-0.5457335114479065,
-0.26896458864212036,
0.023259993642568588,
0.3152678310871124,
-0.6885895729064941,
-0.13771401345729828,
0.12658387422561646,
-0.8743506073951721,
0.21613149344921112,
-0.5296858549118042,
-0.4278494715690613,
-0.10072315484285355,
0.010013516992330551,
0.5199400186538696,
0.876909613609314,
-0.34137940406799316,
-0.035507600754499435,
-0.3229633569717407,
1.0970295667648315,
0.44880151748657227,
0.011724469251930714,
0.31944572925567627,
-0.38674256205558777,
0.23211398720741272,
0.023762648925185204,
0.5883369445800781,
0.6019832491874695,
0.7654795050621033,
0.04337596520781517,
-0.2783240079879761,
-0.2809327244758606,
0.29521864652633667,
0.5834717154502869,
0.41289082169532776,
-0.9664246439933777,
-0.6745796799659729,
0.7986788153648376,
-0.2011265605688095,
-0.9495860934257507,
0.17743736505508423,
1.2454975843429565,
-0.8375102877616882,
0.10312138497829437,
-0.11663100123405457,
-0.23523631691932678,
-0.09008832275867462,
0.2007916420698166,
0.3225855231285095,
-0.10824362933635712,
1.0687551498413086,
0.6876212954521179,
-0.820375382900238,
-0.37575721740722656,
-0.3292228579521179,
0.883925199508667,
-0.8089817762374878,
0.15402449667453766,
0.2192249894142151,
-0.08517225831747055,
-0.11575554311275482,
-0.9489775896072388,
0.954024612903595,
-0.1512853056192398,
-1.323379635810852,
-0.029137538745999336,
-0.474099725484848,
-0.9695964455604553,
0.05458964407444,
0.5110931992530823,
-0.0899532213807106,
0.09179581701755524,
-0.7246283292770386,
-1.0010950565338135,
-0.13751721382141113,
-0.548977792263031,
-0.4119316041469574,
-0.17864184081554413,
-0.14917093515396118,
-0.238149493932724,
-0.3370104134082794,
0.5070124268531799,
0.6057665348052979,
0.28449639678001404,
-0.21351885795593262,
-0.19119878113269806,
0.4994952976703644,
-1.615733027458191,
0.855127215385437,
0.15046291053295135,
-0.5537779331207275,
0.40813589096069336,
0.3183516561985016,
0.14008638262748718,
0.09577394276857376,
-0.09994390606880188,
-0.6884477138519287,
0.20925651490688324,
-0.15651005506515503,
-0.13038083910942078,
0.6587350368499756,
-0.33459895849227905,
-0.09800921380519867,
-0.1022428572177887,
-0.7697175145149231,
0.34636929631233215,
1.1089941263198853,
0.32348141074180603,
-0.5812106728553772,
0.9520230293273926,
0.34649816155433655,
0.21070939302444458,
0.698594868183136,
-0.6038986444473267,
0.07769814878702164,
0.8941060900688171,
0.28137004375457764,
0.48286378383636475,
0.14899790287017822,
-1.0239839553833008,
0.4096282720565796,
0.2357652634382248,
-0.7835678458213806,
-0.05249959975481033,
-0.7147438526153564,
-0.2477945238351822,
1.1038399934768677,
0.024824630469083786,
0.26619774103164673,
0.457109659910202,
-0.6829380989074707,
0.2632187008857727,
-0.2933306097984314,
-0.615461528301239,
0.08214675635099411,
0.34341102838516235,
-0.022720294073224068,
0.8077044486999512,
-0.13314692676067352,
-0.026241464540362358,
-0.22907234728336334,
-0.1495087891817093,
-0.3077756464481354,
0.29660576581954956,
-0.22473262250423431,
-0.8761329054832458,
0.4540739059448242,
0.24186432361602783,
-0.18535585701465607,
-1.0026946067810059,
0.11473671346902847,
-0.9188467860221863,
0.1370427906513214,
-0.4067482650279999,
-0.6920555233955383,
-0.8937559723854065,
0.7936279773712158,
1.050796627998352,
0.19710974395275116,
-0.05686379596590996,
0.5286077857017517,
0.4027523398399353,
0.3420039713382721,
-0.07507018744945526,
0.5343546867370605,
0.5083430409431458,
0.13692256808280945,
-0.4969940483570099,
0.42815977334976196,
0.21109014749526978,
-0.593382716178894,
0.36410051584243774,
-0.7430433034896851,
0.29120510816574097,
0.050778694450855255,
0.0015796396182850003,
0.16392922401428223,
0.0021823341958224773,
-0.7228691577911377,
-0.5797075629234314,
0.007747446186840534,
-0.1865483820438385,
-0.3530663847923279,
-0.02775641717016697,
1.0429461002349854,
0.20356380939483643,
-0.10107351094484329,
0.3736673593521118,
-0.2919977903366089,
0.008932739496231079,
0.09345200657844543,
-0.023680858314037323,
0.8006159067153931,
-0.19072143733501434,
0.5714412927627563,
-0.32783544063568115,
0.7644581198692322,
-0.48714712262153625,
0.8503726124763489,
-0.0958147943019867,
0.7087979316711426,
-0.7822020053863525,
0.2519562840461731,
0.33725714683532715,
0.10763390362262726,
-0.5608939528465271,
-0.8834052085876465,
0.3156470060348511,
-0.016086023300886154,
0.6253116726875305,
1.055163860321045,
-0.2926301062107086,
0.007349629886448383,
-0.2115560621023178,
-0.22751913964748383,
-0.3182082176208496,
0.195992574095726,
-0.06116309389472008,
0.49384593963623047,
-0.061386361718177795,
0.4453887641429901,
-1.4463261365890503,
-0.32102784514427185,
-0.04688557982444763,
0.7324485182762146,
-0.7006387710571289,
-0.3504801392555237,
-0.06787437945604324,
-1.3583983182907104,
0.08827922493219376,
-0.37943437695503235,
-0.20639434456825256,
0.18020793795585632,
-0.560754120349884,
-0.7418451905250549,
-0.4666995704174042,
0.041328635066747665,
0.27954450249671936,
-0.44384118914604187,
0.3266957700252533,
0.09906800836324692,
-0.9113814234733582,
0.379773885011673,
-0.5425027012825012,
-0.6919183731079102,
0.011053856462240219,
0.20924913883209229
] |
200142
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra%20Records
|
Elektra Records
|
Elektra Records (formerly Elektra Entertainment Group Inc.) is an American record label owned by Warner Music Group, founded in 1950 by Jac Holzman and Paul Rickolt. It played an important role in the development of contemporary folk and rock music between the 1950s and 1970s. In 2004, it was consolidated into WMG's Atlantic Records Group. After five years of dormancy, the label was revived as an imprint of Atlantic in 2009. In October 2018, Elektra was detached from the Atlantic Records umbrella and reorganized into Elektra Music Group, once again operating as an independently managed frontline label of Warner Music.
History
1950–1971: Founding and early history
Elektra was formed in 1950, as the Elektra-Stratford Record Corporation, with a singles label called Stratford Records, by Jac Holzman and Paul Rickolt in Holzman's St. John's College dorm room. Each invested $300. The usual spelling of the Greek mythological Pleiad Electra was changed. Holzman famously explained, "I gave her the 'K' that I lacked". He found the 'C' in the original name "too soft", but liked the "solid bite" of the letter 'K', citing its use in the Kodak name.
The first Elektra LP, New Songs (EKLP 1 released March 1951), was a collection of Lieder and similar art songs, which sold few copies. During the 1950s and early 1960s, the label concentrated on folk music recordings, releasing a number of best-selling albums by Theodore Bikel, Ed McCurdy, Oscar Brand, and Judy Collins, and protest singers such as Phil Ochs and Tom Paxton. Holzman also recorded Josh White, who was without a record deal as a result of McCarthyite blacklisting.
In 1964, Elektra launched Nonesuch Records. This classical budget label was the best-selling budget classical label of the era. Other labels followed suit by starting their own budget series, but Nonesuch remained the most popular and Jac Holzman states in his book that profits from the budget classical label made it possible for Elektra to experiment with their pop releases by the mid-1960s.
In 1965, Elektra began a short-lived joint venture with Survey Music called Bounty Records, which was Elektra's first foray into pop music. The most notable signing for Bounty was the Paul Butterfield Band who was moved over to Elektra when Bounty folded.
Elektra's entrance into pop gained the label considerable prestige within the music scene by being one of the first labels to sign up leading acts from the new wave of American psychedelic rock of 1966–1967. The label's most important signings were the Chicago-based Paul Butterfield Blues Band (with Mike Bloomfield), the Los Angeles bands Love and The Doors, and the Detroit bands The Stooges and MC5. Included in Elektra's Los Angeles-based signings were Tim Buckley and Bread. In 1968, the label also signed pioneering rock guitar soloist Lonnie Mack to a three-album deal.
Also in 1967, Elektra launched its influential Nonesuch Explorer Series, one of the first collections of what is now referred to as world music. Excerpts from several Nonesuch Explorer recordings were later included on the two Voyager Golden Discs, which were sent into deep space in 1977 aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 space probes.
1971–1989: Elektra/Asylum Records
Elektra, along with its Nonesuch Records subsidiary, was acquired by Kinney National Services in 1970, which changed its name to Warner Communications in 1972. Soon afterwards, Kinney consolidated their label holdings under the Warner-Elektra-Atlantic umbrella. Holzman remained in charge of Elektra until 1972, when it merged with Asylum Records to become Elektra/Asylum Records; Asylum's founder, David Geffen, would head the newly combined label. Holzman, in the meantime, was appointed senior vice president and chief technologist for Warner — ushering the company into home video and the first interactive cable system. Holzman also went on to acquire Discovery Records. In 1975, Geffen stepped down when he was told that he had a terminal illness; He later was revealed to have been falsely diagnosed. He was replaced by Joe Smith, who later went on to become CEO of Capitol Records.
Joe Smith, whose leadership resulted in the biggest market share and gross revenues Elektra Asylum was to have, inherited the A&R services of Chuck Plotkin, famed later for producing many of Bruce Springsteen's greatest records, followed up by George Daly, who is credited as bringing in seminal new wave band The Cars, setting Elektra, again, on another artist direction.
Although the label was technically listed as "Elektra/Asylum Records" on the label credits, as the years went on, the label began to unofficially call itself Elektra Records again (with Asylum operating as a subsidiary label). In 1982, Elektra launched a jazz subsidiary called Elektra/Musician. The following year, Bob Krasnow became president and CEO of Elektra; under his leadership, the label reached its commercial peak throughout the rest of the 1980s and early to mid-1990s.
1989–2004: Elektra Entertainment Group
In 1989, the label officially changed its name to Elektra Entertainment. During the Bob Krasnow era, the label became home to a wide range of artists, such as Metallica, The Cars, Luna, Anita Baker, Stereolab, and Teddy Pendergrass. Also during this time, Elektra developed a relationship with the UK label 4AD. Elektra became the label for 4AD acts such as the Pixies, the Breeders, Frank Black, and The Amps in the United States and Canada.
Like its sister labels, Elektra's fortunes began to wane in the mid-1990s, in part because of a series of bitter corporate battles between senior Warner label executives, which seriously damaged the collective reputation of the group. Unhappy with major structural changes enacted by then Warner Music Group chairman Robert Morgado, Bob Krasnow abruptly resigned in July 1994, and others soon followed; the highly respected Warner Bros CEO Mo Ostin decided not to renew his contract and left in December 1994, and Ostin's friend and protégé Lenny Waronker left early the next year. Krasnow was replaced by Sylvia Rhone, who at the time was a senior vice president at Atlantic Records, and also the CEO of Atlantic's EastWest Records America imprint. Upon Rhone's arrival at Elektra, the label took over the operations of EastWest, as well as Sire Records (which had previously operated through its sister label Warner Bros. Records) and was renamed Elektra Entertainment Group.
In September 1994, another damaging controversy erupted when top heavy-metal band Metallica filed suit against Elektra to terminate their contract and gain ownership of their master recordings. The group based its claim on a section of the California Labor Code, that allows employees to be released from a personal services contract after seven years. By this time, Metallica had been with the label for more than a decade and had racked up sales over 40 million records, but they were still operating under the terms of their original 1984 contract, which provided a relatively low 14% royalty rate. The group also claimed that they were taking the action because Robert Morgado had refused to honor a new deal they had worked out with Bob Krasnow shortly before he quit the label. Elektra responded by countersuing the group, but in December, New York magazine reported rumors that then Warner Music US chairman Doug Morris had offered the group a lucrative new deal in exchange for dropping the suit, which was reported to be even more generous than the earlier Krasnow deal. In January, the group and Elektra jointly announced that they had settled the suit, and although a nondisclosure agreement kept the terms secret, media sources claimed, "a significant increase in royalty payments to the band as well as a renegotiation of the group's recording contract were key factors in Metallica and Elektra coming to terms."
Despite having a large stable of noted acts, as the 1990s drew to a close, Elektra began to see a slump in revenue, while noticeably underperforming on the charts. It also developed a bit of a sullen reputation in the industry for not properly promoting many of its releases, thus earning the nickname "Neglektra" from several signed artists, such as Marvelous 3, Jason Falkner, and Greg Dulli, and was easily lagging behind its sister labels Warner Bros. Records and Atlantic Records.
2004–2018: Atlantic era
In February 2004, Warner Music Group was sold by Time Warner to a group of private investors made up of Thomas Lee Partners, Bain & Company, and Edgar Bronfman Jr. (who assumed CEO duties).
The new owners of WMG decided to merge Elektra and Atlantic Records. Because it was the lesser performing label of the two, 40% of Elektra's operations were put into the new venture, while a commanding 60% of Atlantic's went in. Subsequently, the new company was called Atlantic Records Group, with Elektra breaking off into a subsidiary that became dormant until the label was revived in 2009 (though longtime time Elektra artists such as Tracy Chapman, Björk, and Yolanda Adams continued to have releases on the label, while newer signees such as Jason Mraz and Jet were transferred to Atlantic).
Atlantic Records Group announced the revival of Elektra Records as an independent entity within Warner Music on June 1, 2009. The revived label is headed up by two new co-Presidents: Mike Caren, Exec. VP of A&R for Atlantic Records, and John Janick, founder and President of prominent indie label Fueled by Ramen. The revived label uses a modified version of the circa-1970s Elektra logo.
The first release of the new label was the original soundtrack of the HBO show True Blood, and the first album released was Charlotte Gainsbourg's IRM. The label is now home to artists such as Uffie, Little Boots, Justice, Bruno Mars, and CeeLo Green.
On October 4, 2012, Warner Music announced that Jeff Castelaz, the co-founder of Los Angeles-based independent label Dangerbird Records, had been named president of Elektra Records. Gregg Nadel from Atlantic Records A&R became General Manager of the label in 2015. In September 2015, Castelaz stepped down from his role at Elektra, leaving Nadel to run the label.
In 2016, Elektra's releases included A/B, the debut album by Icelandic rock band Kaleo, which included the number-one Alternative hit "Way Down We Go", Fitz and the Tantrums' self-titled third album and the critically acclaimed Southern Family, which garnered a 2016 CMA Nomination for "Musical Event of the Year". Nadel was officially named president of the label in 2017.In October 2017, Elektra Records partnered with MSG Networks for "Friday Night Knicks".
2018–present: Elektra Music Group
Announced on June 18, 2018, Warner Music Group relaunched Elektra Music Group on October 1, as a stand-alone, staffed music company with the labels Black Cement, Elektra, Fueled by Ramen (FBR), Low Country Sound, and Roadrunner Records. A handful of major artists transferred from Atlantic. This returned the group to the Warner-Elektra-Atlantic triad that had for decades marked the original company organization. Staff from Elektra, FBR, and Roadrunner labels, plus some from Atlantic, would staff the new standalone group with co-presidents Mike Easterlin and Gregg Nadel coming from Fueled by Ramen and Roadrunner Records and Elektra, respectively, where they served as label presidents. Elektra co-presidents would answer, though, to Atlantic Records Group Chairman and CEO Craig Kallman and Chairwoman and COO Julie Greenwald.
On October 3, 2018, Elektra revealed its entire leadership team. The label group's first release was Trench by Twenty One Pilots on October 5, 2018, on Fueled by Ramen label. Despite that, Atlantic Records is still mentioned in liner notes of the album. In 2019, the label had huge success again with Tones and I's hit single "Dance Monkey".
Artists
See also
Elektra Sound Recorders
References
Further reading
Jac Holzman and Gavan Daws (1998). Follow the Music: The Life and High Times of Elektra Records in the Great Years of American Pop Culture. First Media Books. .
Mick Houghton (2010). Becoming Elektra. Jawbone Press. .
External links
60th Anniversary - Elektra Records
Elektra discography: 1951 to 1974
Elektra Records oral history
Elektra Records
American record labels
IFPI members
Labels distributed by Warner Music Group
Record labels established in 1950
Warner Music labels
1950 establishments in the United States
|
[
-0.11963187903165817,
0.5356948971748352,
-0.5228224992752075,
0.34069836139678955,
-0.5192149877548218,
0.2755534052848816,
0.33788594603538513,
0.2677282691001892,
-0.11588487774133682,
-0.08690585941076279,
0.3899385929107666,
0.30342522263526917,
-0.3418177664279938,
1.0306950807571411,
0.22261331975460052,
0.03807715326547623,
-0.10244935750961304,
0.9987871050834656,
-0.30186727643013,
-1.0595777034759521,
-0.1396641731262207,
-0.14232291281223297,
0.6948010921478271,
-0.4953993558883667,
0.04008084908127785,
-0.3618403971195221,
-0.4652419686317444,
-0.010501490905880928,
-0.5070555806159973,
0.024228455498814583,
0.16143473982810974,
0.591428816318512,
0.16241790354251862,
-0.2488436996936798,
0.12301574647426605,
-0.023386288434267044,
-0.19138075411319733,
-0.5169687867164612,
-0.36075451970100403,
-1.0859297513961792,
-0.11386744678020477,
-0.2765982449054718,
0.2364179491996765,
0.4304289221763611,
0.012166425585746765,
-0.31713560223579407,
-1.790118932723999,
0.2813222408294678,
-0.8954197764396667,
0.04035525396466255,
-0.25225281715393066,
-0.25389334559440613,
0.08058448135852814,
0.6993770003318787,
0.5751164555549622,
0.17520028352737427,
-0.6792125105857849,
0.25366833806037903,
0.03620568662881851,
-0.4314715564250946,
0.5823366641998291,
-0.2299143224954605,
0.043083637952804565,
-0.18602733314037323,
0.4518365263938904,
-0.22984668612480164,
0.1504237800836563,
0.9468100070953369,
-0.8907259702682495,
-0.010935052298009396,
-0.11885152757167816,
-0.09312240779399872,
0.559951663017273,
-0.2940017580986023,
-0.2972021996974945,
-0.3663790225982666,
0.3946046829223633,
-0.22022336721420288,
0.12718303501605988,
0.2549133598804474,
0.5432841777801514,
0.19216448068618774,
1.1371015310287476,
-0.11868368834257126,
-0.03585393726825714,
0.2225642055273056,
-0.20832638442516327,
-0.4742514491081238,
0.123659148812294,
0.25827616453170776,
-0.4298751950263977,
-0.49985072016716003,
0.5500310063362122,
0.05717429146170616,
-0.2035820633172989,
0.010983623564243317,
-0.19495195150375366,
-0.09093879908323288,
0.2584817707538605,
0.49425309896469116,
0.07719561457633972,
0.04824017360806465,
-0.39321839809417725,
-0.706540048122406,
-0.26202690601348877,
0.05408717319369316,
0.32263487577438354,
0.10356782376766205,
0.5935477018356323,
-0.5391806364059448,
-0.3501168489456177,
-0.0036931177601218224,
0.013510911725461483,
-0.34634894132614136,
-0.2601053714752197,
0.7340598702430725,
0.6493406891822815,
0.2076764702796936,
-0.2336752563714981,
-0.01354211661964655,
0.43438929319381714,
0.81815505027771,
0.09938656538724899,
-0.01785125955939293,
-0.48856139183044434,
0.5572488307952881,
0.26814889907836914,
0.4534773528575897,
0.4660274088382721,
0.03601307049393654,
-0.5583531260490417,
0.35865917801856995,
-0.06285403668880463,
-0.09551729261875153,
-0.060489363968372345,
-0.3923286199569702,
0.6684746146202087,
0.26191169023513794,
0.20463170111179352,
-0.024036230519413948,
-0.880707859992981,
-0.6155205965042114,
-1.6760151386260986,
-0.6886467337608337,
0.5326440334320068,
-0.22927428781986237,
-0.029786335304379463,
0.47802770137786865,
-0.40562716126441956,
0.12700439989566803,
0.20740845799446106,
-0.30603113770484924,
-0.011243977583944798,
0.05369464308023453,
-0.5434336066246033,
-0.45958203077316284,
0.6848114132881165,
-0.001456900150515139,
0.04245239496231079,
0.18300104141235352,
0.00973556563258171,
0.4740027189254761,
0.07230168581008911,
0.2137208729982376,
-0.3038683533668518,
-0.421699196100235,
0.13047561049461365,
0.45075860619544983,
-0.2677799165248871,
-0.08250994235277176,
0.11514588445425034,
-0.315316379070282,
-0.2851646840572357,
0.033018603920936584,
0.7052047848701477,
0.06214621663093567,
0.8721418976783752,
0.47345060110092163,
-0.12412713468074799,
0.039871782064437866,
-0.7965399622917175,
0.7954394221305847,
0.35641539096832275,
-0.0012783145066350698,
0.25458288192749023,
0.14073918759822845,
0.1969439536333084,
-0.025433270260691643,
-0.26254576444625854,
-0.26402547955513,
-0.08350365608930588,
0.1424579918384552,
0.43604230880737305,
-0.48592203855514526,
0.6284582614898682,
0.17643150687217712,
-0.4950432777404785,
0.0998164638876915,
-0.175967738032341,
-0.08134382963180542,
0.2780788540840149,
0.1984415203332901,
-0.4816184639930725,
-0.5414919853210449,
-0.6420081257820129,
0.90818852186203,
0.15357528626918793,
-0.1696580946445465,
0.25069233775138855,
0.37274032831192017,
0.26916590332984924,
-0.426924467086792,
0.741949737071991,
-0.10557016730308533,
0.37149539589881897,
-0.4463900327682495,
-0.6126461029052734,
0.31698885560035706,
0.1330793797969818,
-0.427219957113266,
0.8136839270591736,
0.2682148218154907,
-0.08038351684808731,
0.06371346116065979,
-0.3510272204875946,
0.7719784379005432,
-0.24106445908546448,
-0.2198968231678009,
-0.14876513183116913,
-0.07487889379262924,
0.7626326084136963,
0.4032551050186157,
0.0337204672396183,
-0.9330535531044006,
-0.06659669429063797,
0.02625151537358761,
-0.06277307122945786,
-0.41182440519332886,
0.30773812532424927,
-0.06717035919427872,
0.34376290440559387,
-0.12071774154901505,
-0.7851783037185669,
0.26180803775787354,
0.4761200547218323,
-0.3700200915336609,
-0.12605449557304382,
-0.4326412081718445,
-0.13950954377651215,
-0.08197175711393356,
0.6691907048225403,
0.19449938833713531,
-0.103297658264637,
-0.4780728220939636,
0.13606664538383484,
0.18483872711658478,
-0.2611083984375,
0.21868635714054108,
0.20309968292713165,
-0.10199780762195587,
-0.0744129866361618,
-0.23967644572257996,
0.5599351525306702,
-0.023231813684105873,
-0.39001765847206116,
-0.5665329694747925,
-0.4164432883262634,
-0.008738427422940731,
0.3001440465450287,
-0.6336429119110107,
-0.0284246988594532,
0.03240231052041054,
-0.31909292936325073,
-0.6849618554115295,
0.18793819844722748,
0.23532868921756744,
-0.47819727659225464,
0.017686838284134865,
0.034459277987480164,
-0.08043326437473297,
0.8981996774673462,
0.5779791474342346,
0.2848466634750366,
-0.7016060948371887,
-0.6109244227409363,
0.47471675276756287,
0.6831404566764832,
-0.20046466588974,
0.2033209651708603,
0.0587690994143486,
-0.05959063023328781,
0.30264022946357727,
-0.7681020498275757,
0.4032765030860901,
0.6334039568901062,
0.11180656403303146,
-0.3491910994052887,
0.45092177391052246,
-0.3873940706253052,
-0.6266661286354065,
-0.27800804376602173,
0.3332589566707611,
-0.6889354586601257,
-0.33282774686813354,
0.28944697976112366,
-0.3353846073150635,
0.15136338770389557,
-0.7476596832275391,
-5.44989538192749,
0.21592983603477478,
-0.45874449610710144,
-0.29224592447280884,
0.19216570258140564,
-0.5605278015136719,
0.35765618085861206,
-0.32860925793647766,
0.17843374609947205,
0.2417607456445694,
0.1772552728652954,
0.3409256041049957,
-0.217521533370018,
0.2883254885673523,
0.5085230469703674,
0.6309895515441895,
0.5210701823234558,
-0.12185449153184891,
-0.1286812573671341,
-0.08946811407804489,
0.06631635874509811,
-0.4949241280555725,
0.009868389926850796,
-0.021503247320652008,
0.42824065685272217,
0.15246905386447906,
-0.04061815142631531,
0.4100450575351715,
-0.5775871276855469,
0.2580127716064453,
-0.06865257024765015,
-0.6692422032356262,
-0.1490492969751358,
-0.5867102146148682,
-0.007701832335442305,
-0.03768039122223854,
0.5396606922149658,
0.2037404179573059,
0.0015106807695701718,
-0.3338305652141571,
0.06728425621986389,
0.41639506816864014,
0.1691424399614334,
0.04158458858728409,
0.10640816390514374,
0.24046656489372253,
-0.8987945318222046,
-0.3714636266231537,
-0.06610677391290665,
1.1930257081985474,
0.2146175354719162,
-0.14336857199668884,
0.24313059449195862,
-0.11077113449573517,
0.09825034439563751,
-0.28423765301704407,
0.3750462532043457,
-0.36010241508483887,
0.23015663027763367,
0.7552415132522583,
0.8237543702125549,
-0.4092995822429657,
0.13977694511413574,
-0.21757012605667114,
-0.1602575033903122,
-0.5505854487419128,
-0.3506644666194916,
-0.5682622790336609,
0.25042814016342163,
0.27934539318084717,
0.36917275190353394,
-0.03790885955095291,
-0.3470878303050995,
-0.9933609366416931,
-0.3240465521812439,
-0.2711056172847748,
0.39378365874290466,
0.07495776563882828,
-0.22921450436115265,
0.4159833788871765,
-0.42925477027893066,
0.36306893825531006,
-0.3513335883617401,
0.6321086287498474,
-0.22023487091064453,
-0.22919870913028717,
-0.8478413820266724,
0.26151043176651,
-0.8804792165756226,
0.00018435000674799085,
0.8370205760002136,
-0.3861134946346283,
0.07971031218767166,
0.6151275634765625,
-0.2538832724094391,
0.08350779861211777,
0.7888018488883972,
0.6220736503601074,
0.5209210515022278,
-0.44036975502967834,
-0.06268962472677231,
0.07841256260871887,
0.249241903424263,
-0.7932445406913757,
-0.1767011433839798,
-0.5220648050308228,
-0.18504129350185394,
-0.5947326421737671,
0.2865908443927765,
-0.764045774936676,
0.1188058853149414,
-0.539619505405426,
-0.3477865755558014,
-1.1030397415161133,
0.7017562985420227,
-0.409106969833374,
-0.05126653611660004,
1.1472835540771484,
0.16784971952438354,
0.1160595566034317,
0.6409541964530945,
0.618691623210907,
-0.1887459009885788,
-0.29646387696266174,
-0.7700003981590271,
0.09255331754684448,
0.11592558026313782,
0.251149982213974,
-0.3505537509918213,
0.004388326313346624,
-0.0385257825255394,
0.034350793808698654,
-0.23813936114311218,
0.45435038208961487,
-0.058865737169981,
-0.6462643146514893,
-0.17497561872005463,
0.2049584984779358,
-0.05112351104617119,
-0.24048103392124176,
0.33349305391311646,
0.3298693001270294,
-0.00783276092261076,
0.6540648937225342,
0.6131730079650879,
0.6155867576599121,
0.3635618984699249,
-0.42927229404449463,
-0.3103322684764862,
-0.12445426732301712,
-0.1613459587097168,
-0.5907040238380432,
0.9699117541313171,
-0.40756741166114807,
-0.2836928963661194,
-0.010080804117023945,
0.2787432372570038,
-0.26530173420906067,
-0.5321333408355713,
-0.5420190095901489,
0.1890687793493271,
0.10479960590600967,
-0.5457959771156311,
0.1330767720937729,
0.531904935836792,
-0.18924520909786224,
-0.17704984545707703,
-0.4355742037296295,
-0.6211468577384949,
0.3219110071659088,
0.054625459015369415,
-0.4760281443595886,
-0.08329638838768005,
-0.4551630914211273,
0.21519577503204346,
0.5486616492271423,
0.41589897871017456,
0.1810261607170105,
0.02459757588803768,
-0.17910584807395935,
0.24640938639640808,
-0.5711122751235962,
-0.8777019381523132,
0.3434569239616394,
0.09992298483848572,
-0.9885929822921753,
-0.37236133217811584,
-0.1121814027428627,
-0.6289248466491699,
-0.08517596870660782,
0.04637008160352707,
0.22772295773029327,
0.3381540775299072,
-0.2363949418067932,
-0.4205741882324219,
-0.8136608004570007,
0.032087430357933044,
0.4163282811641693,
-0.4236633777618408,
-0.45472654700279236,
-0.00905531831085682,
0.37118756771087646,
0.20270147919654846,
0.317811518907547,
0.3029009997844696,
-0.3479343056678772,
0.19060996174812317,
0.2807122766971588,
-1.2028369903564453,
0.6105025410652161,
-0.6706836819648743,
-0.5684957504272461,
0.11446697264909744,
-0.1100175753235817,
0.0008786038379184902,
-0.02523205615580082,
0.7045625448226929,
-0.34593668580055237,
-0.39287447929382324,
-0.12858419120311737,
-0.15331760048866272,
0.19411131739616394,
-0.056864652782678604,
0.029812460765242577,
-0.177664116024971,
1.0076261758804321,
0.26144424080848694,
-0.33649542927742004,
0.25172513723373413,
-0.28568190336227417,
-0.5672708749771118,
0.23972468078136444,
-0.4029521346092224,
0.07133264094591141,
-0.21618980169296265,
0.3519522547721863,
-0.20069141685962677,
0.2976132929325104,
0.5196003317832947,
0.16278070211410522,
0.40928420424461365,
-0.44513362646102905,
-0.300092875957489,
-0.38782596588134766,
0.07522338628768921,
0.004107718821614981,
0.5636814832687378,
-0.2407553642988205,
-0.6655254364013672,
0.07232321798801422,
0.19798418879508972,
-0.4109898805618286,
-0.5523570775985718,
-0.38348492980003357,
1.4573343992233276,
-0.23732228577136993,
-0.2188442498445511,
0.43170490860939026,
-0.4500899016857147,
0.0854964554309845,
-0.1716386377811432,
-0.11544103920459747,
-0.6519059538841248,
0.46535423398017883,
0.3978022634983063,
0.48675069212913513,
-0.425803542137146,
-0.27606433629989624,
0.037713948637247086,
-0.3172566592693329,
-0.13813737034797668,
-0.026611020788550377,
0.15129989385604858,
0.22830767929553986,
0.20624932646751404,
-0.2941071391105652,
-0.03715667873620987,
-0.9014903903007507,
-0.40500128269195557,
-0.14853523671627045,
0.11602427065372467,
-0.38043713569641113,
0.2256598323583603,
-0.24700601398944855,
0.8377813100814819,
-0.45871901512145996,
-0.6012690663337708,
-0.2911805510520935,
-0.45744240283966064,
0.08157911896705627,
0.1364404261112213,
-0.04699448123574257,
0.19513589143753052,
0.13898205757141113,
-0.5034709572792053,
0.061503179371356964,
0.7847468256950378,
-0.24630135297775269,
0.38733720779418945,
0.18126387894153595,
-0.4691278040409088,
0.5037235021591187,
0.23295393586158752,
-0.517947793006897,
0.43238604068756104,
0.05218508467078209,
0.20039993524551392,
-0.2174961119890213,
-0.34700146317481995,
0.09525234997272491,
-0.031985506415367126,
-0.48935332894325256,
0.09340091049671173,
0.9424704313278198,
-0.4227287173271179,
0.4645448923110962,
1.0492652654647827,
-0.537765622138977,
0.37389856576919556,
0.166900634765625,
-0.07408297061920166,
-0.2980262041091919,
0.7319756150245667,
0.27034032344818115,
-0.28901997208595276,
0.6874133348464966,
-0.0607784129679203,
-0.08206472545862198,
0.8862083554267883,
-0.2815001904964447,
1.0674059391021729,
-0.4809705317020416,
-0.44286829233169556,
0.7548996806144714,
0.04312035068869591,
-0.5070650577545166,
-0.6606172919273376,
0.00973455049097538,
-0.7090606689453125,
0.8713346719741821,
0.5603986382484436,
-0.03363710641860962,
-0.0025053254794329405,
-0.07296308875083923,
-0.1833958923816681,
0.36492493748664856,
-0.21981942653656006,
0.14973774552345276,
-0.056073568761348724,
-0.34822753071784973,
0.31356561183929443,
0.1490994691848755,
-0.4026585519313812,
-0.030230730772018433,
0.3277014195919037,
0.18329225480556488,
0.44707348942756653,
-0.16805127263069153,
0.6196019649505615,
-0.7243093252182007,
-0.4422341287136078,
0.38873180747032166,
0.5367297530174255,
0.38978755474090576,
0.3757067620754242,
-0.39605510234832764,
0.21312516927719116,
-0.08727599680423737,
0.000053034138545626774,
0.06005311757326126,
-0.09147931635379791,
-0.017278006300330162,
-0.23727530241012573,
0.5141550302505493,
0.36835145950317383,
0.5020045638084412,
0.41138699650764465,
-0.22496356070041656,
0.38131842017173767,
0.38366636633872986,
-0.21579499542713165,
0.11206911504268646,
-0.4164101481437683,
-0.2561195194721222,
0.5138874053955078,
-0.2652056813240051,
-0.2517217695713043,
0.2913229167461395,
0.34001901745796204,
-0.0005088387988507748,
0.11704385280609131,
-0.5039725303649902,
-0.20977279543876648,
0.2759677767753601,
-0.009749695658683777,
-0.09013596177101135,
-0.06222149729728699,
0.4703735411167145,
-0.5406597256660461,
0.07631862163543701,
0.20833036303520203,
0.2335592806339264,
0.34760206937789917,
0.22369195520877838,
-0.1914922595024109,
0.5802996754646301,
-0.36278945207595825,
0.24382564425468445,
-0.5022184252738953,
0.834100067615509,
-0.3566729426383972,
0.17362137138843536,
0.2399066686630249,
0.47771185636520386,
0.337182879447937,
0.2129686325788498,
0.9473345875740051,
0.18392854928970337,
-0.06414369493722916,
-0.1172093078494072,
0.4256407916545868,
0.04687267169356346,
0.1009666696190834,
0.548600971698761,
-0.27242785692214966,
-0.025896312668919563,
0.09379790723323822,
-0.056240394711494446,
-0.3488655388355255,
0.2969478666782379,
0.13403724133968353,
0.07908796519041061,
-0.11776112765073776,
0.07983395457267761,
-0.8176636099815369,
-0.21249668300151825,
-0.3826320469379425,
0.3449353277683258,
0.8422513008117676,
-0.2365870177745819,
0.12061382085084915,
0.08973144739866257,
0.43722856044769287,
-0.044161394238471985,
-1.3945938348770142,
-0.03631480783224106,
-0.3341633081436157,
-0.5695761442184448,
-0.7879547476768494,
0.2008388787508011,
-0.17665885388851166,
-0.3174610733985901,
0.32413727045059204,
0.17033669352531433,
0.031801577657461166,
0.008834600448608398,
0.7309547662734985,
-0.09346836805343628,
0.6515742540359497,
-0.30791735649108887
] |
200144
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neandertal%20%28valley%29
|
Neandertal (valley)
|
The Neandertal (, also , ; sometimes called "the Neander Valley" in English) is a small valley of the river Düssel in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, located about east of Düsseldorf, the capital city of North Rhine-Westphalia. The valley lies within the limits of the towns of Erkrath and Mettmann. In August, 1856, the area became famous for the discovery of Neanderthal 1, one of the first specimens of Homo neanderthalensis to be found.
The Neandertal was originally a limestone canyon widely known for its rugged scenery, waterfalls and caves. However, industrial quarrying during the 19th and 20th centuries removed most of the limestone and dramatically changed the shape of the valley. It was during such a quarrying operation that the bones of the original Neanderthal man were found in a cave known as Kleine Feldhofer Grotte. Neither the cave nor the cliff in which the bones were located still exist.
During the 19th century, the valley was called (Neander's Cave) and, after 1850, . It was named after Joachim Neander, a 17th-century German pastor. is the Graeco-Roman translation of his family name ; both names mean "new man". Neumann lived in nearby Düsseldorf and loved the valley for giving him the inspiration for his compositions. Former names of the gorge were (The Boulders) and (Cliff of dogs, perhaps in the sense of "Cliff of Beasts").
In 1901, an orthographic reform in Germany changed the spelling of (valley) to . Scientific names, such as Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens neanderthalensis for Neanderthal remained unchanged, because the laws of taxonomy retain the original spelling at the time of naming. However, Neanderthal station never changed its name to conform with the new German orthography and the modern Neanderthal Museum retains the original spelling.
Excavations
Since the initial discovery of the specimen of the valley, there have been additional excavations, wherein multiple artifacts and human skeletal fragments have been found. Excavations have found two cranial fragments that seem to fit onto the original Neandertal 1 calotte (bones of the cranial vault). Excavations performed in 1997 and 2000 found new human skeletal pieces. There are questions as to whether these remains are those of Neandertals. Two cranial pieces were unearthed: one, a left zygomatic and partial body and second, a right piece of temporal bone. These pieces appeared to fit the Neandertal 1 calotte perfectly, although these pieces are not specifically from Neandertals. These discoveries may or may not be attributable to the Neandertals but exhibit similar characteristics.
See also
Neanderthal Museum
References
External links
Neanderthal Man type site rediscovered
Archaeological sites in Germany
Mettmann (district)
Neanderthal sites
Prehistoric sites in Germany
Tourist attractions in North Rhine-Westphalia
Valleys of North Rhine-Westphalia
|
[
-0.3171451985836029,
-0.1129157617688179,
0.2704460620880127,
-0.6991443634033203,
0.12880493700504303,
0.608654260635376,
0.84995037317276,
0.596221923828125,
0.1525740921497345,
-0.45204707980155945,
-0.14001575112342834,
0.16508440673351288,
0.2624067962169647,
0.5588676333427429,
-0.30354371666908264,
0.3666412830352783,
0.6465355157852173,
0.27084746956825256,
0.6306523680686951,
-0.42652344703674316,
-0.05223069712519646,
-0.31278735399246216,
0.542009174823761,
0.09343470633029938,
-0.09052302688360214,
-0.568486213684082,
0.15365615487098694,
0.4711872935295105,
0.8116689920425415,
0.14707978069782257,
-0.030651971697807312,
0.8230783343315125,
-0.07996208965778351,
-0.7004391551017761,
0.022138096392154694,
0.4243532717227936,
-0.12363376468420029,
-0.42926254868507385,
-0.19167713820934296,
-0.4072648584842682,
-0.31084689497947693,
-0.01055162027478218,
-0.3656700849533081,
-0.38370779156684875,
-0.02854599431157112,
-0.3795720338821411,
-0.8638626337051392,
0.13404279947280884,
-0.5249799489974976,
0.3652288317680359,
-0.6805821657180786,
0.5242754220962524,
-0.1108340471982956,
0.38609954714775085,
0.059839218854904175,
-0.2622132897377014,
-1.0799705982208252,
-0.35976096987724304,
0.48116111755371094,
0.21850644052028656,
0.6446976065635681,
0.14511945843696594,
-0.6120495200157166,
0.24965347349643707,
-0.4550912082195282,
1.0737497806549072,
0.06093814969062805,
0.7234055399894714,
-0.4433930218219757,
-0.7968361973762512,
0.0780242308974266,
-0.31074076890945435,
-0.007535030134022236,
0.26121950149536133,
-0.0666460320353508,
-0.21590909361839294,
-0.4480571150779724,
0.25115033984184265,
-0.14732667803764343,
-0.10158093273639679,
-0.1366189420223236,
0.3178446888923645,
1.135424256324768,
0.09204669296741486,
0.3278137743473053,
-0.02107490785419941,
-0.06654558330774307,
0.23485249280929565,
-0.5975969433784485,
-0.1437872350215912,
-0.037247780710458755,
-0.37843939661979675,
-0.3251301348209381,
-0.43740740418434143,
0.31741559505462646,
-0.1524016112089157,
0.29977861046791077,
0.4257802367210388,
-0.1243821308016777,
0.4513690173625946,
0.2774333357810974,
0.19404539465904236,
0.5309186577796936,
-0.04785776138305664,
-0.6842833161354065,
-0.3077425956726074,
0.172097846865654,
-0.7317730784416199,
-0.1514204889535904,
0.1600811928510666,
-0.4738413691520691,
0.34666574001312256,
0.5052535533905029,
0.07425464689731598,
-0.4186311960220337,
0.3979575037956238,
0.00530653353780508,
-0.11309349536895752,
0.21178355813026428,
0.1391734927892685,
0.9811492562294006,
-0.16590075194835663,
0.1965775191783905,
0.0483822301030159,
0.10842624306678772,
-0.05072280764579773,
0.0017730387626215816,
0.17564117908477783,
-0.3596264123916626,
0.2389332503080368,
0.37655308842658997,
0.9298388957977295,
0.6130527853965759,
0.02017553150653839,
0.12815222144126892,
-0.4358172118663788,
0.3911932408809662,
0.11831675469875336,
0.19761942327022552,
0.06949617713689804,
-0.8944147825241089,
0.17086778581142426,
-0.5458730459213257,
-0.38628527522087097,
0.019026828929781914,
-0.27777189016342163,
-0.4719577133655548,
-0.9207765460014343,
-0.08968245983123779,
-0.5275897979736328,
0.006699217017740011,
0.07307995855808258,
-0.03739466518163681,
-0.2405296266078949,
-0.8149943351745605,
0.5703701972961426,
0.2556225657463074,
0.22028683125972748,
0.64697265625,
0.4373519718647003,
0.34739169478416443,
0.23530754446983337,
0.35644280910491943,
0.41261550784111023,
0.35779356956481934,
-0.22263413667678833,
0.044549331068992615,
-0.14971838891506195,
-0.2710249125957489,
0.4231491982936859,
-0.41384753584861755,
-0.35054224729537964,
0.6089234352111816,
-0.400759756565094,
0.5481789112091064,
-0.3537037968635559,
0.1683306246995926,
0.7584719061851501,
-0.07614079117774963,
-0.549236536026001,
-0.8004215955734253,
0.5858802199363708,
0.10290778428316116,
0.3329816162586212,
0.08240713179111481,
-0.10739065706729889,
0.42713597416877747,
0.33862626552581787,
-0.29101887345314026,
0.27711188793182373,
-0.2199995219707489,
-0.7167455554008484,
0.6261639595031738,
0.3921557664871216,
0.7358611822128296,
0.405807226896286,
0.2969244420528412,
-0.13175810873508453,
-0.44951608777046204,
0.6109564304351807,
-0.25375601649284363,
-1.1436283588409424,
0.10740581154823303,
-0.41344183683395386,
-0.5730100870132446,
0.17487087845802307,
-0.21519815921783447,
-0.7670639753341675,
0.11879721283912659,
-0.060701023787260056,
0.1766200065612793,
-0.6640636920928955,
-0.21746808290481567,
-0.4067330062389374,
0.3816138505935669,
-0.41350141167640686,
0.17135177552700043,
-0.052852753549814224,
0.1598069667816162,
-0.4508640170097351,
0.2825928032398224,
0.3550299108028412,
-0.17085003852844238,
-0.02555065229535103,
-0.0990702211856842,
0.5073074698448181,
0.27206021547317505,
0.342691034078598,
0.29220566153526306,
-0.605117678642273,
0.32416415214538574,
0.0013189614983275533,
0.34028929471969604,
-0.19771386682987213,
0.2362622320652008,
-0.7499246597290039,
-0.19873684644699097,
-0.1437808871269226,
0.6191567778587341,
-0.7495746612548828,
0.36993807554244995,
-0.10253532230854034,
-1.0066736936569214,
0.5822184085845947,
0.12362198531627655,
0.5283663272857666,
0.18524712324142456,
0.14690953493118286,
-0.8544315695762634,
-0.07557412981987,
-0.07669493556022644,
0.858255922794342,
-0.20281456410884857,
-0.2895076870918274,
-0.13728272914886475,
0.06149524077773094,
0.5557701587677002,
0.8680483102798462,
0.4662849009037018,
0.31630733609199524,
-0.19434823095798492,
0.1565874069929123,
0.07398727536201477,
0.13618308305740356,
-0.4007159173488617,
0.28402942419052124,
0.05344347283244133,
-0.5782147645950317,
0.1354258805513382,
0.22319641709327698,
0.22306686639785767,
0.22973671555519104,
-0.14857318997383118,
0.10040321946144104,
-0.3012121617794037,
-0.6547313332557678,
-0.22469450533390045,
-0.05649562552571297,
-0.6617055535316467,
-0.3032967746257782,
0.22367402911186218,
1.0530303716659546,
0.3232138156890869,
-0.5429554581642151,
-0.03276209160685539,
0.43223243951797485,
0.6541920304298401,
0.6962826251983643,
-0.12728360295295715,
0.38713350892066956,
-0.2441808134317398,
0.02009514532983303,
-0.5811906456947327,
0.4331945478916168,
-0.3429183065891266,
-0.46306532621383667,
0.35242247581481934,
-0.014221817255020142,
0.7255448698997498,
-0.127183198928833,
-1.2905702590942383,
0.6030274629592896,
-0.7723292708396912,
0.16861407458782196,
-0.43419262766838074,
-0.4159866273403168,
0.002991268178448081,
0.4017980694770813,
-5.106757640838623,
-0.14095330238342285,
-0.25578898191452026,
-0.024087324738502502,
0.31286779046058655,
0.11639291793107986,
-0.06890273094177246,
-0.26720961928367615,
-0.49924221634864807,
0.18283399939537048,
0.33558642864227295,
-0.0492144450545311,
0.06315287947654724,
0.5350574254989624,
0.42950987815856934,
-0.6415461301803589,
-0.42990365624427795,
0.3447985351085663,
-0.02499302849173546,
-0.18797644972801208,
-0.3596164882183075,
0.010036111809313297,
0.467830091714859,
0.39318883419036865,
-0.09967223554849625,
0.3654268682003021,
0.10172314196825027,
-0.6551772356033325,
-1.0792567729949951,
-0.8631917238235474,
0.3083357810974121,
-0.7006288170814514,
0.04175413399934769,
0.6206369400024414,
-0.388428658246994,
-0.16395102441310883,
0.49654707312583923,
0.3101133406162262,
1.0643794536590576,
-0.32044216990470886,
-0.15679873526096344,
0.7782669067382812,
-0.07809281349182129,
0.11267989128828049,
0.27149781584739685,
-0.19578266143798828,
-0.5337752103805542,
-0.13917061686515808,
-0.05325392633676529,
1.2880234718322754,
0.02535858191549778,
-0.11468354612588882,
0.617254376411438,
-0.19896383583545685,
0.25551560521125793,
0.03577288240194321,
-0.001869195606559515,
-0.26430854201316833,
0.16200490295886993,
0.8019776344299316,
0.3386829197406769,
-0.2117650806903839,
-0.5206566452980042,
-0.7522494792938232,
-0.20603661239147186,
-0.7019532322883606,
-0.08960027247667313,
0.14872972667217255,
0.5560118556022644,
-0.006171607878059149,
0.05194513872265816,
0.12380660325288773,
-0.22618888318538666,
-0.9391109943389893,
-0.2982732057571411,
-0.998328685760498,
-0.9433139562606812,
-0.6901553273200989,
0.052042972296476364,
0.05545465275645256,
-0.03169536963105202,
-0.15881648659706116,
0.4773426353931427,
0.7680771350860596,
0.770235002040863,
-0.5011094808578491,
-0.2763814926147461,
-0.16620931029319763,
0.7485412359237671,
-0.7676078081130981,
-0.2059132158756256,
-0.7568119764328003,
0.07145199924707413,
-0.36160680651664734,
-0.9506034851074219,
1.1308523416519165,
-0.3701082766056061,
0.2083345502614975,
-0.10581491887569427,
-0.24098171293735504,
1.1661055088043213,
-0.5509846806526184,
-0.03617090731859207,
0.40393534302711487,
0.004840734880417585,
-0.14548468589782715,
0.11242252588272095,
0.4511430859565735,
0.49192920327186584,
-0.19899864494800568,
-0.35148540139198303,
-0.4043092727661133,
-0.10280432552099228,
-0.4657309949398041,
-0.20474055409431458,
-0.6896403431892395,
-1.6222257614135742,
1.0711779594421387,
0.28090596199035645,
-0.019529476761817932,
0.2772643566131592,
0.3846511244773865,
0.458283394575119,
-0.3184811770915985,
0.027376597747206688,
0.28614556789398193,
0.002037693513557315,
0.14636562764644623,
-0.2932063341140747,
0.6246063113212585,
0.022723326459527016,
-0.34503862261772156,
-0.2420196384191513,
-0.6163266897201538,
0.6040985584259033,
-0.42797157168388367,
-0.6888538599014282,
-0.6060853004455566,
0.044043488800525665,
-0.023747263476252556,
0.6805065870285034,
0.5009684562683105,
-0.18646776676177979,
0.2737463116645813,
0.11085627973079681,
-0.07010650634765625,
-0.20250852406024933,
-0.74068284034729,
-1.2052468061447144,
0.11805536597967148,
-0.1513500213623047,
0.00985581986606121,
-0.23937328159809113,
-0.40151065587997437,
-0.02396569773554802,
-0.23644758760929108,
-0.16105946898460388,
0.3617023825645447,
0.020059358328580856,
-0.07056833803653717,
-0.1594916582107544,
-0.15402933955192566,
-0.6775509715080261,
0.48509448766708374,
0.20961368083953857,
0.14776207506656647,
-0.4882619082927704,
-0.27157261967658997,
-0.3717903196811676,
0.3580382466316223,
-0.030000610277056694,
-0.042580749839544296,
-0.05001522973179817,
0.1779208779335022,
-0.1446472704410553,
0.3159690499305725,
-0.0371418260037899,
0.5849509835243225,
-0.07152283191680908,
-0.12534946203231812,
-0.27905580401420593,
-0.3846682906150818,
-0.13296854496002197,
0.7487700581550598,
0.4082900285720825,
-0.3018958568572998,
-0.2982192933559418,
0.5263385772705078,
-0.9090854525566101,
0.21808011829853058,
0.8183836340904236,
-0.1366453319787979,
0.17024925351142883,
0.46009519696235657,
-0.49657392501831055,
-0.8991145491600037,
-0.1304733157157898,
-0.08313759416341782,
0.21563835442066193,
-0.2837888300418854,
0.44781580567359924,
0.3019721508026123,
-0.5765979290008545,
0.5604682564735413,
-0.11157999187707901,
-1.1317903995513916,
0.20594190061092377,
0.6091296672821045,
-1.0177110433578491,
0.5453868508338928,
-0.552330493927002,
-0.8748889565467834,
0.2150600701570511,
0.2556527554988861,
-0.8364906907081604,
-0.18367348611354828,
0.30192917585372925,
-0.6537525653839111,
-0.47979649901390076,
0.16590599715709686,
-0.5737201571464539,
-0.5101960897445679,
-0.33110368251800537,
-0.1578277200460434,
-0.7365931868553162,
0.253246545791626,
-0.03872998431324959,
-0.7624485492706299,
0.9019088745117188,
-0.29529884457588196,
0.03714990243315697,
0.05798014998435974,
0.6625891327857971,
0.04999326542019844,
0.11023218184709549,
-0.07811220735311508,
0.43894824385643005,
0.3817370533943176,
0.1311468631029129,
0.5267044901847839,
0.868802547454834,
0.683657169342041,
0.3321574926376343,
-0.5803566575050354,
-0.18946027755737305,
0.15302099287509918,
0.5770488977432251,
-0.63071608543396,
-0.7288081645965576,
0.36784228682518005,
0.649628758430481,
0.11409251391887665,
-0.9730733036994934,
-0.3406643867492676,
1.3922511339187622,
-0.1957348734140396,
0.2071116417646408,
-0.06358901411294937,
0.1695706844329834,
0.3765111267566681,
-0.20448791980743408,
-0.24726249277591705,
0.10311849415302277,
0.4305633306503296,
0.3999313712120056,
-0.6487176418304443,
-0.5369409918785095,
-0.18921807408332825,
0.5204412937164307,
-0.766541600227356,
-0.29489824175834656,
-0.3576689660549164,
-0.001494880416430533,
-0.19751302897930145,
0.12191960215568542,
0.36443230509757996,
0.20807115733623505,
-0.6444424986839294,
0.06815703213214874,
-0.36860892176628113,
-0.6630139350891113,
-0.024494260549545288,
-0.6297091245651245,
-0.45915648341178894,
0.01725085638463497,
-0.609242856502533,
-0.49063029885292053,
-0.3133835196495056,
-0.6451140642166138,
0.5308003425598145,
-0.08233452588319778,
-0.511986255645752,
-0.276618093252182,
0.4957796037197113,
0.40022677183151245,
0.3376753032207489,
0.19425031542778015,
0.2733265161514282,
0.03614310175180435,
-0.27424708008766174,
-0.42909228801727295,
0.2905794084072113,
0.31731194257736206,
-0.19689635932445526,
0.29549548029899597,
0.5691002607345581,
-0.16757172346115112,
-0.19949543476104736,
0.22423364222049713,
0.054668597877025604,
0.507326066493988,
0.5283698439598083,
-0.1562827229499817,
1.3795310258865356,
-0.17471352219581604,
0.6406205892562866,
0.4384113550186157,
-0.32060152292251587,
0.588293731212616,
0.3712734282016754,
0.7234176397323608,
-0.26885929703712463,
0.7022727131843567,
0.9540347456932068,
-0.5250247120857239,
1.383947730064392,
-0.026284946128726006,
-0.3610146939754486,
0.367805153131485,
0.1882074773311615,
0.18253463506698608,
-0.015499632805585861,
-0.36378610134124756,
0.20646759867668152,
-0.45537224411964417,
-0.35160592198371887,
0.11029648035764694,
-0.17727938294410706,
-0.22555309534072876,
0.23715783655643463,
0.14368076622486115,
0.6708874702453613,
-0.014424816705286503,
0.17688879370689392,
0.37430500984191895,
0.17350846529006958,
0.35238733887672424,
0.06091497093439102,
0.16259658336639404,
-0.322155237197876,
0.36956489086151123,
-0.16825176775455475,
0.21358834207057953,
-0.4668465852737427,
0.39120593667030334,
0.5565387606620789,
-0.11478918045759201,
-0.3019700050354004,
-0.3637027442455292,
0.4828000068664551,
0.19480326771736145,
-0.31967976689338684,
-0.03675326704978943,
-0.15026035904884338,
-0.49212563037872314,
-0.7624664306640625,
-0.61448734998703,
-0.48767825961112976,
-0.26790785789489746,
-0.08169424533843994,
0.40908610820770264,
0.02711275778710842,
-0.3156742453575134,
-0.5520668029785156,
0.37047287821769714,
-0.10672330856323242,
0.47214266657829285,
0.019671520218253136,
-0.11369621753692627,
0.26074421405792236,
-0.2839224636554718,
0.9208405613899231,
0.007563809398561716,
0.005839906167238951,
-0.2896651327610016,
-0.21083612740039825,
0.2157766968011856,
-0.6692696809768677,
-0.3317650556564331,
-0.4789774715900421,
0.03346073627471924,
-0.09144981950521469,
0.11422745138406754,
0.24385486543178558,
-0.4872884452342987,
-0.1522151082754135,
-0.4282534718513489,
1.0049538612365723,
0.3887169063091278,
-0.43513599038124084,
0.5719308257102966,
0.6920680403709412,
0.08703571557998657,
0.11569031327962875,
-0.645819365978241,
0.7462513446807861,
-0.4425008296966553,
0.3101946711540222,
-0.06923910230398178,
0.5938946008682251,
0.9419025182723999,
0.12060827016830444,
0.04179473593831062,
1.1838289499282837,
-0.011958500370383263,
-0.0834043025970459,
0.5559091567993164,
-0.12353058904409409,
0.19374674558639526,
-0.6768419146537781,
0.5149596929550171,
-0.5360338687896729,
-0.2100486010313034,
0.34600695967674255,
0.07604044675827026,
-0.0759843960404396,
0.15253868699073792,
0.2731773555278778,
-0.6516465544700623,
0.39358171820640564,
-0.40113359689712524,
0.1723300963640213,
-0.4344407618045807,
-0.04484397917985916,
-1.0356019735336304,
0.18521349132061005,
0.2943417727947235,
0.3872218430042267,
0.2808280885219574,
-0.6518986821174622,
0.009105163626372814,
-0.26971885561943054,
0.8939764499664307,
0.42815542221069336,
-0.18202611804008484,
0.23586635291576385,
-0.5275771021842957,
-0.7926262021064758,
-1.0673739910125732,
0.24629071354866028,
0.17057567834854126,
-0.0625450611114502,
0.413068950176239,
-0.2909736931324005,
-0.28418537974357605,
-0.11464273929595947,
0.15299662947654724,
-0.5525815486907959,
0.1598818302154541,
0.015521276742219925
] |
200145
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Jungle%20Book
|
The Jungle Book
|
The Jungle Book (1894) is a collection of stories by the English author Rudyard Kipling. Most of the characters are animals such as Shere Khan the tiger and Baloo the bear, though a principal character is the boy or "man-cub" Mowgli, who is raised in the jungle by wolves. The stories are set in a forest in India; one place mentioned repeatedly is "Seonee" (Seoni), in the central
state of Madhya Pradesh.
A major theme in the book is abandonment followed by fostering, as in the life of Mowgli, echoing Kipling's own childhood. The theme is echoed in the triumph of protagonists including Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and The White Seal over their enemies, as well as Mowgli's. Another important theme is of law and freedom; the stories are not about animal behaviour, still less about the Darwinian struggle for survival, but about human archetypes in animal form. They teach respect for authority, obedience, and knowing one's place in society with "the law of the jungle", but the stories also illustrate the freedom to move between different worlds, such as when Mowgli moves between the jungle and the village. Critics have also noted the essential wildness and lawless energies in the stories, reflecting the irresponsible side of human nature.
The Jungle Book has remained popular, partly through its many adaptations for film and other media. Critics such as Swati Singh have noted that even critics wary of Kipling for his supposed imperialism have admired the power of his storytelling. The book has been influential in the scout movement, whose founder, Robert Baden-Powell, was a friend of Kipling's. Percy Grainger composed his Jungle Book Cycle around quotations from the book.
Context
The stories were first published in magazines in 1893–94. The original publications contain illustrations, some by the author's father, John Lockwood Kipling. Rudyard Kipling was born in India and spent the first six years of his childhood there. After about ten years in England, he went back to India and worked there for about six and a half years. These stories were written when Kipling lived in Naulakha, the home he built in Dummerston, Vermont, in the United States. There is evidence that Kipling wrote the collection of stories for his daughter Josephine, who died from pneumonia in 1899, aged 6; a first edition of the book with a handwritten note by the author to his young daughter was discovered at the National Trust's Wimpole Hall in Cambridgeshire, England, in 2010.
Book
Description
The tales in the book (as well as those in The Second Jungle Book, which followed in 1895 and includes eight further stories, including five about Mowgli) are fables, using animals in an anthropomorphic manner to teach moral lessons. The verses of "The Law of the Jungle", for example, lay down rules for the safety of individuals, families, and communities. Kipling put in them nearly everything he knew or "heard or dreamed about the Indian jungle". Other readers have interpreted the work as allegories of the politics and society of the time.
Origins
The stories in The Jungle Book were inspired in part by the ancient Indian fable texts such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales. For example, an older moral-filled mongoose and snake version of the "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" story by Kipling is found in Book 5 of Panchatantra. In a letter to the American author Edward Everett Hale, Kipling wrote,
In a letter written and signed by Kipling in or around 1895, states Alison Flood in The Guardian, Kipling confesses to borrowing ideas and stories in the Jungle Book: "I am afraid that all that code in its outlines has been manufactured to meet 'the necessities of the case': though a little of it is bodily taken from (Southern) Esquimaux rules for the division of spoils," Kipling wrote in the letter. "In fact, it is extremely possible that I have helped myself promiscuously but at present cannot remember from whose stories I have stolen."
Setting
Kipling lived in India as a child, and most of the stories are evidently set there, though it is not entirely clear where. The Kipling Society notes that "Seonee" (Seoni, in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh) is mentioned several times; that the "cold lairs" must be in the jungled hills of Chittorgarh; and that the first Mowgli story, "In the Rukh", is set in a forest reserve somewhere in North India, south of Simla. "Mowgli's Brothers" was positioned in the Aravalli hills of Rajasthan (northwestern India) in an early manuscript, later changed to Seonee, and Bagheera treks from "Oodeypore" (Udaipur), a journey of reasonable length to Aravalli but a long way from Seoni. Seoni has a tropical savanna climate, with a dry and a rainy season. This is drier than a monsoon climate and does not support tropical rainforest. Forested parks and reserves that claim to be associated with the stories include Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, and Pench National Park, near Seoni. However, Kipling never visited the area.
Chapters
The book is arranged with a story in each chapter. Each story is followed by a poem that serves as an epigram.
Characters
Many of the characters (marked *) are named simply for the Hindustani names of their species: for example, Baloo is a transliteration of Hindustani भालू/بھالو Bhālū, "bear". The characters (marked ^) from "The White Seal" are transliterations from the Russian of the Pribilof Islands.
Akela * – A wolf
Bagheera * – A black panther
Baloo * — A bear
Bandar-log * – A tribe of monkeys
Chil * – A kite, in earlier editions called Rann (रण Raṇ, "battle")
Chuchundra * – A muskrat
Darzee * – A tailorbird
Father Wolf – The father wolf who raised Mowgli as his own cub
Grey brother – One of Mother and Father Wolf's cubs
Hathi * – An Indian elephant
Ikki * – A porcupine
Kaa * – A python
Karait * – A krait
Kotick ^ – A white seal
Mang * – A bat
Mor * – An Indian peafowl
Mowgli – Main character, the young jungle boy
Nag * – A male cobra
Nagaina * – A female cobra, Nag's mate
Raksha – The Mother wolf who raised Mowgli as her own cub
Rikki-Tikki-Tavi – A mongoose
Sea Catch ^ – A seal and Kotick's father
Sea Cow – A (Steller's) sea cow
Sea Vitch ^ – A walrus
Shere Khan * — A tiger
Tabaqui * – A jackal
Illustrations
The early editions were illustrated with drawings in the text by John Lockwood Kipling (Rudyard's father), and the American artists W. H. Drake and Paul Frenzeny.
Editions and translations
The book has appeared in over 500 print editions, and over 100 audiobooks. It has been translated into at least 36 languages.
Themes
Abandonment and fostering
Critics such as Harry Ricketts have observed that Kipling returns repeatedly to the theme of the abandoned and fostered child, recalling his own childhood feelings of abandonment. In his view, the enemy, Shere Khan, represents the "malevolent would-be foster-parent" who Mowgli in the end outwits and destroys, just as Kipling as a boy had to face Mrs Holloway in place of his parents. Ricketts writes that in "Mowgli's Brothers", the hero loses his human parents at the outset, and his wolf fosterers at the conclusion; and Mowgli is again rejected at the end of "Tiger! Tiger!", but each time is compensated by "a queue of would-be foster-parents" including the wolves, Baloo, Bagheera and Kaa. In Ricketts's view, the power that Mowgli has over all these characters who compete for his affection is part of the book's appeal to children. The historian of India Philip Mason similarly emphasises the Mowgli myth, where the fostered hero, "the odd man out among wolves and men alike", eventually triumphs over his enemies. Mason notes that both Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and The White Seal do much the same.
Law and freedom
The novelist Marghanita Laski argued that the purpose of the stories was not to teach about animals but to create human archetypes through the animal characters, with lessons of respect for authority. She noted that Kipling was a friend of the founder of the Scout Movement, Robert Baden-Powell, who based the junior scout "Wolf Cubs" on the stories, and that Kipling admired the movement. Ricketts wrote that Kipling was obsessed by rules, a theme running throughout the stories and named explicitly as "the law of the jungle". Part of this, Ricketts supposed, was Mrs Holloway's evangelicalism, suitably transformed. The rules required obedience and "knowing your place", but also provided social relationships and "freedom to move between different worlds". Sandra Kemp observed that the law may be highly codified, but that the energies are also lawless, embodying the part of human nature which is "floating, irresponsible and self-absorbed". There is a duality between the two worlds of the village and the jungle, but Mowgli, like Mang the bat, can travel between the two.
The novelist and critic Angus Wilson noted that Kipling's law of the jungle was "far from Darwinian", since no attacks were allowed at the water-hole, even in drought. In Wilson's view, the popularity of the Mowgli stories is thus not literary but moral: the animals can follow the law easily, but Mowgli has human joys and sorrows, and the burden of making decisions. Kipling's biographer, Charles Carrington, argued that the "fables" about Mowgli illustrate truths directly, as successful fables do, through the character of Mowgli himself; through his "kindly mentors", Bagheera and Baloo; through the repeated failure of the "bully" Shere Khan; through the endless but useless talk of the Bandar-log; and through the law, which makes the jungle "an integrated whole" while enabling Mowgli's brothers to live as the "Free People".
The academic Jan Montefiore commented on the book's balance of law and freedom that "You don't need to invoke Jacqueline Rose on the adult's dream of the child's innocence or Perry Nodelman's theory of children's literature colonising its readers' minds with a double fantasy of the child as both noble savage and embryo good citizen, to see that the Jungle Books .. give their readers a vicarious experience of adventure both as freedom and as service to a just State".
Reception
Sayan Mukherjee, writing for the Book Review Circle, calls The Jungle Book "One of the most enjoyable books of my childhood and even in adulthood, highly informative as to the outlook of the British on their 'native population'."
The academic Jopi Nyman argued in 2001 that the book formed part of the construction of "colonial English national identity" within Kipling's "imperial project". In Nyman's view, nation, race and class are mapped out in the stories, contributing to "an imagining of Englishness as a site of power and racial superiority." Nyman suggested that The Jungle Book'''s monkeys and snakes represent "colonial animals" and "racialized Others" within the Indian jungle, whereas the White Seal promotes "'truly English' identities in the nationalist allegory" of that story.
Swati Singh, in his Secret History of the Jungle Book, notes that the tone is like that of Indian folklore, fable-like, and that critics have speculated that the Kipling may have heard similar stories from his Hindu bearer and his Portuguese ayah (nanny) during his childhood in India. Singh observes, too, that Kipling wove "magic and fantasy" into the stories for his daughter Josephine, and that even critics reading Kipling for signs of imperialism could not help admiring the power of his storytelling.The Jungle Book came to be used as a motivational book by the Cub Scouts, a junior element of the Scouting movement. This use of the book's universe was approved by Kipling at the request of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouting movement, who had originally asked for the author's permission for the use of the Memory Game from Kim in his scheme to develop the morale and fitness of working-class youths in cities. Akela, the head wolf in The Jungle Book, has become a senior figure in the movement; the name is traditionally adopted by the leader of each Cub Scout pack.
AdaptationsThe Jungle Book has been adapted many times in a wide variety of media. In literature, Robert Heinlein wrote the Hugo Award-winning science fiction novel, Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), when his wife, Virginia, suggested a new version of The Jungle Book, but with a child raised by Martians instead of wolves. Neil Gaiman's The Graveyard Book (2008) is inspired by The Jungle Book. It follows a baby boy who is found and brought up by the dead in a cemetery. It has many scenes that can be traced to Kipling, but with Gaiman's dark twist.
In music, the Jungle Book cycle (1958) was written by the Australian composer Percy Grainger, an avid Kipling reader. It consists of quotations from the book, set as choral pieces and solos for soprano, tenor or baritone. The French composer Charles Koechlin wrote several symphonic works inspired by the book.
BBC Radio broadcast an adaptation on 14 February 1994 and released it as a BBC audiobook in 2008. It was directed by Chris Wallis with Nisha K. Nayar as Mowgli, Eartha Kitt as Kaa, Freddie Jones as Baloo, and Jonathan Hyde as Bagheera. The music was by John Mayer.
The book's text has been adapted for younger readers with comic book adaptations such as DC Comics Elseworlds' story, "Superman: The Feral Man of Steel", in which an infant Superman is raised by wolves, while Bagheera, Akela, and Shere Khan make appearances. Marvel Comics published several adaptations by Mary Jo Duffy and Gil Kane in the pages of Marvel Fanfare (vol. 1). These were collected in the one-shot Marvel Illustrated: The Jungle Book (2007). Bill Willingham's comic book series, Fables, features The Jungle Books Mowgli, Bagheera, and Shere Khan.Manga Classics: The Jungle Book was published by UDON Entertainment's Manga Classics imprint in June 2017.
Many films have been based on one or another of Kipling's stories, including Elephant Boy (1937), Chuck Jones's made for-TV cartoons Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (1975), The White Seal (1975), and Mowgli's Brothers (1976). Many films, too, have been made of the book as a whole, such as Zoltán Korda's 1942 film, Disney's 1967 animated film and its 2016 remake, the (Mowgli) published as Adventures of Mowgli in the US, an animation released between 1967 and 1971, and combined into a single 96-minute feature film in 1973, and the 1989 Italian-Japanese anime The Jungle Book: Adventures of Mogwli''.
Stuart Paterson wrote a stage adaptation in 2004, first produced by the Birmingham Old Rep in 2004 and published in 2007 by Nick Hern Books.
In 2021 BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation by Ayeesha Menon which resets the story as a "gangland coming-of-age fable" in modern India.'
See also
Feral children in mythology and fiction
Notes
References
External links
1910 edition at Archive.org
1894 short story collections
Short story collections by Rudyard Kipling
19th-century British children's literature
Macmillan Publishers books
British children's books
Children's short story collections
Novels about orphans
Novels set in India
Animal tales
Rudyard Kipling writings about India
1890s children's books
|
[
-0.05832001939415932,
-0.03186943009495735,
-0.6863250136375427,
0.0008645569905638695,
-0.2390514612197876,
0.11609262228012085,
0.26549017429351807,
0.036212582141160965,
-0.39635196328163147,
-0.15985728800296783,
-0.21337653696537018,
0.01771491952240467,
-0.9907243251800537,
-0.39176416397094727,
0.43268945813179016,
-0.029387978836894035,
0.4452880918979645,
0.37341219186782837,
-0.19569502770900726,
-0.4951619803905487,
-0.3217105567455292,
-0.28201282024383545,
0.06496188044548035,
-0.09330178797245026,
0.5428091287612915,
-0.028719862923026085,
0.47646984457969666,
-0.23606117069721222,
0.23250725865364075,
0.10328185558319092,
0.1795780211687088,
-0.01291419006884098,
0.49435168504714966,
0.19031113386154175,
-0.2538885772228241,
-0.5475836992263794,
-1.0285732746124268,
-1.0804274082183838,
-0.27646374702453613,
-0.4710080623626709,
0.269253134727478,
0.8967113494873047,
0.35610440373420715,
0.6948657631874084,
-0.2234613299369812,
-0.1342507302761078,
-1.2277108430862427,
0.3194015324115753,
-0.8334710597991943,
0.44193339347839355,
-0.30929508805274963,
0.8077259659767151,
0.7923387885093689,
0.09105735272169113,
-0.1748349368572235,
1.0135611295700073,
-0.48549512028694153,
0.07365675270557404,
-0.3085521459579468,
-0.8528182506561279,
0.25967133045196533,
0.06249344348907471,
0.434438556432724,
0.5280817151069641,
0.1399850845336914,
0.4074663817882538,
-0.32649531960487366,
0.4154389202594757,
0.6953454613685608,
0.29537340998649597,
0.05980081111192703,
0.44651585817337036,
-0.4488244652748108,
0.9380404949188232,
-0.27114900946617126,
-0.2914491295814514,
0.7866268157958984,
-0.26481184363365173,
-0.09196612983942032,
0.6580836772918701,
-0.5976464152336121,
0.20569244027137756,
0.49311932921409607,
0.06712856143712997,
0.12426754087209702,
-0.006286673713475466,
-0.26413828134536743,
0.3062775135040283,
-0.3606732487678528,
-0.13023337721824646,
-0.11522363126277924,
-0.4149128496646881,
-0.563515841960907,
0.020159553736448288,
0.24064907431602478,
-0.8776368498802185,
-0.5339823365211487,
-0.2801646888256073,
-0.5330489873886108,
0.11352748423814774,
0.21233594417572021,
0.4278297424316406,
0.6314275860786438,
0.295014351606369,
-1.1169863939285278,
-0.38562068343162537,
0.26021915674209595,
-0.23533578217029572,
0.7142756581306458,
0.5392524600028992,
-0.2058984786272049,
0.14226190745830536,
0.11021151393651962,
-0.3275793194770813,
0.4826391339302063,
0.8799205422401428,
0.1950380653142929,
-0.25706443190574646,
-0.974204421043396,
-0.10611342638731003,
-0.40133464336395264,
0.22791829705238342,
0.9041662812232971,
0.7207641005516052,
-0.36436137557029724,
-0.11142955720424652,
0.08689935505390167,
0.6005352735519409,
-0.305783212184906,
0.6605396866798401,
0.16109895706176758,
0.5721462965011597,
-0.06629040092229843,
-0.7308158874511719,
-0.48389101028442383,
0.1916491985321045,
0.2094140201807022,
0.9166741371154785,
0.2238406538963318,
0.39084112644195557,
-0.4262717068195343,
0.2753274440765381,
-0.5681888461112976,
-0.18267111480236053,
0.10824447125196457,
-0.6646671891212463,
-0.09957197308540344,
-0.6648459434509277,
-0.23989194631576538,
-0.6060185432434082,
-0.044139962643384933,
-0.4034818112850189,
0.09610719978809357,
-0.04728471860289574,
-0.4064239263534546,
0.6647295355796814,
0.4982348680496216,
0.4243472218513489,
0.6824610829353333,
-0.43818166851997375,
0.18153069913387299,
0.1538570672273636,
0.10029692947864532,
-0.039406757801771164,
-0.5930196046829224,
-0.3347943127155304,
0.3803919553756714,
0.33027383685112,
0.6806467771530151,
-0.14348538219928741,
-0.19749078154563904,
-0.477606862783432,
-0.0893305167555809,
-0.30844205617904663,
-0.025155426934361458,
-0.25559714436531067,
0.9929845929145813,
0.5775429010391235,
0.07688063383102417,
-0.46438664197921753,
-0.8222965598106384,
0.28289085626602173,
0.010229472070932388,
-0.5806409120559692,
-0.1452707201242447,
0.2220754623413086,
0.8863369822502136,
0.36339494585990906,
-0.08273141831159592,
0.05702542886137962,
-0.6845759153366089,
-0.22325670719146729,
0.5388175845146179,
-0.32378143072128296,
1.6091092824935913,
0.3291960656642914,
-0.14229939877986908,
0.4315755069255829,
-0.2488214522600174,
0.6301254034042358,
0.25724488496780396,
0.30407431721687317,
0.44808417558670044,
-0.2138649970293045,
-0.7641717791557312,
0.10255123674869537,
-0.5664465427398682,
0.5763987302780151,
0.15556921064853668,
0.49592670798301697,
0.49875500798225403,
-0.28358641266822815,
0.14452442526817322,
0.2670477032661438,
-0.204196497797966,
-0.21179065108299255,
-0.28571122884750366,
0.10800137370824814,
0.4600743055343628,
-0.6732481122016907,
0.6360641717910767,
0.35838690400123596,
-0.1066916286945343,
0.2802111506462097,
0.21090632677078247,
0.5432811975479126,
0.19153614342212677,
-0.3251376152038574,
0.4434606730937958,
-0.5857474207878113,
-0.20957402884960175,
0.34925657510757446,
0.7391019463539124,
-0.4429929554462433,
0.3374105393886566,
-0.4947684407234192,
-0.024094462394714355,
-0.6483227014541626,
0.2565365731716156,
0.01397258136421442,
0.4084835946559906,
-0.6520760655403137,
0.14136703312397003,
0.10812070965766907,
0.6891744136810303,
-0.010128580033779144,
-0.11169295758008957,
0.07027796655893326,
0.04014962166547775,
-0.5752395987510681,
0.3601589500904083,
0.8596039414405823,
0.7511509656906128,
0.12115443497896194,
-0.43859824538230896,
-0.09405149519443512,
-0.4383443593978882,
-0.4550481140613556,
0.9250108599662781,
0.34978920221328735,
-0.4413068890571594,
-0.0441061295568943,
0.03335411474108696,
0.11770378053188324,
-0.23451325297355652,
-0.6594322323799133,
-0.07043664157390594,
-0.7182794213294983,
0.005799622740596533,
-0.18799521028995514,
0.2890785038471222,
0.18845684826374054,
-0.44058477878570557,
0.2623787224292755,
0.5757749676704407,
-0.541675329208374,
0.6323727965354919,
-0.3301079273223877,
-0.06286507099866867,
-0.5395383238792419,
0.01871085911989212,
0.7404369115829468,
-0.000025726074454723857,
-0.782265841960907,
0.0017436081543564796,
-0.23597174882888794,
0.14225877821445465,
-0.725563645362854,
0.2657846212387085,
0.08664361387491226,
0.08500117808580399,
0.7401314973831177,
-0.2731853425502777,
-0.34966540336608887,
-0.41155049204826355,
-0.008886037394404411,
-0.3243204355239868,
0.09290459752082825,
-0.05403986573219299,
-0.21427446603775024,
0.22216367721557617,
-0.10877903550863266,
-0.30031585693359375,
0.5208395719528198,
0.40866807103157043,
0.3634858727455139,
-0.3240639567375183,
0.03494904190301895,
-5.467498779296875,
0.2287287712097168,
0.18718568980693817,
-0.2389874905347824,
-0.17581729590892792,
0.4027373492717743,
0.39523845911026,
-0.1564597487449646,
0.17315611243247986,
-0.5316379070281982,
-0.8630896210670471,
-0.3987293243408203,
0.0004866253293585032,
0.27996116876602173,
0.07810968905687332,
0.6521528363227844,
-0.31977635622024536,
-0.11789733916521072,
-0.2200690358877182,
0.7133388519287109,
-0.24710628390312195,
0.09303563833236694,
-0.07325460761785507,
-0.16792060434818268,
0.3883158266544342,
0.9210330247879028,
0.05452783405780792,
-0.41065385937690735,
-0.4320041239261627,
0.15658977627754211,
-0.021928520873188972,
-0.5864670276641846,
-0.18169330060482025,
-0.06886734813451767,
-0.5906005501747131,
-0.1520323008298874,
0.7791656851768494,
0.7717702984809875,
-0.1279858499765396,
0.5405189394950867,
-0.7543663382530212,
0.026617342606186867,
0.21094092726707458,
0.16501177847385406,
0.4356372058391571,
-0.010740277357399464,
-0.7720080614089966,
-0.8263504505157471,
-0.08995012938976288,
0.8794673681259155,
-0.28656288981437683,
-0.05441996827721596,
0.20846915245056152,
-0.04103992134332657,
0.21573039889335632,
-0.1573978066444397,
0.2897721827030182,
-0.368869811296463,
-0.5149385333061218,
-0.16640758514404297,
0.8019396662712097,
-0.18661649525165558,
0.034753188490867615,
-0.29956915974617004,
0.35808196663856506,
-0.1841258853673935,
-0.041093479841947556,
-0.3568691313266754,
0.13399231433868408,
0.02898375503718853,
-0.3033948242664337,
0.3669026792049408,
0.16933134198188782,
-0.7603013515472412,
-0.563398540019989,
-0.09179119765758514,
-0.3620765507221222,
-0.48263415694236755,
0.36915460228919983,
-0.3125901222229004,
-0.516431450843811,
-0.484906405210495,
-0.389955997467041,
0.09170224517583847,
0.3315131366252899,
-0.9702988862991333,
-0.809927225112915,
0.11078707128763199,
-0.7272854447364807,
-0.2344791293144226,
0.601041316986084,
-0.05178181082010269,
-0.025035295635461807,
0.7322126030921936,
1.076769232749939,
0.09524460136890411,
0.3935633599758148,
0.4484216272830963,
0.4322192370891571,
0.05282467231154442,
-0.046139903366565704,
-0.1290987879037857,
0.5431694388389587,
-0.10249625146389008,
-0.2243647575378418,
-0.019804688170552254,
-0.6054489016532898,
0.22653351724147797,
0.42077067494392395,
-0.5021277666091919,
0.05003805831074715,
-0.19855356216430664,
-0.5256882905960083,
0.15073564648628235,
0.24677260220050812,
0.1992797553539276,
0.5615048408508301,
-0.024699825793504715,
0.024007929489016533,
0.05820285901427269,
-0.17294003069400787,
0.4911649227142334,
-0.3524492084980011,
-0.23664437234401703,
-0.18154561519622803,
-0.22020620107650757,
0.26067933440208435,
-0.692874014377594,
0.3263391852378845,
-0.24853487312793732,
0.16714222729206085,
-0.4167625606060028,
0.4692727029323578,
-0.22446414828300476,
-0.5540849566459656,
-0.7414687275886536,
-0.8188775181770325,
-0.8145665526390076,
-0.33234116435050964,
0.2446931004524231,
-0.390011727809906,
-0.39798209071159363,
0.5408179759979248,
0.7678707242012024,
0.6833237409591675,
-0.47315287590026855,
-0.3228226602077484,
-0.5471314787864685,
-0.30796512961387634,
0.28240498900413513,
-0.22162535786628723,
0.07977890223264694,
1.1372123956680298,
-0.10369093716144562,
-0.45109260082244873,
-0.33438757061958313,
-0.14352519810199738,
0.6375478506088257,
-0.4028129279613495,
-0.16417506337165833,
0.2399081140756607,
-0.7272240519523621,
-0.5722005367279053,
-0.005238942336291075,
-0.38624638319015503,
-0.014859946444630623,
-0.08109284192323685,
-0.8520711660385132,
-0.25795045495033264,
-0.028934912756085396,
0.4856669008731842,
-0.2660580575466156,
-0.25754493474960327,
0.35657158493995667,
0.5968337059020996,
-0.18499349057674408,
-0.1249002069234848,
-0.18476895987987518,
0.09396430850028992,
0.192198246717453,
-0.9266113042831421,
-0.3753441870212555,
-0.2820827066898346,
0.2595217823982239,
0.9272976517677307,
-0.4520302414894104,
-0.38339534401893616,
-0.3639369308948517,
-0.648017406463623,
0.31460776925086975,
0.49644067883491516,
0.6249012351036072,
0.6287587881088257,
0.46945369243621826,
-0.6032401323318481,
-0.3376116156578064,
-0.0010338013526052237,
-0.11093176901340485,
0.378881573677063,
-0.193791002035141,
-0.0911237969994545,
-0.14336422085762024,
-0.22141309082508087,
-0.16422364115715027,
0.07208828628063202,
-0.9937934279441833,
0.09697721153497696,
-0.4973297417163849,
-0.9266570210456848,
0.5366615056991577,
-0.212232768535614,
-0.09937293827533722,
-0.19644184410572052,
0.049648918211460114,
-0.2089744359254837,
0.025807546451687813,
-0.1807401478290558,
-0.14944082498550415,
-0.05890224874019623,
-0.13137534260749817,
-0.1744741052389145,
-0.29477551579475403,
-0.5621061325073242,
-0.2506280243396759,
0.00007579967495985329,
0.2316015511751175,
0.2926529049873352,
-0.02185584232211113,
-0.19438667595386505,
-0.6355271339416504,
0.30439114570617676,
-0.19833451509475708,
-0.09198222309350967,
-0.07826504856348038,
-0.35675927996635437,
0.4340021014213562,
0.2628616690635681,
0.20238347351551056,
0.8336801528930664,
0.3179469108581543,
0.2862926125526428,
0.8572993278503418,
0.25746631622314453,
-0.1924019753932953,
0.15244218707084656,
0.13349749147891998,
-0.30297359824180603,
-0.8001792430877686,
-0.3548656702041626,
-0.0398411899805069,
0.12249307334423065,
0.01190072763711214,
-0.2295917421579361,
-0.1948169469833374,
1.0151982307434082,
-0.23421497642993927,
-0.5031893849372864,
0.5379295945167542,
-0.1690809577703476,
0.07953127473592758,
0.32445865869522095,
0.5841717720031738,
-0.12870699167251587,
0.17810048162937164,
0.33829209208488464,
-0.015214052051305771,
-0.21239963173866272,
0.1523652970790863,
0.17015329003334045,
-0.3239927589893341,
-0.5808852910995483,
-0.6129975914955139,
-0.1288716048002243,
0.11187411099672318,
0.3732936680316925,
0.2115304172039032,
-0.5084939002990723,
-0.35285377502441406,
-0.30141615867614746,
-0.30761656165122986,
-0.32322511076927185,
0.5368481278419495,
-0.20069293677806854,
-0.6181422472000122,
0.010451947338879108,
-0.20328228175640106,
0.11453098058700562,
-0.0932803750038147,
0.2327084243297577,
0.002981520490720868,
-0.15191450715065002,
-0.033088356256484985,
0.31527358293533325,
-0.10038796067237854,
0.5383474826812744,
0.3426576554775238,
0.1998070925474167,
0.035650309175252914,
-0.011116408742964268,
-0.22494560480117798,
-0.016245216131210327,
0.535119891166687,
0.4673667848110199,
-0.19920367002487183,
0.5251410007476807,
-0.159343883395195,
0.01601790450513363,
-0.051822975277900696,
-0.5234999656677246,
0.3483528196811676,
0.310513436794281,
-0.04833735525608063,
-0.41899022459983826,
0.3289228677749634,
-0.896659255027771,
-0.023999325931072235,
0.6860289573669434,
-0.47294971346855164,
0.34064751863479614,
0.31464242935180664,
0.46691203117370605,
0.0867534652352333,
0.21812306344509125,
0.18207767605781555,
-0.4316278398036957,
0.18522332608699799,
-0.3925093710422516,
0.005841406062245369,
0.3041527271270752,
-0.05355297774076462,
0.3415834605693817,
0.09144744277000427,
-0.40887147188186646,
0.45114773511886597,
0.26285457611083984,
-0.4214079678058624,
0.4416559636592865,
0.027131447568535805,
-0.03645879030227661,
0.15520146489143372,
0.483481764793396,
-0.3377552032470703,
-0.15983842313289642,
-0.04808701574802399,
-0.36299046874046326,
0.04290831834077835,
0.4255308508872986,
-0.09370426088571548,
0.21342897415161133,
0.8193681836128235,
0.1830126941204071,
1.0405147075653076,
0.29405567049980164,
-0.6393842101097107,
0.590449869632721,
-0.3023270070552826,
-0.00878506526350975,
-0.033137571066617966,
0.24829714000225067,
0.0707257017493248,
-0.06421397626399994,
0.8635373115539551,
0.0669146478176117,
0.006485887337476015,
-0.04106183722615242,
0.6005986332893372,
0.07710540294647217,
-0.0037139987107366323,
-0.032233238220214844,
0.267351895570755,
0.08030464500188828,
-0.40295812487602234,
-0.13817976415157318,
-0.012551037594676018,
-0.07436474412679672,
0.6724491119384766,
-0.05019736662507057,
0.25440913438796997,
0.1565527319908142,
0.5461861491203308,
-0.12292546778917313,
0.06421211361885071,
-0.5377246141433716,
0.15774495899677277,
0.780531644821167,
-0.004879375454038382,
-0.48542094230651855,
0.4058264493942261,
-0.5464816093444824,
-0.10749196261167526,
0.09052789956331253,
-0.5496059060096741,
-0.4645746350288391,
0.12539051473140717,
-0.4432069659233093,
0.18474619090557098,
0.13840839266777039,
1.8161977529525757,
-0.11454275995492935,
-0.4530749022960663,
0.1631501168012619,
-0.47289595007896423,
0.07878219336271286,
0.30914396047592163,
-0.48064640164375305,
0.43758252263069153,
-0.7953415513038635,
0.3290809988975525,
-0.7947552800178528,
0.4351513087749481,
-0.40866556763648987,
0.40851885080337524,
-0.038652919232845306,
0.36021217703819275,
-0.28480619192123413,
0.06731916218996048,
-0.061708029359579086,
-0.25683271884918213,
0.17096498608589172,
-0.11098725348711014,
0.28918951749801636,
-0.029931170865893364,
-0.5152314305305481,
0.1419566571712494,
-0.4684947729110718,
0.26020705699920654,
-0.2042507529258728,
0.11301729083061218,
-0.6297270059585571,
0.2037416249513626,
0.38243791460990906,
-0.24040642380714417,
-0.8010122776031494,
-0.3385006785392761,
-0.34060531854629517,
0.07235248386859894,
0.7220458388328552,
0.6002939939498901,
0.08426830917596817,
-0.521271288394928,
0.25508764386177063,
-0.3565484881401062,
0.4196555018424988,
-0.03991679474711418,
-0.17527243494987488,
-0.16615967452526093,
-0.14599087834358215,
0.4407445788383484,
-0.6121614575386047,
0.7588827610015869,
0.31033429503440857,
0.4287799596786499,
-0.392200231552124,
-0.5280237197875977,
-0.01776130124926567,
-0.05336330831050873,
-0.036876190453767776,
0.028464393690228462,
0.709132969379425,
-0.2764243483543396
] |
200146
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20River
|
Grand River
|
Grand River may refer to:
Rivers
Canada
Grand River, Nova Scotia
Grand River (Ontario)
Grand River Raceway, Elora, Ontario
Ottawa River, formerly known as Grand River
Churchill River (Atlantic), formerly known as Grand River
Grand River Airport, Grand River, Prince Edward Island, Canada
United States
Grand River (Colorado), historical name (1836-1921) of part of the Colorado River
Grand River (Michigan)
Grand River (Ohio)
Grand River (Oklahoma)
Grand River (Missouri) in Iowa and Missouri
Grand River (Oklahoma)
Grand River (South Dakota) in North and South Dakota
Grand River, tributary of Fox River, Wisconsin
Populated places
United States
Grand River, Iowa
Grand River, Ohio
Grand River Township, Adair County, Iowa
Grand River Township, Decatur County, Iowa
Grand River Township, Madison County, Iowa
Grand River Township, Wayne County, Iowa
Grand River Township, Sedgwick County, Kansas
Grand River Township, Bates County, Missouri
Grand River Township, Cass County, Missouri
Grand River Township, Daviess County, Missouri
Grand River Township, DeKalb County, Missouri
Grand River Township, Bowman County, North Dakota
Grand Rivers, Kentucky
Mauritius
Grand River, Mauritius
Other uses
Grand River Avenue, part of U.S. Route 16 in Michigan, U.S.
Grand River Collegiate Institute, in Kitchener, Ontario, Canada
See also
Grande-Rivière (disambiguation)
Great River (disambiguation)
Big River (disambiguation)
Grand River Valley (disambiguation)
Rio Grande (Spanish, 'Grand River')
|
[
-0.6818398833274841,
0.23978081345558167,
-0.10575740784406662,
0.03571009263396263,
0.37881365418434143,
0.9669983983039856,
0.6669132709503174,
1.073987603187561,
-0.12908513844013214,
-0.8407255411148071,
-0.08379605412483215,
0.1194186732172966,
-0.37436002492904663,
0.967021107673645,
-0.19509314000606537,
0.522531270980835,
0.004775336477905512,
0.36322009563446045,
0.5573104619979858,
-0.48655709624290466,
-0.10632934421300888,
0.15687812864780426,
0.744627833366394,
-0.09063923358917236,
0.22172428667545319,
0.4061472713947296,
-0.12249583005905151,
0.2744538187980652,
0.05094572901725769,
0.5491917133331299,
-0.1867365539073944,
0.4922500550746918,
0.42587366700172424,
-0.3127782344818115,
-0.4910857379436493,
-0.40120312571525574,
-0.3266361653804779,
-0.5944936275482178,
-0.3330753743648529,
-0.41673406958580017,
0.05188543349504471,
-0.48547229170799255,
0.23571763932704926,
0.22674769163131714,
-0.012433822266757488,
0.6452004313468933,
-1.465556025505066,
0.04819989576935768,
-0.7804450988769531,
0.34435784816741943,
-0.247776597738266,
0.4530850946903229,
-0.22783637046813965,
-0.08580058813095093,
-0.10469723492860794,
0.44055894017219543,
-0.6061592698097229,
0.29341810941696167,
0.12539424002170563,
-0.5538925528526306,
0.10689105093479156,
0.5814090967178345,
-0.186998188495636,
1.0006529092788696,
-0.35454073548316956,
-0.05685818940401077,
0.5746666789054871,
0.2835730016231537,
-0.7717634439468384,
-0.21863490343093872,
0.28723403811454773,
-0.24707384407520294,
-0.15902048349380493,
0.5365097522735596,
0.15992619097232819,
-0.31045734882354736,
-0.7178987860679626,
0.0531599186360836,
-0.2352619469165802,
0.5142843127250671,
0.5278637409210205,
-0.03871620073914528,
0.5937015414237976,
-0.17829154431819916,
-0.09486474096775055,
0.5263380408287048,
-0.7537685036659241,
-0.0015117611037567258,
-0.3694323003292084,
0.36223873496055603,
-0.539122462272644,
-0.3348376750946045,
-0.03226051107048988,
-0.12648475170135498,
0.07362975180149078,
-0.18126574158668518,
0.249437615275383,
0.29988589882850647,
0.4031548798084259,
0.13876298069953918,
0.07986126840114594,
-1.097708821296692,
0.8691082000732422,
0.452333927154541,
-0.5607012510299683,
-0.30857425928115845,
-0.362687349319458,
-0.43444281816482544,
0.29443272948265076,
-0.04495161771774292,
-0.08863335847854614,
0.35362380743026733,
0.42096227407455444,
0.21015262603759766,
-0.0037390736397355795,
-0.29560863971710205,
-0.2548525035381317,
-0.324674129486084,
-0.18506816029548645,
-0.9601565003395081,
0.6617304682731628,
0.1418277472257614,
0.28045883774757385,
-0.0626087635755539,
0.08758209645748138,
0.25040286779403687,
0.30278444290161133,
-0.10157976299524307,
-0.4616292715072632,
-0.07343954592943192,
0.38229289650917053,
0.7644771933555603,
0.1389860361814499,
-0.4929751753807068,
-0.6930545568466187,
-0.16329699754714966,
-0.127774178981781,
-0.5307103395462036,
0.09895731508731842,
0.276498943567276,
-0.8466481566429138,
0.06317933648824692,
-0.3740561604499817,
-0.33633169531822205,
0.726963222026825,
0.06240731105208397,
-0.06742597371339798,
-0.11596471071243286,
0.07603852450847626,
-0.5945997834205627,
0.004216420464217663,
0.235869362950325,
-0.23139813542366028,
0.5026524662971497,
0.015428035520017147,
0.7835615873336792,
0.49997374415397644,
-0.2852154076099396,
0.5067935585975647,
0.23053722083568573,
0.12152981758117676,
0.9136790633201599,
0.2540842890739441,
-0.00022243552666623145,
0.14201034605503082,
-0.08160465955734253,
-0.29887884855270386,
-0.47523263096809387,
-0.2974088788032532,
-0.08094362169504166,
0.13247117400169373,
0.4003937840461731,
0.8052282929420471,
-0.3149634897708893,
-0.8509079217910767,
-0.4029054641723633,
0.8588231801986694,
0.3873284161090851,
0.44509008526802063,
-0.25688374042510986,
-0.419331431388855,
0.3410877287387848,
0.16618388891220093,
-0.3595544099807739,
-0.4382556676864624,
0.3622325658798218,
0.37029165029525757,
0.025820856913924217,
-0.13755112886428833,
-0.1301882416009903,
0.4455852210521698,
-0.4476892650127411,
-0.1498352438211441,
-1.058986783027649,
0.7727421522140503,
0.14267419278621674,
-0.44228121638298035,
1.2799348831176758,
-0.07724364101886749,
0.18883293867111206,
-0.1704927235841751,
0.3179222643375397,
1.2927204370498657,
-0.8937574625015259,
-0.381653755903244,
0.23977011442184448,
0.07071039825677872,
-0.4309629499912262,
0.3499833047389984,
0.8551015853881836,
0.00690962839871645,
-0.39426010847091675,
0.10675519704818726,
-0.19680066406726837,
0.6051639318466187,
-0.5415772795677185,
0.1292203962802887,
-0.8309605717658997,
0.024662846699357033,
0.26281970739364624,
0.8905956149101257,
-0.23934882879257202,
0.4107078015804291,
0.091387078166008,
-0.2591274678707123,
0.08427555114030838,
0.4418747127056122,
0.17182153463363647,
0.18121176958084106,
-0.06419443339109421,
0.28010061383247375,
0.11703773587942123,
0.8006122708320618,
-0.5745811462402344,
0.3390267491340637,
-0.7693052291870117,
0.5674881339073181,
0.10124862939119339,
0.5774365067481995,
0.16803514957427979,
-0.22888655960559845,
-0.05121617391705513,
-0.2755446434020996,
0.15858466923236847,
0.10501711815595627,
-0.06598470360040665,
0.6073634028434753,
-0.07224930077791214,
-0.015568175353109837,
-0.6953399777412415,
-0.07615412026643753,
0.34851062297821045,
0.5542849898338318,
0.6171178221702576,
0.4142054319381714,
0.36862513422966003,
-0.2938544452190399,
-0.080179363489151,
-0.10421333461999893,
-0.15007774531841278,
-0.26925143599510193,
-0.21049924194812775,
-0.2367440015077591,
0.0492606982588768,
-0.0949227437376976,
0.0007914078887552023,
-0.413099467754364,
-0.3958917558193207,
0.19423779845237732,
0.898563027381897,
0.47869136929512024,
0.6782678961753845,
0.26444777846336365,
-0.0020602024160325527,
0.7840512990951538,
0.3272975981235504,
0.018550945445895195,
0.10433348268270493,
-0.9052521586418152,
-0.6284898519515991,
0.17616750299930573,
0.8278213143348694,
0.1301245391368866,
-0.8457454442977905,
-0.016703441739082336,
-0.5192002058029175,
0.0008556407410651445,
0.22125650942325592,
-0.25397083163261414,
0.028127310797572136,
-0.07293625921010971,
-0.9503903985023499,
0.01448032632470131,
-0.33321526646614075,
0.2671954035758972,
-0.30833640694618225,
0.35188573598861694,
0.1361600011587143,
0.12761278450489044,
-0.3339981734752655,
-0.399687796831131,
-0.07810495793819427,
-0.12337192893028259,
-0.4025125503540039,
0.8181813955307007,
-0.21786750853061676,
0.20271578431129456,
-0.1323549747467041,
-5.497241497039795,
-0.30794939398765564,
-0.27778151631355286,
-0.22387497127056122,
0.05673256143927574,
-0.6392748355865479,
0.10604467988014221,
0.2482738345861435,
-0.3081013262271881,
-0.3433963358402252,
0.4693909287452698,
0.5653294920921326,
-0.04795457795262337,
0.18271642923355103,
0.30139344930648804,
-0.4482503831386566,
0.27202990651130676,
0.5303812623023987,
0.13586397469043732,
0.11666128784418106,
0.09319599717855453,
-0.2496778815984726,
-0.0641574040055275,
0.23315228521823883,
0.26885610818862915,
0.4137265682220459,
-0.5931779742240906,
-0.11925490945577621,
-0.7145257592201233,
-0.4845295548439026,
-0.20012357831001282,
0.45725107192993164,
-0.018484799191355705,
-0.4948537349700928,
0.05617963895201683,
-0.4629366397857666,
-0.01895948126912117,
0.377375066280365,
0.9393869638442993,
-0.24612703919410706,
0.05247768014669418,
0.2100866138935089,
-0.04307625815272331,
-0.6706245541572571,
-0.08976303786039352,
-0.6656897664070129,
-0.17862887680530548,
0.23894892632961273,
0.1147320568561554,
0.7387666702270508,
0.20458176732063293,
0.2899237871170044,
0.5543469190597534,
0.03760209679603577,
0.5196996927261353,
-0.7094882726669312,
0.04871397837996483,
-0.056900884956121445,
-0.08525453507900238,
0.9220722913742065,
0.33503109216690063,
-0.47483140230178833,
-0.020055336877703667,
-0.3474677503108978,
-0.48623237013816833,
-0.6418148875236511,
-0.2440005987882614,
0.27571481466293335,
0.5451541543006897,
0.01095632091164589,
-0.48786661028862,
0.4717642664909363,
-0.274762362241745,
-0.535036027431488,
-0.06025715544819832,
-0.6104418635368347,
-0.5279118418693542,
0.20997561514377594,
-0.16197924315929413,
0.28489476442337036,
-0.1272866129875183,
-0.006826672237366438,
-0.03537259250879288,
0.34733808040618896,
0.07935656607151031,
-0.6933308243751526,
-0.13832339644432068,
0.7500916719436646,
-0.47379636764526367,
-0.3033856749534607,
-0.2593550682067871,
-0.19555172324180603,
1.1851322650909424,
0.05157015472650528,
-0.029559196904301643,
-0.23091672360897064,
-0.07079539448022842,
0.00738532142713666,
0.2857573330402374,
-0.4347124397754669,
0.5244681239128113,
0.10144159197807312,
0.6867777109146118,
0.0393274761736393,
-0.10029295831918716,
-0.49884164333343506,
-0.34366074204444885,
0.03244318068027496,
0.6260005235671997,
-0.28498104214668274,
-0.3287949562072754,
-0.20287196338176727,
-0.309550940990448,
-0.6547561883926392,
-0.24338576197624207,
0.13129688799381256,
-0.4283820688724518,
0.3791625499725342,
0.07226283103227615,
0.81242835521698,
-0.1413045972585678,
0.32955077290534973,
-0.5042372345924377,
0.2710905075073242,
0.49964240193367004,
-0.13036085665225983,
0.20006465911865234,
0.40460777282714844,
-0.06664822995662689,
0.3136308491230011,
0.028767475858330727,
-0.19814684987068176,
0.20311696827411652,
-0.22497010231018066,
0.3114090859889984,
-0.12604808807373047,
-0.11711511760950089,
-0.43131300806999207,
0.3211557865142822,
-0.8196777701377869,
0.14544039964675903,
0.0824822261929512,
-0.281584769487381,
-0.24336422979831696,
-0.3011290729045868,
0.8231855630874634,
-0.15518300235271454,
0.06500644981861115,
-0.25099876523017883,
0.9000730514526367,
-0.41688913106918335,
-0.27605319023132324,
0.08009276539087296,
-0.5365579724311829,
-0.1298350989818573,
-0.4488997161388397,
-0.09629815071821213,
0.47214069962501526,
0.31817924976348877,
-0.1196984276175499,
0.432062029838562,
-0.5615195035934448,
-0.4254615306854248,
0.2424927055835724,
-0.2545897364616394,
0.19060252606868744,
0.056007109582424164,
0.250403493642807,
-0.1409190148115158,
0.42640000581741333,
0.38445043563842773,
-0.17534516751766205,
-0.13324250280857086,
-0.26629310846328735,
-0.09376431256532669,
0.08910287171602249,
-0.30041491985321045,
0.07553674280643463,
0.2772589325904846,
0.31247076392173767,
-0.31475308537483215,
-0.45402801036834717,
-0.019846104085445404,
0.08188209682703018,
-0.21416090428829193,
-0.6680282354354858,
-0.14198638498783112,
0.3615342676639557,
-0.013281939551234245,
-0.10372889786958694,
-0.24362079799175262,
-0.18310672044754028,
0.3789145052433014,
0.08642809838056564,
0.34931930899620056,
-0.2615079879760742,
0.23340542614459991,
0.6262310147285461,
-0.49467501044273376,
0.030674273148179054,
0.4749561548233032,
0.19294750690460205,
-0.8837935924530029,
0.42122575640678406,
0.16271920502185822,
-0.5472254157066345,
0.5523445010185242,
-0.25444942712783813,
-0.6329986453056335,
0.21603892743587494,
0.2905556559562683,
-0.22935758531093597,
0.5101179480552673,
0.3721466660499573,
-0.17205622792243958,
0.12001378834247589,
0.8438532948493958,
0.21525897085666656,
-0.32906389236450195,
-0.4589114189147949,
-0.6339762806892395,
-0.42564812302589417,
-0.8496671319007874,
-0.4892886281013489,
-0.517142653465271,
0.5076339840888977,
0.5556026697158813,
-0.26011037826538086,
0.2834094166755676,
-0.33380126953125,
-0.20194058120250702,
-0.5346643924713135,
-0.48779550194740295,
-0.030499059706926346,
0.5715144276618958,
0.21535798907279968,
0.1462899148464203,
-0.8292374610900879,
-0.13780483603477478,
-0.08957995474338531,
0.2693893015384674,
1.3551644086837769,
0.8564434051513672,
-0.6035891175270081,
-0.2129516750574112,
-0.14727811515331268,
0.5569273233413696,
-0.6577615737915039,
-0.3019963204860687,
0.33967500925064087,
0.47863373160362244,
-0.6627932786941528,
-0.3207433819770813,
-0.2718237042427063,
0.839579164981842,
0.06347284466028214,
-0.49023979902267456,
0.315245121717453,
-0.28500714898109436,
0.7187919616699219,
0.33494991064071655,
-0.062180083245038986,
-0.7187164425849915,
0.2473546415567398,
0.3084335923194885,
0.010479162447154522,
-0.7454512119293213,
-0.41637474298477173,
0.12410633265972137,
-1.1246134042739868,
0.8350724577903748,
0.35539644956588745,
0.1297454535961151,
0.3321560025215149,
0.14885103702545166,
0.06155438721179962,
-0.23471546173095703,
-0.23760464787483215,
0.45049265027046204,
-0.29049012064933777,
-0.35862627625465393,
-0.1913006454706192,
-0.025292741134762764,
-0.4356018304824829,
0.6752639412879944,
-0.3654753863811493,
-0.2170344591140747,
-0.07521072030067444,
-0.245278999209404,
-0.08195260912179947,
-0.14856897294521332,
0.5533405542373657,
-0.43292030692100525,
0.09581857919692993,
-0.657098114490509,
0.04435131326317787,
0.6415587067604065,
0.9273025393486023,
-0.08022644370794296,
0.5915965437889099,
-0.20492340624332428,
1.0003297328948975,
-0.6504344940185547,
-0.5928671956062317,
-0.009560944512486458,
0.22499491274356842,
-0.1344635784626007,
-0.3495336174964905,
0.11790326237678528,
-0.2442644089460373,
0.8250917196273804,
0.06714820861816406,
-0.02938217483460903,
0.6373940706253052,
0.15701928734779358,
0.40600499510765076,
0.16651354730129242,
-0.2774367034435272,
-0.02480916492640972,
-0.21371512115001678,
0.2567982077598572,
0.08275176584720612,
0.07623423635959625,
-0.0028535821475088596,
0.005940861999988556,
1.011136770248413,
-0.6600984334945679,
-0.5301949977874756,
0.05915318429470062,
0.7387193441390991,
0.42541632056236267,
0.11512161046266556,
-0.81162428855896,
-0.19547921419143677,
-0.7696325778961182,
-0.3374696671962738,
-0.18143993616104126,
0.04859042167663574,
-0.5695786476135254,
0.24591363966464996,
0.5523643493652344,
-0.02239912934601307,
-0.6494696140289307,
-0.13198117911815643,
-0.02242104709148407,
-0.05582517385482788,
0.38823243975639343,
0.17339953780174255,
-0.5283566117286682,
0.1445499062538147,
-0.1261332631111145,
-0.6088661551475525,
0.13066890835762024,
0.43456754088401794,
0.02738194726407528,
-0.04796959459781647,
0.35054394602775574,
-0.30468156933784485,
-0.1307731568813324,
-0.19442898035049438,
-0.32930612564086914,
0.07260183990001678,
0.4969659745693207,
-0.4770316779613495,
-0.5508407354354858,
-0.6330714225769043,
0.26992079615592957,
-0.5209730863571167,
-0.16301117837429047,
-0.40817368030548096,
-0.22544249892234802,
0.5179063677787781,
-0.1238311305642128,
0.244110107421875,
-0.030194319784641266,
0.5147577524185181,
-0.270641952753067,
0.7376720905303955,
-0.2632088363170624,
0.12784993648529053,
-0.08850041031837463,
0.10768362134695053,
-0.07956402748823166,
0.1178220808506012,
-0.41599223017692566,
-0.003594388486817479,
0.2676492929458618,
0.47561436891555786,
-0.9651821851730347,
-0.2714865803718567,
0.36879271268844604,
-0.6021484732627869,
-0.5565881729125977,
0.3198564648628235,
-0.03889141231775284,
-0.3813380002975464,
-0.4497990310192108,
0.7935079336166382,
0.1633545160293579,
0.3977340757846832,
0.26358920335769653,
0.2538464665412903,
0.7361233234405518,
0.6092650890350342,
-0.20509959757328033,
0.4241458475589752,
-0.5518926382064819,
-0.06403454393148422,
-0.5812022686004639,
0.5574381351470947,
0.20957399904727936,
-0.10824348032474518,
-0.36742302775382996,
0.4571821987628937,
-0.12041240185499191,
-0.06489130109548569,
0.8120200634002686,
-0.23521788418293,
0.5012370347976685,
-0.7620143294334412,
0.24141469597816467,
-0.5317625999450684,
0.022961655631661415,
0.22707192599773407,
-0.2543136477470398,
-0.754504919052124,
-0.49655598402023315,
0.058578308671712875,
-0.5730643272399902,
0.24819791316986084,
0.04580845311284065,
-0.37238168716430664,
-0.7182036638259888,
0.6809449791908264,
-0.7457681894302368,
-0.6216990351676941,
0.11802053451538086,
0.6390319466590881,
0.3197163939476013,
-0.3412424921989441,
-0.5319105982780457,
-0.03124508261680603,
0.1757652461528778,
-0.05342628434300423,
-0.1548270285129547,
0.03965943306684494,
-0.016527216881513596,
-1.0827115774154663,
-0.8453720211982727,
0.5471847653388977,
0.49298033118247986,
0.4403734505176544,
-0.16868272423744202,
0.1221160739660263,
0.23006413877010345,
-0.5305140614509583,
0.19932153820991516,
-0.6548182964324951,
0.10943387448787689,
0.3806367516517639
] |
200149
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleaford
|
Sleaford
|
Sleaford is a market town and civil parish in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, England, which includes Quarrington to the south-west, Holdingham to the north and Old Sleaford to the east. The town is on the edge of the fertile Fenlands, north-east of Grantham, west of Boston, and south of Lincoln. Its population of 17,671 at the 2011 Census made it the largest settlement in the North Kesteven district. Bypassed by the A17 and the A15, it is linked to Lincoln, Newark, Peterborough and King's Lynn. Sleaford railway station is on the Nottingham to Skegness (via Grantham) and Peterborough to Lincoln Lines.
The first settlement formed in the Iron Age where a prehistoric track crossed the River Slea. It was a tribal centre and home to a mint for the Corieltauvi in the 1st centuries BC and AD. Evidence of Roman and Anglo-Saxon settlement has been found. The medieval records differentiate between Old and New Sleaford, the latter emerging by the 12th century around the present-day market place and St Denys' Church; Sleaford Castle was also built at that time for the Bishops of Lincoln, who owned the manor. Granted the right to hold a market in the mid-12th century, New Sleaford developed into a market town and became locally important in the wool trade, while Old Sleaford declined.
From the 16th century, the landowning Carre family kept tight control over the town – it grew little in the early modern period. The manor passed from the Carre family to the Hervey family by the marriage of Isabella Carre to John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol in 1688. The town's common land and fields were legally enclosed by 1794, giving ownership mostly to the Hervey family. This coincided with canalisation of the Slea. The Sleaford Navigation brought economic growth until it was superseded by the railways in the mid-1850s. In the 20th century, the sale of farmland around Sleaford led to the development of large housing estates. The subsequent availability of affordable housing combined with the town's educational facilities and low crime rates made it an attractive destination for home-buyers and the town's population underwent the fastest growth of any Lincolnshire town in the 1990s.
Sleaford was mainly an agricultural town until the 20th century with a cattle market. Seed companies such as Hubbard and Phillips and Sharpes International were established in the late 19th century. The arrival of the railway made the town favourable for malting, but industry has declined. In 2011, the commonest occupations were in wholesale and retail trading, health and social care, public administration, defence and manufacturing. Regeneration of the town centre has helped to regenerate the earlier industrial areas, including construction of the National Centre for Craft & Design on an old wharf.
History
Etymology
The earliest records of the place-name Sleaford are found in a charter of 852 as Slioford and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as Sliowaford. In the Domesday Book (1086), it is recorded as Eslaforde and in the early 13th century as Sliforde. In the 13th century Book of Fees it appears as Lafford. The name is formed from the Old English words and , together meaning 'ford over a muddy or slimy river'.
Early period
Archaeological material from the Bronze Age and earlier has been recovered and excavations have shown there was unsustained late-Neolithic and Bronze Age human activity in the vicinity. The earliest known permanent settlement dates from the Iron Age, where a track northwards from Bourne crossed the River Slea. Although only sparse pottery evidence has been found for the middle Iron Age period, 4,290 pellet mould fragments, probably used for minting and dated to 50 BC–AD 50, have been uncovered south-east of the modern town centre, south of a crossing of the River Slea and near Mareham Lane in Old Sleaford. The largest of its kind in Europe, the deposit has led archaeologists to consider that the site in Old Sleaford as one of the largest Corieltauvian settlements in the period and possibly a tribal centre.
During the Roman occupation of Britain (AD 43–409), the settlement was "extensive and of considerable importance". Its location beside the Fens may have made it economically and administratively significant as a centre for stewards and owners of fenland estates. There are signs of a road connecting Old Sleaford to Heckington (about east), where Roman tile kilns have been uncovered and may imply the presence of a market. When the first roads were built by the Romans, Sleaford was bypassed as "less conveniently located" and more "geared to native needs". A smaller road, Mareham Lane, which the Romans renewed, ran through Old Sleaford, and south along the fen edge towards Bourne. Where it passed through Old Sleaford, excavations have shown a large stone-built domestic residence, associated farm buildings, corn-driers, ovens and field systems, all from the Roman period, and a number of burials. Other Roman remains, including a burial, have been excavated in the town.
Middle Ages
There is little evidence of continuous settlement between the late Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods but the Saxons did establish themselves eventually. South of the modern town, a 6th to 7th-century cemetery has been uncovered with an estimated 600 burials, many showing signs of pagan burial rites. The now ruined Church of St Giles/All Saints at Old Sleaford has been discovered and excavations of the market place in 1979 uncovered Anglo-Saxon remains from the 8th–9th centuries, indicating some form of enclosure with domestic features.
The earliest documentary reference to Sleaford occurs in a 9th-century charter, when it was owned by Medehamstede Abbey in Peterborough, a Mercian royal foundation. There is little evidence of estate structure until the late Saxon period, but there may have been a market and court before the Norman conquest and it may well have been an economic and jurisdictional centre for surrounding settlements. The Slea played a big part in the town's economy: it never ran dry or froze, and by the 11th century it supported a dozen watermills. The mills and others in nearby Quarrington and the lost hamlet of Millsthorpe, formed the "most important mill cluster in Lincolnshire".
In the later Middle Ages, the Romano-British settlement became known as Old Sleaford, while New Sleaford was a settlement centred on St Denys' Church and the market place. The Domesday Book (1086) has two entries under Eslaforde (Sleaford) recording land held by Ramsey Abbey and the Bishop of Lincoln. The location of the manors recorded in Domesday is unclear. One theory endorsed by Maurice Beresford is that they focused on the settlement at Old Sleaford, due to evidence that New Sleaford was planted in the 12th century by the bishop to increase his income, a development associated with the construction of Sleaford Castle between 1123 and 1139. Beresford's theory has been criticised by the local historians Christine Mahany and David Roffe who have reinterpreted the Domesday material and argued that in 1086 the Bishop's manor included the church and associated settlement which became "New" Sleaford.
A charter to hold a fair on the feast day of St Denis was granted by King Stephen to Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, in 1136–1140. Between 1154 and 1165, Henry II granted the bishop of Lincoln the right to hold a market at Sleaford; Bishop Oliver Sutton argued in 1281 that his right to hold a market and fair had existed since time immemorial. In 1329, Edward III confirmed the market. In 1401, Henry IV granted the bishop fairs on the feast days of St Denis and St Peter's Chains. A survey of 1258 is the first to mention burgage tenure; tenants in the nearby hamlet of Holdingham held tofts with other land, while those in New Sleaford held only tofts, indicating that demesne farming centred on the hamlet. The town later had at least two guilds comparable to those found in developed towns. However, there was no formal charter outlining its freedoms; it was not a centre of trade, and tight control by the bishops meant the economy was mainly geared to serve them. So it retained a strong tradition of demesne farming well into the 14th century. As the economic initiative passed more to burgesses and middlemen who formed ties with nearby towns such as Boston, evidence suggests that Sleaford developed a locally important role in the wool trade. In the Lay Subsidy of 1334, New Sleaford was the wealthiest settlement in the Flaxwell wapentake, with a value of £16 0s. 8d.1/4d. Meanwhile, Old Sleaford, an "insignificant" place since the end of the Roman period, declined and may have been deserted by the 16th century.
Early modern period
The manor of Old Sleaford was owned in the late 15th and early 16th centuries by the Hussey family, but John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford was executed for treason for his part in the Lincolnshire Rising. The manor and his residence at Old Place reverted to the Crown and were later sold to Robert Carre. George Carre or Carr from Northumberland had settled in Sleaford by 1522 when he was described as a wool merchant. His son Robert bought Hussey's land and the castle and manor of New Sleaford from Edward Clinton, 1st Earl of Lincoln. His eldest surviving son Robert, founded Carre's Grammar School in 1604, and his youngest son Edward was created a baronet; his son founded Sleaford Hospital in 1636. The last male descendant died in 1683 and the heiress, Isabella Carre, married John Hervey, Earl of Bristol, in whose family the estates remained until the 1970s. The Carres and Herveys had a strong influence: while extracting dues from their tenants, they took leading tradesmen to the Exchequer Court to gain legal force behind their monopoly on charging tolls on market and cattle traders and for driving animals through the town.
Industry was slow to take hold. By the second half of the 18th century, Cogglesford Mill was the only working corn mill in the town. An old mill at the junction of Westgate and Castle Causeway supplied hemp to the growing rope-making business of the Foster and Hill families. As local historian Simon Pawley wrote, "In many respects, things had changed little [by 1783] since the survey of 1692," with few of the buildings or infrastructure being improved. Major changes to agriculture and industry took place in the last decade of that century. From the Middle Ages, Sleaford was surrounded by three open fields known as North, West and Sleaford Fields. When these were enclosed in 1794, over 90 per cent of the of the open land was owned by Lord Bristol. Despite the costs of fencing and re-organisation, the system was easier to farm and cottages were built closer to fields, while the landowner could charge more rent owing to the increased profitability of the land; those who lost out were the cottagers, who could no longer keep a few animals grazing on the common land at no cost. The process allowed the land boundaries and pathways to be tidied; Drove Lane, running to Rauceby, was shifted north and straightened.
Industrial development
Canalisation of the River Slea began in the 1790s. Canals in England were constructed from the 1760s to make inland trade easier; Sleaford's businessmen were keen to benefit from these. Sleaford Navigation opened in 1794. It eased the export of farm produce to the Midlands and the import of coal and oil. Mills along the Slea benefited and wharves were constructed around Carre Street. Between 1829 and 1836 the navigation's toll rights increased in value 27 times over. The railways emerged in the 19th century as an alternative to canals and arrived at the town in 1857, when a line from Grantham to Sleaford opened. This made trading easier and improved communications, but led to the decline of the Navigation Company. Income from tolls decreased by 80 per cent between 1858 and 1868; it made its first loss in 1873 and was abandoned in 1878. The town's rural location and transport links led in the late 19th century to the rise of two local seed merchants: Hubbard and Phillips, and Charles Sharpe; the former took over the Navigation Wharves, and the latter was trading in the US and Europe by the 1880s. The railway, Sleaford's rural location and its artesian wells, were key factors in the development of the Bass & Co maltings complex at Mareham Lane (1892–1905).
Sleaford's population more than doubled from 1,596 in 1801 to 3,539 in 1851. Coinciding with this is the construction or extension of public buildings, often by the local contractors Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry. The gasworks opened in 1839 to provide lighting in the town. Sleaford's Poor Law Union was formed in 1836 to cater for the town and the surrounding 54 parishes. A workhouse was built by 1838, able to house 181 inmates. Despite these advances, the slums around Westgate were crowded, lacking in sanitation and ridden by disease; the local administration failed to deal with the matter until 1850, when a report on the town's public health by the General Board of Health heavily criticised the situation and set up a Local Board of Health to undertake public works. By the 1880s, Lord Bristol had allowed clean water to be pumped into the town, but engineering problems and a reluctance to sell land to house the turbines had delayed the introduction of sewers.
Post-industrial period
Although hardly damaged in the First and Second World Wars, Sleaford has close links with the Royal Air Force due to proximity to several RAF bases, including RAF Cranwell and RAF Waddington. Lincolnshire's topography – flat and open countryside – and its location in the east of the country made it ideal for the airfields being constructed in the First World War. Work began on Cranwell in late 1915; it was designated an RAF base in 1918 and the RAF College opened in 1920 as the world's first air academy. A Cranwell branch railway linking Sleaford station with the RAF base opened in 1917 and closed in 1956. During the Second World War, Lincolnshire was "the most significant location for bomber command" and Rauceby Hospital, south-west of Sleaford, was requisitioned by the RAF as a specialist burns unit which the plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe regularly visited.
Sleaford's population remained static between the wars, but the Great Depression in the 1930s caused unemployment to rise. The Council housing put up along Drove Lane proved insufficient for the low-income families after the Westgate slums were cleared in the 1930s; Jubilee Grove opened in that decade to meet the demand.
In the post-war period, there were housing developments at St Giles Avenue, the Hoplands, Russell Crescent, Jubilee Grove and Grantham Road. Parts of the town were redeveloped: in 1958, the Bristol Arms Arcade opened, the Corn Exchange was demolished in the 1960s and the Waterside Shopping Precinct opened in 1973, as did Flaxwell House, designed to house a department store, though later becoming the national headquarters for Interflora.
By 1979, the major landowner, Victor Hervey, 6th Marquess of Bristol, was heavily in debt and sold most of his estates in Sleaford and Quarrington. The estate office closed in 1989. Much of the land went to property developers and subsequent decades brought new housing and a considerable rise in population. According to a council report, people were attracted to the town by "the quality of life, low crime rates, relatively low house prices and good-quality education". From 1981 to 2011, Sleaford's population rose from 8,000 to 18,000; the growth rate in 1991–2001 was the fastest of any town in the county. The infrastructure struggled to cope, especially with increased traffic congestion. Two bypasses opened and a one-way system was introduced, a process that Simon Pawley argues accelerated the decline of the High Street. In the early 2000s, the Single Regeneration Budget of £15 million granted to Sleaford improved the town centre and funded development of the Hub (from 2011 to 2021, the National Centre for Craft & Design) in the old Navigation wharves area.
Geography
Topography
Sleaford is the principal market town in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire. The civil parish includes the hamlet of Holdingham to the north east and the village of Quarrington to the south east, both of which merge with the town. Sleaford lies some 43 feet (13 m) above sea level close to Lincoln Cliff, a Limestone scarp running north–south through Lindsey and Kesteven. The bedrock under the western half of the town belongs to the Great Oolite Group of Jurassic Sandstone, Limestone and Argillaceous rocks formed 168−165 million years ago; Kellaways and Oxford Clay formations, dated to 165–156 million years ago, underlie the eastern half. Alluvium deposits are found along the Slea's course, and Fen sand and gravel are found to the east and south.
The town is on the edge of the Fens, a low-lying region of the East of England which, before drainage from the 17th to the 20th centuries, were marshy and liable to flooding. Draining has revealed nutrient-rich soils and allowed 88 per cent of the land to be cultivated, mainly as arable. Most of it qualifies amongst the most productive farmland in the country. Two Local Nature Reserves sit within the civil parish boundaries: Lollycocks Field, providing mostly wildflower and wetlands habitats alongside Eastgate, and Mareham Pastures, consisting of wildflower meadows, new woodland, hedges and open grassland.
Climate
Lincolnshire's position in the east of Britain brings a sunnier, warmer climate than average. It is one of the driest counties. Although it may vary depending on altitude and proximity to the coast, the mean average temperature for the East of England is approximately 9 °C to 10.5 °C; the highest temperature recorded in the region was 37.3 °C at Cavendish on 10 August 2003. On average, the region experiences 30 days of rainfall in winter and 25 in summer, with 15 days of thunder and 6–8 days of hail per year; on 25 August 2001, hail the size of golf balls were reported in Sleaford and other parts of central Lincolnshire. Wind tends to affect the north and west of the country more than the East, and Lincolnshire tends to get no more than two days of gale per year (where gale is a gust of wind at >34 knots, sustained for at least 10 minutes). Despite this, tornadoes form more often in the East of England than elsewhere; Sleaford suffered them in 2006 and 2012, both causing damage to property.
Governance
Politics
Before 1832, Sleaford was in the Lincolnshire parliamentary constituency, which encompassed all of the county except for four boroughs. In the 1818 election, 49 of the 2,000 people living in New and Old Sleaford and Quarrington qualified to vote. In 1832, the Reform Act widened the franchise and divided Lincolnshire. Sleaford was in the South Lincolnshire constituency that elected two members to Parliament. Following the 1867 reforms, the South Lincolnshire constituency's borders were redrawn, but Sleaford remained within it. The franchise was widened by the reforms so that roughly 15% (202) of males in Sleaford and Quarrington could vote in 1868. The constituency was abolished in 1885 and the Sleaford constituency formed. It merged with the Grantham seat in 1918. In 1997, Sleaford was reorganised into Sleaford and North Hykeham.
From 1999 until 2020, Lincolnshire elected members of the European Parliament as part of the East Midlands constituency.
Local government
From the early medieval period, New Sleaford was in the Flaxwell wapentake and Old Sleaford in the Ashwardhurn one. Sleaford Poor Law Union, overseen by a Board of Guardians, was founded in 1836. A Local Board of Health was formed in 1851. After the Public Health Act 1872 established Urban and Rural Sanitary Districts (USD or RSD), Sleaford USD incorporated New and Old Sleaford, Holdingham and Quarrington, while the Sleaford RSD included all other parishes in the Poor Law Union. The Local Government Act 1894 converted the Board of Health and USD into the Sleaford Urban District Council; in 1899, the town became the administrative base of Kesteven County Council. In 1973, Sleaford Urban District merged with the North and East Kesteven Rural Districts to form North Kesteven, a district of Lincolnshire; by statutory instrument, Sleaford civil parish became the urban district's successor, thus merging Quarrington, New Sleaford, Old Sleaford and Holdingham civil parishes.
Sleaford Town Council, the parish-level local government body beneath the district council, consists of 18 councillors from six wards: Castle, Holdingham, Mareham, Navigation, Quarrington and Westholme. The Chairman of the Town Council is also the Mayor of Sleaford. The six wards are also represented on North Kesteven District Council, although Mareham and Quarrington are merged into a single ward. Sleaford sends one councillor to Lincolnshire County Council. Sleaford Town Council has offices on Carre Street and the District Council offices are in the Lafford Terrace building on Eastgate, which was purchased by the council in 1934.
Sleaford Urban District Council was granted a coat of arms on 26 October 1950 and after it was abolished the arms were used by its successor, Sleaford Town Council. The arms are blazoned: Gules on a Chevron Or three Estoiles Sable on a Chief Argent as many Trefoils slipped Vert. The trefoils in the chief are from the arms of the Marquess or Bristol, while the lower portion of the shield is the arms of the Carre family. Its crest is blazoned: On a Wreath of the Colours an Eagle wings extended and head downwards and to the sinister proper holding in the beak an Ear of Wheat stalked and leaved Or, the eagle symbolises Sleaford's links with the Royal Air Force and the ear of wheat represents agriculture.
Public services
Policing is provided by the Lincolnshire Police, fire-fighting by the Lincolnshire Fire and Rescue Service and ambulance services by the East Midlands Ambulance Service. The police station is on Boston Road, although older premises on Kesteven Street were erected in 1845 and reconstructed in 1912. The fire and ambulance services share accommodation on Eastgate which opened in 2018; the fire station had previously been on Church Lane and the ambulance service had operated from Kesteven Street. The United Lincolnshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides services at three hospitals, Pilgrim Hospital in Boston, Grantham and District Hospital, and Lincoln County Hospital.
In 1879, an Act of Parliament was passed to set up a water company for the town; pumping machinery was installed and works constructed in 1880 to provide a clean water supply to the town. In 1948, the council took over the company and in 1962 its operation was handed to the Kesteven Water Board, which was absorbed by the Anglian Water Authority in 1973.
The County Council promoted a Bill to Parliament to build an electricity generating station which passed in 1900. It was built at the cost of £6,700 in 1901 on Castle Causeway and remained there until nationalisation in 1948. Following nationalisation, electricity was provided by the East Midlands Electricity Board until it was privatised in 1990. A "virtually carbon neutral" straw-burning power-station at Sleaford opened in 2013; capable of supplying electricity to 65,000 homes, it is powered by straw bales from farms within a radius. Most electricity generated is fed into the National Grid and the facility provides free heat to public buildings in the town.
The Sleaford Gas Light Company was formed in 1838. The following year gas lighting was provided and a gasworks was constructed in Eastgate. In 1866, the company was incorporated; in 1895–96, the works were rebuilt and lit the town until the company was nationalised in 1948. Gas ceased to be made there in the 1960s and the original buildings were retained, although later extensions were demolished in 1966–1968.
Sleaford Library houses a local and family history section and microfiche machine. It was refurbished in 2010, but, as of 2014, was listed by the county council as "undersized".
Economy
Employment
Sleaford served the surrounding agricultural communities and the town maintained a weekly market throughout the 19th century and a livestock market on Northgate from 1874 until 1984. According to a 2010 council report, the public sector was the town's main employer, along with agriculture and manufacturing. Unemployment was lower than the national average as were wages reflecting pay in the food processing and agricultural industries. At the 2011 Census, the largest group of working-age persons by economic activity are those in full-time employment, who make up 43.8 per cent of this section of the population, while 15 per cent are part-time employees and 7.7 per cent are self-employed; 15 per cent of the working-age population were retired, 4.2 per cent unemployed, with 40 per cent of those in long-term unemployment and roughly one third aged 16 to 24. The largest socio-economic grouping is those working in lower-tier managerial or administrative roles (21.9 per cent), followed by semi-routine (17.8 per cent), routine (15 per cent) and intermediate (12.5 per cent) occupations; no other group comprised 10 per cent or more. In terms of industry, the most common, based on those working in the sector, are the wholesale and retail trades (including automotive repairs) at 16.9 per cent, health and social care (13.4 per cent), public administration and defence (13.3 per cent) and manufacturing (10.9 per cent), with no other groups representing 10 per cent or more. An unemployment survey of Lincolnshire in 2014 found that the county experienced a decline in unemployment (based on Jobseekers Allowance claimants) by 29 per cent over the preceding 12 months, while the county's unemployment rate was marginally below the national average.
Regeneration
In 2011 North Kesteven District Council produced a 25-year strategy to regenerate the town, since its rapid growth since the 1990s had outgrown improvements to its infrastructure. It planned future residential developments and outlined ways to improve the town centre. It suggested developing more parking around the centre and reverting parts of the one-way system, developing southern Southgate and turning Money's Yard into an attraction to link with the National Centre for Craft and Design. North Kesteven District Council granted planning permission for a £56 m project to redevelop the derelict Bass Maltings site by converting it into residential and retail space and creating about 500 permanent jobs. The development including a supermarket was delayed when the town council opposed a link road through part of the recreation ground. Tesco, who had pledged to invest in a £20 million store in the development withdrew in January 2015 following financial set-backs.
Transport
The A17 road from Newark-on-Trent to King's Lynn bypasses Sleaford from Holdingham Roundabout to Kirkby la Thorpe. It ran through the town until the bypass opened in 1975. The Holdingham roundabout connects the A17 to the A15 road from Peterborough to Scawby. It also passed through Sleaford until 1993, when its bypass was completed. Three roads meet at Sleaford's market place: Northgate (B1518), Southgate and Eastgate (B1517). A one-way system set up in 1994 creates a circuit around the town centre.
The railways arrived in the 19th century. Early proposals to bring a line to Sleaford failed, but in 1852 plans were made to build the Boston, Sleaford and Midland Counties Railway and its Act of Parliament passed in 1853. The line from Grantham opened in 1857; Boston was connected in 1859, Bourne in 1871 and Ruskington on Great Northern and Great Eastern Joint Railway in 1882.
Sleaford is a stop on the Peterborough to Lincoln Line and the Poacher Line, from Grantham to Skegness. Grantham, roughly by road and two stops on the Poacher Line, is a major stop on the East Coast Main Line. Trains from Grantham to London King's Cross take approximately 1 hour 15 minutes.
The River Slea through the town was converted into use as a canal for much of the 19th century. Plans to canalise it were drawn up in 1773, but faced opposition from land-owners who feared it might affect the drainage of fens. Plans were approved in 1791 with the support of Brownlow Bertie, 5th Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven who owned estates and quarries that he hoped would benefit. An Act of Parliament passed in 1792, establishing the Sleaford Navigation, which opened two years later. After falling revenues due to competition from the railways, the navigation company closed in 1878. The river, although no longer navigable, passes under Carre Street and Southgate. The Nine Foot Drain, also unnavigable, meets the Slea just before Southgate.
Demography
Ethnicity
The 2011 census gave an ethnicity count of:
93.57% White British
4.04% White other
1.09% Asian or Asian British
0.26% Black or Black British
0.05% Arab
0.12% Other
0.87% Mixed
The resident population at the 2011 Census was 17,671, which accounts for some 15 per cent of the population of the North Kesteven District; the urban area contained 8,690 houses. The town's population grew by 39% between 1991 and 2001, the fastest growth rate of any town in Lincolnshire. The district population is predicted to rise by 29 per cent between 2008 and 2033, compared with a national average of 18 per cent; in 2013, county councillors approved plans to build 4,500 new homes. A joint planning strategy report found that "This growth has largely been the result of people moving to the area attracted by the quality of life, low crime rates, relatively low house prices and good-quality education."
The 2011 Census revealed that approximately 93.6 per cent of the town's resident population were White British; the second largest ethnic group was White Irish at approximately 3.4 per cent, followed by Asian (including Asian British) at 1.09 per cent; no other ethnic group represented 1% or more of the population; 88.5 per cent of residents were born in England and 4.41 per cent in other parts of the United Kingdom; 4.3 per cent were from EU countries, with 2.5 per cent coming from EU member states which joined after 2001.
Between December 2013 and November 2014, 1,289 criminal acts were reported, of which 43.9 per cent were classed as anti-social behaviour, making it the largest portion of reported crimes. In 2010, recorded crime levels were amongst the lowest in the country and, for the year ending June 2014, the crime rate in the North Kesteven district is the lowest in Lincolnshire at 24.38 crimes per thousand residents.
Religion
Population
Most people in the town identify as Christian. At the 2011 Census, 70.3 per cent of residents identified as Christian, while 21.8 per cent reported no religion, and 6.6 per cent did not state a religion; no other religious group comprised 1 per cent or more of the population. The 2001 Census recorded that 81.6 per cent of Sleaford residents identified as Christian, nearly ten percentage points higher than the national figure (71.8 per cent); 11.5 per cent of the town's residents had no religion and 6 per cent did not disclose a religion.
In the Compton Census (1676), New Sleaford had a Conformist population of 576 people, no "Papists" and 6 Non-conformists. In the 19th century, it had a sizeable Non-conformist population and a large Anglican congregation; at the 1851 Census of Religious Worship, an estimated 2,000 people attended Non-conformist places of worship, while an estimated 600–700 people attended Anglican services in the parish. The Wesleyans met in Westgate in the early 19th century; by 1848, the congregation had set up in Northgate, an area known for its taverns and poor tenements.
Ecclesiastical history
New Sleaford had a church and priest by the time of the Domesday Book (1086) and the vicarage was founded in 1274. During the Commonwealth (1649–60), the vicar was expelled and replaced by Puritan ministers, the last of whom was removed following the Restoration in 1660 and replaced with an Anglican clergyman. In 1616, the vicarage was valued at £8 and in 1872 at £180. As of 2015, the ecclesiastical parish of St Denys, Sleaford, encloses the town of Sleaford and hamlet of Holdingham north of the railway line and does not include Quarrington. It falls within the Lafford Deanery, the Lincoln Archdeaconry and the Diocese of Lincoln. The patron is the Bishop of Lincoln and the incumbent vicar is the Rev. Philip Anthony Johnson, who was instituted in 2013.
Old Sleaford was in the possession of Ramsey Abbey at the time of Domesday and later Haverholme Priory, and was eventually served by a vicar; the church was dedicated either to St Giles or to All Saints. At the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536–41), the king took over collection of the tithes, eventually leasing them to Thomas Horseman and then selling them to Robert Carre. In the 17th century, the rectory of Quarrington and the vicarage were combined to form the parish of Quarrington with Old Sleaford. The parish boundaries of New Sleaford and Quarrington with Old Sleaford were last altered in 1928.
The prebendary of New Sleaford or Lafford had a seat in the Lincoln Cathedral; it is not known when it was established, but it was confirmed by the Pope in 1146 and 1163, and was in the patronage of the bishop. Sleaford's tithes paid to the prebendary were valued at £11 19s. 7d. (£11.98) in 1616. After the enclosure of Sleaford's fields, a farm at Holdingham Anna was allotted to the prebendary in place of the tithes. The Prebendal Court of Sleaford had jurisdiction over New and Old Sleaford and Holdingham to grant administration and probate. The parishes of New and Old Sleaford were in the peculiar jurisdiction of the predendary until 1846, when they became part of Aswardhurn and Lafford Rural Deanery. In 1866 they were placed in Aswardhurn and Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery, from 1884 in the Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery, the Lafford South Rural Deanery from 1910, and since 1968, the Lafford Rural Deanery.
Places of worship
The Anglican parish church, St Denys, fronts onto the market place; the oldest parts date to the late-12th century and the broach-spire, built around 1220, is one of the oldest in England.
Non-conformist meetings took place on Hen Lane (later Jermyn Street) from about 1776. The Congregationalists who met there constructed a chapel on Southgate in 1867–1868 (extended in 2007); in 1972, it became Sleaford United Reformed Church, which merged with Sleaford Community Church to form Riverside Church in 2008. Wesleyans first met in the 1790s at the house of Thomas Fawcett on Westgate. They built a chapel nearby in 1802, which was replaced in 1823; it housed the congregation until 1848 when a larger one was built on North Street. It was demolished and replaced by another on the same site in 1972. A Baptist chapel was built in Old Sleaford in 1811 to house a congregation of 250, it served the Strict Baptists until possibly the mid-20th century. The premises have been converted into a house. A Wesleyan Reform Methodist chapel opened in West Banks in 1864, but since 1896 has been occupied by the Salvation Army.
The Fens were increasingly cultivated after the Napoleonic Wars, prompting migrant Catholic Irish farm-workers to move to the area. By 1879 a Roman Catholic missionary, Father Hermann Sabela, was conducting services in the town. A Catholic school and chapel were built in 1881 on land in Jermyn Street and in 1888, Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic Church, opened beside it. The incumbent priest is Father Michael John Bell, who was appointed in 2001. Mass is held on Sundays and throughout the week.
The Sleaford Muslim Community Association met in St Deny's Church Hall during the early 2000s. A prayer hall was opened in Station Road in 2015 which has a custom dome and small minarets on it. Protests were planned by the English Defence League, but were cancelled.
Sleaford Spiritualist Church opened in about 1956 on Westgate.
Education
Primary
Sleaford has four primary schools. In 1726 William Alvey bequeathed land to fund teaching children in Sleaford. The school and master's house for Alvey's Endowed School, a national school, was built in 1851. New buildings for the infants' school were constructed in 1888. William Alvey Church of England School is housed in the same buildings. It became an academy in 2012. St Botolph's School is a Church of England Primary School, which opened at its current site in 2002. Church Lane School is housed in buildings constructed in 2002, when the original school house was demolished; in 2013, it had 201 children on roll. Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic School had 155 pupils on roll in 2011.
In 1835, there were eight day schools and three Sunday schools in New Sleaford and two daily schools in Old Sleaford. An infant school in the old playhouse on Westgate opened in 1855; Wesleyan schools attached to the chapel on North Street accommodated up to 200 pupils. In addition to private girls' schools, short-lived private schools for boys were established by Mr Herring and Charles Boyer in 1851, Henry Carruthers, and Edwin Reginald Dibben in 1870 in competition with the grammar school. Charles Kirk built a school and chapel at Quarrington in 1867. It became St Botolph's Primary School and in 2002 moved to a new site. In 1879, an art school was established in Duke Street in connection with the Science and Art Department; by 1896, two Wesleyan schools and a Catholic school were also in operation.
Secondary
The town has three secondary schools with sixth forms: Carre's Grammar School, a boys' grammar school, Kesteven and Sleaford High School, a selective academy girls' grammar school, and St George's Academy, formerly St George's College of Technology, and before that Sleaford (County) Secondary Modern School (mixed non-selective secondary school). The grammar schools are selective and pupils are required to pass the Eleven plus exam. St George's is not selective. The co-educational Joint Sixth Form consortium allows pupils to choose subjects taught at all three schools.
Carre's Grammar School was founded in 1604 by a bequest of Robert Carre of Aswarby. It has received Specialist Sports and Science statuses, became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be "good" by Ofsted in 2013, at which time it had 817 pupils, including the co-educational sixth form. Sleaford and Kesteven High School for Girls was established in 1902. It has specialist art status, became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be "good" by Ofsted in 2013, at which time there were 825 pupils on roll, including those in the co-educational sixth form. St George's opened in 1908 as Sleaford Council School. It has received specialist technology college status, converted to an academy in 2010 and operates a satellite school at Ruskington. St George's had 2,247 pupils on roll in 2012, across both sites and including the sixth form; when assessed by Ofsted in that year, was judged to be "good".
Culture
The National Centre for Craft & Design opened as The Hub in 2003 with support from a Single Regeneration Budget grant. It attracts 90,000 visitors on average each year and houses exhibitions of applied and contemporary art.
The Playhouse theatre on Westgate was constructed in 1825 and sold in 1856 to be converted into an infants school and later a library and offices. In 1994, Sleaford Little Theatre bought and restored it and in 2000 it opened to the public. The Sleaford Picturedrome opened in 1920; the cinema closed in 2000 and the building became a snooker hall and then a nightclub that closed in 2008.
Sleaford Museum Trust was formed in the 1970s to collect and preserve historical artefacts from the town's history. A Heritage Lottery Fund grant of more than £94,000 in December 2013 allowed the trust to establish a museum on Southgate, which opened in April 2015. Sleaford and District Civic Trust was founded in 1972 to "preserve the best features" of the town.
There is a volunteer twinning association, the Sleaford and District Town Twinning Association, which was founded in 1999. The association has created and maintains links and annual visits with Marquette-lez-Lille in France since 1999, and with Fredersdorf-Vogelsdorf in Germany since 2009.
Sport
Sleaford Town F.C. played in the United Counties League Premier Division for the 2014–15 season. Formed as Sleaford Amateurs F.C. in 1920, the club was renamed Sleaford Town in 1968. In 2007 it moved to its present grounds at Eslaforde Park. Sleaford Rugby FC's clubhouse opened in 1999 off the A153. Sleaford Golf Club was founded in 1905 and had roughly 100 members the following year, which increased to 193 in 1911. The original golf course has been altered. In 2014, the club had roughly 600 members. Sleaford Cricket Club has grounds at London Road; the earliest record of the club is in 1803. The town is also home to Bristol Bowls Club, and an all-discipline gymnastics club founded in 1996. An outdoor lido opened in 1872 on riverside land owned by the Bristol estate but handed over to the community as public baths. Indoor facilities were built in the 20th century and the old lido became Sleaford Leisure Centre. In 2011 Kesteven District Council received a grant of £2.85 million, to fund reconstruction of the centre and its gym.
Sleaford Town Runners is a running club based in the town, Affiliated to UK Athletics, Association of Running Clubs, and ClubMark. Training meetings are held twice a week, and runners from the club participate in a wide range of events including weekly parkruns, 10ks, half marathons, marathons and ultra marathons. Sleaford Town Runners organise the popular Rauceby Ripper cross country race every February which is attended by a wide range of club runners from the county and beyond.
Local media
The main radio stations for the county are BBC Radio Lincolnshire, broadcasting on 94.9 FM and 104.7 FM frequencies, and the commercial station Lincs FM, on 102.2, 96.7 and 97.6 FM. The town's local newspapers are the Sleaford Standard (founded in 1924), the Sleaford Advertiser (founded in 1980) and the Sleaford Target (founded in 1984). Historically, the Sleaford Gazette operated between 1854 and 1960; the Sleaford Journal ran from at least 1884 until it was incorporated into the Gazette in December 1929, while the Sleaford Telegraph ran from 1888 to 1889 and the Sleaford Guardian was in print for a year from 1945 to 1946.
Landmarks
A small number of medieval buildings remain standing in the town. St Denys' Church and St Botolph's in Quarrington date to the 12th and 13th centuries respectively, while Sleaford's half-timbered vicarage is 15th century. St Denys' Church is noted for its tracery and its stone broach spire is one of the oldest in England. Cogglesford Mill is the only remaining watermill in town and is a testament to the economic importance of the River Slea from the late-Saxon period onwards. The Bishops of Lincoln used the medieval town as a base, constructing the now-ruined Sleaford Castle, and as a means of extracting produce and wealth through demesne farming and by granting a market and limited freedoms to the town. As a result, the oldest areas are the market place and the four roads which meet there: Northgate, Southgate, Eastgate and Westgate; many 18th- and 19th-century buildings are found in this area.
Buildings dating from these centuries include William Alvey's baroque house on Northgate, the Manor House on Northgate inset with medieval masonry, and Sessions House on the Market Place. The Carre family founded the grammar school which was rebuilt in 1834, the hospital, rebuilt in 1830, and the almshouses, rebuilt 1857, while the Victorian builders Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry constructed or added to numerous public buildings and private residences, including Lafford Terrace and their own houses on Southgate and at Westholme.
During the Industrial Revolution, the Slea was canalised in 1794 and the Sleaford Navigation Company constructed offices and wharves along Carre Street. The canal brought trade, while the Gothic-fronted gasworks on Eastgate lit the town from 1839. Benjamin Handley and Anthony Peacock financed and benefited from the navigation and founded the bank that took over Alvey's House on Northgate and later added a Baroque extension; Henry Handley, a Member of Parliament, is commemorated by the Handley Memorial on Southgate, a Gothic monument in the style of an Eleanor Cross. During the 1850s, the railways arrived and the station was built in a Gothic style. Sleaford's agricultural location and new transport links encouraged seed trading and malting in the late 19th century: the seed merchant Charles Sharpe's house, The Pines, is on Boston Road. The massive Bass and Company maltings complex, constructed in brick off Mareham Lane between 1892 and 1905, is grade II*listed and has a frontage more than 1,000 feet long.
Sleafordians
The Handley family were well-connected with business; Benjamin Handley was a lawyer, prominent in the Navigation Company and partner in the local bank Peacock, Handley and Kirton. His son, Henry, was M.P. for South Lincolnshire; after his death, the residents erected a monument to him on Southgate. Robert Armstrong Yerburgh the son of Rev. Richard Yerburgh, vicar of New Sleaford, was twice M.P. for Chester. Sir Thomas Meres, politician was educated at the grammar school. Sir Robert Pattinson, also educated at the grammar, was M.P. for Grantham and Sleaford and chairman of Kesteven County Council.
The religious controversialist Henry Pickworth was born in New Sleaford and challenged the opponent of Quakerism Francis Bugg to an open debate at Sleaford. John Austin, a religious writer, was educated at the grammar school. William Scoffin served as the town's Presbyterian minister and preached there for more than forty years, while Benjamin Fawcett, Presbyterian minister, was born and educated at Sleaford. Andrew Kippis, the Presbyterian minister, biographer and Fellow of the Royal Society, attended the Grammar School.
The portrait painter Charles Haslewood Shannon (1863–1937), was born in Sleaford. Richard Banister, the oculist, practised for 14 years in Sleaford, where he trained in couching cataracts. Henry Andrews astronomer and astrologer, worked in Sleaford during his youth.
The royalist poet Thomas Shipman was educated at Carre's Grammar School, as was novelist Henry Jackson; Joseph Smedley, the actor and comedian, built the theatre in 1824, before settling in the town in 1842, establishing a printing business and dying in North Street; and Charles Haslewood Shannon, the artist, was born in the town. The actress and comedian Jennifer Saunders was born in Sleaford. In popular culture, the singer Lois Wilkinson of the Caravelles was born in the town; glamour model Abi Titmuss grew up in Ruskington and was educated at Kesteven and Sleaford High School; and Bernie Taupin, Elton John's lyricist, was born in the town. Eric Thompson who narrated The Magic Roundabout television series, was born in a house on Jermyn Street. In sport, the professional footballer Mark Wallington who played for Leicester City, Derby County and Lincoln City, grew up in Sleaford and, after retiring, taught Physical Education at St George's Academy.
In academia, the botanist David H. N. Spence was born in Sleaford; and the sociologist Sheila Allen attended Kesteven and Sleaford High School.
See also
Sleaford (disambiguation)
Sleaford Town Runners
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Pawley, S. (1992). "Democracy and proper drains: public health and landed influence in late-nineteenth-century Sleaford", Lincolnshire Past and Present, no. 7. (Society for Lincolnshire History and Archaeology)
Ranger, William (1850). Report to the General Board of Health on a Preliminary Inquiry into the Sewerage, Drainage, and Supply of Water, and the Sanitary Condition of the Inhabitants of the Parish of New Sleaford, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
External links
Sleaford Town Council
Towns in Lincolnshire
Civil parishes in Lincolnshire
Market towns in Lincolnshire
North Kesteven District
|
[
-0.23183847963809967,
0.4246101677417755,
0.530604898929596,
-0.6763297915458679,
0.1057654619216919,
0.42392292618751526,
-0.32799461483955383,
-0.007907092571258545,
-0.2226119339466095,
-0.00954285915941,
-0.008392098359763622,
-0.03821706026792526,
-0.8156682252883911,
-0.0457925871014595,
-0.7537878155708313,
0.6695157885551453,
-0.24272993206977844,
0.33027252554893494,
0.8575950860977173,
-1.143214225769043,
0.25240567326545715,
-0.7479671239852905,
-0.4123630225658417,
0.2062995582818985,
0.5268487334251404,
-0.10986212641000748,
0.27985021471977234,
0.1613140106201172,
-0.19631680846214294,
0.04012717306613922,
0.20484469830989838,
0.11592229455709457,
-0.40027156472206116,
-0.42334380745887756,
0.19069944322109222,
-0.3125069737434387,
0.24444137513637543,
-0.04940822720527649,
-0.3286702334880829,
0.12564146518707275,
-0.211286723613739,
-0.19228050112724304,
-0.4656532108783722,
0.16512352228164673,
-0.20317380130290985,
-0.42120230197906494,
-1.04850172996521,
0.42197632789611816,
-0.548658013343811,
-0.5677288770675659,
-0.6596505045890808,
0.2282530665397644,
-0.040252890437841415,
0.22519466280937195,
1.0558102130889893,
-0.05112658441066742,
0.14282134175300598,
-0.11253752559423447,
1.0413475036621094,
0.2203683704137802,
-0.09954552352428436,
0.4113134443759918,
-0.12490349262952805,
-0.0800069123506546,
0.5161126852035522,
0.1969050019979477,
-0.1982542872428894,
0.3007526397705078,
-0.47709494829177856,
-0.4893428087234497,
-0.32461804151535034,
-0.4114946722984314,
-0.27099940180778503,
0.6812418699264526,
0.0004639600228983909,
0.10003020614385605,
-0.07108381390571594,
0.20059293508529663,
0.22989892959594727,
0.49022147059440613,
0.5944989323616028,
-0.5756972432136536,
0.5872095227241516,
0.6081186532974243,
0.6064267754554749,
0.3316124379634857,
-0.8913232684135437,
0.31326162815093994,
-0.5678288340568542,
0.48341014981269836,
0.2684553861618042,
0.10814740508794785,
-0.6322134733200073,
-0.3108920156955719,
0.54397052526474,
0.22658005356788635,
0.07821854203939438,
0.44795721769332886,
-0.029282011091709137,
0.1338571012020111,
-0.2793065905570984,
0.17912952601909637,
0.9060014486312866,
-0.2013513743877411,
-0.2996061146259308,
-0.3917326033115387,
0.06632720679044724,
0.1110161542892456,
1.030005931854248,
-0.30821508169174194,
-0.20887665450572968,
0.33825093507766724,
-0.07373857498168945,
0.14046622812747955,
0.2631838321685791,
0.2921830415725708,
-0.2107171267271042,
-0.7720657587051392,
0.034506797790527344,
0.4988875091075897,
-0.32523179054260254,
1.3715623617172241,
-0.16179734468460083,
-0.3591623306274414,
-0.2582789957523346,
0.497717946767807,
0.02504241093993187,
1.0843758583068848,
-0.4766867756843567,
0.07817363739013672,
0.07482331991195679,
0.6542690396308899,
-0.3515014946460724,
0.5898393392562866,
0.1674201786518097,
-0.8837077021598816,
-0.298592209815979,
-0.1893291473388672,
0.8613258004188538,
0.8421564698219299,
-0.31325647234916687,
-0.05134856328368187,
-0.13329781591892242,
-0.17759977281093597,
0.036635641008615494,
-0.3424087166786194,
-0.1162494346499443,
-0.8864355087280273,
-0.17482267320156097,
-0.4266628324985504,
0.5722418427467346,
0.7248284816741943,
-0.16559824347496033,
-0.6186680197715759,
-0.12052573263645172,
-0.23725998401641846,
0.6544773578643799,
0.27010202407836914,
-0.3081747591495514,
-0.036991626024246216,
-0.403635710477829,
-0.0576421320438385,
0.6673846244812012,
-0.2111891508102417,
0.5927485823631287,
-0.3164048194885254,
0.9304347634315491,
-0.3062017261981964,
0.133713960647583,
-0.010607907548546791,
-0.3788245916366577,
-0.2538530230522156,
1.116498589515686,
-0.2673856317996979,
0.02325635962188244,
-0.2689318060874939,
0.9905892014503479,
0.5673069953918457,
0.40937960147857666,
-0.23184385895729065,
-0.6142064332962036,
0.6234723329544067,
0.3090343475341797,
-0.010292363353073597,
-0.36708053946495056,
0.3840188682079315,
0.057101331651210785,
0.2763093113899231,
-0.5944296717643738,
0.35907259583473206,
0.7603520750999451,
-0.5579329133033752,
0.8532091975212097,
-0.33221596479415894,
1.1671890020370483,
0.05591579154133797,
-0.017268741503357887,
0.3936769664287567,
-0.5954281091690063,
0.8486906290054321,
0.12800028920173645,
-0.16857492923736572,
0.75358647108078,
-0.39308974146842957,
-0.28197360038757324,
-0.05246901512145996,
0.19784116744995117,
0.1767764687538147,
-0.3508020043373108,
0.49650031328201294,
-0.13373441994190216,
-0.14002259075641632,
0.02315078303217888,
0.8509454727172852,
-0.2060180902481079,
-0.9537997245788574,
-0.20206604897975922,
0.2731144428253174,
0.1421390026807785,
-1.0635457038879395,
0.45627352595329285,
0.06594529002904892,
0.04969579353928566,
0.010433941148221493,
0.13067106902599335,
0.45704886317253113,
0.03665081411600113,
0.10416474938392639,
-0.5820997357368469,
-0.292791485786438,
-0.06729549169540405,
0.8944501280784607,
-0.10632635653018951,
-0.762691855430603,
-0.34791842103004456,
-0.5509920120239258,
0.211137592792511,
-0.21238484978675842,
0.21348656713962555,
0.004593399353325367,
-0.2180895209312439,
0.4616648554801941,
-0.4679010808467865,
-0.1793115884065628,
0.35922226309776306,
0.36150923371315,
-0.05351363494992256,
0.3975256085395813,
-0.24154143035411835,
-0.45460015535354614,
-0.42393016815185547,
-0.009577341377735138,
0.2571888267993927,
-0.026170682162046432,
0.06104458495974541,
-0.08699553459882736,
-0.27132973074913025,
0.7810935974121094,
0.4966926872730255,
0.33771318197250366,
-0.22704961895942688,
-0.26960498094558716,
0.25008484721183777,
0.23786164820194244,
-0.32629191875457764,
-0.2479305863380432,
-0.32286518812179565,
-0.4565295875072479,
0.5074273347854614,
0.5221917033195496,
0.2128930389881134,
-0.17948901653289795,
0.1949848234653473,
0.04637539014220238,
-0.05091726779937744,
0.10827815532684326,
0.45008328557014465,
-0.01661366969347,
-0.818520724773407,
0.019729133695364,
0.6069141030311584,
0.7709198594093323,
-0.1303468495607376,
-0.05310671031475067,
-0.001796774216927588,
-0.705886960029602,
0.5294150114059448,
-0.8995519876480103,
-0.3679903745651245,
0.3359929025173187,
-0.036004841327667236,
0.7358370423316956,
-0.4242594838142395,
0.43022066354751587,
-0.2981984317302704,
0.084625743329525,
-0.259010374546051,
-0.6446726322174072,
-0.07895015180110931,
0.170950785279274,
-0.24340185523033142,
0.7215464115142822,
-0.3432391583919525,
0.11100992560386658,
0.10190241038799286,
-0.4393792152404785,
-0.8704078197479248,
-1.0177552700042725,
-5.244020938873291,
0.5020408630371094,
-0.17416392266750336,
0.2698635756969452,
0.033857014030218124,
-0.08206648379564285,
0.23773403465747833,
-0.36053454875946045,
0.11426806449890137,
0.5248430371284485,
0.039142362773418427,
-0.028748178854584694,
-0.40607428550720215,
-0.029310641810297966,
1.0457453727722168,
0.2794990837574005,
0.5532811284065247,
-0.5701368451118469,
0.5720036029815674,
-0.7111499905586243,
-0.3876812160015106,
-0.024145672097802162,
0.1879914402961731,
0.3322342038154602,
0.45691967010498047,
0.27978646755218506,
-0.2661546766757965,
-0.20809201896190643,
-0.31330329179763794,
-0.3355256915092468,
0.3279697000980377,
0.45041221380233765,
0.5352031588554382,
-0.23059514164924622,
-0.23365361988544464,
0.48103922605514526,
0.5299683809280396,
0.406444251537323,
0.48017966747283936,
-0.4674043357372284,
0.7635257244110107,
0.7252398133277893,
-0.41387730836868286,
-0.8779447674751282,
0.7094026207923889,
-0.26767250895500183,
-0.5781669020652771,
0.32262253761291504,
-0.7464126944541931,
0.5829758644104004,
-0.03724418953061104,
0.3194151222705841,
0.25521397590637207,
-0.1091303899884224,
-0.31462666392326355,
-0.14215922355651855,
0.61557537317276,
-0.3595609664916992,
-0.9256079792976379,
0.3665238916873932,
0.33367297053337097,
-0.37073296308517456,
-0.8023021221160889,
0.1297932267189026,
-0.5137406587600708,
-0.24849696457386017,
0.1302858293056488,
0.14838987588882446,
0.3481295704841614,
0.12845782935619354,
-0.31435829401016235,
0.18991810083389282,
0.35965651273727417,
-0.7114578485488892,
-0.11061827838420868,
-0.42326074838638306,
-0.4644792079925537,
0.6272770166397095,
0.07665145397186279,
0.05247677490115166,
-0.19826075434684753,
-0.1599147468805313,
0.4606529176235199,
0.6426058411598206,
0.10557707399129868,
-0.41550084948539734,
-0.9211755990982056,
-0.06743843108415604,
-0.2702202796936035,
-0.7436124086380005,
0.6623415946960449,
-0.5056689381599426,
0.37942108511924744,
0.3585563898086548,
-0.25710368156433105,
0.27494218945503235,
0.3554289638996124,
-0.479519248008728,
0.15695026516914368,
-0.22433258593082428,
0.7398142218589783,
0.17076656222343445,
-0.08286549150943756,
-0.5758594870567322,
-0.5402726531028748,
-0.7711971402168274,
-0.2179722934961319,
0.7059622406959534,
0.4161476194858551,
-0.22877781093120575,
0.4908701181411743,
-0.14525313675403595,
-0.6236647367477417,
-0.4026876986026764,
-0.42750465869903564,
-0.340619832277298,
-0.7528600692749023,
0.4172970950603485,
-0.08735916018486023,
0.051675304770469666,
-0.2449374794960022,
-0.11496344953775406,
-0.36922094225883484,
-0.1402120143175125,
-0.33640944957733154,
0.09378642588853836,
0.2621999979019165,
0.8859274983406067,
-1.1396807432174683,
0.7577285766601562,
-0.008842983283102512,
0.2153007686138153,
-0.48396575450897217,
-0.3704594671726227,
-0.181773379445076,
0.3267899453639984,
-0.8408883810043335,
-0.27557373046875,
0.2659170627593994,
0.7691501975059509,
1.2031347751617432,
-0.20217394828796387,
0.4224548041820526,
-0.17620083689689636,
-0.16370996832847595,
0.0645589679479599,
0.2987486720085144,
0.27134406566619873,
-0.48885101079940796,
-0.06822237372398376,
-0.28649401664733887,
0.24503840506076813,
-0.6387824416160583,
-0.43031787872314453,
0.46319591999053955,
-0.0672079473733902,
0.6751837730407715,
0.6354663372039795,
-0.006110203918069601,
-0.27778181433677673,
-0.5498747229576111,
0.3608841896057129,
-0.562163233757019,
-0.013258968479931355,
0.052312154322862625,
-0.4329151511192322,
-0.7350000143051147,
0.3120202422142029,
-0.8852394819259644,
0.1510062962770462,
0.46254950761795044,
-0.517950177192688,
-0.6400033235549927,
0.021424829959869385,
-0.3751060664653778,
-0.14613676071166992,
-0.24222591519355774,
0.30915865302085876,
-0.3698807656764984,
0.2693147361278534,
-0.3550218939781189,
-0.34243321418762207,
-0.03791084513068199,
-0.00503841508179903,
0.5963053107261658,
-0.3371484875679016,
-0.22175154089927673,
-0.18143731355667114,
0.09573362022638321,
-0.7791780233383179,
0.5179325938224792,
-0.7067140936851501,
0.20044444501399994,
0.41742798686027527,
0.3663046360015869,
-0.7429348826408386,
0.09413839876651764,
0.25152304768562317,
-0.08758386224508286,
-0.45512351393699646,
-0.19636307656764984,
0.4780174791812897,
-0.47157225012779236,
0.8107362389564514,
0.3622109889984131,
-0.7474128007888794,
0.0385856106877327,
-0.19624797999858856,
-0.466770738363266,
0.43499839305877686,
-0.6408193707466125,
-0.9943854212760925,
0.6239382028579712,
0.12139122933149338,
-0.6965637803077698,
0.13434095680713654,
0.37084677815437317,
0.3792709708213806,
-0.21493662893772125,
-0.2541705369949341,
-0.10284966230392456,
-0.33186793327331543,
-0.5244090557098389,
-0.21219153702259064,
-0.4562947154045105,
0.4387343227863312,
0.32695111632347107,
-0.4187508523464203,
0.41106948256492615,
-0.36456725001335144,
0.05828135833144188,
-0.16211390495300293,
0.1948527842760086,
0.4360678493976593,
0.42737874388694763,
-0.3518035411834717,
-0.36617398262023926,
-0.457559734582901,
0.5031031370162964,
0.3319699466228485,
1.1510326862335205,
0.9069616794586182,
0.0943496972322464,
0.044619038701057434,
-0.16253750026226044,
0.1271256059408188,
0.667968213558197,
-0.7751585245132446,
-0.8792047500610352,
0.5373111963272095,
-0.19591715931892395,
0.033610749989748,
0.35372358560562134,
0.08170986920595169,
0.3488859534263611,
0.27985531091690063,
-0.19039146602153778,
0.8436111807823181,
0.02988932840526104,
-0.0012430658098310232,
0.20993265509605408,
0.18751220405101776,
-0.06857413798570633,
0.10723450779914856,
0.37324807047843933,
-0.016734441742300987,
0.26221945881843567,
-0.060309503227472305,
0.5318301320075989,
-0.32397305965423584,
-0.5552809238433838,
-0.09381967782974243,
-0.15515446662902832,
-0.07106296718120575,
0.11892016977071762,
-0.03436986729502678,
0.018299339339137077,
-0.25810956954956055,
0.48153120279312134,
0.14493568241596222,
-0.15469273924827576,
-0.5085193514823914,
0.4994003474712372,
-0.7293442487716675,
0.1060015857219696,
-0.45073413848876953,
0.1581941694021225,
0.06776201725006104,
-0.18517522513866425,
-0.18971364200115204,
-0.6424641609191895,
-0.47337689995765686,
-0.519788384437561,
-0.15795594453811646,
-0.3691440522670746,
0.0736260712146759,
0.09009496867656708,
0.5335096716880798,
0.0826207846403122,
-0.5359044075012207,
-0.8717401623725891,
0.21951696276664734,
-0.5207958817481995,
-0.8683634400367737,
-0.18943913280963898,
-0.08807392418384552,
0.2180403769016266,
-0.2835248112678528,
-0.005596099887043238,
0.4259822964668274,
-0.15065434575080872,
-0.2538343071937561,
0.24176453053951263,
1.2810888290405273,
-0.3904778063297272,
0.22139716148376465,
0.04001912847161293,
-1.0302280187606812,
0.10121675580739975,
0.6348302364349365,
0.04741450026631355,
-0.20213451981544495,
0.34818267822265625,
0.3747197389602661,
-0.05323147028684616,
0.8746441006660461,
-0.0616159550845623,
-0.05049506574869156,
-0.20846378803253174,
0.3580787479877472,
-0.2645806670188904,
-0.22466260194778442,
-0.5790613293647766,
0.29061469435691833,
-0.14381143450737,
-0.30835282802581787,
-0.342780202627182,
-0.1647605299949646,
-0.22507734596729279,
0.18637791275978088,
0.037120360881090164,
0.6573324799537659,
-0.10343939065933228,
-0.35905006527900696,
0.2911699116230011,
-0.5318643450737,
0.19532924890518188,
-0.7189915776252747,
0.5398527979850769,
0.09638272225856781,
0.3122381567955017,
0.04391520097851753,
-0.31560301780700684,
-0.2061324417591095,
-0.055969059467315674,
-0.2245132327079773,
0.06045229732990265,
-0.21916040778160095,
-0.8918744325637817,
0.1737978756427765,
-0.529341459274292,
-0.12523363530635834,
-0.4113733172416687,
-0.02867341972887516,
-0.12853705883026123,
-0.20393988490104675,
0.6375259757041931,
0.11911323666572571,
-0.7199556827545166,
0.6542548537254333,
0.1935269683599472,
0.05771014094352722,
0.5535016059875488,
-0.7114385962486267,
-0.522738516330719,
-0.18624764680862427,
0.20349039137363434,
0.7405761480331421,
-0.09746885299682617,
-0.8834810853004456,
0.2193896770477295,
-0.06653404235839844,
0.11533968150615692,
-0.7048293352127075,
0.6130426526069641,
-0.669778048992157,
-0.045910488814115524,
-0.27077943086624146,
-0.3423994481563568,
-0.5355485081672668,
0.147775337100029,
0.01211465336382389,
0.11577502638101578,
0.12790155410766602,
-0.9340933561325073,
-0.33403196930885315,
0.35298311710357666,
1.2362663745880127,
0.8957219123840332,
0.08658058941364288,
0.3721984028816223,
0.20781421661376953,
-0.5184427499771118,
-0.05109173804521561,
0.2065630555152893,
0.38536104559898376,
-0.9337197542190552,
-0.0019328505732119083,
-0.05937107652425766,
0.5567020177841187,
0.5607488751411438,
0.7322735786437988,
-0.32284852862358093,
0.4572472870349884,
-0.2832435071468353,
0.44737792015075684,
-0.020277952775359154,
-0.30580127239227295,
0.08583741635084152,
-0.12482645362615585,
0.5797039866447449,
0.7535721659660339,
0.30390825867652893,
-0.16060730814933777,
0.7631197571754456,
-0.4524134695529938,
0.39605891704559326,
-0.12230876833200455,
-0.47374409437179565,
1.0247399806976318,
-0.2836366295814514,
0.3658522963523865,
-0.10145881026983261,
0.05884592980146408,
-0.04734070599079132,
0.5997396111488342,
-0.17874515056610107,
0.31123679876327515,
0.24779486656188965,
-0.15607818961143494,
-0.2950429916381836,
0.07358822226524353,
-0.25816428661346436,
0.1579422801733017,
0.2500358819961548,
-0.013320636004209518,
-0.2655206322669983,
-0.3759794533252716,
-0.8243099451065063,
0.3349442481994629,
0.20447687804698944,
-0.1890893131494522,
0.481119841337204,
0.03739359602332115,
0.22335316240787506,
-0.25881800055503845,
-0.16458798944950104,
-0.6277216076850891,
-0.1056530624628067,
-0.1688002645969391
] |
200150
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hsinchu
|
Hsinchu
|
Hsinchu (Chinese: 新竹, Pinyin: Xīnzhú, Wade–Giles: Hsin¹-chu²) is a city located in northwestern Taiwan. It is the most populous city which is not among the special municipalities, with estimated 446,701 inhabitants. Hsinchu is a coastal city bordering the Taiwan Strait to the west, Hsinchu County to the north and east, and Miaoli County to the south. Nicknamed the Windy City for its stong northeastern monsoon during the autumn and winter seasons.
The area was originally settled by Taiwanese indigenous peoples, with the settlement being named "Tek-kham" by the Hoklo immigrants. The city was founded by Han Chinese settlers in 1711, and renamed to its current form in 1878. During the Japanese Era, the city was made the seat of Shinchiku Prefecture, named after the city. The Republic of China regained control of Hsinchu after World War II.
In 1980, the Taiwanese government established the Hsinchu Science Park, a major industrial park, currently one of the world's most significant centers for semiconductor manufacturing, industrial and computer technology development. The park contributes a major proportion of Taiwan's GDP. This made Hsinchu a vital economic hub for the worldwide semiconductor industry; the headquarters of TSMC, world's largest independent semiconductor foundry, and United Microelectronics Corporation, are both located in the park.
Besides its industry, Hsinchu is also an important cultural center of Taiwan. The Chenghuang Temple of Hsinchu, built during the Kingdom of Tungning, is a common prayer destination. The research institutions of National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University and National Tsing Hua University are both located near the science park. In 2020, Hsinchu is classified as a "Sufficiency" level global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.
Etymology
Hsin-chu is the Wade-Giles romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese name . The same name is rendered Xīnzhú in Hanyu Pinyin and Sinjhú in Tongyong Pinyin.
This name refers to the settlement's original Hokkien name Tek-chhàm (), meaning "bamboo barrier". The name may transcribe an aboriginal name meaning "Seashore". The same name is variously recorded as Teukcham, Teuxham, and Teckcham; its Mandarin pronunciation appears as Chuchien.
Hsinchu is popularly nicknamed "The Windy City" for its windy climate and "The Garden City of Culture and Technology" by its tourism department.
History
Early settlement
The area around Hsinchu was inhabited by the Taokas, Saisiyat, and Atayal aborigines when the Spanish occupied northern Taiwan in the 17th century. Catholic missionaries reached the settlement of Tek-kham in 1626. The Spanish were expelled by the Dutch a few decades later.
Qing Dynasty
Under the Qing, a Chinese town was established at Tek-kham by Wang Shijie and other Han settlers in 1711.
As part of the reorganization of Taiwan by Shen Baozhen, the viceroy of Liangjiang, Zhuqian Subprefecture (i.e., Tek-kham) was raised to the level of a county and renamed Xinzhu (i.e., Sin-tek or Hsinchu) in 1878. When Taiwan was made a province in 1887, Hsinchu was made a part of Taipeh Prefecture.
Japanese Rule
During the Japanese occupation following the First Sino-Japanese War, the cityknown at the time as Shinchikuwas among the province's most populous. In 1904, its 16,371 residents ranked it in 7th place, behind Keelung and ahead of Changhua ("Shoka"). Shinchiku was raised to town status in 1920 and city status in 1930. At the same time, it became the seat of Shinchiku Prefecture. In 1941, its prefecture was expanded, annexing Xiangshan ("Kōzan"). Jiugang ("Kyūminato") and Liujia ("Rokka") merged to become Zhubei ("Chikuhoku").
Republic of China
The Nationalist government of the Republic of China established the Hsinchu City Government in 1945 to oversee all of what had been Shinchiku Prefecture under the Japanese.
In 1946, the Take-Over Committee dissolved and replaced by the Hsinchu County Government, located in Taoyuan. As the administrative districts were readjusted, Hsinchu was granted provincial city status. It used the old prefecture office as its city hall at 120 Road. In February 1946, representative congresses were formed for seven district offices. On 15 April, the city congress was formed. Provincial representatives were elected from among the city legislators.
On 16 August 1950, the administrative districts on Taiwan were re-adjusted once more, demarcating 16 counties and 5 provincial cities.
In June 1982, under presidential order, the Xiangshan Township of Hsinchu County merged into Hsinchu City. A new municipal government was formally established on 1 July 1982, comprising 103 villages and 1,635 neighborhoods. These were organized into the East, North, and Xiangshan districts by 1November. By June 1983, the new government consisted of three bureaus (Civil Service, Public Works, and Education), four departments (Finance, Social Welfare, Compulsory Military Service, and Land Affairs), four offices (Secretary, Planning, Personnel, and Auditing), and 49 various sections. The Police Department, Tax Department, and Medicine and Hygiene Department were considered affiliate institutions.
From 1994 to 1999, as Taiwan made its transition from authoritarian rule to a representative democracy and the mostly pro forma provincial level of government began to be dissolved, regulations were established for the self-government of Hsinchu. A deputy mayor, consumer officer, and three consultants were added to the city government. In 2002, the city added a Bureau of Labor and transferred Compulsory Military Service to the Department of Civil Service.
Geography
The city is bordered by Hsinchu County to the north and east, Miaoli County to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the west.
Climate
Hsinchu's climate is humid subtropical (Koppen: Cfa). The city is located in a part of the island that has a rainy season that lasts from February to September, with the heaviest time coming late April through August during the southwest monsoon, and also experiences meiyu in May and early June. The city succumbs to hot humid weather from June until September, while October to December are arguably the most pleasant times of year. Hsinchu is affected by easterly winds off of the East China Sea. Natural hazards such as typhoons and earthquakes are common in the region.
Government
Hsinchu City is administered as a city. North District is the seat of Hsinchu City which houses the Hsinchu City Government and Hsinchu City Council. The incumbent Mayor of Hsinchu City is Lin Chih-chien of the Democratic Progressive Party.
Administrative divisions
Hsinchu has 3 districts ():
Colors indicate the common language status of Hakka within each division.
Politics
Hsinchu City voted one Democratic Progressive Party legislator to be in the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Taiwan general election.
Economy
The Hsinchu Science Park is home to 360 high tech companies. As a result, the city has the highest income level in Taiwan.
The purpose of the park is to attract high tech investment to Taiwan and to make the area the economic center for the information industry. The park is designed to cater for high quality R&D, production, work, life and also recreation. From its establishment in 1978, the government has invested over NT$30 billion on software and hardware ventures. In 2001, it developed of land in the park and in southern Hsinchu, attracting 312 high-tech companies' investments. Viewing the performance of Hsinchu Science Park in the past 21 years, it can be said that it holds a decisive position in the economic development in Taiwan, with international acclaim.
Although the semiconductor and related electronic businesses have been doing well, they face fierce competition from South Korea and the United States. This has resulted in lower profits and over-supply of some electronic products such as memory and semiconductors. Therefore, manufacturers, government, academia, and the R&D sectors all recognize the challenges faced by Taiwan's high-tech development. The government has endeavored to upgrade Hsinchu Science Park into a global manufacturing and R&D center of high-end products. They also plan to intensify the cooperation among the manufacturing, academic, and research sectors by introducing incubation centers, in order to elevate the technological standard in the park. Further, through the development of the northern, central, and southern industrial park and its satellite sites, it hopes to sow the seeds of high tech business in all of Taiwan, leading to a vigorous era of high tech development.
Education
Hsinchu City is one of the most focused educational centers in northern Taiwan. It has six universities in this concentrated area and among these universities, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University and National Tsing Hua University are highly focused by government in Taiwan on its academic development. Other public and private educational institutions in the city included 33 elementary schools, 19 middle schools, 12 high school and complete secondary school.
International schools (grade school and secondary school)
Pacific American School
Hsinchu International School
Hsinchu American School
High Schools
National Experimental High School
National Hsinchu Senior High School
National Hsinchu Girls' Senior High School
National HsinChu Commercial Vocational High School
National Hsinchu Senior Industrial Vocational School
Hsinchu Municipal Chien Kung Senior High School
Hsinchu Municipal Cheng Te Senior High School
Hsinchu Municipal Hsiang Shan Senior High School
Hsinchu Shu Guang Girls' Senior High School
Hsinchu World Senior High School
Hsinchu St. Peter High School
Hsinchu Kuang-Fu Senior High School
Universities
National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University
National Tsing Hua University
Chung Hua University
Hsuan Chuang University
Yuanpei University of Medical Technology
National Hsinchu University of Education
Tourist attractions
Aqueduct Museum of Hsinchu City
Black Bat Squadron Memorial Hall
Chenghuang Temple of Hsinchu
Glass Museum of Hsinchu City
Hsinchu City Art Site of Railway Warehouse
Hsinchu CKS Baseball Stadium
Hsinchu Museum of Military Dependents Village
Hsinchu Fish Harbor
Hsinchu Zoo
National Hsinchu Living Arts Center
17 Kilometer Coastal Scenic Area
Eighteen Peaks Mountain Park
Hsinchu Eastern Gate
Chenghuang Temple Night Market -
Tsing Hus Night market
Green Grass Lake
Sports
Major sporting events held by Hsinchu include:
1997 World Youth Baseball Championship
2005 BWF Para-Badminton World Championships
Transportation
Rail
Hsinchu City is mainly served by Hsinchu TRA station along with five other minor TRA stations on both Western Trunk line and Neiwan Line. There is also a HSR station on the high-speed line from Taipei to Zuoying.
Cycling
Hsinchu City has recently created a series of cycling routes to help cyclists navigate the city more easily. Hsinchu is home to many cycling clubs
Sea ports
Pleasure and fishing ports are located at Nanliao Street, North District and in Haishan, Xiangshan district.
Airport
Military air base in North District.
Notable natives
Chi Cheng, the 1968 Olympic bronze medalist in track and field
Yuan T. Lee, 1986 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry
Chiang Hsiao-yen, Vice Premier (1997)
Lin Cho-liang, Taiwanese American violinist
Hsieh Su-Wei, Taiwanese tennis player and former World No. 1 in doubles
Hebe Tien, solo artist and member of the S.H.E
David Wu, member of the U.S. House of Representatives for the state of Oregon from 1999 until 2011.
Cyndi Wang, singer
Chen Qiaoen, singer, actress, 7F Member
Lü Shao-chia, Taiwanese conductor
Wen Shang-Yi, guitarist and leader of the band Mayday
International relations
Twin towns — sister cities
Hsinchu is twinned with:
See also
Administrative divisions of the Republic of China
List of cities in Taiwan
Notes
Words in native languages
References
External links
1982 establishments in Taiwan
Provincial cities of Taiwan
|
[
-0.08346638083457947,
-0.18316717445850372,
-0.1325380951166153,
-0.02850716933608055,
-0.3309662938117981,
0.4318658113479614,
-0.10141266137361526,
1.1425540447235107,
0.012387524358928204,
-0.2955177426338196,
-0.2493745982646942,
-0.5484331846237183,
0.0249935369938612,
0.07005375623703003,
0.15697424113750458,
0.03547520935535431,
0.05023309588432312,
-0.2361437827348709,
-0.3540116846561432,
-0.18063437938690186,
-0.27544140815734863,
-0.8302609920501709,
0.05365893617272377,
0.4875214695930481,
0.12127699702978134,
-0.13607685267925262,
0.35890042781829834,
0.2964988350868225,
0.5052847862243652,
-0.2637776732444763,
-0.27444320917129517,
0.4839375615119934,
-0.36221498250961304,
-0.10023151338100433,
-0.023791629821062088,
0.27335017919540405,
-0.4159349501132965,
-0.21734371781349182,
-0.2514093518257141,
-0.29373064637184143,
0.182476207613945,
0.0313100591301918,
0.11584082245826721,
0.2885907292366028,
0.5349074602127075,
-1.1521979570388794,
-1.1674730777740479,
0.8087203502655029,
-0.7189056277275085,
0.135567307472229,
-0.7959614992141724,
0.37714293599128723,
-0.14211048185825348,
0.40433478355407715,
0.23945608735084534,
0.5673851370811462,
-0.5100904107093811,
-0.11793561279773712,
0.11727029830217361,
0.11819510906934738,
0.3122043013572693,
-0.046853166073560715,
0.09014605730772018,
0.8271405696868896,
-0.255445659160614,
0.041764505207538605,
-0.19274045526981354,
0.17240439355373383,
-0.12744897603988647,
-0.7171716690063477,
0.5022226572036743,
0.16746880114078522,
-0.1084824651479721,
0.3586772084236145,
-0.2912463843822479,
0.09829583019018173,
-0.5848693251609802,
-0.5526756048202515,
0.014297210611402988,
-0.18338733911514282,
-0.5528885126113892,
-0.05916289612650871,
0.46497517824172974,
0.04469956457614899,
0.4587598145008087,
0.04137200489640236,
-0.48419901728630066,
0.5916104912757874,
-0.47591572999954224,
0.6758326292037964,
-0.32118549942970276,
0.11715511977672577,
0.16840872168540955,
-0.4514356255531311,
-0.2201499342918396,
-0.2687720060348511,
0.036470379680395126,
0.7970394492149353,
0.09348487108945847,
-0.47102847695350647,
-0.03004550188779831,
0.27548748254776,
0.41690951585769653,
0.367504358291626,
-0.7481562495231628,
-0.102168008685112,
0.27495047450065613,
-0.009641976095736027,
0.22815127670764923,
-0.3840961754322052,
-0.4212064743041992,
-0.15435907244682312,
0.20342756807804108,
0.1628955602645874,
0.18855059146881104,
-0.6196666359901428,
-0.12772372364997864,
-0.4605374336242676,
-0.3987460136413574,
-0.493566632270813,
-0.2817756235599518,
-0.04872792214155197,
-0.40090617537498474,
0.19106601178646088,
0.49981677532196045,
0.5380256772041321,
-0.048283208161592484,
0.2374061644077301,
-0.4083268940448761,
0.06793482601642609,
-0.12088719755411148,
0.6026236414909363,
-0.4762870669364929,
0.09533068537712097,
0.9623721837997437,
-0.6271966099739075,
-0.1533908098936081,
-0.012940492480993271,
0.3118276298046112,
-0.3286554515361786,
-0.5970916152000427,
0.2494240552186966,
-0.2717347741127014,
-0.29652664065361023,
0.15633827447891235,
0.11374557018280029,
-0.4187820553779602,
-1.2623382806777954,
0.0761648491024971,
-0.7037301659584045,
0.04859962686896324,
-0.15601275861263275,
-0.5803167819976807,
0.31320086121559143,
-0.12042461335659027,
0.12852434813976288,
0.8065871000289917,
0.30137625336647034,
0.3797566890716553,
0.4329648017883301,
-0.07094026356935501,
-0.1812286525964737,
-0.4511898159980774,
-0.6234572529792786,
0.08435922861099243,
-0.34930917620658875,
0.2920043468475342,
0.3483891189098358,
-0.03930344060063362,
-0.3535585403442383,
-0.5423368811607361,
-0.0947326198220253,
0.18929262459278107,
-0.21487493813037872,
-0.032017577439546585,
-0.2494407296180725,
-0.15128417313098907,
0.29339155554771423,
-0.008249226957559586,
-0.13327911496162415,
-0.8245359659194946,
0.47218677401542664,
0.05503441393375397,
0.5921125411987305,
0.07603082805871964,
-0.12453944981098175,
0.042704470455646515,
0.20602953433990479,
-0.5076214671134949,
0.6526418924331665,
-0.008019792847335339,
-0.5720458030700684,
-0.19245338439941406,
0.38740435242652893,
0.23689009249210358,
0.3487131893634796,
0.23455356061458588,
0.6984966993331909,
-0.19348761439323425,
0.48912563920021057,
-0.5318695306777954,
-0.05934738367795944,
0.5549196600914001,
-0.23786841332912445,
-0.4932926595211029,
0.20411087572574615,
0.5440294742584229,
0.36936503648757935,
-0.15292634069919586,
-0.09686728566884995,
0.342013955116272,
-0.5447925925254822,
0.48928189277648926,
0.537876546382904,
-0.6601336002349854,
-0.5574021339416504,
-0.334276020526886,
-0.06505796313285828,
-0.052899185568094254,
-0.6234335899353027,
0.5950896739959717,
0.36983805894851685,
-0.27984657883644104,
0.8107989430427551,
0.1550028771162033,
0.7084646821022034,
0.26072704792022705,
0.7734658718109131,
-0.20841148495674133,
-0.005818536970764399,
-0.07633931934833527,
-0.6035332679748535,
0.1751059740781784,
0.06899023801088333,
-0.1365492343902588,
-0.08496203273534775,
0.14635835587978363,
-0.7681641578674316,
0.47507381439208984,
-0.6971560120582581,
0.19289802014827728,
0.05483713001012802,
-0.23712268471717834,
0.04169003292918205,
0.5748667120933533,
0.4219495356082916,
-0.20386555790901184,
-0.08987139165401459,
0.21776248514652252,
0.3220497965812683,
0.13999620079994202,
0.371592253446579,
0.30901965498924255,
-0.10188642144203186,
0.10323099046945572,
-0.5648366808891296,
-0.014875764027237892,
0.1401032656431198,
0.5365410447120667,
-0.2394893914461136,
-0.02925395593047142,
-0.18442577123641968,
-0.08733174204826355,
0.453207790851593,
-0.8567564487457275,
-0.16633722186088562,
0.19402383267879486,
-0.40843096375465393,
0.6156587600708008,
-0.2813897132873535,
0.10746646672487259,
0.13404856622219086,
-0.30755242705345154,
-0.4676302373409271,
-0.39980995655059814,
-0.7523645162582397,
0.3199947774410248,
0.6011407971382141,
-0.9673330783843994,
-0.4251905083656311,
0.29561465978622437,
0.5806813836097717,
0.06722736358642578,
-0.5625333786010742,
-0.3814633786678314,
-0.14225953817367554,
-0.238847017288208,
-0.3127397894859314,
-0.5699178576469421,
0.22696174681186676,
-0.2619788944721222,
0.11516024172306061,
0.15590603649616241,
0.1621730476617813,
-0.36631885170936584,
0.0936565175652504,
0.32694104313850403,
-0.3646233081817627,
0.5287855267524719,
-0.7357189059257507,
-0.3516116440296173,
0.3947364389896393,
-0.25900518894195557,
-0.010191657580435276,
-0.03229347616434097,
0.32030218839645386,
0.15371975302696228,
0.03199319541454315,
-5.4748148918151855,
0.09803304821252823,
-0.17737162113189697,
0.08356957882642746,
-0.10565163940191269,
-0.4142514765262604,
0.4995002746582031,
-0.48774632811546326,
-0.060036104172468185,
0.10130000114440918,
-0.36972498893737793,
-0.2546469271183014,
0.16152729094028473,
0.08633483946323395,
0.41013067960739136,
0.7609213590621948,
0.23538221418857574,
-0.4083903431892395,
0.07009730488061905,
0.09290026873350143,
-0.6544747352600098,
-0.17595815658569336,
-0.08402872830629349,
1.005203127861023,
-0.04824470728635788,
0.368781715631485,
0.05552953854203224,
-0.3180745244026184,
-0.49572449922561646,
-0.653854250907898,
-0.18896164000034332,
-0.2814837396144867,
0.44464460015296936,
0.8353864550590515,
-0.2555348873138428,
-0.43395671248435974,
0.7273333072662354,
-0.21168772876262665,
0.867379367351532,
-0.21177087724208832,
-0.21505026519298553,
0.34463971853256226,
0.0172861497849226,
-0.3820350468158722,
0.2884765863418579,
-0.694390058517456,
-0.67298823595047,
0.03522073104977608,
-0.8411994576454163,
0.4607003331184387,
0.15620844066143036,
0.4381565451622009,
0.4544908106327057,
0.011451534926891327,
-0.3521905541419983,
-0.19419890642166138,
0.17992891371250153,
0.2407737523317337,
-1.0229591131210327,
0.39814889430999756,
-0.18746161460876465,
0.1784970611333847,
-0.22026000916957855,
0.22309820353984833,
-0.003638463094830513,
0.08988912403583527,
-0.17327985167503357,
-0.10433255136013031,
-0.18664823472499847,
0.35346123576164246,
-0.3102891445159912,
0.5006115436553955,
-0.3343398869037628,
-0.9377975463867188,
-0.0039422158151865005,
-0.5709130764007568,
-0.8783273696899414,
0.031129559502005577,
0.03266316279768944,
0.2664448022842407,
0.08394833654165268,
-0.13057687878608704,
0.36540257930755615,
0.9814032912254333,
0.08201508224010468,
-0.7751998901367188,
0.26150187849998474,
0.08228059858083725,
0.5719858407974243,
-0.030571281909942627,
0.4972531199455261,
-0.01739533618092537,
1.1571087837219238,
-0.40838128328323364,
-0.35350367426872253,
0.1563619077205658,
0.232249453663826,
0.03159597888588905,
0.42074230313301086,
-0.763786792755127,
1.034670114517212,
0.09904663264751434,
-0.1965918093919754,
-0.22684010863304138,
-0.4333561062812805,
-0.5335035920143127,
0.7674956917762756,
0.33308663964271545,
0.7505711913108826,
-0.6546207070350647,
-0.7474894523620605,
0.012507030740380287,
0.21370404958724976,
0.19044825434684753,
0.4476604461669922,
-0.6400803923606873,
-0.3667933940887451,
0.049787502735853195,
0.010813023895025253,
0.4905910789966583,
-0.07865899056196213,
0.4551835060119629,
0.48108720779418945,
-0.2248198390007019,
0.21394088864326477,
-0.5617530941963196,
-0.6569724082946777,
0.8293224573135376,
0.11174888163805008,
-0.33411169052124023,
0.690162718296051,
-0.2801142930984497,
0.2584385871887207,
-0.32982364296913147,
-0.4707128703594208,
-0.005862405523657799,
-0.9805474877357483,
-0.9891689419746399,
0.2512888014316559,
0.8188253045082092,
0.5144757032394409,
0.4827805757522583,
-0.002722280565649271,
0.4974572956562042,
0.6642739176750183,
0.06282180547714233,
-0.1641889363527298,
-0.033275704830884933,
-0.9220753312110901,
0.08466808497905731,
-0.26264816522598267,
-1.0926175117492676,
-0.004363226238638163,
-0.04079118371009827,
0.10835924744606018,
0.571539044380188,
-0.5366830229759216,
0.34890344738960266,
-0.04089859873056412,
0.3104305863380432,
0.5457858443260193,
-0.271292507648468,
-0.5864014029502869,
0.4414792060852051,
0.35419195890426636,
0.03591761738061905,
-0.014731035567820072,
-0.25847959518432617,
-0.5665653347969055,
0.48870834708213806,
0.5132750868797302,
-0.20072801411151886,
-0.49374547600746155,
-0.351618230342865,
0.0859542042016983,
-0.09529247879981995,
0.1224360316991806,
0.6900573372840881,
0.18885394930839539,
-0.21229617297649384,
0.0002027099544648081,
-0.4285394847393036,
-0.18787409365177155,
0.3462471663951874,
0.2018212080001831,
-0.35686400532722473,
-0.010860792361199856,
0.24856388568878174,
0.0805567279458046,
0.7071225643157959,
0.7658681869506836,
-0.5861160159111023,
-0.5805926322937012,
0.7598056793212891,
0.30686455965042114,
-0.4908592402935028,
0.4944325089454651,
-0.4192730784416199,
-0.2705208659172058,
0.34757494926452637,
-0.0560767725110054,
0.653067409992218,
-0.27813103795051575,
0.23093025386333466,
0.05254744365811348,
-0.42206132411956787,
0.01829882711172104,
0.4834480285644531,
-0.1254534274339676,
-0.3416783809661865,
-0.692167341709137,
-0.7651450634002686,
0.09445083141326904,
-0.03218795731663704,
-0.07808899879455566,
0.3480856418609619,
0.0031795725226402283,
-0.9507583379745483,
-0.5697422623634338,
-0.2749260663986206,
-0.5297330617904663,
0.5409107804298401,
0.3741045296192169,
-0.5392197370529175,
0.04282769560813904,
-0.15746960043907166,
-0.3920346200466156,
-0.012886881828308105,
0.019309615716338158,
-0.5299959182739258,
0.19545045495033264,
0.5672240853309631,
0.826616644859314,
0.20567670464515686,
0.5576027035713196,
-0.13383358716964722,
-0.12716098129749298,
0.09220950305461884,
0.4832936227321625,
0.14449182152748108,
0.27088236808776855,
0.8321090936660767,
-0.011034976691007614,
0.09388235956430435,
0.29755470156669617,
0.2022639811038971,
0.28743529319763184,
0.20594055950641632,
-0.7393260598182678,
0.6907550692558289,
0.433635413646698,
-0.7456759214401245,
-0.5171899795532227,
-0.14700597524642944,
0.2894788086414337,
-0.7293993830680847,
0.07244040071964264,
0.6860445737838745,
0.3011001646518707,
-0.17750440537929535,
-0.5907698273658752,
-0.38444241881370544,
0.16191457211971283,
0.20307321846485138,
-0.10877757519483566,
-0.004181423224508762,
-0.6154465079307556,
-0.38167327642440796,
-0.08650664240121841,
-0.41056498885154724,
0.0993480458855629,
-0.7180988192558289,
0.4705440104007721,
-0.6786015033721924,
-0.1521953046321869,
0.05716753005981445,
-0.09614042192697525,
0.20746639370918274,
-0.40244346857070923,
-0.3080790936946869,
-0.35888707637786865,
-0.377966046333313,
-0.28169792890548706,
-0.30138254165649414,
-0.34359779953956604,
-0.2108331173658371,
0.11986151337623596,
0.3617759346961975,
-0.29470935463905334,
0.7038073539733887,
-0.7037125825881958,
-0.46959877014160156,
-0.06333505362272263,
0.08882555365562439,
-0.38170745968818665,
-0.32117828726768494,
0.6260233521461487,
0.5983876585960388,
-0.8421188592910767,
0.21481187641620636,
-0.927262008190155,
-0.01823337748646736,
0.593755841255188,
-0.3421734571456909,
0.025091057643294334,
-0.1427118480205536,
0.20449338853359222,
0.023427972570061684,
0.04462858662009239,
0.777816116809845,
0.46636030077934265,
0.3868633210659027,
0.4370749592781067,
0.8944857716560364,
-0.5018203854560852,
0.3372064232826233,
0.37761375308036804,
-0.22865113615989685,
0.036313656717538834,
0.39610007405281067,
-0.06320296227931976,
-0.16432245075702667,
0.23821395635604858,
0.5321035385131836,
0.09646882861852646,
0.8875507712364197,
0.1093117743730545,
-0.3533758521080017,
0.07551409304141998,
0.8999432921409607,
-0.26360848546028137,
-0.3205343186855316,
-0.16621087491512299,
0.534293532371521,
-0.27313023805618286,
-0.9553858041763306,
0.39386871457099915,
-0.8449772596359253,
-0.09680453687906265,
0.1493300199508667,
0.705932080745697,
0.27491000294685364,
-0.16714482009410858,
0.16413751244544983,
0.39006760716438293,
-0.19001485407352448,
0.26443368196487427,
0.16997268795967102,
-0.14296576380729675,
-0.6613852977752686,
0.6203545331954956,
0.14196178317070007,
0.0627729743719101,
-0.4756779074668884,
0.28191816806793213,
0.07336422055959702,
-0.614711582660675,
-0.047242872416973114,
-0.07363861799240112,
0.0033097220584750175,
-0.18262311816215515,
0.10497813671827316,
0.24123218655586243,
-0.10962878912687302,
-0.18485668301582336,
-0.14971837401390076,
0.3189009130001068,
-0.09774603694677353,
-0.8792809844017029,
0.7695270776748657,
0.3594837486743927,
0.5728231072425842,
0.2001478523015976,
-0.24480371177196503,
-0.029053209349513054,
0.19037672877311707,
0.22277361154556274,
0.9358667135238647,
-0.5975618958473206,
0.5275045037269592,
-0.12513655424118042,
0.4016915261745453,
-0.2222842127084732,
-0.9618520736694336,
0.4597759246826172,
0.0891016498208046,
0.024734020233154297,
0.07422283291816711,
-0.47275277972221375,
0.33505764603614807,
0.25619786977767944,
0.14089162647724152,
0.0938372015953064,
0.2931661009788513,
0.08053631335496902,
-0.09160246700048447,
-0.7364063262939453,
0.471716046333313,
0.39906513690948486,
1.1271705627441406,
-0.02114497870206833,
-0.20667430758476257,
0.22459468245506287,
0.3469064235687256,
-0.18587151169776917,
0.3155895173549652,
0.11202974617481232,
0.4998955726623535,
-0.5986157655715942,
-0.11092457920312881,
0.4370982348918915,
0.25234511494636536,
0.2692340910434723,
0.5878196358680725,
-0.6271812319755554,
0.1192285567522049,
0.6018981337547302,
0.2874073386192322,
-0.005072463303804398,
-0.04144461452960968,
-0.2741997539997101,
-0.5516188740730286,
0.17887897789478302,
0.01058918796479702,
-0.06144164875149727,
-0.14928826689720154,
0.03700052946805954,
0.11912018060684204,
-0.4972071945667267,
0.9757450222969055,
-0.31130534410476685,
-0.10759888589382172,
-0.261991411447525,
0.1352805346250534,
0.2760581374168396,
-0.1074579581618309,
0.6043614745140076,
0.9985254406929016,
0.18896165490150452,
0.24219445884227753,
0.20153434574604034,
0.19682802259922028,
-0.7495279908180237,
0.00758440513163805,
-0.15004770457744598,
0.5335454940795898,
-0.4455263018608093,
-0.1476573944091797,
-0.8687506914138794,
0.04791030287742615,
0.043537262827157974,
0.16423164308071136,
0.34766197204589844,
0.13312900066375732,
-0.049971804022789,
-0.3207453489303589,
0.08983719348907471,
-0.6602805852890015,
0.6828099489212036,
-0.14787307381629944
] |
200151
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenga
|
Jenga
|
Jenga is a game of physical skill created by British board game designer and author Leslie Scott and marketed by Hasbro. Players take turns removing one block at a time from a tower constructed of 54 blocks. Each block removed is then placed on top of the tower, creating a progressively more unstable structure.
Rules
Jenga is played with 54 wooden blocks. Each block is three times as long as it is wide, and one fifth as thick as its length – . Blocks have small, random variations from these dimensions so as to create imperfections in the stacking process and make the game more challenging. To begin the game, the blocks are stacked into a solid rectangular tower of 18 layers, with three blocks per layer. The blocks within each layer are oriented in the same direction, with their long sides touching, and are perpendicular to the ones in the layer immediately below. A plastic tray provided with the game can be used to assist in setup.
Starting with the one who built the tower, players take turns removing one block from any level below the highest completed one and placing it horizontally atop the tower, perpendicular to any blocks on which it is to rest. Each player may use only one hand to touch the tower or move a block at any given time, but may switch hands whenever desired. Once a level contains three blocks, it is complete and may not have any more blocks added to it. A block may be touched or nudged to determine whether it is loose enough to remove without disturbing the rest of the tower, but it must be returned to its original position if the player decides to move a different one. A turn ends when the next player in sequence touches the tower or when 10 seconds have elapsed since the placement of a block, whichever occurs first.
The game ends when any portion of the tower collapses, caused by either the removal of a block or its new placement. The last player to complete a turn before the collapse is the winner.
Origins
Jenga was created by Leslie Scott, the co-founder of Oxford Games Ltd, based on a game that evolved within her family in the early 1970s using children's wooden building blocks the family purchased from a sawmill in Takoradi, Ghana. The name jenga is derived from kujenga, a Swahili word which means 'to build'. A British national, Scott was born in Tanganyika, where she was raised speaking English and Swahili, before moving to live in Ghana, West Africa. Scott launched the game she named and trademarked as "Jenga" at the London Toy Fair in January 1983 and sold it through her own company, Leslie Scott Associates. The blocks of the first sets of Jenga were manufactured for Scott by the Camphill Village Trust in Botton, Yorkshire. The V&A Museum of Childhood has exhibited one of the original sets of Jenga since 1982.
In 1984, Robert Grebler, an entrepreneur from California who was the brother of a close friend of Scott, contacted her and expressed interest in importing and distributing Jenga in Canada. In April 1985, Grebler acquired from Scott the exclusive rights to Jenga for the United States and Canada, and then in October of that year, Scott assigned the worldwide rights in Jenga to Grebler, which he in turn assigned to Pokonobe Associates. Convinced of Jenga's potential, Grebler had invited two cousins to form Pokonobe Associates with him in 1985 to increase distribution of Jenga. Pokonobe then licensed Irwin Toy to sell Jenga in Canada and to be master licensee worldwide. Irwin Toy licensed Jenga to Schaper in the United States and when that company was bought by Hasbro, Jenga was launched under the Milton Bradley banner in 1987. Eventually, Hasbro became licensee in most countries around the world.
As of 2021, according to Pokonobe Associates, owners of the Jenga brand, over 90 million Jenga games, equivalent to more than 4.86 billion Jenga blocks, have been sold worldwide.
On November 5, 2020, Jenga was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame.
Tallest tower
The packaging copy of one edition of the Jenga game claims that Robert Grebler may have built the tallest Jenga tower ever at 40 levels. Grebler built the tower in 1985 while playing with an original Jenga set produced by Leslie Scott in the early 1980s.
Official variants
Throw 'n Go Jenga is a variant originally marketed by Hasbro. It consists of blocks that are in various colors plus a six-sided die. It is marketed by Art's Ideas.
Jenga Truth or Dare was a variation of Jenga also marketed by Hasbro. This version looked like regular Jenga except there were three colors of blocks instead of just the natural color of Jenga.
Jenga Xtreme used parallelogram-shaped blocks that could create some interesting leaning towers.
Casino Jenga: Las Vegas Edition employed roulette-style game play, featuring a felt game board, betting chips, and additional rules.
In addition, there have been a number of collector edition Jenga games, featuring the colors and logos of the Boston Red Sox, Las Vegas Raiders, New York Yankees, and John Deere, among others. Hello Kitty Jenga, Transformers Jenga, Tarzan Jenga, Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas Jenga, Donkey Kong Jenga, Bob's Burgers Jenga, National Parks Jenga, Jenga Ocean, The Walking Dead Jenga, Super Mario Jenga, Fortnite Jenga, Godzilla Jenga, Rick and Morty Jenga, and Harry Potter Jenga are some of the licensed variations of Jenga.
Jenga XXL and Jenga Giant are licensed giant Jenga games manufactured and distributed by Art's Ideas. There are Jenga Giant variations which can reach or higher in play, with very similar rules. Jenga XXL starts at over high and can reach or higher in play. Rules are the same as in classic Jenga, except that players may use two hands to move the eighteen-inch-long blocks.
Jenga Pass Challenge includes a handheld platform that the game is played on. Players remove a block while holding the platform, then pass the platform to the next player. This variant includes only half the number of blocks (27), which means the tower starts at nine levels high instead of eighteen.
See also
Rock balancing
56 Leonard Street, nicknamed "the Jenga Building"
Pick-up sticks, physical game of removing sticks from a pile
References
Citations
Further reading
External links
Jenga GIANT official website
The Jenga Chair in the Bröhan Museum
The Jenga House
Jenga at the V&A Museum of Childhood
Games of physical skill
Party games
Swahili words and phrases
Milton Bradley Company games
Combinatorial game theory
Games and sports introduced in 1983
1980s toys
British inventions
|
[
-0.28168627619743347,
-0.13691087067127228,
-0.03130567818880081,
-0.09639599919319153,
-0.12142305076122284,
0.6142759919166565,
0.03776285797357559,
-0.053046271204948425,
-0.19859851896762848,
0.11898912489414215,
-0.2593833804130554,
0.45582905411720276,
0.016254112124443054,
-0.21883681416511536,
-0.43261319398880005,
0.4281788766384125,
0.246529683470726,
0.13613030314445496,
0.2891104221343994,
-0.041868094354867935,
0.07101999223232269,
0.07127725332975388,
-0.030617957934737206,
-0.3847181499004364,
0.4319685101509094,
0.05168529599905014,
0.17847776412963867,
0.18830043077468872,
-0.32204270362854004,
0.07268314063549042,
0.0035872107837349176,
0.35117340087890625,
0.5831884145736694,
-0.3205907940864563,
-0.3299909830093384,
0.015291327610611916,
-0.5026208758354187,
0.004383241292089224,
-0.3682301938533783,
-0.11314975470304489,
-0.14655257761478424,
0.35407841205596924,
0.32300594449043274,
0.6942405104637146,
0.1904275268316269,
0.48022475838661194,
-1.798965573310852,
0.05049369856715202,
-0.6953912377357483,
-0.1654037982225418,
-0.8589534163475037,
0.881669819355011,
0.15169361233711243,
0.07803240418434143,
-0.03142163157463074,
0.3832683563232422,
0.03233053535223007,
0.08086779713630676,
-0.2091054618358612,
-0.3305082619190216,
0.49100828170776367,
0.03995181992650032,
0.5746318697929382,
-0.2085082232952118,
-0.16181711852550507,
0.03493792936205864,
-0.22230084240436554,
0.5733175277709961,
-0.0076345521956682205,
-0.319452702999115,
0.08364695310592651,
-0.2071785181760788,
-0.34810927510261536,
-0.4273967742919922,
-0.26976731419563293,
-0.1646127849817276,
0.3029906749725342,
-0.19091250002384186,
0.7114565968513489,
0.2964489758014679,
-0.29443061351776123,
-0.4086819291114807,
1.088301658630371,
-0.005226257722824812,
0.48900413513183594,
0.25067752599716187,
-0.09078412503004074,
0.10509660840034485,
-0.5683830976486206,
0.8482919335365295,
-0.1189768835902214,
-0.26897796988487244,
0.3815920948982239,
-0.25700294971466064,
-0.1749306619167328,
-0.4978114068508148,
-0.12921427190303802,
0.2964283227920532,
0.32952219247817993,
-0.051660750061273575,
-0.04504822939634323,
-0.00012746818538289517,
0.05772259831428528,
-0.15084977447986603,
-0.2844143807888031,
0.07294803112745285,
0.13630308210849762,
-0.4093794822692871,
0.16143304109573364,
0.4719659984111786,
-0.10846229642629623,
-0.38863036036491394,
0.6183281540870667,
0.3009808361530304,
0.4005110561847687,
0.5511061549186707,
-0.030119996517896652,
0.4805726408958435,
-0.3158479928970337,
0.3537803292274475,
0.5327118039131165,
0.5029056668281555,
0.14276959002017975,
0.35687094926834106,
0.38252124190330505,
0.03826763108372688,
0.26350265741348267,
0.5656556487083435,
-0.28125283122062683,
0.16480092704296112,
0.4679678678512573,
-0.00783325545489788,
-0.2380518615245819,
0.25243839621543884,
-0.15168729424476624,
-0.16130906343460083,
0.0365997739136219,
-0.243193581700325,
0.35023775696754456,
0.32245954871177673,
-0.47555214166641235,
0.2672852575778961,
-0.4892159104347229,
-0.41532009840011597,
0.3310442268848419,
0.03968440368771553,
0.34051287174224854,
-0.43302690982818604,
-0.1835128366947174,
-0.04156291484832764,
-0.12474459409713745,
0.08075655996799469,
0.12378343194723129,
0.16398563981056213,
-0.4493390619754791,
0.4322461485862732,
-0.4822539687156677,
-0.34867408871650696,
-0.15579843521118164,
-0.04531046375632286,
-0.16760937869548798,
0.10853506624698639,
-0.3089742064476013,
-0.047045689076185226,
0.1385974884033203,
-0.4048418700695038,
0.6717913150787354,
0.5401359796524048,
0.12094882130622864,
-0.18218930065631866,
-0.2757028639316559,
0.2504168450832367,
0.41607728600502014,
0.3216365575790405,
-0.3508170247077942,
0.12935614585876465,
0.3920693099498749,
0.2808092534542084,
0.7733895778656006,
-0.030810104683041573,
-0.6616277098655701,
-0.2833637297153473,
0.6523897647857666,
0.38850292563438416,
0.273391991853714,
0.09158330410718918,
0.1745990663766861,
-0.738574743270874,
0.17287693917751312,
-0.11384032666683197,
-0.5371890068054199,
-0.23769594728946686,
0.5932360291481018,
-0.12319833040237427,
0.8767058849334717,
0.2978711724281311,
-0.9956234693527222,
0.09689609706401825,
0.6694466471672058,
0.3685363531112671,
0.04874425381422043,
0.0840739756822586,
-0.0009853404480963945,
-0.03965197876095772,
0.08342209458351135,
-0.030168093740940094,
-0.47484537959098816,
0.5769396424293518,
0.07571195811033249,
0.13299702107906342,
-0.5560562610626221,
-0.5159743428230286,
0.36655062437057495,
-0.21559593081474304,
-0.5567987561225891,
0.6102817058563232,
-0.39242634177207947,
0.3653358519077301,
0.5310506820678711,
-0.6493287086486816,
0.35167422890663147,
0.34331345558166504,
-0.5233883857727051,
0.19181941449642181,
0.15273238718509674,
1.0618526935577393,
-0.033047158271074295,
-0.14154097437858582,
0.45945993065834045,
-0.587347149848938,
-0.13191638886928558,
0.37488484382629395,
0.3356659412384033,
-0.629112184047699,
0.2197330892086029,
0.12324340641498566,
0.1544390469789505,
-0.14069631695747375,
0.2667747437953949,
-0.06656243652105331,
0.07028710097074509,
0.24435777962207794,
-0.033935438841581345,
-0.12622705101966858,
0.24125751852989197,
0.08085905015468597,
-0.13103888928890228,
0.18800899386405945,
0.11067143082618713,
-0.256235271692276,
0.33375248312950134,
0.3542177081108093,
0.12367942929267883,
0.459858238697052,
-0.43462419509887695,
-0.3439158499240875,
-0.3533675968647003,
-0.14152774214744568,
0.2734798789024353,
0.10229497402906418,
-0.15144139528274536,
-0.1133732721209526,
-0.15093299746513367,
0.1761827915906906,
0.2939950227737427,
-1.1449308395385742,
-0.36528322100639343,
-0.4967213273048401,
0.04041816666722298,
0.28203773498535156,
0.0035400348715484142,
-0.10399310290813446,
-0.20505420863628387,
-0.08672501146793365,
-0.3261127769947052,
-0.38522034883499146,
0.052649322897195816,
-0.23207569122314453,
-0.3533931374549866,
-0.5456694960594177,
0.22100186347961426,
0.7496315240859985,
0.16822899878025055,
-0.03115020878612995,
-0.6082703471183777,
-0.5474839806556702,
0.1096203401684761,
-0.4364031255245209,
-0.04192047193646431,
-0.0456264391541481,
-0.076368048787117,
0.5760995149612427,
-0.16466408967971802,
-0.2132963240146637,
0.3481030762195587,
0.20437662303447723,
-0.3995521366596222,
0.3168656527996063,
0.031170040369033813,
0.3029443621635437,
-0.15351459383964539,
0.4040643572807312,
0.05696436017751694,
-0.15845736861228943,
0.513211190700531,
-0.13056764006614685,
-0.751847505569458,
-0.2085275650024414,
-6.094178676605225,
0.18373022973537445,
-0.17830093204975128,
-0.08209895342588425,
0.2531406283378601,
0.33592677116394043,
0.3107532262802124,
0.048745062202215195,
0.22544355690479279,
-0.29533079266548157,
-0.264948308467865,
-0.029418595135211945,
-0.604561448097229,
-0.09198108315467834,
0.5705962181091309,
0.5093700289726257,
0.6770864725112915,
-0.4337853789329529,
-0.16708782315254211,
-0.17447596788406372,
-0.3774394392967224,
0.11103219538927078,
-0.23824086785316467,
0.6772957444190979,
-0.2385004758834839,
0.5964348912239075,
-0.09615594893693924,
-0.5682575702667236,
-0.4316447973251343,
0.13359501957893372,
0.2005879282951355,
0.06133221834897995,
-0.6685969233512878,
0.34677448868751526,
-0.11071981489658356,
0.05982982739806175,
1.1258004903793335,
-0.2480502873659134,
0.4367760121822357,
-0.4764227867126465,
-0.1706741452217102,
0.7377194762229919,
-0.05968017876148224,
0.06268425285816193,
0.5813402533531189,
-0.15317806601524353,
-0.25548338890075684,
0.19149893522262573,
-0.6816658973693848,
0.022427450865507126,
0.5582346320152283,
-0.4927859902381897,
-0.4432218074798584,
-0.19394420087337494,
-0.03809160739183426,
-0.1412164717912674,
0.2281523048877716,
0.04668717831373215,
-0.02136390656232834,
0.06424949318170547,
0.32734736800193787,
-0.5828027129173279,
0.14435701072216034,
0.047125011682510376,
-0.13923051953315735,
-0.13427211344242096,
-0.3538738787174225,
-0.0816989317536354,
0.49755966663360596,
0.37936535477638245,
-0.21833521127700806,
-0.06256495416164398,
0.11334754526615143,
-0.9354013800621033,
0.01892903633415699,
0.22544845938682556,
-0.21912357211112976,
0.3231201171875,
0.2302647978067398,
0.41064995527267456,
0.11212176829576492,
-0.3802646994590759,
0.07095728814601898,
-0.34997251629829407,
-0.19409294426441193,
-0.7452096939086914,
-0.2276429533958435,
0.369058221578598,
0.3650067448616028,
0.4113501012325287,
0.990830659866333,
-0.19608666002750397,
0.49542364478111267,
0.38462033867836,
0.8333366513252258,
0.9886978268623352,
0.4600543975830078,
-0.22571663558483124,
0.04638929292559624,
-0.34506145119667053,
0.260382741689682,
-0.3975829780101776,
0.7220441102981567,
-0.16406626999378204,
0.24602830410003662,
0.39117103815078735,
-0.28703632950782776,
-0.010854505002498627,
0.916153073310852,
0.06219262629747391,
0.022679787129163742,
0.35588741302490234,
-0.39786237478256226,
0.2834104001522064,
0.44006654620170593,
-0.05948691442608833,
-0.31377384066581726,
0.13019265234470367,
0.4387025237083435,
0.01477273553609848,
-0.16482794284820557,
-0.09589196741580963,
0.06544757634401321,
-0.7510800361633301,
0.0037452084943652153,
-0.09472206234931946,
0.026455027982592583,
0.10918024927377701,
0.4885058104991913,
0.09743143618106842,
0.3716914653778076,
-0.15416796505451202,
0.032570790499448776,
0.17475883662700653,
-0.28296515345573425,
-0.2883549928665161,
-0.46695849299430847,
-0.31354859471321106,
-0.5399897694587708,
0.36390039324760437,
0.0980854481458664,
-0.7314077615737915,
-0.056787118315696716,
0.05634820833802223,
0.4042092263698578,
-0.16673557460308075,
-0.2915290594100952,
-0.13081122934818268,
0.08634451776742935,
0.6813014149665833,
0.06583228707313538,
-0.4723728895187378,
0.42982804775238037,
-0.6157892346382141,
-0.12055554240942001,
0.29252493381500244,
-0.08443573862314224,
0.04822612181305885,
-0.07891490310430527,
-0.41019782423973083,
-0.08601652085781097,
-0.6266738176345825,
-1.3141247034072876,
-0.20157670974731445,
-0.08061456680297852,
0.0007656647358089685,
-0.3630968928337097,
-0.2577936053276062,
-0.0989823043346405,
0.19524651765823364,
0.43793824315071106,
-0.5680299401283264,
-0.4121980667114258,
-0.2505522668361664,
0.31150826811790466,
-0.25368422269821167,
-0.05659257248044014,
-0.1673363596200943,
-0.15634676814079285,
-0.044731203466653824,
-0.03632460534572601,
-0.3524227738380432,
0.016921645030379295,
-0.04254644364118576,
0.07299577444791794,
-0.711704432964325,
-0.12415861338376999,
0.4970727562904358,
0.02215951308608055,
0.3455969989299774,
-0.12284956127405167,
0.40756139159202576,
0.8024740219116211,
0.30394259095191956,
-0.1598939299583435,
-0.244858518242836,
-0.10036878287792206,
0.9958077073097229,
-0.4343050718307495,
-0.5798670053482056,
-0.2121303379535675,
-0.3270399868488312,
-0.7464409470558167,
-0.12840841710567474,
0.881335437297821,
-0.6000424027442932,
0.39664801955223083,
-0.29352638125419617,
-0.23282001912593842,
0.030897213146090508,
-0.25885042548179626,
-0.24089397490024567,
-0.08856206387281418,
0.07457493990659714,
-0.3433637022972107,
-0.047844599932432175,
-0.40770265460014343,
-0.10667700320482254,
-0.14636437594890594,
-0.23605284094810486,
-0.30333858728408813,
-0.5178486108779907,
-0.4374903440475464,
0.12850572168827057,
-0.07188016176223755,
0.021127384155988693,
0.4585217833518982,
-0.5821402072906494,
0.4450058937072754,
0.02400471642613411,
0.26565805077552795,
-0.29118481278419495,
-0.09158477932214737,
0.2652442455291748,
0.4231565296649933,
0.02658235840499401,
-0.04336460679769516,
0.4070322513580322,
0.38666707277297974,
-0.20103399455547333,
0.36034339666366577,
0.4957420825958252,
-0.34096530079841614,
-0.1831718236207962,
0.12242232263088226,
-0.5451181530952454,
-0.10470256209373474,
-0.3678836226463318,
-0.40306973457336426,
0.30545490980148315,
0.2556312084197998,
-0.28690844774246216,
-0.2202509045600891,
-0.0005873962654732168,
0.3520178496837616,
-1.063173532485962,
0.09544122964143753,
0.05483401566743851,
-0.08071401715278625,
-0.26505178213119507,
0.058962415903806686,
0.27795809507369995,
-0.23164686560630798,
-0.06945919245481491,
-0.1296219825744629,
-0.12873677909374237,
-0.24125228822231293,
-0.5024555325508118,
0.1471903920173645,
-0.11298670619726181,
0.217916801571846,
-0.40536531805992126,
0.4748530685901642,
0.6048938035964966,
0.307822585105896,
-0.4874061942100525,
0.1849527209997177,
-0.22144043445587158,
0.09708161652088165,
0.3815974295139313,
-0.251079797744751,
0.23838385939598083,
0.20240069925785065,
-0.3003961443901062,
0.11995676904916763,
-0.729143500328064,
-0.04284736514091492,
-0.20575444400310516,
-0.0628095343708992,
-0.12817950546741486,
-0.14048278331756592,
0.2764747738838196,
-0.042923588305711746,
-0.25559473037719727,
-0.2586262822151184,
-0.0726495236158371,
0.27768075466156006,
-0.20175638794898987,
-0.17661882936954498,
0.12833274900913239,
-0.08631458133459091,
0.28765934705734253,
0.21485762298107147,
-0.11334662139415741,
0.45781466364860535,
-0.04596472531557083,
-0.04331386461853981,
-0.009858696721494198,
-0.5462847352027893,
0.05274832248687744,
-0.3474074602127075,
-0.3715513348579407,
-0.017095649614930153,
0.3713941276073456,
-0.34286558628082275,
-0.568954586982727,
0.4043850302696228,
-0.42493975162506104,
0.35555025935173035,
0.28317975997924805,
0.31074753403663635,
-0.20446760952472687,
0.7332039475440979,
0.26324549317359924,
0.08629453927278519,
0.02216303162276745,
-0.03051077574491501,
0.20407900214195251,
0.7304442524909973,
0.09107550978660583,
0.27566903829574585,
-0.303733766078949,
-0.09202063083648682,
0.11618929356336594,
0.6846311688423157,
-0.31880128383636475,
0.24059511721134186,
-0.1520637720823288,
-0.13751958310604095,
0.3779432773590088,
0.17490154504776,
-0.22189116477966309,
0.34820330142974854,
-0.3795638084411621,
-0.4771050810813904,
-0.2710874378681183,
0.2725081443786621,
-0.44941356778144836,
-0.26643726229667664,
0.27937278151512146,
0.00006214400491444394,
0.4755350351333618,
0.11735711246728897,
-0.16767863929271698,
0.3522805869579315,
-0.5565285086631775,
-0.2404002547264099,
-0.3808187246322632,
-0.49887916445732117,
-0.1818835735321045,
-0.03926924616098404,
-0.14783774316310883,
0.4208250939846039,
-0.21276132762432098,
-0.1673353910446167,
0.5526186227798462,
0.2399335503578186,
-0.34331536293029785,
0.16655322909355164,
0.6519440412521362,
-0.020033109933137894,
-0.04346552491188049,
0.3100429177284241,
1.0182160139083862,
-0.046599943190813065,
0.2578432857990265,
0.3738729953765869,
0.49284878373146057,
0.057320401072502136,
0.33602777123451233,
-0.664315402507782,
0.12105689942836761,
-0.33050066232681274,
-0.14825202524662018,
0.3295905292034149,
-0.17879918217658997,
0.2758563160896301,
0.2155260443687439,
0.02627650275826454,
0.4205957055091858,
0.18033014237880707,
-0.20874381065368652,
-0.2988337278366089,
0.10508984327316284,
-0.11534444242715836,
-0.19357319176197052,
-0.23589999973773956,
0.5161042213439941,
0.40541020035743713,
0.21802428364753723,
-0.06133406236767769,
0.04673890769481659,
0.5304552316665649,
-0.160560742020607,
-0.37340205907821655,
0.08649817109107971,
-0.4205762445926666,
0.05798554793000221,
0.0007303828606382012,
-0.09039654582738876,
0.14453715085983276,
-0.0404386892914772,
0.0031065605580806732,
-0.47076278924942017,
-0.7626920938491821,
-0.1580103039741516,
0.7875009775161743,
0.08817914873361588,
0.31021320819854736,
-0.8958200216293335,
-0.0811493769288063,
-0.1076468676328659,
-0.050393398851156235,
0.4513797461986542,
-0.10875990986824036,
0.39129510521888733,
-0.05152607709169388,
-0.8353792428970337,
-0.8559448719024658,
0.4652760624885559,
-0.11032628268003464,
-0.2683986723423004,
-0.40751752257347107,
-0.19018305838108063,
-0.31348320841789246,
-0.8976877331733704,
0.558920681476593,
-0.11243043094873428,
0.10285452753305435,
-0.301122784614563,
0.23672634363174438,
-0.08465757220983505,
-0.26611825823783875,
-0.10137643665075302,
-0.4583839178085327,
0.2564680576324463,
-0.07232169061899185,
-0.12225137650966644,
-0.1602744311094284,
0.3099937438964844,
-0.40305766463279724,
-0.4002908170223236,
0.178703173995018,
-0.17698121070861816,
0.012772124260663986,
0.10630980879068375,
0.14907504618167877,
-0.5388631820678711,
-0.10576313734054565,
0.5301112532615662
] |
200152
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mombasa
|
Mombasa
|
Mombasa ( ; ) is a coastal city in southeastern Kenya along the Indian Ocean. The town is known as the white and blue city in Kenya. It is the country's oldest (circa 900 AD) and second-largest city (after the capital Nairobi), with a population of about 1,208,333 people according to the 2019 census. Its metropolitan region is the second-largest in the country, and has a population of 3,528,940 people.
Mombasa's location on the Indian Ocean made it a historical trading centre, and it has been controlled by many countries because of its strategic location. Kenyan school history books place the founding of Mombasa as 900 A.D. It must have been already a prosperous trading town in the 12th century, as the Arab geographer al-Idrisi mentions it in 1151. The oldest stone mosque in Mombasa, Mnara, was built 1300. The Mandhry Mosque, built in 1570, has a minaret that contains a regionally specific ogee arch.
In the late pre-colonial period, it was the metropolis of a plantation society, which became dependent on slave labour based around the ivory trade. Throughout the early modern period, Mombasa was a key node in the complex and far reaching Indian Ocean trading networks, its key exports then were ivory, millet, sesamum and coconuts.
Today, Mombasa is a tourism-based town, home to one of the state houses, with an extra-large port and an international airport. In an effort to increase tourism, Mombasa County Governor Hassan Joho issued a directive requiring that all buildings in the Old Town and the Central Business District be painted white with Egyptian blue trim and banned all signs from their walls or canopies. "This allows tourists to take photos," explained Transport, Infrastructure and Public Works County Executive Tawfiq Balala. "We want to be the most photographed city in Africa."
History
Ancient and medieval
The founding of Mombasa is associated with two rulers: Mwana Mkisi and Shehe Mvita. According to legend, Mwana Mkisi is the original ancestor of Mombasa's oldest lineages within Thenashara Taifa (or Twelve Nations). Families associated with the Twelve Nations are still considered the original inhabitants of the city. Mwana Mkisi was a queen from the pre-Islamic era, who founded Kongowea, the original urban settlement on Mombasa Island. Importantly, both of these names have linguistic and spiritual connections with Central Africa. "Mkisi" is considered the personification of "ukisi" which means "the holy" in kiKongo. "Kongowea" can similarly be interpreted as the Swahili locative of "kongo" which denotes the essence of civilizational order in central Africa. These legends can be read as an acknowledgment of the Bantu-speaking origins of the Swahili people. Shehe Mvitaff superseded the dynasty of Mwana Mkisi and established the first permanent stone mosque on Mombasa Island. Mombasa's oldest extant stone mosque, Mnara, was built c. 1300. Shehe Mvita is remembered as a Muslim of great learning and so is connected more directly with the present ideals of Swahili culture that people identify with Mombasa. The ancient history associated with Mwana Mkisi and Shehe Mvita and the founding of an urban settlement on Mombasa Island is still linked to present-day peoples living in Mombasa. The Thenashara Taifa (or Twelve Nations) Swahili lineages recount this ancient history today and are the keepers of local Swahili traditions.
Most of the early information on Mombasa comes from Portuguese chroniclers writing in the 16th century.
The famous Moroccan scholar and traveller Ibn Battuta visited the area during his travels to the Swahili Coast and made some mention of the city, although he only stayed one night. He noted that the people of Mombasa were Shafi‘i Muslims, religious people, trustworthy and righteous. Their mosques are made of wood, expertly built.
The exact founding date of the city is unknown, but it has a long history. Kenyan school history books place the founding of Mombasa as 900 A.D. It must have been already a prosperous trading town in the 12th century, as the Arab geographer al-Idrisi mentions it in 1151. The oldest stone mosque in Mombasa, Mnara, was built 1300. The Mandhry Mosque, built in 1570, has a minaret that contains a regionally specific ogee arch. This suggests that Swahili architecture was an indigenous African product and disproves assertions that non-African Muslims brought stone architecture to the Swahili Coast.
During the pre-modern period, Mombasa was an important centre for the trade in spices, gold, and ivory. Its trade links reached as far as India and China and oral historians today can still recall this period of local history. Indian history shows that there were trade links between Mombasa and Cholas of South India. Throughout the early modern period, Mombasa was a key node in the complex and far reaching Indian Ocean trading networks, its key exports then were ivory, millet, sesamum and coconuts.
In the late pre-colonial period (late 19th century), it was the metropolis of a plantation society, which became dependent on slave labour (sources contradict whether the city was ever an important place for exporting slaves) but ivory caravans remained a major source of economic prosperity. Mombasa became the major port city of pre-colonial Kenya in the Middle Ages and was used to trade with other African port cities, the Persian Empire, the Arabian Peninsula, India and China. 16th-century Portuguese voyager Duarte Barbosa claimed, "[Mombasa] is a place of great traffic and has a good harbour in which there are always moored small craft of many kinds and also great ships, both of which are bound from Sofala and others which come from Cambay and Melinde and others which sail to the island of Zanzibar."
Portuguese domination
Vasco da Gama was the first known European to visit Mombasa, receiving a chilly reception in 1498. Two years later, the town was sacked by the Portuguese. In 1502, the sultanate became independent from Kilwa Kisiwani and was renamed as Mvita (in Swahili) or Manbasa (Arabic).
The Portuguese had since had encounters with the city several times; first under Tristão da Cunha in 1506, later under Afonso de Albuquerque in 1522 to quell an attempted mutiny by the sultan's nephew in Pemba and Zanzibar, and finally the destruction of the city under Nuno da Cunha again in 1528 after the Malindi sultan failed to pay tribute.
In 1585, a joint military expedition between the Somalis of Ajuran Empire and the Turks of the Ottoman Empire, led by Emir 'Ali Bey, successfully captured Mombasa, and other coastal cities in Southeast Africa from the Portuguese. However, Malindi remained loyal to Portugal. The Zimba overcame the towns of Sena and Tete on the Zambezi, and in 1587 they took Kilwa, killing 3,000 people. At Mombasa, the Zimba slaughtered the Muslim inhabitants, but they were halted at Malindi by the Bantu-speaking Segeju and went home. This stimulated the Portuguese to take over Mombasa a third time in 1589, and four years later they built Fort Jesus to administer the region. Between Lake Malawi and the Zambezi mouth, Kalonga Mzura made an alliance with the Portuguese in 1608 and fielded 4,000 warriors to help defeat their rival Zimba, who were led by chief Lundi.
After the building of Fort Jesus, Mombasa was put by the Portuguese under the rule of members of the ruling family of Malindi. In 1631 Dom Jeronimo the ruler of Mombasa slaughtered the Portuguese garrison in the city and defeated the relief force sent by the Portuguese. In 1632 Dom Jeronimo left Mombasa and became a pirate. That year the Portuguese returned and established direct rule over Mombasa.
Omani rule
With the capture of Fort Jesus in 1698, the town came under the influence of the Imamate of Oman, subordinate to the Omani rulers on the island of Unguja, prompting regular local rebellions. Oman appointed three consecutive Governors (Wali in Arabic, Liwali in Swahili):
12 December 1698 – December 1698: Imam Sa'if ibn Sultan
December 1698 – 1728: Nasr ibn Abdallah al-Mazru'i
1728–12 March 1728: Shaykh Rumba
Mombasa was briefly returned to Portuguese rule by captain-major Álvaro Caetano de Melo Castro (12 March 1728 – 21 September 1729), then four new Omani Liwali until 1746, when the last of them made it independent again (disputed by Oman), as the first of its recorded Sultans:
1746–1755: 'Ali ibn Uthman al-Mazru'i
1755–1773: Masud ibn Nasr al-Mazru'i
1773–1782: Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mazru'i
1782–1811: Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Mazru'i (born 17–died 1814)
1812–1823: 'Abdallah ibn Ahmad al-Mazru'i (died 1823)
1823–1826: Sulayman ibn 'Ali al-Mazru'i
From 9 February 1824 to 25 July 1826, there was a British protectorate over Mombasa, represented by governors. Omani rule was restored in 1826; seven where appointed. On 24 June 1837, it was nominally annexed by Said bin Sultan of Muscat and Oman.
British rule
On 25 May 1887 Mombasa was relinquished to the British East Africa Association, later the Imperial British East Africa Company. It came under British administration in 1895.
It soon became the capital of the British East Africa Protectorate and the sea terminal of the Uganda Railway, construction of which was started in 1896. Many workers were brought in from British India to build the railway, and the city's fortunes revived. The Sultan of Zanzibar formally presented the town to the British in 1898.
Mombasa became the capital of the Kenya Colony Protectorate of Kenya, sometime between 1887 and around 1906. The capital was later moved because medical officers warned that the ground was swampy, and urged Sir James Hayes Sadler, then Commissioner of the East Africa Protectorate, to plead with London to move the town elsewhere to mitigate potential disease. Nairobi has since been Kenya's capital to date.
The Mombasa tusks, one of the city's best-known monuments, were originally constructed in 1952 by the British administration of the Kenya Colony, commemorating the visit of Queen Elizabeth II to the city.
Geography
Being a coastal town, Mombasa is characterised by a flat topography. The town of Mombasa is centred on Mombasa Island, but extends to the mainland. The island is separated from the mainland by two creeks, Port Reitz in the south and Tudor Creek in the north.
Climate
Mombasa has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen: As). The amount of rainfall essentially depends on the season. The rainiest months are April and May, while rainfall is minimal between January and February.
Located near the equator, Mombasa has only a slight seasonal temperature variation, with high temperatures ranging .
As a seaport, Mombasa is subject to detrimental consequences of a fluctuating climate. In October 2006, Mombasa experienced a large flood that affected 60,000 people.
Like the rest of Kenya, climate change is already creating challenges for the city: coastal erosion has become a problem for infrastructure in Mombasa. Due to rising sea levels, the coastline has been eroding at per year. This has increased the number of annual floods.
Suburbs
Mombasa is located on Mombasa Island and sprawls to the surrounding mainlands. The island is separated from the mainland by two creeks: Tudor Creek and Kilindini Harbour. It is connected to the mainland to the north by the Nyali Bridge, to the south by the Likoni Ferry, and to the west by the Makupa Causeway, alongside which runs the Kenya-Uganda Railway. The port serves both Kenya and countries of the interior, linking them to the ocean. The city is served by Moi International Airport located in the northwest mainland suburb of Chaani.
Mombasa Island
Kizingo: Considered the prime residential area of Mombasa. The State House of Mombasa, Provincial Headquarters, The Mombasa Law Courts, and the Municipal Council are located in Kizingo. The Aga Khan Academy, Aga Khan High School, Serani Primary School, Serani High School, Santokben Nursery School, Coast Academy, Jaffery Academy, Mombasa Primary School, Loreto Convent, Mama Ngina Girls' High School and the Government Training Institute (GTI) Mombasa are all in Kizingo as well.
Central Business District: The Mombasa central business district across the TSS building roundabout, Moi Avenue, and Nyerere Avenue is densely populated. Organizations such as the Kenya Revenue Authority (KRA) and businesses such as Banks (ABSA, I&M Ltd, Bank of India Ltd), Insurance Firms (Nomura Insurance Brokers, Masumali Meghji Insurance), and Audit Firms (Anant Bhatt LLP, Pricewaterhouse Coopers LLP, Mazars LLP, Deloitte LLP, and PKF LLP) are located here.
Kibokoni: Part of Old Town with Swahili architecture. Fort Jesus is in Baghani.
Englani: Part of Old town between Kibokoni and Makadara.
Kuze: Part of Old Town with Swahili culture and architecture. Originally flourishing with Swahili people but currently becoming a more cosmopolitan neighbourhood.
Makadara: Part of Old Town consisting of a high number of descendants of Baluchi former soldiers who settled within this area before it developed into a town. The name is derived from the Arabic words "Qadru r-Rahman" meaning "Decree of (God) the Merciful".
Ganjoni: Primarily a middle class residential, home of second biggest dry dock of Africa after the one in South Africa.
Tudor: Another middle class residential area with homes and shops. The Technical University of Mombasa (TUM) is situated in this neighbourhood.
North Coast
Nyali, also considered a prime and up-market residential area, it is on the mainland north of the island and is linked by the New Nyali Bridge. It has numerous beach front hotels in the area known as the "North Coast". Nyali has two distinct sections – the upmarket Old Nyali and the upcoming New Nyali. For many residents, Nyali has now become a self-contained residential area, with two Nakumatts, a multiplex cinema, shopping malls, banks, schools and post offices. This often eliminates the need for residents to cross the bridge and to go into the congested Mombasa city centre. Nyali is home for the Nyali Cinemax complex, Mamba Village, the Nyali Golf Club, and some of the most prestigious academic institutions of the Coast Province.
Kongowea is a densely populated area with 15 villages, two sub-locations and an estimated population of 106,180 residents. Kongowea is a cosmopolitan settlement mainly inhabited by people from mainland who migrated into the city in search of employment, mainly in service and manufacturing sector. The area is adjacent to the rich suburb of Nyali which employs a portion of the village residents. They are mainly hired as cheap labour as watchmen, gardeners, masons for up coming houses and house help. The most well known villages inside Kongowea include Kisumu Ndogo, Shauri Yako and Mnazi Mmoja, despite being located in this prime area, many residents live under extreme conditions – poor sanitation, high crime rate and lack of basic essential amenities like schools, hospitals and tap water. Kongowea is also home to one of the largest open-air markets in the African Great Lakes.
Bamburi is an outlying township (fifteen minutes drive) along the Malindi road. It is home to Bamburi Cement factory, the largest cement plant in the East African region. Other notable features in the area are the Jomo Kenyatta public beach, commonly known as Pirates, and Haller Park, a nature trail and wildlife conservatory. Kiembeni Estate, also in the Bamburi area, hosts around 100,000 residents. The estate has its own supermarket, several retail shops, salons and boutiques, and a number of licensed drinking dens. The establishments include The Shilla Bar, Turkey Base, Stars Garden and Sensera pub. Kiembeni is arguably the largest estate in Mombasa, and growing even faster.
Other areas include, Shanzu, Mkomani, Bombolulu, Kisauni and, across the Mtwapa creek, the popular area of Mtwapa, which is already located in Kilifi county.
The North Coast has an entertainment industry which attracts locals and tourists.
South Coast
Likoni: is a lower income and lower-middle-class neighbourhood connected to Mombasa Island by ferry. It is south of Mombasa Island and made up of mostly Swahili and non-Swahili Bantu tribes. The ferry was the target of the Likoni Riots of 1997.
Diani Beach: a beach resort area situated over the Likoni Ferry on the south coast of Mombasa. It is located some 36 km (22 miles) south of Mombasa city on the mainland coast and is a prime resort for many local and international tourists. Diani Beach has an airport at Ukunda town to cater for tourists who fly there directly from Nairobi Wilson or any other airports and airfields in the country.
Mombasa Mainland
Magongo: is an outlying township 20 minutes driving distance northwest of Mombasa Island, situated on the Nairobi Highway. This fringe community lacks any effective electricity, water or sewer systems, with a general lack of infrastructure. Poverty, lack of sanitation, and unemployment continue to be the greatest issues for the Mikindani Township, which have ensured low health and safety standards for its residents. Poor, lower class housing is widespread, ranging from simple stone, two-storey structures to mud and earth homes fitted with corrugated iron roofs. Much of the community works outside of the township, within Mombasa Island itself as there is a lack of employment and industry. There are number of small health clinics, shops, and a few public primary schools: Nazarene primary is one school, which is known in particular as being staffed by a revolving volunteer teacher base from Western, and predominately English speaking nations. This small town serves as a link between the city and Moi International Airport. Magongo is also home to the Akamba Handicraft Cooperative.
Mikindani, a suburban area: This is an outlying township on the mainland along the Nairobi Highway. It is built in the heavy industrial sections of Changamwe and mainly accommodate the working class who either work in the industries, the town centre on the Island and the Port at Kilindini harbour.
Miritini: outlying township on the Mombasa Nairobi Highway which is first growing as a suburban area.
Changamwe: Industrial area which contains the Kipevu power generation projects, the Kenya Oil Refinery Company facility and housing estates such as Chaani and is the gateway to the Moi International Airport. The area has administrative offices of the D.O and the chiefs who serve the administrative division.
Migadini & Chaani: They are two adjacent estate that are located east of Airport road and east of Kenya Port Authority. They are bordered by Port Reitz, Magongo and KPA
Port Reitz: Is a suburb on the mainland which contains a beach, oil refineries, housing estates etc. Moi International Airport and the Port Reitz District Hospital are in Port Reitz.
Mombasa county sub-divisions
Mombasa is also a county and divided into six constituencies and thirty wards.
Demography
Mombasa city has a population of 1,208,333 per the 2019 census.
Mombasa has a cosmopolitan population, with the Swahili people and Mijikenda predominant. Other communities include the Akamba and Taita Bantus as well as a significant population of Luo and Luhya. Gusii, Agikuyu, peoples from Western Kenya. The major religions practised in the city are Islam, Christianity and Hinduism. Over the centuries, many immigrants and traders have settled in Mombasa, particularly from the Middle East, Somalia, and the Indian subcontinent, who came mainly as traders and skilled craftsmen.
Economy
Mombasa is an important economic centre in Kenya. In addition to the coffee trade, the food and chemical industries, there is a steel mill, an aluminum rolling mill, an oil refinery and a cement plant. The city is home to the most important seaport in East Africa, Kilindini Harbor, which is also used by the neighboring countries Tanzania and Uganda for their imports and exports.
Kilindini is an old Swahili term meaning "deep". The port is so-called because the channel is naturally very deep. Kilindini Harbour is an example of a natural geographic phenomenon called a ria, formed at the end of the last glacial period when the sea level rose and engulfed a river that was flowing from the mainland.
Mombasa is a centre of coastal tourism in Kenya. Mombasa Island itself is not a main attraction, although many people visit the Old Town and Fort Jesus. The Nyali, Bamburi, and Shanzu beaches are located north of the city. The Shelly, Tiwi, and Diani beaches are located south of Mombasa. Several luxury hotels exist on these beaches, while the less expensive hotels are located further away.
Mombasa's northern shoreline is renowned for its vibrant 24-hour entertainment offers, including both family entertainment (water parks, cinemas, bowling, etc.), sports (watersports, mountain biking and gokarting), culinary offers (restaurants offering a wide range of specialties from Kenya, China, Japan, India, Italy, Germany and other countries) and nightlife (bars, pubs, clubs, discothèques, etc.).
Other local industries include an oil refinery with a capacity of a day, and a cement factory capable of producing over 1.1 million tons per year. The major intercontinental undersea telecom cables reach shore next to Mombasa, connecting the African Great Lakes to the rest of the world and supporting a fast-growing call centre business in the area. The estimated real GDP growth for Kenya in 2016 is 5.7-6.0%. This growth will be in response to the construction of a railway system from Nairobi to Mombasa which will aid in trade and transportation between Kenya's two major cities.
Mombasa will become a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in which certain industries such as tea, garments, and footwear will be exempt from certain taxes to promote domestic growth. This is in response to the deficiencies in Export Processing Zones (EPZ).
The Kenyan Dock Worker's Union is situated in Mombasa and has roughly 5,000 members.
President Kenyatta has made it a priority to deepen economic ties with Asia at the onset of his presidency. Japan has played a role in financially sponsoring the expansion of the Mombasa port in phase one and two of the expansion project.
At 44%, the rate of youth unemployment in Mombasa is more than double the national average of 21% (2016).
Transport
Air
Moi International Airport serves the city of Mombasa. It is located in Port Reitz area, also known locally as Chaani area on the mainland metropolitan area. Flights to Nairobi and other Kenyan, European and Middle Eastern destinations depart from the airport each day. Mombasa is connected to Nairobi by dozens of scheduled flights.
Train
Mombasa currently has a modern railway station on the Mombasa–Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway that replaced the century-old station built by the British. Completed in 2017 and located at Miritini, the Mombasa Terminus station links Mombasa to Nairobi. The station, situated about 20 kilometers from the city centre, is accessible through the newly built (2018) highway, being the first phase of the larger Dongo Kundu bypass. Kenya Railways transports passengers and cargo through the Standard Gauge Railway between Nairobi to Mombasa. The journey takes approximately five hours between the two cities.
Road
Driving in Mombasa is straightforward and the majority of the roads are tarmacked. Main roads include Jomo Kenyatta Avenue, Digo Road, Nyerere Road, Nkurumah Road, Moi Avenue, Mama Ngina Drive, Barack Obama Road, Nairobi Highway and Nyali Road.
Highways connect Mombasa to Nairobi, Dar es Salaam while northward road link to Malindi and Lamu, which also extends towards the border with Somalia.
Within Mombasa, most local people use matatus (mini-buses) which are extremely common in Kenya, to move around the city and its suburbs. The tuk-tuk—a motor vehicle with three wheels—is widely used as transport around the city and its suburbs. No more than three passengers may be carried. A boda-boda is originally a bicycle taxi but have long since been replaced by motorcycles.
Sea
Port of Mombasa is the largest in East Africa, with 19 deep water berths with two additional berths nearing completion and two oil terminals. The port is connected by rail and road to the interior. At present there is little or no scheduled passenger service from the port, however, international cruise ships frequent the port. The port is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the Upper Adriatic region. In connection with the Silk Road Initiative, China has started infrastructure development projects in Kenya and is building roads, railways and public buildings on credit.
Ferry
There is no bridge between Mombasa Island and south coast, instead the distance is served by ferries operated by the Kenya Ferry Service from Kilindini and Mtongwe to Likoni in the south coast of Mombasa. The last major accident occurred in 1994 when a ferry serving Mtongwe route sank killing more than 270 people.
As a result of increases in more luxurious hotels at the South Coast and a lack of a direct bridge linking the South Coast to Mombasa island, visiting tourists have the option of flying directly from Nairobi into the South Coast airstrip at Ukunda.
The Dongo Kundu Bypass Highway is currently (2018) under construction. With a total of three bridges, it will finally connect the mainland to the south coast easing the burden on the ferry services.Mombasa Gate Bridge will connect the mainland to likoni,this will eliminate the usage of the unsafe ferry which has claimed hundreds of lives.
Education
The major university in the island is the Technical University of Mombasa.
The city has a campus of Kenyatta University.
Other major university campuses include University of Nairobi-Mombasa campus, Mount Kenya University-Mombasa campus, JKUAT-Mombasa, Shanzu Teachers Training College, Mombasa Technical College, Bandari college, Utalii college, and ICS college Mombasa.
Places of worship
Mombasa has places of worship serving needs of the city's diverse communities. Christian denominations represented in the city include:
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mombasa with Holy Ghost Cathedral, Mombasa as the main church
Anglican Church of Kenya (Anglican Communion), with Mombasa Anglican Cathedral Church as the main church
Presbyterian Church of East Africa
(World Communion of Reformed Churches),
Baptist Convention of Kenya (Baptist World Alliance),
Assemblies of God.
There are also many Hindu Hinduism temples and Muslim mosques.
A large number of Hindus visit Mombasa to pray at a number of naturally formed Lingam that have formed in the Nyali beach Gombeshwar Caves. According to local folklore, the cave-temple was found a long time ago when a group of local herders were puzzled after they noticed that one of their cows regularly released all of her milk at a specific yet random spot on the hills. They are then said to have approached some Hindu families living in the area to ask if they had any idea behind the strange behaviour by the cow. The group then teamed up, made their way to the spot and started digging. That is how they ended up stumbling into the cave where they found a 'Shiva Lingam' – an abstract representation of the Hindu God Lord Shiva, whose vehicle is Nandi (mythology). Hindus worship Lord Shiva by offering milk to a Lingam.
List of Hindu Temples in Mombasa:
Hindu Union of Mombasa - Shivalaay (Makadara)
Hindu Union of Mombasa - Gombeshwar (Nyali)
Shree Ganesha Temple - Nyali
Shree Ramdev Pir Temple - Nyali
Shree Dwarikadham Hare Krishna Temple (ISKON) - Nyali
Shree BAPS Swaminarayan Temple - Mombasa Mainland
Shree Gayatri Brahm Samaj Temple - Mombasa Mainland
Shree Cutch Satsang Swaminarayan Temple - Mombasa Mainland
Shree Radhe-Krishna Makupa Temple - Mombasa Mainland
Shree Vishwakarma Temple - Mombasa Mainland
Other temples within Mombasa include the Sikh Shree Guru Gobind Singh Sabha Temple, and the Shree Parshva Vallabh Jain Temple
Culture
A major cultural hub in Kenya and the African Great Lakes, Mombasa's proximity to Zanzibar, Nairobi and the Indian subcontinent, as well as its large shipping and maritime industries gives it a diverse mosaic of cultures. Music is a main feature of Mombasa's culture.
Music
Taarab music, which originates from Zanzibar, has a prominent local presence. Styles of music native to Mombasa include the smooth and mellow Bango, fast-paced Chakacha and traditional Mwanzele.
Musicians of note are Mombasa Roots, Safari Sounds, Them Mushrooms, Prof Juma Bhalo, Maulidi Juma, Zuhura Swaleh, Zein Alabdin and Princess Farida. Mombasa has been the home or base for former greats like Fundi Konde, known for his song "Tausi"; Fadhili Williams and Grand Charo, famous for the song "Malaika"; Sal Davies; Malika Mohammed; Stara Butte; Juma Bhalo. Contemporary hip-hop fusion artistes are Susumila, Majizee, Nyota Ndogo, Cannibal (musician), Sharama and Ukoo Flani super group which once could boast up to 40 rappers.
Recently, hip hop, reggae, soul, blues, salsa and (among the Indian community) bhangra have become popular, especially amongst the youth. Mombasa is mainly a tourism centre populated by hundreds of entertainment spots of all categories from night clubs, bars, hotels, fancy restaurants and many more. It has the most vibrant night life in Kenya catering to the mainly tourist population.
Sports
Currently, Mombasa is represented in the Kenyan Premier League by Bandari F.C, which plays at the Mbaraki Sports Grounds. Also, the Congo United FC, Promoted and dropped in 2011, are in the second tier Nationwide Super League with 4 other hometown clubs – Admiral F.C.; Magongo Rangers; Sparki Youth and Coast United. Derbies between Mombasa teams have become intriguing affairs recently. Another team, Coast Stars, were relegated several years ago from the league. The only Mombasa-based team to win the league is Feisal F.C., the 1965 champions. Kiziwi leopards was a popular team in the 1980s as was Mombasa Wanderers decades before. There are several cricket teams in Mombasa; one is Mombasa Sports Club (MSC), whose ground was given ODI status in 2006. MSC has also a rugby union team playing in the Kenya Cup League, the premier rugby competition in Kenya. Mvita XI men and MSC ladies represent Mombasa in Kenyan field hockey leagues.
Mombasa is represented in the nationwide rugby league by Mombasa RFC. The city is also host to a leg of the national rugby sevens circuit, being one of only six city hosts. The Mombasa leg is referred to as the Driftwood sevens, and the annual tournament is extremely popular, attracting thousands of fans from across the country.
The 2007 World Cross Country Championships were held in Mombasa. Mombasa Marathon is competed annually in Mombasa. The town also hosts the biennial classic edition of Safari Rally and annually a Kenya National Rally Championship round.
Scuba diving takes place mostly within the Mombasa Marine National Park and Reserve, which is managed and maintained by Kenya Wildlife Service. The park has a length of about .
Twin towns – sister cities
Mombasa is twinned with:
Durban, South Africa (2012)
Guangzhou, China (2018)
Honolulu, United States (2008)
Long Beach, United States (2007)
Seattle, United States (1981)
Notable residents
During its history, Mombasa was visited by numerous pioneers of the maritime exploration, such as the Arabs Al Idrissi (1151) and Ibn Battuta (1330) or the Portuguese Vasco da Gama (1498), Pedro Álvares Cabral (1500) João da Nova (1505) and Afonso de Albuquerque (1507).
Abdilatif Abdalla, writer, university professor and political protestor
Karen Blixen, Danish novelist
Mercedes Iman Diamond, drag queen and contestant on the eleventh season of RuPaul's Drag Race
Timothy R. McClanahan, marine ecologist who lived and has worked in Mombasa since 1991
Swaleh Nguru, Arab businessman, conservationist and philanthropist
Thomas Risley Odhiambo, entomologist
Ayub Ogada, musician, singer and composer known for having composed two songs for the movie The Constant Gardener
Fadhili William, musician, singer, and composer
Gallery
In popular culture
Mombasa is the subject of the popular song and music video of the same name, "Mombasa" by Jabali Afrika feat. Jason Dunford aka Samaki Mkuu released on July 17, 2020.
In the film Out of Africa, Mombasa is the train destination as the seaport for voyages to Europe via the Suez Canal, and Mombasa is indicated as downriver ("This water must go home to Mombasa").
Mombasa is a pivotal setting in the highly popular Halo video game series. Mombasa appears as a major setting in Halo 2, and the entirety of Halo 3: ODST takes place in Mombasa. The science fiction games are set in the year 2552, and the city has been divided into "Old Mombasa" and "New Mombasa" (a prosperous section filled with futuristic skyscrapers and an iconic orbital elevator). It is the capital of the fictional East Africa Protectorate. The city comes under attack by humanity's alien adversaries, "The Covenant", who focus their planetary invasion in and around Mombasa in search of a massive, technologically advanced artifact buried nearby.
Mombasa is featured in the 2010 movie, Inception, where Cobb meets Eames and Yusuf before the job takes place.
In the Warren Zevon song "Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner", Mombasa is one of the key locales related to the protagonist's quest.
The Finnish pop hit "Mombasa" (by Taiska) is about the city.
In the US, the Walt Disney World resort recreated a Kenyan village in the Africa section of the Disney's Animal Kingdom theme park named "Harambe", which is modelled after Mombasa. The village features a store called the "Mombasa Marketplace".
In the Indian movie Mr. India, Mombasa is mentioned in the popular song "Hawa Hawaii".
Most of the events in the 2017 story "Consummation in Mombasa" (by Andrei Gusev) take place in Mombasa and in the nearest district Mtwapa.
One-Way Ticket to Mombasa (Menolippu Mombasaan) is a 2002 Finnish film directed by Hannu Tuomainen.
Popular blackgaze band Deafheaven titled the last song of its 2021 album, Infinite Granite, with the name of the city. The lyrics make reference to the beaches and general uplifting scenery of Mombasa.
See also
Ngomongo Villages
References
Bibliography
External links
Mombasa County Government
Populated coastal places in Kenya
Populated places in Coast Province
County capitals in Kenya
Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa
Former Portuguese colonies
Mombasa County
Port cities in Africa
Port cities and towns of the Indian Ocean
Swahili city-states
1824 establishments in the British Empire
|
[
-0.13841219246387482,
-0.019427962601184845,
-0.40171921253204346,
-0.3338794410228729,
0.42715591192245483,
0.5504394769668579,
0.37579917907714844,
0.5960655808448792,
-0.9209164977073669,
-0.04938855022192001,
-0.6881746053695679,
-0.2514951229095459,
-0.4996618926525116,
0.4045489728450775,
0.2616517245769501,
-0.09679001569747925,
0.09212050586938858,
0.3536624610424042,
0.4446505606174469,
-0.09726816415786743,
-0.3156316578388214,
0.026219310238957405,
-0.4317578971385956,
0.4631698727607727,
0.22762304544448853,
0.26664769649505615,
0.699427604675293,
0.5308087468147278,
0.4268154501914978,
-0.24324285984039307,
0.411223828792572,
0.4290403723716736,
-0.5255261659622192,
0.38816511631011963,
0.5368061661720276,
-0.5599470734596252,
-0.3819437026977539,
-0.1416965276002884,
-0.2082042694091797,
-0.06988798081874847,
-0.27472639083862305,
-0.022037247195839882,
0.43676748871803284,
0.3292953372001648,
0.5583209991455078,
-1.0797979831695557,
-0.4280746877193451,
0.0808841809630394,
-0.5611880421638489,
0.1185932457447052,
-0.5306510925292969,
0.41890406608581543,
0.028804846107959747,
0.13292869925498962,
0.3282850682735443,
0.37587419152259827,
-0.7117890119552612,
0.7283825278282166,
0.3515225946903229,
-0.29726383090019226,
0.14886228740215302,
-0.14972420036792755,
-0.1334482878446579,
-0.06343147158622742,
-0.020280703902244568,
0.32928305864334106,
0.2970094680786133,
0.37483498454093933,
0.1222895160317421,
-0.1221538856625557,
0.1537628024816513,
0.1968662291765213,
-0.31094890832901,
-0.07568130642175674,
-0.02410590834915638,
-0.25152409076690674,
-0.24782755970954895,
-0.23267246782779694,
0.5491504669189453,
-0.027975747361779213,
-0.3340640664100647,
-0.29372307658195496,
0.6895747184753418,
-0.16893938183784485,
0.6132553815841675,
0.489812433719635,
0.0019574789330363274,
0.4207410514354706,
-0.11494555324316025,
0.8849445581436157,
-0.29420706629753113,
-0.34290871024131775,
0.1667458862066269,
-0.2781318426132202,
-0.3694099187850952,
-0.5837963223457336,
-0.5909303426742554,
0.5242822766304016,
0.27956679463386536,
0.486456036567688,
-0.6012662649154663,
-0.2983669340610504,
0.25935983657836914,
0.6722730398178101,
-0.5463427901268005,
-0.19386659562587738,
-0.46851757168769836,
0.04138171672821045,
0.3558976650238037,
-0.9179660081863403,
-0.0592501200735569,
-0.4771067798137665,
-0.7333597540855408,
-0.31645628809928894,
-0.4370959401130676,
-0.1881028115749359,
-0.18362776935100555,
0.11756793409585953,
-0.54133141040802,
-0.47085222601890564,
0.7543932199478149,
0.3761604428291321,
-0.09295538067817688,
0.3843076825141907,
0.22968262434005737,
-0.15727734565734863,
0.23683315515518188,
-0.10626641660928726,
-0.40105414390563965,
1.2299267053604126,
-0.06650437414646149,
0.4830435514450073,
-0.18861231207847595,
0.5086383819580078,
0.47757774591445923,
-0.2182001769542694,
-0.27318885922431946,
0.4386209547519684,
0.47089600563049316,
-0.2701646685600281,
-0.7113945484161377,
0.5301774740219116,
-0.7164408564567566,
0.34585216641426086,
0.28688859939575195,
-0.49373871088027954,
-0.2594984769821167,
-0.5820600986480713,
0.15733544528484344,
-0.9357761144638062,
0.367703378200531,
0.18457625806331635,
-0.29946017265319824,
0.48546385765075684,
-0.17977336049079895,
-0.20734646916389465,
0.5841459035873413,
-0.1650414913892746,
0.20616784691810608,
0.3774053156375885,
0.24156305193901062,
0.0656389370560646,
0.19497811794281006,
-0.3803386688232422,
0.3702787160873413,
0.03803171589970589,
0.36651933193206787,
-0.24612538516521454,
0.5343954563140869,
0.42444491386413574,
-0.38213974237442017,
-0.17093989253044128,
0.10399166494607925,
-0.7620619535446167,
-0.28538063168525696,
0.24152378737926483,
0.12307877838611603,
0.16790814697742462,
0.2828279435634613,
0.10470939427614212,
-0.4540077745914459,
-0.09599911421537399,
-0.38179776072502136,
0.02552325837314129,
0.18447870016098022,
0.160066619515419,
0.4616768956184387,
0.15666404366493225,
-0.11682522296905518,
0.4094420373439789,
-0.2867109775543213,
-0.47968849539756775,
0.39303356409072876,
0.13332152366638184,
0.7799208760261536,
0.5348656177520752,
-0.14269334077835083,
0.7756848931312561,
0.20335958898067474,
0.39121347665786743,
-0.6863198280334473,
0.4800979495048523,
0.44020718336105347,
-0.2426561713218689,
-0.5887882709503174,
1.2944327592849731,
0.2549722194671631,
0.4369472861289978,
0.2739866077899933,
0.6901358366012573,
0.11012449115514755,
-0.5351456999778748,
0.07138919085264206,
-0.18490861356258392,
0.2661607563495636,
-0.40842053294181824,
-0.4612867534160614,
-0.5845149159431458,
0.2958814203739166,
-0.46811389923095703,
0.08644486963748932,
0.0889359712600708,
-0.4089132249355316,
0.05652860924601555,
0.44392648339271545,
0.22016148269176483,
0.31167715787887573,
0.1881149858236313,
0.23686404526233673,
-0.11061695218086243,
0.09374802559614182,
-0.030529800802469254,
0.2341504544019699,
-0.44078895449638367,
-0.12694406509399414,
0.08787917345762253,
0.0710739865899086,
-0.7538934350013733,
0.4738108515739441,
0.12763431668281555,
0.2246655970811844,
0.22024671733379364,
-0.8770964741706848,
-0.3636249601840973,
0.6739495396614075,
0.3962496221065521,
0.24634870886802673,
-0.25566643476486206,
-0.34404197335243225,
0.5756468176841736,
0.024875590577721596,
0.33954110741615295,
0.36932551860809326,
0.12044280022382736,
0.12895037233829498,
-0.45321914553642273,
-0.12780103087425232,
0.2512561082839966,
0.34372103214263916,
-0.409932017326355,
-0.03155633434653282,
-0.2982087731361389,
-0.2775932550430298,
0.9535498023033142,
-0.08494237810373306,
-0.15634110569953918,
0.057558324187994,
-0.75654536485672,
0.47414639592170715,
-0.003372220089659095,
0.5006111860275269,
-0.5302947759628296,
0.02453756518661976,
-0.8918893337249756,
0.5939276814460754,
-0.2721203565597534,
0.6900225281715393,
0.25715145468711853,
-0.365595281124115,
-0.16425298154354095,
0.40498659014701843,
0.7210543155670166,
0.03016090765595436,
-1.0257114171981812,
-0.3125656545162201,
-0.3013107180595398,
0.06163719296455383,
-0.1353827267885208,
-0.43073785305023193,
0.14839109778404236,
-0.220392107963562,
-0.4334900677204132,
-0.028268110007047653,
0.42532140016555786,
-0.20671682059764862,
-0.3401258587837219,
-0.180632084608078,
0.1629915088415146,
0.0031256596557796,
-0.8402644395828247,
-0.6215925216674805,
0.285497784614563,
-0.2198777198791504,
0.30844002962112427,
0.31191176176071167,
0.07209769636392593,
-0.16593718528747559,
-0.250387042760849,
-5.569862365722656,
0.2609623372554779,
-0.3280388414859772,
-0.30120131373405457,
-0.048881031572818756,
-0.09281884878873825,
0.47179973125457764,
-0.45701009035110474,
0.3710044026374817,
0.04397483915090561,
-0.47433996200561523,
0.30912718176841736,
-0.07358846068382263,
0.3064359724521637,
0.1398877054452896,
0.6936456561088562,
-0.09300114214420319,
0.23019717633724213,
0.33793923258781433,
0.3438453674316406,
-0.2473672330379486,
0.4138365089893341,
-0.7340599298477173,
-0.2321457713842392,
-0.07499951124191284,
0.6918383240699768,
-0.7576309442520142,
-0.16567198932170868,
-0.20213274657726288,
-0.619571328163147,
-0.11098375171422958,
-0.06525768339633942,
-0.3177563548088074,
-0.5653995275497437,
0.08517466485500336,
-0.15046367049217224,
0.16453047096729279,
0.48222431540489197,
0.3640434145927429,
-0.1629350483417511,
0.14108961820602417,
-0.18418505787849426,
-0.2832563519477844,
-0.006420711521059275,
0.49380359053611755,
-0.3504781126976013,
-0.7039053440093994,
-0.39874467253685,
-0.04700331762433052,
0.5554729104042053,
-0.16282518208026886,
-0.048534080386161804,
0.5367197394371033,
0.39277252554893494,
0.3266182541847229,
-0.15979763865470886,
0.023020025342702866,
0.21883532404899597,
-0.004610447213053703,
0.637242317199707,
0.4284135103225708,
-0.26425981521606445,
-0.0221905168145895,
-0.39732488989830017,
0.034706249833106995,
0.07457403093576431,
-0.02403968945145607,
-0.20661531388759613,
-0.19196639955043793,
0.5433059334754944,
-0.3013615310192108,
-0.3047543168067932,
-0.09464879333972931,
-0.9996113181114197,
-0.3338218033313751,
-0.8192427158355713,
-0.784713089466095,
-0.24661359190940857,
-0.403766006231308,
-0.06725497543811798,
0.024494029581546783,
-0.362811416387558,
-0.18828260898590088,
0.2701369524002075,
-0.23490040004253387,
-0.9116412997245789,
-0.029836831614375114,
0.1769641637802124,
-0.03140609711408615,
-0.6552265286445618,
0.2464241087436676,
0.11498401314020157,
0.5878547430038452,
0.0324590802192688,
0.2192995846271515,
0.14472271502017975,
-0.20715223252773285,
-0.2526959478855133,
0.5522172451019287,
-0.6679293513298035,
0.20222415030002594,
-0.8432546854019165,
-0.42867666482925415,
-0.00353747489862144,
-0.11106369644403458,
-0.22256918251514435,
0.0205758698284626,
0.14176742732524872,
0.4856297969818115,
-0.534427285194397,
-0.4337865710258484,
-0.3930278420448303,
-0.5468115210533142,
0.0983307734131813,
0.8614370822906494,
0.06994529068470001,
-0.2597794830799103,
0.18747840821743011,
-0.06274369359016418,
0.30325719714164734,
0.0410175547003746,
0.3068099021911621,
0.18560507893562317,
0.3976672887802124,
-0.011606576852500439,
-0.06574765592813492,
0.3390040397644043,
0.24168117344379425,
-0.333631306886673,
-0.3182738125324249,
0.3243405520915985,
-0.1899378001689911,
-0.1365160048007965,
-0.5616971850395203,
0.12254055589437485,
-0.5810002684593201,
-0.631207287311554,
-0.7894909977912903,
0.2768680155277252,
0.5904182195663452,
0.34815898537635803,
-0.4009987711906433,
-0.018617521971464157,
0.3011794984340668,
0.08457034081220627,
0.496061235666275,
0.1385645717382431,
0.316344290971756,
-0.6088366508483887,
0.45665547251701355,
-0.42847785353660583,
-0.44077229499816895,
-0.1612483561038971,
-0.21438096463680267,
-0.39755359292030334,
0.18060936033725739,
0.43960097432136536,
0.2812837064266205,
0.46482524275779724,
0.05150480568408966,
0.31794965267181396,
-0.45604953169822693,
-1.2471603155136108,
-0.12246182560920715,
-0.1703101545572281,
-0.031008997932076454,
-0.3082783818244934,
-0.48305314779281616,
0.40574219822883606,
0.21660831570625305,
0.1894424706697464,
-0.9363427758216858,
-0.5294454097747803,
-0.3038240075111389,
0.4020879864692688,
-0.4112536907196045,
-0.07848359644412994,
0.778140664100647,
-0.5894813537597656,
-0.2074212282896042,
-0.2761666178703308,
0.1268312633037567,
-0.013747106306254864,
-0.02795955166220665,
0.06350909173488617,
-0.23266932368278503,
-0.3411617577075958,
-0.2959071099758148,
0.005787645000964403,
0.10246756672859192,
0.3463767170906067,
0.16315652430057526,
-0.17508436739444733,
0.06480871886014938,
-0.0011086611775681376,
-0.6816542148590088,
-0.08177819103002548,
0.22205877304077148,
-0.25006869435310364,
-0.2345462143421173,
-0.21537050604820251,
0.11917509138584137,
-0.22224147617816925,
0.904069721698761,
-0.40825217962265015,
-0.21984706819057465,
0.6882098317146301,
0.6537761092185974,
-0.5891822576522827,
-0.09066089242696762,
-0.5469308495521545,
-0.5202885270118713,
0.3238087594509125,
0.7315085530281067,
-0.8003660440444946,
0.8730307817459106,
-0.013341860845685005,
0.050492063164711,
0.14715039730072021,
-0.20909523963928223,
-1.1370956897735596,
-0.35332274436950684,
0.5720407962799072,
-0.24927489459514618,
-0.10574101656675339,
1.0940427780151367,
0.5077225565910339,
0.0318102091550827,
0.19650784134864807,
-0.1625315397977829,
-0.6352494955062866,
-0.2581155598163605,
0.5394273996353149,
0.043394699692726135,
-0.23668161034584045,
0.3703474700450897,
-0.06477925181388855,
-0.375346839427948,
0.6925768852233887,
0.5423879027366638,
0.1290607750415802,
0.7441861033439636,
-0.04033089801669121,
-0.2115313857793808,
0.207623690366745,
0.4199424684047699,
0.20733068883419037,
-0.1930771768093109,
-0.5449482202529907,
0.410455584526062,
0.13852669298648834,
-0.18113963305950165,
-0.3353154957294464,
-0.06497251242399216,
0.7258838415145874,
-0.22047510743141174,
-0.0236167311668396,
0.6700204610824585,
0.3492894768714905,
-0.03737027198076248,
0.2335602194070816,
0.4013732075691223,
0.46822935342788696,
0.5331259369850159,
0.14136895537376404,
-0.58968186378479,
-0.3163357973098755,
-0.019194036722183228,
0.8433880805969238,
-0.28976041078567505,
-0.10975716263055801,
-0.4521196782588959,
0.37699827551841736,
0.3293640613555908,
-0.016139965504407883,
0.09262049198150635,
-0.4320831894874573,
-0.4426455497741699,
-0.06640248745679855,
0.09224233776330948,
-0.38199901580810547,
0.07672037929296494,
-0.1119486391544342,
-0.2386966198682785,
0.4981014132499695,
-0.14459063112735748,
0.4591977894306183,
-0.17929579317569733,
-0.2715594470500946,
0.3876517415046692,
0.02269444428384304,
-0.3894207179546356,
0.4017544388771057,
-0.16037549078464508,
-0.13847626745700836,
0.04071764647960663,
0.11749187856912613,
0.5572868585586548,
-0.207494854927063,
-0.056890930980443954,
-0.21207110583782196,
0.5789827704429626,
-0.22955836355686188,
-0.29090946912765503,
-0.06121552363038063,
-0.36678239703178406,
-0.3689431846141815,
-0.19637338817119598,
0.2507963180541992,
0.2809341847896576,
0.06180870532989502,
-0.016307245939970016,
0.3157489597797394,
0.8483415246009827,
-0.06610929220914841,
0.6852371692657471,
0.123310886323452,
-1.082278847694397,
-0.058191921561956406,
0.17631635069847107,
0.4218270480632782,
-0.23663274943828583,
0.2858705520629883,
0.5376240015029907,
0.21793138980865479,
0.932304859161377,
-0.21040742099285126,
-0.19853022694587708,
0.1524859219789505,
0.9325825572013855,
-0.18944229185581207,
-0.08172757178544998,
-0.36455994844436646,
0.1425407975912094,
-0.7597025632858276,
-0.518691897392273,
0.4645662307739258,
-0.15396268665790558,
-0.002381605561822653,
0.2944892644882202,
0.5859017372131348,
0.21885307133197784,
-0.13653098046779633,
-0.0929599478840828,
0.06186200678348541,
-0.5527239441871643,
0.3784644901752472,
0.2646259367465973,
0.32412612438201904,
-0.4235401153564453,
-0.14825162291526794,
-0.2274545282125473,
0.2309286743402481,
-0.4478621184825897,
0.2360539734363556,
-0.003903548466041684,
0.1097787469625473,
-0.3869839906692505,
0.0756959319114685,
-0.4157288372516632,
0.047426264733076096,
0.15651638805866241,
0.6825053691864014,
0.7607513666152954,
0.36663299798965454,
-0.5159711837768555,
0.1860862672328949,
-0.3484458029270172,
-0.2794986665248871,
0.1302194446325302,
0.12823738157749176,
0.6260161995887756,
0.2818093001842499,
-0.2204662263393402,
0.3199302852153778,
0.8137442469596863,
-1.0432384014129639,
0.9650068879127502,
-0.3708575665950775,
0.2679413855075836,
-0.15389707684516907,
0.16706711053848267,
-0.0657411441206932,
-0.36090177297592163,
0.7016047239303589,
-0.10072045773267746,
0.20353277027606964,
0.2357187718153,
-0.6760410666465759,
0.05289299041032791,
-0.031054459512233734,
-0.8054192662239075,
-0.5277237296104431,
0.24606436491012573,
-0.3526701033115387,
-0.2914655804634094,
0.44992026686668396,
0.7137467861175537,
0.49305540323257446,
-0.1566339135169983,
0.13304255902767181,
0.08974966406822205,
-0.19376032054424286,
0.47704628109931946,
0.11052552610635757,
0.3508298397064209,
0.008329319767653942,
0.3429153263568878,
-0.743269681930542,
0.40737271308898926,
0.036913249641656876,
0.23086076974868774,
0.058473315089941025,
0.7708724141120911,
0.15101489424705505,
0.8684357404708862,
0.27976784110069275,
-0.5315913558006287,
-0.3963760435581207,
-0.12338300794363022,
-0.023190950974822044,
-0.762092113494873,
0.04351552948355675,
0.28823980689048767,
0.45439961552619934,
-0.15856340527534485,
-0.4170348048210144,
0.30828070640563965,
-0.714481770992279,
0.334679514169693,
-0.17388483881950378,
-0.0858938917517662,
-0.13681797683238983,
0.36908459663391113,
-0.2830427885055542,
0.07946658879518509,
0.30878040194511414,
0.8404086828231812,
0.40290120244026184,
-0.4046905040740967,
-0.29611852765083313,
-0.062326621264219284,
0.09868565201759338,
-0.31449732184410095,
-1.7117369174957275,
0.01509197149425745,
-0.6041597723960876,
-0.5446685552597046,
-0.5505349040031433,
0.011552314274013042,
0.20073653757572174,
-0.694955587387085,
0.12743932008743286,
-0.5401309728622437,
0.2918853461742401,
-0.45516741275787354,
0.24270017445087433,
-0.5577434301376343,
0.5890305638313293,
-0.020694531500339508
] |
200154
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umm%20Qasr
|
Umm Qasr
|
Umm Qasr (, also transliterated as Um-qasir, Um-qasser) is a port city in southern Iraq. It stands on the canalised Khawr az-Zubayr, part of the Khawr Abd Allah estuary which leads to the Persian Gulf. It is separated from the border of Kuwait by a small inlet. A bridge across the waterway linked the port with Kuwait prior to the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
History
Village to port
Umm Qasr was originally a small fishing town, but was used as a military port on several occasions before advancing trades and jobs by building a deep-water port on the coast. It was said to have been the site of Alexander the Great's landing in Mesopotamia in 325 BC. During the Second World War a temporary port was established there by the Allies to unload supplies to dispatch to the Soviet Union. It fell back into obscurity after the war, but the government of King Faisal II sought to establish a permanent port there in the 1950s.
After the Iraqi Revolution of 1958, a naval base was established at Umm Qasr. The port was subsequently founded in 1961 by the Iraqi ruler General Abdul-Karim Qassem. It was intended to serve as Iraq's only "deep water" port, reducing the country's dependence on the disputed Shatt al-Arab waterway that marks the border with Iran. The port facilities were built by a consortium of companies from West Germany, Sweden and Lebanon, with a railway line connecting it to Basra and Baghdad. The port opened for business in July 1967.
Iran–Iraq War
During the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) its importance increased as fighting restricted access to other ports further east. Umm Qasr was threatened after the Iranian invasion and occupation of the al-Faw Peninsula in 1986 but the port never fell.
Gulf War
Access to the port was part of the territorial dispute with Kuwait which led to the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Both countries contested ownership of the inlet leading to Umm Qasr as well as control of the nearby Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah. After the war, during which the port was bombed, control of the inlet was transferred to Kuwait and a large trench and sand berm was constructed along the border. The Iraqi government rejected the border changes and continued to claim Kuwaiti territory near the port. The Iraqi government shifted much commerce to Umm Qasr from Basra to punish the Basrawis economically for their support of the post-war rebellions against Saddam Hussein.
U.S.-led invasion
Umm Qasr was the target of one of the first major military operations in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, on March 21, 2003. The assault on the port was spearheaded by British Royal Marines, US Marines from the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit and Polish GROM troops, but Iraqi forces put up unexpectedly strong resistance, requiring several days' fighting before the area was cleared of defenders. After the waterway was de-mined by Australian Clearance Diving Team Three, Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron FOURTEEN Detachment ONE and Naval Special Clearance Team ONE of the U.S. Navy and Royal Navy Fleet Diving Unit 3 and reopened, Umm Qasr played an important role in the shipment of humanitarian supplies to Iraqi civilians.
During a debate in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom in late March 2003, British Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon somewhat inadvisedly compared Umm Qasr to the southern English city of Southampton. The analogy was met with scepticism among the troops. A British soldier was widely quoted as retorting, "There's no beer, no prostitutes and people are shooting at us. It's more like Portsmouth". In January 2006, the 100th British soldier died in Iraq. Corporal Gordon Pritchard, was killed in a bomb explosion in the town. An American Air Force enlistee, Derek Mohamed Adas, described his war-time experience at Camp Bucca and the poverty of the surrounding area in his interview with the Library of Congress' Veterans History Project in 2013.
Geography
Climate
In Umm Qasr, there is a desert climate. In winter there is more rainfall than in summer. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification is BWh. The average annual temperature in Umm Qasr is . About of precipitation falls annually.
Today
Town
Population estimates are around 46,000 people living in Umm Qasr town at the outbreak of the 2003 war. Having grown from a tiny fishing village in 1958, the town is laid out in planned housing tracts, with workers living near the previously state-owned industries which employed them. Almost the entire population were relocated from other parts of Iraq to work in state-run industries. The port (and its workforce) were dramatically expanded following the first Gulf War, in part to remove vital functions from Basra, scene of a major anti-government uprising. A mapping project shortly thereafter stated "In total, the town is composed of 82 streets; each street has 72 houses. Up to three to four families live in each house." It then described three main neighborhoods:
North Indian Camp (Hindi Court) in the north, with 6,600 people and 37 streets
South Indian Camp to the west of town, mostly to house port workers.
Port/Customs Office with housing and offices for the Iraqi Ministry of Industry; housing for workers in the pipe, steel, and cement factories.
Public services
Prior to the 2003 war, Umm Qasr had 13 primary schools (four for boys, four for girls, and five coeducational), two intermediate schools for boys, and five secondary schools (two for boys, one night school for boys, and two for girls). There was a single hospital for the town.
Today, the population of Umm Qasr communities is around 55,000 people. There are shortages in the higher education services in the city, and most of the students are traveling to Basra's one public university about 57 km, or to the Technical Institute in Al-Zubair region. However, the city has also had many of its people migrate to the European Union, Canada and Australia. The town has a multicultural community, and the borders with neighboring country Kuwait and sea borders has offered people more understanding of the port city's lifestyle.
Sports
Football is the most popular sport among the youth in Umm Qasr. There are many local teams, but the greatest public support is for the Port Culp team in the mother port of Maqel in downtown Basrah. Some of the youth are involved in swimming in the gulf water; also, some people are focusing on the running sports. Female participation in sports is limited in the public schools.
Rail line
A branch of the main Iraqi Republic Railways line connects Umm Qasr to Basra from Shouaiba Junction (near Basra) via the port of Khawr az-Zubayr.
Airport
Umm Qasr has a civil aviation airport, with the ICAO Code of ORUQ.
Buildings and structures
At Umm Qasr, there is a 492 metres (1614 ft) tall broadcasting mast at .
See also
Al-Faw
List of places in Iraq
List of United Kingdom Military installations used during Operation Telic
References
The Sunday Times April 6, 2003 Colonel Cox has a whole town to build. The commando ‘mayor of Umm Qasr’ is starting from scratch, he tells Christina Lamb.
United States trade group report on re-opening of Umm Qasr Port.
United States Military. Road trip: SDDC Southwest Asia works up front at Iraqi port of Umm Qasr. in Translog: Journal of Military Transportation Management, Fall, 2004 by Randall Ramian
2003 UNJLC Reports on Umm Qasr Port.
UNIKOM Images of Umm Qasr Port.
University of Texas: Area Map.
External links
Iraq Image - Umm Qasr Satellite Observation
Umm Qasr, Iraq
At Iraqi Port, Chaos and Corruption Reign – slideshow by The New York Times
Populated places in Basra Province
Port cities and towns of the Persian Gulf
Port cities and towns in Iraq
Cities in Iraq
1958 establishments in Iraq
|
[
-0.13939914107322693,
0.47360652685165405,
0.18831990659236908,
-0.8280032277107239,
-0.32028457522392273,
0.6756852865219116,
0.4766137897968292,
0.15948761999607086,
-0.030800849199295044,
0.19006340205669403,
-0.7461250424385071,
0.18615645170211792,
-0.20895884931087494,
0.4431624412536621,
0.1742035448551178,
0.4449648857116699,
-0.3441919982433319,
0.537651777267456,
0.1321040540933609,
0.0714576467871666,
0.12288592755794525,
-0.3365877568721771,
0.3670880198478699,
-0.578350841999054,
0.19942545890808105,
-0.36946940422058105,
0.4124409556388855,
0.49881890416145325,
-0.4028327167034149,
-0.0031685379799455404,
0.17325888574123383,
0.4622933268547058,
-0.5428268909454346,
-0.1804046481847763,
0.3579782545566559,
0.2889013886451721,
0.19651006162166595,
-0.22729448974132538,
-0.33311477303504944,
-0.5822173357009888,
-0.47159621119499207,
-0.45062848925590515,
0.3518730401992798,
0.3274810314178467,
-0.16502447426319122,
-1.1449975967407227,
-1.0853861570358276,
0.0038014387246221304,
-0.8132089376449585,
-0.012029665522277355,
-0.6926209330558777,
0.4366535544395447,
-0.14951515197753906,
-0.19083283841609955,
0.7274247407913208,
0.7437411546707153,
-0.9666771292686462,
0.1025727167725563,
0.42679479718208313,
-0.09855926036834717,
0.8637412190437317,
0.13163457810878754,
0.16992180049419403,
0.07765239477157593,
0.09124798327684402,
0.2574974000453949,
-0.11286722868680954,
0.12849438190460205,
0.31283310055732727,
0.013518464751541615,
-0.058536920696496964,
0.15290533006191254,
-0.25376489758491516,
-0.3228413760662079,
-0.2063136249780655,
0.15260963141918182,
-0.5843634009361267,
-0.14976179599761963,
0.058902908116579056,
0.3015052378177643,
0.014234748668968678,
-0.46333643794059753,
0.8164168000221252,
0.10269703716039658,
0.6216708421707153,
-0.0432264544069767,
-0.18885111808776855,
0.642632246017456,
-0.472225159406662,
0.6066869497299194,
-0.34948405623435974,
-0.19983021914958954,
-0.04508298635482788,
-0.17563927173614502,
-0.09233549237251282,
-0.5018713474273682,
-0.36617791652679443,
0.5640482306480408,
-0.2512247562408447,
0.4620518982410431,
-0.05103425309062004,
1.055356502532959,
0.36896851658821106,
0.2797697186470032,
-0.09933444857597351,
0.2209126204252243,
-0.3528710603713989,
-0.1565285474061966,
-0.10572396963834763,
-0.2500196695327759,
0.02728293649852276,
0.7321780323982239,
-0.009704201482236385,
-0.1826135367155075,
-0.12225522845983505,
0.13176992535591125,
-0.07428226619958878,
0.14147616922855377,
-0.24148499965667725,
0.022355396300554276,
0.20139573514461517,
0.7011690735816956,
-0.3648570775985718,
-0.2144729644060135,
0.4372935891151428,
-0.10106687992811203,
0.4400765597820282,
0.6322377324104309,
-1.0774534940719604,
0.9692173004150391,
0.4288587272167206,
0.5786299109458923,
-0.3185562789440155,
0.6238391995429993,
0.2773606777191162,
-0.34635019302368164,
0.034730009734630585,
-0.07741408050060272,
1.2622191905975342,
0.21760490536689758,
-0.9672336578369141,
0.40526530146598816,
-0.35056546330451965,
-0.21608561277389526,
0.17877896130084991,
-0.1969468742609024,
0.01001747790724039,
-0.6007307767868042,
-0.3915346562862396,
-0.09685186296701431,
-0.06962357461452484,
-0.3702893853187561,
-0.10814282298088074,
-0.36741042137145996,
0.03645999729633331,
-0.3717145621776581,
0.3566281199455261,
0.2701134979724884,
0.369137704372406,
-0.08584009110927582,
-0.46670863032341003,
0.26370930671691895,
0.3076724112033844,
-0.20931686460971832,
-0.31018730998039246,
0.10067403316497803,
0.42510414123535156,
-0.02797636203467846,
0.679743766784668,
0.3103066682815552,
-0.6148496270179749,
-0.10045406967401505,
0.5565457344055176,
-0.45803672075271606,
0.041066840291023254,
-0.220579594373703,
1.2200355529785156,
0.6386644840240479,
0.30732864141464233,
-0.04491711035370827,
-0.8009559512138367,
-0.04922854155302048,
-0.09869292378425598,
0.7040096521377563,
0.38455238938331604,
-0.08690685033798218,
0.5416098237037659,
-0.48837390542030334,
-0.3452836573123932,
0.15036405622959137,
-0.22579219937324524,
-0.3201630711555481,
-0.07638149708509445,
0.13261550664901733,
0.3780224621295929,
0.8150643110275269,
-0.5086807012557983,
0.5062261819839478,
-0.33156242966651917,
1.1799107789993286,
-0.4472529888153076,
-0.1511709988117218,
0.7076207995414734,
-0.6749435067176819,
-0.5306603312492371,
0.5667481422424316,
0.5283777117729187,
0.2938820719718933,
0.2338649481534958,
0.8127846717834473,
0.38607627153396606,
-0.7783427834510803,
-0.47726407647132874,
0.0936984196305275,
-0.022657722234725952,
-0.6084702610969543,
-0.1406286656856537,
0.04161572456359863,
-0.090338796377182,
-0.021712670102715492,
0.5104941129684448,
0.00581844849511981,
-0.5967321395874023,
0.4277382493019104,
-0.24698273837566376,
-0.25738248229026794,
0.14117883145809174,
0.11294925212860107,
-0.47566983103752136,
-0.09858256578445435,
0.39643922448158264,
0.28104346990585327,
0.5950109362602234,
-0.17670758068561554,
-0.3489219546318054,
-0.15876691043376923,
-0.10288776457309723,
0.22051966190338135,
0.22598214447498322,
-0.07719285786151886,
0.014067194424569607,
0.623797595500946,
-0.5162500739097595,
0.14565645158290863,
0.5918231010437012,
0.2962176203727722,
-0.05153262987732887,
-0.19467762112617493,
-0.44692865014076233,
0.31383004784584045,
-0.4399515688419342,
0.3486291468143463,
0.20589573681354523,
-0.3876809775829315,
0.3818921148777008,
-0.47319212555885315,
0.054540637880563736,
0.5470298528671265,
0.5671916604042053,
-0.1361592561006546,
-0.4092174768447876,
0.6402955651283264,
0.1446501463651657,
0.7716022729873657,
0.002457702998071909,
0.2035759687423706,
0.13588882982730865,
-0.5673701167106628,
0.02949226088821888,
0.5335517525672913,
0.5734953880310059,
-0.09367303550243378,
0.07940921187400818,
0.4467596411705017,
0.1473766714334488,
0.05786117538809776,
-0.31192663311958313,
-0.028982151299715042,
-0.3785824179649353,
0.2220018208026886,
0.7229211330413818,
0.259861022233963,
0.15608416497707367,
-0.47119858860969543,
-0.49901193380355835,
-0.3964187502861023,
-0.3222465217113495,
-0.33383840322494507,
-0.359764963388443,
-0.4266100227832794,
-0.8279553055763245,
-0.36952492594718933,
0.030452346429228783,
0.6250890493392944,
-0.5528256297111511,
-0.45221731066703796,
0.06586989760398865,
-0.12220355868339539,
0.44852420687675476,
-0.40968915820121765,
-1.1736427545547485,
0.6700838804244995,
-0.8285207748413086,
0.1353369951248169,
-0.034681059420108795,
0.3255482017993927,
-0.4384171962738037,
0.09594974666833878,
-5.339987754821777,
0.2031816691160202,
-0.1541554182767868,
-0.5395185947418213,
0.6891197562217712,
-0.25375500321388245,
0.2627617120742798,
-0.8796186447143555,
0.19619214534759521,
0.20133215188980103,
-0.02755110152065754,
0.17059606313705444,
0.04879439249634743,
0.5916498303413391,
0.6712251901626587,
0.48314395546913147,
0.19803722202777863,
0.15949098765850067,
0.24822936952114105,
-0.6693724989891052,
-0.19961369037628174,
-0.10974536836147308,
-0.3500664532184601,
0.6122997999191284,
0.2476237714290619,
0.6034605503082275,
-0.14851835370063782,
-0.5805061459541321,
-0.7486997246742249,
-0.6274440288543701,
-0.17666736245155334,
-0.2772306799888611,
0.045619573444128036,
0.3523117005825043,
0.020440908148884773,
0.06399553269147873,
0.6878406405448914,
-0.019379617646336555,
0.6150098443031311,
-0.5272594094276428,
-0.20081168413162231,
0.43733683228492737,
0.09980665892362595,
-0.4763204753398895,
0.572079598903656,
-0.6394678354263306,
-0.7963390350341797,
-0.1631835252046585,
0.3007328510284424,
0.5653759241104126,
0.3480891287326813,
-0.19146449863910675,
0.188110813498497,
-0.09384778887033463,
-0.364063024520874,
-0.34320276975631714,
0.17277340590953827,
-0.16620704531669617,
-0.01836484670639038,
0.6814739108085632,
0.37790510058403015,
-0.21177582442760468,
-0.2371361255645752,
-0.3869752287864685,
-0.12752585113048553,
-0.41558006405830383,
0.6556354761123657,
-0.3162158131599426,
0.3437187671661377,
0.23033250868320465,
-0.3702857494354248,
-0.125104621052742,
-0.6756345629692078,
-0.9206218123435974,
0.13883206248283386,
-0.6263142824172974,
-0.5375582575798035,
-0.029748374596238136,
-0.550435483455658,
0.3868497610092163,
-0.12987083196640015,
-0.20173263549804688,
0.5639445185661316,
0.0838107019662857,
-0.10799697786569595,
-0.7395678758621216,
0.537802517414093,
0.2635476291179657,
0.05535157769918442,
-0.34031379222869873,
0.517655074596405,
-0.6065659523010254,
0.9389050602912903,
-0.25698956847190857,
-0.17391754686832428,
0.37598055601119995,
-0.1918632537126541,
0.05818309634923935,
0.8678732514381409,
-0.1373850554227829,
0.3733704388141632,
-0.4568166732788086,
0.2773643136024475,
0.12359144538640976,
-0.027011673897504807,
-0.10010533779859543,
-0.11925116926431656,
0.06867439299821854,
0.6949281692504883,
-0.532105565071106,
-0.29398295283317566,
0.31146788597106934,
-0.19317835569381714,
0.05795194208621979,
0.2345443069934845,
-0.4556303322315216,
-0.5030251741409302,
1.090132236480713,
0.18662849068641663,
0.6597638130187988,
0.38494497537612915,
-0.23481062054634094,
-0.04419770836830139,
0.017295293509960175,
0.0024520058650523424,
-0.1912061721086502,
-0.16505292057991028,
0.38375648856163025,
-0.21132513880729675,
0.1013612225651741,
0.18040616810321808,
-0.12527281045913696,
0.054442454129457474,
-0.32018575072288513,
0.08244195580482483,
-0.30602654814720154,
-1.0804698467254639,
-0.22423505783081055,
0.042846180498600006,
0.5327648520469666,
0.3980565667152405,
-0.18518348038196564,
-0.12111629545688629,
0.07641728967428207,
0.3008258044719696,
0.5232282876968384,
0.24147780239582062,
0.44584521651268005,
-0.6851370334625244,
0.060084499418735504,
-0.6891984343528748,
-0.14588256180286407,
-0.14681066572666168,
-0.32337144017219543,
0.07877853512763977,
0.11319120973348618,
0.5102714896202087,
0.8960671424865723,
-0.2778796851634979,
-0.3196491003036499,
0.16537229716777802,
-0.29724591970443726,
-1.0854483842849731,
0.42580321431159973,
-0.049573518335819244,
0.3898763060569763,
0.1323956549167633,
0.07798086106777191,
-0.04897896945476532,
0.7824411392211914,
-0.17349950969219208,
-0.4351053535938263,
-0.5406065583229065,
-0.2831035256385803,
0.39119142293930054,
-0.23761822283267975,
-0.008948273956775665,
-0.010371018201112747,
0.4986087381839752,
-0.42598703503608704,
-0.37627890706062317,
0.01526397280395031,
-0.13666121661663055,
0.32730528712272644,
0.0816686674952507,
-0.3120171129703522,
-0.5799947381019592,
-0.6071841716766357,
-0.13480240106582642,
-0.3995990753173828,
0.7099279165267944,
-0.11239169538021088,
-0.24002273380756378,
0.46958234906196594,
-0.0727158635854721,
-0.8351672887802124,
-0.014380362816154957,
0.7702189683914185,
-0.02471541054546833,
-0.0773082971572876,
0.28231409192085266,
0.540388286113739,
-0.7372618317604065,
0.8031910061836243,
-0.32734695076942444,
-0.7809569239616394,
0.5124810934066772,
0.4379793107509613,
-0.37474411725997925,
0.16999514400959015,
-0.7317650318145752,
-0.6877318620681763,
0.09767010062932968,
1.3479161262512207,
-0.6960586309432983,
-0.0814458355307579,
-0.34394025802612305,
0.2401505708694458,
-0.3720393776893616,
-0.41878509521484375,
-0.48712465167045593,
-0.9480088949203491,
0.22576017677783966,
-0.38298019766807556,
-0.5225036144256592,
0.4456607401371002,
0.2267521619796753,
-0.6109909415245056,
0.0009163654176518321,
0.32513758540153503,
0.4525637924671173,
0.052522212266922,
0.953953742980957,
0.5103048086166382,
0.2687014043331146,
-0.3624902069568634,
-0.2799810469150543,
-0.5520980358123779,
-0.4955904185771942,
-0.25474613904953003,
0.12884174287319183,
0.3724301755428314,
0.2761874496936798,
-0.6709875464439392,
-0.40813198685646057,
0.3809686303138733,
-0.08409930765628815,
-0.47569549083709717,
-0.7633894681930542,
0.3587120473384857,
0.28327563405036926,
0.06194835528731346,
-0.6418120861053467,
-0.24972489476203918,
0.5667532086372375,
-0.5952105522155762,
0.17078542709350586,
0.35406360030174255,
-0.2830844819545746,
0.27719801664352417,
-0.13042354583740234,
-0.24771058559417725,
-0.1484747678041458,
0.6417579054832458,
0.10757799446582794,
-0.6725287437438965,
-0.49193957448005676,
-0.3995007872581482,
0.5166921019554138,
-0.4472052752971649,
-0.5607090592384338,
-0.3998718559741974,
0.9579381346702576,
0.6084625124931335,
-0.05364541336894035,
-0.088580422103405,
0.25375810265541077,
-0.5630335807800293,
0.4040323793888092,
0.2626974582672119,
-0.8635879755020142,
-0.03013758547604084,
-0.3342427611351013,
-0.4560348093509674,
0.05201895162463188,
-0.7795171737670898,
0.2276032716035843,
0.16175143420696259,
-0.48092347383499146,
0.3734542429447174,
-0.15148256719112396,
0.0668470486998558,
-0.3207955062389374,
1.1071937084197998,
-0.28586545586586,
0.15148082375526428,
0.34188756346702576,
0.8619569540023804,
-0.5288407206535339,
-0.38626551628112793,
-0.8673160672187805,
-0.1009615808725357,
-0.20949196815490723,
-0.2858355939388275,
0.13578005135059357,
-0.413837730884552,
-0.14741739630699158,
-0.0011879954254254699,
0.07308728992938995,
0.10197240114212036,
-0.3133271038532257,
0.5085636973381042,
0.3659802973270416,
0.7984679341316223,
-0.4426240622997284,
0.23398524522781372,
0.6475495100021362,
-0.8046392798423767,
0.030653581023216248,
0.8474430441856384,
0.34319615364074707,
-0.17334499955177307,
0.0024237262550741434,
0.7289943099021912,
0.18224750459194183,
0.8026756048202515,
0.4648425877094269,
-0.29819467663764954,
0.05859512463212013,
0.3792605996131897,
0.03804556280374527,
-0.641223669052124,
-0.19678251445293427,
0.19983646273612976,
-0.2896821200847626,
-0.7165102362632751,
-0.1190660372376442,
-0.2752124071121216,
-0.07314195483922958,
0.2315528839826584,
0.33959928154945374,
0.43502408266067505,
-0.08269781619310379,
-0.3636628985404968,
0.14598986506462097,
0.44747456908226013,
0.17744463682174683,
0.16878347098827362,
0.2742524743080139,
-0.48068609833717346,
0.16621015965938568,
0.11504081636667252,
-0.17249001562595367,
-0.451975017786026,
0.1178908571600914,
0.3869740068912506,
-0.15612833201885223,
-0.027173634618520737,
-0.3806903064250946,
0.8622000813484192,
0.20279544591903687,
0.005368865095078945,
0.6166262030601501,
-0.17943748831748962,
0.7530738115310669,
-0.8804445266723633,
0.07417116314172745,
-0.8443527221679688,
0.027757413685321808,
0.3728041350841522,
0.47729262709617615,
0.29192113876342773,
-0.5508803725242615,
-0.10189763456583023,
0.5838170051574707,
0.7307426333427429,
-0.22980378568172455,
0.6682464480400085,
-0.39443740248680115,
0.5372684001922607,
0.07840175181627274,
0.1311851441860199,
0.5663154125213623,
-0.48403218388557434,
-0.22508025169372559,
0.31202811002731323,
-0.0481465719640255,
-0.07066073268651962,
-0.9715707302093506,
-0.1691320240497589,
-0.3868633210659027,
0.1866646707057953,
-0.3581150770187378,
-0.16111119091510773,
-0.2253900170326233,
-0.48053720593452454,
0.2627433240413666,
0.4473978281021118,
-0.016118036583065987,
-0.243266761302948,
0.3665481507778168,
0.18978853523731232,
0.2536941468715668,
0.40970614552497864,
-0.6665785908699036,
0.05708054080605507,
-0.3213852345943451,
0.16585172712802887,
-0.3847680687904358,
0.20451846718788147,
0.1686120182275772,
0.5614979267120361,
0.16401219367980957,
0.49160876870155334,
-0.7146705389022827,
0.3344214856624603,
0.44423332810401917,
-0.36294615268707275,
0.31957921385765076,
-0.37956202030181885,
0.040368709713220596,
-0.44146910309791565,
-0.5393936634063721,
0.47147056460380554,
0.05545772984623909,
-0.11094547808170319,
0.4065702259540558,
0.17380593717098236,
-0.7675626277923584,
0.3045211136341095,
0.1404830664396286,
-0.034444257616996765,
-0.3677341043949127,
-0.18318745493888855,
-0.3169800937175751,
0.025042925029993057,
0.2391907274723053,
0.5460279583930969,
0.649196445941925,
-0.177801251411438,
0.4290352165699005,
-0.2121678739786148,
0.13271746039390564,
-0.760745108127594,
-0.1594824492931366,
-0.11748675256967545,
-0.7692323327064514,
-0.6859209537506104,
-0.2916060984134674,
0.9211114645004272,
0.007296382915228605,
-0.7589237689971924,
-0.0562451109290123,
-0.15637122094631195,
-0.005567198619246483,
-0.48469382524490356,
-0.14108677208423615,
-1.0079596042633057,
0.2921600341796875,
-0.5035399794578552
] |
200155
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Rwagasore
|
Louis Rwagasore
|
Louis Rwagasore (Kirundi: Ludoviko Rwagasore; 10 January 1932 – 13 October 1961) was a Burundian prince and politician who served as Prime Minister of Burundi from 28 September 1961 until his assassination two weeks later. Born to the Ganwa family of Burundian Mwami (king) Mwambutsa IV in Belgian-administered Ruanda-Urundi in 1932, Rwagasore was educated in Burundian Catholic schools before attending university in Belgium. After he returned to Burundi in the mid-1950s he founded a series of cooperatives to economically empower native Burundians and build up his base of political support. The Belgian administration took over the venture, and as a result of the affair his national profile increased and he became a leading figure of the anti-colonial movement. He soon thereafter became involved with a nationalist political party, the Union for National Progress (UPRONA). He pushed for Burundian independence from Belgian control, national unity, and the institution of a constitutional monarchy. Rwagasore sought to bring UPRONA mass appeal across different regions, ethnicities, and castes, and thus under his leadership the party maintained a leadership balanced between ethnic Hutus and Tutsis, though the latter were usually favoured for more important positions.
The Belgian administration disliked UPRONA and initially attempted to stifle Rwagasore's activities, placing him under house arrest in 1960 during municipal elections. International pressure led the administration to back down, and the following year UPRONA won an overwhelming majority in the legislative elections. As a result, Rwagasore became Prime Minister of Burundi on 28 September 1961. Two weeks later he was assassinated by a Greek national at the direction of leaders of a rival political party with the probable support of the Belgian Resident in Burundi. Rwagasore's death derailed his attempts to build national ethnic cohesion and facilitated the growth of Hutu–Tutsi tensions in the country. It also fractured UPRONA, as his former lieutenants engaged in a power struggle to succeed him as the party's leader. Within Burundi, Rwagasore's reputation enjoys nearly-universal acclaim, and his assassination is commemorated annually with large ceremonies. He remains relatively unknown internationally in comparison to other leaders of independence movements in the African Great Lakes region.
Early life
Louis Rwagasore was born on 10 January 1932 in Gitega, Ruanda-Urundi, to Mwami (king) of Urundi Mwambutsa IV and Thérèse Kanyonga. Ethnically, he was a member of the Bezi clan of the Ganwa, a group of people of aristocratic status often associated with the Tutsis. The frequency of matrimonial alliances among the Ganwa gave Rwagasore familial links to numerous chiefs in Urundi. Mwambutsa and Kanyonga thereafter had two daughters, Rosa Paula Iribagiza and Régine Kanyange, before divorcing in 1940. Mwambutsa remarried in 1946 and fathered a second son, Charles Ndizeye.
Rwagasore began attending school at the age of seven, going to Catholic institutions in Bukeye, Kanyinya, and Gitega. In 1945 Rwagasore enrolled in the Groupe Scolaire d'Astrida. He studied there for six years, and in 1951 went to Antwerp to study at the Institut universitaire des Territoires d'Outre-Mer. He was a poor student, but after one year at the institute he enrolled at the Catholic University of Leuven, where after three years of study he earned a degree in political economy.
Rwagasore returned to Urundi in December 1956. In April 1957 he was hired by the Belgian administration to oversee studies of economic, agricultural, and administrative concerns. On 12 September 1959 he married a Hutu woman, Marie-Rose Ntamikevyo, in Usumbura. They had two daughters, both of whom died in infancy.
Political career
CCB and leadership of UPRONA
In June 1957 Rwagasore founded a series of cooperatives, known as the Traders' Cooperatives of Burundi (Coopératives des Commerçants du Burundi, CCB), with the goal of empowering native Urundians to control their own commerce and thus building his personal support among Swahili traders of Usumbura. In its first public meeting, the CCB drew a crowd of 200 merchants, and it secured several favourable contracts with exporters. It facilitated the creation of links between rural farmers and urban traders, and, at the same time, Urundians began protesting fees and taxes levied by the Belgians. The colonial administration was irritated by the CCB, but reasoned that it could not take direct action against Rwagasore, with Governor of Ruanda-Urundi Jean-Paul Harroy writing to the Minister of Colonies that detaining or deporting the eldest son of the Mwami would be poorly received by peasants and lead to civil disorder.
Despite its early successes, the CCB quickly ran into financial trouble, in part due to mismanagement. Rwagasore attributed the cooperatives' problems to Belgian sabotage, while the colonial administration accused Rwagasore of embezzling its money to fund a lavish lifestyle. To what extent either of these factors was true and how heavily they impacted the project remains unclear. Rwagasore spent three months at the Expo 58 in Brussels seeking new investors and asked for help from President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, but these appeals were unsuccessful. He then requested credit for the cooperatives from the Supreme Land Council (Conseil Supérieur du Pays), an advisory body presided over by the Mwami that had some competence over budgetary and administrative affairs in Urundi. Though the Belgian administration informed the council that it disapproved of the cooperative, Rwagasore convinced the body to support him. The Belgian administration formally vetoed the loan in June and intervened to take over the CCB. In the ensuing struggle Rwagasore's national profile dramatically increased and he became a leading figure of the anti-colonial activists. The CCB was ultimately merged with an administration cooperative. As a result of the affair he forged connections with Tanganyikan nationalist Julius Nyerere, who provided him with advice and financial assistance.
Some time thereafter Rwagasore became involved with a nascent political party, the Union for National Progress (Union pour le Progres National, UPRONA), though sources differ on the circumstances of UPRONA's founding and Rwagasore's role in its early days. He took virtual control over the movement, though his familial connection to the Mwami disqualified him from holding any party offices and he officially served UPRONA only as an advisor.
UPRONA was able to secure the early financial support of the Swahili population in Bujumbura and Lake Tanganyika coastline. The party initially was strongly identified with the interests of the Bezi lineage of Ganwa and support for traditional institutions, but this alignment fell apart after Rwagasore came into conflict with his father. Mwambutsa had been quietly supportive of his son's attempts to build a political career in the late 1950s, but encouraged other Ganwa to compete with Rwagasore to ensure his own authority remained unchallenged. Mwambutsa cared little for UPRONA and his son was not among his close confidants. At the centre of their political differences was Rwagasore's anti-colonial rhetoric, which frustrated Mwambutsa, as he felt it strained the monarchy's relationship with the Belgians. In an attempt to distract Rwagasore from politics, the Belgian administration designated him head of the Butanyerera chiefdom (an area in Ngozi Province) in February 1959. He resigned from the post to focus on his political career.
Under Rwagasore, UPRONA pushed a program of modernisation, committing neither to a return to the feudal system nor a complete societal transformation. He used symbols of the monarchy to communicate his message and often emphasised his princely status at public appearances, but he stressed that UPRONA would support the monarchy "only insofar as this regime and its dynasty favoured the genuine emancipation of the Murundi people". He believed that only a constitutional monarchy could maintain legitimacy and that the Mwami should cede most authority to a civilian government. While conscious of socioeconomic problems, he primarily focused on issues relating to Urundian independence, popular legitimacy of the monarchy, and national unity. He advocated a foreign policy of nonalignment in the ongoing Cold War.
Rwagasore sought to transform UPRONA into a mass party with broad-base appeal across different regions, ethnicities, and castes. Wary of the growing Hutu-Tutsi conflict in Ruanda, he sought to counteract tensions by bringing members of both groups into UPRONA's leadership. Formal party positions at both the national and local levels were usually evenly divided between Hutus and Tutsis, though the latter tended to occupy the most important offices. The party enjoyed some cohesive success in Usumbura, but never truly cultivated a mass political base, especially outside the capital. UPRONA's internal rules set devolved responsibilities to the central committee, but in practice the party operated at the whim of Rwagasore; it retained relatively weak organisational capability and was held together by his charismatic leadership. His populist tendencies and personal popularity led many of the original chiefs who had supported UPRONA, including founding member Léopold Biha, to leave the party and engage in their own political activities. Rumours that the Mwami would pass the throne on to his younger son, Charles, facilitated criticisms by UPRONA's rivals that the party was simply a mechanism for Rwagasore to achieve power. In response, he issued a tract which said, "[I]f I do not become Mwami, will that prevent me from fighting for you, from being a great leader for you?"
Rwagasore favoured "immediate independence" from Belgian control. To protest colonial rule, he encouraged boycotts of European goods and refusal to pay taxes. The Belgian administration was wary of Rwagasore's nationalism, which it perceived as extremist, and supported the creation of a rival party, the Christian Democratic Party (Parti Démocratique Chrétien, PDC), a grouping seen as more moderate and which rejected immediate independence. Despite ideological differences, the rivalries between the two parties were primarily fueled by the intra-nobility conflicts, as the Bezi and Tare lineages backed UPRONA and PDC respectively. The two lineages had long struggled for control of the country. In 1959 Tare leader Chief Pierre Baranyanka questioned whether Mwambutsa's marriage to Kanyonga was legitimate according to custom in an attempt to challenge Rwagasore's place in the line to the throne. Even though UPRONA had distanced themselves from the Bezi, Rwagasore was still perceived as leader of the Bezi nobility by the time of the elections. As the PDC and UPRONA campaigned in early 1960, the antipathy between Rwagasore and Baranyanka grew; the former feared an assassination plot sponsored by the chief and began carrying a gun, while the latter wrote letters to the Mwami to condemn him for failing to control his son.
1960 and 1961 elections
Rwagasore attended the independence celebrations of the Republic of the Congo in June 1960. As civil order broke down and the Congo fell into crisis, he released a joint communique with rival politician Joseph Biroli on 15 July, appealing for calm and racial harmony, saying Urundi had "the unique chance ... to create in the heart of Africa an island of peace, tranquility and prosperity." In anticipation of Urundi's first municipal elections in November 1960, he issued circulars which called for people to "shake off foreign domination and slavery".
Shortly before the contests were held, the administration placed Rwagasore under house arrest on 27 October with the pretext that he was violating a previous agreement by Urundian political parties stipulating that persons within two degrees of familial relationship to the Mwami be barred from political activity. It further accused him of possessing "seditious" pamphlets. In reality, the administration hoped the arrest would weaken UPRONA and generate a more preferable outcome in the elections. At the administration's encouragement, the PDC also joined with several other parties to create an anti-UPRONA cartel known as the Common Front (Front Commun, FC). Angered by the arrest of their leader, UPRONA declared a boycott of the elections. The PDC won a plurality of the offices in the contest, and in early 1961 the administration established a transitional government under Joseph Cimpaye with some PDC ministers but none from UPRONA. Rwagasore was released after the elections on 9 December 1960. Subsequent international scrutiny, particularly from the United Nations (UN), led the Belgians to withdraw themselves from national politics. The UN created a Commission for Ruanda-Urundi which liberalised the political sphere and restored Rwagasore's political rights. Thereafter he was allowed to engage in politics unhindered by the Belgian administration.
In 1961 the Belgian administration officially renamed Ruanda-Urundi as Rwanda-Burundi. For the 1961 legislative elections, UPRONA concentrated its entire election campaign on Rwagasore, using his charisma to rally substantial support. Rwagasore traveled across the country to introduce his party's candidates. In course of the elections, he was able to collect a broad political coalition; even though most of it was pro-monarchical, he also voiced support for the leftist ideas of Patrice Lumumba from the neighboring Congo. This earned him the support of a small group of radical anti-monarchist Tutsi intellectuals. In the end, Rwagasore's coalition included representatives of the Tutsi oligarchy, conservative Hutu évolués, radical youth groups, urban factions, and large sections of the rural population. In general, UPRONA presented itself as strongly pro-monarchy, with the slogan "God, Fatherland, Mwami" being prominently used. The PDC had assumed a certain victory due to its success during the November 1960 municipal elections. It began its election campaign far too late, and also used the alternate slogan "God and Fatherland" which seemed to many Burundians to be deliberately critical of the monarchy, costing it substantial grassroots backing.
Burundi hosted legislative elections on 18 September 1961. With approximately 80% voter turnout, UPRONA won 58 of 64 seats in the Legislative Assembly, and Rwagasore was declared formateur. Two days later he delivered a speech over national radio aimed at reconciliation, saying that UPRONA's "electoral victory is not the one of the party. It is the triumph of order, that of discipline, of peace, of public tranquility ... the electoral campaign is over, the past must be forgotten". Belgian officials were generally unhappy with Rwagasore's victory, though they conceded some appreciation for his address. Angered by their loss, PDC members in Mukenke, Kirundo Province rioted and attacked UPRONA members. Rwagasore appealed to the latter not to be provoked, and the colonial authorities quickly restored order. On 28 September the Legislative Assembly convened to decide on a new government. In a secret ballot, 51 deputies indicated their desire for Rwagasore to lead the new government. He assembled a 10-member government of national unity which secured the confidence of all but one of the deputies in the Legislative Assembly and was sworn-in. Pierre Ngendandumwe became Vice Prime Minister, while Rwagasore's brother-in-law, André Muhirwa, was made Minister of Interior.
Rwagsore's government did not offer a programme to the Assembly. In his inaugural address, he promised that his government would look "into the real problems of the nation, especially the economic problems, the problems of the land and of the social emancipation of the population, the problems of education and so many others, to which we will find our own solutions." His government was generally welcomed by Burundians, although some Hutu UPRONA members felt they were underrepresented. The government did not have any control over matters of defence, foreign affairs, or technical assistance—these competencies being reserved to the Belgian Resident—though Rwagasore proclaimed his wish to reduce the role of the colonial administration in Burundi to one of consultative aid. His government pledged to incorporate opposition party members into the administration and supported a political union with Rwanda and Tanganyika, though he later suggested that he wanted an economic union with Tanganyika but no association with the ethnically polarised Rwanda. He also promised to address Hutu interests. However, UPRONA's victory caused considerable unrest among the nobility, with the Tare lineage perceiving Rwagasore's success as a takeover by the Bezi. Existing hostilities between the nobility escalated as a result of the elections. As a measure of reconciliation, Rwagasore appointed a Tare as Director of Tourism. The Belgian Resident in Burundi, Roberto Régnier, later claimed that Rwagasore planned to make several FC figures ambassadors or grant them other positions, though in an interview with the press in October the prime minister remained vague about the place of an opposition in the new regime.
Assassination
Murder and criminal investigation
On 13 October 1961, Rwagasore was assassinated while dining outdoors with friends and his cabinet members at the Hotel Tanganyika in Usumbura. He was killed by a single gunshot wound to the throat, fired from approximately 60 feet (18 meters) away from a group of bushes. In the ensuing confusion the assassin jumped into a waiting car and escaped. After being inspected by a doctor, Rwagasore's corpse was taken to Rhodain Hospital. A witness described the getaway car to the authorities, and an investigator was able to connect the vehicle to a group of people he had seen in the capital earlier that day. Within three days the police had arrested a Greek national, Ioannis Kageorgis—who had fired the shot—and three Burundian accomplices: Antoine Nahimana, Henri Ntakiyica, and Jean-Baptiste Ntakiyica. The latter three were all members of the PDC. The group quickly admitted responsibility for the murder and incriminated three other persons in their plot: Michel Iatrou, Jean-Baptiste Ntidendereza, and Joseph Biroli. The former was a Greek national who had given money to the PDC and was a business associate of Kageorgis. The latter two were high-ranking members of the PDC, with Ntidendereza having previously served as a minister in government. As sons of Chief Pierre Baranyanka, they were also distant cousins of Rwagasore. The investigators concluded that Ntidendereza and Biroli planned the assassination. Iatrou denied this, while Ntidendereza initially implicated himself in the conspiracy, saying that FC leaders viewed Rwagasore as an existential threat to multi-party democracy and that the prime minister had planned assassination attempts against himself and his father, before later recanting his testimony. The investigators also uncovered three previous assassination plots against Rwagasore in September which had been cancelled.
On 2 April 1962 a Burundian tribunal composed of Belgian judges sentenced Kageorgis, Nahimana, and Ntidendereza to death for their role in the murder. Two others accused of minor roles in the affair, Pascal Bigirindavyi (a Burundian) and Liverios Archianotis (a Greek), were given prison sentences. On 7 May the Court of Appeal affirmed Kageorgis' sentence but commuted the other death sentences to 20 years of penal servitude. On 30 June, one day before Burundi's independence, Kageorgis was executed. Following independence Burundi established a Supreme Court with retroactive competence, and on 27 October it ruled the previous trials to have violated the right to judgement by a jury established by the new constitution and ordered a retrial. On 27 November the lower court found Ntidendereza, Biroli, Nahimana, Iatrou, and Ntakiyica guilty and sentenced them to death. The defendants' final appeal to the Supreme Court was denied, as were the attempts of the Belgian government to convince the Mwami to offer clemency, and on 15 January 1963 all five were publicly hanged.
Responsibility
There was immediate concern in Burundi following the killing that the Belgian administration shared responsibility for Rwagasore's murder. When Governor Harroy went to the hospital to pay respects to the corpse of the late prime minister, Rwagasore's mother confronted him in a hallway and slapped him. Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak sent several telegrams to officials in Usumbura inquiring about the role of "Europeans" in the events. Spaak was also fearful of a UN inquiry and ordered Harroy to send him a detailed report on the murder which he could present so as to assuage international concerns. The UN General Assembly ultimately passed a resolution calling for an investigation and dispatched a Commission for Ruanda-Urundi delegation to Burundi to draft a report. The commission noted complaints from UPRONA leaders which accused the administration of being complicit in the murder, with additional accusations of culpability lodged against Brioli's and Ntidendereza's father, Chief Baranyanka. The body also received complaints that the PDC leaders were given favourable treatment in prison. The commission's report was ultimately dismissive of such concerns and affirmed the findings of the original criminal investigation.
Generally, little academic attention has been paid to the details of the murder. Political scientist René Lemarchand wrote, "That the assassin, [Ioannis] Kageorgis, was a mere tool ... that the crime was the result of a political conspiracy organised by Biroli and Ntidendereza, and that the ultimate aim of this conspiracy was to create disturbances throughout the realm that would then be exploited by the PDC to its own advantages—these are well-established facts. However, the PDC leaders might have not resorted to such drastic action unless they had been actively encouraged to go ahead with their plans by certain Belgian functionaries." Harroy wrote in his 1987 memoirs pertaining to concerns of Belgian support for the assassination that, "To deny this seems unreasonable." Belgian journalist Guy Poppe wrote a book on Rwagasore's assassination in 2012, but conceded that its publication was rushed and that he was not "well placed enough" to make concrete claims on the extent of Belgian involvement. Historian Ludo De Witte concluded that the "Residency at Gitega was an accomplice" and that "Belgian responsibility must be attributed to ... Régnier and some of his collaborators. Noting civil disorder fomented by opposition members in the aftermath of the September 1961 elections with the alleged support of Belgian administrators, he argued that Rwagasore's assassination fit into a larger scheme to provoke a civil war which would allow the Belgian administration to intervene and install a regime of its choosing, as in Rwanda. In regards to the concrete motives of Biroli and Ntidendereza, political scientist Helmut Strizek and researcher Günther Philipp argued that Rwagasore's assassination was probably inspired by the Bezi-Tare rivalry.
The PDC's European secretary, Sabine Belva, testified during the appellate trial that Régnier hosted a meeting shortly after the September elections and had asked "whether the elimination of Rwagasore had been considered, as a means of solving the political problem." Belva stated that she reported this to Ntidendereza. In court, Régnier denied making such remarks. The Belgian judges determined in their verdict that these comments were only "jokes which were expressed lightly" and thus not worthy of serious investigation. Biroli's and Ntidendereza's lawyers also insisted on the responsibility of Belgian officials, though this was rejected by the presiding judge. Some lower-ranking officials in the Belgian Residency were dissuaded from testifying during the proceedings by the Belgian Foreign Ministry, which threatened to have them dismissed from their posts.
A separate investigation conducted by the Brussels Public Prosecutor's Office after the initial Burundian proceedings ended—as Kageorgis had requested a pardon from the Belgian King on the grounds that others played a greater role in the murder—obtained the depositions of several Belgian civil servants. Hubert Léonard, an official in the Residency, testified that on 21 September 1961 Régnier had stated in a meeting, "Rwagasore must be killed!" Confronted with this, Régnier admitted to the Brussels Office that he had said such. The evidence gathered by the Brussels Public Prosecutor's Office was not made public, though portions of it were shared with the Burundian courts once they reopened their investigation following independence. Spaak threatened to suspend bilateral aid to Burundi for renewing the inquiry, causing consternation to the Burundian government, though this never occurred. De Witte surmised, "Burundi wanted the skin of those who murdered Rwagasore, at the risk of upsetting Brussels, but Spaak resigned himself to it and did not question Belgium's 'development aid' ... In return, Bujumbura kept the Brussels Public Prosecutor's report under wraps and avoided accusing the Belgians."
In 1972, the Burundian government issued a report in an attempt to deflect responsibility for the massacres of the Ikiza. The document included an accusation that Régnier had organised Rwagasore's murder. The matter of the assassination was thereafter ignored by the government for many years, though in 2001 some Burundian parliamentarians called on the Belgian government to open an official investigation into the killing. On 14 October 2018 the Burundian government officially accused Belgium of being the "true backer of the assassination of Rwagasore" and declared that it would set up a "technical commission" to investigate the killing, though no progress on this has since been made.
Political effects
Muhirwa succeeded Rwagasore as Prime Minister of Burundi. Citing the distraction of "recent events", Muhirwa declined to offer a government programme and the Legislative Assembly sat in session aimlessly for the next few months. The establishment of the role of opposition figures in the assassination plot and their subsequent execution led to the immediate demise of a formal parliamentary opposition in Burundi. Rwagasore's death derailed his attempts to build national inter-ethnic cohesion and facilitated the growth of Hutu-Tutsi tensions; the latter came to eclipse the internal Ganwa rivalries in national politics. Subsequent governments remained ethnically diverse but unstable. The assassination also fractured UPRONA, as Rwagasore's former lieutenants struggled to succeed him as the party's leader; figures of Ganwa aristocracy eventually succeeded in claiming control of the organisation. UPRONA subsequently used Rwagasore's image to promote itself while disregarding his vision for the party, ultimately becoming a vehicle for exclusionary, Tutsi-elitist, single-party rule. There is a belief among some Burundians that Rwagasore's murder created a political void with long-term implications for the country and contributed to its later instability.
Legacy
Burial and official commemoration
Rwagasore was buried on 18 October 1961 at the plot of Vugizo in Bujumbura. Burundi was granted independence in 1962, and in his official speech marking the event, Prime Minister Muhirwa paid extensive tribute to Rwagasore and credited him for pushing the country towards sovereignty. From 1962 to 1963 a monument was constructed at Rwagasore's burial site, featuring a mausoleum and three arches with a black cross. Prince Louis Rwagasore Stadium was also constructed to honour him. The government funded these projects by releasing a series of postage stamps bearing his image in February 1963. That year the government declared 13 October a public holiday and renamed a hospital and avenue in Bujumbura in commemoration. His image was also used to adorn public buildings, while the first printings of the Burundian franc included banknotes with his visage. Two more postage series featuring Rwagasore were later released; one in 1966 pairing his image with that of assassinated United States President John F. Kennedy, and another in 1972 celebrating the 10th anniversary of Burundian independence. Numerous schools and roads in Burundi have since been named for him, as was the sole aircraft of the country's first state airline, and the Legislative Assembly created the Order of Prince Louis as a national order of merit.
In 1966 Captain Michel Micombero launched a military coup, overthrowing the monarchy and transforming Burundi into a republic with himself as its president. UPRONA subsequently became the only legal political party. Micombero referred to himself as the "successor" and sometimes "little brother" of Rwagasore. Throughout his tenure the late prime minister was frequently honoured in public ceremonies, and his portrait remained prevalent in public places. In 1976 Micombero was overthrown and replaced by Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza. Bagaza tried to present himself as a moderniser, and Rwagasore's reputation thus competed with him. As a result, he deemphaised mention of Rwagasore and suspended celebration of the 13 October holiday. In 1987 Bagaza was overthrown by Major Pierre Buyoya. Following ethnic violence in 1988, Buyoya declared a policy of national unity, and used Rwagasore as a symbol of this. Under Buyoya's tenure, more portraits of Rwagasore were hung in public places, the mausoleum was renovated and a UPRONA-sponsored Rwagasore Institute was created to promote national reconciliation.
In the 1990s Burundi underwent a democratic transition which included the reestablishment of multi-party politics. The end of UPRONA's monopoly on power led to a decline in public celebration of Rwagasore. One of the key nascent opposition parties, Front for Democracy in Burundi (Front pour la Démocratie au Burundi, FRODEBU), made reference to Rwagasore in its official publication but avoided all associations of him with UPRONA. FRODEBU won the parliamentary and presidential elections in 1993. The new president, Melchior Ndadaye, did not attend any official commemorations for Rwagasore in October. Ndadaye was assassinated in a coup attempt later that month, plunging Burundi into a crisis which evolved into a civil war. During this time Rwagasore was usually invoked only by politicians in self-serving fashion or by newspapers calling for reconciliation.
In the late 1990s the belligerents in the civil war partook in peace talks. The resulting Arusha Accords praised the "charismatic leadership of Prince Louis Rwagasore and his companions" who had kept Burundi from "plunging into a political confrontation based on ethnic considerations". The implementation of the accords and further negotiation eventually resulted in the election of Pierre Nkurunziza as president in 2005. During his tenure, he attended annual celebrations of Rwagasore in October and frequently mentioned him in his speeches. His government also repaired several monuments to the late premier and erected a new one jointly honoring him and Ndadaye at a roundabout in Bujumbura. In 2019 he renamed Rwagasore Stadium, but stated that the planned parliament building to be built in Gitega would bear Rwagasore's name.
Popular reputation
After his death, historian Aidan Russell wrote that Rwagasore's reputation was quickly transformed into that of a "hero and martyr" and that he was the subject of a "competitive hagiography". Within Burundi, his reputation enjoys nearly-universal acclaim, with his speeches often quoted in political discussions and his surviving political opponents and their descendants offering praise of him. His assassination is commemorated annually with large ceremonies. Historian Christine Deslaurier wrote that "it is the martyrological dimensions of his anti-colonialism that have established a consensus around his mythical figure, more than his political and social thought." De Witte wrote that Rwagasore has "functioned as a two-dimensional icon".
Rwagasore's widespread popularity in Burundi stands in contrast to the divided feelings toward most other domestic historical figures. He remains relatively unknown internationally, with his career overshadowed by those of Nyerere and Lumumba and his assassination eclipsed by the Congo Crisis and the contemporary ethnic violence in Rwanda.
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
1932 births
1961 deaths
Assassinated Burundian politicians
Burundian royalty
People murdered in Burundi
Prime Ministers of Burundi
Assassinated heads of government
Union for National Progress politicians
Deaths by firearm in Burundi
People from Gitega Province
Burundian nationalists
Ganwa people
Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) alumni
|
[
-0.18382062017917633,
0.17373184859752655,
-0.45853230357170105,
-0.31767505407333374,
-0.16798578202724457,
0.31111013889312744,
0.7639707922935486,
-0.1786998063325882,
-0.4235718548297882,
-0.09642790257930756,
-0.05850953236222267,
0.612840473651886,
-0.6541315317153931,
0.9933900237083435,
0.002132430672645569,
0.3372263014316559,
0.025390567258000374,
0.0864238366484642,
0.08285397291183472,
-0.3310297131538391,
-0.13890916109085083,
0.02082945592701435,
-0.11194305866956711,
0.20382645726203918,
0.24507743120193481,
0.7155213952064514,
0.4197600185871124,
0.42106902599334717,
0.2124956250190735,
-0.2583593726158142,
0.6743137240409851,
0.31782904267311096,
0.011668912135064602,
-0.13668487966060638,
-0.2867048382759094,
0.13480398058891296,
0.4522281885147095,
-0.5647085309028625,
-0.30191123485565186,
-0.011196278966963291,
0.07893209159374237,
0.3082102835178375,
-0.4102966785430908,
0.3492735028266907,
-0.19653721153736115,
-1.0665982961654663,
-1.2291154861450195,
0.39449694752693176,
-0.38073331117630005,
-0.7936109304428101,
-0.3059667944908142,
0.03834986314177513,
0.9084775447845459,
-0.07616274803876877,
0.3868664503097534,
-0.3483765125274658,
-0.5850406885147095,
-0.14960797131061554,
-0.21486930549144745,
-0.3134837746620178,
0.059616342186927795,
-0.3906022012233734,
0.22895164787769318,
0.011833538301289082,
-0.547718346118927,
0.05186441168189049,
0.4109329283237457,
-0.12242060154676437,
-0.1360315978527069,
-0.2548735737800598,
-0.2078908085823059,
0.43316882848739624,
0.23859551548957825,
0.01816546730697155,
0.5229455828666687,
-0.3056110739707947,
-0.03002091310918331,
-0.12240054458379745,
0.613304615020752,
0.05943061038851738,
-0.4248804450035095,
-0.6085763573646545,
0.1025075688958168,
0.023443439975380898,
-0.15256540477275848,
0.2692390978336334,
0.4647957980632782,
0.9006409049034119,
-0.2098241001367569,
0.4288906455039978,
-1.058212399482727,
-0.6476272344589233,
-0.05039670690894127,
-0.444688618183136,
-1.0391193628311157,
-0.7461956739425659,
-0.15217114984989166,
0.4500539302825928,
-0.3072778582572937,
0.07118333131074905,
0.08317649364471436,
-0.20356816053390503,
0.2707594931125641,
-0.24254830181598663,
-1.208910584449768,
-0.25972819328308105,
-0.3375779092311859,
-0.05430931970477104,
-0.47890904545783997,
-0.4948362112045288,
-0.2866823077201843,
0.0802726000547409,
-0.6254545450210571,
-0.10564739257097244,
0.13208657503128052,
0.13124597072601318,
-0.25604018568992615,
-0.16979551315307617,
-0.38864415884017944,
0.1817510426044464,
-0.1902216076850891,
-0.11091411113739014,
-0.011527101509273052,
0.22462613880634308,
-0.3463563024997711,
0.14753034710884094,
-0.34344881772994995,
-0.363860160112381,
-0.598344087600708,
0.3638530373573303,
0.9519124031066895,
0.7052210569381714,
-0.7272216081619263,
0.18859128654003143,
-0.14717361330986023,
-0.7429034113883972,
0.5615682601928711,
-0.19426102936267853,
-0.09829573333263397,
-0.4106333255767822,
-0.21635110676288605,
0.24361176788806915,
-0.43682369589805603,
0.3043304979801178,
0.5324518084526062,
0.007641186937689781,
-0.006498222704976797,
0.16292212903499603,
-0.10416480153799057,
-0.5323180556297302,
-0.14391472935676575,
-0.059943802654743195,
0.033995259553194046,
-0.378859281539917,
-0.3754713833332062,
0.7730432748794556,
0.34439149498939514,
0.19765055179595947,
0.4271842837333679,
0.028470825403928757,
0.4342474341392517,
0.838116466999054,
-0.3410269320011139,
0.0659719780087471,
0.31924018263816833,
0.055174969136714935,
-0.1726665496826172,
0.5070951581001282,
-0.03905998542904854,
-0.10350631177425385,
-0.6827436089515686,
0.4699522852897644,
-0.02470473386347294,
-0.49085965752601624,
-0.3169163167476654,
0.9441760182380676,
0.5262175798416138,
-0.32138508558273315,
0.3800715506076813,
-0.3403092622756958,
-0.41327404975891113,
-0.4023977220058441,
-0.15050755441188812,
0.5582860708236694,
0.4912554919719696,
0.4598817229270935,
0.4610927999019623,
-0.24441221356391907,
0.7628113627433777,
-0.5287529230117798,
-0.5412575602531433,
-0.5900360941886902,
0.39725300669670105,
-0.5789150595664978,
0.5101878643035889,
0.2882363796234131,
-0.06995940953493118,
1.118304967880249,
0.11279875785112381,
0.5604850053787231,
-0.3951891362667084,
-0.13407711684703827,
0.2679609954357147,
-0.48448479175567627,
0.3297203481197357,
0.6177528500556946,
0.11947218328714371,
0.32400795817375183,
0.0070724827237427235,
1.3535504341125488,
0.789401113986969,
-0.6817197799682617,
-0.46143874526023865,
0.11226474493741989,
0.0860019400715828,
-0.38867098093032837,
-0.19981840252876282,
0.23936274647712708,
-0.0795300081372261,
-0.18242110311985016,
0.20931613445281982,
0.08564788103103638,
-0.819329559803009,
0.8322994112968445,
0.10927452147006989,
0.9091845750808716,
-0.018268417567014694,
-0.3533492386341095,
-0.1253674328327179,
-0.12431816011667252,
-0.10869923233985901,
0.22632642090320587,
0.308073490858078,
-0.3373243808746338,
0.18570229411125183,
0.30021175742149353,
0.09172764420509338,
-0.4621456563472748,
0.184963196516037,
-0.5516470670700073,
0.6712571382522583,
0.2720518410205841,
-0.07470148056745529,
-0.12409691512584686,
0.43415528535842896,
0.49279507994651794,
-0.35722264647483826,
0.43901997804641724,
-0.49893349409103394,
0.38347765803337097,
-0.16265863180160522,
0.5859662890434265,
0.6695926189422607,
0.3216385245323181,
0.35972529649734497,
-0.5718141198158264,
-0.2236032336950302,
0.045373059809207916,
0.17421762645244598,
0.6431620121002197,
0.4943317472934723,
-0.45199358463287354,
-0.16321904957294464,
0.7314733266830444,
0.32784727215766907,
0.09358187764883041,
-0.10316354036331177,
-0.5384194254875183,
0.10457053780555725,
-0.11649254709482193,
-0.2372935265302658,
-0.46494436264038086,
-0.4420064091682434,
0.28562402725219727,
0.559796929359436,
-0.1177927628159523,
-0.33178117871284485,
0.9429968595504761,
-0.3280322849750519,
-0.6124351024627686,
0.7284643650054932,
0.6460731625556946,
-0.4061759412288666,
-0.11179083585739136,
-0.7018248438835144,
0.06979220360517502,
-0.5056836009025574,
-0.5013204216957092,
-0.22608280181884766,
0.023459959775209427,
-0.8288818597793579,
0.5617926716804504,
-0.1226828470826149,
-0.5124761462211609,
-0.922623336315155,
0.6395307183265686,
-0.17821891605854034,
-0.3814525008201599,
0.6586405634880066,
-0.2299679070711136,
0.0871795043349266,
-0.12153666466474533,
-0.513321042060852,
0.22106759250164032,
0.6717220544815063,
0.3692086637020111,
0.13686995208263397,
-0.5193042755126953,
-5.415217399597168,
0.04160887748003006,
0.41653114557266235,
-0.3653552234172821,
0.3781173527240753,
0.14379307627677917,
0.33317646384239197,
-0.35791364312171936,
0.33094748854637146,
-0.84163898229599,
0.11231723427772522,
-0.22336885333061218,
0.08814400434494019,
0.5228243470191956,
0.41070958971977234,
-0.1652766466140747,
1.0766605138778687,
-0.16432714462280273,
0.6306564807891846,
0.7253047823905945,
0.5023558139801025,
-0.22990727424621582,
-0.39302948117256165,
-0.27325230836868286,
0.050983138382434845,
0.0991848036646843,
-0.12798547744750977,
-0.03533964231610298,
-0.950542151927948,
-0.37292706966400146,
-0.010853806510567665,
0.33539527654647827,
0.018964070826768875,
0.050208043307065964,
-0.43177929520606995,
-0.5123363733291626,
0.37798261642456055,
0.30753231048583984,
0.13468261063098907,
0.20115111768245697,
0.12780730426311493,
-0.5345941185951233,
-0.15443648397922516,
-0.15132150053977966,
0.020726611837744713,
-0.08225063234567642,
-0.6733792424201965,
-0.07214199006557465,
-0.18519960343837738,
0.5971049070358276,
-0.13628950715065002,
0.12797997891902924,
0.5154003500938416,
0.13868781924247742,
0.15515144169330597,
0.3059088885784149,
-0.268266886472702,
0.6034829020500183,
-0.9085938334465027,
0.8676651120185852,
0.20996040105819702,
-0.23507200181484222,
0.159005269408226,
-0.184361532330513,
-0.29459714889526367,
0.044578783214092255,
0.26131725311279297,
0.3029274046421051,
0.09887391328811646,
-0.021313898265361786,
-0.3208722770214081,
0.18118944764137268,
-0.1560688316822052,
-0.8288089632987976,
0.21839113533496857,
-0.5588325262069702,
-0.020240744575858116,
0.12634631991386414,
-0.3820899724960327,
-0.0371006540954113,
-0.26544779539108276,
-0.21800899505615234,
-0.16981416940689087,
0.18514735996723175,
0.2583736479282379,
-0.3799273371696472,
0.30404233932495117,
0.569261908531189,
0.07597220689058304,
0.20488643646240234,
0.005016285926103592,
-0.7549443244934082,
0.08609257638454437,
0.001898328773677349,
0.4713854491710663,
0.005094511434435844,
-0.043789658695459366,
0.4842109680175781,
1.079223394393921,
-0.05184214562177658,
-0.5161858797073364,
-0.5023336410522461,
0.32966411113739014,
-0.3652424216270447,
0.5101205110549927,
-0.13504253327846527,
0.11716124415397644,
-0.4455493986606598,
0.6135072112083435,
0.44714388251304626,
-0.13863489031791687,
0.20424599945545197,
-0.5925396084785461,
-0.07796076685190201,
0.4057120382785797,
-0.3897726237773895,
0.15062406659126282,
-0.39254653453826904,
0.21693147718906403,
0.284806489944458,
-0.2327146977186203,
0.36174115538597107,
-0.6666167378425598,
0.4648621380329132,
0.46865496039390564,
0.14859314262866974,
-0.15075258910655975,
-0.425713449716568,
-0.17748764157295227,
-0.31560343503952026,
0.07506632059812546,
0.545111894607544,
0.10993111878633499,
-0.1916189044713974,
0.8532419204711914,
-0.6907811164855957,
0.009773649275302887,
-0.8318067193031311,
-0.16331087052822113,
-0.25655511021614075,
-0.2554897964000702,
-0.559062123298645,
-0.09007975459098816,
0.2721503973007202,
0.0902281403541565,
0.14399980008602142,
0.02721310965716839,
0.17755481600761414,
-0.440047025680542,
0.44157981872558594,
0.22329285740852356,
-0.18913434445858002,
0.41009244322776794,
-0.3367461860179901,
-0.4477553069591522,
0.24788039922714233,
-0.00615785364061594,
-0.16317687928676605,
0.02477000467479229,
-0.28811314702033997,
-0.15405459702014923,
-0.5939918756484985,
-1.1287013292312622,
0.029907846823334694,
0.11393459886312485,
0.8591629862785339,
-0.16202765703201294,
-0.36112362146377563,
-0.21406607329845428,
0.7896036505699158,
0.1285208910703659,
-0.6393342018127441,
-0.613425076007843,
0.06711474061012268,
0.09194894880056381,
-0.30993255972862244,
0.27822980284690857,
-0.05666639655828476,
0.13525940477848053,
0.12741556763648987,
-0.22545237839221954,
0.47055497765541077,
0.05240785330533981,
-0.09867741912603378,
0.15821127593517303,
-0.028430834412574768,
-0.4988997280597687,
-0.43517637252807617,
-0.14906315505504608,
-0.21591001749038696,
0.268034964799881,
0.264950692653656,
-0.10121755301952362,
0.09683310240507126,
-0.2062806934118271,
-0.59410560131073,
-0.5122103691101074,
0.28263741731643677,
0.19713065028190613,
-0.326704204082489,
0.06266016513109207,
0.28919827938079834,
0.4632323384284973,
0.08627006411552429,
-0.03375064209103584,
-0.3975183963775635,
0.09168504178524017,
-0.08875580877065659,
0.5442578196525574,
0.6410973072052002,
-0.6055669784545898,
-0.6077167987823486,
0.016887590289115906,
0.8562189936637878,
-0.08633583784103394,
0.2615228593349457,
-0.060292068868875504,
-0.22133108973503113,
0.172025665640831,
-0.8701767325401306,
-0.5113834738731384,
-0.23932427167892456,
-0.1625249683856964,
0.009408912621438503,
-0.38108935952186584,
0.30640068650245667,
0.6022553443908691,
0.009665695950388908,
0.2901567220687866,
0.4767836332321167,
-0.23053067922592163,
-0.3313298523426056,
0.18093785643577576,
0.21374617516994476,
-0.5023677349090576,
0.39950886368751526,
0.8164279460906982,
0.4576222598552704,
0.2383270114660263,
-0.24451902508735657,
0.6339660286903381,
1.5975641012191772,
0.1685430407524109,
-0.39379701018333435,
0.07656959444284439,
0.5975798964500427,
0.25531062483787537,
-0.0978630781173706,
0.2841491997241974,
0.22429320216178894,
-0.3402452766895294,
0.2544262111186981,
-0.54878169298172,
-0.29306265711784363,
0.5133001208305359,
-0.5047202110290527,
-0.36636438965797424,
-0.16621971130371094,
0.6652032732963562,
0.5501165390014648,
-0.052585870027542114,
0.46846047043800354,
0.881229817867279,
-0.26368436217308044,
0.3530848026275635,
0.21527601778507233,
-0.17719405889511108,
0.2763422727584839,
0.1368555873632431,
-0.6089879870414734,
-0.6746165156364441,
-0.4595766067504883,
-0.7659867405891418,
0.2542530596256256,
-0.11330949515104294,
0.2336328774690628,
-0.1362730711698532,
-0.2799853980541229,
-0.22991636395454407,
-0.08996166288852692,
-1.0572187900543213,
-0.4187145531177521,
-0.3956463932991028,
0.04368910193443298,
-0.4353528916835785,
-1.0210496187210083,
-0.18717488646507263,
0.1853604018688202,
-0.33778291940689087,
0.052119459956884384,
-0.90852952003479,
0.09627831727266312,
0.1009889766573906,
0.23782949149608612,
-0.386177122592926,
0.2866705656051636,
-0.3353591561317444,
1.2796897888183594,
-0.5027203559875488,
0.08846794813871384,
0.3267797529697418,
-0.11880460381507874,
0.7647821307182312,
-0.2608257532119751,
0.045097529888153076,
-0.15180274844169617,
-0.25029441714286804,
-0.4386012852191925,
0.2095811665058136,
0.4797832667827606,
0.5445697903633118,
0.2843764126300812,
0.449993371963501,
-0.07769467681646347,
-0.9803401231765747,
0.22433482110500336,
0.15303799510002136,
-0.6433777213096619,
-0.9052836298942566,
-0.5102139115333557,
0.4877202808856964,
0.15162669122219086,
0.056858476251363754,
-0.04494337737560272,
0.8639028072357178,
1.180898666381836,
0.3048020303249359,
0.22371600568294525,
0.14134342968463898,
-0.2599336504936218,
-0.45687228441238403,
-0.13908523321151733,
-0.5283628106117249,
0.3905385136604309,
-0.5298997163772583,
-0.2634059488773346,
0.6284373998641968,
-0.45661434531211853,
0.5411711931228638,
0.7645435333251953,
0.34441056847572327,
0.7603288888931274,
-0.4030522406101227,
-0.17694872617721558,
0.2211666703224182,
-0.30573031306266785,
-0.0813308134675026,
0.4101886451244354,
0.4924604594707489,
0.1900515854358673,
0.35457083582878113,
-0.0036174210254102945,
0.18655875325202942,
-0.3214428126811981,
0.1329793483018875,
-0.06947293877601624,
0.5942521691322327,
-0.11815761029720306,
-0.19197869300842285,
0.10699568688869476,
0.025932444259524345,
-0.7350274324417114,
1.059542179107666,
0.2703525125980377,
1.0049244165420532,
-0.3676457405090332,
-0.06188691407442093,
-0.26057279109954834,
0.020676543936133385,
0.14167450368404388,
0.18665823340415955,
-0.36159518361091614,
-0.1656867116689682,
-0.3241567611694336,
-0.0778869166970253,
0.24218374490737915,
0.08032055199146271,
0.04472614824771881,
-0.5469154119491577,
0.09325570613145828,
-0.12533459067344666,
0.5128726959228516,
0.0027270792052149773,
0.15486271679401398,
-0.3917786777019501,
0.15383566915988922,
0.522983968257904,
0.02162894234061241,
-0.07473744451999664,
-0.3886488974094391,
0.6716455817222595,
-0.2679893672466278,
-0.8885776400566101,
0.7122828960418701,
0.28642383217811584,
0.20694789290428162,
-0.5988157391548157,
1.04544198513031,
0.2644389867782593,
-0.31680387258529663,
-0.13478796184062958,
0.4620213210582733,
-0.2154843658208847,
0.062120866030454636,
0.14866940677165985,
-0.23144131898880005,
-0.03623932972550392,
0.05699204280972481,
-1.0900967121124268,
0.5092293620109558,
-0.08350122720003128,
0.03609277680516243,
-0.7007063627243042,
0.008149523288011551,
-0.43808966875076294,
0.12732841074466705,
0.24705930054187775,
-0.3881019651889801,
-0.29135197401046753,
-0.3340951204299927,
0.008940878324210644,
-0.1705130636692047,
0.2531206011772156,
0.1798047125339508,
0.003742235479876399,
-0.17909154295921326,
0.3712635040283203,
0.140183225274086,
-0.610302209854126,
0.3742712736129761,
-0.34804484248161316,
-0.6464424133300781,
0.24582959711551666,
-0.12566839158535004,
-0.7239044904708862,
-0.4795704185962677,
0.938818633556366,
0.6635172367095947,
0.28746140003204346,
-0.39764782786369324,
0.04473008215427399,
-0.3109816908836365,
0.47873538732528687,
-0.27336496114730835,
-0.3373720347881317,
-0.18158283829689026,
-0.10604602098464966,
-0.186492457985878,
-0.3718802034854889,
-0.589592456817627,
-0.03920114412903786,
-0.05329573154449463,
0.4466986358165741,
-0.8482028245925903,
0.6265964508056641,
-0.4070489704608917,
0.20551925897598267,
-0.11124560981988907,
0.24609842896461487,
0.035287171602249146
] |
200161
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream%20gauge
|
Stream gauge
|
A stream gauge, streamgage or stream gauging station is a location used by hydrologists or environmental scientists to monitor and test terrestrial bodies of water. Hydrometric measurements of water level surface elevation ("stage") and/or volumetric discharge (flow) are generally taken and observations of biota and water quality may also be made. The locations of gauging stations are often found on topographical maps. Some gauging stations are highly automated and may include telemetry capability transmitted to a central data logging facility.
Measurement equipment
Automated direct measurement of streamflow discharge is difficult at present. In place of the direct measurement of streamflow discharge, one or more surrogate measurements can be used to produce discharge values. In the majority of cases, a stage (the elevation of the water surface) measurement is used as the surrogate. Low gradient (or shallow-sloped) streams are highly influenced by variable downstream channel conditions. For these streams, a second stream gauge would be installed, and the slope of the water surface would be calculated between the gauges. This value would be used along with the stage measurement to more accurately determine the streamflow discharge. Improvements in the accuracy of velocity sensors have also allowed the use of water velocity as a reliable surrogate for streamflow discharge at sites with a stable cross-sectional area. These sensors are permanently mounted in the stream and measure velocity at a particular location in the stream and related to flow in a manner similar to the use of traditional water level.
In those instances where only a stage measurement is used as the surrogate, a rating curve must be constructed. A rating curve is the functional relation between stage and discharge. It is determined by making repeated discrete measurements of streamflow discharge using a velocimeter and some means to measure the channel geometry to determine the cross-sectional area of the channel. The technicians and hydrologists responsible for determining the rating curve visit the site routinely, with special trips to measure the hydrologic extremes (floods and droughts), and make a discharge measurement by following an explicit set of instructions.
Once the rating curve is established, it can be used in conjunction with stage measurements to determine the volumetric streamflow discharge. This record then serves as an assessment of the volume of water that passes by the stream gauge and is useful for many tasks associated with hydrology.
In those instances where a velocity measurement is additionally used as a surrogate, an index velocity determination is conducted. This analysis uses a velocity sensor, often either magnetic or acoustic, to measure the velocity of the flow at a particular location in the stream cross section. Once again, discrete measurements of streamflow discharge are made by the technician or hydrologist at a variety of stages. For each discrete determination of streamflow discharge, the mean velocity of the cross section is determined by dividing streamflow discharge by the cross-sectional area. A rating curve, similar to that used for stage-discharge determinations, is constructed using the mean velocity and the index velocity from the permanently mounted meter. An additional rating curve is constructed that relates stage of the stream to cross-sectional area. Using these two ratings, the automatically collected stage produces an estimate of the cross-sectional area, and the automatically collected index velocity produces an estimate of the mean velocity of the cross section. The streamflow discharge is computed as the estimate of the cross section area and the estimate of the mean velocity of the streamflow.
A variety of hydraulic structures / primary device are used to improve the reliability of using water level as a surrogate for flow (improving the accuracy of the rating table), including:
Weirs
V-notch,
broad-crested,
sharp-crested and
combination weirs
Flumes
Parshall flume
Other equipment commonly used at permanent stream gauge include:
Cableways - for suspending a hydrographer and current meter over a river to make high flow measurement
Stilling well - to provide a calm water level that can be measured by a sensor
Water level gauges:
Staff (head) gauges - for a visual indication of water depth
Water pressure measuring device (Bubbler) - to measure water level via pressure (typically done directly in-stream without a stilling well)
Stage encoder - a potentiometer with a wheel and pulley system connected to a float in a stilling well to provide an electronic reading of the water level
Simple ultrasonic devices - to measure water level in a stilling well or directly in a canal.
Electromagnetic gauges
Discharge measurements of a stream or canal without an established stream gauge can be made using a current meter or Acoustic Doppler current profiler. One informal methods that is not acceptable for any official or scientific purpose, but can be useful is the float method, in which a floating object such as a piece of wood or orange peel is observed floating down the stream.
National stream gauge networks
United Kingdom
The first routine measurements of river flow in England began on the Thames and Lea in the 1880s, and in Scotland on the River Garry in 1913. The national gauging station network was established in its current form by the early 1970s and consists of approximately 1500 flow measurement stations supplemented by a variable number of temporary monitoring sites. The Environment Agency is responsible for collection and analysis of hydrometric data in England, Natural Resources Wales in Wales, whilst responsibility for Scotland and Northern Ireland rests with the Scottish Environment Protection Agency and Rivers Agency respectively.
United States
In the United States, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is the principal federal agency tasked with maintaining records of natural resources. Within the USGS, the Water Resources Division carries the responsibility for monitoring water resources.
To establish a stream gauge, USGS personnel first choose a site on a stream where the geometry is relatively stable and there is a suitable location to make discrete direct measurements of streamflow using specialized equipment. Many times this will be at a bridge or other stream crossing. Technicians then install equipment that measures the stage (the elevation of the water surface) or, more rarely, the velocity of the flow. Additional equipment is installed to record and transmit these readings (via the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) to the Water Science Center office where the records are kept. The USGS has a Water Science Center office in every state within the United States. Current streamflow data from USGS streamgages may be viewed in map form at: .
Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, the national stream gauge network is the responsibility of the Zimbabwe National Water Authority. This is an extensive network covering all major rivers and catchments in the country. However, a review of existing gauges raised serious concerns about the reliability of the data of a minority of stations, due in part to ongoing funding problems.
Bangladesh
The largest stream gauge network in Bangladesh is maintained by Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB). At few other locations, Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority maintains a few gauges to provide advisories for navigational purposes.
Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic, in some measuring places (profiles) are defined three levels which define three degrees of flood-emergency activity. The degree I is a situation of alertness, the degree II is a situation of readiness, the degree III is a situation of danger.
Canada
Canadian streams and rivers are monitored by the Water Survey of Canada, a branch of Environment and Climate Change Canada. As of 2021, it operates or collects data from more than 2800 gauges across Canada. This data is used by provincial and territory governments to inform flood predictions and water management.
See also
Willow Beach Gauging Station
References
Further reading
World Meteorological Organization (2010) Manual on Stream Gauging.
Volume I - Fieldwork.
Volume II - Computation of Discharge.
External links
Contoocook River Streamflow-Gaging Station, Water Resources of New Hampshire and Vermont
"USGS Surface-Water Data for the Nation"
UK Hydrometric Register (pdf) A catalogue of river flow gauging stations and observation wells and boreholes in the United Kingdom together with summary hydrometric and spatial statistics.
"Radio Gauge Warns of Flood as Water Rises" Popular Mechanics, July 1935
Hydrology instrumentation
|
[
0.8045431971549988,
-0.17240239679813385,
-0.14717738330364227,
0.6283715963363647,
0.40228334069252014,
0.26612213253974915,
0.0386502742767334,
0.05748947337269783,
0.0012366599403321743,
-0.5764949917793274,
-0.1826368272304535,
0.4597494304180145,
-0.10585738718509674,
0.4353380799293518,
-0.018093818798661232,
0.5732203125953674,
0.37490665912628174,
0.1295042186975479,
0.708480715751648,
0.08345488458871841,
-0.5999991297721863,
-0.3868759572505951,
0.11444183439016342,
-0.4704385995864868,
-0.3035997152328491,
-0.22440005838871002,
0.08526935428380966,
0.3875975012779236,
0.14627932012081146,
0.20346175134181976,
0.6114458441734314,
1.0620840787887573,
-0.15643101930618286,
0.13035373389720917,
-0.12298016250133514,
-0.18940281867980957,
-0.055067311972379684,
-0.06092224270105362,
-0.07857870310544968,
-0.7345653772354126,
-0.20658114552497864,
-0.0999116599559784,
-0.04250498116016388,
0.14741763472557068,
-0.592095136642456,
-0.394521027803421,
-1.1562656164169312,
-0.20907968282699585,
-0.6681078672409058,
0.5710587501525879,
-0.21142178773880005,
0.7651320695877075,
-0.038136523216962814,
0.11479485034942627,
-0.2175033688545227,
0.450227826833725,
-0.12396541237831116,
0.18245570361614227,
0.48842334747314453,
-0.22894470393657684,
0.5576683282852173,
-0.21205522119998932,
0.08787368983030319,
0.4694209694862366,
0.08695138990879059,
-0.15871292352676392,
-0.1910594403743744,
-0.3872121572494507,
0.17364510893821716,
-0.09607817977666855,
0.14515362679958344,
0.2938929498195648,
-0.17546622455120087,
0.5553777813911438,
-0.33016952872276306,
-0.07496916502714157,
-0.021273987367749214,
-0.16285178065299988,
-0.17402036488056183,
0.052641142159700394,
0.2650868892669678,
0.49335360527038574,
0.2308986783027649,
-0.1585730016231537,
0.20159466564655304,
0.34083452820777893,
-0.11046460270881653,
0.35592278838157654,
-0.244475319981575,
0.7539239525794983,
0.5384330153465271,
-0.2800278067588806,
0.3284231126308441,
-0.3221171498298645,
-0.0859079509973526,
-0.06319227814674377,
0.13891376554965973,
-0.17118223011493683,
0.26916074752807617,
0.05177801102399826,
0.07995492219924927,
-0.263404905796051,
0.38123688101768494,
0.3342481553554535,
-0.2355300635099411,
-0.3049776256084442,
-0.17015685141086578,
-0.30599257349967957,
-0.11982862651348114,
-0.05038874223828316,
-0.3113839030265808,
0.3954320549964905,
0.21309474110603333,
0.4036453664302826,
-0.457969605922699,
0.05556436628103256,
0.35026898980140686,
-0.14554977416992188,
0.1471487283706665,
0.14694534242153168,
0.0623115710914135,
0.12842710316181183,
0.4940250813961029,
-0.3064141273498535,
-0.2467835247516632,
0.2538858652114868,
0.7096388339996338,
0.38497647643089294,
-0.5736989974975586,
-0.22057504951953888,
-0.39709851145744324,
0.7651887536048889,
0.05172455310821533,
-0.3518824875354767,
-0.19557183980941772,
0.02911151573061943,
0.465232789516449,
-0.5048497319221497,
0.1869617998600006,
0.7107172608375549,
-0.5959897637367249,
-0.5746658444404602,
-0.4786750078201294,
-0.6914146542549133,
-0.07138117402791977,
0.02400311268866062,
0.08260288089513779,
-0.8170849680900574,
-0.669123649597168,
0.06881463527679443,
0.2809318006038666,
0.7937210202217102,
-0.190088152885437,
-0.19807356595993042,
-0.5178130269050598,
0.19156233966350555,
-0.2662641108036041,
0.04609353467822075,
0.12530343234539032,
0.09541632980108261,
-0.18382127583026886,
0.22200198471546173,
-0.5577770471572876,
-0.03179279714822769,
0.20118561387062073,
-0.4471374452114105,
0.2483062744140625,
0.29853126406669617,
-0.32230690121650696,
0.49116483330726624,
0.2488056719303131,
-0.13194096088409424,
-0.014515801332890987,
0.21425317227840424,
-0.09704572707414627,
-0.24268129467964172,
0.1413523554801941,
0.1099376305937767,
0.6236162185668945,
-0.2131621241569519,
-0.4916701018810272,
0.3087630867958069,
0.5526931881904602,
0.24391070008277893,
-0.10616011172533035,
-0.28605976700782776,
0.386533260345459,
-0.04011593759059906,
0.022600632160902023,
-0.4309740662574768,
-0.03655659407377243,
-0.720000684261322,
-0.4096630811691284,
-0.47717952728271484,
0.84883713722229,
-0.5128533244132996,
0.10576912760734558,
0.33741191029548645,
-0.4814966320991516,
0.044430311769247055,
-0.0488041490316391,
-0.15966732800006866,
0.020428428426384926,
-0.15695054829120636,
-0.7260838150978088,
-0.006177187897264957,
0.27527719736099243,
-0.48368167877197266,
0.14709992706775665,
-0.45428577065467834,
0.30420196056365967,
-0.6812016367912292,
0.1904425323009491,
-0.6608783006668091,
0.008723931387066841,
0.2268737405538559,
-0.5802997350692749,
0.21094784140586853,
-0.07724246382713318,
-0.00540078105404973,
0.8570632934570312,
-0.2501259744167328,
-0.26675504446029663,
0.3509271442890167,
-0.33732104301452637,
-0.4834933876991272,
0.32054466009140015,
0.22881826758384705,
0.5476621389389038,
-1.4144697189331055,
0.24692527949810028,
-0.5784375667572021,
0.07484099268913269,
-0.3951239585876465,
-0.08307792246341705,
0.10837933421134949,
-0.02921149507164955,
-0.1086881086230278,
0.31408068537712097,
-0.02500421367585659,
-0.03529312089085579,
0.07869902998209,
-0.3239681124687195,
0.5173757672309875,
0.5116005539894104,
-0.19434672594070435,
0.16621354222297668,
0.25232335925102234,
-0.5644963979721069,
-0.3096614480018616,
0.3098314106464386,
0.7429808378219604,
0.051716215908527374,
-0.3486909866333008,
0.19383428990840912,
-0.3430424928665161,
0.25214576721191406,
-0.10731883347034454,
0.12675772607326508,
0.000042626492358976975,
0.04773778095841408,
0.02417389675974846,
0.1967029869556427,
0.14026394486427307,
0.06816087663173676,
-0.6936300992965698,
-0.26281604170799255,
-0.500555694103241,
-0.18352967500686646,
0.5754055380821228,
0.7425143718719482,
0.7403567433357239,
0.007428184617310762,
0.06954662501811981,
-0.1437842845916748,
-0.6703314781188965,
1.0387585163116455,
0.11180738359689713,
-0.47670215368270874,
-0.20673225820064545,
0.48522886633872986,
-0.11155612766742706,
0.5419067144393921,
-0.26686573028564453,
-0.4351485073566437,
-0.5238128900527954,
-0.03220190852880478,
0.39063623547554016,
0.09587860107421875,
-0.5103746056556702,
-0.27618905901908875,
0.49273794889450073,
0.2935560941696167,
0.5578292012214661,
-0.04404968023300171,
0.36499983072280884,
0.23484216630458832,
-0.40374165773391724,
0.5338591933250427,
-0.09004716575145721,
-0.7170546650886536,
0.19868391752243042,
-0.1753067523241043,
-0.2573436200618744,
-0.32637226581573486,
-0.06665805727243423,
0.09641387313604355,
0.029058119282126427,
-5.948925971984863,
0.10371681302785873,
-0.06740365922451019,
-0.5363372564315796,
0.27764835953712463,
0.014162847772240639,
0.660334050655365,
0.2300201654434204,
-0.21588730812072754,
0.6480202674865723,
-0.2696252465248108,
0.45221248269081116,
0.017151927575469017,
0.1380683183670044,
0.724317193031311,
-0.2370753288269043,
0.4761952757835388,
0.003956555388867855,
-0.14717327058315277,
0.31437137722969055,
-0.4701231122016907,
-0.009482611902058125,
0.4241977334022522,
0.9199966788291931,
-0.002683322411030531,
0.016918186098337173,
-0.6436075568199158,
0.25745612382888794,
-0.14473184943199158,
-0.054226551204919815,
0.17368146777153015,
-0.38512009382247925,
-0.29210153222084045,
-0.04114910960197449,
-0.2343989759683609,
-0.04033415764570236,
0.023883266374468803,
0.6087197661399841,
0.1609099805355072,
-0.28702253103256226,
-0.31804195046424866,
0.657526969909668,
-0.0904645249247551,
-0.09875530749559402,
-0.2722073197364807,
-0.22395828366279602,
0.20579104125499725,
0.4810137450695038,
-0.3099710941314697,
0.809036135673523,
-0.5188606381416321,
0.22201038897037506,
0.6181747317314148,
-0.19492818415164948,
-0.26125121116638184,
-0.3557286560535431,
0.7162989974021912,
0.12851792573928833,
-0.46931448578834534,
0.30121302604675293,
-0.028523985296487808,
-0.7585024833679199,
-0.2196902632713318,
-0.45157450437545776,
-0.12199129164218903,
-0.4649220407009125,
-0.7703353762626648,
-0.20845040678977966,
0.3085388243198395,
0.11059567332267761,
-0.12871962785720825,
0.4025298058986664,
0.4460723102092743,
-0.7375936508178711,
-0.03169780597090721,
-0.7058361172676086,
0.16227106750011444,
-0.4138900637626648,
0.5302241444587708,
0.17649807035923004,
-0.7551327347755432,
-0.07105154544115067,
-0.14815881848335266,
0.6992210745811462,
0.5035783648490906,
-0.19645634293556213,
-0.18962088227272034,
-0.59536212682724,
0.1506849080324173,
-0.6492913961410522,
0.8260812163352966,
-0.2615339159965515,
0.2789534330368042,
-0.32189103960990906,
0.17376744747161865,
0.2767007648944855,
0.2682725489139557,
0.4818069338798523,
0.5436837673187256,
-0.7907202243804932,
0.6784818768501282,
0.18447037041187286,
0.16295617818832397,
-0.08140233904123306,
0.005297546274960041,
-0.37584513425827026,
-0.5466434955596924,
0.6818768978118896,
0.6495252251625061,
-0.06985271722078323,
-0.14057616889476776,
0.20965978503227234,
-0.27100351452827454,
-0.26617443561553955,
-0.29431724548339844,
0.6230732202529907,
-0.6854830980300903,
0.32028886675834656,
0.6158799529075623,
-0.028844324871897697,
0.30353081226348877,
0.07299711555242538,
-0.18248620629310608,
-0.551692008972168,
0.3416183292865753,
-0.5024237036705017,
0.05772658437490463,
-0.029838919639587402,
0.2012757509946823,
-0.17360460758209229,
0.6643949151039124,
0.4658314883708954,
0.06129785627126694,
0.0735451728105545,
-0.012713397853076458,
-0.38396716117858887,
-0.4523853659629822,
0.20007267594337463,
0.38772574067115784,
-0.26480236649513245,
0.06980130076408386,
-0.16611577570438385,
-0.1118064895272255,
0.06300292909145355,
0.8565292954444885,
0.41852039098739624,
-0.2431718409061432,
-0.0065930867567658424,
-0.035611946135759354,
0.256635844707489,
-0.384778767824173,
-0.5618776082992554,
-0.11205420643091202,
-0.4720503091812134,
0.3969672918319702,
-0.29309511184692383,
-0.12655767798423767,
-0.1546940803527832,
0.4018297791481018,
-0.4290412366390228,
0.4641454517841339,
0.26454877853393555,
-0.7136198878288269,
-0.39324700832366943,
-0.14099693298339844,
0.6331697106361389,
-0.6465003490447998,
0.4875687062740326,
0.04098590463399887,
0.1610308438539505,
-0.26823690533638,
-0.4331786334514618,
-0.41081076860427856,
-0.19414936006069183,
-0.1420743316411972,
0.656420111656189,
0.01921909488737583,
0.6939642429351807,
0.2667691707611084,
-0.07280895859003067,
-0.03714118152856827,
0.010665887035429478,
-0.0522882305085659,
0.410734087228775,
-0.022733556106686592,
-0.38370776176452637,
-0.01938958838582039,
0.4751293957233429,
-0.11614755541086197,
0.579963743686676,
0.0005717806052416563,
0.11558482050895691,
0.5846327543258667,
0.16491755843162537,
-0.2005358189344406,
-0.4120755195617676,
-0.2716792821884155,
0.20403482019901276,
-0.10237620770931244,
-0.5060924291610718,
-0.026194822043180466,
0.09542346745729446,
-0.3446751534938812,
-0.0549270361661911,
0.21592184901237488,
-0.5974912643432617,
0.17622140049934387,
0.06007649376988411,
-0.40979766845703125,
-0.24270103871822357,
-0.6466648578643799,
-0.27619895339012146,
-0.4056653380393982,
0.3524881899356842,
-0.4142751097679138,
-0.4810348451137543,
0.4665972888469696,
-0.28382328152656555,
0.11887612193822861,
-0.44402316212654114,
0.29680144786834717,
0.5275585055351257,
-0.5894363522529602,
-0.25574833154678345,
0.025227496400475502,
-0.4582871198654175,
0.48787182569503784,
-0.3018331229686737,
0.3602057695388794,
0.3573339879512787,
-0.508269727230072,
-0.29170164465904236,
0.1319858431816101,
0.12273181229829788,
-0.09174641966819763,
-0.010530266910791397,
0.011043489910662174,
-0.07757935672998428,
-0.06837023794651031,
-0.10977037996053696,
0.12383056432008743,
0.9197097420692444,
-0.10829801857471466,
-0.10968366265296936,
-0.0888119488954544,
0.47977957129478455,
0.382394015789032,
-0.5906375646591187,
-0.6213312745094299,
0.02726728469133377,
0.7679391503334045,
-0.39809685945510864,
-0.5729382038116455,
-0.07861168682575226,
0.7838224768638611,
-0.006775414105504751,
0.11665863543748856,
-0.21815231442451477,
0.47683799266815186,
0.17398729920387268,
-0.03660959005355835,
-0.5163477063179016,
-0.697411060333252,
0.20205311477184296,
0.33228248357772827,
-0.3329199552536011,
-0.2985745370388031,
-0.10451963543891907,
0.26418471336364746,
-0.7099969983100891,
0.6330199241638184,
-0.21533557772636414,
0.36087483167648315,
0.4121449291706085,
0.5795473456382751,
-0.16692519187927246,
-0.01996859535574913,
-0.22561274468898773,
0.08657722920179367,
-0.22600547969341278,
-0.27285924553871155,
0.05783535912632942,
0.4130887985229492,
-0.01956874690949917,
0.121943898499012,
-0.018169017508625984,
0.09895271807909012,
-0.08112747222185135,
-0.19397562742233276,
-0.26452574133872986,
-0.2822057008743286,
-0.171362042427063,
-0.2047022432088852,
0.5516196489334106,
0.00881118606775999,
0.38701313734054565,
0.3012007176876068,
0.16047127544879913,
-0.1761409491300583,
0.15984958410263062,
-0.5856913924217224,
0.7031017541885376,
0.3000005781650543,
-0.9466935992240906,
0.7711327075958252,
-0.02787572704255581,
0.009164565242826939,
-0.3534000813961029,
0.3644793629646301,
-0.286600798368454,
0.3212119936943054,
0.11247377842664719,
-0.162486270070076,
0.7017444372177124,
0.19193314015865326,
-0.4135461747646332,
0.17784816026687622,
-0.275849848985672,
0.5767394304275513,
0.18866123259067535,
0.3784177005290985,
-0.04899407550692558,
0.6586735844612122,
-0.18519651889801025,
-0.22283867001533508,
0.5104022026062012,
-0.19488048553466797,
-0.06492596119642258,
0.5796404480934143,
0.6367369294166565,
0.5186505317687988,
0.37306690216064453,
-0.4614674150943756,
0.16950426995754242,
-0.5050495266914368,
-0.21170911192893982,
0.012404044158756733,
0.008479896001517773,
-0.3910585641860962,
0.031067676842212677,
-0.16721126437187195,
0.28245607018470764,
0.5255563259124756,
0.5791460275650024,
-0.4218186140060425,
0.5325698852539062,
0.17920948565006256,
0.4771053194999695,
-0.9472516179084778,
-0.24242959916591644,
-0.017054961994290352,
-0.48995134234428406,
0.5875027179718018,
0.047959767282009125,
0.12867824733257294,
-0.2389642596244812,
0.3822523057460785,
-0.37700125575065613,
-0.3065292239189148,
-0.2609100043773651,
-0.5299726128578186,
0.4860994517803192,
-0.3562888503074646,
-0.5395293235778809,
0.13512082397937775,
-0.1711651086807251,
0.3019244372844696,
-0.8308873176574707,
0.08239737153053284,
0.14651159942150116,
0.1893249899148941,
0.687835693359375,
-0.5990092158317566,
0.47997188568115234,
0.12862937152385712,
-0.14580057561397552,
0.3373483717441559,
0.28784966468811035,
-0.008569875732064247,
-0.6409094929695129,
-0.004137270152568817,
0.1288483440876007,
-0.12705813348293304,
-0.5455591678619385,
-0.010599154978990555,
-0.0099041648209095,
0.164702370762825,
0.27059057354927063,
-0.2755025029182434,
-0.05020276829600334,
-0.16918663680553436,
-0.585303008556366,
0.11099971830844879,
-0.43317097425460815,
-0.6508755683898926,
-0.0254584401845932,
0.21032944321632385,
0.6404014229774475,
0.28964313864707947,
-0.2732763886451721,
-0.5925345420837402,
-0.019220389425754547,
0.0740734115242958,
-0.1511583775281906,
-0.6349219083786011,
0.6115977764129639,
-0.24423331022262573,
0.3263918161392212,
-0.21570909023284912,
0.6437298059463501,
0.862550675868988,
-0.36876586079597473,
0.4013687074184418,
0.41738104820251465,
-0.26973116397857666,
-0.09507055580615997,
0.3635551631450653,
-0.5249639749526978,
0.06028735637664795,
-0.6473459601402283,
-0.2558196187019348,
-0.3189821243286133,
0.10301842540502548,
-0.047163233160972595,
-0.3939160108566284,
-0.382600337266922,
0.05794469267129898,
0.30016428232192993,
-0.5528222918510437,
0.5171114206314087,
-0.5215689539909363,
0.03848464787006378,
-0.8214243650436401,
0.32352370023727417,
-0.4821527302265167,
-0.3946854770183563,
-0.16213636100292206,
0.48778077960014343,
0.7147161960601807,
-0.24278783798217773,
0.06661205738782883,
0.00363723561167717,
0.3126848638057709,
-0.060289427638053894,
-0.03531098738312721,
-0.08808500319719315,
-0.0475376695394516,
-0.14560812711715698,
-0.8005367517471313,
0.48764702677726746,
0.4344403147697449,
-0.16204072535037994,
-0.11078304052352905,
-0.28297337889671326,
-0.5151716470718384,
-0.11104769259691238,
0.5437265634536743,
-0.49236345291137695,
-0.12253738194704056,
0.30860087275505066
] |
200167
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20cycle
|
Water cycle
|
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water (Salt Water) and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
Description
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the ocean and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Some ice and snow sublimates directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water molecule has smaller molecular mass than the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen () and oxygen () and hence is less dense. Due to the significant difference in density, buoyancy drives humid air higher. As altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lower temperature causes water vapor to condense into tiny liquid water droplets which are heavier than the air, and which fall unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large area in the atmosphere become visible as cloud, while condensation near ground level is referred to as fog.
Atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow, hail, or sleet, and can accumulate in ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls as rain back into the ocean or onto land, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of this runoff enters rivers, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers; much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.
Deep water recycling
The deep water cycle (also called the geological water cycle) is the exchange of water with the Earth's mantle, via subduction zones and volcanic activity, and is distinguished from the cycling of water above and on the surface of the planet in the Hydrologic Cycle.
The process of deep water recycling involves water entering the mantle by being carried down by subducting oceanic plates (a process known as regassing) being balanced by water being released at mid-ocean ridges (degassing). This is a central concept in the understanding of the long‐term exchange of water between the earth's interior and the exosphere and the transport of water bound in hydrous minerals.
An imbalance in deep water recycling has been proposed as one mechanism that can affect global sea levels.
Processes
Precipitation Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet. Approximately of water falls as precipitation each year, of it over the oceans. The rain on land contains of water per year and a snowing only . 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean.
Subduction & Mineral hydration Sea water seeps into the oceanic lithosphere through fractures and pores, and reacts with minerals in the crust and mantle to form hydrous minerals (such as serpentine) that store water in their crystal structures. Water is transported into the deep mantle via hydrous minerals in subducting slabs. During subduction, a series of minerals in these slabs such as serpentine … can be stable at different pressures within the slab geotherms, and may transport significant amount of water into the Earth's interior. As plates sink and heat up, released fluids can trigger seismicity and induce melting within the subducted plate and in the overlying mantle wedge. This type of melting selectively concentrates volatiles and transports them into the overlying plate. If an eruption occurs, the cycle then returns the volatiles into the oceans and atmosphere
Canopy interception The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.
Snow melt The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. A recent global study using water stable isotopes, however, shows that not all soil moisture is equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.
Subsurface flow The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately of water, of which evaporates from the oceans. 86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean.
Sublimation The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor by passing the liquid state.
Deposition This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Advection The movement of water through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.
Condensation The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.
Transpiration The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.
Percolation Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.
Plate tectonics Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface via volcanism.
The water cycle involves many of these processes.
Residence times
The residence time of a reservoir within the hydrologic cycle is the average time a water molecule will spend in that reservoir (see adjacent table). It is a measure of the average age of the water in that reservoir.
Groundwater can spend over 10,000 years beneath Earth's surface before leaving. Particularly old groundwater is called fossil water. Water stored in the soil remains there very briefly, because it is spread thinly across the Earth, and is readily lost by evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, or groundwater recharge. After evaporating, the residence time in the atmosphere is about 9 days before condensing and falling to the Earth as precipitation.
The major ice sheets – Antarctica and Greenland – store ice for very long periods. Ice from Antarctica has been reliably dated to 800,000 years before present, though the average residence time is shorter.
In hydrology, residence times can be estimated in two ways. The more common method relies on the principle of conservation of mass (water balance) and assumes the amount of water in a given reservoir is roughly constant. With this method, residence times are estimated by dividing the volume of the reservoir by the rate by which water either enters or exits the reservoir. Conceptually, this is equivalent to timing how long it would take the reservoir to become filled from empty if no water were to leave (or how long it would take the reservoir to empty from full if no water were to enter).
An alternative method to estimate residence times, which is gaining in popularity for dating groundwater, is the use of isotopic techniques. This is done in the subfield of isotope hydrology.
Changes over time
The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi3 (1,386,000,000 km3) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi3 (1,338,000,000 km3) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.
During colder climatic periods, more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age, glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass with the result being that the oceans were about 122 m (400 ft) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 5.5 m (18 ft) higher than they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 50 m (165 ft) higher.
The scientific consensus expressed in the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Summary for Policymakers is for the water cycle to continue to intensify throughout the 21st century, though this does not mean that precipitation will increase in all regions. In subtropical land areasplaces that are already relatively dryprecipitation is projected to decrease during the 21st century, increasing the probability of drought. The drying is projected to be strongest near the poleward margins of the subtropics (for example, the Mediterranean Basin, South Africa, southern Australia, and the Southwestern United States). Annual precipitation amounts are expected to increase in near-equatorial regions that tend to be wet in the present climate, and also at high latitudes. These large-scale patterns are present in nearly all of the climate model simulations conducted at several international research centers as part of the 4th Assessment of the IPCC. There is now ample evidence that increased hydrologic variability and change in climate has and will continue to have a profound impact on the water sector through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin, and local levels. Research published in 2012 in Science based on surface ocean salinity over the period 1950 to 2000 confirm this projection of an intensified global water cycle with salty areas becoming more saline and fresher areas becoming more fresh over the period:Fundamental thermodynamics and climate models suggest that dry regions will become drier and wet regions will become wetter in response to warming. Efforts to detect this long-term response in sparse surface observations of rainfall and evaporation remain ambiguous. We show that ocean salinity patterns express an identifiable fingerprint of an intensifying water cycle. Our 50-year observed global surface salinity changes, combined with changes from global climate models, present robust evidence of an intensified global water cycle at a rate of 8 ± 5% per degree of surface warming. This rate is double the response projected by current-generation climate models and suggests that a substantial (16 to 24%) intensification of the global water cycle will occur in a future 2° to 3° warmer world.
An instrument carried by the SAC-D satellite Aquarius, launched in June, 2011, measured global sea surface salinity.
Glacial retreat is also an example of a changing water cycle, where the supply of water to glaciers from precipitation cannot keep up with the loss of water from melting and sublimation. Glacial retreat since 1850 has been extensive.
Human activities that alter the water cycle include:
agriculture
industry
alteration of the chemical composition of the atmosphere
construction of dams
deforestation and afforestation
removal of groundwater from wells
water abstraction from rivers
urbanization - to counteract its impact, water-sensitive urban design can be practiced
Effects on climate
The water cycle is powered from solar energy. 86% of the global evaporation occurs from the oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling. Without the cooling, the effect of evaporation on the greenhouse effect would lead to a much higher surface temperature of , and a warmer planet.
Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of water in the hydrosphere, and has been postulated to be a contributor to sea-level rise.
Effects on biogeochemical cycling
While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, flow of water over and beneath the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to waterbodies. The salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. Cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies. The dead zone at the outlet of the Mississippi River is a consequence of nitrates from fertilizer being carried off agricultural fields and funnelled down the river system to the Gulf of Mexico. Runoff also plays a part in the carbon cycle, again through the transport of eroded rock and soil.
Slow loss over geologic time
The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as Hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind. Planets with hot lower atmospheres could result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.
History of hydrologic cycle theory
Floating land mass
In ancient times, it was widely thought that the land mass floated on a body of water, and that most of the water in rivers has its origin under the earth. Examples of this belief can be found in the works of Homer (circa 800 BCE).
Hebrew Bible
In the ancient Near East, Hebrew scholars observed that even though the rivers ran into the sea, the sea never became full. Some scholars conclude that the water cycle was described completely during this time in this passage: "The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again according to its circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again" (Ecclesiastes 1:6-7). Scholars are not in agreement as to the date of Ecclesiastes, though most scholars point to a date during the time of King Solomon, son of David and Bathsheba, "three thousand years ago, there is some agreement that the time period is 962–922 BCE. Furthermore, it was also observed that when the clouds were full, they emptied rain on the earth (Ecclesiastes 11:3). In addition, during 793–740 BCE a Hebrew prophet, Amos, stated that water comes from the sea and is poured out on the earth (Amos 5:8).
In the Biblical Book of Job, dated between 7th and 2nd centuries BCE, there is a description of precipitation in the hydrologic cycle, "For he maketh small the drops of water: they pour down rain according to the vapour thereof; which the clouds do drop and distil upon man abundantly" (Job 36:27-28).
Precipitation and percolation
In the Adityahridayam (a devotional hymn to the Sun God) of Ramayana, a Hindu epic dated to the 4th century BCE, it is mentioned in the 22nd verse that the Sun heats up water and sends it down as rain. By roughly 500 BCE, Greek scholars were speculating that much of the water in rivers can be attributed to rain. The origin of rain was also known by then. These scholars maintained the belief, however, that water rising up through the earth contributed a great deal to rivers. Examples of this thinking included Anaximander (570 BCE) (who also speculated about the evolution of land animals from fish) and Xenophanes of Colophon (530 BCE). Chinese scholars such as Chi Ni Tzu (320 BCE) and Lu Shih Ch'un Ch'iu (239 BCE) had similar thoughts. The idea that the water cycle is a closed cycle can be found in the works of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (460 BCE) and Diogenes of Apollonia (460 BCE). Both Plato (390 BCE) and Aristotle (350 BCE) speculated about percolation as part of the water cycle. Aristotle correctly hypothesized that the sun played a role in the Earth's hydraulic cycle in his book Meteorology, writing "By it [the sun's] agency the finest and sweetest water is everyday carried up and is dissolved into vapor and rises to the upper regions, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth.", and believed that clouds were composed of cooled and condensed water vapor.
Precipitation alone
Up to the time of the Renaissance, it was thought that precipitation alone was insufficient to feed rivers, for a complete water cycle, and that underground water pushing upwards from the oceans were the main contributors to river water. Bartholomew of England held this view (1240 CE), as did Leonardo da Vinci (1500 CE) and Athanasius Kircher (1644 CE).
The first published thinker to assert that rainfall alone was sufficient for the maintenance of rivers was Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), who is often credited as the "discoverer" of the modern theory of the water cycle. Palissy's theories were not tested scientifically until 1674, in a study commonly attributed to Pierre Perrault. Even then, these beliefs were not accepted in mainstream science until the early nineteenth century.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
The Water Cycle, United States Geological Survey
The Water Cycle for Kids, United States Geological Survey
The water cycle, from Dr. Art's Guide to the Planet.
Water cycle slideshow, 1 Mb Flash multilingual animation highlighting the often-overlooked evaporation from bare soil, from managingwholes.com.
Will the wet get wetter and the dry drier? – Climate research summary from NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory including text, graphics, and animations
Biogeochemical cycle
Forms of water
Hydrology
Soil physics
Water
Articles containing video clips
Limnology
Oceanography
|
[
0.3721475303173065,
0.12663647532463074,
0.1295209527015686,
0.20759521424770355,
0.15729503333568573,
0.3295508921146393,
0.2506222426891327,
0.4094509780406952,
-0.5047752857208252,
-0.8598034381866455,
-0.20827776193618774,
0.32407018542289734,
-0.4823583960533142,
0.8815264701843262,
0.09609882533550262,
0.19283629953861237,
0.2474893033504486,
0.1324576437473297,
0.5411391258239746,
0.0006646222318522632,
-0.47084981203079224,
0.3703555166721344,
0.7346334457397461,
-0.10887835919857025,
0.11224743723869324,
-0.47835221886634827,
-0.0595855787396431,
0.5118182301521301,
0.2035243660211563,
0.17273592948913574,
-0.2388554960489273,
0.5932754874229431,
-0.11616048216819763,
-0.0376787967979908,
-0.17035135626792908,
-0.7328112721443176,
-0.8120979070663452,
-0.31150951981544495,
-0.5235671401023865,
-0.5881122350692749,
-0.2684560716152191,
0.04150242358446121,
0.008779013529419899,
0.34439143538475037,
-0.2509765326976776,
0.46162477135658264,
-0.6250134110450745,
0.020831655710935593,
-0.49203017354011536,
0.05528179928660393,
-0.2872324287891388,
0.10108242928981781,
0.47265326976776123,
-0.003816556418314576,
-0.1537700742483139,
0.39627885818481445,
-0.6704388856887817,
0.5219040513038635,
-0.593266487121582,
-0.16035428643226624,
0.2012435346841812,
-0.002154395915567875,
-0.6641547083854675,
0.7207539677619934,
0.22536340355873108,
-0.3234959542751312,
-0.044863201677799225,
-0.2897270917892456,
0.275031715631485,
0.05602091923356056,
0.038751229643821716,
-0.004676244221627712,
-0.09420482814311981,
0.6994785070419312,
-0.8295986652374268,
-0.45733919739723206,
0.023062799125909805,
0.12918417155742645,
-0.34680628776550293,
-0.060911327600479126,
-0.017465826123952866,
0.430521160364151,
0.0031861085444688797,
-0.028061090037226677,
-0.1353575736284256,
0.18361115455627441,
-0.08833372592926025,
0.3939676880836487,
-0.6217815279960632,
0.24620014429092407,
0.1098574846982956,
-0.1829538643360138,
0.6178361773490906,
-0.5254319906234741,
0.13254547119140625,
-0.5870990753173828,
-0.07129795849323273,
-0.3395780920982361,
0.3535331189632416,
-0.13425955176353455,
-0.5360385179519653,
-0.3729451298713684,
0.33232688903808594,
0.25708797574043274,
0.1321742832660675,
-0.4280569553375244,
-0.16802120208740234,
-0.3551656901836395,
0.5389424562454224,
0.14418494701385498,
0.2560480535030365,
0.3353020250797272,
0.15293560922145844,
-0.003940363880246878,
0.054975662380456924,
0.43640410900115967,
-0.22489672899246216,
-0.3621702492237091,
0.28905412554740906,
-0.15303051471710205,
0.13980986177921295,
-0.22272270917892456,
0.23872387409210205,
-0.3048940598964691,
-0.5704017281532288,
0.02655220590531826,
0.2869179844856262,
-0.3825225532054901,
-0.8333035111427307,
-0.44381582736968994,
0.20561060309410095,
0.8168517351150513,
-0.049061570316553116,
-0.33793553709983826,
-0.0059524886310100555,
-0.21431992948055267,
0.651764452457428,
0.15551485121250153,
0.3831194341182709,
0.6273634433746338,
-0.3243354856967926,
-0.34830424189567566,
-0.05164167284965515,
-0.4244776964187622,
0.06171691417694092,
0.007143606431782246,
0.17574019730091095,
-0.77174973487854,
-0.2468263953924179,
-0.2131311446428299,
0.2073250114917755,
0.6361358761787415,
-0.3177608549594879,
-0.05332421511411667,
-0.16298808157444,
0.24138517677783966,
-0.24417367577552795,
0.5304560661315918,
-0.0706549659371376,
-0.2348116636276245,
-0.002547724172472954,
0.3987750709056854,
0.2723981738090515,
-0.21368785202503204,
0.15561895072460175,
-0.42620256543159485,
0.24638210237026215,
0.1704828441143036,
-0.27545949816703796,
-0.16493144631385803,
-0.19638775289058685,
0.005081602372229099,
0.17535458505153656,
-0.10980624705553055,
-0.03469102829694748,
-0.37972280383110046,
0.7120975852012634,
0.39260798692703247,
0.7094822525978088,
-0.033612094819545746,
-0.489909827709198,
0.08295341581106186,
-0.0510706827044487,
-0.13146847486495972,
0.3975522220134735,
-0.7397839426994324,
0.7385233640670776,
0.3644595146179199,
0.37575584650039673,
0.30151858925819397,
-0.1557055562734604,
-0.022918306291103363,
0.13704736530780792,
-0.41509389877319336,
0.34482020139694214,
-0.25292128324508667,
-0.35561832785606384,
0.3665723204612732,
-0.29322943091392517,
0.23136883974075317,
-0.5032866597175598,
-0.08643841743469238,
-0.08225990831851959,
-0.5796838402748108,
-0.2660205066204071,
-0.17698132991790771,
0.04410482943058014,
-0.4125893712043762,
0.6357076168060303,
-0.196371391415596,
-0.2377500981092453,
-0.11928721517324448,
0.3571788966655731,
-0.7205936312675476,
0.22411057353019714,
-0.18077723681926727,
-0.8045621514320374,
0.1224823147058487,
-0.27949583530426025,
0.14946192502975464,
0.7811747789382935,
0.20572757720947266,
-0.0493854321539402,
0.10212337970733643,
-0.10825179517269135,
-0.3486080765724182,
0.2803807854652405,
0.20681700110435486,
0.5404272675514221,
-0.7780838012695312,
0.20245859026908875,
-0.009227771311998367,
-0.003822179976850748,
-0.15698222815990448,
-0.11197040975093842,
0.633470356464386,
0.16355657577514648,
-0.17335742712020874,
-0.34626704454421997,
0.031227469444274902,
0.4252352714538574,
0.09368697553873062,
-0.7549312710762024,
0.43810969591140747,
0.0736299380660057,
0.23551304638385773,
0.06616796553134918,
0.24960753321647644,
-0.8929893970489502,
-0.2671187222003937,
0.15083707869052887,
0.4542180001735687,
0.3693090081214905,
-0.18921194970607758,
-0.4283572733402252,
-0.694307804107666,
-0.13432525098323822,
0.4280409812927246,
0.5952170491218567,
0.2246587723493576,
-0.10104698687791824,
-0.33604806661605835,
-0.3179749846458435,
-0.13586381077766418,
-0.0660361498594284,
-0.7400003671646118,
-0.9580314755439758,
-0.6905297636985779,
-0.28263792395591736,
0.4094609022140503,
0.5825718641281128,
-0.0026085199788212776,
-0.17252789437770844,
0.02102692238986492,
0.2845305800437927,
-0.7416793704032898,
0.9056062698364258,
-0.2993296980857849,
-0.35088497400283813,
-0.31644654273986816,
0.21921104192733765,
0.660630464553833,
0.06337639689445496,
-0.533688485622406,
-0.24194785952568054,
-0.008551622740924358,
-0.03725435212254524,
0.30884429812431335,
0.15542244911193848,
-0.14030902087688446,
-0.24882251024246216,
-0.10142438113689423,
0.0038948936853557825,
-0.06687000393867493,
0.13230496644973755,
0.38762691617012024,
0.10101918876171112,
-0.45565617084503174,
0.24930556118488312,
0.011753053404390812,
-0.19195911288261414,
-0.44762447476387024,
-0.054458703845739365,
0.22854721546173096,
0.0863547995686531,
-0.2522245943546295,
-0.07815514504909515,
0.5872682929039001,
-5.963937759399414,
-0.5656022429466248,
0.2548753619194031,
-0.2483064979314804,
0.29823657870292664,
0.034360092133283615,
0.7003095746040344,
0.6802065968513489,
0.19160787761211395,
0.5191636085510254,
0.12423643469810486,
-0.05544909089803696,
-0.06998588889837265,
0.40850937366485596,
0.392535001039505,
-0.033677272498607635,
0.743026077747345,
-0.004061407409608364,
-0.3120149075984955,
0.5519010424613953,
-0.2830008566379547,
-0.2313147634267807,
-0.25334790349006653,
0.43844813108444214,
-0.27102845907211304,
-0.580218493938446,
-0.1819288581609726,
-0.10086815059185028,
-0.5180894732475281,
0.256003737449646,
-0.46857061982154846,
-0.5291333198547363,
0.5310685038566589,
-0.07369386404752731,
0.5949377417564392,
-0.184719979763031,
-0.27318623661994934,
0.6352221965789795,
0.6130037903785706,
-0.3480754792690277,
-0.26864349842071533,
-0.23685002326965332,
-0.07908736169338226,
-0.24898242950439453,
-0.45493951439857483,
0.07392431795597076,
-0.25378796458244324,
0.02267277240753174,
0.14144064486026764,
0.9153164625167847,
-0.1175832748413086,
0.22855311632156372,
1.0087071657180786,
-0.7858248949050903,
0.11273316293954849,
0.15363021194934845,
0.4433390498161316,
-0.052937041968107224,
-0.017438672482967377,
-0.1050507053732872,
-0.06840717047452927,
-0.429765909910202,
0.12120851874351501,
-0.25419822335243225,
-0.02612203173339367,
0.07555966824293137,
-0.9931247234344482,
-0.1381877064704895,
0.24193276464939117,
0.14889226853847504,
-0.3238700032234192,
0.1408749222755432,
-0.06339683383703232,
-0.5128803849220276,
-0.3642823100090027,
-0.4449564218521118,
0.12504485249519348,
-0.22295637428760529,
0.719523012638092,
-0.22871030867099762,
-0.41919007897377014,
-0.14703848958015442,
-0.19183766841888428,
0.3766140043735504,
0.48444071412086487,
-0.29063451290130615,
-0.14282380044460297,
-0.7067947387695312,
-0.26392024755477905,
0.21286924183368683,
0.9089703559875488,
-0.10753963142633438,
0.7948727607727051,
0.40004056692123413,
0.5658910870552063,
0.3138395845890045,
-0.23821336030960083,
-0.1860901266336441,
0.34937942028045654,
-0.6519134044647217,
0.7798318266868591,
-0.06727233529090881,
0.31112271547317505,
0.1114654392004013,
-0.32581672072410583,
-0.12427669018507004,
-0.1359512060880661,
0.4901798963546753,
0.15869882702827454,
0.13291235268115997,
0.046240147203207016,
0.42240121960639954,
0.23214121162891388,
-0.4677196145057678,
-0.3546556830406189,
0.7040082216262817,
-1.0028871297836304,
0.33793577551841736,
0.9380651116371155,
0.21121059358119965,
-0.02221238799393177,
0.42418190836906433,
-0.3047969937324524,
-0.17467759549617767,
0.23102755844593048,
-0.38413771986961365,
0.03844871371984482,
0.49752381443977356,
0.41926345229148865,
0.10689770430326462,
0.6653994917869568,
0.20298568904399872,
0.1806621253490448,
-0.014585309661924839,
0.12571777403354645,
0.12484265863895416,
0.4863130748271942,
-0.1589735448360443,
-0.17142663896083832,
-0.2685730457305908,
-0.003149799071252346,
-0.1100727766752243,
-0.15820306539535522,
-0.4444292187690735,
0.1328427493572235,
0.21161037683486938,
-0.23497451841831207,
-0.13297274708747864,
0.1455286294221878,
0.727759599685669,
0.5052852630615234,
-0.6067337989807129,
-0.19966059923171997,
-0.10017187893390656,
-0.3852349519729614,
-0.5043497085571289,
-0.05433451384305954,
-0.03821040317416191,
0.6591394543647766,
-0.531136155128479,
0.3914315104484558,
-0.5005842447280884,
-0.8943365216255188,
-0.15394821763038635,
-0.4141525626182556,
1.0243020057678223,
-0.2690894305706024,
-0.4276052415370941,
0.35088762640953064,
0.3955954611301422,
-0.22466279566287994,
0.057761553674936295,
-0.5120938420295715,
-0.09633651375770569,
-0.040007419884204865,
-0.03483474254608154,
0.06941242516040802,
0.32479795813560486,
-0.07174238562583923,
-0.22535449266433716,
0.06092720851302147,
-0.13935261964797974,
-0.10575725138187408,
0.27889537811279297,
-0.07728345692157745,
-0.39944854378700256,
0.13537578284740448,
0.41375669836997986,
-0.1678040474653244,
-0.016024930402636528,
0.9574328660964966,
0.22323857247829437,
0.1891285628080368,
-0.20880380272865295,
-0.034381330013275146,
0.04164799302816391,
0.2514398694038391,
0.3825090527534485,
-0.2817530333995819,
0.26948830485343933,
-0.02586331032216549,
0.13549351692199707,
-0.4552322328090668,
0.24986149370670319,
0.3750914931297302,
-0.6399365663528442,
-0.42174792289733887,
0.06359158456325531,
-0.23491698503494263,
-0.1720496565103531,
-0.11199783533811569,
-0.07557777315378189,
-0.5947049856185913,
0.07447545230388641,
-0.37559887766838074,
-0.118561752140522,
0.4254153370857239,
-0.5900543332099915,
0.3843267858028412,
-0.1248190701007843,
0.2513705790042877,
0.6032798290252686,
-0.3888816833496094,
0.17784859240055084,
0.22440145909786224,
-0.15703114867210388,
0.46163880825042725,
-0.11029399186372757,
-0.2322988510131836,
-0.11933160573244095,
-0.23886273801326752,
-0.06188482418656349,
-0.13636597990989685,
-0.18657264113426208,
-0.20552006363868713,
-0.3373400568962097,
0.46707531809806824,
0.17134426534175873,
-0.20947101712226868,
-0.15214265882968903,
-0.1632654368877411,
0.504420280456543,
0.2849520146846771,
-0.47596290707588196,
0.2727033793926239,
0.41565704345703125,
0.19006352126598358,
-0.62211674451828,
-0.16675111651420593,
-0.09080302715301514,
0.6066404581069946,
-0.27218520641326904,
-0.4064868092536926,
0.0784786120057106,
0.48081260919570923,
-0.2536134719848633,
0.12627238035202026,
-0.47924235463142395,
0.33568012714385986,
0.2871055006980896,
0.3229968249797821,
-0.33809709548950195,
-0.8214086890220642,
-0.5801140666007996,
0.8521230220794678,
-0.07961514592170715,
-0.4704040586948395,
0.034460555762052536,
0.2983511686325073,
-0.4410591721534729,
0.8277566432952881,
-0.1056770458817482,
-0.5458980798721313,
0.04249875247478485,
0.9695330858230591,
0.1265050768852234,
-0.08017826825380325,
-0.21093741059303284,
0.7125372886657715,
-0.32591044902801514,
-0.5501613616943359,
0.3574056923389435,
-0.23067615926265717,
0.2825266122817993,
0.49636030197143555,
-0.4476592540740967,
-0.08970332145690918,
-0.029040738940238953,
-0.00865919515490532,
-0.1623934507369995,
-0.2334982454776764,
-0.03429937735199928,
-0.22249291837215424,
0.2190718650817871,
-0.0951695591211319,
0.0769556313753128,
-0.03266836330294609,
0.20818915963172913,
-0.36359384655952454,
-0.2531430423259735,
-0.4552735686302185,
0.3796529471874237,
0.29134780168533325,
-0.1378285139799118,
0.45129096508026123,
0.15933363139629364,
0.18323875963687897,
-0.2929757237434387,
-0.5234330892562866,
-0.06803251057863235,
0.9138405919075012,
0.43072324991226196,
0.012510635890066624,
0.5957890152931213,
-0.19359353184700012,
0.014687604270875454,
0.33479559421539307,
-0.15370702743530273,
0.5798669457435608,
0.21629014611244202,
0.45126035809516907,
0.01892760954797268,
-0.22758230566978455,
-0.4729600250720978,
0.35082149505615234,
0.3963068723678589,
-0.25680893659591675,
-0.2561917006969452,
-0.4657372832298279,
0.15794220566749573,
0.783604085445404,
0.07243316620588303,
-0.23392628133296967,
-0.1668488085269928,
-0.2968752682209015,
0.21122239530086517,
-0.08991745114326477,
-0.13659606873989105,
-0.5084825754165649,
0.4411546587944031,
0.5526514649391174,
0.29995033144950867,
0.10486402362585068,
0.22002676129341125,
-0.03136046230792999,
0.12666290998458862,
-0.17154814302921295,
-0.16073086857795715,
-0.08653830736875534,
0.33198562264442444,
0.4368548095226288,
-0.6154605150222778,
0.4397244453430176,
-0.038530390709638596,
-0.27507832646369934,
-0.10850384831428528,
0.8635632395744324,
-0.15750330686569214,
0.4228215515613556,
-0.0581810399889946,
-0.26242703199386597,
0.7351891398429871,
-0.1345173418521881,
-0.5376397371292114,
0.4056864082813263,
-0.36321720480918884,
0.0909450575709343,
-1.0686887502670288,
0.3243304193019867,
-0.015817774459719658,
0.11884805560112,
0.6991361379623413,
-0.8802671432495117,
-0.07473289221525192,
0.6357582211494446,
-0.2860102951526642,
0.11546140909194946,
0.4525943100452423,
-0.1117001622915268,
0.02182403765618801,
-0.10102050006389618,
0.28277575969696045,
-0.24867497384548187,
-0.877299964427948,
-0.6474500894546509,
0.6019895672798157,
0.0978243350982666,
0.3110305368900299,
0.09603843837976456,
-0.19318275153636932,
0.24779914319515228,
-0.14851146936416626,
-0.22186394035816193,
0.15253494679927826,
-0.3251516819000244,
-0.10973244905471802,
-0.039208151400089264,
0.6095740795135498,
0.15188638865947723,
-0.3692229092121124,
0.3236502408981323,
-0.06012624502182007,
-0.15650364756584167,
0.13577790558338165,
-0.21500761806964874,
0.14164766669273376,
-0.507061243057251,
-0.3019133508205414,
-0.16788910329341888,
0.7658026218414307,
0.7780084609985352,
-0.49553465843200684,
-0.07223021984100342,
0.43918973207473755,
-0.04451394081115723,
0.08292243629693985,
0.5625596642494202,
-0.7591273784637451,
0.21769890189170837,
-0.7065282464027405,
-0.12002220004796982,
-0.19816581904888153,
-0.5228742957115173,
0.11957943439483643,
0.054020170122385025,
-0.4362659752368927,
-0.0164385624229908,
0.3916229009628296,
-0.42807483673095703,
0.4356550872325897,
-0.41701847314834595,
0.24813410639762878,
-0.9211173057556152,
0.6243762373924255,
-0.3538033366203308,
-0.39294880628585815,
0.017322074621915817,
0.0023800458293408155,
0.2969478964805603,
-0.41212165355682373,
-0.057604581117630005,
0.03537469357252121,
0.6410866379737854,
-0.006618830841034651,
0.0480218306183815,
-0.6355663537979126,
0.27436545491218567,
0.18310131132602692,
-0.8666896820068359,
0.16110453009605408,
0.32137033343315125,
0.2575882375240326,
-0.12199869006872177,
0.5822099447250366,
-0.22510863840579987,
-0.35847988724708557,
0.12448487430810928,
-0.31172260642051697,
0.11370053142309189,
0.2431994080543518
] |
200168
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basra%20Governorate
|
Basra Governorate
|
Basra Governorate ( ) (or Basra Province) is a governorate in southern Iraq, bordering Kuwait to the south and Iran to the east. The capital is the city of Basra, located in the Basrah district. Other districts of Basra include Al-Qurna, Al-Zubair, Al-Midaina, Shatt Al-Arab, Abu Al-Khaseeb and Al-Faw located on the Persian Gulf. It is the only governorate with a coastline.
History
In 1920, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the United Kingdom took over the former Ottoman vilayets of Basra, Baghdad and Mosul which had together formed the historical region of Irak Arabi or Irak Babeli, and called it the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. The mandate was succeeded by the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932.
The Shiite population suffered long and hard under Saddam's rule. The city of Basra had suffered considerably during the eight-year war with Iran and Allied bombardment and in 1991 during the Gulf War, the governorate ventured into an uprising after the United States promised them aid. It was started in Basra by angry soldiers, according to popular legend after they fired at a giant public portrait of Saddam Hussein. Mass support on the streets followed, shouting slogans, executing Ba'ath party members, leaders and secret police, and destroying pictures and monuments of Saddam Hussein. The participants had expected support from American troops. but the Allied army at the time was occupied despite the 24th Infantry Division stationed only several miles from the city. The city of Basra didn't completely succumb to the rebels; a counterattack by some 6,000 loyalists from the Republican Guard held out against 5,000 defectors of the Iraqi army. After about three days, the Republican Guard began to gain control, destroying "everything in front of them", killing many of the rebels in the streets and conducting mass executions on the public squares.
From 2003 the governorate was one of the centres of warfare during the invasion of the British and Americans during the Iraq War. The Battle of Basra took place between March 23 and April 7 between the British 1st Armoured Division forces under Major General Robin Brims, and Iraqi forces under General Ali Hassan al-Majid (Chemical Ali). Much of the heaviest combat in the war took place in the province in subsequent weeks. Several outbreaks of violence between secular Iraqis and Shiite Muslims broke out in summer 2006, and in September 2007, British troops were withdrawn to Basra Airport, and withdrew entirely from the city in December 2007. Following the example of the Kurdistan Autonomous Region in northern Iraq, Basra has proposed uniting with the other provinces of Dhi Qar and Maysan as an autonomous region. On October 15, 2005, 691,024 people, some 96.02%, voted for the new constitution.
During the Gulf war, part of Kuwait became a part of the Basrah governorate and was given the name, Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District.
Government
Governor: Asaad Al Eidani
Deputy Governor: Mohammed Tahir
Provincial Council Chairman (PCC): Sabah Al Bazooni
Districts
Abu Al-Khaseeb
Basra
Al-Faw
Al-Midaina
Al-Qurna
Shatt Al-Arab
Al-Zubair
See also
Sumer
Cradle of civilization
References
Governorates of Iraq
|
[
0.04495501145720482,
0.5995761752128601,
-0.19038914144039154,
-0.5483528971672058,
-0.897460401058197,
0.019005095586180687,
0.023319894447922707,
0.18164299428462982,
-0.28466570377349854,
-0.0036343345418572426,
-0.38447868824005127,
-0.2544683516025543,
-0.7370895147323608,
0.37468233704566956,
-0.12349705398082733,
1.079247236251831,
-0.0929625928401947,
0.12325923144817352,
0.020115558058023453,
-0.17477722465991974,
0.02254224754869938,
-0.3719470202922821,
0.48945584893226624,
-0.24105004966259003,
0.23666487634181976,
-0.2947175204753876,
0.8681187033653259,
0.4798128604888916,
-0.5014181137084961,
-0.17802098393440247,
-0.28386032581329346,
0.19798782467842102,
-0.7800195813179016,
-0.2301722913980484,
0.032981984317302704,
0.5693715214729309,
-0.06157349795103073,
-0.39414066076278687,
-0.34961095452308655,
-0.7049678564071655,
-0.3220619857311249,
-0.6346327066421509,
-0.014948838390409946,
0.38939395546913147,
-0.19138967990875244,
-0.6691883206367493,
-0.8387615084648132,
0.5507491230964661,
-0.4724540114402771,
-0.6112201809883118,
-0.16387711465358734,
0.4814813435077667,
-0.4550601840019226,
-0.015828069299459457,
0.18079060316085815,
0.07178637385368347,
-0.8356549739837646,
-0.11261024326086044,
0.088490329682827,
-0.04909169673919678,
0.8687671422958374,
0.4014796018600464,
0.0485687255859375,
0.11140330880880356,
0.3140455484390259,
0.03243561089038849,
-0.3797741234302521,
0.2024054229259491,
-0.10458002984523773,
0.4809934198856354,
-0.39322662353515625,
0.08424975723028183,
-0.1517506092786789,
-0.2559247314929962,
-0.06976855546236038,
0.22420555353164673,
-0.32722538709640503,
-0.28701841831207275,
0.3874415457248688,
0.47810354828834534,
0.4569678008556366,
-0.15929323434829712,
0.8962436318397522,
-0.33581680059432983,
0.6988344788551331,
0.24750015139579773,
-0.5041998624801636,
0.015863481909036636,
-0.11153493821620941,
0.19675204157829285,
-0.31728169322013855,
0.05923847481608391,
0.3103252053260803,
0.15259712934494019,
0.10605964809656143,
-0.6168174743652344,
-0.4226943552494049,
0.6151131987571716,
-0.5815152525901794,
0.13494378328323364,
0.11627431213855743,
1.128481388092041,
0.5172436237335205,
0.5621035099029541,
-0.3923705518245697,
-0.16811025142669678,
-0.08088743686676025,
0.04815983399748802,
-0.28766241669654846,
0.2592517137527466,
-0.0918637216091156,
0.38426515460014343,
0.07199985533952713,
-0.09816355258226395,
-0.1552608609199524,
-0.3490588963031769,
-0.022657280787825584,
0.12336970120668411,
0.21148468554019928,
0.17025329172611237,
-0.10520745068788528,
0.5658577680587769,
-0.29557347297668457,
0.4241217374801636,
0.16485778987407684,
0.02964860387146473,
-0.05566097050905228,
0.04801955074071884,
-0.4234200119972229,
0.8420270681381226,
0.2476220726966858,
0.2959740161895752,
0.035832397639751434,
0.7549569606781006,
0.25768810510635376,
-0.9772551655769348,
-0.5879777073860168,
0.30892157554626465,
1.0744202136993408,
-0.14783748984336853,
-1.32825767993927,
0.2100600302219391,
-0.5134149789810181,
-0.5624642372131348,
-0.2003273367881775,
-0.7686901688575745,
-0.021113507449626923,
-0.5302618741989136,
-0.47931909561157227,
-0.4681130051612854,
0.22033576667308807,
-0.11803603172302246,
-0.46259796619415283,
-0.07832620292901993,
-0.14474593102931976,
-0.46810460090637207,
0.5076135993003845,
-0.12743619084358215,
0.7372658252716064,
-0.1661810427904129,
-0.4152950346469879,
0.0873076468706131,
0.5854961276054382,
-0.04322894290089607,
0.22402295470237732,
-0.07030703872442245,
0.4317341446876526,
0.25867751240730286,
0.7123241424560547,
0.18119023740291595,
-0.6251932978630066,
-0.24451875686645508,
0.35077741742134094,
-0.37820208072662354,
0.17066948115825653,
-0.042998116463422775,
1.11343252658844,
0.4150141179561615,
0.37750548124313354,
-0.3226829171180725,
-0.47379881143569946,
-0.07095549255609512,
0.15870147943496704,
0.14127081632614136,
0.3330238461494446,
0.20929540693759918,
0.4701805114746094,
-0.060473132878541946,
-0.2520753741264343,
0.1067453920841217,
0.2835194170475006,
-0.5004923939704895,
-0.18242087960243225,
0.05120459944009781,
0.41314443945884705,
0.22593583166599274,
-0.6190590262413025,
0.7354862689971924,
-0.143649622797966,
1.1194522380828857,
-0.33863595128059387,
-0.46859750151634216,
0.3389110565185547,
-0.33486849069595337,
0.2395569235086441,
0.35693544149398804,
0.37159377336502075,
0.18906880915164948,
0.12467344105243683,
0.6867174506187439,
0.3094291090965271,
-0.6079409122467041,
0.07801967114210129,
0.41585007309913635,
0.2397439032793045,
-0.5047966837882996,
-0.33737990260124207,
0.17383898794651031,
-0.02082226611673832,
-0.12432416528463364,
0.5481154322624207,
0.10187465697526932,
-0.6743453741073608,
0.603553056716919,
-0.35527855157852173,
-0.058997925370931625,
0.06305089592933655,
0.10407305508852005,
-0.41792041063308716,
-0.5005820989608765,
0.4312027394771576,
0.15494117140769958,
0.2945888340473175,
-0.27149879932403564,
-0.6952846050262451,
-0.43350422382354736,
-0.39201733469963074,
-0.07234616577625275,
0.13668958842754364,
-0.30648577213287354,
-0.15889038145542145,
0.44281187653541565,
-0.05165846273303032,
-0.16648174822330475,
0.7234848141670227,
-0.00339604914188385,
-0.23291681706905365,
0.5404848456382751,
-0.5206525325775146,
0.4304710924625397,
-0.41167354583740234,
-0.04467438906431198,
0.2244214415550232,
-0.6256970763206482,
0.4091612696647644,
-0.22841903567314148,
0.3547172248363495,
0.12256486713886261,
0.721985936164856,
-0.071226105093956,
-0.6769881248474121,
0.40929731726646423,
-0.23381733894348145,
0.17087611556053162,
0.0847385823726654,
0.18153122067451477,
-0.23355798423290253,
-0.37270432710647583,
0.12262604385614395,
0.42867207527160645,
0.8293119668960571,
0.3076559901237488,
0.43112432956695557,
0.17620831727981567,
0.1026294007897377,
0.10751105099916458,
-0.4957992136478424,
0.2553534507751465,
-0.6810179948806763,
0.3639371693134308,
0.6520307064056396,
0.6417094469070435,
0.4164959788322449,
-0.24824240803718567,
-0.9031103253364563,
-0.683270275592804,
0.4642729163169861,
-0.5837200284004211,
0.13003550469875336,
-0.1812044382095337,
-0.6406328082084656,
0.16458816826343536,
0.06584981828927994,
0.33404862880706787,
-0.7501837015151978,
-0.3835902810096741,
0.026902107521891594,
-0.07036536186933517,
0.5776170492172241,
-0.7225945591926575,
-1.5530463457107544,
0.2901362180709839,
-0.5079488158226013,
0.1279752552509308,
-0.13258680701255798,
-0.015488923527300358,
-0.7409178614616394,
0.26392862200737,
-5.447073459625244,
-0.2670115828514099,
-0.23954057693481445,
-0.31062111258506775,
0.29948514699935913,
-0.23569858074188232,
0.33224353194236755,
-0.7846276164054871,
-0.03512602671980858,
0.3786109387874603,
-0.036857061088085175,
-0.003982275724411011,
0.14322136342525482,
0.6336401104927063,
0.6766125559806824,
0.11338604986667633,
0.2657358646392822,
0.05624091997742653,
0.0054497248493134975,
-0.2575136423110962,
-0.6442906260490417,
-0.06902678310871124,
-0.143803671002388,
0.28082770109176636,
0.8532553911209106,
0.7895367741584778,
0.09322436153888702,
0.06708893179893494,
-0.844651460647583,
-0.5071735978126526,
0.0759621262550354,
-0.5152864456176758,
-0.03161931037902832,
0.3712622821331024,
0.10545024275779724,
0.07185357064008713,
0.8434182405471802,
0.31309831142425537,
0.48246335983276367,
-0.5664678812026978,
-0.11940257251262665,
0.4134805500507355,
-0.29195427894592285,
-0.12470699101686478,
0.3844126760959625,
-0.6581398844718933,
-0.9610052108764648,
0.00425458699464798,
-0.14112430810928345,
0.5339536666870117,
0.49822789430618286,
-0.022797908633947372,
-0.22589658200740814,
0.19580519199371338,
-0.46150118112564087,
0.01281425729393959,
0.7065216302871704,
-0.41215091943740845,
-0.3044421672821045,
0.7500993013381958,
0.6821132898330688,
-0.0024074942339211702,
-0.34259551763534546,
-0.10676076263189316,
0.22048242390155792,
-0.06660757958889008,
0.18588046729564667,
-0.130275160074234,
0.2642841339111328,
0.49553900957107544,
-0.503868579864502,
-0.15815527737140656,
-0.9971721768379211,
-0.6527962684631348,
-0.18374377489089966,
-0.7138626575469971,
-0.002684993902221322,
-0.09038347005844116,
-0.037045013159513474,
0.14407563209533691,
-0.38698264956474304,
-0.41722169518470764,
0.6474789381027222,
0.3308701515197754,
-0.343494176864624,
-0.2734591066837311,
0.37977445125579834,
0.7721930742263794,
0.22412294149398804,
-0.16293810307979584,
0.20356258749961853,
-0.4637702703475952,
1.2802314758300781,
-0.17182059586048126,
-0.551459014415741,
0.7447593808174133,
0.24522490799427032,
-0.09716613590717316,
0.6495047807693481,
-0.831820011138916,
0.4441642165184021,
-0.20682859420776367,
0.4346928596496582,
0.1352136731147766,
0.1251615434885025,
-0.4649314284324646,
0.2473943680524826,
0.2251499444246292,
0.37656182050704956,
-0.29077833890914917,
0.04826899990439415,
0.18590980768203735,
-0.6119676828384399,
-0.42099452018737793,
0.6013656854629517,
-0.39154601097106934,
-0.22445163130760193,
1.0113345384597778,
0.10146335512399673,
0.8092189431190491,
0.1688513159751892,
-0.10679624229669571,
-0.15931786596775055,
0.048529934138059616,
-0.1018315777182579,
0.18261127173900604,
-0.3711215555667877,
0.3933170735836029,
0.18030789494514465,
0.18796326220035553,
0.28593382239341736,
-0.46716034412384033,
0.05078963562846184,
0.020278289914131165,
0.20267191529273987,
-0.3330984115600586,
-0.289831280708313,
-0.49954041838645935,
-0.08298973739147186,
0.2462988793849945,
0.5279398560523987,
0.013544055633246899,
-0.1034889817237854,
0.38077273964881897,
0.3005845248699188,
0.18741834163665771,
0.06943059712648392,
0.20716138184070587,
-0.43524491786956787,
-0.2840745747089386,
-0.24656860530376434,
-0.3924800455570221,
-0.3001501262187958,
-0.2961084544658661,
-0.3266077935695648,
0.013073745183646679,
0.5632898211479187,
0.5378158092498779,
0.13376177847385406,
-0.8939523696899414,
-0.12533238530158997,
-0.8670767545700073,
-0.5508216619491577,
0.40858301520347595,
-0.006529991049319506,
-0.13170896470546722,
0.3145436644554138,
-0.013672733679413795,
-0.3369694948196411,
0.785933792591095,
-0.24304573237895966,
-0.6980099081993103,
-0.5357627272605896,
-0.4700755774974823,
0.21358296275138855,
0.1596309393644333,
-0.04557015746831894,
-0.13044163584709167,
0.15413717925548553,
-0.6196549534797668,
-0.10679464042186737,
-0.1557529717683792,
-0.25263315439224243,
0.2539311349391937,
0.4143393635749817,
0.4336826503276825,
-1.0086522102355957,
-0.2950882315635681,
-0.4406243860721588,
-0.39294224977493286,
0.6094751358032227,
-0.16626189649105072,
-0.21623119711875916,
0.5009943842887878,
0.19381849467754364,
-0.46812406182289124,
0.39560672640800476,
0.40703684091567993,
0.1729547083377838,
-0.09981794655323029,
0.09796880185604095,
0.2545768916606903,
-0.09816029667854309,
0.6493161916732788,
-0.026845168322324753,
-0.5807210803031921,
0.5190133452415466,
0.5036017894744873,
-0.8402935862541199,
0.23091791570186615,
-0.08408473432064056,
-0.21494857966899872,
-0.12546241283416748,
0.49241772294044495,
-0.6209065318107605,
0.06800403445959091,
0.44375526905059814,
-0.30632930994033813,
0.5002235174179077,
-0.3269379734992981,
-0.7522771954536438,
-0.5298664569854736,
0.3933999538421631,
-0.2418229579925537,
0.008436397649347782,
0.4416006803512573,
0.32239681482315063,
-0.5487771034240723,
-0.1431310921907425,
0.564723551273346,
0.4033280611038208,
0.08907201886177063,
0.31428593397140503,
0.4801102876663208,
-0.2490464150905609,
-0.17126868665218353,
0.14861229062080383,
-0.19130124151706696,
-0.6347476840019226,
0.16310064494609833,
0.3958824872970581,
0.39100679755210876,
0.3235323429107666,
-0.6516254544258118,
0.027433615177869797,
0.009902232326567173,
0.1910746842622757,
-0.6412754058837891,
-0.7635347843170166,
0.3215581774711609,
0.5966694355010986,
-0.1368434578180313,
-1.0341370105743408,
0.1958683878183365,
0.4429570734500885,
-0.3259628415107727,
-0.03833461180329323,
0.23710110783576965,
-0.36824530363082886,
0.6371865272521973,
-0.07294546067714691,
0.15627403557300568,
0.17234942317008972,
0.10506216436624527,
-0.08507774770259857,
-0.7741623520851135,
-0.6002367734909058,
-0.4903795123100281,
0.2784750759601593,
-0.30551677942276,
-0.8975350260734558,
-0.1302521526813507,
0.5146721601486206,
0.6708842515945435,
0.12678788602352142,
-0.03679225221276283,
0.3809695541858673,
-0.217205211520195,
0.15216293931007385,
0.30035558342933655,
-0.9091805219650269,
-0.24476704001426697,
-0.5320119261741638,
-0.3620712161064148,
0.26996922492980957,
-0.7723837494850159,
-0.20314131677150726,
0.7777253985404968,
-0.5777506828308105,
0.10895401239395142,
0.2131977081298828,
-0.5694385170936584,
-0.4072284996509552,
-0.10747890919446945,
-0.33774110674858093,
0.24348533153533936,
0.31448814272880554,
0.7829930186271667,
0.0612344853579998,
0.03515154495835304,
-0.2782624363899231,
0.6298770904541016,
-0.5389274954795837,
0.35043373703956604,
0.027252312749624252,
-0.5819963812828064,
-0.05822237581014633,
0.41398531198501587,
0.18008659780025482,
0.11647897958755493,
0.17829164862632751,
0.0718366727232933,
0.4373835623264313,
0.5634050369262695,
-0.2867453396320343,
0.5401472449302673,
1.185415506362915,
-0.6913539171218872,
0.19755959510803223,
0.9647430777549744,
0.08249986916780472,
-0.19886347651481628,
0.0013075750321149826,
0.19487512111663818,
-0.14827801287174225,
0.46773603558540344,
0.13134369254112244,
-0.11986702680587769,
-0.07458781450986862,
-0.27436816692352295,
0.3575800061225891,
-0.12041901797056198,
-0.5772132277488708,
0.13576854765415192,
-0.5076486468315125,
-0.5388696789741516,
0.0900096520781517,
-0.24604713916778564,
0.20890749990940094,
0.2108091413974762,
0.5701723098754883,
0.9514862298965454,
-0.05594564601778984,
-0.14238348603248596,
0.3157886266708374,
0.4995023012161255,
-0.06253785640001297,
0.03486048802733421,
0.32489269971847534,
-0.1445332169532776,
0.13566727936267853,
0.3326663374900818,
0.14426183700561523,
-0.33157485723495483,
0.6357584595680237,
0.0840102806687355,
0.2071855366230011,
0.11201619356870651,
0.1478239893913269,
0.40860411524772644,
0.05967993661761284,
0.501841127872467,
-0.005612821318209171,
0.3244945704936981,
0.12248483300209045,
-0.36826255917549133,
0.19934727251529694,
-0.34107890725135803,
-0.5789936184883118,
0.31250637769699097,
0.005391223821789026,
-0.2808458209037781,
-0.12051814794540405,
-0.02150590717792511,
0.4662940502166748,
0.39810943603515625,
-0.0009377035894431174,
0.4723951518535614,
-0.651678204536438,
0.5292155146598816,
0.5340024828910828,
-0.40136539936065674,
0.3844294846057892,
-0.9757483005523682,
-0.2525078058242798,
0.36534810066223145,
-0.0730927512049675,
-0.0690222978591919,
-0.22458450496196747,
0.11898114532232285,
-0.27805617451667786,
0.18787306547164917,
-0.3850739002227783,
-0.14746969938278198,
-0.07862354069948196,
-0.8622874021530151,
-0.09549739211797714,
0.7018702626228333,
0.2404613345861435,
-0.5416489243507385,
0.9247683882713318,
0.3731592297554016,
0.0020058888476341963,
0.17311438918113708,
-0.3861886262893677,
0.04664548859000206,
-0.003568425076082349,
0.03508898243308067,
-0.769663393497467,
-0.021882694214582443,
0.266179621219635,
0.21497668325901031,
-0.0353170745074749,
0.3667289614677429,
-0.4000617563724518,
-0.10291750729084015,
0.4217773377895355,
-0.39966532588005066,
0.48373109102249146,
-0.44544684886932373,
0.25833526253700256,
0.015154044143855572,
-0.5773151516914368,
0.5113686919212341,
0.08530069887638092,
-0.05393879488110542,
0.08554574847221375,
-0.06332909315824509,
-0.4920945167541504,
0.30436018109321594,
0.054759468883275986,
-0.7839340567588806,
-0.5208226442337036,
-0.7132197618484497,
-0.5366004705429077,
-0.010136145167052746,
0.6027657985687256,
0.6846895813941956,
0.4976598918437958,
-0.24827277660369873,
0.016923848539590836,
-0.3687024414539337,
0.12281306833028793,
-0.4668031930923462,
-0.07725504785776138,
-0.17519982159137726,
-1.371159553527832,
-0.1797061711549759,
-0.3412371873855591,
1.065971851348877,
-0.17168958485126495,
0.35909074544906616,
0.34692683815956116,
-0.16910317540168762,
-0.30820947885513306,
-0.5944216847419739,
0.026461390778422356,
-0.773396372795105,
0.5944600701332092,
-0.1486406773328781
] |
200176
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root%20pressure
|
Root pressure
|
Root pressure is the transverse osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves.
Root pressure occurs in the xylem of some vascular plants when the soil moisture level is high either at night or when transpiration is low during the day. When transpiration is high, xylem sap is usually under tension, rather than under pressure, due to transpirational pull. At night in some plants, root pressure causes guttation or exudation of drops of xylem sap from the tips or edges of leaves. Root pressure is studied by removing the shoot of a plant near the soil level. Xylem sap will exude from the cut stem for hours or days due to root pressure. If a pressure gauge is attached to the cut stem, the root pressure can be measured.
Root pressure is caused by active distribution of mineral nutrient ions into the root xylem. Without transpiration to carry the ions up the stem, they accumulate in the root xylem and lower the water potential. Water then diffuses from the soil into the root xylem due to osmosis. Root pressure is caused by this accumulation of water in the xylem pushing on the rigid cells. Root pressure provides a force, which pushes water up the stem, but it is not enough to account for the movement of water to leaves at the top of the tallest trees. The maximum root pressure measured in some plants can raise water only to 6.87 meters, and the tallest trees are over 100 meters tall.
Role of endodermis
The endodermis in the root is important in the development of root pressure. The endodermis is a single layer of cells between the cortex and the pericycle. These cells allow water movement until it reaches the Casparian strip, made of suberin, a waterproof substance. The Casparian strip prevents mineral nutrient ions from moving passively through the endodermal cell walls. Water and ions move in these cell walls via the apoplast pathway. Ions outside the endodermis must be actively transported across an endodermal cell membrane to enter or exit the endodermis. Once inside the endodermis, the ions are in the symplast pathway. They cannot diffuse back out again but can move from cell to cell via plasmodesmata or be actively transported into the xylem. Once in the xylem vessels or tracheids, ions are again in the apoplast pathway. Xylem vessels and tracheids transport water up the plant but lack cell membranes. The Casparian strip substitutes for their lack of cell membranes and prevents accumulated ions from diffusing passively in apoplast pathway out of the endodermis. The ions accumulating interior to the endodermis in the xylem create a water potential gradient and by osmosis, water diffuses from the moist soil, across the cortex, through the endodermis and into the xylem.
Root pressure can transport water and dissolved mineral nutrients from roots through the xylem to the tops of relatively short plants when transpiration is low or zero. The maximum root pressure measured is about 0.6 megapascals but some species never generate any root pressure. The main contributor to the movement of water and mineral nutrients upward in vascular plants is considered to be the transpirational pull. However, sunflower plants grown in 100% relative humidity grew normally and accumulated the same amount of mineral nutrients as plants in normal humidity, which had a transpiration rate 10 to 15 times the plants in 100% humidity. Thus, transpiration may not be as important in upward mineral nutrient transport in relatively short plants as often assumed.
Xylem vessels sometimes empty over winter. Root pressure may be important in refilling the xylem vessels. However, in some species vessels refill without root pressure.
Root pressure is often high in some deciduous trees before they leaf out. Transpiration is minimal without leaves, and organic solutes are being mobilized so decrease the xylem water potential. Sugar maple accumulates high concentrations of sugars in its xylem early in the spring, which is the source of maple sugar. Some trees "bleed" xylem sap profusely when their stems are pruned in late winter or early spring, e.g. maple and elm. Such bleeding is similar to root pressure only sugars, rather than ions, may lower the xylem water potential. In the unique case of maple trees, sap bleeding is caused by changes in stem pressure and not root pressure .
It is very likely that all grasses produce root pressure. In bamboos, root pressure is correlated with maximum height of a clone.
References
Plant physiology
Plant roots
|
[
-0.5321803092956543,
-0.020721757784485817,
-0.022180166095495224,
0.09746949374675751,
-0.3370873034000397,
0.3837651312351227,
0.7635349631309509,
0.0072126067243516445,
-0.15034236013889313,
-0.4203642010688782,
-0.08798282593488693,
0.24787764251232147,
-0.012443384155631065,
0.5485250353813171,
0.019116314128041267,
-0.08335808664560318,
0.26587343215942383,
0.5543476343154907,
0.030703647062182426,
-0.06697431951761246,
-0.35076913237571716,
-0.7328119277954102,
0.5222100019454956,
0.2928610146045685,
0.37787866592407227,
-0.6349617838859558,
-0.06561807543039322,
0.10657430440187454,
0.5024005770683289,
-0.12596803903579712,
-0.15580464899539948,
0.7651172280311584,
0.2888013422489166,
-0.6601817011833191,
-0.09722692519426346,
-0.09231527894735336,
-0.18367750942707062,
-0.3420303463935852,
0.03296966478228569,
-0.3112414479255676,
-0.6882051229476929,
-0.1635284721851349,
0.0075610303319990635,
0.23818063735961914,
-0.15630170702934265,
-0.12552426755428314,
-1.4127956628799438,
0.1289377361536026,
-0.5519668459892273,
0.21890580654144287,
-0.18104605376720428,
0.5280189514160156,
0.48008963465690613,
-0.35067328810691833,
0.1285155713558197,
0.5146409273147583,
-1.0017746686935425,
0.4725269079208374,
0.4609247148036957,
-0.7652389407157898,
-0.0005474176723510027,
-0.07540053129196167,
-0.503913938999176,
0.27104881405830383,
0.022286249324679375,
0.3449418246746063,
0.013485977426171303,
0.3306517004966736,
-0.6719176769256592,
-0.06117546558380127,
-0.16653726994991302,
0.11621179431676865,
0.2476935088634491,
0.34372198581695557,
-0.511096715927124,
0.03441093489527702,
-0.22577328979969025,
0.22332249581813812,
0.31266269087791443,
0.20231856405735016,
0.025253089144825935,
0.18998292088508606,
0.2523414194583893,
-0.41902613639831543,
0.3478078246116638,
0.3140890598297119,
0.08476197719573975,
0.37404099106788635,
0.06497962772846222,
0.27219152450561523,
-0.1602414846420288,
-0.03887868672609329,
0.41738516092300415,
0.12114974856376648,
-0.040429454296827316,
-0.2357115000486374,
0.5588079690933228,
-0.042501892894506454,
-0.02680252492427826,
0.3737221956253052,
-0.14084793627262115,
-0.4191550314426422,
0.6826561689376831,
0.49593988060951233,
0.17903472483158112,
-0.37983930110931396,
-0.3549249470233917,
-0.17927683889865875,
-0.08186201006174088,
-0.48461034893989563,
-0.9626940488815308,
0.6762000918388367,
-0.2533498704433441,
-0.19770750403404236,
-0.4079817533493042,
0.007928282953798771,
-0.04985890910029411,
-0.3608494699001312,
0.2781859338283539,
-0.058186620473861694,
-0.15671969950199127,
0.002010427415370941,
-0.3280346393585205,
-0.06681814789772034,
-0.6397882699966431,
0.08849359303712845,
0.06437696516513824,
0.3314248323440552,
-0.25029781460762024,
0.07069090008735657,
-0.029159821569919586,
0.4307396113872528,
0.7625373601913452,
-0.3884870409965515,
-0.16578146815299988,
-0.16572055220603943,
0.39078110456466675,
0.7237808108329773,
0.7678712010383606,
0.23112131655216217,
-0.8341770768165588,
-0.5363296866416931,
-0.532686710357666,
-0.4312659502029419,
0.16519078612327576,
-0.12454365193843842,
-0.6452273726463318,
-0.5226559638977051,
0.0271346103399992,
-0.4568819999694824,
0.3098571300506592,
0.2910560369491577,
-0.561247706413269,
-0.16099287569522858,
-0.21418264508247375,
0.21383479237556458,
0.2730775773525238,
-0.4360402524471283,
0.11398759484291077,
0.16491693258285522,
0.33476918935775757,
-0.010173263028264046,
0.044178400188684464,
0.5832465887069702,
0.015639450401067734,
0.11222097277641296,
0.6064276099205017,
0.03572342172265053,
-0.10214030742645264,
0.7523131966590881,
-0.33313629031181335,
0.31558021903038025,
0.20524795353412628,
-0.430546373128891,
0.047381702810525894,
-0.4765971899032593,
0.21004335582256317,
0.13389553129673004,
0.7113456726074219,
0.011494203470647335,
-0.21207976341247559,
0.7991376519203186,
0.21624228358268738,
0.19552911818027496,
0.08710240572690964,
-0.09108296781778336,
0.8212894797325134,
-0.3019559979438782,
0.45997774600982666,
-0.31963640451431274,
-0.36459097266197205,
-0.5374874472618103,
0.15907305479049683,
-0.12119486182928085,
1.1938368082046509,
-0.04199511557817459,
-0.3414732813835144,
0.3561711013317108,
0.11687644571065903,
-0.08476123958826065,
0.1405590921640396,
-0.1323050558567047,
0.5259795188903809,
0.013329209759831429,
-1.141394019126892,
0.6244244575500488,
0.1778431385755539,
-0.2102174162864685,
0.6297467350959778,
0.22184281051158905,
-0.5566583275794983,
-0.6979868412017822,
0.10403464734554291,
-0.8007776737213135,
0.026919899508357048,
-0.1651701033115387,
-0.6765280961990356,
-0.002951572649180889,
-0.015622701495885849,
-0.07342907786369324,
0.3614599406719208,
-0.4494571089744568,
0.07120377570390701,
0.5256757736206055,
-0.17079100012779236,
0.11307348310947418,
-0.0037892062682658434,
0.1029512956738472,
0.2934859097003937,
-0.627223551273346,
0.40514564514160156,
-0.0696180984377861,
-0.0683763399720192,
-0.016251973807811737,
-0.4606933891773224,
-0.11457256972789764,
0.15833356976509094,
-0.18891584873199463,
0.19159744679927826,
-0.07171957939863205,
0.1751498579978943,
0.6816597580909729,
-1.1377434730529785,
0.29988765716552734,
-0.24262595176696777,
-0.12015017122030258,
0.16411936283111572,
0.2615717947483063,
-0.17853091657161713,
-0.177353635430336,
0.7729954719543457,
0.9303562641143799,
0.13710810244083405,
-0.29815545678138733,
0.06246374920010567,
-0.14865443110466003,
-0.25652867555618286,
-0.018125025555491447,
0.43490955233573914,
-0.09872818738222122,
0.2335147261619568,
-0.1658289134502411,
0.019504982978105545,
0.07495322823524475,
0.5451363921165466,
-0.6064032316207886,
-0.6215829849243164,
-0.20215876400470734,
0.1611679643392563,
0.4127786457538605,
0.8955172300338745,
0.19802746176719666,
-0.44693365693092346,
-0.7744321823120117,
-0.43685463070869446,
-0.4361796975135803,
0.47113341093063354,
-0.14616785943508148,
-0.4876573979854584,
-0.4948863983154297,
0.4256708025932312,
0.3066774606704712,
0.043947916477918625,
-0.3774704933166504,
0.42499083280563354,
-0.14738166332244873,
0.1276809275150299,
0.34016185998916626,
0.30684223771095276,
-0.48839128017425537,
-0.41495057940483093,
-0.4028310477733612,
-0.11177218705415726,
0.670535147190094,
0.40953901410102844,
0.32129907608032227,
0.11896949261426926,
0.22173835337162018,
0.7656983137130737,
-0.664228618144989,
-0.0437147356569767,
-0.6679247617721558,
-0.45288386940956116,
-0.023164236918091774,
-0.6706568002700806,
0.04736144840717316,
-0.06404908001422882,
-0.10510279983282089,
-5.708486080169678,
0.2224588543176651,
-0.1619567573070526,
-0.04926178976893425,
0.1877545565366745,
0.05290332809090614,
0.396262526512146,
0.08040677011013031,
-0.3716612756252289,
0.45352378487586975,
-0.4950665235519409,
0.028553685173392296,
0.09764517098665237,
-0.3261076807975769,
0.11965937912464142,
0.5556501150131226,
0.47100815176963806,
-0.3034330904483795,
0.14968301355838776,
0.45251694321632385,
0.14657025039196014,
0.4351780414581299,
-0.03297547623515129,
0.06046785041689873,
0.5160303711891174,
0.11051027476787567,
0.07609878480434418,
-0.10740618407726288,
-1.000707983970642,
0.2402643859386444,
-0.5406826138496399,
-0.4894343614578247,
-0.15621241927146912,
0.29205086827278137,
-0.35661613941192627,
-0.11772316694259644,
-0.23845167458057404,
-0.23990927636623383,
0.2883429527282715,
-0.1957268863916397,
-0.4912462830543518,
-0.3878110945224762,
-0.09580612927675247,
0.09854443371295929,
0.24491368234157562,
-0.12970204651355743,
-0.37324002385139465,
-0.2400219440460205,
0.06791805475950241,
1.1735038757324219,
-0.3782816529273987,
0.12830273807048798,
0.620998203754425,
-0.2824464738368988,
0.19071002304553986,
-0.06707235425710678,
0.6016181707382202,
-0.6093082427978516,
-0.10936009138822556,
0.4064238965511322,
-0.1602938324213028,
-0.6349553465843201,
-0.07564757764339447,
-0.0458223856985569,
0.7135152816772461,
-0.18315909802913666,
-0.485058069229126,
-0.2063569724559784,
0.22358407080173492,
0.05791286379098892,
0.3337661027908325,
0.4646652042865753,
0.17593060433864594,
-0.8977432250976562,
-0.2190772294998169,
-0.9712100625038147,
-0.36433032155036926,
0.025958294048905373,
0.36112749576568604,
-0.09549803286790848,
-0.3638988733291626,
0.1914210319519043,
-0.15335701406002045,
0.44053971767425537,
0.2816811800003052,
-0.017794260755181313,
-0.6638180613517761,
-0.12965275347232819,
-0.13579615950584412,
0.4007471203804016,
0.36301788687705994,
-0.26481860876083374,
0.241498664021492,
-0.36304232478141785,
0.2222410887479782,
0.562537670135498,
0.2567639946937561,
0.37098702788352966,
0.6247327923774719,
-0.3909890353679657,
0.24942567944526672,
-0.009986761957406998,
-0.094472236931324,
-0.1468353271484375,
0.17815040051937103,
-0.4020073413848877,
-0.3294588625431061,
0.951871395111084,
0.6775380373001099,
0.026011964306235313,
0.6325522065162659,
-0.12015318125486374,
-0.4168902337551117,
0.004620193038135767,
0.22372350096702576,
0.6561696529388428,
-0.6725150346755981,
0.7722511887550354,
0.537105917930603,
-0.18367250263690948,
0.1360246241092682,
-0.08905105292797089,
-0.3799830973148346,
-0.06954940408468246,
0.16494369506835938,
-0.05070202425122261,
0.14356379210948944,
0.23223431408405304,
0.036157380789518356,
-0.285165011882782,
-0.4954831600189209,
-0.03237779811024666,
0.16058915853500366,
-0.10230003297328949,
-0.49063190817832947,
-0.2990895211696625,
0.13079795241355896,
-0.2534286081790924,
-0.08169464021921158,
-0.4397425949573517,
-0.14802566170692444,
0.4270775616168976,
-0.31095314025878906,
-0.5264194011688232,
0.9938345551490784,
0.15934473276138306,
-0.7384499907493591,
-0.6736289858818054,
-0.3446612060070038,
0.041986316442489624,
0.07423711568117142,
-0.5124496221542358,
0.20463739335536957,
-0.6826868057250977,
-0.42374464869499207,
-0.6292062401771545,
-0.22739078104496002,
0.2776058316230774,
0.09000137448310852,
-0.32008734345436096,
0.7563186883926392,
-0.6824696660041809,
-0.9792770743370056,
-0.2799893915653229,
-0.1797124594449997,
0.24377690255641937,
0.14234718680381775,
-0.3927386701107025,
-0.5652031898498535,
0.3012908399105072,
0.10803724080324173,
-0.06700450927019119,
-0.5702654719352722,
-0.3911762833595276,
0.3013414740562439,
-0.30882084369659424,
-0.2605476975440979,
0.6560541987419128,
0.3702515661716461,
-0.3563656806945801,
-0.4598740339279175,
-0.4509609341621399,
-0.47099098563194275,
0.4876013696193695,
0.300017386674881,
0.0551174096763134,
-0.6410621404647827,
-0.24985499680042267,
-0.27511951327323914,
-0.028845591470599174,
-0.4426423907279968,
-0.2076372653245926,
0.12897393107414246,
-0.4503495693206787,
-0.14338400959968567,
0.09352219849824905,
-0.26933005452156067,
0.6684085726737976,
-0.29967862367630005,
-0.2638227343559265,
0.025238269940018654,
0.6856002807617188,
-0.3894674479961395,
0.5235240459442139,
0.24811333417892456,
-0.33971986174583435,
0.13037343323230743,
0.2510148286819458,
-0.7878139019012451,
0.25249335169792175,
0.527137279510498,
-0.29352203011512756,
-0.5625266432762146,
0.9882016777992249,
-0.2065586894750595,
-0.34598660469055176,
-0.060882650315761566,
-0.4842942953109741,
-0.06245014816522598,
-0.30062800645828247,
0.2796578109264374,
0.294198215007782,
-0.5525398254394531,
-0.4039977788925171,
-0.49739816784858704,
-0.07123403996229172,
0.4206658899784088,
-0.05273609235882759,
0.6582319736480713,
-0.002851775847375393,
0.16185694932937622,
0.3140583336353302,
0.30286285281181335,
0.18716037273406982,
-0.47005587816238403,
0.15076519548892975,
-0.3152720630168915,
0.1832607239484787,
-0.40792393684387207,
0.1149195209145546,
0.12550786137580872,
0.9647442102432251,
0.44347190856933594,
-0.31977179646492004,
0.43679672479629517,
0.5900593400001526,
-0.02958889864385128,
-1.026296854019165,
-0.434719443321228,
-0.028295595198869705,
1.2843143939971924,
-0.42724570631980896,
-0.8122923970222473,
0.2946804165840149,
0.5969112515449524,
-0.19357441365718842,
0.1892593950033188,
-0.6641698479652405,
0.2114717811346054,
0.5017209053039551,
0.2857062518596649,
0.1748286336660385,
0.14191050827503204,
0.6701871752738953,
0.3545806109905243,
-0.21279145777225494,
-0.35998883843421936,
-0.15692344307899475,
0.5076462030410767,
-0.7704088091850281,
0.4648018479347229,
-0.26765090227127075,
-0.18407227098941803,
0.36027705669403076,
0.3472815454006195,
0.6600117087364197,
-0.15764571726322174,
-0.1695450395345688,
0.38097625970840454,
-0.5054466128349304,
0.04107267037034035,
-0.48368605971336365,
0.04006945341825485,
0.13654693961143494,
0.4063517153263092,
-0.07017549127340317,
-0.1972932368516922,
0.3673356771469116,
0.40387797355651855,
-0.05554287135601044,
-1.09987473487854,
-0.4322820007801056,
0.04649299383163452,
0.4726408123970032,
0.24462810158729553,
0.7795291543006897,
-0.331686794757843,
0.12504176795482635,
0.13651101291179657,
-0.6662694215774536,
-0.8166337013244629,
0.8199117183685303,
0.39363181591033936,
-0.3693747818470001,
0.14945867657661438,
0.17643581330776215,
-0.09342601150274277,
-1.0698916912078857,
0.03914293274283409,
-0.5972687005996704,
0.33422037959098816,
0.2846120297908783,
-0.7242158055305481,
0.17609360814094543,
0.06464625149965286,
0.30916628241539,
0.3796723186969757,
0.10364121198654175,
-0.07014136016368866,
0.9260017275810242,
0.39745861291885376,
0.12287339568138123,
0.2851877212524414,
-0.4718104898929596,
0.027804279699921608,
0.31704387068748474,
-0.6623896956443787,
-0.3956150412559509,
0.1933978646993637,
0.31209856271743774,
0.7432818412780762,
-0.16816042363643646,
-0.5220338106155396,
0.5920805335044861,
0.23499608039855957,
-0.6074498295783997,
0.43231406807899475,
-0.525597870349884,
-0.44617152214050293,
0.2752853035926819,
0.36270707845687866,
0.5628095865249634,
0.47989943623542786,
0.06738464534282684,
-0.09245801717042923,
-0.018714195117354393,
-0.19668951630592346,
0.1992337554693222,
-0.130874365568161,
0.05221834033727646,
0.06674646586179733,
-0.7024908065795898,
-0.05940347909927368,
-0.44786185026168823,
-0.31706976890563965,
-0.010284196585416794,
1.033193588256836,
0.2762257754802704,
0.0693262368440628,
-0.08345035463571548,
-0.5997876524925232,
0.34693318605422974,
-0.15991200506687164,
-0.10709208995103836,
0.2338879555463791,
0.11013633012771606,
0.3488633334636688,
-0.334661602973938,
-0.36102962493896484,
0.1573621779680252,
0.041484396904706955,
0.4278557598590851,
-0.14465688169002533,
0.01592821069061756,
1.0161323547363281,
0.24927905201911926,
0.19897015392780304,
0.3910129964351654,
-0.07498839497566223,
-0.10511884838342667,
-0.010802317410707474,
0.46829497814178467,
-0.1894201785326004,
0.11068873107433319,
-0.14586959779262543,
-0.16789892315864563,
-0.12639178335666656,
0.36391597986221313,
0.18633100390434265,
0.08926533907651901,
0.3958245515823364,
-0.08612746000289917,
0.43490567803382874,
0.09278302639722824,
0.29232674837112427,
0.25198599696159363,
-0.5130417943000793,
1.0344653129577637,
0.1245574802160263,
-0.19748806953430176,
-0.14864444732666016,
-0.05814283341169357,
-0.009853034280240536,
0.7356231808662415,
0.011342615820467472,
0.6794410943984985,
0.0420839823782444,
0.2556705176830292,
-0.4434109330177307,
0.7365053296089172,
0.5313199758529663,
0.05885324254631996,
-0.31922245025634766,
0.8180021047592163,
-0.2062017321586609,
0.25566086173057556,
0.13130703568458557,
-0.14954055845737457,
0.0846296101808548,
-0.5502955913543701,
-0.25719958543777466,
-0.12287365645170212,
-0.1821419894695282,
-0.03010490909218788,
0.09090111404657364,
-0.2569122910499573,
0.20289364457130432,
0.3682408928871155,
-0.35446232557296753,
-0.16350789368152618,
-0.2076638638973236,
0.5560586452484131,
-0.7016634941101074,
0.34143906831741333,
-0.3336120545864105,
-0.052947767078876495,
0.36299964785575867,
0.48175451159477234,
0.10579630732536316,
-0.4715677797794342,
0.34340915083885193,
-0.7120627164840698,
0.4523865580558777,
-0.14279669523239136,
-0.6737514734268188,
-0.30017584562301636,
-0.11561737209558487,
-0.5619320869445801,
-0.07699478417634964,
0.20154891908168793,
0.19280610978603363,
-0.4563577175140381,
0.39125582575798035,
-0.045958615839481354,
-0.4503140151500702,
-0.18616236746311188,
-0.21624544262886047,
-0.4231325387954712,
-0.5747750401496887,
0.4297473728656769
] |
200178
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guttation
|
Guttation
|
Guttation is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of leaves of some vascular plants, such as grasses, and a number of fungi. Guttation (from Latin gutta drop) is not to be confused with dew, which condenses from the atmosphere onto the plant surface. Guttation generally happens during the night time.
Process
At night, transpiration usually does not occur, because most plants have their stomata closed. When there is a high soil moisture level, water will enter plant roots, because the water potential of the roots is lower than in the soil solution. The water will accumulate in the plant, creating a slight root pressure. The root pressure forces some water to exude through special leaf tip or edge structures, hydathodes or water glands, forming drops. Root pressure provides the impetus for this flow, rather than transpirational pull. Guttation is most noticeable when transpiration is suppressed and the relative humidity is high, such as during the night.
Guttation formation in fungi is important for visual identification, but the process causing it is unknown. However, due to its association with stages of rapid growth in the life cycle of fungi, it has been hypothesised that during rapid metabolism excess water produced by respiration is exuded.
Chemical content
Guttation fluid may contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds, mainly sugars, and potassium. On drying, a white crust remains on the leaf surface.
Girolami et al. (2005) found that guttation drops from corn plants germinated from neonicotinoid-coated seeds could contain amounts of insecticide consistently higher than 10 mg/l, and up to 200 mg/l for the neonicotinoid imidacloprid. Concentrations this high are near those of active ingredients applied in field sprays for pest control and sometimes even higher. It was found that when bees consume guttation drops collected from plants grown from neonicotinoid-coated seeds, they die within a few minutes. This phenomenon may be a factor in bee deaths and, consequently, colony collapse disorder.
Nitrogen levels
If high levels of nitrogen appear in the fluid, it is a sign of fertilizer burn. Excess nitrogen must be leached from the soil by addition of large quantities of water. This is the best way to restore soil fertility, but it may result in water pollution.
See also
Homeostasis
Osmosis
Soil plant atmosphere continuum
References
Plant physiology
|
[
0.0715627372264862,
0.5638808608055115,
0.027435315772891045,
0.38461941480636597,
-0.0034499282483011484,
-0.049538299441337585,
0.38771361112594604,
0.36272260546684265,
0.1606348603963852,
-0.3706129193305969,
-0.011206678114831448,
0.0021145872306078672,
-0.09514457732439041,
0.38356757164001465,
-0.07457076013088226,
0.517672061920166,
-0.06062066927552223,
0.40689966082572937,
-0.0819665864109993,
0.034425877034664154,
-0.37380141019821167,
-0.3538430333137512,
0.3538455665111542,
-0.10828304290771484,
0.751740574836731,
0.08716828376054764,
-0.1901639997959137,
0.1915794312953949,
0.028470732271671295,
0.08158746361732483,
-0.21902146935462952,
0.2942867875099182,
0.3619858920574188,
-0.617509126663208,
-0.36205291748046875,
-0.07350930571556091,
-0.14845888316631317,
-0.3261406719684601,
-0.28872260451316833,
-0.26126784086227417,
-0.5418273210525513,
0.2487652748823166,
-0.10594113171100616,
0.16075259447097778,
-0.39772558212280273,
0.014740759506821632,
-1.2116923332214355,
1.0689162015914917,
-0.7706607580184937,
0.4894767701625824,
0.025345932692289352,
-0.014680535532534122,
0.5522168278694153,
0.0013829993549734354,
-0.2971542477607727,
0.7926061749458313,
-0.5084793567657471,
0.2971956431865692,
0.12818938493728638,
-0.7585180401802063,
-0.14151224493980408,
-0.17192478477954865,
-0.2517651617527008,
0.24238334596157074,
0.4819358289241791,
0.5695405602455139,
-0.39470967650413513,
0.0961240753531456,
-0.5532407164573669,
-0.1779547780752182,
0.25854548811912537,
-0.738478422164917,
-0.13199105858802795,
0.6299214363098145,
-0.33886146545410156,
-0.28511014580726624,
-0.7219731211662292,
-0.23113791644573212,
0.3986157178878784,
0.19990459084510803,
-0.5890646576881409,
0.3560815453529358,
0.06305886059999466,
-0.06691333651542664,
0.47416067123413086,
0.08022821694612503,
-0.5294356942176819,
0.9172637462615967,
-0.3659450113773346,
-0.012249072082340717,
0.11883160471916199,
-0.4337190091609955,
0.6930068135261536,
0.03768102452158928,
-0.11996962130069733,
-0.39153140783309937,
0.6987723708152771,
-0.0022220921237021685,
0.08828344196081161,
0.13681192696094513,
-0.28178828954696655,
-0.3331301212310791,
0.3838120400905609,
-0.040594834834337234,
-0.26963263750076294,
0.10532422363758087,
-0.5484583377838135,
-0.31030648946762085,
0.3497612178325653,
-0.041090577840805054,
-0.09777285158634186,
0.36821022629737854,
-0.1958155483007431,
0.3928220868110657,
-0.1995571255683899,
0.2516618072986603,
-0.5259125232696533,
-0.09449310600757599,
-0.27987855672836304,
-0.5352830290794373,
-0.14263466000556946,
0.1771620362997055,
0.10727276653051376,
-0.16080409288406372,
-0.5272003412246704,
-0.3677898347377777,
-0.4639543294906616,
0.1769872009754181,
-0.9904566407203674,
0.36797359585762024,
0.6532058715820312,
0.5369072556495667,
-0.0663231611251831,
-0.05993470177054405,
-0.16447852551937103,
-0.5533713102340698,
0.3041040599346161,
0.013606330379843712,
0.8553853631019592,
0.11036659777164459,
-0.9168796539306641,
0.10073140263557434,
-0.7451276183128357,
0.020969020202755928,
-0.25798919796943665,
-0.37786462903022766,
-0.15007691085338593,
-0.5262036919593811,
-0.054211944341659546,
-0.3300360143184662,
0.8748105764389038,
0.05908997729420662,
-0.16919012367725372,
-0.4133315980434418,
-0.2865421772003174,
0.39483028650283813,
0.3186202645301819,
-0.12473702430725098,
0.09182064980268478,
-0.07630697637796402,
-0.04261966049671173,
-0.03291229531168938,
-0.11575854569673538,
0.16101975739002228,
0.36880943179130554,
-0.19305698573589325,
0.4348843991756439,
0.32955777645111084,
0.23793473839759827,
0.7684693932533264,
0.07296665757894516,
0.09125441312789917,
0.5779753923416138,
-0.4775345027446747,
0.28615063428878784,
-0.08666279911994934,
0.09455608576536179,
-0.08377918601036072,
0.4637492001056671,
0.27086400985717773,
-0.48766782879829407,
0.3426007926464081,
-0.02312057837843895,
0.09391127526760101,
-0.46660760045051575,
-0.481675922870636,
0.7102584838867188,
-0.01810874044895172,
0.10042800009250641,
-0.09839651733636856,
-0.9664092659950256,
-0.8114629983901978,
-0.32927557826042175,
-0.140635147690773,
1.0043433904647827,
0.02677198499441147,
-0.2812032997608185,
0.18349769711494446,
-0.29022109508514404,
-0.7673897743225098,
-0.45769044756889343,
0.27022576332092285,
0.47609037160873413,
-0.8836047649383545,
-0.8687059283256531,
0.7455571889877319,
0.3048810064792633,
-0.31152835488319397,
0.9587094187736511,
0.37119758129119873,
-0.22005689144134521,
-0.9370978474617004,
0.283303827047348,
-0.44674646854400635,
0.3765096664428711,
-0.1789359450340271,
-0.6910199522972107,
0.018165087327361107,
0.2157423049211502,
-0.07018402963876724,
0.179087296128273,
-0.1714162826538086,
0.14133842289447784,
0.6573916673660278,
-0.27835363149642944,
0.15676523745059967,
0.15855780243873596,
0.018052389845252037,
0.6319107413291931,
-0.36765387654304504,
0.6259952187538147,
-0.29067495465278625,
0.32855722308158875,
-0.04632066562771797,
-0.4290379583835602,
0.44054633378982544,
0.4791872203350067,
-0.4709744155406952,
0.3479159474372864,
-0.28324419260025024,
-0.15600115060806274,
-0.33506572246551514,
-0.43443575501441956,
-0.24855288863182068,
0.20144368708133698,
-0.12794439494609833,
-0.045811090618371964,
0.19032414257526398,
0.13847136497497559,
0.019890906289219856,
0.5439972877502441,
0.8624261021614075,
-0.12011724710464478,
-0.44661223888397217,
-0.12219169735908508,
-0.35261380672454834,
-0.08707495778799057,
0.3739083707332611,
0.7621275782585144,
-0.19775629043579102,
0.13878166675567627,
-0.17481482028961182,
-0.006306742317974567,
-0.042923133820295334,
0.3249102532863617,
-0.32157862186431885,
-0.23136132955551147,
-0.4841439127922058,
0.8140043020248413,
0.5160595774650574,
0.3164720833301544,
0.25049716234207153,
-0.697775661945343,
0.010310829617083073,
-0.4135436415672302,
-0.8264951109886169,
0.573849618434906,
-0.251869261264801,
-0.4782106876373291,
-0.4569033980369568,
-0.23508162796497345,
-0.15069575607776642,
0.1756543666124344,
-0.5953205823898315,
-0.20984037220478058,
-0.05245338752865791,
0.009348852559924126,
0.19963093101978302,
0.14904840290546417,
-0.45768722891807556,
-0.5226607918739319,
0.4856206476688385,
-0.263928085565567,
0.8567976355552673,
0.4586211144924164,
-0.13575805723667145,
-0.2460375279188156,
-0.1058260127902031,
0.7730884552001953,
-0.6835240125656128,
-0.22423230111598969,
-0.7214245200157166,
-0.19242547452449799,
0.2438299059867859,
-0.3174251317977905,
0.09609517455101013,
0.22203601896762848,
-0.25749486684799194,
-5.665921688079834,
0.1580311357975006,
0.08708565682172775,
0.297880619764328,
0.7084211707115173,
0.25718411803245544,
0.30556124448776245,
-0.18311122059822083,
-0.45810478925704956,
0.2857325077056885,
-0.35617679357528687,
0.1845732182264328,
0.08426861464977264,
0.2220507562160492,
0.24261611700057983,
0.30452704429626465,
0.08799808472394943,
-0.21414871513843536,
-0.05687005817890167,
0.3285866379737854,
-0.170634925365448,
0.3578220307826996,
-0.02776220068335533,
0.8668985366821289,
-0.47585880756378174,
0.07966486364603043,
-0.2157650738954544,
0.46910470724105835,
-0.18597663938999176,
0.016937127336859703,
-0.34405943751335144,
-0.5789937973022461,
-0.04909571260213852,
0.4328087270259857,
-0.45979565382003784,
-0.17559699714183807,
-0.2262062132358551,
-0.2581843435764313,
-0.20823559165000916,
0.34666725993156433,
-0.18902060389518738,
0.18769481778144836,
0.32147228717803955,
0.09196523576974869,
0.5013700127601624,
-0.17578428983688354,
-0.04214522987604141,
-0.5546976327896118,
-0.16350731253623962,
0.8278321027755737,
0.3105030655860901,
0.1596321016550064,
0.46999886631965637,
0.07022210210561752,
0.0762234553694725,
-0.2069992572069168,
0.5412184000015259,
-0.5157192349433899,
-0.252638578414917,
0.054384104907512665,
0.2269214242696762,
-0.022614622488617897,
-0.13347315788269043,
0.004496392793953419,
0.34204337000846863,
0.23600581288337708,
-0.5252870321273804,
0.30862709879875183,
0.6521494388580322,
-0.4761001169681549,
-0.09576694667339325,
0.27646252512931824,
-0.13458552956581116,
-0.7464966177940369,
-0.12953217327594757,
-0.5368772745132446,
-0.42873573303222656,
-0.06293147057294846,
0.19868364930152893,
0.3338516354560852,
-0.13916738331317902,
0.6085155606269836,
0.22894158959388733,
-0.05900096893310547,
0.1589633971452713,
-0.6442607641220093,
-0.6612050533294678,
-0.1327330470085144,
-0.47742608189582825,
-0.11602918803691864,
0.6268354654312134,
-0.07966170459985733,
0.3235962986946106,
-0.03962300345301628,
0.4404764175415039,
0.4321507513523102,
-0.005907812621444464,
0.5181090831756592,
0.19851969182491302,
0.014242605306208134,
0.7384801506996155,
0.12860049307346344,
-0.34422579407691956,
0.14635713398456573,
-0.2965359687805176,
-0.7518413066864014,
-0.3575410544872284,
0.8639291524887085,
0.7014520168304443,
-0.38656654953956604,
0.2528202533721924,
0.5271346569061279,
-0.2586721181869507,
0.022481219843029976,
0.2249116152524948,
0.7199552655220032,
-0.3013153672218323,
0.13190218806266785,
0.8156529664993286,
-0.6502585411071777,
-0.12389039248228073,
0.07433445751667023,
-0.22520099580287933,
-0.13972395658493042,
0.46930059790611267,
-0.24509671330451965,
0.10059362649917603,
0.11789590120315552,
0.28312253952026367,
0.05919792875647545,
0.22483503818511963,
-0.1453021615743637,
-0.00857173278927803,
-0.48900070786476135,
0.1259513646364212,
-0.24532988667488098,
-0.2767913341522217,
-0.10846921056509018,
-0.6158137917518616,
-0.6704457998275757,
-0.28045350313186646,
-0.21707762777805328,
-0.007193311117589474,
0.12329979240894318,
1.155361533164978,
0.025162018835544586,
-0.25164559483528137,
-0.6131106019020081,
-0.0712815597653389,
0.2337339073419571,
0.14789919555187225,
0.09707669168710709,
0.37549108266830444,
-0.7221046090126038,
0.1599099487066269,
-0.09940139204263687,
0.34889060258865356,
0.1970432549715042,
0.341305136680603,
-0.5442264676094055,
0.04187176004052162,
-0.15425638854503632,
-0.9099074006080627,
-0.18836718797683716,
-0.8164548277854919,
-0.3082944452762604,
-0.05413695424795151,
-0.5689722895622253,
-0.5181976556777954,
-0.035092439502477646,
-0.3072209060192108,
-0.03297387808561325,
-0.42726704478263855,
-0.09617488831281662,
0.11048291623592377,
-0.2488797903060913,
-0.2548106908798218,
0.08350594341754913,
0.09760455787181854,
-0.3270043432712555,
-0.4195907711982727,
-0.6247650384902954,
0.02463131956756115,
0.26550477743148804,
0.6937376856803894,
-0.351533979177475,
-0.8260923624038696,
-0.16629740595817566,
-0.6686813235282898,
0.04660949483513832,
-0.2306700050830841,
-0.4190184473991394,
0.5183421969413757,
0.23897571861743927,
-0.1295177936553955,
0.27724483609199524,
-0.17475678026676178,
0.3569703698158264,
-0.4069661796092987,
-0.4393636882305145,
0.3784570097923279,
0.02427804283797741,
-0.5245804190635681,
0.2985861301422119,
0.3240145444869995,
-0.42197632789611816,
0.39905738830566406,
-0.12382468581199646,
-0.7598922848701477,
-0.16247712075710297,
0.3876537084579468,
0.21083933115005493,
-0.3132902681827545,
0.7228648662567139,
-0.0941925048828125,
-0.10247250646352768,
0.19302450120449066,
-0.06848856806755066,
-0.1257404237985611,
-0.285544753074646,
0.6255074739456177,
0.40128546953201294,
-0.14245158433914185,
0.08450499922037125,
-0.5386030077934265,
0.06147259101271629,
0.34946122765541077,
-0.301925390958786,
-0.2597288489341736,
0.33124956488609314,
0.5431119203567505,
-0.3241440951824188,
0.08360558748245239,
-0.24230803549289703,
0.24717214703559875,
0.36908578872680664,
0.17186343669891357,
0.36404117941856384,
0.059648558497428894,
-0.06433562934398651,
0.8225682377815247,
0.8359159827232361,
0.28915098309516907,
0.5462473630905151,
0.3016781508922577,
0.8201429843902588,
0.21209704875946045,
-0.8918061852455139,
-0.46423643827438354,
0.3434024155139923,
1.3803766965866089,
-0.17947553098201752,
-0.2981099486351013,
0.09921935200691223,
0.45206499099731445,
-0.2081030309200287,
-0.2402842938899994,
-0.27827656269073486,
0.07447683811187744,
0.7925187945365906,
0.2297617644071579,
0.4393298029899597,
0.3381226062774658,
0.6898168921470642,
0.3475978970527649,
-0.6161708235740662,
-0.7033684253692627,
-0.058841150254011154,
0.30111753940582275,
-0.8830047249794006,
0.5917032361030579,
0.4749877452850342,
0.43265458941459656,
0.3145865499973297,
0.4593619108200073,
0.8663243055343628,
-0.18033118546009064,
-0.7618935704231262,
-0.4636218845844269,
-0.7368438839912415,
-0.3115600645542145,
-0.3957346975803375,
-0.14984610676765442,
-0.056193068623542786,
0.08824450522661209,
-0.5469430685043335,
-0.2326159030199051,
-0.03045382909476757,
-0.06693478673696518,
-0.15430013835430145,
-0.5978823304176331,
-0.05924541503190994,
-0.10100752860307693,
0.26420649886131287,
0.4846596121788025,
0.7089943289756775,
-0.06256698817014694,
0.18196430802345276,
0.08832959085702896,
-0.2467426061630249,
-0.9670038819313049,
0.23094280064105988,
0.6889681816101074,
-0.6561218500137329,
-0.1445358544588089,
0.40050747990608215,
-0.24848556518554688,
-0.3298737406730652,
0.21150881052017212,
-0.5905746221542358,
0.9575973749160767,
0.22432933747768402,
-0.6788773536682129,
-0.13712775707244873,
0.02765718661248684,
0.17090968787670135,
0.030733972787857056,
-0.5053939819335938,
-0.05231539532542229,
0.42614030838012695,
0.7722615599632263,
0.384540855884552,
0.21036644279956818,
-0.16935193538665771,
0.2803441882133484,
0.04514734074473381,
-0.01918320544064045,
0.3197905123233795,
-0.023169096559286118,
0.3750327229499817,
0.7094193696975708,
-0.036046840250492096,
-0.016666702926158905,
0.6373083591461182,
0.0059893326833844185,
-0.5363041162490845,
0.2305029332637787,
-0.798827588558197,
0.10706835985183716,
0.3275127708911896,
0.270918607711792,
0.1951383799314499,
0.3208312690258026,
0.18414528667926788,
-0.10669252276420593,
0.5124955177307129,
-0.07820592820644379,
-0.4403477609157562,
0.07309716194868088,
0.6400622725486755,
0.26883557438850403,
-0.9417247772216797,
-0.30153775215148926,
-0.36131903529167175,
-0.2218729555606842,
-0.2168680876493454,
0.7930903434753418,
0.06098918989300728,
-0.4398258328437805,
0.0068636564537882805,
-0.6404510736465454,
0.28222665190696716,
-0.2681826055049896,
0.3653600513935089,
-0.24658799171447754,
0.11045457422733307,
-0.09060504287481308,
-0.7794525027275085,
-0.22895973920822144,
0.10825598239898682,
0.09804576635360718,
0.06660788506269455,
-0.3967466652393341,
-0.20874768495559692,
0.6877695322036743,
-0.49602630734443665,
0.3269108831882477,
0.6614299416542053,
0.19061942398548126,
0.41990941762924194,
-0.4037453830242157,
-0.1814555823802948,
-0.01891087368130684,
-0.21474997699260712,
-0.39366087317466736,
-0.3687132000923157,
-0.2532467544078827,
-0.190757617354393,
0.03325854241847992,
-0.0016155194025486708,
0.494667649269104,
-0.274310827255249,
0.4769127070903778,
0.10133553296327591,
0.026120441034436226,
0.35480397939682007,
0.13294190168380737,
0.6606807708740234,
0.13908502459526062,
-0.5503762364387512,
-0.49924948811531067,
0.23617300391197205,
-0.15177908539772034,
0.554753839969635,
-0.48860636353492737,
0.7676600813865662,
-0.0024993482511490583,
0.08247649669647217,
0.2563713788986206,
0.8531911969184875,
0.9793891906738281,
-0.07868064939975739,
-0.26264074444770813,
0.6205748319625854,
0.18314561247825623,
-0.2526398301124573,
-0.14307639002799988,
0.13518114387989044,
0.12736776471138,
-0.28068122267723083,
0.2852882444858551,
-0.3685449957847595,
0.22415916621685028,
0.03261168673634529,
0.24345482885837555,
0.23419123888015747,
0.27016428112983704,
0.3830272853374481,
-0.2920176088809967,
0.34772202372550964,
-0.1290518343448639,
0.5511149764060974,
-0.9454867839813232,
0.03148024529218674,
-0.19856701791286469,
-0.15208669006824493,
0.18533150851726532,
0.3866673707962036,
-0.13497142493724823,
-0.39093971252441406,
0.12048709392547607,
-0.2433500736951828,
-0.12590545415878296,
-0.8532664179801941,
-0.3695753514766693,
0.12389816343784332,
0.25150224566459656,
-0.47255954146385193,
-0.600591778755188,
0.04346281290054321,
0.1983775794506073,
-0.7409408092498779,
-0.021315542981028557,
0.30609893798828125,
-0.4342118799686432,
-0.7457770109176636,
-0.30005016922950745,
0.09118763357400894,
-0.09201978147029877,
0.6403639912605286
] |
200180
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Tombalbaye
|
François Tombalbaye
|
François Tombalbaye ( ; 15 June 1918 – 13 April 1975), also known as N'Garta Tombalbaye, was a Chadian teacher and a trade union activist who served as the first President of Chad. The head of Chad's colonial government and its ruling party, the Chadian Progressive Party, after 1959, Tombalbaye was appointed the nation's head of government after its independence on 11 August 1960. He ruled as a dictator until his deposition and assassination by members of the Chadian military in 1975.
Biography
Early life
Tombalbaye was born on 15 June 1918 in the village of Bessada, Moyen-Chari (prefecture) in the southern region of the French colony of Chad, close to the city of Koumra. His father was a prominent trader and he was of the Sara ethnic group, the prominent ethnicity of Chad's five southern prefectures. He attended a primary school, run by Protestant missionaries, in Sarh, and secondary school in Brazzaville. As a young man, Tombalbaye studied to become an educator in the Republic of Congo's capital of Brazzaville, due to the lack of in-country schools.
During World War II, Tombalbaye fought for Free France against the Nazi-backed Vichy regime.
Political career
In 1946, Tombalbaye formed a chapter of the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT) in Sarh and rallied members of his clan and other Sara speakers to the party. After a Muslim trader mocked the Sara people as mere beasts in November 1947, he helped to direct violent protest in N'Djamena. In 1949, the French government revoked his teaching position as punishment to his involvement in political activism. A year later, he went on to direct the PPT newspaper, AEF Nouvelle but shut down the same year after French repression. In 1952, he won a seat in the colonial territorial assembly and was elected to French Equatorial Africa general council in 1957, where he served as vice-president. Tensions between him and Lisette grew in the late 1950s after the 1956 loi-cadre reforms where individual colonies politicians are allowed to negotiate their own constituents, rather than maintain the federation of colonies of French Equatorial Africa. He later succeeded Gabriel Lisette as head of the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT) in March 1959 after coming under pressure, heading Chad's colonial government from 1959. He ruled the country during its independence on 11 August 1960, and was appointed its first head of government.
Tombalbaye managed to create a coalition of progressive forces from both the north and south of the country and isolating the more conservative Islamic factions in the center as a colonial legislator. After independence, he adopted an autocratic form of government, eliminated opposition both within his party and outside his party by banning all other political parties. In 1963 Tombalbaye dissolved the National Assembly in response to rioting. He began nationalizing the civil service, replacing French administrators with less competent locals. He imposed a "National Loan", greatly increasing taxing, to fund the nationalization.
In October 1968, Tombalbaye was a guest of President Lyndon B. Johnson in Washington, D.C. Following brief talks with Johnson, he traveled to Texas, meeting with research scientists at ICASALS (International Center for Arid and Semiarid Land Studies), part of Texas Tech University.
Tombalbaye's Africanization program failed to account for the large population in the north and center of the country, who were Muslim and did not identify with the Christian and animist south. The Gorane saw independence as a shift of control from French colonials to the south. On 1 November 1965, riots in Guéra Prefecture led to 500 deaths as a result of protest against high taxes and corruption. This sparked a series of disturbances throughout the north and center of the country, compounded by involvement by Chad's neighbors, Libya to the north and Sudan to the east. The most prominent movement in this period was the FROLINAT, or 'National Liberation Front of Chad', based in Sudan. Though FROLINAT was plagued by rivalry and division, it was able to resist Tombalbaye's authoritarianism. Tombalbaye called upon France, Chad's former colonial power, for assistance, citing treaties two countries had signed at independence.
France agreed to enter the fray, provided that Tombalbaye initiate a series of reforms to the army, government, and civil service. Taxes and laws imposed arbitrarily by Tombalbaye were to be rescinded, and the country's traditional sultans had their role as tax collectors restored, for which they received 10% of the income. He agreed to France's terms in 1969 and Chad embarked on a gradual liberalization process. In elections in 1969, several hundred political prisoners were released from prison, but Tombalbaye was still the only candidate on the ballot.
A further sign of liberalization came in 1971 when Tombalbaye admitted to the Congress of the PPT that he had made mistakes. Steps were taken to reform the government, and more Gorane were included in his new government. Order seemed to have been restored, and France withdrew its troops from the country.
During the early 1970s, he chose to follow DRC strongman Mobutu Sese Seko in his move towards remaking African cultural institutions.
Progress came to a grinding halt in August 1971, when an attempted coup d'état with links to Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi was uncovered. Tombalbaye immediately severed relations with his northern neighbor and even allowed anti-Qadhafi forces to operate from his territory. In return, Qadhafi granted formal recognition and aid to what remained of the FROLINAT opposition to Tombalbaye. Meanwhile, in the south, where Tombalbaye had his greatest support, he responded to a strike by students by replacing the popular Chief of Staff Jacques Doumro with Colonel Félix Malloum. Chad was in the grip of a crippling drought, and Tombalbaye rescinded his amnesty to political prisoners. By the end of 1972, over 1,000 political prisoners had been arrested. At the same time, he also made overtures to the Arab world, reducing Libyan support for, and fomenting infighting in, FROLINAT.
Nevertheless, Tombalbaye felt insecure with his own government as well. Tombalbaye arrested major PPT leaders, including Malloum, for allegedly using witchcraft to overthrow him in what was known as the "Black Sheep Plot," for the animals they allegedly sacrificed. The politician Kalthouma Nguembang was also implicated in this plot; she was arrested and tortured as a result.
In August, Tombalbaye disbanded the PPT and replaced it with the National Movement for the Cultural and Social Revolution (MNRCS). Under the guise of authenticité, the new movement promoted Africanization: the capital of Fort-Lamy was renamed N'Djamena and Tombalbaye himself changed his given name from François to Ngarta. Christianity was disparaged, missionaries were expelled, and all non-Muslim males in the south between the ages of sixteen and fifty were required to undergo traditional initiation rites known as yondo in order to gain promotion in the civil service and the military. These rites, however, were native to only one of Chad's ethnic groups, Tombalbaye's own Sara people, and even then, only to a subgroup of that people. To everyone else, the rituals were harsh and foreign.
Coup d'état
Meanwhile, the drought worsened throughout Africa, so in order to improve the dismal economy, people were forced to "volunteer" in a major effort to increase cotton production. With his support in the south diminished, Tombalbaye lashed out at the army, making arbitrary promotions and demotions. Finally, on 13 April 1975, after some of the country's leading officers had been arrested for involvement in an alleged coup, the details include that he was shot in his own palace, the shots wounded him but soon after, Tombalbaye succumbed to his gunshot wounds and died and secretly buried his body in Faya. The military installed Félix Malloum, by then a general, as the new head of state.
See also
Decolonization in Chad
Tombalbaye government
References
Chad: A Country Study
Heads of state of Chad
Assassinated Chadian politicians
Leaders ousted by a coup
1918 births
1975 deaths
Assassinated heads of state
Assassinated heads of government
Male murder victims
Chadian Progressive Party politicians
Chadian Christians
People murdered in Chad
Chadian independence activists
Chadian–Libyan conflict
French military personnel of World War II
People of French Equatorial Africa
People from Moyen-Chari Region
1960s in the Central African Republic
1970s in the Central African Republic
Sara people
|
[
-0.5026594400405884,
0.508272647857666,
-0.8108155131340027,
-0.543015718460083,
-0.3208920657634735,
0.7584744095802307,
0.2237771898508072,
0.623383104801178,
-0.6417081952095032,
-0.3636535406112671,
-0.1849009394645691,
0.4711674749851227,
-0.6256598830223083,
0.7975831627845764,
0.225666344165802,
0.12403053790330887,
0.4606528878211975,
-0.2550116181373596,
-0.4765057861804962,
0.2260345071554184,
-0.2966020405292511,
0.42170554399490356,
0.08326753973960876,
0.057622089982032776,
0.3188367486000061,
0.17837432026863098,
0.4605850577354431,
0.5234197974205017,
0.2327829748392105,
-0.1878812611103058,
0.4235938787460327,
0.25070157647132874,
0.5757986307144165,
-0.1198878362774849,
-0.7214362621307373,
-0.21451416611671448,
-0.0025578674394637346,
-0.4283364415168762,
-0.3731836676597595,
-0.18534548580646515,
-0.5764114260673523,
0.16871485114097595,
-0.24267937242984772,
0.16093707084655762,
0.018011856824159622,
-0.4129126965999603,
-1.1671602725982666,
0.3476821482181549,
-0.5784018039703369,
-0.6644107699394226,
-0.26859280467033386,
-0.14745882153511047,
0.4539581537246704,
0.17185239493846893,
0.11953935772180557,
-0.01311266515403986,
-0.6828292608261108,
0.09754788875579834,
-0.36187729239463806,
-0.30076608061790466,
0.3558262586593628,
0.18461552262306213,
0.3289088308811188,
-0.008553449995815754,
-0.21463191509246826,
0.16947776079177856,
0.18666024506092072,
0.06889234483242035,
-0.21109576523303986,
-0.015268061310052872,
-0.532618522644043,
0.2711750566959381,
0.1655399203300476,
0.18974588811397552,
0.25961121916770935,
-0.6683667302131653,
0.28677836060523987,
0.18243706226348877,
-0.032795295119285583,
-0.24122732877731323,
-0.4019012749195099,
-0.6126176118850708,
0.6757405996322632,
0.13408604264259338,
-0.42752307653427124,
-0.10773889720439911,
0.14429327845573425,
0.7677169442176819,
-0.2180338203907013,
0.33744314312934875,
-0.9765619039535522,
-0.8853004574775696,
0.0531664602458477,
-0.5973294973373413,
-0.8151837587356567,
0.07365717738866806,
-0.06590031832456589,
0.4853092432022095,
-0.1360114961862564,
-0.018619069829583168,
-0.0706859827041626,
-0.6045580506324768,
0.23883864283561707,
0.6075887680053711,
-0.7172954678535461,
-0.2165033370256424,
-0.44201764464378357,
-0.20244427025318146,
-0.47815582156181335,
-0.37618327140808105,
-0.5290798544883728,
0.27712589502334595,
-0.3582080602645874,
0.09598363190889359,
0.09931851178407669,
0.2383931279182434,
-0.17574721574783325,
-0.09004992246627808,
-0.03325851634144783,
-0.409981906414032,
0.11613408476114273,
-0.2570943832397461,
0.2616439163684845,
-0.04914388805627823,
-0.22982974350452423,
-0.25724688172340393,
-0.22186492383480072,
0.28525033593177795,
-0.6132197976112366,
0.3999858796596527,
0.9434168338775635,
0.21032361686229706,
-0.5847141742706299,
0.041773516684770584,
-0.16763418912887573,
-0.9265203475952148,
0.3830067217350006,
-0.11803919821977615,
-0.11600086838006973,
-0.14602623879909515,
-0.29629844427108765,
0.17031311988830566,
-0.386269748210907,
0.2421485185623169,
0.42550548911094666,
-0.1303185522556305,
0.2718561291694641,
0.5123646855354309,
0.019619617611169815,
-0.12040702253580093,
-0.4663620591163635,
-0.4624447226524353,
0.2872069180011749,
-0.16301000118255615,
-0.6668326258659363,
0.42445114254951477,
0.06266841292381287,
0.39657172560691833,
0.3946417272090912,
0.17291539907455444,
0.8967066407203674,
0.3981289863586426,
0.2733462154865265,
-0.14967872202396393,
0.40747126936912537,
-0.1333264857530594,
0.07174938172101974,
0.3181709349155426,
0.056814827024936676,
-0.015363546088337898,
-0.1092616617679596,
-0.15072128176689148,
0.1305643767118454,
-0.31600242853164673,
-0.44749462604522705,
0.5074008107185364,
0.7936511635780334,
-0.11311153322458267,
0.3285919725894928,
0.26306986808776855,
-0.6083390116691589,
-0.8746086955070496,
-0.13778913021087646,
0.6560192704200745,
0.7915846705436707,
-0.07621702551841736,
0.3799240291118622,
-0.37232235074043274,
0.8887823224067688,
-0.24035920202732086,
-0.7079023718833923,
-0.5900945067405701,
0.11777520179748535,
-0.5862573385238647,
0.35850420594215393,
0.4020474851131439,
0.16039696335792542,
0.7756067514419556,
0.03936867415904999,
0.5015967488288879,
-0.10192054510116577,
-0.2464998960494995,
0.13211719691753387,
-0.1937434822320938,
0.04952385276556015,
0.6633109450340271,
0.4618593454360962,
0.6347524523735046,
-0.017002897337079048,
1.3965668678283691,
0.5339495539665222,
-0.421134352684021,
-0.0018158525926992297,
0.500876784324646,
-0.08932670205831528,
-0.1797945201396942,
-0.05676582455635071,
-0.06589316576719284,
0.048358187079429626,
0.6040091514587402,
-0.04704737290740013,
-0.19442269206047058,
-0.48709070682525635,
0.9343100190162659,
0.29113054275512695,
0.5118337869644165,
0.12895582616329193,
-0.10391850769519806,
-0.04013843834400177,
-0.016187116503715515,
-0.04786595702171326,
0.18128237128257751,
0.878758430480957,
-0.5159554481506348,
0.1153876930475235,
0.26084190607070923,
-0.23358027637004852,
-0.6598304510116577,
0.09838847070932388,
-0.22693753242492676,
0.539583683013916,
0.012491235509514809,
0.00858396664261818,
0.041202496737241745,
0.33482542634010315,
0.3829733431339264,
-0.7939099669456482,
0.23135006427764893,
0.24192897975444794,
-0.1460772305727005,
-0.05848154053092003,
0.29281648993492126,
0.6004723310470581,
-0.09858985990285873,
-0.008086897432804108,
-0.6084798574447632,
0.17475642263889313,
0.10921720415353775,
0.23936167359352112,
-0.09606479853391647,
0.28504422307014465,
-0.668044924736023,
-0.19958266615867615,
0.7485001683235168,
0.1375502198934555,
-0.341928094625473,
-0.22062359750270844,
-0.04244321957230568,
0.10062776505947113,
0.2315884530544281,
0.006664856802672148,
-0.11057936400175095,
-0.241131991147995,
0.014518278650939465,
0.2184097170829773,
-0.001447320100851357,
-0.4680507481098175,
0.7114253044128418,
-0.6290245652198792,
-0.8015581965446472,
0.5632989406585693,
1.1937438249588013,
-0.8365138173103333,
-0.10053800791501999,
-0.32133471965789795,
-0.1668781191110611,
-0.43045857548713684,
-0.8309884071350098,
-0.41690877079963684,
0.17222708463668823,
-0.5995887517929077,
0.6588833332061768,
-0.3406680226325989,
-0.21644532680511475,
-0.27473416924476624,
-0.11237974464893341,
-0.47994464635849,
-0.3997614085674286,
0.4567103683948517,
-0.6578615307807922,
0.1697724163532257,
0.16097033023834229,
0.018370304256677628,
0.6737596988677979,
0.8534064292907715,
-0.054133910685777664,
0.26981496810913086,
-0.26740899682044983,
-5.506265640258789,
0.3891012668609619,
1.0060063600540161,
0.04594912752509117,
-0.0736624002456665,
0.3299802243709564,
0.15683600306510925,
0.061882294714450836,
0.8187782764434814,
-0.9116494655609131,
-0.5083668231964111,
-0.09981579333543777,
-0.6067381501197815,
0.6970890164375305,
0.26949387788772583,
0.6484805941581726,
0.1941653937101364,
-0.6735318303108215,
0.5231327414512634,
0.49778664112091064,
0.6216273903846741,
-0.18947935104370117,
-0.44181057810783386,
0.33971574902534485,
0.2477230578660965,
-0.15365785360336304,
-0.20098036527633667,
-0.000004469024588615866,
-0.8985323309898376,
-0.11832568049430847,
0.22013045847415924,
-0.016915367916226387,
-0.3550558388233185,
0.14956870675086975,
-0.20945023000240326,
-0.03478861600160599,
0.26409944891929626,
0.10960860550403595,
-0.2598417401313782,
-0.08430786430835724,
0.34750866889953613,
-0.11544212698936462,
-0.4589524269104004,
0.24226434528827667,
0.00813975092023611,
-0.25531864166259766,
-0.6626975536346436,
-0.22058646380901337,
-0.02613912709057331,
0.27091389894485474,
-0.5427746176719666,
0.08227801322937012,
-0.21058446168899536,
-0.036990415304899216,
0.22543896734714508,
0.28228121995925903,
-0.13876202702522278,
0.049234502017498016,
-0.9796494245529175,
0.5757126212120056,
0.24669307470321655,
0.0569138377904892,
-0.1652551293373108,
-0.32489731907844543,
-0.05252945423126221,
-0.2688482403755188,
0.13714586198329926,
0.31876498460769653,
-0.23185540735721588,
0.3054181635379791,
-0.35120850801467896,
0.49161720275878906,
-0.3883919417858124,
-0.9539780616760254,
0.06529680639505386,
-0.13278934359550476,
-0.39717215299606323,
0.3717128038406372,
-0.3617103695869446,
-0.3129763901233673,
-0.14946845173835754,
-0.4504412114620209,
-0.08356692641973495,
0.41422924399375916,
0.1843229979276657,
-0.19551461935043335,
0.33791908621788025,
0.6949393153190613,
0.12735624611377716,
0.39218994975090027,
0.5063536167144775,
-0.40611109137535095,
0.35279226303100586,
0.014203973114490509,
0.5666838884353638,
0.1570969969034195,
-0.2988801896572113,
0.07996172457933426,
0.8419867157936096,
-0.23621392250061035,
-0.4472232162952423,
-0.24155768752098083,
-0.23417125642299652,
-0.1329863965511322,
0.2847799062728882,
0.19574686884880066,
-0.31409505009651184,
-0.5221508741378784,
0.3441788852214813,
0.6676532626152039,
0.3288828432559967,
0.39468497037887573,
-0.4666248857975006,
0.17650766670703888,
0.35761258006095886,
-0.27987411618232727,
0.1868906170129776,
-0.08926742523908615,
0.4477832317352295,
0.15891839563846588,
-0.05619823560118675,
0.7863528728485107,
-0.5665154457092285,
0.7508665919303894,
0.662168562412262,
-0.06810197234153748,
0.20036453008651733,
0.14348749816417694,
0.23808689415454865,
-0.3420085608959198,
0.02012830413877964,
0.26358869671821594,
-0.2411326915025711,
-0.5084523558616638,
0.8571527600288391,
-0.8644149899482727,
-0.2439756989479065,
-0.7333661317825317,
-0.3692668378353119,
-0.15851213037967682,
-0.514402449131012,
-0.5305429100990295,
0.4672658443450928,
0.19437606632709503,
0.364545613527298,
-0.14452435076236725,
0.029986197128891945,
0.03491123020648956,
-0.015602411702275276,
0.36107537150382996,
-0.005546425003558397,
0.09057129174470901,
0.47080516815185547,
-0.30494749546051025,
-0.3838511109352112,
-0.17023701965808868,
0.277862012386322,
0.17495915293693542,
-0.20671899616718292,
-0.013157559558749199,
0.4399828314781189,
-1.0066869258880615,
-1.4265735149383545,
0.0779547467827797,
0.13457253575325012,
0.9297261238098145,
-0.13669733703136444,
0.14582842588424683,
0.11407822370529175,
0.8640683889389038,
0.3426194489002228,
-1.1747359037399292,
-0.08801686018705368,
0.1560622602701187,
0.13985340297222137,
-0.9725999236106873,
0.2648049294948578,
0.3602083921432495,
0.0202579777687788,
0.005529315676540136,
-0.6275954842567444,
-0.07205775380134583,
-0.08367478847503662,
0.43285080790519714,
0.37838014960289,
-0.23434194922447205,
-0.4088999330997467,
0.1564599722623825,
-0.38128215074539185,
-0.45349523425102234,
0.3381882607936859,
0.06652434915304184,
-0.23810064792633057,
0.3161581754684448,
-0.0679282620549202,
-0.9360029697418213,
-0.7241320610046387,
0.009333757683634758,
-0.03991710767149925,
-0.32961562275886536,
-0.3682921826839447,
-0.06810557842254639,
0.30482664704322815,
0.23297052085399628,
-0.08472482860088348,
-0.3796684443950653,
0.540634036064148,
-0.3809683322906494,
0.15715353190898895,
0.5642594695091248,
-0.7548242807388306,
-0.3253157436847687,
0.23892799019813538,
0.682222843170166,
-0.5544265508651733,
0.1587250530719757,
0.04492844641208649,
0.2809644639492035,
-0.3658193349838257,
-0.5923513770103455,
-0.5996658205986023,
-0.5416480898857117,
-0.1368112564086914,
0.2620364725589752,
-0.6699510812759399,
0.6619310975074768,
1.006192684173584,
0.25045379996299744,
0.38211366534233093,
0.022490983828902245,
-0.2954404056072235,
-0.1310841292142868,
-0.09812700748443604,
0.48386988043785095,
-0.686797022819519,
-0.17556923627853394,
0.9204846024513245,
0.31338369846343994,
0.061615828424692154,
-0.35299497842788696,
0.5987840294837952,
0.7927381992340088,
-0.08634155988693237,
0.07863395661115646,
-0.030346589162945747,
0.46699264645576477,
0.38648051023483276,
0.07472844421863556,
0.29984351992607117,
0.19965039193630219,
-0.33475056290626526,
0.7273019552230835,
-0.7519058585166931,
-0.3281264305114746,
0.1969529092311859,
-0.8721613883972168,
-0.5561477541923523,
-0.2587876319885254,
0.35002467036247253,
0.36714890599250793,
0.06566783040761948,
0.31071165204048157,
0.5241468548774719,
-0.37046751379966736,
0.17520509660243988,
-0.21223662793636322,
-0.11163902282714844,
0.2026519626379013,
0.26175013184547424,
-0.6360460519790649,
-0.578850269317627,
-0.5424046516418457,
-0.5511804223060608,
0.8046678304672241,
-0.04340033978223801,
-0.3677160143852234,
-0.10931998491287231,
0.31505143642425537,
0.44870084524154663,
0.2066144496202469,
-1.0445983409881592,
-0.49807852506637573,
0.1836104542016983,
0.03463594987988472,
0.5255319476127625,
-0.9117883443832397,
-0.1958891898393631,
0.1389971524477005,
-0.4496104121208191,
0.031882740557193756,
-0.38987430930137634,
0.04538659378886223,
0.25561872124671936,
0.15319448709487915,
-0.7668707370758057,
0.1981843113899231,
0.020153183490037918,
1.1178348064422607,
-0.11935196816921234,
-0.13666322827339172,
0.16887572407722473,
0.2457474321126938,
0.7954100966453552,
-0.21704208850860596,
-0.07012433558702469,
-0.1702652871608734,
0.18104572594165802,
-0.6753907799720764,
-0.09177061915397644,
0.24632953107357025,
-0.06279872357845306,
0.13265258073806763,
0.32753878831863403,
-0.2853584587574005,
-0.7910770177841187,
0.5110461711883545,
0.17592164874076843,
-0.7119777202606201,
-0.5341473817825317,
-0.3776046633720398,
0.29476234316825867,
0.08081619441509247,
-0.046754054725170135,
-0.0659283921122551,
0.800150990486145,
0.800298273563385,
0.14692740142345428,
0.13152554631233215,
0.11209613084793091,
-0.12485751509666443,
-0.5202949643135071,
0.2633550465106964,
-0.2492663562297821,
0.16241082549095154,
-0.48821255564689636,
0.1403985470533371,
-0.007667336612939835,
-0.20600031316280365,
0.6414016485214233,
0.40174463391304016,
0.2220592200756073,
0.8754119277000427,
-0.6694797277450562,
-0.31304043531417847,
0.23275552690029144,
-0.08909782022237778,
-0.04514035955071449,
0.5181286334991455,
0.0881965309381485,
0.23481763899326324,
0.21272049844264984,
-0.0071596503257751465,
-0.0582234226167202,
-0.060598134994506836,
-0.2560462951660156,
-0.2391233891248703,
0.30124786496162415,
0.3733028769493103,
-0.19643840193748474,
0.7922741174697876,
0.08717727661132812,
-0.39297014474868774,
0.7144748568534851,
0.3213370740413666,
0.5804843902587891,
0.3058507740497589,
0.015170956961810589,
-0.5708743333816528,
0.26014086604118347,
0.14824925363063812,
0.09807305783033371,
-0.3541748523712158,
-0.14971058070659637,
0.09637615084648132,
0.031735360622406006,
-0.055467214435338974,
-0.18301409482955933,
-0.23744362592697144,
-0.16695401072502136,
0.27395087480545044,
-0.1406116932630539,
0.3152479827404022,
-0.29601696133613586,
0.10031872242689133,
-0.06323756277561188,
0.06654815375804901,
0.2378649264574051,
0.37743690609931946,
-0.3526650667190552,
-0.04099517688155174,
0.24915771186351776,
-0.48586586117744446,
-0.6098385453224182,
0.2787083089351654,
0.005414423532783985,
0.22879590094089508,
-0.21098466217517853,
1.0726767778396606,
0.45548221468925476,
-0.6312382817268372,
0.2742919921875,
0.15819305181503296,
-0.45933425426483154,
-0.05067390203475952,
0.27954474091529846,
-0.1115400493144989,
-0.06576594710350037,
0.27910906076431274,
-1.2426139116287231,
0.4815305173397064,
0.07244651019573212,
0.07104913145303726,
-0.6304552555084229,
0.43966004252433777,
0.06260883808135986,
0.11293619126081467,
0.19514130055904388,
-0.21396110951900482,
0.020782867446541786,
-0.43018242716789246,
0.503874659538269,
-0.5189828276634216,
0.06313034147024155,
0.3995954692363739,
-0.0019307751208543777,
-0.4897664487361908,
-0.229552760720253,
0.18996119499206543,
0.10296951979398727,
0.553986668586731,
-0.1399138867855072,
-0.3891941010951996,
-0.161284402012825,
-0.4411490559577942,
-0.770187497138977,
-0.5036839842796326,
0.9670717716217041,
0.3536176085472107,
-0.2901466190814972,
-0.20718295872211456,
0.030573638156056404,
-0.18831540644168854,
0.37548625469207764,
-0.1683921217918396,
-0.4214201271533966,
-0.3954628109931946,
-0.19295918941497803,
0.2562842071056366,
-0.16006942093372345,
-0.06017541140317917,
0.2960318922996521,
0.06682561337947845,
0.37448850274086,
-0.41216418147087097,
0.8040226101875305,
-0.6022961735725403,
0.18027645349502563,
-0.3840995132923126,
0.5297558307647705,
-0.2728508710861206
] |
200182
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokinesis
|
Cytokinesis
|
Cytokinesis () is the part of the cell division process during which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides into two daughter cells. Cytoplasmic division begins during or after the late stages of nuclear division in mitosis and meiosis. During cytokinesis the spindle apparatus partitions and transports duplicated chromatids into the cytoplasm of the separating daughter cells. It thereby ensures that chromosome number and complement are maintained from one generation to the next and that, except in special cases, the daughter cells will be functional copies of the parent cell. After the completion of the telophase and cytokinesis, each daughter cell enters the interphase of the cell cycle.
Particular functions demand various deviations from the process of symmetrical cytokinesis; for example in oogenesis in animals the ovum takes almost all the cytoplasm and organelles. This leaves very little for the resulting polar bodies, which in most species die without function, though they do take on various special functions in other species.
Another form of mitosis occurs in tissues such as liver and skeletal muscle; it omits cytokinesis, thereby yielding multinucleate cells.
Plant cytokinesis differs from animal cytokinesis, partly because of the rigidity of plant cell walls. Instead of plant cells forming a cleavage furrow such as develops between animal daughter cells, a dividing structure known as the cell plate forms in the cytoplasm and grows into a new, doubled cell wall between plant daughter cells. It divides the cell into two daughter cells.
Cytokinesis largely resembles the prokaryotic process of binary fission, but because of differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures and functions, the mechanisms differ. For instance, a bacterial cell has a Circular chromosome (a single chromosome in the form of a closed loop), in contrast to the linear, usually multiple, chromosomes of eukaryote. Accordingly, bacteria construct no mitotic spindle in cell division. Also, duplication of prokaryotic DNA takes place during the actual separation of chromosomes; in mitosis, duplication takes place during the interphase before mitosis begins, though the daughter chromatids do not separate completely before the anaphase.
Etymology and pronunciation
The word "cytokinesis" () uses combining forms of cyto- + kine- + -sis, New Latin from Classical Latin and Ancient Greek, reflecting "cell" and kinesis ("motion, movement"). It was coined by Charles Otis Whitman in 1887.
Origin of this term is from Greek (, a hollow), Latin derivative (cellular), Greek (, movement).
Animal cell
Animal cell cytokinesis begins shortly after the onset of sister chromatid separation in the anaphase of mitosis. The process can be divided to the following distinct steps: anaphase spindle reorganization, division plane specification, actin-myosin ring assembly and contraction, and abscission. Faithful partitioning of the genome to emerging daughter cells is ensured through the tight temporal coordination of the above individual events by molecular signaling pathways.
Anaphase spindle reorganization
Animal cell cytokinesis starts with the stabilization of microtubules and reorganization of the mitotic spindle to form the central spindle. The central spindle (or spindle midzone) forms when non-kinetochore microtubule fibers are bundled between the spindle poles. A number of different species including H. sapiens, D. melanogaster and C. elegans require the central spindle in order to efficiently undergo cytokinesis, although the specific phenotype associated with its absence varies from one species to the next (for example, certain Drosophila cell types are incapable of forming a cleavage furrow without the central spindle, whereas in both C. elegans embryos and human tissue culture cells a cleavage furrow is observed to form and ingress, but then regress before cytokinesis is complete).
The process of mitotic spindle reorganization and central spindle formation is caused by the decline of CDK1 activity during anaphase. The decline of CDK1 activity at the metaphase-anaphase transition leads to dephosphorylating of inhibitory sites on multiple central spindle components. First of all, the removal of a CDK1 phosphorylation from a subunit of the CPC (the chromosomal passenger complex) allows its translocalization to the central spindle from the centromeres, where it is located during metaphase. Besides being a structural component of the central spindle itself, CPC also plays a role in the phosphoregulation of other central spindle components, including PRC1 (microtubule-bundling protein required for cytokinesis 1) and MKLP1 (a kinesin motor protein). Originally inhibited by CDK1-mediated phosphorylation, PRC1 is now able to form a homodimer that selectively binds to the interface between antiparallel microtubules, facilitating spatial organization of the microtubules of the central spindle. MKLP1, together with the Rho-family GTPase activating protein CYK-4 (also termed MgcRacGAP), forms the centralspindlin complex. Centralspindlin binds to the central spindle as higher-order clusters. The centralspindlin cluster formation is promoted by phosphorylation of MLKP1 by Aurora B, a component of CPC. In short, the self-assembly of central spindle is initiated through the phosphoregulation of multiple central spindle components by the decline of CDK1 activity, either directly or indirectly, at the metaphase-anaphase transition. The central spindle may have multiple functions in cytokinesis including the control of cleavage furrow positioning, the delivery of membrane vesicles to the cleavage furrow, and the formation of the midbody structure that is required for the final steps of division.
Division plane specification
The second step of animal cell cytokinesis involves division plane specification and cytokinetic furrow formation. Precise positioning of the division plane between the two masses of segregated chromosomes is essential to prevent chromosome loss. Meanwhile, the mechanism by which the spindle determines the division plane in animal cells is perhaps the most enduring mystery in cytokinesis and a matter of intense debate. There exist three hypotheses of furrow induction. The first is the astral stimulation hypothesis, which postulates that astral microtubules from the spindle poles carry a furrow-inducing signal to the cell cortex, where signals from two poles are somehow focused into a ring at the spindle. A second possibility, called the central spindle hypothesis, is that the cleavage furrow is induced by a positive stimulus that originates in the central spindle equator. The central spindle may contribute to the specification of the division plane by promoting concentration and activation of the small GTPase RhoA at the equatorial cortex. A third hypothesis is the astral relaxation hypothesis. It postulates that active actin-myosin bundles are distributed throughout the cell cortex, and inhibition of their contraction near the spindle poles results in a gradient of contractile activity that is highest at the midpoint between poles. In other words, astral microtubules generate a negative signal that increases cortical relaxation close to the poles. Genetic and laser-micromanipulation studies in C. elegans embryos have shown that the spindle sends two redundant signals to the cell cortex, one originating from the central spindle, and a second signal deriving from the spindle aster, suggesting the involvement of multiple mechanisms combined in the positioning of the cleavage furrow. The predominance of one particular signal varies between cell types and organisms. And the multitude and partial redundancy of signals may be required to make the system robust and to increase spatial precision.
Actin-myosin ring assembly and contraction
At the cytokinesis furrow, it is the actin-myosin contractile ring that drives the cleavage process, during which cell membrane and wall grow inward, which eventually pinches the mother cell in two. The key components of this ring are the filamentous protein actin and the motor protein myosin II. The contractile ring assembles equatorially (in the middle of the cell) at the cell cortex (adjacent to the cell membrane). Rho protein family (RhoA protein in mammalian cells) is a key regulator of contractile ring formation and contraction in animal cells. The RhoA pathway promotes assembly of the actin-myosin ring by two main effectors. First, RhoA stimulates nucleation of unbranched actin filaments by activation of Diaphanous-related formins. This local generation of new actin filaments is important for the contractile ring formation. This actin filament formation process also requires a protein called profilin, which binds to actin monomers and helps load them onto the filament end. Second, RhoA promotes myosin II activation by the kinase ROCK, which activates myosin II directly by phosphorylation of the myosin light chain and also inhibits myosin phosphatase by phosphorylation of the phosphatase-targeting subunit MYPT. Besides actin and myosin II, the contractile ring contains the scaffolding protein anillin. Anillin binds to actin, myosin, RhoA, and CYK-4, and thereby links the equatorial cortex with the signals from the central spindle. It also contributes to the linkage of the actin-myosin ring to the plasma membrane. Additionally, anillin generates contractile forces by rectifying thermal fluctuations. Another protein, septin, has also been speculated to serve as a structural scaffold on which the cytokinesis apparatus is organized. Following its assembly, contraction of the actin-myosin ring leads to ingression of the attached plasma membrane, which partitions the cytoplasm into two domains of emerging sister cells. The force for the contractile processes is generated by movements along actin by the motor protein myosin II. Myosin II uses the free energy released when ATP is hydrolyzed to move along these actin filaments, constricting the cell membrane to form a cleavage furrow. Continued hydrolysis causes this cleavage furrow to ingress (move inwards), a striking process that is clearly visible through a light microscope.
Abscission
The cytokinetic furrow ingresses until a midbody structure (composed of electron-dense, proteinaceous material) is formed, where the actin-myosin ring has reached a diameter of about 1–2 μm. Most animal cell types remain connected by an intercellular cytokinetic bridge for up to several hours until they are split by an actin-independent process termed abscission, the last step of cytokinesis.
The process of abscission physically cleaves the midbody into two. Abscission proceeds by removal of cytoskeletal structures from the cytokinetic bridge, constriction of the cell cortex, and plasma membrane fission. The intercellular bridge is filled with dense bundles of antiparallel microtubules that derive from the central spindle. These microtubules overlap at the midbody, which is generally thought to be a targeting platform for the abscission machinery.
The microtubule severing protein spastin is largely responsible for the disassembly of microtubule bundles inside the intercellular bridge. Complete cortical constriction also requires removal of the underlying cytoskeletal structures. Actin filament disassembly during late cytokinesis depends on the PKCε–14-3-3 complex, which inactivates RhoA after furrow ingression. Actin disassembly is further controlled by the GTPase Rab35 and its effector, the phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 5-phosphatase OCRL. Understanding the mechanism by which the plasma membrane ultimately splits requires further investigation.
Timing cytokinesis
Cytokinesis must be temporally controlled to ensure that it occurs only after sister chromatids separate during the anaphase portion of normal proliferative cell divisions. To achieve this, many components of the cytokinesis machinery are highly regulated to ensure that they are able to perform a particular function at only a particular stage of the cell cycle. Cytokinesis happens only after APC binds with CDC20. This allows for the separation of chromosomes and myosin to work simultaneously.
After cytokinesis, non-kinetochore microtubules reorganize and disappear into a new cytoskeleton as the cell cycle returns to interphase (see also cell cycle).
Plant cell
Due to the presence of a cell wall, cytokinesis in plant cells is significantly different from that in animal cells, Rather than forming a contractile ring, plant cells construct a cell plate in the middle of the cell. The stages of cell plate formation include (1) creation of the phragmoplast, an array of microtubules that guides and supports the formation of the cell plate; (2) trafficking of vesicles to the division plane and their fusion to generate a tubular-vesicular network; (3) continued fusion of membrane tubules and their transformation into membrane sheets upon the deposition of callose, followed by deposition of cellulose and other cell wall components; (4) recycling of excess membrane and other material from the cell plate; and (5) fusion with the parental cell wall
The phragmoplast is assembled from the remnants of the mitotic spindle, and serves as a track for the trafficking of vesicles to the phragmoplast midzone. These vesicles contain lipids, proteins and carbohydrates needed for the formation of a new cell boundary. Electron tomographic studies have identified the Golgi apparatus as the source of these vesicles, but other studies have suggested that they contain endocytosed material as well.
These tubules then widen and fuse laterally with each other, eventually forming a planar, fenestrated sheet [8]. As the cell plate matures, large amounts of membrane material are removed via clathrin-mediated endocytosis [7] Eventually, the edges of the cell plate fuse with the parental plasma membrane, often in an asymmetrical fashion, thus completing cytokinesis. The remaining fenestrae contain strands of endoplasmic reticulum passing through them, and are thought to be the precursors of plasmodesmata [8].
The construction of the new cell wall begins within the lumen of the narrow tubules of the young cell plate. The order in which different cell wall components are deposited has been determined largely by immuno-electron microscopy. The first components to arrive are pectins, hemicelluloses, and arabinogalactan proteins carried by the secretory vesicles that fuse to form the cell plate. The next component to be added is callose, which is polymerized directly at the cell plate by callose synthases. As the cell plate continues to mature and fuses with the parental plasma membrane, the callose is slowly replaced with cellulose, the primary component of a mature cell wall [6]. The middle lamella (a glue-like layer containing pectin) develops from the cell plate, serving to bind the cell walls of adjoining cells together.
Forces
Animal cells
Cytokinetic furrow ingression is powered by Type II Myosin ATPase. Since Myosins are recruited to the medial region, the contractile forces acting on the cortex resemble a 'purse string' constriction pulling inwards. This leads to the inward constriction. The plasma membrane by virtue of its close association with the cortex via crosslinker proteins To the constriction of the cleavage furrow, the total surface area should be increased by supplying the plasma membrane via exocytosis </ref>.
See also
Diploid
Telophase
Prophase
Anaphase
Metaphase
Mitosis
Cell Theory
Cytoskeleton
References
Further reading
The Molecular Requirements for Cytokinesis by M. Glotzer (2005), Science 307, 1735
"Animal Cytokinesis: from parts list to mechanism" by Eggert, U.S., Mitchison, T.J., Field, C.M. (2006), Annual Review of Cell Biology 75, 543-66
Campbell Biology (2010), 580-582
More description and nice images of cell division in plants, with a focus on fluorescence microscopy
Cell cycle
Mitosis
Meiosis
|
[
0.2203328013420105,
0.5023415088653564,
-0.3183967173099518,
-0.20542563498020172,
-0.2849094271659851,
-0.27066490054130554,
0.8557168245315552,
0.32562410831451416,
-0.19993220269680023,
-0.7043997645378113,
-0.3678259551525116,
-0.3365783989429474,
-0.6150891780853271,
1.0935912132263184,
0.119086354970932,
0.46199172735214233,
0.3467494249343872,
0.71068274974823,
-0.16242671012878418,
-0.3947077989578247,
-0.27507802844047546,
-0.09286104887723923,
0.18239006400108337,
0.03066064789891243,
0.32392382621765137,
-0.2525099813938141,
-0.1302042156457901,
-0.3257732391357422,
0.9505898356437683,
-0.23539653420448303,
0.4463588297367096,
0.23060530424118042,
0.24567396938800812,
0.2770131826400757,
-0.08024149388074875,
0.09989611804485321,
-0.31250864267349243,
-0.29355737566947937,
-0.24852187931537628,
-0.39944911003112793,
-0.5319300293922424,
-0.009177517145872116,
-0.19353033602237701,
0.37208130955696106,
0.250889390707016,
-0.11022324115037918,
-1.3996721506118774,
0.6115704774856567,
-0.9488613605499268,
-0.013191369362175465,
0.21861831843852997,
-0.2784278988838196,
0.5126445293426514,
0.4336335361003876,
-0.07552864402532578,
0.5345596671104431,
-0.8851423263549805,
0.28489258885383606,
0.6008337140083313,
-0.5961724519729614,
0.6986770629882812,
-0.31162235140800476,
-0.05222788080573082,
0.1667175143957138,
0.47965285181999207,
-0.08905266970396042,
0.13917021453380585,
0.7590329051017761,
-0.5567886829376221,
-0.7263361811637878,
-0.5696760416030884,
-0.2948901057243347,
0.3396432399749756,
0.570406436920166,
-0.4531344771385193,
-0.25500932335853577,
-0.32385310530662537,
-0.6427237391471863,
0.1583007127046585,
-0.3007376194000244,
-0.802976131439209,
0.5872156620025635,
0.06263107806444168,
0.5922257304191589,
0.5118868947029114,
-0.3001053035259247,
-0.7190825939178467,
0.8719764947891235,
-0.6270017623901367,
0.6320456266403198,
0.4443247318267822,
0.23328667879104614,
0.7143167853355408,
-0.28752779960632324,
0.2073807418346405,
0.24532654881477356,
0.27075982093811035,
0.05047294497489929,
0.15183614194393158,
0.013639918528497219,
-0.5612140893936157,
0.5439344048500061,
-0.008167347870767117,
-0.4272960424423218,
-0.3171125650405884,
0.03648752346634865,
0.07336697727441788,
-0.32450777292251587,
0.050924114882946014,
-0.21290826797485352,
-0.7009482383728027,
-0.4910801351070404,
-0.8773816823959351,
-0.06790988892316818,
-1.1013458967208862,
0.05192716419696808,
0.05011719837784767,
-0.3568743169307709,
-0.4392186999320984,
-0.6271003484725952,
-0.03528425842523575,
0.5413853526115417,
-0.41694176197052,
0.5993025898933411,
-0.5456756949424744,
-0.36660465598106384,
-0.04828394204378128,
-0.1837811917066574,
-0.2762105464935303,
0.5630605816841125,
0.21447435021400452,
0.754365086555481,
-0.14102622866630554,
0.35129275918006897,
0.17688670754432678,
-0.22025267779827118,
0.40346798300743103,
0.523255467414856,
0.6663729548454285,
-0.21545827388763428,
-0.2068347930908203,
-0.7517611384391785,
-0.5952816009521484,
0.12281719595193863,
0.401785284280777,
-0.62271648645401,
-0.15979282557964325,
0.1522035449743271,
0.269283264875412,
-0.8060191869735718,
0.105685755610466,
-0.23586684465408325,
-0.43571096658706665,
0.19605137407779694,
-0.23963549733161926,
0.3482002913951874,
0.6986513733863831,
-0.2561657130718231,
0.12371861934661865,
0.37922680377960205,
-0.04966701194643974,
0.28370875120162964,
-0.4347219467163086,
-0.3168365955352783,
-0.013369367457926273,
-0.010677868500351906,
0.8142741918563843,
0.7137538194656372,
0.4558665156364441,
-0.24068677425384521,
-0.7201719284057617,
0.04621371626853943,
0.3868028521537781,
-0.3193991184234619,
0.19521057605743408,
-0.25903066992759705,
0.29526036977767944,
0.5678285956382751,
0.55042564868927,
-0.25756821036338806,
-0.5140620470046997,
-0.015378080308437347,
0.0037827524356544018,
-0.22273029386997223,
0.3889433443546295,
-0.18015101552009583,
0.30366185307502747,
-0.19021020829677582,
-0.4531058669090271,
0.3549536168575287,
-0.15913589298725128,
-0.31031861901283264,
0.20029380917549133,
0.11175824701786041,
1.3725117444992065,
-0.09324408322572708,
-0.13087515532970428,
0.8510305285453796,
0.28609082102775574,
-0.34357619285583496,
-0.380381315946579,
0.15804076194763184,
0.7052652835845947,
-0.3438258767127991,
-0.6535267233848572,
0.1590849608182907,
-0.2219531089067459,
-0.7076001167297363,
0.2612341046333313,
0.45718997716903687,
-0.07788878679275513,
-0.3732932209968567,
0.236018568277359,
-0.06834302842617035,
0.32127076387405396,
-0.10292144864797592,
-0.7110602855682373,
0.3030446171760559,
-0.3158913850784302,
-0.5040200352668762,
-0.030886206775903702,
-0.6560997366905212,
0.15996325016021729,
1.2081254720687866,
-0.0612100288271904,
0.5042771697044373,
0.22535660862922668,
0.22390486299991608,
0.62135249376297,
0.009425218217074871,
0.565098762512207,
-0.23594354093074799,
0.4605060815811157,
-0.184046670794487,
-0.5027192234992981,
-0.13889436423778534,
0.1728660762310028,
-0.24658134579658508,
-0.6305612325668335,
-0.47663167119026184,
0.03293983265757561,
0.1810099333524704,
-0.2995986044406891,
-0.39993909001350403,
0.1800309419631958,
-0.15445266664028168,
-0.04703028127551079,
0.20222686231136322,
-0.3844178020954132,
0.46141791343688965,
0.3347618579864502,
0.6260351538658142,
0.348270446062088,
-1.025314211845398,
0.19693735241889954,
-0.19461695849895477,
0.36993688344955444,
-0.244558647274971,
0.1820029765367508,
-0.4101681113243103,
-0.08715298026800156,
0.11065960675477982,
-0.034684110432863235,
0.21445733308792114,
0.03337808698415756,
-0.8174980878829956,
-0.3235534429550171,
-0.24642154574394226,
1.0178008079528809,
-0.020402980968356133,
1.6462750434875488,
0.09126538038253784,
-0.8906113505363464,
-0.42507845163345337,
-0.5396333932876587,
-0.9084700345993042,
0.6412035822868347,
0.3460730016231537,
0.0095572704449296,
-0.12315556406974792,
0.20594440400600433,
0.11078716069459915,
0.4539506733417511,
-0.15301747620105743,
-0.2937811613082886,
-0.0024467110633850098,
0.09115398675203323,
-0.7582113742828369,
0.1086183562874794,
-0.1400269865989685,
-0.2781197726726532,
0.6073642373085022,
-0.26587045192718506,
0.1294936090707779,
0.23328228294849396,
-0.49318137764930725,
-0.1539609432220459,
0.7721999287605286,
0.7505146265029907,
-0.568631649017334,
0.028125818818807602,
-0.09149764478206635,
0.051329199224710464,
0.47095486521720886,
0.009457198902964592,
-0.16023975610733032,
0.15764030814170837,
0.03419327735900879,
-5.321782112121582,
-0.24691471457481384,
0.2516419291496277,
0.013623655773699284,
0.6326715350151062,
-0.12747280299663544,
1.1953942775726318,
-0.09553476423025131,
-0.12012895196676254,
-0.14117954671382904,
-0.30588430166244507,
0.06904102116823196,
-0.21836499869823456,
-0.05512339994311333,
0.039209701120853424,
-0.19710932672023773,
-0.46486812829971313,
-0.2510204315185547,
0.8959597945213318,
0.06810819357633591,
-0.2645265460014343,
0.09050858020782471,
0.027573339641094208,
0.6091521382331848,
-0.600337564945221,
0.1636754870414734,
-0.39834439754486084,
0.42424476146698,
-0.42655453085899353,
0.2990875542163849,
-0.06826665252447128,
-0.5871217250823975,
0.26578813791275024,
-0.03919726237654686,
-0.30687639117240906,
0.10571373999118805,
-0.008798239752650261,
0.00003366437886143103,
-0.4400673806667328,
-0.42114153504371643,
-0.09571527689695358,
0.1396692395210266,
0.17932556569576263,
-0.2747257351875305,
0.4729457199573517,
-0.21929103136062622,
-0.3350183367729187,
-0.10258743166923523,
-0.3538413345813751,
1.0176767110824585,
-0.33747515082359314,
0.09958112239837646,
0.255831778049469,
0.29144591093063354,
0.4052354097366333,
-0.5163488388061523,
-0.16873258352279663,
-0.22391779720783234,
-0.19564485549926758,
0.008974239230155945,
-0.2762417793273926,
-0.3005622327327728,
-0.31595489382743835,
-0.32609131932258606,
0.43116891384124756,
0.04914050176739693,
-0.4893934428691864,
-0.1983499825000763,
0.5242675542831421,
-0.04486246407032013,
-0.3077353537082672,
0.16975517570972443,
-0.060534048825502396,
-0.8507410287857056,
0.19786368310451508,
-0.4971320331096649,
-0.14683885872364044,
0.05545952543616295,
0.7244161367416382,
0.44933071732521057,
-0.007850650697946548,
-0.055354729294776917,
-0.3644448220729828,
-0.3477470278739929,
0.05914734676480293,
-0.9664908647537231,
-0.46787163615226746,
0.50825434923172,
-0.6478201746940613,
0.10135244578123093,
0.15119095146656036,
-0.09781918674707413,
0.28010958433151245,
0.6742932200431824,
0.4144677221775055,
0.45776426792144775,
-0.20270510017871857,
1.2241865396499634,
0.949400782585144,
-0.17065741121768951,
1.0994423627853394,
-0.49231091141700745,
-0.2978726923465729,
-0.7246696949005127,
-0.19568952918052673,
-0.3003696799278259,
-0.46898752450942993,
0.14399361610412598,
0.45450887084007263,
-0.7161456346511841,
-0.09488633275032043,
0.3799419403076172,
-0.3179464340209961,
-0.38949668407440186,
0.44770386815071106,
0.001310983905568719,
-0.25088047981262207,
0.5448976159095764,
0.5664831399917603,
-0.21076202392578125,
0.3763464689254761,
0.6056479811668396,
-0.7833966016769409,
0.4751717150211334,
0.36165064573287964,
-0.1194135844707489,
0.2376251220703125,
0.5499027371406555,
-0.4902912974357605,
-0.027865706011652946,
0.3262435495853424,
0.2129114419221878,
0.09014832228422165,
-0.20368602871894836,
0.0018662887159734964,
-0.5657574534416199,
-0.5750711560249329,
0.7072277069091797,
-0.4334113895893097,
-0.3158392608165741,
0.035336852073669434,
-0.44551748037338257,
-0.1984458714723587,
0.4284416437149048,
0.5737355947494507,
0.353780061006546,
-0.2477271854877472,
-0.23922234773635864,
-0.09304065257310867,
-0.11519832164049149,
-0.2410973757505417,
-0.40237152576446533,
-0.002386378590017557,
-0.25738000869750977,
-0.4205467998981476,
-0.0022022288758307695,
0.8235428929328918,
0.32352834939956665,
-0.09838104248046875,
-0.863600492477417,
-0.8296542763710022,
-0.6117048263549805,
-0.9799582362174988,
0.0490555614233017,
-0.6448791027069092,
-0.4779914915561676,
-0.26200413703918457,
-0.27821481227874756,
-0.3387961685657501,
0.24611473083496094,
-0.7904344201087952,
-0.3925655782222748,
-0.30614203214645386,
-0.05314081162214279,
0.4206200838088989,
0.00830767210572958,
-0.4199445843696594,
-0.024409346282482147,
0.022880597040057182,
-0.05543661117553711,
-0.25088468194007874,
-0.608451247215271,
-0.27504828572273254,
0.5705676674842834,
0.22321970760822296,
-0.044987279921770096,
-0.21467472612857819,
-0.34775784611701965,
-0.37441232800483704,
-0.010317858308553696,
0.10737694054841995,
0.13177675008773804,
-0.22721853852272034,
-0.2963864207267761,
-0.18774043023586273,
0.11687763780355453,
-0.7126821875572205,
0.4014699161052704,
0.3100442588329315,
-0.8481259942054749,
0.7171483039855957,
1.086295485496521,
0.330617755651474,
0.49844416975975037,
0.6026327013969421,
-0.40269216895103455,
0.3125014007091522,
0.2546391785144806,
-0.56246018409729,
-0.12759768962860107,
-0.22618338465690613,
-0.14301593601703644,
-0.2447156310081482,
1.1313649415969849,
-0.09249161183834076,
0.0038337265141308308,
-0.03800905868411064,
-0.33221831917762756,
0.3558124303817749,
-0.11835894733667374,
0.21558396518230438,
0.25160887837409973,
-0.01422270480543375,
0.07660732418298721,
-0.9028241038322449,
0.48579904437065125,
0.48092177510261536,
-0.8848472237586975,
0.9035125970840454,
-0.06286592036485672,
0.2462584674358368,
0.019929880276322365,
-0.4161970019340515,
-0.017989687621593475,
0.4217732846736908,
-0.17840687930583954,
0.3285822570323944,
0.19945745170116425,
0.2718527615070343,
-0.1326596438884735,
0.24601835012435913,
0.7538090348243713,
-0.018863752484321594,
0.05548570677638054,
0.1343243569135666,
0.8423793315887451,
0.6338138580322266,
-0.7442734837532043,
-0.10814452916383743,
-0.06597103923559189,
0.13644564151763916,
-0.16947805881500244,
-0.17022405564785004,
0.09911288321018219,
1.097434639930725,
0.1650664061307907,
-0.424163818359375,
-0.08604910224676132,
-0.0826750174164772,
-0.3397071361541748,
-0.1297643929719925,
-0.010172445327043533,
0.13020265102386475,
0.6717982888221741,
0.2930356562137604,
-0.3747445046901703,
-0.30992603302001953,
0.3373275399208069,
0.28401145339012146,
0.04997934028506279,
-0.1254560500383377,
-0.5813751816749573,
0.7892134189605713,
-0.04063522443175316,
0.2534276247024536,
0.7304047346115112,
-0.15705399215221405,
-0.6430637240409851,
0.032467182725667953,
0.40387633442878723,
0.18253418803215027,
-1.1721118688583374,
0.25094377994537354,
-0.4524570107460022,
0.8345676064491272,
-1.1986174583435059,
0.023159410804510117,
-0.5357315540313721,
0.0325048603117466,
0.02000640518963337,
-0.18993370234966278,
-0.29742223024368286,
0.09906933456659317,
-0.03848191723227501,
0.09533238410949707,
0.2683105170726776,
-0.4350070655345917,
0.11350718885660172,
-0.14401404559612274,
-0.5242077708244324,
-0.8907243013381958,
0.2485937774181366,
-0.037150390446186066,
-0.6354656219482422,
-0.18449269235134125,
0.44193366169929504,
-0.026519812643527985,
-0.06026804447174072,
-0.6231549382209778,
-0.01807485707104206,
-0.009963340125977993,
-0.1569065898656845,
0.4449675381183624,
-0.2517906129360199,
-0.4917328655719757,
0.33292344212532043,
0.31781119108200073,
-0.7146613001823425,
-0.10623679310083389,
0.29719021916389465,
0.19484223425388336,
0.451719731092453,
0.30678117275238037,
-0.00733872689306736,
-0.13969513773918152,
0.1584419161081314,
0.13861753046512604,
-0.10344970971345901,
-0.4025946855545044,
0.6664994359016418,
0.9005800485610962,
0.28685882687568665,
-0.5666779279708862,
1.0314825773239136,
0.18978750705718994,
-0.4825294017791748,
0.22131553292274475,
-0.3312119245529175,
-0.4092561900615692,
0.8808642029762268,
0.38206470012664795,
0.32198837399482727,
0.0795854851603508,
0.4392384886741638,
-0.6446621417999268,
0.20704512298107147,
0.22864355146884918,
0.04497880861163139,
0.23846642673015594,
-0.04206683486700058,
0.24827928841114044,
-0.5183039903640747,
0.22511647641658783,
0.17671369016170502,
0.02734455280005932,
-0.24517962336540222,
1.1989275217056274,
-0.44939038157463074,
-0.311835378408432,
-0.5661729574203491,
-0.4082309305667877,
0.23255351185798645,
0.14057853817939758,
0.8208353519439697,
0.6785182952880859,
0.055834025144577026,
0.3295802175998688,
-0.47268858551979065,
0.2054687738418579,
-0.030360961332917213,
0.30862149596214294,
-0.5535878539085388,
0.07920081913471222,
-0.03396911174058914,
0.7415685057640076,
-0.16940908133983612,
-0.29427269101142883,
0.43337708711624146,
-0.2800198793411255,
-0.02081870660185814,
-0.2519332766532898,
0.03961040824651718,
0.023291438817977905,
-1.1066492795944214,
0.08721548318862915,
0.16278041899204254,
-0.2828769087791443,
-0.14416980743408203,
-0.12011425942182541,
0.4801289439201355,
0.32702401280403137,
-0.34690630435943604,
0.5083416104316711,
-0.29319730401039124,
-0.16973762214183807,
0.625033974647522,
0.9254687428474426,
-0.04548676311969757,
0.1718960851430893,
-0.4278176724910736,
-0.030762018635869026,
0.48422059416770935,
-0.3599419891834259,
0.1680096983909607,
-0.7496737837791443,
0.6937586665153503,
-0.29434818029403687,
-0.003393595339730382,
-0.7738341689109802,
-0.0700250044465065,
0.5271406173706055,
0.2651388645172119,
-0.1026563048362732,
0.625143826007843,
0.43300968408584595,
0.23292498290538788,
0.6194416284561157,
-0.8566672205924988,
-0.3300415277481079,
-0.12121570855379105,
0.10184948146343231,
-0.08043801784515381,
0.4314468204975128,
0.3795156180858612,
-0.5115101337432861,
0.20221549272537231,
0.42720669507980347,
0.31414979696273804,
-0.1979992687702179,
0.6327448487281799,
-0.46500083804130554,
0.7246274948120117,
-0.641114354133606,
0.006016825325787067,
-0.05626668781042099,
0.020259389653801918,
0.02071409486234188,
-0.12180103361606598,
0.6153568625450134,
-0.4076399803161621,
0.21393530070781708,
-0.31509336829185486,
0.12038785219192505,
-0.372890830039978,
-0.3642261028289795,
-0.12809476256370544,
-0.26812243461608887,
-0.657420814037323,
-0.08775366097688675,
0.07136566191911697,
0.4297941029071808,
-0.4658156633377075,
-0.2037329226732254,
0.6865057945251465,
-0.4249202013015747,
0.03380982577800751,
0.21426287293434143,
0.09406131505966187,
-0.057009294629096985,
0.7850360870361328
] |
200189
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle%20apparatus
|
Spindle apparatus
|
In cell biology, the spindle apparatus refers to the cytoskeletal structure of eukaryotic cells that forms during cell division to separate sister chromatids between daughter cells. It is referred to as the mitotic spindle during mitosis, a process that produces genetically identical daughter cells, or the meiotic spindle during meiosis, a process that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Besides chromosomes, the spindle apparatus is composed of hundreds of proteins. Microtubules comprise the most abundant components of the machinery.
Spindle structure
Attachment of microtubules to chromosomes is mediated by kinetochores, which actively monitor spindle formation and prevent premature anaphase onset. Microtubule polymerization and depolymerization dynamic drive chromosome congression. Depolymerization of microtubules generates tension at kinetochores; bipolar attachment of sister kinetochores to microtubules emanating from opposite cell poles couples opposing tension forces, aligning chromosomes at the cell equator and poising them for segregation to daughter cells. Once every chromosome is bi-oriented, anaphase commences and cohesin, which couples sister chromatids, is severed, permitting the transit of the sister chromatids to opposite poles.
The cellular spindle apparatus includes the spindle microtubules, associated proteins, which include kinesin and dynein molecular motors, condensed chromosomes, and any centrosomes or asters that may be present at the spindle poles depending on the cell type. The spindle apparatus is vaguely ellipsoid in cross section and tapers at the ends. In the wide middle portion, known as the spindle midzone, antiparallel microtubules are bundled by kinesins. At the pointed ends, known as spindle poles, microtubules are nucleated by the centrosomes in most animal cells. Acentrosomal or anastral spindles lack centrosomes or asters at the spindle poles, respectively, and occur for example during female meiosis in most animals. In this instance, a Ran GTP gradient is the main regulator of spindle microtubule organization and assembly. In fungi, spindles form between spindle pole bodies embedded in the nuclear envelope, which does not break down during mitosis.
Microtubule-associated proteins and spindle dynamics
The dynamic lengthening and shortening of spindle microtubules, through a process known as dynamic instability determines to a large extent the shape of the mitotic spindle and promotes the proper alignment of chromosomes at the spindle midzone. Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) associate with microtubules at the midzone and the spindle poles to regulate their dynamics. γ-tubulin is a specialized tubulin variant that assembles into a ring complex called γ-TuRC which nucleates polymerization of α/β tubulin heterodimers into microtubules. Recruitment of γ-TuRC to the pericentrosomal region stabilizes microtubule minus-ends and anchors them near the microtubule-organizing center. The microtubule-associated protein Augmin acts in conjunction with γ-TURC to nucleate new microtubules off of existing microtubules.
The growing ends of microtubules are protected against catastrophe by the action of plus-end microtubule tracking proteins (+TIPs) to promote their association with kinetochores at the midzone. CLIP170 was shown to localize near microtubule plus-ends in HeLa cells and to accumulate in kinetochores during prometaphase. Although how CLIP170 recognizes plus-ends remains unclear, it has been shown that its homologues protect against catastrophe and promote rescue, suggesting a role for CLIP170 in stabilizing plus-ends and possibly mediating their direct attachment to kinetochores. CLIP-associated proteins like CLASP1 in humans have also been shown to localize to plus-ends and the outer kinetochore as well as to modulate the dynamics of kinetochore microtubules (Maiato 2003). CLASP homologues in Drosophila, Xenopus, and yeast are required for proper spindle assembly; in mammals, CLASP1 and CLASP2 both contribute to proper spindle assembly and microtubule dynamics in anaphase. Plus-end polymerization may be further moderated by the EB1 protein, which directly binds the growing ends of microtubules and coordinates the binding of other +TIPs.
Opposing the action of these microtubule-stabilizing proteins are a number of microtubule-depolymerizing factors which permit the dynamic remodeling of the mitotic spindle to promote chromosome congression and attainment of bipolarity. The kinesin-13 superfamily of MAPs contains a class of plus-end-directed motor proteins with associated microtubule depolymerization activity including the well-studied mammalian MCAK and Xenopus XKCM1. MCAK localizes to the growing tips of microtubules at kinetochores where it can trigger catastrophe in direct competition with stabilizing +TIP activity. These proteins harness the energy of ATP hydrolysis to induce destabilizing conformational changes in protofilament structure that cause kinesin release and microtubule depolymerization. Loss of their activity results in numerous mitotic defects. Additional microtubule destabilizing proteins include Op18/stathmin and katanin which have roles in remodeling the mitotic spindle as well as promoting chromosome segregation during anaphase.
The activities of these MAPs are carefully regulated to maintain proper microtubule dynamics during spindle assembly, with many of these proteins serving as Aurora and Polo-like kinase substrates.
Organizing the spindle apparatus
In a properly formed mitotic spindle, bi-oriented chromosomes are aligned along the equator of the cell with spindle microtubules oriented roughly perpendicular to the chromosomes, their plus-ends embedded in kinetochores and their minus-ends anchored at the cell poles. The precise orientation of this complex is required to ensure accurate chromosome segregation and to specify the cell division plane. However, it remains unclear how the spindle becomes organized. Two models predominate the field, which are synergistic and not mutually exclusive. In the search-and-capture model, the spindle is predominantly organized by the poleward separation of centrosomal microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs). Spindle microtubules emanate from centrosomes and 'seek' out kinetochores; when they bind a kinetochore they become stabilized and exert tension on the chromosomes. In an alternative self assembly model, microtubules undergo acentrosomal nucleation among the condensed chromosomes. Constrained by cellular dimensions, lateral associations with antiparallel microtubules via motor proteins, and end-on attachments to kinetochores, microtubules naturally adopt a spindle-like structure with chromosomes aligned along the cell equator.
Centrosome-mediated "search-and-capture" model
In this model, microtubules are nucleated at microtubule organizing centers and undergo rapid growth and catastrophe to 'search' the cytoplasm for kinetochores. Once they bind a kinetochore, they are stabilized and their dynamics are reduced. The newly mono-oriented chromosome oscillates in space near the pole to which it is attached until a microtubule from the opposite pole binds the sister kinetochore. This second attachment further stabilizes kinetochore attachment to the mitotic spindle. Gradually, the bi-oriented chromosome is pulled towards the center of the cell until microtubule tension is balanced on both sides of the centromere; the congressed chromosome then oscillates at the metaphase plate until anaphase onset releases cohesion of the sister chromatids.
In this model, microtubule organizing centers are localized to the cell poles, their separation driven by microtubule polymerization and 'sliding' of antiparallel spindle microtubules with respect to one another at the spindle midzone mediated by bipolar, plus-end-directed kinesins. Such sliding forces may account not only for spindle pole separation early in mitosis, but also spindle elongation during late anaphase.
Chromatin-mediated self-organization of the mitotic spindle
In contrast to the search-and-capture mechanism in which centrosomes largely dictate the organization of the mitotic spindle, this model proposes that microtubules are nucleated acentrosomally near chromosomes and spontaneously assemble into anti-parallel bundles and adopt a spindle-like structure. Classic experiments by Heald and Karsenti show that functional mitotic spindles and nuclei form around DNA-coated beads incubated in Xenopus egg extracts and that bipolar arrays of microtubules are formed in the absence of centrosomes and kinetochores. Indeed, it has also been shown that laser ablation of centrosomes in vertebrate cells inhibits neither spindle assembly nor chromosome segregation. Under this scheme, the shape and size of the mitotic spindle are a function of the biophysical properties of the cross-linking motor proteins.
Chromatin-mediated microtubule nucleation by the Ran GTP gradient
The guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the small GTPase Ran (Regulator of chromosome condensation 1 or RCC1) is attached to nucleosomes via core histones H2A and H2B. Thus, a gradient of GTP-bound Ran is generated around the vicinity of mitotic chromatin. Glass beads coated with RCC1 induce microtubule nucleation and bipolar spindle formation in Xenopus egg extracts, revealing that the Ran GTP gradient alone is sufficient for spindle assembly. The gradient triggers release of spindle assembly factors (SAFs) from inhibitory interactions via the transport proteins importin β/α. The unbound SAFs then promote microtubule nucleation and stabilization around mitotic chromatin, and spindle bipolarity is organized by microtubule motor proteins.
Regulation of spindle assembly
Spindle assembly is largely regulated by phosphorylation events catalyzed by mitotic kinases.
Cyclin dependent kinase complexes (CDKs) are activated by mitotic cyclins, whose translation increases during mitosis. CDK1 (also called CDC2) is considered the main mitotic kinase in mammalian cells and is activated by Cyclin B1.
Aurora kinases are required for proper spindle assembly and separation. Aurora A associates with centrosomes and is believed to regulate mitotic entry. Aurora B is a member of the chromosomal passenger complex and mediates chromosome-microtubule attachment and sister chromatid cohesion.
Polo-like kinase, also known as PLK, especially PLK1 has important roles in the spindle maintenance by regulating microtubule dynamics.
Mitotic chromosome structure
By the end of DNA replication, sister chromatids are bound together in an amorphous mass of tangled DNA and protein that would be virtually impossible to partition into each daughter cell. To avoid this problem, mitotic entry triggers a dramatic reorganization of the duplicated genome. Sister chromatids are disentangled and resolved from one another. Chromosomes also shorten in length, up to 10,000 fold in animal cells, in a process called condensation. Condensation begins in prophase and chromosomes are maximally compacted into rod-shaped structures by the time they are aligned in the middle of the spindle at metaphase. This gives mitotic chromosomes the classic “X” shape seen in karyotypes, with each condensed sister chromatid linked along their lengths by cohesin proteins and joined, often near the center, at the centromere.
While these dynamic rearrangements are vitally important to ensure accurate and high-fidelity segregation of the genome, our understanding of mitotic chromosome structure remains largely incomplete. A few specific molecular players have been identified, however: Topoisomerase II uses ATP hydrolysis to catalyze decatenation of DNA entanglements, promoting sister chromatid resolution. Condensins are 5-subunit complexes that also use ATP-hydrolysis to promote chromosome condensation. Experiments in Xenopus egg extracts have also implicated linker Histone H1 as an important regulator of mitotic chromosome compaction.
Mitotic spindle assembly checkpoint
The completion of spindle formation is a crucial transition point in the cell cycle called the spindle assembly checkpoint. If chromosomes are not properly attached to the mitotic spindle by the time of this checkpoint, the onset of anaphase will be delayed. Failure of this spindle assembly checkpoint can result in aneuploidy and may be involved in aging and the formation of cancer.
Spindle apparatus orientation
Cell division orientation is of major importance for tissue architecture, cell fates and morphogenesis. Cells tend to divide along their long axis according to the so-called Hertwig rule. The axis of cell division is determined by the orientation of the spindle apparatus. Cells divide along the line connecting two centrosomes of the spindle apparatus. After formation, the spindle apparatus undergoes rotation inside the cell. The astral microtubules originating from centrosomes reach the cell membrane where they are pulled towards specific cortical clues. In vitro, the distribution of cortical clues is set up by the adhesive pattern. In vivo polarity cues are determined by localization of Tricellular junctions localized at cell vertices. The spatial distribution of cortical clues leads to the force field that determine final spindle apparatus orientation and the subsequent orientation of cell division.
See also
Spindle poison
References
External links
Cell anatomy
Mitosis
|
[
0.19566203653812408,
0.14615552127361298,
-0.017297931015491486,
0.1562732458114624,
0.043204668909311295,
-0.18659575283527374,
0.16343463957309723,
0.09474976360797882,
-0.4056031107902527,
-0.3881738483905792,
-0.10639997571706772,
-0.43975910544395447,
-0.7433059215545654,
0.8394651412963867,
-0.6515073776245117,
0.26362207531929016,
0.19443094730377197,
0.36308813095092773,
0.12916721403598785,
-0.3249500095844269,
-0.06481906771659851,
-0.30185583233833313,
0.40243080258369446,
-0.38515353202819824,
0.5539051294326782,
-0.5122246146202087,
-0.1964213103055954,
-0.4518818259239197,
0.5509389638900757,
-0.15238751471042633,
-0.053111474961042404,
0.10446126759052277,
0.5154134631156921,
-0.05034860596060753,
0.28209516406059265,
-0.4104156196117401,
-0.5079987049102783,
-0.10402490943670273,
-0.04686536267399788,
-0.4561581313610077,
0.13679616153240204,
-0.04158543795347214,
0.5026416778564453,
0.1596231758594513,
-0.09508160501718521,
-0.263753205537796,
-1.4997682571411133,
0.9907575249671936,
-0.4594923257827759,
0.31668975949287415,
-0.31222862005233765,
-0.0012928025098517537,
0.6848776340484619,
0.3506699502468109,
0.10219257324934006,
0.26897093653678894,
-0.4446987807750702,
0.35888007283210754,
0.6086934804916382,
-0.6087853908538818,
-0.3244141936302185,
0.3901327848434448,
-0.13313747942447662,
0.13936306536197662,
0.519478976726532,
-0.037504881620407104,
0.12661203742027283,
-0.06647294014692307,
-0.4711116850376129,
-0.35462939739227295,
-0.14511175453662872,
-0.5926712155342102,
0.5435055494308472,
0.5347325801849365,
-0.018612701445817947,
-0.4426124095916748,
-0.46833792328834534,
-0.33393368124961853,
0.7502898573875427,
-0.2166147083044052,
-0.4807617664337158,
0.544323205947876,
-0.5674735903739929,
0.3776690661907196,
0.766467809677124,
0.24868187308311462,
-1.326600193977356,
0.5229966044425964,
-0.9822147488594055,
0.35625791549682617,
0.09947750717401505,
0.08743907511234283,
0.43723613023757935,
0.15696924924850464,
-0.04741080477833748,
-0.21984711289405823,
0.3332885205745697,
-0.31524452567100525,
-0.034056417644023895,
0.6909756660461426,
-0.13173237442970276,
0.20774836838245392,
0.7062322497367859,
-0.49908289313316345,
0.05034607648849487,
-0.37391167879104614,
0.23831938207149506,
-0.42629191279411316,
-0.1626814901828766,
0.295232892036438,
-0.4105532467365265,
-0.43434762954711914,
-0.5287252068519592,
0.36670398712158203,
-0.08477206528186798,
0.21042121946811676,
0.03169288858771324,
-0.5495743751525879,
-0.2864331603050232,
-0.17058813571929932,
-0.2893984913825989,
0.8570584058761597,
-0.32483866810798645,
0.14093318581581116,
-0.4711225628852844,
-0.1323709338903427,
-0.27757006883621216,
0.439628928899765,
-0.6058257818222046,
0.16005633771419525,
0.2782990038394928,
0.7668034434318542,
-0.3360808491706848,
0.35375338792800903,
-0.1938016563653946,
-0.034799449145793915,
0.4463168978691101,
0.061508629471063614,
0.6603493094444275,
0.6571120619773865,
-0.4062265455722809,
-0.4920181632041931,
-0.2526991069316864,
-0.12776069343090057,
0.11093417555093765,
-0.4787461459636688,
-0.07667794078588486,
-0.2820519804954529,
-0.4523618519306183,
-0.4494054913520813,
-0.0736141949892044,
-0.041894394904375076,
-0.2616003751754761,
-0.5662050247192383,
-0.3524823486804962,
0.006585853639990091,
0.3028155267238617,
0.05531919747591019,
0.17204350233078003,
0.41751962900161743,
-0.4131791591644287,
-0.2549380362033844,
-0.6297832131385803,
0.16607238352298737,
0.03456517681479454,
-0.1609315574169159,
1.3494704961776733,
0.8347288370132446,
0.24292002618312836,
0.30041393637657166,
-0.15508966147899628,
-0.0401470884680748,
0.3149263560771942,
-0.2109609693288803,
-0.28114891052246094,
-0.3779301345348358,
0.07740528136491776,
-0.0640566498041153,
0.394281804561615,
-0.16272632777690887,
-0.796357274055481,
0.34164655208587646,
-0.07514216750860214,
0.007232862990349531,
-0.18968655169010162,
0.008383257314562798,
0.5970642566680908,
-0.10058271139860153,
-0.7724398374557495,
-0.19610770046710968,
0.47833484411239624,
-0.32874077558517456,
0.16437597572803497,
-0.25406479835510254,
1.4141002893447876,
0.4114151895046234,
-0.025275256484746933,
0.6654236316680908,
-0.01926128752529621,
-0.08665060251951218,
-0.312761127948761,
0.39810124039649963,
0.41599810123443604,
-0.6585032939910889,
-0.3482663333415985,
0.48412877321243286,
0.5946962833404541,
-0.5215641260147095,
0.7599199414253235,
-0.1761065274477005,
-0.2672725021839142,
-0.304132342338562,
0.4004558026790619,
-0.6955138444900513,
0.27794450521469116,
-0.7558888792991638,
-0.04345560818910599,
0.4199495315551758,
-0.1331160068511963,
-0.47332727909088135,
0.7699324488639832,
-0.14657703042030334,
0.047665633261203766,
0.7260476350784302,
-0.1321771740913391,
1.1016168594360352,
0.6376779079437256,
0.260030597448349,
0.4579746723175049,
0.17111682891845703,
0.2474665343761444,
-0.9473885893821716,
0.4878535270690918,
0.08232821524143219,
-0.4147336781024933,
0.28489914536476135,
0.07136189937591553,
-0.29540830850601196,
0.15856114029884338,
-0.26951441168785095,
0.05158964544534683,
0.2675858438014984,
-0.7530776262283325,
-0.3055002987384796,
0.2894255220890045,
-0.3935580849647522,
-0.09054116904735565,
0.037823744118213654,
-0.5382291674613953,
0.3297865092754364,
-0.14897823333740234,
0.4062812924385071,
0.3392760753631592,
-1.0542553663253784,
0.19811785221099854,
0.08648370206356049,
-0.2814517319202423,
-0.03081204555928707,
0.36950281262397766,
0.19582906365394592,
-0.1161724328994751,
-0.25371053814888,
-0.10206114500761032,
-0.36563488841056824,
-0.5566906332969666,
-0.4455406367778778,
0.014032956212759018,
-0.14174237847328186,
1.1264147758483887,
0.4592803418636322,
1.2509764432907104,
0.10724744200706482,
-0.6654803156852722,
-0.1044197678565979,
-0.24808508157730103,
-0.908944308757782,
0.060915641486644745,
0.27691102027893066,
0.20611348748207092,
-0.33072760701179504,
-0.2887054979801178,
0.0118416678160429,
0.3554665744304657,
0.03608805686235428,
-0.3621794283390045,
0.06713370233774185,
0.06735533475875854,
-0.39127546548843384,
0.04378073289990425,
-0.6094946265220642,
-0.39393892884254456,
0.4577561318874359,
-0.35538533329963684,
0.27676287293434143,
-0.29954227805137634,
0.4987455904483795,
-0.39825254678726196,
-0.4254385828971863,
0.5316290855407715,
-0.5374277830123901,
-0.6240453124046326,
-0.07597404718399048,
-0.21970781683921814,
-0.3521355390548706,
0.13194610178470612,
0.27849817276000977,
0.2980141341686249,
0.03195513039827347,
-5.554755210876465,
-0.011872927658259869,
0.25283554196357727,
-0.10376439988613129,
1.0116467475891113,
-0.09053269773721695,
0.8034860491752625,
0.06758769601583481,
-0.19693247973918915,
0.030184250324964523,
-0.41712236404418945,
-0.04075358808040619,
-0.1751728653907776,
0.27011382579803467,
0.3831700086593628,
0.05969604104757309,
-0.041734106838703156,
-0.30953243374824524,
0.555690348148346,
-0.33100080490112305,
-0.03792679309844971,
-0.28646278381347656,
0.4737423360347748,
0.38864800333976746,
-0.6412601470947266,
0.09840843081474304,
-0.6895583271980286,
-0.36962559819221497,
-0.5620646476745605,
0.013285131193697453,
-0.18467199802398682,
-0.8567016124725342,
-0.4382990002632141,
-0.3681632876396179,
0.009663981385529041,
0.04293348267674446,
0.3225780129432678,
0.18682055175304413,
0.3028089106082916,
-0.2467498630285263,
-0.0683184489607811,
0.3893740475177765,
-0.014486213214695454,
-0.1408422738313675,
0.6052743792533875,
-0.33237239718437195,
-0.7151339650154114,
-0.2224911004304886,
-0.653479814529419,
1.09712815284729,
0.10974735766649246,
0.19963623583316803,
0.8390229344367981,
-0.26274532079696655,
0.3038959503173828,
-0.2884298264980316,
0.43316686153411865,
0.04412582516670227,
-0.3139840364456177,
-0.46414095163345337,
0.19749440252780914,
-0.6338382363319397,
-0.30547964572906494,
-0.5536066293716431,
0.10507982224225998,
-0.12922528386116028,
-0.8576779365539551,
0.043811701238155365,
0.9617688655853271,
0.12893728911876678,
-0.011902977712452412,
0.46803519129753113,
0.3684155344963074,
-0.5286507606506348,
0.4805523455142975,
-0.27765703201293945,
0.16924796998500824,
-0.3840511441230774,
0.3426578938961029,
0.4730353057384491,
-0.32288074493408203,
0.28907620906829834,
-0.3045845329761505,
0.0661713257431984,
0.0346621572971344,
-0.8915884494781494,
-0.5504626035690308,
-0.10578591376543045,
-0.792177677154541,
0.18400660157203674,
0.2586851119995117,
-0.022526271641254425,
-0.0858062282204628,
0.4541776776313782,
0.5491805672645569,
0.10038978606462479,
-0.0009438518318347633,
0.6826195120811462,
0.32221299409866333,
-0.018620571121573448,
0.593122661113739,
-0.11962249875068665,
-0.3028613328933716,
-0.20947913825511932,
0.08431413769721985,
-0.10900341719388962,
-0.6865553259849548,
0.4825790524482727,
0.127217635512352,
-0.09235457330942154,
-0.20762404799461365,
0.2900788187980652,
-0.1682044267654419,
-0.4954344630241394,
0.060824908316135406,
-0.31346726417541504,
-0.5693258047103882,
0.18017436563968658,
0.7514162063598633,
-0.3104294538497925,
-0.1361026018857956,
-0.08990179747343063,
-0.35680168867111206,
0.3741641342639923,
-0.07926858216524124,
0.03668629005551338,
0.44266989827156067,
0.3547554016113281,
-0.0182179044932127,
-0.5449287295341492,
0.46361759305000305,
0.24988235533237457,
-0.19815067946910858,
-0.26072701811790466,
-0.14029057323932648,
0.07679487019777298,
-0.5464668273925781,
0.42417025566101074,
-0.7081353068351746,
-0.08132540434598923,
0.20595619082450867,
-0.2523079514503479,
0.17506995797157288,
-0.2195165604352951,
0.44984686374664307,
0.4844185709953308,
-0.15762436389923096,
0.04568992182612419,
-0.16294938325881958,
0.399122416973114,
0.0944361463189125,
-0.15936622023582458,
0.17318575084209442,
-0.7845631241798401,
0.44921496510505676,
0.1799452304840088,
0.28283798694610596,
-0.1483493596315384,
0.24013887345790863,
-0.4528709948062897,
-0.11325051635503769,
0.35390421748161316,
-0.6114863157272339,
0.1412205845117569,
-0.5458800792694092,
0.15803609788417816,
-0.24304060637950897,
0.03997867554426193,
-0.09392621368169785,
-0.028129516169428825,
-0.47767171263694763,
0.1824922114610672,
-0.5470821857452393,
-0.07123539596796036,
-0.11757837235927582,
0.12887777388095856,
0.24832020699977875,
0.3139476776123047,
-0.021505972370505333,
-0.6351248025894165,
-0.08861449360847473,
-0.3107527196407318,
0.06955599784851074,
0.5012955665588379,
0.12760241329669952,
-0.4057585895061493,
-0.18942125141620636,
-0.16580772399902344,
-0.3763393461704254,
0.0780695229768753,
0.08697858452796936,
0.2691289186477661,
0.569980800151825,
0.11801619827747345,
-0.3412438631057739,
0.181021586060524,
-0.4099160134792328,
0.7419202327728271,
-0.18786072731018066,
-1.111680030822754,
0.17104505002498627,
0.24957264959812164,
-0.3978837728500366,
0.5495650172233582,
0.8141344785690308,
-0.03443996608257294,
0.2933669686317444,
0.2744101583957672,
0.48656782507896423,
-0.04839235544204712,
-0.4632219970226288,
-0.34602800011634827,
-0.20274269580841064,
0.5206081867218018,
-0.13345544040203094,
-0.0350334495306015,
0.32675257325172424,
0.002800991293042898,
0.19336219131946564,
0.17439553141593933,
0.3152281641960144,
0.0431336872279644,
-0.01612648367881775,
-0.2049257606267929,
-0.32862111926078796,
0.3510843813419342,
-0.019714849069714546,
-0.40585362911224365,
0.5247073173522949,
-0.08732102066278458,
0.004357948433607817,
-0.3855479657649994,
-0.25164175033569336,
-0.21440285444259644,
-0.40798670053482056,
-0.28759846091270447,
-0.06744162738323212,
0.44360673427581787,
-0.39143067598342896,
0.17543169856071472,
1.0527360439300537,
0.8351560831069946,
-0.5486918687820435,
0.5002354979515076,
0.08501669019460678,
1.096183180809021,
0.47064265608787537,
-1.0548352003097534,
-0.06853706389665604,
0.03286932036280632,
0.6834878325462341,
-0.6483430862426758,
-0.14874328672885895,
-0.14912663400173187,
0.8561047315597534,
0.06702238321304321,
-0.01653609611093998,
-0.25943422317504883,
0.2774849534034729,
0.0485222153365612,
-0.3645761013031006,
-0.292054146528244,
-0.07969575375318527,
0.18744905292987823,
-0.15714628994464874,
0.1082654818892479,
-0.5999903082847595,
-0.2567048668861389,
0.4777846038341522,
-0.1903408318758011,
0.4801682233810425,
0.22581186890602112,
0.2802030146121979,
0.39961427450180054,
0.41394948959350586,
0.7792596220970154,
0.10711672902107239,
-0.24014969170093536,
-0.12730567157268524,
-0.06748444586992264,
-0.4078756868839264,
-0.214128777384758,
0.2656634747982025,
-0.35174471139907837,
0.18768522143363953,
-0.6918514370918274,
0.07022061944007874,
0.09257782250642776,
0.348323255777359,
-0.1029384583234787,
-0.5595171451568604,
-0.5169903635978699,
0.18679645657539368,
-0.0026957050431519747,
0.25351160764694214,
0.32726189494132996,
0.08192767202854156,
0.5357568264007568,
-0.19690893590450287,
0.24457736313343048,
-1.0970981121063232,
-0.029620608314871788,
0.21955855190753937,
-0.8446357846260071,
0.07086595892906189,
0.3893730044364929,
-0.13672034442424774,
-0.07411286234855652,
-0.5051474571228027,
-0.6449421048164368,
-0.12755951285362244,
-0.06500163674354553,
0.10547063499689102,
-0.11397696286439896,
-0.5191376805305481,
-0.16509495675563812,
0.12067615985870361,
-0.8936280012130737,
-0.1959831863641739,
0.7850930094718933,
0.018070315942168236,
0.16942451894283295,
0.07983507215976715,
-0.3570331931114197,
-0.41486772894859314,
-0.1809590458869934,
0.3955281674861908,
0.06055567041039467,
-0.4943440556526184,
0.2517355978488922,
1.070479154586792,
0.0763169676065445,
-0.42541685700416565,
0.9731089472770691,
0.13938657939434052,
-0.27952495217323303,
-0.2913748025894165,
-0.43863019347190857,
-0.095913365483284,
0.8318538665771484,
0.06559523940086365,
0.5351035594940186,
-0.10878068208694458,
-0.06399986892938614,
-0.0054518380202353,
-0.11211317032575607,
0.2654751241207123,
0.03395886346697807,
-0.2871931195259094,
0.6251847147941589,
0.3283049762248993,
-0.5719481110572815,
0.3966396749019623,
0.01658317819237709,
0.055357933044433594,
-0.4827844202518463,
1.3849250078201294,
-0.33165666460990906,
-0.32673534750938416,
0.007337614428251982,
-0.8251122236251831,
0.17336392402648926,
0.0222761370241642,
0.28537657856941223,
0.17591148614883423,
0.182061105966568,
0.34209904074668884,
-0.4804811179637909,
0.06007470190525055,
-0.23516561090946198,
0.309294730424881,
0.03414604440331459,
-0.09960532188415527,
0.0481039397418499,
0.27996671199798584,
0.11847168952226639,
-0.0394989438354969,
0.4810316562652588,
0.11736941337585449,
-0.12611474096775055,
-0.10917596518993378,
-0.00975004956126213,
0.18018268048763275,
-0.8741678595542908,
-0.509284496307373,
0.24303635954856873,
-0.06648065149784088,
-0.24294361472129822,
0.3699064254760742,
0.45943257212638855,
0.38714057207107544,
-0.4477352499961853,
0.8340325355529785,
-0.42920857667922974,
0.1315915882587433,
0.7014244198799133,
-0.43786418437957764,
0.41185978055000305,
0.6475141048431396,
0.1178777739405632,
-0.2236696183681488,
0.8670427799224854,
0.04010232165455818,
-0.05992232635617256,
-0.4268389940261841,
0.7469213008880615,
-0.03950176760554314,
-0.24504195153713226,
-0.42468395829200745,
0.3353700041770935,
0.9599938988685608,
0.06368254870176315,
-0.1509750336408615,
0.36336052417755127,
-0.24621544778347015,
0.5392365455627441,
0.5053984522819519,
-0.46834543347358704,
0.2142198532819748,
-0.22025427222251892,
-0.3081519305706024,
0.04928470030426979,
0.3490041196346283,
0.35404008626937866,
-0.3293789029121399,
-0.2561272084712982,
0.6942089796066284,
0.16566994786262512,
-0.8692935109138489,
0.43156349658966064,
-0.35273653268814087,
0.22129563987255096,
-0.5210033059120178,
0.21591512858867645,
-0.35343778133392334,
-0.09764569997787476,
-0.3307812213897705,
0.5517836213111877,
0.317147821187973,
-0.9400256276130676,
0.07600780576467514,
0.4147496223449707,
-0.17719784379005432,
-0.48093533515930176,
0.32941439747810364,
0.09252846240997314,
0.12333221733570099,
-0.5423774719238281,
0.08855700492858887,
-0.01540506910532713,
0.227781280875206,
-0.7015162110328674,
-0.07953090220689774,
-0.03761233761906624,
-0.3162703216075897,
-0.3020468056201935,
0.13539010286331177,
-0.2207406610250473,
0.013035006821155548,
0.7992407083511353
] |
200192
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatid
|
Chromatid
|
A chromatid (Greek khrōmat- 'color' + -id) is one half of a duplicated chromosome. Before replication, one chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule. In replication, the DNA molecule is copied, and the two molecules are known as chromatids. During the later stages of cell division these chromatids separate longitudinally to become individual chromosomes.
Chromatid pairs are normally genetically identical, and said to be homozygous. However, if mutations occur, they will present slight differences, in which case they are heterozygous. The pairing of chromatids should not be confused with the ploidy of an organism, which is the number of homologous versions of a chromosome.
Sister chromatids
Chromatids may be sister or non-sister chromatids. A sister chromatid is either one of the two chromatids of the same chromosome joined together by a common centromere. A pair of sister chromatids is called a dyad. Once sister chromatids have separated (during the anaphase of mitosis or the anaphase II of meiosis during sexual reproduction), they are again called chromosomes, each having the same genetic mass as one of the individual chromatids that made up its parent. The DNA sequence of two sister chromatids is completely identical (apart from very rare DNA copying errors).
Sister chromatid exchange (SCE) is the exchange of genetic information between two sister chromatids. SCEs can occur during mitosis or meiosis. SCEs appear to primarily reflect DNA recombinational repair processes responding to DNA damage (see articles Sister chromatids and Sister chromatid exchange).
Non-sister chromatids, on the other hand, refers to either of the two chromatids of paired homologous chromosomes, that is, the pairing of a paternal chromosome and a maternal chromosome. In chromosomal crossovers, non-sister (homologous) chromatids form chiasmata to exchange genetic material during the prophase I of meiosis (See Homologous chromosome pair).
See also
Kinetochore
References
Chromosomes
Molecular genetics
Cell biology
Mitosis
Telomeres
|
[
0.28569480776786804,
0.2657015025615692,
-0.49444159865379333,
0.13157790899276733,
-0.036946576088666916,
-0.14557333290576935,
0.15743394196033478,
0.8213872909545898,
0.05062359943985939,
-0.3343808948993683,
-0.5540773868560791,
-0.42427074909210205,
-0.44287875294685364,
0.5815435647964478,
-0.6198979020118713,
0.3874373435974121,
0.22032245993614197,
0.4752122163772583,
-0.5169910192489624,
0.051045872271060944,
-0.35738882422447205,
-0.4272022545337677,
-0.2624509632587433,
-0.5091988444328308,
0.029186243191361427,
-0.3507060408592224,
-0.1244165301322937,
-0.10122697055339813,
0.5338835716247559,
-0.07605970650911331,
-0.17409440875053406,
0.36875876784324646,
0.7871127128601074,
-0.2739710509777069,
-0.10204651951789856,
-0.14467482268810272,
-0.25625649094581604,
-0.6637182235717773,
-0.05258709564805031,
-0.56742262840271,
0.18519599735736847,
-0.2034139782190323,
0.5138278007507324,
0.15886163711547852,
-0.80124431848526,
-0.05003834888339043,
-1.8547337055206299,
1.147894024848938,
-0.07004022598266602,
0.24769100546836853,
-0.0018690902506932616,
-0.5780205726623535,
0.45832374691963196,
0.3675520122051239,
-0.20900943875312805,
0.831021785736084,
-0.636247456073761,
0.2034582793712616,
0.17637725174427032,
-0.11977528035640717,
0.0006853803643025458,
-0.33339211344718933,
0.25186780095100403,
0.2663661241531372,
0.2618778347969055,
0.6875127553939819,
0.06469834595918655,
0.21561478078365326,
-0.24416477978229523,
-0.4224088191986084,
0.11800830811262131,
-0.030912427231669426,
0.3630060851573944,
0.311015248298645,
-0.27692705392837524,
0.2517153322696686,
-0.5859050154685974,
-0.6430723071098328,
0.7502449750900269,
-0.31373411417007446,
-0.6294662952423096,
0.733898401260376,
-0.06588949263095856,
0.1487320214509964,
0.3598935008049011,
-0.09743957966566086,
-0.9733669757843018,
0.43495193123817444,
-0.4698777198791504,
0.4371466338634491,
-0.08257646858692169,
-0.15200543403625488,
0.8783496618270874,
0.22780711948871613,
-0.47019392251968384,
-0.4823547899723053,
-0.1590511053800583,
-0.17872454226016998,
0.3057176470756531,
-0.03213999420404434,
-0.18628565967082977,
0.40567442774772644,
-0.03222900629043579,
-0.554623007774353,
-0.6714150905609131,
0.11124853044748306,
-0.0790155902504921,
-0.1726643592119217,
-0.04439380764961243,
0.3111147880554199,
-0.4067101776599884,
-0.08441829681396484,
-0.1301209181547165,
0.2899656891822815,
-0.3819741904735565,
0.23200468719005585,
0.09473735094070435,
-0.24135538935661316,
0.08950633555650711,
-0.40324872732162476,
-0.32443973422050476,
0.5061309933662415,
0.2139303833246231,
-0.2993083596229553,
-0.25651848316192627,
0.3598669171333313,
-0.06943122297525406,
0.4398003816604614,
-0.42252016067504883,
0.25623026490211487,
-0.10985621064901352,
0.7903950214385986,
-0.07260328531265259,
0.13272105157375336,
0.8359068632125854,
-0.38697320222854614,
0.1270989179611206,
-0.24022184312343597,
0.8609139323234558,
0.6136068105697632,
-0.3849174976348877,
-0.0706535279750824,
-0.5922095775604248,
0.27602291107177734,
0.0022787433117628098,
-0.42421814799308777,
0.34528952836990356,
-0.055511847138404846,
-0.44826629757881165,
-0.07622390240430832,
-0.13752971589565277,
-0.5132826566696167,
-0.039705581963062286,
-0.15412728488445282,
-0.6593388915061951,
-0.10574927181005478,
0.2749095857143402,
0.04610647261142731,
0.36555296182632446,
0.36040395498275757,
-0.20149269700050354,
0.06576354056596756,
-0.15845952928066254,
-0.2393101453781128,
-0.5292937159538269,
0.19188299775123596,
0.5856229662895203,
0.8662968277931213,
-0.3682200014591217,
0.5626490712165833,
-0.3175610303878784,
0.15884986519813538,
0.30555617809295654,
0.4263889789581299,
-0.019246570765972137,
0.22588001191616058,
0.33128729462623596,
-0.1668144017457962,
0.4243759214878082,
-0.31081146001815796,
-0.7399217486381531,
0.06873109936714172,
0.2816992700099945,
0.40800702571868896,
0.08798470348119736,
-0.1857915222644806,
-0.21063458919525146,
-0.06375289708375931,
-0.11796879768371582,
-0.1718488186597824,
-0.5793614387512207,
-0.22491401433944702,
-0.10189804434776306,
-0.06600522994995117,
0.935149610042572,
-0.11031731963157654,
-0.26962223649024963,
0.20303262770175934,
0.1850447654724121,
0.2867080867290497,
-0.40818727016448975,
0.0666690319776535,
-0.04190410301089287,
-0.31864017248153687,
0.0109636802226305,
0.14345982670783997,
0.704580545425415,
-0.1438532918691635,
0.6807968616485596,
-0.3357571065425873,
0.24546612799167633,
-0.11098050326108932,
0.943364679813385,
0.03940761089324951,
-0.053562529385089874,
0.05160202085971832,
-0.628730833530426,
0.18088339269161224,
-0.32175588607788086,
-0.4388737976551056,
0.4191235303878784,
-0.08806417137384415,
-0.33537235856056213,
0.5040039420127869,
-0.2791430950164795,
1.139644980430603,
0.7024770379066467,
-0.16557440161705017,
0.7049630880355835,
-0.03502688556909561,
0.07088436186313629,
-0.517835259437561,
0.5874863862991333,
-0.26832398772239685,
0.009297930635511875,
0.39987844228744507,
-0.020613566040992737,
-0.4650401771068573,
0.4386332035064697,
-0.2798159420490265,
0.011328352615237236,
-0.1662026345729828,
-0.5947872996330261,
0.12768369913101196,
0.10600323975086212,
0.003956051543354988,
-0.26825520396232605,
-0.08568701893091202,
-0.4981590807437897,
0.3063663840293884,
-0.11071179062128067,
0.41510772705078125,
-0.12979960441589355,
-0.03607724606990814,
0.06340743601322174,
-0.19636985659599304,
0.37126997113227844,
-0.22767116129398346,
-0.19596728682518005,
0.252727746963501,
-0.1286918818950653,
-0.10745510458946228,
0.13534264266490936,
-0.11105617880821228,
-0.4258483946323395,
-0.7962372303009033,
-0.14762404561042786,
0.0984632670879364,
0.8530012369155884,
0.1698209047317505,
0.4034930467605591,
0.42511266469955444,
-1.2111124992370605,
0.3630177080631256,
-0.364385724067688,
-0.3889876902103424,
-0.20869384706020355,
0.18285681307315826,
-0.05159040912985802,
-0.051820069551467896,
-0.28027623891830444,
0.16059239208698273,
-0.20036344230175018,
-0.20110537111759186,
-0.4720575213432312,
0.10556524246931076,
0.35854968428611755,
-0.24441440403461456,
-0.13073045015335083,
-0.6921194195747375,
-0.5408666133880615,
0.4537907838821411,
-0.15299738943576813,
0.1624968945980072,
-0.23271098732948303,
0.02976943366229534,
-0.04856157675385475,
-0.1683376431465149,
0.007486806251108646,
-0.281792014837265,
-0.7499004602432251,
-0.09274174273014069,
-0.13529787957668304,
-0.5409324169158936,
-0.11359570175409317,
0.3551855981349945,
0.24411337077617645,
0.22398431599140167,
-5.812660217285156,
0.4101157486438751,
0.05438533052802086,
-0.44566917419433594,
0.4776832163333893,
-0.012471836991608143,
0.45108166337013245,
0.0011152337538078427,
-0.028707819059491158,
-0.15191635489463806,
-0.09896678477525711,
-0.17590290307998657,
-0.07432275265455246,
0.42030102014541626,
0.7913340330123901,
-0.0006301985122263432,
-0.13216547667980194,
0.1479930877685547,
0.10912024974822998,
-0.1808461993932724,
-0.569027841091156,
0.12801527976989746,
0.2357388734817505,
0.5181642770767212,
-0.5311391353607178,
-0.11377964913845062,
0.1277400702238083,
-0.7271917462348938,
-0.31583717465400696,
0.18991748988628387,
-0.0180303156375885,
-0.3548617362976074,
0.06266521662473679,
0.506531834602356,
-0.2667776346206665,
0.2608099579811096,
0.4721752107143402,
-0.24460439383983612,
-0.2532680332660675,
0.10337353497743607,
0.04888291656970978,
0.4608100652694702,
-0.2599511444568634,
-0.3190810978412628,
0.228946715593338,
-0.6756370067596436,
-0.2333754450082779,
-0.15504102408885956,
-0.4815155267715454,
0.6234372854232788,
0.03886602073907852,
0.13014023005962372,
0.23441055417060852,
-0.4596823453903198,
0.07154916226863861,
0.22744156420230865,
0.5718390345573425,
0.022358363494277,
-0.46593090891838074,
-0.40283095836639404,
0.14819447696208954,
0.09146348387002945,
0.31847134232521057,
-0.38706064224243164,
0.17621231079101562,
-0.18195222318172455,
-0.989879846572876,
0.10198745131492615,
1.314439296722412,
0.18154259026050568,
-0.273436039686203,
0.060969192534685135,
0.006564653012901545,
-0.8012627959251404,
0.1031675934791565,
-0.3739525079727173,
-0.3605203926563263,
-0.7148420214653015,
0.1241854876279831,
0.08800588548183441,
0.058699481189250946,
-0.08722629398107529,
-0.4720364511013031,
0.35520029067993164,
-0.1654580980539322,
-0.6625779867172241,
-0.19858624041080475,
0.26653602719306946,
0.12025503069162369,
-0.21022222936153412,
0.6365147233009338,
-0.38057243824005127,
0.22001929581165314,
0.23520229756832123,
0.4645589292049408,
0.39774054288864136,
0.1271103173494339,
0.4831666946411133,
0.5443075895309448,
-0.15492810308933258,
0.9876836538314819,
-0.2979672849178314,
-0.20879969000816345,
0.042937781661748886,
-0.4557642936706543,
-0.5318957567214966,
-0.23251551389694214,
-0.12004285305738449,
0.35760262608528137,
0.1043512150645256,
0.02061319164931774,
0.24358879029750824,
0.2581309378147125,
-0.5150629878044128,
0.3398616909980774,
-0.16245506703853607,
0.12383013218641281,
0.14022217690944672,
0.924161434173584,
0.1841452270746231,
0.10495499521493912,
0.003961249720305204,
-0.8713675141334534,
-0.00768711231648922,
-0.6577816009521484,
0.25460875034332275,
0.2597505748271942,
-0.39161625504493713,
0.3109855353832245,
-0.39049601554870605,
0.3522176146507263,
0.055989962071180344,
0.0706711858510971,
-0.05908321216702461,
-0.12384059280157089,
0.10252367705106735,
-0.4623053967952728,
0.23156826198101044,
-0.9696023464202881,
-0.5145559906959534,
0.28805723786354065,
-0.24109289050102234,
-0.20154741406440735,
0.4608267545700073,
0.3920987844467163,
0.12043150514364243,
-0.5317521691322327,
-0.06052732467651367,
0.2218102067708969,
0.7155834436416626,
-0.0426977276802063,
-0.6690850257873535,
0.6766092777252197,
-0.44414976239204407,
0.060714107006788254,
0.2422359436750412,
0.09507416188716888,
0.20741082727909088,
0.1333962231874466,
-0.615801990032196,
-0.3592548966407776,
0.19972100853919983,
-0.5696397423744202,
0.06348935514688492,
-0.13176174461841583,
0.022053686901926994,
-0.21228113770484924,
-0.31609678268432617,
-0.24691517651081085,
0.6316894888877869,
-0.5232130289077759,
0.4854525327682495,
0.09191233664751053,
-0.21372656524181366,
-0.0002587263297755271,
0.37155845761299133,
0.13471190631389618,
0.25676634907722473,
-0.1613483875989914,
-0.5928525924682617,
-0.17440347373485565,
-0.44838786125183105,
0.15848523378372192,
0.38764113187789917,
0.694939374923706,
-0.022476524114608765,
-0.3603086769580841,
-0.5401018857955933,
-0.5301651954650879,
0.6217729449272156,
0.20584729313850403,
-0.10987462103366852,
0.11309517174959183,
0.04931008443236351,
-0.364702433347702,
0.21833638846874237,
-0.4575268030166626,
0.7255536913871765,
0.14078360795974731,
-0.6138231754302979,
-0.13684195280075073,
0.1782059520483017,
-0.6017960906028748,
0.17756186425685883,
0.9684486389160156,
-0.32076093554496765,
0.7019220590591431,
-0.011052138172090054,
-0.10861706733703613,
0.18022210896015167,
-0.00048518143012188375,
-0.13415949046611786,
-0.25514188408851624,
0.1369277983903885,
0.14133964478969574,
0.5577640533447266,
-0.29809626936912537,
-0.3290601074695587,
0.2917501628398895,
-0.2307957112789154,
0.08145549148321152,
0.2234897017478943,
0.3734622001647949,
0.07821889221668243,
0.47770166397094727,
-0.37228405475616455,
0.06553194671869278,
0.2219954878091812,
0.1018880307674408,
-0.21934989094734192,
0.40883779525756836,
-0.22612932324409485,
0.1374376118183136,
-0.13648995757102966,
-0.3599182963371277,
-0.43054068088531494,
0.10862463712692261,
0.11984799057245255,
0.141806960105896,
-0.11302611231803894,
0.8099073171615601,
0.3725380301475525,
-0.3178848922252655,
0.6037857532501221,
-0.35318198800086975,
0.1446739286184311,
0.15256868302822113,
-0.6512392163276672,
-0.6289297342300415,
0.35579103231430054,
0.8565225005149841,
-0.4081461429595947,
-0.31218716502189636,
-0.36251020431518555,
0.7159163355827332,
0.5583292841911316,
0.12665699422359467,
-0.36049649119377136,
0.06585397571325302,
0.3646431267261505,
-0.5604096055030823,
-0.03783056512475014,
0.23378558456897736,
0.24453876912593842,
0.1623518168926239,
0.09044411778450012,
-0.4440540075302124,
-0.13398350775241852,
0.42086079716682434,
-0.20273227989673615,
0.27894124388694763,
0.2085176408290863,
0.8338423371315002,
0.15123943984508514,
-0.09226510673761368,
0.3494575321674347,
0.01648058369755745,
-0.3880062699317932,
-0.5163185000419617,
0.34554871916770935,
-0.15955883264541626,
-0.2070239931344986,
0.39899900555610657,
0.13307034969329834,
-0.2254912406206131,
-0.402441143989563,
-0.10043293982744217,
-0.04731079563498497,
-0.18664082884788513,
-0.4361257553100586,
-0.3440432846546173,
-0.13737910985946655,
0.08153527230024338,
-0.14844626188278198,
0.6041704416275024,
0.11397554725408554,
0.3440876007080078,
0.6821416020393372,
-0.2890550196170807,
0.6927466988563538,
-0.7417969703674316,
0.36654168367385864,
0.47199901938438416,
-0.6140671372413635,
0.692642867565155,
0.4183896481990814,
-0.09235631674528122,
-0.1677456647157669,
-0.3179126977920532,
-0.35423725843429565,
0.16971780359745026,
0.446236789226532,
-0.4775586426258087,
-0.0787503719329834,
-0.8363631963729858,
-0.06258536875247955,
0.3305881917476654,
-0.5668721795082092,
0.16916845738887787,
0.5507426857948303,
0.5625901818275452,
0.5606928467750549,
0.2277674674987793,
-0.25284039974212646,
-0.687394917011261,
-0.14265058934688568,
0.21381926536560059,
0.6741341948509216,
-0.014280936680734158,
0.15418599545955658,
0.8262926340103149,
0.08045940101146698,
-0.10613592714071274,
0.40619200468063354,
0.3456212282180786,
-0.5010378956794739,
-0.05753566324710846,
-0.364263653755188,
-0.38934722542762756,
1.1797062158584595,
0.48677054047584534,
0.6530294418334961,
0.2311716377735138,
-0.10110844671726227,
-0.12415843456983566,
0.45557960867881775,
-0.06295428425073624,
0.2174592912197113,
-0.1502632349729538,
0.37516865134239197,
0.572187066078186,
-0.4840044379234314,
0.27437683939933777,
-0.24229824542999268,
0.40374723076820374,
-0.3646657466888428,
0.26930519938468933,
-0.43166348338127136,
-0.2338940054178238,
-0.0038527310825884342,
-0.7060099840164185,
0.1626856029033661,
-0.0590752512216568,
0.6658216714859009,
-0.409472793340683,
-0.32006943225860596,
-0.15667250752449036,
-0.2936982810497284,
0.04090305045247078,
-0.22116760909557343,
0.1249798908829689,
-0.3099113404750824,
-0.1493406891822815,
0.04415203258395195,
0.1905113160610199,
-0.11606016755104065,
0.3563809096813202,
0.4657699465751648,
-0.45350974798202515,
0.21864745020866394,
-0.6606702208518982,
-0.30379894375801086,
-0.04183623939752579,
-0.6822400093078613,
-0.16312716901302338,
0.3922475576400757,
0.07226012647151947,
-0.0888727605342865,
-0.124776691198349,
0.3836473226547241,
0.7802879214286804,
-0.32180285453796387,
0.846166729927063,
-0.21588917076587677,
0.0912361815571785,
0.37341055274009705,
-0.3999198377132416,
-0.13397599756717682,
0.20977827906608582,
-0.04721767082810402,
-0.2262612134218216,
0.3444252014160156,
0.2764020264148712,
-0.6130223870277405,
-0.7789773941040039,
0.1591610163450241,
0.1698661595582962,
0.3912614583969116,
-1.0075891017913818,
-0.07956879585981369,
0.2741261124610901,
-0.0923955887556076,
-0.09763901680707932,
0.0010328431380912662,
-0.07425089180469513,
-0.2530517876148224,
0.7603580355644226,
-0.0546153262257576,
0.17327162623405457,
-0.22772574424743652,
0.03511270508170128,
-0.2787257730960846,
0.19359642267227173,
0.41570743918418884,
-0.3803885579109192,
0.04803561791777611,
0.34343743324279785,
0.39374518394470215,
-0.3904752731323242,
0.4773549735546112,
-0.30762073397636414,
0.2933899462223053,
-0.25833824276924133,
0.23031149804592133,
-0.5695363879203796,
-0.5514723658561707,
-0.1264502853155136,
0.42247554659843445,
-0.20851407945156097,
-0.33541199564933777,
0.1805150955915451,
-0.6968873143196106,
-0.19235336780548096,
-0.3513049781322479,
-0.04262774437665939,
0.23285982012748718,
0.08019739389419556,
-0.00029937346698716283,
-0.46685564517974854,
-0.14512111246585846,
0.2686549723148346,
-0.6092678904533386,
0.2790815234184265,
0.17976000905036926,
-0.2007680982351303,
-0.20032089948654175,
0.006966128014028072,
-0.28777235746383667,
0.1385272592306137,
1.0579283237457275
] |
200195
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crista
|
Crista
|
A crista (; plural cristae) is a fold in the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. The name is from the Latin for crest or plume, and it gives the inner membrane its characteristic wrinkled shape, providing a large amount of surface area for chemical reactions to occur on. This aids aerobic cellular respiration, because the mitochondrion requires oxygen. Cristae are studded with proteins, including ATP synthase and a variety of cytochromes.
Background
With the discovery of the dual-membrane nature of mitochondria, the pioneers of mitochondrial ultrastructural research proposed different models for the organization of the mitochondrial inner membrane. Three models proposed were:
Baffle model – According to Palade (1953), the mitochondrial inner membrane is convoluted in a baffle-like manner with broad openings towards the intra-cristal space. This model entered most textbooks and was widely believed for a long time.
Septa model – Sjöstrand (1953) suggested that sheets of inner membrane are spanned like septa (plural of septum) through the matrix, separating it into several distinct compartments.
Crista junction model – Daems and Wisse (1966) proposed that cristae are connected to the inner boundary membrane via tubular structures characterized by rather small diameters, termed crista junctions (CJs). In the middle of 1990s these structures were rediscovered by EM tomography, leading to the establishment of this currently widely accepted model.
More recent research (2019) finds rows of ATP synthase dimers (formerly known as "elementary particles" or "oxysomes") forming at the cristae. These membrane-curving dimers have a bent shape, and may be the first step to cristae formation. They are situated at the base of the crista. A mitochondrial contact site cristae organizing system (MICOS) protein complex occupies the crista junction. Proteins like OPA1 are involved in cristae remodeling.
Crista are traditionally sorted by shapes into lamellar, tubular, and vesicular cristae. They appear in different cell types. It is debated whether these shapes arise by different pathways.
Electron transport chain of the cristae
NADH is oxidized into NAD+, H+ ions, and electrons by an enzyme. FADH2 is also oxidized into H+ ions, electrons, and FAD. As those electrons travel farther through the electron transport chain in the inner membrane, energy is gradually released and used to pump the hydrogen ions from the splitting of NADH and FADH2 into the space between the inner membrane and the outer membrane (called the intermembrane space), creating an electrochemical gradient.
This electrochemical gradient creates potential energy (see ) across the inner mitochondrial membrane known as the proton-motive force. As a result, chemiosmosis occurs, and the enzyme ATP synthase produces ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. This harnesses the potential energy from the concentration gradient formed by the amount of H+ ions. H+ ions passively pass into the mitochondrial matrix by the ATP synthase, and later help to re-form H2O (water).
The electron transport chain requires a varying supply of electrons in order to properly function and generate ATP. However, the electrons that have entered the electron transport chain would eventually pile up like cars traveling down a blocked one-way street. Those electrons are finally accepted by oxygen (O2). As a result, they form two molecules of water (H2O). By accepting the electrons, oxygen allows the electron transport chain to continue functioning. The chain is organized in the cristae lumen membrane, i.e. the membrane inside the junction.
The electrons from each NADH molecule can form a total of 3 ATP's from ADPs and phosphate groups through the electron transport chain, while each FADH2 molecule can produce a total of 2 ATPs.
As a result, 10 NADH molecules (from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle), along with 2 FADH2 molecules, can form a total of 34 ATPs during aerobic respiration (from a single electron transport chain). This means that combined with the Krebs Cycle and glycolysis, the efficiency for the electron transport chain is about 65%, as compared to only 3.5% efficiency for glycolysis alone.
Function
The cristae greatly increase the surface area of the inner membrane on which the above-mentioned reactions may take place. A widely accepted hypothesis for the function of the cristae is that the high surface area allows an increased capacity for ATP generation. However, the current model is that active ATP synthase complexes localize preferentially in dimers to the narrow edges of the cristae. Thus, the surface area of mitochondrial membranes allocated to ATP syntheses is actually quite modest.
Mathematical modelling suggested that the optical properties of the cristae in filamentous mitochondria may affect the generation and propagation of light within the tissue.
References
Cellular respiration
Membrane biology
|
[
0.08504798263311386,
0.1780279129743576,
-0.20795972645282745,
0.12309375405311584,
-0.07670634239912033,
0.2260463833808899,
0.005283657927066088,
-0.016868820413947105,
-0.15547578036785126,
-0.9749479293823242,
-0.25506529211997986,
0.3020520508289337,
-0.4440044164657593,
0.1080125942826271,
-0.2933053970336914,
0.2199549823999405,
-0.10935886204242706,
0.2974042296409607,
-0.3549295663833618,
-0.4428110122680664,
-0.016688186675310135,
-0.17575760185718536,
-0.07890304923057556,
-0.16704227030277252,
0.31276118755340576,
-0.3640909194946289,
-0.30060985684394836,
0.05545690655708313,
1.0126807689666748,
0.014467119239270687,
0.0375390388071537,
0.45442816615104675,
0.1963725984096527,
-0.3289501667022705,
-0.015658365562558174,
-0.40141141414642334,
-0.08684603124856949,
-0.5256922841072083,
0.010897167026996613,
-0.3382650911808014,
-0.11058183014392853,
-0.003158649429678917,
0.20799458026885986,
0.5390943288803101,
-0.3202170729637146,
-0.15143539011478424,
-0.8145347237586975,
1.316072702407837,
-0.42221710085868835,
0.4467746317386627,
0.032730668783187866,
0.11879255622625351,
0.46221238374710083,
0.19526395201683044,
-0.3036312162876129,
0.5138512253761292,
-0.6884922981262207,
0.2132738083600998,
0.3982413113117218,
-1.1811082363128662,
-0.04167399927973747,
0.41517508029937744,
0.45374128222465515,
0.25152909755706787,
0.4707874655723572,
0.45015859603881836,
0.01143675297498703,
-0.10911981016397476,
-0.2830118238925934,
-0.3545779585838318,
-0.4328078031539917,
-0.28330251574516296,
0.21012751758098602,
0.04278042912483215,
0.01661035604774952,
0.04761490598320961,
-1.0155071020126343,
-0.17660914361476898,
0.21296139061450958,
0.38560721278190613,
-0.6605303287506104,
0.3170776069164276,
-0.4047588109970093,
0.3041664958000183,
0.47077885270118713,
-0.10599292069673538,
-1.185310959815979,
0.5602973103523254,
-0.5612743496894836,
0.21552743017673492,
-0.031183386221528053,
-0.14530518651008606,
0.6807464361190796,
0.25825798511505127,
0.2386355847120285,
-0.3113144636154175,
0.6943631172180176,
-0.482195645570755,
-0.03698936477303505,
0.2391832023859024,
-0.6357058882713318,
0.08782202750444412,
0.46257320046424866,
-0.6154623031616211,
-0.049623582512140274,
0.1875663548707962,
-0.1354551911354065,
-0.5565472841262817,
-0.1744542270898819,
0.25501564145088196,
-0.3072108328342438,
-0.5195913910865784,
-0.49718189239501953,
-0.09678421169519424,
-0.5054360628128052,
0.023560265079140663,
0.10211440920829773,
-0.4431684911251068,
-0.13717912137508392,
-0.59086012840271,
-0.6275345683097839,
0.8006935119628906,
0.6145333051681519,
0.29828059673309326,
-0.4320937395095825,
-0.19571880996227264,
0.500842273235321,
0.2869850695133209,
-0.38116392493247986,
0.5801255106925964,
0.016888437792658806,
0.9902797937393188,
0.1927902102470398,
0.6636251211166382,
-0.018658630549907684,
0.2043020874261856,
-0.39967474341392517,
0.5521116256713867,
0.7948893904685974,
0.35181644558906555,
-0.39778634905815125,
-0.3826438784599304,
-0.2630448043346405,
-0.008013556711375713,
-0.03341063857078552,
-1.0503054857254028,
-0.38699397444725037,
-0.3114173412322998,
-0.21806348860263824,
-0.4353494942188263,
0.42864707112312317,
-0.11087899655103683,
0.29939886927604675,
-0.16724050045013428,
-0.7129791975021362,
0.17094556987285614,
0.9843049049377441,
0.012813994660973549,
-0.028723599389195442,
0.006533215753734112,
0.17474809288978577,
-0.25390952825546265,
-0.6515466570854187,
0.16623179614543915,
-0.20806880295276642,
0.7574664354324341,
0.6420786380767822,
0.49901506304740906,
0.48924800753593445,
0.7418916821479797,
-0.20435911417007446,
-0.1972343772649765,
0.46531572937965393,
0.14555969834327698,
-0.7141039967536926,
0.005889940075576305,
0.5445971488952637,
0.04328589141368866,
0.417911559343338,
-0.1838078498840332,
-0.5029588937759399,
-0.9001849293708801,
-0.3485952913761139,
0.19898253679275513,
-0.14141739904880524,
-0.42104125022888184,
0.4478469491004944,
-0.3279062807559967,
-0.747042715549469,
0.02543804608285427,
-0.33027926087379456,
-0.017584554851055145,
-0.10341960936784744,
-0.06869028508663177,
1.5702729225158691,
-0.2639748752117157,
-0.4251329302787781,
1.0227808952331543,
0.4756753146648407,
-0.2272525578737259,
-1.0846469402313232,
0.10379716753959656,
0.397497296333313,
-0.3816611170768738,
-0.34422793984413147,
0.5921473503112793,
0.38491758704185486,
0.47565600275993347,
0.006189628969877958,
-0.10388808697462082,
0.17290394008159637,
-0.10530082881450653,
0.10435565561056137,
-0.5510803461074829,
0.07644029706716537,
-0.5956886410713196,
-0.2998306453227997,
0.5562782883644104,
-0.48224708437919617,
-0.07701492309570312,
1.1035467386245728,
-0.5634778141975403,
0.0775633379817009,
0.5891624689102173,
-0.27571094036102295,
0.9434387683868408,
0.4198838174343109,
0.27391156554222107,
0.4768616259098053,
-0.6282238960266113,
-0.20922791957855225,
-0.779212236404419,
0.599730908870697,
0.06564047187566757,
-0.26691755652427673,
-0.06188996881246567,
0.4530644118785858,
-0.3362308442592621,
-0.3498184084892273,
-0.7114977836608887,
0.07300739735364914,
0.522715151309967,
-0.4234084188938141,
-0.004143650643527508,
0.4784533977508545,
-0.1961088627576828,
-0.021437814459204674,
-0.05246340110898018,
0.06303205341100693,
0.6949807405471802,
-0.5269738435745239,
0.3820813000202179,
-0.021281063556671143,
-0.6549512147903442,
0.03415261209011078,
0.0699193999171257,
0.4712443947792053,
0.4607055187225342,
0.5372856259346008,
0.09672756493091583,
0.11196938902139664,
0.08642296493053436,
-0.0032220829743891954,
-0.3164127469062805,
-0.36335697770118713,
-0.22918888926506042,
0.44595810770988464,
-0.18799181282520294,
1.2550461292266846,
0.28898364305496216,
0.7601419687271118,
0.3019309639930725,
-0.807232677936554,
0.09713611006736755,
-0.16295692324638367,
-0.652050793170929,
-0.07721180468797684,
0.28605449199676514,
-0.024417540058493614,
-0.009548798203468323,
-0.258643239736557,
-0.21209558844566345,
0.40059036016464233,
0.08844573050737381,
0.11936783045530319,
0.4944291412830353,
0.40798401832580566,
-0.5186859369277954,
-0.2126719057559967,
-0.612841784954071,
-0.3719725012779236,
0.804132342338562,
-0.044194236397743225,
0.39314374327659607,
-0.02903449721634388,
0.5979854464530945,
-0.2603788375854492,
0.019315127283334732,
0.43717679381370544,
-1.0242053270339966,
-0.8551823496818542,
-0.35414406657218933,
-0.294160932302475,
0.05305040255188942,
0.3105064034461975,
0.06351153552532196,
0.2575812041759491,
0.03786313906311989,
-5.550711154937744,
0.07775852829217911,
0.41450443863868713,
-0.3661689758300781,
0.5254514813423157,
0.3306714594364166,
0.43613770604133606,
-0.5334525108337402,
0.10097624361515045,
-0.38297462463378906,
-0.20219577848911285,
0.01443957444280386,
-0.10926719009876251,
0.47899651527404785,
0.04097135365009308,
0.20204494893550873,
-0.681364119052887,
0.4519064128398895,
0.30434900522232056,
-0.4035070538520813,
-0.17267411947250366,
0.37197962403297424,
0.11569008976221085,
-0.09680997580289841,
-0.4955044686794281,
-0.17983824014663696,
-0.2775323688983917,
-0.21956579387187958,
-0.04090753197669983,
-0.2956213355064392,
-0.020589597523212433,
-0.15409716963768005,
-0.3213649094104767,
0.04969842731952667,
-0.2669835388660431,
0.06253586709499359,
0.2704375088214874,
-0.6113936305046082,
0.07792594283819199,
0.2679779529571533,
-0.37184402346611023,
1.1361817121505737,
0.26002639532089233,
-0.3144931495189667,
0.5965123772621155,
-0.5035167336463928,
-0.8120003938674927,
-0.26745226979255676,
-0.007463192101567984,
0.815974235534668,
0.1326478123664856,
-0.01099134236574173,
0.1920149326324463,
0.022653674706816673,
0.31681740283966064,
0.352652907371521,
0.4635007381439209,
-0.25507205724716187,
-0.7563868165016174,
-0.2513001561164856,
-0.03538251295685768,
-0.5423670411109924,
-0.4772142171859741,
-0.631034255027771,
-0.08731731027364731,
0.15603867173194885,
-0.797938346862793,
-0.3005882501602173,
0.6595286130905151,
-0.0012954080011695623,
-0.053126003593206406,
0.26421675086021423,
0.1936923712491989,
-0.9228437542915344,
-0.08698978275060654,
-0.5591186285018921,
-0.31700730323791504,
-0.3086927831172943,
-0.05818519741296768,
0.08071550726890564,
-0.3407492935657501,
-0.06006990745663643,
-0.7631056308746338,
-0.23299585282802582,
-0.19037394225597382,
-0.30311185121536255,
-0.24515682458877563,
0.11414466053247452,
-0.41088545322418213,
0.21700768172740936,
0.41141048073768616,
-0.5629450678825378,
0.03094935044646263,
0.3066160976886749,
0.17681021988391876,
0.5298891663551331,
-0.29947417974472046,
0.2391750067472458,
0.8261674046516418,
0.47402510046958923,
0.6157467365264893,
-0.27625858783721924,
-0.27206891775131226,
0.14224672317504883,
-0.261280357837677,
-0.1008106991648674,
-0.07202336192131042,
0.09188038855791092,
0.6175061464309692,
0.056690048426389694,
0.23809762299060822,
0.02112092263996601,
-0.3877687454223633,
-0.33766889572143555,
0.21771171689033508,
-0.10954456031322479,
-0.4693334698677063,
0.0362570621073246,
0.41375797986984253,
-0.21045096218585968,
0.3723686933517456,
-0.09389126300811768,
-0.1875406801700592,
0.24456752836704254,
-0.5120388269424438,
0.11992740631103516,
0.6529737114906311,
-0.18307483196258545,
0.06803860515356064,
0.16544681787490845,
-0.06427376717329025,
-0.15950533747673035,
0.2598828673362732,
0.11831331253051758,
0.4164644777774811,
0.014415143057703972,
-0.3492284119129181,
0.6254281401634216,
0.22999432682991028,
-0.08108323067426682,
-0.19109614193439484,
-0.09575139731168747,
-0.5378941893577576,
0.06294858455657959,
0.7522246241569519,
0.14892421662807465,
-0.7182650566101074,
0.43025925755500793,
-0.4782857894897461,
0.4978272616863251,
-0.004062870517373085,
-0.04694134369492531,
0.27599385380744934,
-0.17354124784469604,
0.058598101139068604,
0.09566111862659454,
0.6683200597763062,
0.26257607340812683,
0.0626024380326271,
-0.5807844400405884,
-0.23332969844341278,
0.15884120762348175,
-0.882897138595581,
0.4815100431442261,
-0.21444210410118103,
-0.5029187798500061,
-0.49890241026878357,
-0.5674238204956055,
-0.8411706686019897,
-0.12589533627033234,
-0.8177425265312195,
0.5406343340873718,
0.19911280274391174,
-0.4331888258457184,
-0.6038534641265869,
0.01938539184629917,
-0.001730762654915452,
0.38089290261268616,
-0.15128691494464874,
0.038847267627716064,
-0.24209927022457123,
0.1530829221010208,
0.3519982099533081,
0.19770711660385132,
0.014356059953570366,
-0.07228104770183563,
-0.3215412199497223,
-0.383964478969574,
0.04833066090941429,
-0.2510579228401184,
0.12937897443771362,
0.025542739778757095,
0.016945768147706985,
-0.25422850251197815,
-0.018668221309781075,
0.7445601224899292,
-0.40435877442359924,
0.48001328110694885,
-0.254459023475647,
-0.9582394361495972,
-0.4262924790382385,
0.07465391606092453,
-0.6665942668914795,
0.3902904987335205,
0.2900913655757904,
-0.0093398941680789,
0.587682843208313,
-0.028766945004463196,
-0.12920652329921722,
0.4960572123527527,
-0.5436362624168396,
-0.5729936361312866,
0.09694229066371918,
0.6449266076087952,
-0.10151002556085587,
0.5289630889892578,
-0.11729081720113754,
0.08345003426074982,
-0.12796810269355774,
-0.32235220074653625,
0.24151791632175446,
-0.24003806710243225,
0.3639037013053894,
-0.4648887813091278,
-0.46867480874061584,
0.18508706986904144,
-0.1785190850496292,
-0.4666811525821686,
0.5584829449653625,
-0.2927447557449341,
0.1657007932662964,
-0.10128524899482727,
0.3254031836986542,
-0.07312412559986115,
0.016122642904520035,
-0.5667487382888794,
-0.49769362807273865,
-0.11418672651052475,
0.07885623723268509,
0.1430996209383011,
0.970023512840271,
0.6655980348587036,
-0.17778341472148895,
0.41804569959640503,
-0.22519345581531525,
0.5915871262550354,
0.25932881236076355,
-0.6443972587585449,
-0.5043309330940247,
0.12126367539167404,
0.8830353617668152,
-0.45978277921676636,
-0.6302580237388611,
-0.23587825894355774,
0.574016809463501,
0.39747923612594604,
-0.18692001700401306,
0.1100778877735138,
-0.22382937371730804,
0.4118633568286896,
-0.33231186866760254,
-0.4773009419441223,
0.053086619824171066,
0.31515687704086304,
-0.40337949991226196,
0.2374395877122879,
-0.17325027287006378,
-0.3341270685195923,
-0.021421082317829132,
-0.45658984780311584,
0.7482712864875793,
0.13072416186332703,
0.3506295382976532,
-0.12424091249704361,
-0.5023815631866455,
0.8093500733375549,
0.49355363845825195,
0.0802854523062706,
0.25971055030822754,
-0.16160476207733154,
-0.5460663437843323,
-0.005513988900929689,
0.21852810680866241,
0.19079084694385529,
0.10083656758069992,
-0.27786344289779663,
-0.08074682205915451,
0.3061293661594391,
0.0020495078060775995,
0.004696487449109554,
-0.5268978476524353,
-0.5607903003692627,
-0.13588160276412964,
-0.06167338043451309,
0.6964197158813477,
0.16254903376102448,
0.024593254551291466,
0.6380452513694763,
-0.12427183985710144,
0.7281746864318848,
-1.2343404293060303,
0.07156307250261307,
0.22467683255672455,
-0.7687998414039612,
0.20231308043003082,
-0.25689494609832764,
-0.3151068389415741,
-0.1351025551557541,
-0.5381823182106018,
0.18939630687236786,
-0.1543852537870407,
-0.08031533658504486,
0.05908682942390442,
-0.1794062852859497,
-0.5460889935493469,
-0.15448246896266937,
0.6026559472084045,
-0.6171153783798218,
-0.13979709148406982,
0.5074524283409119,
0.04117535427212715,
0.3970792293548584,
0.03950055316090584,
-0.43620309233665466,
-0.47259432077407837,
0.13541215658187866,
0.08539662510156631,
0.35659101605415344,
-0.5412375330924988,
0.8177631497383118,
1.1608742475509644,
-0.2611919641494751,
0.2831222712993622,
0.07557103782892227,
0.059955477714538574,
-0.6453395485877991,
-0.13385261595249176,
-0.3152972459793091,
-0.10030417889356613,
1.0778322219848633,
0.4192371070384979,
0.7693769335746765,
0.3258640468120575,
0.28783607482910156,
-0.020120255649089813,
0.16606676578521729,
-0.20436818897724152,
0.15664751827716827,
-0.17871953547000885,
0.41791683435440063,
0.4775349497795105,
-0.7080420255661011,
0.08851023763418198,
0.1679738163948059,
0.004329032264649868,
0.2581651508808136,
0.9866994619369507,
0.27572107315063477,
-0.1704196333885193,
0.38609540462493896,
-0.20657765865325928,
0.4311487674713135,
0.20860834419727325,
0.49144160747528076,
-0.016260048374533653,
-0.19172097742557526,
-0.35679295659065247,
-0.3655705749988556,
-0.25579482316970825,
-0.44474664330482483,
0.13994555175304413,
0.2885318100452423,
-0.6406636834144592,
0.228504478931427,
-0.2719011902809143,
-0.375031441450119,
-0.026703892275691032,
0.4973049759864807,
0.1485806256532669,
0.3305317461490631,
-0.2396431416273117,
-0.2917870581150055,
-0.09996099770069122,
-0.6260330677032471,
-0.22542820870876312,
0.0721578299999237,
-0.12624208629131317,
-0.06409970670938492,
-0.10988066345453262,
-0.0990743637084961,
0.2297096699476242,
-0.3677881956100464,
0.8346919417381287,
-0.19949644804000854,
-0.4083273410797119,
0.17441317439079285,
0.21051864326000214,
-0.000582299311645329,
0.7420175075531006,
-0.04596132040023804,
-0.2276693731546402,
0.47788164019584656,
-0.05862799659371376,
-0.26304128766059875,
-0.29417699575424194,
0.15733745694160461,
0.20124395191669464,
0.3737606704235077,
-0.48422420024871826,
-0.21683789789676666,
0.756379246711731,
0.14743636548519135,
-0.15328828990459442,
0.7882512807846069,
0.4525161385536194,
0.8413175344467163,
0.5100595951080322,
-0.28961801528930664,
0.5197882056236267,
0.1084086075425148,
-0.04406527429819107,
-0.08066260814666748,
0.23290325701236725,
0.20861387252807617,
0.2142951339483261,
0.2245582491159439,
0.7237632274627686,
0.181473046541214,
-0.5223656296730042,
0.308637410402298,
-0.05942457541823387,
-0.038715846836566925,
-0.5284842252731323,
0.34219470620155334,
-0.21204565465450287,
-0.20981480181217194,
-0.2915099561214447,
-0.09040975570678711,
0.5777767300605774,
-0.2680625021457672,
0.6658900380134583,
0.07039602845907211,
-0.38310152292251587,
-0.5485420823097229,
-0.2806703746318817,
0.2749611437320709,
-0.6466377973556519,
-0.35879889130592346,
-0.12054017186164856,
-0.01308866124600172,
0.10605715960264206,
-0.515595555305481,
0.5386714935302734,
-0.12593130767345428,
-0.14667809009552002,
-0.2310917228460312,
-0.1977594941854477,
-0.027502678334712982,
0.04184766858816147,
0.648045539855957
] |
200199
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remora
|
Remora
|
The remora , sometimes called suckerfish, is any of a family (Echeneidae) of ray-finned fish in the order Carangiformes. Depending on species, they grow to long. Their distinctive first dorsal fins take the form of a modified oval, sucker-like organ with slat-like structures that open and close to create suction and take a firm hold against the skin of larger marine animals. The disk is made up of stout, flexible membranes that can be raised and lowered to generate suction. By sliding backward, the remora can increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attach to small boats, and have been observed attaching to divers as well. They swim well on their own, with a sinuous, or curved, motion.
Characteristics
Remora front dorsal fins have evolved to enable them to adhere by suction to smooth surfaces, and they spend most of their lives clinging to a host animal such as a whale, turtle, shark or ray. It is probably a mutualistic arrangement as the remora can move around on the host, removing ectoparasites and loose flakes of skin, while benefiting from the protection provided by the host and the constant flow of water across its gills. Although it was initially believed that remoras fed off particulate matter from the host's meals, this has been shown to be false; in reality, their diets are composed primarily of host feces.
Habitat
Remoras are tropical open-ocean dwellers, but are occasionally found in temperate or coastal waters if they have attached to large fish that have wandered into these areas. In the mid-Atlantic Ocean, spawning usually takes place in June and July; in the Mediterranean Sea, it occurs in August and September. The sucking disc begins to show when the young fish are about long. When the remora reaches about , the disc is fully formed and the remora can then attach to other animals. The remora's lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and the animal lacks a swim bladder.
Some remoras associate with specific host species. They are commonly found attached to sharks, manta rays, whales, turtles, and dugongs, hence the common names "sharksucker" and "whalesucker". Smaller remoras also fasten onto fish such as tuna and swordfish, and some small remoras travel in the mouths or gills of large manta rays, ocean sunfish, swordfish and sailfish.
The relationship between a remora and its host is most often taken to be one of commensalism, specifically phoresy.
Physiology
Research into the physiology of the remora has been of significant benefit to the understanding of ventilation costs in fish.
Remoras, like many other fishes, have two different modes of ventilation. Ram ventilation is the process in which at higher speeds, the remora uses the force of the water moving past it to create movement of fluid in the gills. Alternatively, at lower speeds the remora will use a form of active ventilation, in which the fish actively moves fluid through its gills. In order to use active ventilation, a fish must actively use energy to move the fluid; however, determining this energy cost is normally complicated due to the movement of the fish when using either method. As a result, the remora has proved invaluable in finding this cost difference (since they will stick to a shark or tube, and hence remain stationary despite the movement or lack thereof of water). Experimental data from studies on remora found that the associated cost for active ventilation created a 3.7–5.1% increased energy consumption in order to maintain the same quantity of fluid flow the fish obtained by using ram ventilation.
Other research into the remora's physiology came about as a result of studies across multiple taxa, or using the remora as an out-group for certain evolutionary studies. Concerning the latter case, remoras were used as an outgroup when investigating tetrodotoxin resistance in remoras, pufferfish, and related species, finding remoras (specifically Echeneis naucrates) had a resistance of 6.1–5.5 M.
Use for fishing
Some cultures use remoras to catch turtles. A cord or rope is fastened to the remora's tail, and when a turtle is sighted, the fish is released from the boat; it usually heads directly for the turtle and fastens itself to the turtle's shell, and then both remora and turtle are hauled in. Smaller turtles can be pulled completely into the boat by this method, while larger ones are hauled within harpooning range. This practice has been reported throughout the Indian Ocean, especially from eastern Africa near Zanzibar and Mozambique, and from northern Australia near Cape York and Torres Strait.
Similar reports come from Japan and from the Americas. Some of the first records of the "fishing fish" in the Western literature come from the accounts of the second voyage of Christopher Columbus. However, Leo Wiener considers the Columbus accounts to be apocryphal: what was taken for accounts of the Americas may have been, in fact, notes Columbus derived from accounts of the East Indies, his desired destination.
Mythology
In ancient times, the remora was believed to stop a ship from sailing. In Latin, remora means "delay", while the genus name Echeneis comes from Greek ἔχειν, echein ("to hold") and ναῦς, naus ("a ship"). In a notable account by Pliny the Elder, the remora is blamed for the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium and, indirectly, for the death of Caligula. A modern version of the story is given by Jorge Luis Borges in Book of Imaginary Beings (1957).
Gallery
Timeline
See also
List of fish families
References
External links
Scavengers
Carangiformes
Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque
|
[
-0.19913309812545776,
-0.36161231994628906,
-0.28004616498947144,
0.27352821826934814,
0.15646900236606598,
0.812892496585846,
0.23972320556640625,
0.27864930033683777,
-0.5804972052574158,
-0.472570538520813,
-0.09624651074409485,
0.7617433071136475,
-0.28532448410987854,
0.07560494542121887,
-0.0908854603767395,
0.8049204349517822,
0.3685963749885559,
0.20849496126174927,
-0.06965107470750809,
0.07251542806625366,
-0.5590009093284607,
-0.5531318783760071,
0.6385526061058044,
-0.4370764493942261,
0.3532610535621643,
0.3028024137020111,
0.0204511396586895,
0.5347521305084229,
0.23647581040859222,
-0.36327221989631653,
0.2764529287815094,
0.5564987659454346,
0.11302361637353897,
0.16608105599880219,
-0.09478835761547089,
-0.10496680438518524,
-0.4495105445384979,
-0.6609647870063782,
-0.4951254725456238,
-0.2816413640975952,
0.11098916828632355,
-0.045659828931093216,
0.142582505941391,
0.23107993602752686,
-0.32960596680641174,
0.2929060161113739,
-0.8979682922363281,
0.26584914326667786,
-0.4674435257911682,
0.3949397802352905,
-0.46660661697387695,
0.4011850357055664,
0.07604542374610901,
0.4099354147911072,
0.14479565620422363,
0.4092746675014496,
-0.6336326003074646,
0.3294767439365387,
-0.24699683487415314,
-0.8183467388153076,
-0.2712278664112091,
0.2891765236854553,
0.3091019093990326,
0.23977407813072205,
-0.033751364797353745,
0.7638351917266846,
0.10750988870859146,
-0.11659135669469833,
-0.46713313460350037,
-0.07935737818479538,
0.15016135573387146,
-0.749072253704071,
-0.028679752722382545,
0.6006494760513306,
-0.6272704005241394,
-0.4094996154308319,
-0.4265349805355072,
-0.13541720807552338,
0.47401246428489685,
-0.33043333888053894,
0.486777126789093,
0.03882632404565811,
0.44252726435661316,
0.40447306632995605,
-0.18389008939266205,
-0.16063223779201508,
-0.4371316432952881,
0.3879435360431671,
-0.43697530031204224,
0.42917636036872864,
-0.37998536229133606,
-0.19223114848136902,
0.7702634334564209,
0.535227358341217,
-0.15170790255069733,
-0.5721527338027954,
-0.3199012875556946,
0.03799523413181305,
0.6457167863845825,
0.05211259797215462,
-0.431528240442276,
-0.43342161178588867,
0.6286168098449707,
0.26223012804985046,
-0.7713267207145691,
-0.1357855349779129,
-0.49173763394355774,
-0.48530545830726624,
-0.3690599799156189,
0.49495407938957214,
-0.5079654455184937,
0.3246871531009674,
0.271785169839859,
-0.11759865283966064,
-0.1914069801568985,
0.07298847287893295,
-0.46258535981178284,
0.014802313409745693,
-0.5127629637718201,
-0.6819383502006531,
0.5482134222984314,
-0.09982733428478241,
0.5515108108520508,
0.16400711238384247,
0.010516227222979069,
-0.05392678454518318,
0.4812787175178528,
0.3211739957332611,
-0.7135414481163025,
0.04524504393339157,
0.5158897042274475,
0.5788662433624268,
-0.43644338846206665,
0.34135812520980835,
-0.498618483543396,
-0.06167542189359665,
-0.37228330969810486,
-0.5107955932617188,
0.24252721667289734,
0.40543919801712036,
-0.7845873832702637,
0.2255314737558365,
-0.641103982925415,
-0.38764455914497375,
0.054865483194589615,
-0.23161949217319489,
0.554455578327179,
0.15473982691764832,
-0.5153558850288391,
-0.5115523338317871,
0.33410850167274475,
0.40854886174201965,
0.0809389054775238,
-0.01104974839836359,
-0.5391288995742798,
-0.19442881643772125,
0.46471697092056274,
-0.4510011672973633,
0.43612080812454224,
-0.22442415356636047,
-0.21894727647304535,
0.16891367733478546,
-0.6506816744804382,
0.23932619392871857,
0.5502985715866089,
-0.14830099046230316,
-0.10106614232063293,
0.1529712826013565,
-0.3033953607082367,
0.3859724998474121,
0.3424789309501648,
0.3281921446323395,
1.1923787593841553,
0.13545849919319153,
-0.5291547179222107,
-0.5960339903831482,
-0.216614231467247,
0.5219451189041138,
1.1083139181137085,
-0.5878692865371704,
-0.6596353054046631,
0.4116297960281372,
-0.008675109595060349,
0.08125074207782745,
-0.39829766750335693,
-0.06706821173429489,
0.01459707785397768,
0.09515342861413956,
0.3672473728656769,
-0.29265132546424866,
-0.4819508492946625,
-0.5737119317054749,
-0.39083120226860046,
0.04031099006533623,
0.7062374949455261,
0.006818421185016632,
-0.5393418073654175,
0.2849164307117462,
-0.07503162324428558,
0.21011482179164886,
-0.5116452574729919,
-0.31240177154541016,
-0.16465499997138977,
-0.29321667551994324,
-1.1388615369796753,
0.2481219619512558,
0.12108690291643143,
0.33587339520454407,
0.44045552611351013,
0.14254319667816162,
-0.18051199615001678,
-0.6351502537727356,
-0.12084943801164627,
-0.5791876316070557,
0.025309991091489792,
0.09493575245141983,
-0.08741411566734314,
-0.07453546673059464,
-0.22449767589569092,
-0.4367087781429291,
1.01960027217865,
-0.342954158782959,
-0.06026466190814972,
0.5088245272636414,
0.18840016424655914,
0.9874864220619202,
0.9118571877479553,
-0.03402532637119293,
0.6167230606079102,
-0.3528745770454407,
0.24619027972221375,
0.28693896532058716,
0.5109241008758545,
-0.3800169825553894,
0.16389384865760803,
-0.16472288966178894,
0.14146126806735992,
-0.6095797419548035,
0.5954306125640869,
-0.44094419479370117,
0.2217063307762146,
-0.20853491127490997,
-0.022640589624643326,
0.09995169937610626,
1.0840123891830444,
-0.14877717196941376,
0.012749099172651768,
0.3110240697860718,
-0.24027685821056366,
-0.08588840812444687,
-0.12053561955690384,
0.8163019418716431,
0.44666141271591187,
-0.45633912086486816,
0.21703317761421204,
0.3788790702819824,
0.35061752796173096,
0.2271612584590912,
-0.005986426491290331,
0.03372291475534439,
-0.47218096256256104,
0.776192843914032,
-0.044440265744924545,
0.22682513296604156,
-0.10313279926776886,
-0.09794647246599197,
0.3072449266910553,
-0.10232723504304886,
0.6093811988830566,
1.0317001342773438,
0.016062261536717415,
0.5374487042427063,
-0.7020389437675476,
0.0721493512392044,
-0.2709498405456543,
-0.20040826499462128,
0.2135692685842514,
0.05513491481542587,
-0.2931956350803375,
-0.4945008158683777,
0.17893892526626587,
0.27893176674842834,
-0.17368611693382263,
-0.30728012323379517,
-0.38345542550086975,
-0.40326929092407227,
0.08809180557727814,
-0.18593953549861908,
-0.30223047733306885,
-0.41249802708625793,
-0.4387437701225281,
0.14242354035377502,
-0.21389295160770416,
0.3100261986255646,
-0.8306721448898315,
-0.22416743636131287,
-0.3723030388355255,
0.42195314168930054,
0.7133592963218689,
-0.7800737023353577,
-0.6622290015220642,
-0.31002840399742126,
0.20569577813148499,
0.3259525001049042,
0.1728297621011734,
-0.33965420722961426,
0.5927503705024719,
0.5243855118751526,
-5.60416316986084,
-0.3158177137374878,
-0.5693473815917969,
0.39348849654197693,
0.7169985771179199,
0.694170355796814,
0.39780569076538086,
-0.5098525881767273,
0.33521878719329834,
-0.285356342792511,
0.8291653394699097,
0.47640934586524963,
-0.48044291138648987,
0.1863422840833664,
0.0351681113243103,
-0.10928665101528168,
-0.10048164427280426,
0.4835890233516693,
-0.06579681485891342,
-0.16459980607032776,
0.056149158626794815,
0.11391520500183105,
0.04861905425786972,
0.3839980959892273,
-0.582733154296875,
-0.20095282793045044,
-0.07723626494407654,
-0.4460564851760864,
-0.11555338650941849,
-0.4215804636478424,
-0.1364828199148178,
0.079215407371521,
-0.6372902393341064,
-0.03241024166345596,
0.002263064030557871,
-0.27980855107307434,
0.44121336936950684,
-0.04313161224126816,
0.10476189106702805,
-0.6083768010139465,
-0.6244356036186218,
0.3931457996368408,
0.296269029378891,
-0.21111595630645752,
0.2994198203086853,
0.0035412588622421026,
0.26964935660362244,
-0.1559375673532486,
0.11818721145391464,
1.0678900480270386,
0.32368165254592896,
-0.033822186291217804,
0.3158921003341675,
1.0380316972732544,
0.8477841019630432,
-0.037479132413864136,
0.11635445803403854,
-0.08454874157905579,
0.08811215311288834,
0.2459641695022583,
0.5626815557479858,
-0.4641776978969574,
-0.5446146726608276,
-0.9162084460258484,
0.029505228623747826,
-0.3616430163383484,
-0.6716833114624023,
0.11685896664857864,
0.4740167558193207,
0.15902529656887054,
-0.6873754858970642,
0.41905927658081055,
0.023684300482273102,
-0.8135266304016113,
0.5044007897377014,
-0.022753162309527397,
-0.29322418570518494,
0.1873389333486557,
-0.27378159761428833,
0.08354354649782181,
-0.18965286016464233,
-0.12058356404304504,
-0.08149971067905426,
0.29578909277915955,
0.055470094084739685,
-1.1503276824951172,
-0.558169960975647,
-0.08432649821043015,
0.3306930959224701,
-0.4226575791835785,
0.12516020238399506,
-0.2857888340950012,
0.4784983694553375,
-0.34418970346450806,
0.5634413957595825,
0.9432043433189392,
-0.08754247426986694,
0.36369675397872925,
0.6115707755088806,
-0.5379919409751892,
0.306667298078537,
-0.18935011327266693,
-0.26609840989112854,
0.08319543302059174,
0.08237171173095703,
-0.3970324695110321,
0.2450263798236847,
0.1718263179063797,
0.5399057865142822,
-0.651238203048706,
0.15028084814548492,
-0.478704571723938,
-0.583407461643219,
-0.30950257182121277,
0.207972452044487,
0.10681448876857758,
-0.28671807050704956,
0.11877700686454773,
0.6223459243774414,
0.23502767086029053,
0.22898757457733154,
0.6437440514564514,
-0.7732059955596924,
0.046945471316576004,
-0.5329805016517639,
-0.6153675317764282,
-0.04632554203271866,
-0.4164981544017792,
-0.1639261692762375,
-0.19775041937828064,
0.35567405819892883,
-0.3356002867221832,
0.058111291378736496,
-0.03151630982756615,
0.09218525141477585,
-0.23502904176712036,
0.34668484330177307,
0.03688878193497658,
-0.22226105630397797,
-0.2541923224925995,
-0.4841686487197876,
-0.36472538113594055,
-0.02982519008219242,
-0.3332282602787018,
0.4788656234741211,
0.16844190657138824,
-0.5760032534599304,
-0.16080811619758606,
0.03997698053717613,
1.1134955883026123,
0.014809134416282177,
-0.07632382959127426,
0.31890565156936646,
-0.5527094006538391,
0.7180470824241638,
-0.15192227065563202,
0.17502817511558533,
0.5779050588607788,
0.0412728488445282,
-0.13890862464904785,
-0.32708215713500977,
-0.3134549856185913,
-0.9015403389930725,
-0.051861293613910675,
-0.03792662173509598,
0.21307578682899475,
-0.8956892490386963,
-0.20296435058116913,
0.46203839778900146,
0.18560709059238434,
-0.00389429135248065,
0.015390964224934578,
-0.44312259554862976,
-0.07305275648832321,
-0.14394143223762512,
-0.41730889678001404,
-0.5036396384239197,
0.4250606298446655,
-0.28488871455192566,
-0.14350946247577667,
-0.001796539407223463,
0.017602533102035522,
0.5185689330101013,
-0.28358301520347595,
0.3770339787006378,
-0.48357540369033813,
0.019298136234283447,
-0.23890088498592377,
-0.40082046389579773,
-0.19305066764354706,
0.05545073375105858,
0.5693366527557373,
0.36078622937202454,
-0.21806368231773376,
-0.38956961035728455,
0.08225587755441666,
-0.3453856408596039,
0.5479713082313538,
-0.42037081718444824,
-0.6917691826820374,
-0.27403661608695984,
-0.015044371597468853,
-0.4660049378871918,
0.24605953693389893,
0.12644819915294647,
-0.02706553228199482,
0.27071136236190796,
-0.14070934057235718,
-0.25700053572654724,
0.4294211268424988,
-0.2536400258541107,
-0.5349749326705933,
0.12196436524391174,
1.0629172325134277,
-0.1025511845946312,
0.21264570951461792,
-0.1057901456952095,
-0.0654546394944191,
-0.030583824962377548,
0.320919007062912,
-0.4638938903808594,
-0.17829807102680206,
-0.05516575649380684,
-0.35633426904678345,
-0.452928751707077,
0.2947734594345093,
0.17224431037902832,
-0.3894273638725281,
0.5098657011985779,
-0.35757699608802795,
0.11094058305025101,
-0.7343431711196899,
-0.05089228227734566,
-0.3809569478034973,
0.5096521973609924,
0.004173256456851959,
0.012775672599673271,
0.31215742230415344,
-0.06487997621297836,
0.3207268714904785,
0.7017351984977722,
1.148676872253418,
0.2549545168876648,
0.3710184693336487,
0.10350150614976883,
0.5809311270713806,
0.18850462138652802,
0.20636919140815735,
-0.8288425207138062,
0.3048176169395447,
0.9677568674087524,
0.0011757421307265759,
-0.11673489212989807,
0.16771699488162994,
0.6756388545036316,
-0.45860785245895386,
0.18409037590026855,
-0.013955280184745789,
-0.0011627782369032502,
0.9899327158927917,
0.31858500838279724,
0.1666136384010315,
-0.42399150133132935,
-0.23988394439220428,
0.2004559338092804,
-0.8385316729545593,
-0.479462206363678,
0.007173508871346712,
0.30771446228027344,
0.06506720930337906,
0.14004158973693848,
0.4893513023853302,
0.23873130977153778,
0.6586471199989319,
-0.15773127973079681,
0.5537542700767517,
-0.14967262744903564,
-0.6618711948394775,
0.15777896344661713,
0.07120076566934586,
-0.37205514311790466,
0.24713091552257538,
-0.19773685932159424,
-0.5947238802909851,
-0.48145028948783875,
-0.21304674446582794,
-0.17682082951068878,
0.08041411638259888,
0.2692737877368927,
-0.21106302738189697,
-0.5537995100021362,
-0.11225494742393494,
-0.3012502193450928,
0.11580044031143188,
0.5068351030349731,
0.438679039478302,
0.1649462878704071,
0.7073813080787659,
-1.092863917350769,
0.6978192925453186,
-0.15387499332427979,
0.02732830122113228,
-0.13610367476940155,
-0.30480509996414185,
0.2239094078540802,
0.20053602755069733,
-0.34849730134010315,
0.05091523751616478,
0.22264498472213745,
-0.22094613313674927,
0.48170003294944763,
-0.2657763659954071,
0.24014241993427277,
0.4476698338985443,
-0.4297640025615692,
0.405278742313385,
0.42120179533958435,
-0.8340054154396057,
-0.2821851968765259,
0.2603471577167511,
0.43735188245773315,
0.47787192463874817,
-0.023158837109804153,
0.047967731952667236,
-0.167486310005188,
-0.12743300199508667,
-0.4954037666320801,
-0.25365838408470154,
0.3133780062198639,
0.7122634053230286,
0.515032947063446,
-0.23197898268699646,
-0.26378917694091797,
-0.11958412081003189,
-0.46748948097229004,
-0.1280820071697235,
-0.1129501685500145,
-0.5170338153839111,
-0.2033890038728714,
0.7469819188117981,
0.9250660538673401,
0.13868334889411926,
0.11965497583150864,
0.11807113140821457,
0.2851031422615051,
0.35334834456443787,
0.21454881131649017,
0.1695464551448822,
-0.39452826976776123,
-0.3435938060283661,
0.059763103723526,
-0.5047340989112854,
0.3743050992488861,
-0.06590791046619415,
0.48520800471305847,
0.016288872808218002,
0.2623105049133301,
-0.297654926776886,
-0.11566536873579025,
-0.16827420890331268,
-0.09506821632385254,
-0.35915184020996094,
0.05820581689476967,
-0.314892053604126,
-1.063238263130188,
-0.06462918221950531,
-0.7038353085517883,
-0.3624913990497589,
-0.17788952589035034,
-0.10999605804681778,
-0.10771884769201279,
0.26916229724884033,
-0.09262119978666306,
-0.09742353111505508,
0.16794084012508392,
0.3708719313144684,
-0.11735740303993225,
0.4748687446117401,
0.23383355140686035,
0.09301020205020905,
-0.7091999650001526,
-0.36896464228630066,
0.058651961386203766,
-0.22831206023693085,
-0.04860709235072136,
-0.03879674896597862,
0.3477126657962799,
-0.09163320064544678,
0.037508539855480194,
-0.11528980731964111,
0.03290748968720436,
-0.27002620697021484,
0.01334474142640829,
0.24911390244960785,
-0.238521009683609,
-0.43789908289909363,
-0.24861502647399902,
0.8274334669113159,
0.43228718638420105,
0.0007176576764322817,
0.09307602047920227,
0.5400062203407288,
-0.2439373880624771,
0.442146360874176,
-0.11424077302217484,
-0.017631029710173607,
0.05420640483498573,
0.4621272385120392,
-0.6328523755073547,
-0.17585422098636627,
1.0350053310394287,
-0.24523717164993286,
-0.2548291087150574,
-0.11342335492372513,
0.11482515186071396,
0.22400923073291779,
0.6223733425140381,
-0.22852347791194916,
0.03866199031472206,
-0.3002539873123169,
0.2417527735233307,
-0.34780073165893555,
-0.029612679034471512,
0.31864604353904724,
-0.028540758416056633,
-0.16052842140197754,
0.43003833293914795,
-0.1919821947813034,
-1.1365350484848022,
0.3874244689941406,
-0.4798818826675415,
0.19717366993427277,
-0.19159965217113495,
0.372210830450058,
0.004995742347091436,
-0.7116438150405884,
0.5634152293205261,
0.5299710035324097,
0.40342286229133606,
-0.02370215579867363,
-0.14910617470741272,
0.26629748940467834,
0.8152678608894348,
-0.3174605965614319,
-0.01578802615404129,
0.38888174295425415,
-0.14672201871871948,
-0.21459521353244781,
-0.5991561412811279,
-0.2525840699672699,
0.12842799723148346,
-0.7470494508743286,
0.38042497634887695,
0.5746329426765442,
-0.4209868311882019,
0.0926058292388916,
-0.061858560889959335,
-0.5470970869064331,
-0.2730761468410492,
0.4785856008529663
] |
200200
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular
|
Singular
|
Singular may refer to:
Singular, the grammatical number that denotes a unit quantity, as opposed to the plural and other forms
Singular homology
SINGULAR, an open source Computer Algebra System (CAS)
Singular or sounder, a group of boar, see List of animal names
Singular matrix, a matrix that is not invertible
Singular measure, a measure or probability distribution whose support has zero Lebesgue (or other) measure
Singular cardinal, an infinite cardinal number that is not a regular cardinal
The property of a singularity or singular point in various meanings; see Singularity (disambiguation)
Singular (band), a Thai jazz pop duo
Singular: Act I, a 2018 studio album by Sabrina Carpenter
Singular: Act II, a 2019 studio album by Sabrina Carpenter
See also
Singulair, Merck trademark for the drug Montelukast
Cingular Wireless, a mobile network operator in North America
|
[
-0.4800126552581787,
0.06558793783187866,
-0.43517810106277466,
0.13862477242946625,
-0.8407754302024841,
0.7530880570411682,
0.3892895579338074,
0.13276098668575287,
-0.48817873001098633,
-0.7417764663696289,
-0.4042177200317383,
0.3794862627983093,
-0.2904978394508362,
-0.33896443247795105,
0.24037966132164001,
0.7779483795166016,
0.6910989880561829,
0.3883601427078247,
-0.7883528470993042,
0.03359050676226616,
-0.11287371814250946,
0.04460369423031807,
0.1432551145553589,
-0.4017845094203949,
0.33936306834220886,
0.13375310599803925,
0.04593678191304207,
-0.16398730874061584,
-0.2112126350402832,
0.22523289918899536,
-0.7005761861801147,
0.6656150817871094,
-0.11934919655323029,
0.3346182703971863,
-0.010241469368338585,
-0.3980230391025543,
-0.28203585743904114,
-0.7128721475601196,
-0.12804503738880157,
-0.3727395236492157,
0.19794601202011108,
-0.5857171416282654,
0.30066242814064026,
0.036388006061315536,
-0.9164310693740845,
-0.20655204355716705,
-1.8200480937957764,
-0.10803326219320297,
-0.7954962253570557,
0.22686435282230377,
-0.21399955451488495,
0.019686240702867508,
0.18177573382854462,
0.7878392338752747,
-0.22913086414337158,
0.49433618783950806,
-0.8457725644111633,
-0.6541878581047058,
0.6536856293678284,
-0.46346020698547363,
-0.3446180820465088,
0.1952899843454361,
-0.0303150974214077,
0.11325932294130325,
0.2639990746974945,
0.6941828727722168,
-0.17939385771751404,
0.049024853855371475,
-1.3022892475128174,
-0.15620167553424835,
-0.49535608291625977,
-0.8044723272323608,
-0.10669524222612381,
0.41978588700294495,
-0.3776276409626007,
-0.41482242941856384,
-0.0668947771191597,
-0.08324096351861954,
-0.29032230377197266,
0.22616080939769745,
-0.21310509741306305,
0.35275381803512573,
0.8353492021560669,
-0.38978850841522217,
-0.015718398615717888,
0.10243449360132217,
-0.29433783888816833,
0.348679780960083,
-0.4892108142375946,
-0.030920380726456642,
0.715462863445282,
-0.3914375901222229,
0.4802226424217224,
0.27647003531455994,
0.5288834571838379,
0.9626811146736145,
0.8437604308128357,
-0.2626116871833801,
0.5730236768722534,
0.4180682301521301,
0.2853374779224396,
-0.1393991857767105,
0.35075148940086365,
-0.6913484334945679,
-0.9892242550849915,
-0.5338890552520752,
-0.39373430609703064,
-0.22945033013820648,
0.2350926548242569,
0.2425301969051361,
-0.22026249766349792,
0.5577099919319153,
0.4162214398384094,
0.1758299618959427,
-0.4230060279369354,
0.07693606615066528,
0.18522150814533234,
0.5765017867088318,
-0.24231743812561035,
-0.19683431088924408,
-0.13018923997879028,
0.4490516781806946,
0.3064470589160919,
0.16814185678958893,
0.11534804105758667,
0.4394799768924713,
0.2621772885322571,
0.7161166667938232,
-0.32431328296661377,
-0.021363219246268272,
-0.3439798057079315,
0.6339923739433289,
0.4760056734085083,
0.033163707703351974,
0.20229727029800415,
-0.7239248156547546,
-0.2992664873600006,
-0.20472082495689392,
0.20419131219387054,
0.15152999758720398,
-1.051437497138977,
-0.11819542199373245,
-0.43819326162338257,
-0.04466455429792404,
1.1141985654830933,
-0.1381804645061493,
-0.12511278688907623,
0.3659231662750244,
0.47732803225517273,
0.26790228486061096,
0.03424682468175888,
-0.45136675238609314,
0.07062339037656784,
-0.5506687164306641,
-0.22728943824768066,
0.217775359749794,
-0.012362970039248466,
0.4187876582145691,
-0.27721932530403137,
-0.1605684906244278,
0.17408804595470428,
0.3682829737663269,
-0.3771672546863556,
-0.03601912409067154,
-0.13145701587200165,
-0.0732974037528038,
0.09666115045547485,
0.24840234220027924,
-0.387106329202652,
0.6029015779495239,
0.2496606707572937,
-0.6482561230659485,
-0.1794065237045288,
0.5235401391983032,
-0.33630913496017456,
0.011012180708348751,
0.7393490076065063,
-0.33646920323371887,
0.7274067997932434,
0.22381098568439484,
-0.5550279021263123,
0.3274456858634949,
0.4394184648990631,
-0.5268742442131042,
0.03951827064156532,
-0.24534453451633453,
-0.13466787338256836,
0.04194239154458046,
0.19965557754039764,
-0.44290125370025635,
0.07636816054582596,
-0.12260505557060242,
-0.4959973990917206,
-0.8515455722808838,
1.2151873111724854,
-0.15595178306102753,
-0.6945722103118896,
0.5588415861129761,
0.47180885076522827,
0.4748842418193817,
-0.032312728464603424,
-0.25625115633010864,
-0.00005764970410382375,
0.1507982462644577,
-0.011976691894233227,
0.5820703506469727,
-0.027305973693728447,
0.42956966161727905,
-0.30346211791038513,
0.3886699974536896,
0.2568914294242859,
-0.16887980699539185,
1.0016220808029175,
-0.27057671546936035,
0.1953938901424408,
-0.16183574497699738,
-0.5319420099258423,
0.02646670490503311,
-0.30373406410217285,
-0.10648170113563538,
1.518237590789795,
-0.8162842392921448,
-0.019701870158314705,
0.031544625759124756,
-0.3260827660560608,
-0.006727883126586676,
0.5360493659973145,
-0.07316939532756805,
0.5893802046775818,
-0.5405029058456421,
0.43339452147483826,
-0.12107720971107483,
0.33009928464889526,
-0.12440942227840424,
-0.023867327719926834,
0.3506177067756653,
0.4897831976413727,
-0.13697275519371033,
0.18490999937057495,
-0.6641424298286438,
-0.38524550199508667,
0.37488892674446106,
-0.2953273057937622,
0.07297311723232269,
0.3059786260128021,
-0.20484870672225952,
0.15425512194633484,
-0.3543315529823303,
0.25757184624671936,
-0.14455662667751312,
-0.08650675415992737,
0.0427510030567646,
-0.3767716586589813,
0.16433215141296387,
0.2662371098995209,
-0.14280469715595245,
0.36045733094215393,
0.5594838261604309,
0.8491306900978088,
0.22111518681049347,
-0.450890451669693,
0.3221795856952667,
-0.13034890592098236,
-0.5063884258270264,
-0.17348971962928772,
0.16354180872440338,
0.3324347138404846,
-0.0022647425066679716,
0.6669567227363586,
0.7104290127754211,
-0.3217856287956238,
0.27876219153404236,
-1.0366439819335938,
0.33086061477661133,
-0.44569897651672363,
-0.10153438150882721,
-0.056885428726673126,
0.3273696303367615,
-1.0904593467712402,
-0.5094875693321228,
-0.06939474493265152,
-0.2789822518825531,
0.5935070514678955,
-0.6360690593719482,
-0.18459346890449524,
-0.6422528028488159,
0.0027809948660433292,
-0.26036444306373596,
-0.14620999991893768,
-0.45534083247184753,
-0.10401912778615952,
0.23610439896583557,
-0.2905263602733612,
-0.36475393176078796,
0.880092442035675,
0.41384413838386536,
0.24475222826004028,
0.012926211580634117,
0.14979125559329987,
-0.17835764586925507,
-0.6192651987075806,
-0.08464031666517258,
-0.1696406602859497,
-0.019034884870052338,
0.26649749279022217,
-0.052635643631219864,
0.17626625299453735,
0.2265467643737793,
-5.465883731842041,
-0.11104878783226013,
-0.5818386077880859,
-0.007625206373631954,
-0.23851832747459412,
0.4547940194606781,
0.481031209230423,
0.05604970455169678,
-0.10403350740671158,
0.21236057579517365,
-0.09315290302038193,
0.18925225734710693,
-0.24113552272319794,
0.7019752264022827,
0.20037847757339478,
-0.09879042208194733,
0.17812180519104004,
0.12308267503976822,
-0.14177148044109344,
0.38575121760368347,
0.46191659569740295,
0.6455334424972534,
-0.094640351831913,
0.6443209648132324,
0.10064639151096344,
-0.05582074448466301,
-0.2599269449710846,
0.35739865899086,
0.0708574503660202,
-0.6529897451400757,
-0.027610089629888535,
0.006439152639359236,
0.09788218140602112,
-0.590498149394989,
-0.48547810316085815,
-0.014359203167259693,
0.5421282649040222,
-0.03217698261141777,
0.6528911590576172,
-0.6276374459266663,
0.11153663694858551,
0.718268632888794,
0.14069949090480804,
-0.21265849471092224,
0.39674362540245056,
-0.16856317222118378,
-0.30332961678504944,
-0.0986366868019104,
-0.26972123980522156,
0.3634798526763916,
-0.5030889511108398,
-0.32367995381355286,
0.2995867133140564,
-0.13981205224990845,
0.6372244954109192,
0.4572124779224396,
0.8141300082206726,
0.4366873800754547,
-0.31967461109161377,
0.10626238584518433,
0.2916516661643982,
-0.5215169787406921,
-0.1409597545862198,
-0.4560009241104126,
-0.19288413226604462,
-0.33631420135498047,
-0.9434120655059814,
0.5434433817863464,
0.5635179281234741,
0.5707025527954102,
-0.18732675909996033,
0.17787951231002808,
0.4533044695854187,
-0.39242157340049744,
0.30913951992988586,
-0.43593382835388184,
-0.048657383769750595,
0.21571476757526398,
-0.28917211294174194,
0.5220855474472046,
-0.46255797147750854,
0.12686309218406677,
0.0004278511041775346,
0.4494231641292572,
0.1833246797323227,
0.31690874695777893,
-0.3340303897857666,
-0.03246445208787918,
-0.37401825189590454,
-0.034758489578962326,
0.6544620394706726,
-0.15078379213809967,
0.4480808973312378,
0.28490445017814636,
0.2717372477054596,
0.5467889308929443,
0.6460246443748474,
-0.5784283876419067,
0.12570412456989288,
-0.24506302177906036,
0.2984658181667328,
-0.30919763445854187,
0.03660118207335472,
-0.282234787940979,
-0.5224283933639526,
0.05274786427617073,
-0.9643042683601379,
0.537620484828949,
1.1848065853118896,
-0.32472172379493713,
0.43713462352752686,
0.46095550060272217,
-0.20163606107234955,
-0.8742834329605103,
0.28623905777931213,
0.3814137876033783,
-0.2641589343547821,
0.8210211396217346,
0.8942905068397522,
0.27300000190734863,
-0.030986037105321884,
0.15810580551624298,
-0.3576187193393707,
-0.4444677233695984,
-0.8765041828155518,
0.06616219133138657,
-0.4300704300403595,
-0.1836940348148346,
-0.1770625114440918,
-0.14672891795635223,
-0.16213470697402954,
0.565994381904602,
-0.3397369980812073,
0.3192508816719055,
0.2565339207649231,
-0.7996671795845032,
0.029039248824119568,
0.6369388699531555,
-0.2993617057800293,
-0.7316694855690002,
0.6256996393203735,
-0.7397881746292114,
-0.7289084792137146,
-0.10712222009897232,
-0.07760818302631378,
-0.0356559231877327,
-0.6261003613471985,
-0.22036200761795044,
-0.33235129714012146,
0.559931755065918,
0.0476035512983799,
-0.5374501943588257,
0.6173496246337891,
-0.4634808897972107,
0.1595991849899292,
-0.08701089769601822,
-0.3746216893196106,
0.3685297667980194,
-0.5199849605560303,
-0.43621841073036194,
0.1948111206293106,
0.058192674070596695,
-0.5769200921058655,
-0.3153001666069031,
0.2755696475505829,
-0.03260834142565727,
-0.20746970176696777,
-0.2821916937828064,
-0.1863815039396286,
0.7451096773147583,
0.01340475119650364,
-0.11292815953493118,
-0.031667694449424744,
-0.5877634882926941,
0.15761372447013855,
0.2911667227745056,
0.7147144675254822,
0.30603936314582825,
-0.03560324013233185,
0.44226568937301636,
0.5159503221511841,
-0.062249526381492615,
-0.18284665048122406,
0.5280162692070007,
0.9607989192008972,
-0.1787198930978775,
0.796264111995697,
0.17014066874980927,
-0.16522902250289917,
-0.4911382794380188,
-0.610920250415802,
-0.7102836966514587,
0.3583108186721802,
-0.44327521324157715,
-0.3934158682823181,
-0.09490920603275299,
0.3612889051437378,
-0.31698930263519287,
-0.7173586487770081,
-0.24724724888801575,
0.09133873879909515,
0.13155777752399445,
-0.48557132482528687,
-0.19229239225387573,
0.7948432564735413,
-0.7671231031417847,
0.34384623169898987,
-0.5728001594543457,
-0.814371645450592,
0.1644209325313568,
-0.7160828113555908,
-0.6817998290061951,
-0.11598852276802063,
-0.8625725507736206,
0.3193979859352112,
0.11198728531599045,
-0.14075832068920135,
-0.4905794858932495,
-1.1431010961532593,
-0.6178393959999084,
0.47069576382637024,
-0.039143212139606476,
0.03310578316450119,
0.0021351436153054237,
0.5459804534912109,
-0.15836100280284882,
0.4357151985168457,
-0.20863057672977448,
0.6883662343025208,
-0.330576628446579,
-0.22506877779960632,
-0.24342451989650726,
-0.2657461166381836,
0.19581449031829834,
-0.30770790576934814,
-0.4863830804824829,
0.11523424088954926,
-0.3003067076206207,
-0.3727225065231323,
0.03878258913755417,
0.5661068558692932,
0.2715992331504822,
0.2135074883699417,
-0.5924772620201111,
-0.3697729706764221,
-0.5473666787147522,
0.21400922536849976,
-0.6349926590919495,
-0.3210628628730774,
0.2287207692861557,
-0.06140625476837158,
-0.28094950318336487,
-0.8754920959472656,
-0.586065411567688,
0.4235088527202606,
0.0816061943769455,
0.1881732940673828,
-0.6094022393226624,
-0.23389385640621185,
0.831675112247467,
0.2093178927898407,
-0.6425315141677856,
-0.4297536611557007,
0.1403711438179016,
0.0930112674832344,
0.2698642313480377,
-0.2656371593475342,
0.16360296308994293,
0.6650913953781128,
-0.21309727430343628,
0.28723254799842834,
0.011714491993188858,
-0.3540262281894684,
-0.2682870626449585,
0.03744291886687279,
-0.13317938148975372,
-0.3284664452075958,
0.09098383039236069,
0.008062091656029224,
-0.16217634081840515,
-0.4992670714855194,
-0.1972307413816452,
0.2535324692726135,
0.22537417709827423,
0.44692540168762207,
-0.1345534324645996,
0.042145855724811554,
-0.3825248181819916,
-0.335250586271286,
0.19376727938652039,
-0.22325563430786133,
0.13110342621803284,
0.16211973130702972,
-0.007944384589791298,
0.09461503475904465,
0.13893814384937286,
0.2627784311771393,
0.33840054273605347,
0.4180176556110382,
-0.4567197859287262,
-0.48490390181541443,
0.5931733846664429,
0.021144773811101913,
-0.5462363958358765,
-0.4240550994873047,
0.2724229693412781,
0.6886584758758545,
-0.6052652597427368,
0.26201605796813965,
-0.22779524326324463,
0.25990939140319824,
0.2054399698972702,
0.6438283324241638,
0.7704306244850159,
0.3997108042240143,
0.12174306809902191,
0.6452555656433105,
-0.29424580931663513,
-0.2519942820072174,
0.18506620824337006,
0.39076074957847595,
-0.07689935714006424,
0.3273984491825104,
-0.18352919816970825,
-1.1138302087783813,
0.6641618609428406,
-0.21332629024982452,
-0.112212635576725,
-0.12461106479167938,
0.48848995566368103,
1.025522232055664,
0.3545743525028229,
0.004531951621174812,
0.005258341785520315,
-0.4119604825973511,
-0.557989776134491,
-0.0577438622713089,
-0.52812260389328,
0.09486711770296097,
0.8065386414527893,
0.3168705999851227,
0.5431525707244873,
-0.22408972680568695,
0.021290015429258347,
-0.34576016664505005,
0.30201834440231323,
0.007494459394365549,
-0.06755705177783966,
0.04895102232694626,
0.31023335456848145,
0.5103542804718018,
0.2503736615180969,
-0.12617529928684235,
-0.2572939097881317,
-0.22606298327445984,
-0.0878482386469841,
0.023613151162862778,
-0.15039584040641785,
0.19754649698734283,
0.0790475383400917,
0.2627193331718445,
0.5518447756767273,
0.023310035467147827,
0.08810670673847198,
-0.14218759536743164,
-0.07934080064296722,
0.8144584894180298,
0.2420400232076645,
0.2732020616531372,
-0.27404361963272095,
0.518775463104248,
0.48442861437797546,
-0.5140935182571411,
0.09293504804372787,
0.04369340091943741,
0.05529139190912247,
0.47314608097076416,
0.6326133608818054,
-0.2698850929737091,
-0.25383055210113525,
0.019505934789776802,
-0.11129406839609146,
-0.4273097515106201,
-0.566843569278717,
0.31315186619758606,
-0.40790826082229614,
0.029146982356905937,
0.5855481624603271,
-0.0147889144718647,
0.6049608588218689,
0.2842302918434143,
-0.41396957635879517,
0.4090137481689453,
-0.2573840618133545,
-0.3891301155090332,
-0.27927252650260925,
-0.30270668864250183,
0.7812533974647522,
0.2779823839664459,
0.3887993395328522,
0.37025120854377747,
-0.31563058495521545,
0.6097832918167114,
-0.01623074896633625,
-0.581212043762207,
0.24223150312900543,
-0.1331097036600113,
-0.11672518402338028,
-0.9363166689872742,
0.11107822507619858,
0.662037193775177,
-0.19126573204994202,
-0.20281808078289032,
0.49545159935951233,
0.3911312222480774,
0.07277227938175201,
0.5210779905319214,
0.15390637516975403,
0.2051628977060318,
-0.4952939450740814,
0.0836026594042778,
0.1348874866962433,
0.3891759514808655,
0.19802385568618774,
-0.15961062908172607,
0.11520262062549591,
0.35656237602233887,
0.43119388818740845,
-0.3164089620113373,
0.22133435308933258,
-0.3005995452404022,
0.8076871633529663,
0.10750869661569595,
0.07440942525863647,
-0.35492071509361267,
0.28123098611831665,
-0.07964657247066498,
0.06414839625358582,
-0.2079756259918213,
-0.14394435286521912,
-0.37428033351898193,
-0.12980249524116516,
-0.8955358862876892,
0.583181619644165,
-0.9095413088798523,
0.6542476415634155,
-0.720606803894043,
-0.7394890785217285,
-0.43419477343559265,
0.0718436986207962,
0.09460126608610153,
-0.33031749725341797,
0.675594687461853,
0.10923952609300613,
-0.7430562973022461,
-0.46150168776512146,
0.40562090277671814,
-0.7442068457603455,
-0.28236520290374756,
0.3187565803527832
] |
200201
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic%20acid%20fermentation
|
Lactic acid fermentation
|
Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process by which glucose or other six-carbon sugars (also, disaccharides of six-carbon sugars, e.g. sucrose or lactose) are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate, which is lactic acid in solution. It is an anaerobic fermentation reaction that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, such as muscle cells.
If oxygen is present in the cell, many organisms will bypass fermentation and undergo cellular respiration; however, facultative anaerobic organisms will both ferment and undergo respiration in the presence of oxygen. Sometimes even when oxygen is present and aerobic metabolism is happening in the mitochondria, if pyruvate is building up faster than it can be metabolized, the fermentation will happen anyway.
Lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes the interconversion of pyruvate and lactate with concomitant interconversion of NADH and NAD+.
In homolactic fermentation, one molecule of glucose is ultimately converted to two molecules of lactic acid. Heterolactic fermentation, in contrast, yields carbon dioxide and ethanol in addition to lactic acid, in a process called the phosphoketolase pathway.
History
Several chemists discovered during the 19th century some fundamental concepts of the domain of organic chemistry. One of them for example was the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, who was especially interested in fermentation processes, and he passed this fascination to one of his best students, Justus von Liebig. With a difference of some years, each of them described, together with colleagues, the chemical structure of the lactic acid molecule as we know it today. They had a purely chemical understanding of the fermentation process, which means that you can't see it using a microscope, and that it can only be optimized by chemical catalyzers. In 1857, the French chemist Louis Pasteur first described lactic acid as the product of a microbial fermentation. During this time, he worked at the university of Lille, where a local distillery asked him for advice concerning some fermentation problems. Per chance and with the badly equipped laboratory he had at that time, he was able to discover that in this distillery, two fermentations were taking place, a lactic acid one and an alcoholic one, both induced by microorganisms. He then continued the research on these discoveries in Paris, where he also published his theories that presented a stable contradiction to the purely chemical version represented by Liebig and his followers. Even though Pasteur described some concepts that are still accepted today, Liebig refused to accept them. But even Pasteur himself wrote that he was "driven" to a completely new understanding of this chemical phenomenon. Even if Pasteur didn't find every detail of this process, he still discovered the main mechanism of how the microbial lactic acid fermentation works. He was the first to describe fermentation as a "form of life without air."
Although this chemical process had not been properly described before Pasteur's work, people had been using microbial lactic acid fermentation for food production much earlier. Chemical analysis of archeological finds show that milk fermentation uses predate the historical period; its first applications were probably a part of the Neolithic Revolution. Since milk naturally contains lactic acid bacteria, the discovery of the fermentation process was quite evident, since it happens spontaneously at an adequate temperature. The problem of these first farmers was that fresh milk is nearly indigestible by adults, so they had an interest to discover this mechanism. In fact, lactic acid bacteria contain the needed enzymes to digest lactose, and their populations multiply strongly during the fermentation. Therefore, milk fermented even a short time contains enough enzymes to digest the lactose molecules, after the milk is in the human body, which allows adults to consume it. Even safer was a longer fermentation, which was practiced for cheesemaking. This process was also discovered a very long time ago, which is proven by recipes for cheese production on Cuneiform scripts, the first written documents that exist, and a bit later in Babylonian and Egyptian texts.
What is interesting is the theory of the competitive advantage of fermented milk products. The idea of this theory is that the women of these first settled farmer clans could shorten the time between two children thanks to the additional lactose uptake from milk consumption. This factor may have given them an important advantage to out-compete the hunter-gatherer societies.
With the increasing consumption of milk products these societies developed a lactase persistence by epigenetic inheritance, which means that the milk-digesting enzyme lactase was present in their bodies during the whole lifetime, so they could drink unfermented milk as adults too. This early habituation to lactose consumption in the first settler societies can still be observed today in regional differences of this mutation's concentration. It is estimated that about 65% of world population still lacks it. Since these first societies came from regions around eastern Turkey to central Europe, the gene appears more frequently there and in North America, as it was settled by Europeans. It is because of the dominance of this mutation that Western cultures believe it is unusual to have a lactose intolerance, when it is in fact more common than the mutation. On the contrary, lactose intolerance is much more present in Asian countries.
Milk products and their fermentation have had an important influence on some cultures’ development. This is the case in Mongolia, where people often practice a pastoral form of agriculture. The milk that they produce and consume in these cultures is mainly mare milk and has a long tradition. But not every part or product of the fresh milk has the same meaning. For instance, the fattier part on the top, the "deež", is seen as the most valuable part and is therefore often used to honor guests.
Very important with often a traditional meaning as well are fermentation products of mare milk, like for example the slightly-alcoholic yogurt kumis. Consumption of these peaks during cultural festivities such as the Mongolian lunar new year (in spring). The time of this celebration is called the "white month", which indicates that milk products (called "white food" together with starchy vegetables, in comparison to meat products, called "black food") are a central part of this tradition. The purpose of these festivities is to "close" the past year – clean the house or the yurt, honor the animals for having provided their food, and prepare everything for the coming summer season – to be ready to "open" the new year. Consuming white food in this festive context is a way to connect to the past and to a national identity, which is the great Mongolian empire personified by Genghis Khan. During the time of this empire, the fermented mare milk was the drink to honor and thank warriors and leading persons, it was not meant for everybody. Although it eventually became a drink for normal people, it has kept its honorable meaning. Like many other traditions, this one feels the influence of globalization. Other products, like industrial yogurt, coming mainly from China and western countries, have tended to replace it more and more, mainly in urban areas. However, in rural and poorer regions it is still of great importance.
Biochemistry
Homofermentative process
Homofermentative bacteria convert glucose to two molecules of lactate and use this reaction to perform substrate-level phosphorylation to make two molecules of ATP:
glucose + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 lactate + 2 ATP
Heterofermentative process
Heterofermentative bacteria produce less lactate and less ATP, but produce several other end products:
glucose + ADP + Pi → lactate + ethanol + CO2 + ATP
Examples include Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus bifermentous, and Leconostoc lactis.
Bifidum pathway
Bifidobacterium bifidum utilizes a lactic acid fermentation pathway that produces more ATP than either homolactic fermentation or heterolactic fermentation:
2 glucose + 5 ADP + 5 Pi → 3 acetate + 2 lactate + 5 ATP
Major genera of lactose-fermenting bacteria
Some major bacterial strains identified as being able to ferment lactose are in the genera Escherichia, Citrobacter, Enterobacter and Klebsiella . All four of these groups fall underneath the family of Enterobacteriaceae. These four genera are able to be separated from each other by using biochemical testing, and simple biological tests are readily available. Apart from whole-sequence genomics, common tests include H2S production, motility and citrate use, indole, methyl red and Voges-Proskauer tests.
Applications
Lactic acid fermentation is used in many areas of the world to produce foods that cannot be produced through other methods. The most commercially important genus of lactic acid-fermenting bacteria is Lactobacillus, though other bacteria and even yeast are sometimes used. Two of the most common applications of lactic acid fermentation are in the production of yogurt and sauerkraut.
Pickle
Fermented fish
In some Asian cuisines, fish is traditionally fermented with rice to produce lactic acid that preserves the fish. Examples of these dishes include burong isda of the Philippines; narezushi of Japan; and pla ra of Thailand. The same process is also used for shrimp in the Philippines in the dish known as balao-balao.
Kimchi
Kimchi also uses lactic acid fermentation.—
Sauerkraut
Lactic acid fermentation is also used in the production of sauerkraut. The main type of bacteria used in the production of sauerkraut is of the genus Leuconostoc.
As in yogurt, when the acidity rises due to lactic acid-fermenting organisms, many other pathogenic microorganisms are killed. The bacteria produce lactic acid, as well as simple alcohols and other hydrocarbons. These may then combine to form esters, contributing to the unique flavor of sauerkraut.
Sour beer
Lactic acid is a component in the production of sour beers, including Lambics and Berliner Weisses.
Yogurt
The main method of producing yogurt is through the lactic acid fermentation of milk with harmless bacteria. The primary bacteria used are typically Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus, and United States as well as European law requires all yogurts to contain these two cultures (though others may be added as probiotic cultures). These bacteria produce lactic acid in the milk culture, decreasing its pH and causing it to congeal. The bacteria also produce compounds that give yogurt its distinctive flavor. An additional effect of the lowered pH is the incompatibility of the acidic environment with many other types of harmful bacteria.
For a probiotic yogurt, additional types of bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus are also added to the culture.
In vegetables
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) already exists as part of the natural flora in most vegetables. Lettuce and cabbage were examined to determine the types of lactic acid bacteria that exist in the leaves. Different types of LAB will produce different types of silage fermentation, which is the fermentation of the leafy foliage. Silage fermentation is an anaerobic reaction that reduces sugars to fermentation byproducts like lactic acid.
Physiological
Lactobacillus fermentation and accompanying production of acid provides a protective vaginal microbiome that protects against the proliferation of pathogenic organisms.
Lactic acid fermentation and muscle cramps
During the 1990s, the lactic acid hypothesis was created to explain why people experienced burning or muscle cramps that occurred during and after intense exercise. A lack of oxygen inside of the muscle cells resulted in lactic acid fermentation. This is due to the cell needing oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor to produce ATP. Without oxygen present, the cells needed to create energy through a different method. Lactic acid, or lactate and H+ were created as a byproduct. This buildup of lactic acid causes a burning sensation inside of the muscle cells, causing leg cramps and discomfort.
Research from 2006 has suggested that acidosis isn't the main cause of muscle cramps, but instead is due to a lack of potassium inside the muscles, leading to contractions of the muscles under high stress. Another change to the lactic acid hypothesis is that when sodium lactate is inside of the body, there is a higher period of exhaustion in the host after a period of exercise.
Lactic acid fermentation is important to muscle cell physiology. When muscle cells are undergoing intense activity, like sprinting, they need energy quickly. There is only enough ATP stored in muscles cells to last a few seconds of sprinting. The cells then default to fermenting lactic acid, since they are in an anaerobic environment. Through lactic acid fermentation, muscle cells are able to produce ATP and NAD+ to continue glycolysis, even under strenuous activity. [5]
The vaginal environment is heavily influenced by lactic acid producing bacteria. Lactobacilli spp. that live in the vaginal canal assist in pH control. If the pH in the vagina becomes too basic, more lactic acid will be produced to lower the pH back to a more acidic level. Lactic acid producing bacteria also act as a protective barrier against possible pathogens such as bacterial vaginosis and vaginitis species, different fungi, and protozoa through the production of hydrogen peroxide, and antibacterial compounds. It is unclear if further use of lactic acid, through fermentation, in the vaginal canal is present [6]
Benefits for the lactose intolerant
In small amounts, lactic acid is good for the human body by providing energy and substrates while it moves through the cycle. In lactose intolerant people, the fermentation of lactose to lactic acid has been shown in small studies to help lactose intolerant people. The process of fermentation limits the amount of lactose available. With the amount of lactose lowered, there is less build up inside of the body, reducing bloating. Success of lactic fermentation was most evident in yogurt cultures. Further studies are being conducted on other milk produces like acidophilius milk.
Notes and references
Fermentation
Metabolic pathways
|
[
-0.2384040355682373,
0.31201183795928955,
-0.04756815731525421,
-0.055484589189291,
-0.17784039676189423,
-0.14105549454689026,
0.45377275347709656,
0.2480752170085907,
-0.21875256299972534,
-0.4035699665546417,
-0.40106967091560364,
0.22086191177368164,
-0.26288995146751404,
0.8933644890785217,
0.2473423033952713,
0.7151563167572021,
0.32463130354881287,
0.6626052856445312,
0.3134562075138092,
-0.6249744892120361,
0.022409208118915558,
-0.12463506311178207,
0.33802446722984314,
0.10024522989988327,
0.3917046785354614,
-0.6267274022102356,
-0.05499150976538658,
-0.1264236569404602,
-0.0201405081897974,
-0.19568686187267303,
-0.3253262937068939,
0.3136346638202667,
0.125941202044487,
-0.18559333682060242,
0.07783292233943939,
0.6317219138145447,
-0.2080661952495575,
-0.09265575557947159,
0.05901889503002167,
-0.3528279960155487,
-1.1059904098510742,
0.16723179817199707,
0.20184697210788727,
0.444862425327301,
-0.24222980439662933,
0.7143424153327942,
-0.6755622625350952,
0.761467456817627,
-0.7361780405044556,
0.17498727142810822,
-0.3160967230796814,
0.07079286873340607,
0.7843630313873291,
0.4469414949417114,
0.3235810101032257,
0.9331925511360168,
-1.228477954864502,
0.5544014573097229,
0.20052477717399597,
-0.3226935565471649,
0.18687579035758972,
0.22986160218715668,
-0.30038028955459595,
-0.18248999118804932,
0.46300530433654785,
-0.20389705896377563,
-0.3253403604030609,
0.39340054988861084,
-0.5753341913223267,
0.13212591409683228,
0.03829174488782883,
-0.4534543752670288,
-0.5237901210784912,
0.3799116015434265,
0.13667023181915283,
-0.09130208194255829,
-0.32558074593544006,
-0.2634007930755615,
-0.08490842580795288,
0.35736197233200073,
-0.3210771977901459,
0.3989376723766327,
0.14206267893314362,
0.4231632351875305,
0.3473925292491913,
0.3787088394165039,
-0.5659979581832886,
0.5168593525886536,
-0.713664174079895,
-0.21727131307125092,
-0.3780232071876526,
0.3190498352050781,
0.34381672739982605,
-0.0704466849565506,
-0.09649385511875153,
-0.22399228811264038,
0.7004988789558411,
0.13543905317783356,
0.22465090453624725,
0.5979613065719604,
-0.4931655526161194,
0.25058820843696594,
0.6825677156448364,
0.6944394707679749,
-0.20196600258350372,
-0.20377206802368164,
-0.7052597403526306,
-0.3888862729072571,
0.4373347759246826,
-0.36167478561401367,
0.2967088222503662,
0.0587213896214962,
-0.1342063993215561,
0.32686272263526917,
-0.46562933921813965,
-0.06038472056388855,
0.024625739082694054,
-0.29775509238243103,
-0.27043014764785767,
-0.17008084058761597,
-0.07216570526361465,
0.07893591374158859,
-0.31419438123703003,
-0.13353124260902405,
-0.5950748920440674,
0.05026926472783089,
0.34865602850914,
0.663759171962738,
0.00925046019256115,
-0.15832024812698364,
0.460380882024765,
0.7532129883766174,
0.128360316157341,
-0.17088370025157928,
-0.1945795714855194,
-0.057276494801044464,
0.766907811164856,
-0.0689748004078865,
1.0033334493637085,
-0.23795239627361298,
-1.3346432447433472,
-0.4516803026199341,
-0.3414779603481293,
-0.23690852522850037,
0.03543774411082268,
-0.07988160848617554,
-0.5288349390029907,
0.1285436749458313,
-0.07025903463363647,
-0.07784435153007507,
0.25583216547966003,
0.07877571880817413,
-0.4869532287120819,
-0.09427837282419205,
-0.38098952174186707,
0.6224569082260132,
-0.14905129373073578,
0.03761864826083183,
-0.4522817134857178,
-0.02563309296965599,
-0.2773130536079407,
-0.06827912479639053,
0.003297169227153063,
0.14770625531673431,
0.575869083404541,
-0.3300398886203766,
0.3630949556827545,
0.4752698242664337,
-0.34306299686431885,
-0.2807907462120056,
-0.09088758379220963,
-0.08438150584697723,
0.5872977375984192,
-0.9613438248634338,
-0.48349377512931824,
0.3564772307872772,
0.2775406539440155,
0.16047891974449158,
0.59959876537323,
0.07284346222877502,
-0.540880024433136,
0.7820644974708557,
0.29563161730766296,
-0.021884605288505554,
-0.33645099401474,
-0.07722267508506775,
0.36257752776145935,
-0.6944643259048462,
0.45328354835510254,
-0.12340134382247925,
-0.4715341329574585,
-0.30362051725387573,
0.18244148790836334,
-0.8033556342124939,
1.0599592924118042,
-0.2280655801296234,
-0.7670425772666931,
0.28056690096855164,
-0.4222147464752197,
-0.38909661769866943,
-0.2146461009979248,
0.7161318063735962,
0.307527631521225,
-0.7884935736656189,
-0.7078007459640503,
0.6803862452507019,
-0.10887809097766876,
-0.3447619080543518,
0.681334376335144,
0.78977370262146,
-0.31013742089271545,
-0.3786817193031311,
0.2699619233608246,
-0.2294798195362091,
-0.07538144290447235,
-0.2455827295780182,
-0.22961406409740448,
0.2057439684867859,
0.2739909291267395,
-0.2587212026119232,
0.3561990261077881,
0.09694457054138184,
-0.03487370163202286,
0.5021684169769287,
-0.4179767668247223,
0.2750760018825531,
-0.03737615793943405,
0.2038906216621399,
0.6614821553230286,
0.3447818458080292,
0.9708435535430908,
0.20723026990890503,
0.32884618639945984,
-0.5343651175498962,
-0.38150519132614136,
0.02223718911409378,
0.023888342082500458,
0.08783513307571411,
-0.32220321893692017,
-0.38886260986328125,
0.4465799927711487,
0.2705060541629791,
-0.14474034309387207,
-0.3951845169067383,
-0.36446064710617065,
-0.3036665618419647,
-0.21516118943691254,
0.9593343734741211,
-0.004817062523216009,
-0.8534057140350342,
0.7304542660713196,
0.24216346442699432,
0.29786503314971924,
-0.3374175727367401,
-0.13598471879959106,
-0.6232067942619324,
-0.6281321048736572,
0.2250673621892929,
0.4316733777523041,
0.4070180356502533,
0.3649340271949768,
-0.3552066683769226,
-0.03744560480117798,
-0.1839049756526947,
-0.05955109745264053,
-0.4062599539756775,
-1.0444194078445435,
-0.556549072265625,
-0.07847162336111069,
0.1632968634366989,
0.5305300354957581,
-0.00001089290981326485,
-0.21703886985778809,
0.03118002414703369,
-0.4549387991428375,
0.2827899158000946,
0.2698219418525696,
-0.4282586872577667,
-0.7977895140647888,
0.6146767735481262,
0.10533531755208969,
0.027260195463895798,
-0.11800181120634079,
0.1853305846452713,
-1.2133152484893799,
-0.16202197968959808,
-0.21377497911453247,
-0.5218222737312317,
0.278914213180542,
-0.45162129402160645,
-0.11158808320760727,
0.3912086486816406,
-0.3614952564239502,
-0.46865934133529663,
0.589623749256134,
-0.6685172915458679,
-0.19486939907073975,
0.3687795102596283,
0.3198504149913788,
-0.39192309975624084,
0.2721429169178009,
-0.35758736729621887,
-0.22906439006328583,
-0.2824091911315918,
-0.017981553450226784,
-0.14697782695293427,
-0.2665620446205139,
0.06757549196481705,
-5.463535785675049,
-0.31805431842803955,
-0.43620413541793823,
0.033730342984199524,
0.13531997799873352,
-0.6972019076347351,
0.8862590789794922,
-0.3820134401321411,
-0.44039836525917053,
0.29970782995224,
-0.11771652847528458,
0.23291930556297302,
-0.2756960690021515,
0.5147618651390076,
0.18829192221164703,
0.04803250730037689,
0.7508395910263062,
-0.827262282371521,
0.2003922462463379,
0.4112391769886017,
-0.09793157130479813,
0.33591678738594055,
-0.317057728767395,
0.8941625952720642,
-0.33549121022224426,
0.2585817575454712,
-0.33558064699172974,
0.31524649262428284,
-0.6385359168052673,
0.2697714865207672,
-0.39109453558921814,
-0.006459658034145832,
0.40772804617881775,
-0.7300252914428711,
0.25948622822761536,
-0.16043409705162048,
-0.45734602212905884,
0.19149038195610046,
-0.13353583216667175,
-0.1584835946559906,
0.023617781698703766,
0.15035806596279144,
0.18900062143802643,
0.0637698695063591,
0.6051701903343201,
-0.03818206861615181,
-0.38644713163375854,
-0.24697476625442505,
-0.21688312292099,
0.8669517636299133,
0.13084354996681213,
0.10480839014053345,
0.43035611510276794,
-0.3001041114330292,
0.3988180458545685,
0.17169822752475739,
0.26932865381240845,
-0.558700442314148,
-0.18573856353759766,
-0.5572924613952637,
-0.059760212898254395,
-0.11141759157180786,
-0.25539305806159973,
0.2800374925136566,
-0.12269370257854462,
-0.008913321420550346,
-0.5037012100219727,
-0.12516440451145172,
0.26966482400894165,
0.42199161648750305,
-0.36696767807006836,
0.49170196056365967,
-0.00016589679580647498,
-0.6235123872756958,
0.34375008940696716,
-0.5043827295303345,
-0.9905397295951843,
0.18801578879356384,
0.04123878479003906,
0.9059775471687317,
-0.07351328432559967,
0.25180643796920776,
0.23665335774421692,
0.47070199251174927,
0.5405639410018921,
-0.14203591644763947,
-0.44486570358276367,
0.26760047674179077,
-0.578272819519043,
-0.055730439722537994,
0.5622327923774719,
-0.12332930415868759,
0.26821157336235046,
0.007670394144952297,
-0.20447786152362823,
0.3319520950317383,
0.026166703552007675,
0.7240642309188843,
0.5397878289222717,
-0.24096493422985077,
0.8679999709129333,
0.16694846749305725,
0.3602416217327118,
-0.0041251895017921925,
0.19563184678554535,
0.130390927195549,
-0.46986207365989685,
0.3655153512954712,
0.649901270866394,
0.24810166656970978,
-0.042571377009153366,
0.5976452231407166,
-0.6562008857727051,
-0.35137197375297546,
0.4162576198577881,
0.21562372148036957,
-0.3716132938861847,
0.26139819622039795,
0.7129431366920471,
-0.2036449909210205,
0.1923311948776245,
0.22162896394729614,
-0.6523614525794983,
-0.1540936529636383,
0.3167366087436676,
-0.44133180379867554,
0.3302968144416809,
0.5024662017822266,
0.13976897299289703,
0.6269393563270569,
-0.5954809188842773,
0.017315149307250977,
-0.2877831757068634,
0.22566047310829163,
0.18667985498905182,
0.14121392369270325,
0.11861514300107956,
0.20555922389030457,
-0.2607681155204773,
-0.7476508021354675,
0.35077807307243347,
-0.5147510766983032,
0.050196386873722076,
-0.6183460354804993,
0.4103330373764038,
0.7812109589576721,
0.1213160902261734,
-0.14075838029384613,
-0.23109829425811768,
0.13721434772014618,
0.1069871112704277,
0.2347201555967331,
-0.46755334734916687,
0.0456029511988163,
-0.7983765006065369,
-0.4536103904247284,
0.5118498206138611,
1.0237665176391602,
0.13229632377624512,
-0.7032204866409302,
-0.1895056813955307,
-0.5702191591262817,
-1.1100744009017944,
-0.7160300612449646,
-0.5226046442985535,
0.07877618819475174,
-0.1639101654291153,
-0.08929309993982315,
-0.8640475869178772,
0.5773231387138367,
-0.7677930593490601,
-0.36290863156318665,
-0.2992437183856964,
-0.43527093529701233,
0.5356423854827881,
-0.19885961711406708,
0.30230775475502014,
-0.12318401783704758,
0.029667271301150322,
-0.45628970861434937,
-0.19285494089126587,
-0.5184546113014221,
-0.43636900186538696,
0.1893143504858017,
-0.13208724558353424,
-0.5969804525375366,
-0.012692592106759548,
0.2957570254802704,
0.06607703864574432,
0.15299943089485168,
0.006153359077870846,
-0.10220737010240555,
0.6355440020561218,
-0.06445670127868652,
-0.06964322924613953,
-0.39792370796203613,
-0.19916324317455292,
0.7931227684020996,
0.5743115544319153,
-0.6608069539070129,
0.7504057884216309,
0.6385713219642639,
-0.34581461548805237,
0.5390521883964539,
0.9423983097076416,
-0.1419457644224167,
-0.3379044234752655,
0.0910012274980545,
-0.3627813756465912,
0.11982209980487823,
-0.21030697226524353,
-0.7905617952346802,
0.32205021381378174,
0.4986824691295624,
-0.3685409128665924,
0.18372505903244019,
0.4358125329017639,
0.10114787518978119,
0.3253099024295807,
-0.13613827526569366,
0.2204655110836029,
-0.18048891425132751,
-0.496815025806427,
-0.4498201906681061,
-0.3397826850414276,
0.5003741383552551,
0.7160443663597107,
0.3467448055744171,
0.16682489216327667,
0.4238917827606201,
0.7683722376823425,
0.027236860245466232,
-0.21960285305976868,
0.12065353244543076,
0.18364843726158142,
-0.1398712396621704,
-0.19303692877292633,
0.8180704116821289,
0.04697626829147339,
0.11806754022836685,
0.5073059797286987,
0.7698348760604858,
0.3607361316680908,
-0.05637720972299576,
-0.3587336838245392,
-0.1846081018447876,
0.6256512999534607,
-0.3832167387008667,
0.16604509949684143,
0.5089651346206665,
0.16548976302146912,
-0.2934796214103699,
-0.2669644057750702,
-0.4528625011444092,
0.34975600242614746,
0.04074666276574135,
0.6775638461112976,
0.40772745013237,
-0.18862977623939514,
0.21711848676204681,
0.29579704999923706,
0.631531298160553,
-0.4452122747898102,
0.6173967719078064,
0.18591730296611786,
-0.48629269003868103,
-0.7478715181350708,
0.016156405210494995,
0.4495251476764679,
-0.15845854580402374,
0.36243927478790283,
-0.3445344865322113,
0.10721966624259949,
0.7346524000167847,
0.5657238960266113,
0.7317326068878174,
-0.38272547721862793,
-0.7153611183166504,
-0.09281442314386368,
-0.3187793493270874,
-0.4715563952922821,
-0.30775555968284607,
0.1278504580259323,
0.04752710834145546,
0.5332466959953308,
-0.8593888878822327,
-0.26806047558784485,
-0.4970347285270691,
-0.818142294883728,
0.1593862920999527,
0.14540670812129974,
0.4331807494163513,
0.3513825237751007,
0.08829385042190552,
-0.08741336315870285,
0.21090058982372284,
-0.06358616799116135,
0.5230749845504761,
-0.004154141992330551,
-0.06813739240169525,
-0.640123724937439,
0.8187723755836487,
0.22975905239582062,
-1.0146836042404175,
-0.39891496300697327,
-0.05852542445063591,
0.23730503022670746,
-0.3904937505722046,
-0.5393692255020142,
-0.28507885336875916,
0.6210595369338989,
-0.1650528460741043,
-0.40010830760002136,
0.08394553512334824,
0.13057272136211395,
0.35634806752204895,
0.005790681578218937,
-0.42914149165153503,
-0.3026396930217743,
0.63131183385849,
0.4902747571468353,
-0.1538429856300354,
0.44753649830818176,
-0.6510339379310608,
0.4743858873844147,
0.34262004494667053,
-0.05657119303941727,
0.014539209194481373,
-0.2929854989051819,
0.1688205897808075,
0.5678290128707886,
0.3560185432434082,
-0.3236183524131775,
1.0939509868621826,
0.04268735274672508,
0.046307273209095,
-0.10229276120662689,
-0.6884989142417908,
-1.0573866367340088,
0.6119421124458313,
0.967746913433075,
0.07613988220691681,
-0.672856330871582,
-0.3384237587451935,
0.28847628831863403,
0.20342127978801727,
-0.467254638671875,
-0.08946481347084045,
0.46558284759521484,
0.36304619908332825,
0.7154607176780701,
-0.5060782432556152,
0.2832763195037842,
-0.09941896796226501,
-0.08055108785629272,
0.10102128982543945,
0.5027658939361572,
-0.9012325406074524,
-0.7702492475509644,
0.3776870369911194,
-0.7491106390953064,
0.1488729566335678,
0.3817085027694702,
0.008070911280810833,
0.46479007601737976,
0.17671911418437958,
0.5600101351737976,
-0.5750518441200256,
-0.04696094989776611,
0.21193814277648926,
-0.07085812836885452,
-0.3369230628013611,
-0.2652258574962616,
0.17723168432712555,
0.7680789828300476,
-0.26874014735221863,
-0.30329838395118713,
0.41925591230392456,
-0.2801758646965027,
0.31867724657058716,
-0.9045795202255249,
-0.1038188710808754,
-0.21094153821468353,
-0.3123825490474701,
-0.5639457702636719,
-0.16500702500343323,
-0.3539130687713623,
-0.15684498846530914,
-0.16224224865436554,
0.16698326170444489,
-0.09616977721452713,
-0.1560726761817932,
0.3405919671058655,
-0.39901748299598694,
-0.40099409222602844,
-0.16180561482906342,
0.36148974299430847,
0.37324684858322144,
-0.014210634864866734,
-0.7621480226516724,
-0.13593405485153198,
0.3508186638355255,
-0.25721797347068787,
0.28329047560691833,
-0.2538028061389923,
0.43853679299354553,
-0.5693438053131104,
-0.0779639407992363,
-0.023332098498940468,
0.9569776058197021,
0.1439107358455658,
-0.4569767415523529,
-0.4688808023929596,
0.2840922772884369,
0.35828667879104614,
0.17690159380435944,
-0.05598091706633568,
-0.5659388303756714,
-0.024218188598752022,
-1.0015101432800293,
0.3756822645664215,
-0.12133617699146271,
0.3191957175731659,
0.4488360285758972,
-0.1111435741186142,
0.08950593322515488,
-0.16654297709465027,
0.3178592026233673,
0.0808173269033432,
0.10631968826055527,
-0.11914241313934326,
0.8923042416572571,
-0.30167216062545776,
0.34676629304885864,
-0.47363442182540894,
-0.5049499273300171,
0.35465559363365173,
0.17760002613067627,
-0.5077617764472961,
-0.1488109827041626,
0.32955706119537354,
0.3785361051559448,
-0.2340230792760849,
-0.1362949013710022,
0.07892099767923355,
-0.0008097866666503251,
0.3114234507083893,
-0.5896910429000854,
-0.5591983199119568,
-0.25225767493247986,
0.09396620094776154,
-0.5040218234062195,
-0.6172491908073425,
0.44121548533439636,
-0.09234406054019928,
-0.5629517436027527,
0.021012190729379654,
-0.6155989766120911,
-0.004119101446121931,
0.2681316137313843
] |
200202
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg%20Graffin
|
Greg Graffin
|
Gregory Walter Graffin (born November 6, 1964) is an American singer, songwriter, and evolutionary biologist. He is most recognized as the lead vocalist, songwriter, and only constant member of punk rock band Bad Religion, which he co-founded in 1980. He embarked on a solo career in 1997, when he released the album American Lesion. His follow-up album, Cold as the Clay, was released nine years later. His newest solo work is Millport, released in 2017.
Graffin obtained his PhD in zoology at Cornell University and has lectured courses in natural sciences at both the University of California, Los Angeles and at Cornell University.
Career
Bad Religion
In 1980, at the age of 15, Graffin and a few high school classmates formed Bad Religion in Southern California's San Fernando Valley. After making a name for themselves in the Los Angeles punk scene, releasing two EPs and two full-length albums, they disbanded around 1985. However, Bad Religion reformed in 1986 with a new line-up, consisting of Graffin on vocals, Brett Gurewitz and Greg Hetson on guitars, Jay Bentley on bass, and Pete Finestone on drums. In 1988, they released Suffer, which was a comeback for Bad Religion as well as a watershed for the Southern California punk sound popularized by guitarist Gurewitz's Epitaph Records. The reunion line-up made two more records before Finestone left the band in 1991.
Bad Religion has been known for its articulate and often politically charged lyrics as well as its fast-paced harmony, melody and counterpoint. Graffin and Gurewitz are the band's two main songwriters, though Graffin wrote the bulk of the material on his own for a three-album period in the late 1990s. Gurewitz had left the band in 1994 to concentrate on the future of Epitaph.
After a stint with major label Atlantic Records ended in the early 2000s, Bad Religion re-signed with Epitaph and Gurewitz rejoined. They have since continued to co-write songs and recorded six records: The Process of Belief (2002), The Empire Strikes First (2004), New Maps of Hell (2007), The Dissent of Man (2010), True North (2013), and their latest, Age of Unreason (2019)
Solo career
Graffin recorded a solo album in 1997, called American Lesion, which consisted of softer, more pop-oriented folk songs. Most of this album was written during the breakup of his marriage, and the songs reflect this in lyrics and style.
In 2005, Graffin recorded his second solo album, Cold as the Clay. The album is an amalgamation of new songs by Graffin and 18th- and 19th-century American folk songs. It was produced by Brett Gurewitz and released via ANTI- on July 10, 2006.
In a September 2015 interview, Graffin revealed that he had been working on his third solo album, on which he planned to continue the folk style of Cold as the Clay. That record, Millport, was released on March 10, 2017. It was co-written and produced by Gurewitz and features members of Social Distortion as backing musicians.
Academics
Graffin attended El Camino Real High School, then obtained both his BA Biology, BS Geology and master's in Geology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). He went on to earn his PhD in Zoology from Cornell University. The PhD dissertation was supervised by William B. Provine. After years of being out-of-print, the title of his dissertation changed to "Evolution and Religion: Questioning the Beliefs of the World's Eminent Evolutionists".
Graffin returned to UCLA where he taught natural science courses. In a June 2008 interview with Bad Religion bassist Jay Bentley, he mentioned that Graffin would be teaching there from January to March 2009. In April 2011, Graffin revealed that he would return to Cornell University that fall to co-teach for 14 weeks.
In 2011 the new type species Qiliania graffini of an extinct bird from the lower Cretaceous was named after Graffin "for his contributions to evolutionary biology, his public out-reach through music, and his inspiration to young scientists around the world".
Work as an author and educator
Graffin received the Rushdie Award for Cultural Humanism from the Harvard Humanist Chaplaincy in 2008.
Throughout 2003, Graffin was engaged in an ongoing email discussion with Preston Jones, a historian at the Christian John Brown University in Arkansas and fan of Bad Religion. The informal philosophical debate that resulted was published as a book titled Is Belief in God Good, Bad or Irrelevant? A Professor and Punk Rocker Discuss Science, Religion, Naturalism & Christianity in 2006.
In 2009, Graffin announced that he had co-written a book with American author Steve Olson titled Anarchy Evolution, released on September 28, 2010 (the same day his band Bad Religion released their 15th album The Dissent of Man). In his book, Graffin writes that he is an atheist: "I've never believed in God, which technically makes me an atheist". Although Graffin is not religious, he prefers to identify as a naturalist rather than as an atheist. "Naturalism is a belief system. A lot of scientists bristle at that. We all have to believe we can find the truth. Evidence is my guide. I rely on observation, experimentation and verification." He also filmed and co-produced a television pilot called Punk Professor.
In 2010, he commented on the project, "It's sitting on someone's shelf waiting to be developed. I'm not actually pursuing it. I said, yeah, I'll shoot the pilot, then it's out of my hands."
On March 24, 2012, Bad Religion headlined the Reason Rally in Washington, D.C., where Graffin performed the U.S. national anthem.
Another book entitled The Population Wars was released in September 2015. It had been in the works since at least April 2011 and Graffin spoke about it to be "a bit more in depth about the process of evolution". In a November 2015 interview with PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III for Graffin's book Population Wars, Graffin stated "I've made a lot of mistakes, but you can't dwell on mistakes because life is about an adventure. It's about discovery. And you learn from your mistakes so unless you're completely shut down to improving your life, I believe you can continue learning until you're very, very old. You have to look at those past missteps as learning experiences."
Discography
Bad Religion
Studio albums
How Could Hell Be Any Worse? (1982)
Into the Unknown (1983)
Suffer (1988)
No Control (1989)
Against the Grain (1990)
Generator (1992)
Recipe for Hate (1993)
Stranger than Fiction (1994)
The Gray Race (1996)
No Substance (1998)
The New America (2000)
The Process of Belief (2002)
The Empire Strikes First (2004)
New Maps of Hell (2007)
The Dissent of Man (2010)
True North (2013)
Age of Unreason (2019)
Solo
American Lesion (1997)
Cold as the Clay (2006)
Millport (2017)
Bibliography
A new locality of fossiliferous Harding Sandstone: evidence for freshwater Ordovician vertebrates, Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, vol. 12, issue 1, pgs. 1–10. (1992)
Evolution, Monism, Atheism and the Naturalist World-View, Polypterus Press (2004)
Is Belief in God Good, Bad, or Irrelevant?, with Preston Jones (2006)
Evolution, Religion and Free Will, with William Provine, American Scientist, vol. 95, issue 4, p. 294 (2007)
Evolution and Religion: Questioning the Beliefs of the World's Eminent Evolutionists, Polypterus Press, Ithaca, N.Y. (2010)
Anarchy Evolution: Faith, Science, and Bad Religion in a World Without God, with Steve Olson (2010)
The Population Wars (2015)
See also
List of celebrities with advanced degrees
References
External links
Greg Graffin interview on NPR
1964 births
Living people
American atheists
American baritones
American people of Irish descent
Bad Religion members
20th-century naturalists
American naturalists
Critics of religions
Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences alumni
Musicians from Racine, Wisconsin
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
Singers from Wisconsin
American punk rock singers
American punk rock guitarists
Folk punk musicians
Evolutionary biologists
21st-century American zoologists
Guitarists from Wisconsin
American male guitarists
El Camino Real High School alumni
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American zoologists
21st-century naturalists
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American singers
20th-century American singers
Anti- (record label) artists
|
[
0.2642040550708771,
0.35403403639793396,
-0.13916824758052826,
-0.26984941959381104,
0.5375157594680786,
0.4694726765155792,
0.549347460269928,
0.06117257475852966,
-0.12336665391921997,
0.2705773711204529,
-0.27978378534317017,
0.37510988116264343,
-0.3165298402309418,
0.16813386976718903,
-0.30345457792282104,
0.0732511654496193,
0.10183388739824295,
-0.2002532035112381,
0.01755194179713726,
-0.27099376916885376,
-0.3973070979118347,
-0.23078297078609467,
0.07232306897640228,
0.5569642186164856,
-0.32693836092948914,
0.8359904885292053,
-0.29674649238586426,
-0.4146711528301239,
0.1802932620048523,
-0.16494514048099518,
-0.018742261454463005,
0.20516210794448853,
0.6791415810585022,
-0.4748559594154358,
-0.25304388999938965,
0.7308402061462402,
-0.264208048582077,
-0.35202112793922424,
0.1311952769756317,
0.37729784846305847,
0.02362111769616604,
0.03755134344100952,
-0.14425282180309296,
0.04917968437075615,
-0.3758966028690338,
-0.4880494773387909,
-1.885331392288208,
0.6966025829315186,
-0.6407546401023865,
-0.13330766558647156,
-0.525827169418335,
0.07266617566347122,
0.31041574478149414,
-0.19720356166362762,
0.08851581066846848,
-0.08986629545688629,
0.18827635049819946,
-0.1654178351163864,
-0.2824304699897766,
-0.31318333745002747,
-0.22157351672649384,
-0.2920563220977783,
0.054083202034235,
-0.4380309283733368,
0.056029513478279114,
0.37758734822273254,
0.43265995383262634,
0.7197533249855042,
0.024884618818759918,
-0.14610685408115387,
-0.2349850982427597,
0.5881781578063965,
0.11629269272089005,
-0.6424548625946045,
0.4446222186088562,
-0.04023080691695213,
0.2854089140892029,
0.26120179891586304,
0.5418067574501038,
0.45886364579200745,
0.020661592483520508,
0.551132082939148,
0.6683305501937866,
0.25596949458122253,
0.07823143154382706,
-0.03303687274456024,
-0.49413934350013733,
0.3627808392047882,
-0.9571411609649658,
-0.00856214202940464,
-0.6871016621589661,
-0.7435481548309326,
0.18147127330303192,
0.7666354775428772,
0.5215833187103271,
-0.8079902529716492,
-0.022037982940673828,
0.07368236780166626,
-0.02193966880440712,
-0.05098341405391693,
0.08386798202991486,
-0.1358153074979782,
0.19186042249202728,
-0.4870884120464325,
-0.10658571124076843,
-0.2602112591266632,
-0.1887599378824234,
-0.5927088856697083,
-0.2698913812637329,
-0.27661702036857605,
-0.44746968150138855,
0.24600839614868164,
-0.07253294438123703,
-0.1612694412469864,
0.13004088401794434,
1.0405412912368774,
0.10148674994707108,
-0.93067467212677,
-0.6450566053390503,
-0.16111765801906586,
-0.00921565294265747,
0.5932524800300598,
-0.1693578064441681,
0.025040121749043465,
-1.0718592405319214,
-0.28528648614883423,
0.023111490532755852,
0.09723363071680069,
-0.6124245524406433,
0.5517545938491821,
0.04834018647670746,
0.8580596446990967,
0.03637135773897171,
-0.216019406914711,
-0.2963491976261139,
0.06344304233789444,
0.4160926043987274,
0.0197896771132946,
-0.19241751730442047,
0.43598654866218567,
-0.5598530173301697,
-0.5212482810020447,
-0.9739729166030884,
-0.3578113615512848,
0.2792384624481201,
0.2812001705169678,
-0.3709096610546112,
-0.15098993480205536,
-0.01976945623755455,
-0.08474693447351456,
-0.0586521178483963,
0.5647680163383484,
-0.6216380596160889,
-0.6771447062492371,
-0.3017209470272064,
0.44256100058555603,
0.5740613341331482,
0.08569400012493134,
0.7474139332771301,
-0.34423762559890747,
0.24995772540569305,
0.045390646904706955,
-0.4628447890281677,
-0.04733788222074509,
0.5993423461914062,
-0.26969972252845764,
0.4956342875957489,
0.460049569606781,
-0.12920808792114258,
0.07291390001773834,
-0.07917596399784088,
-0.10040339827537537,
0.2697122097015381,
-0.036746349185705185,
0.10468035936355591,
-0.03061845526099205,
0.5269418358802795,
0.14694249629974365,
0.20573166012763977,
0.0668388307094574,
-0.33184829354286194,
-0.4095049202442169,
0.12988536059856415,
-0.0808509960770607,
0.3106480538845062,
0.04960256442427635,
0.002576875500380993,
-0.11052674055099487,
0.8842419981956482,
-0.3552376329898834,
-0.45663759112358093,
-0.8639242649078369,
0.24540439248085022,
0.11405617743730545,
0.8786255121231079,
0.02753252349793911,
-0.01702442206442356,
0.4706430435180664,
0.5587227940559387,
0.4521505534648895,
-0.2781624495983124,
-0.25911030173301697,
-0.0021071110386401415,
-0.29312124848365784,
-0.12449575960636139,
0.6864364147186279,
0.9693508148193359,
-0.5615642666816711,
-0.30304908752441406,
0.18686094880104065,
0.27208417654037476,
-0.38494887948036194,
0.14043565094470978,
0.4824641942977905,
-0.3951359987258911,
-0.6936467885971069,
-0.6717169880867004,
0.0007275222451426089,
-0.10257794708013535,
-0.7234532833099365,
0.5506073832511902,
0.5785419344902039,
0.027490928769111633,
0.5015468597412109,
0.020414141938090324,
1.2368028163909912,
0.13530287146568298,
-0.391783207654953,
-0.05593816190958023,
0.05270279571413994,
-0.18416118621826172,
0.43575501441955566,
-0.5778781175613403,
-0.5188210606575012,
0.05395409092307091,
0.3303774893283844,
0.5811336040496826,
-0.1385612189769745,
0.08593972027301788,
-0.7360808253288269,
0.38405925035476685,
0.48767414689064026,
-0.7193889617919922,
0.3445737063884735,
-0.1034829318523407,
-0.021023279055953026,
0.025413883849978447,
-0.004443840589374304,
-0.5470517873764038,
0.28151121735572815,
-0.04607967659831047,
0.32615190744400024,
0.6212867498397827,
0.232426255941391,
-0.17882882058620453,
0.19508172571659088,
0.025887925177812576,
0.18266919255256653,
-0.0040558516047894955,
0.3075203001499176,
0.3971402049064636,
-0.19519323110580444,
0.057186271995306015,
-0.8909721970558167,
-0.19681286811828613,
-0.2994018793106079,
0.14826540648937225,
-0.5600549578666687,
0.8508910536766052,
-0.012025942094624043,
-0.18931050598621368,
0.12825746834278107,
-0.3475622236728668,
0.15628784894943237,
-0.3102518320083618,
-0.12575550377368927,
0.04181484505534172,
-0.27946043014526367,
-0.25159430503845215,
-0.9820771813392639,
0.3092007637023926,
0.803752064704895,
-0.3004753291606903,
-0.3342413008213043,
0.023249531164765358,
-0.08535446971654892,
0.0031397812999784946,
-0.04759187996387482,
0.40627482533454895,
0.09405858814716339,
-0.5231768488883972,
0.6651535630226135,
0.04671243578195572,
0.5678613185882568,
-0.30511054396629333,
0.4122087359428406,
0.40643152594566345,
-0.572952151298523,
-0.16697870194911957,
0.16098421812057495,
-0.11583597213029861,
-0.2889755070209503,
0.17619210481643677,
0.33043140172958374,
0.24765557050704956,
0.26263725757598877,
0.030610041692852974,
-0.648521900177002,
-5.60115385055542,
0.09544006735086441,
-0.17386603355407715,
-0.5241000652313232,
0.6576601266860962,
0.5314698219299316,
0.08842867612838745,
-0.07962370663881302,
0.1525033861398697,
-0.4215172529220581,
-0.37047603726387024,
0.15635240077972412,
-0.429452121257782,
0.437728613615036,
0.43345218896865845,
0.14447559416294098,
0.6038082838058472,
-0.14098675549030304,
0.24231845140457153,
0.499523401260376,
-0.05713331326842308,
0.05412519723176956,
0.06385470181703568,
-0.22618091106414795,
-0.24447891116142273,
0.23853813111782074,
-0.9499865770339966,
0.15397992730140686,
0.1241639107465744,
-0.06992461532354355,
0.024081511422991753,
-0.093529611825943,
-0.6461740136146545,
-0.21912352740764618,
-0.03765105828642845,
0.3109827935695648,
0.375211238861084,
-0.4227244555950165,
0.47211089730262756,
0.00979174580425024,
0.2611481845378876,
0.03716985508799553,
-0.4537718892097473,
-0.2427474707365036,
0.27962708473205566,
0.04521746560931206,
-0.39890363812446594,
-0.33231601119041443,
0.03604967147111893,
0.6263794898986816,
-0.11235801130533218,
-0.07422750443220139,
0.5402536392211914,
0.08396836370229721,
0.5324712991714478,
-0.3114815056324005,
0.45524275302886963,
-0.033048566430807114,
-0.4115915596485138,
0.6622156500816345,
0.5148341655731201,
-0.317249059677124,
-0.10497298091650009,
-0.15621502697467804,
0.04424631968140602,
-0.2358003854751587,
0.4194234013557434,
0.26428699493408203,
0.15638072788715363,
-0.6153724789619446,
0.09873980283737183,
0.6556597352027893,
-0.016067463904619217,
-1.5443862676620483,
0.012066003866493702,
-0.5831798911094666,
-0.0007046879618428648,
0.1264287233352661,
-0.8602920174598694,
-0.5082979202270508,
-0.252534955739975,
-0.5056712627410889,
-0.5794422030448914,
0.4109219014644623,
0.26039037108421326,
-0.058770909905433655,
-0.7159401178359985,
0.1746290922164917,
-0.28843560814857483,
0.0026577585376799107,
-0.31006279587745667,
-0.48330071568489075,
0.15303972363471985,
-0.35387563705444336,
0.4822566509246826,
0.43717721104621887,
0.507124662399292,
0.7750901579856873,
0.5863105058670044,
0.6619736552238464,
0.008100347593426704,
-0.3392919898033142,
0.007106221746653318,
-0.5143721699714661,
0.038780637085437775,
-0.4098324179649353,
0.1777189075946808,
-0.06986214965581894,
0.6609193086624146,
0.1895042061805725,
-0.4080301523208618,
0.38581860065460205,
-0.3198852241039276,
-0.6676884889602661,
0.01560733001679182,
0.21163640916347504,
-0.365903377532959,
-0.030085425823926926,
0.23714715242385864,
0.4144400656223297,
0.030644049867987633,
0.245059072971344,
0.4742037355899811,
0.26276063919067383,
0.13028423488140106,
-0.2092902511358261,
-0.16837595403194427,
-0.6830561757087708,
0.07085160166025162,
-0.01836840622127056,
-0.14583560824394226,
0.8213704228401184,
-0.08083151280879974,
-0.2959117591381073,
-0.2425086498260498,
-0.05648902803659439,
-0.2163929045200348,
-0.3223124146461487,
-0.27528810501098633,
-0.2518380880355835,
0.3637736141681671,
-0.28801339864730835,
-0.001460478873923421,
0.21828190982341766,
-0.15593387186527252,
-0.11864779889583588,
0.3672106862068176,
0.45076027512550354,
-0.5099986791610718,
0.39183223247528076,
0.3894856870174408,
-0.23283520340919495,
0.6079319715499878,
-0.7964157462120056,
-0.4056704044342041,
0.1849430352449417,
-0.23709288239479065,
-0.3223646283149719,
0.39009496569633484,
-0.11488884687423706,
-0.12380076944828033,
-0.6120421290397644,
-0.7379228472709656,
-0.05187017470598221,
0.04222717881202698,
0.30446696281433105,
-0.3247339427471161,
-0.32512956857681274,
-1.0474876165390015,
-0.3619966208934784,
0.21064941585063934,
-0.5277334451675415,
-0.5365309715270996,
-0.08570881187915802,
-0.2869570553302765,
0.028086993843317032,
0.15208715200424194,
-0.38499924540519714,
0.09449392557144165,
0.3087671101093292,
-0.11814601719379425,
-0.01833886094391346,
-0.5445958375930786,
-0.2422751933336258,
0.6488440036773682,
0.14738132059574127,
-0.4564732015132904,
-0.48885291814804077,
0.13024652004241943,
0.35055971145629883,
-0.35787567496299744,
-0.24427063763141632,
0.36972394585609436,
0.14816991984844208,
0.09175445884466171,
-0.41568851470947266,
0.15324029326438904,
-0.17382769286632538,
0.030125094577670097,
-0.5169885158538818,
0.1240215003490448,
0.2239471971988678,
-0.3664416968822479,
0.07412523776292801,
0.5820204019546509,
-0.9382323622703552,
-0.3033057749271393,
0.055092740803956985,
0.0623936802148819,
0.48474636673927307,
0.003667909884825349,
-0.2762407958507538,
0.16577106714248657,
0.3055744469165802,
-0.27846089005470276,
0.2809356451034546,
0.18486522138118744,
0.03800886496901512,
-0.48943009972572327,
-0.1395685374736786,
-0.7709628343582153,
-0.22107413411140442,
-0.03813490644097328,
-0.24201342463493347,
-0.5658652782440186,
-0.45085838437080383,
0.1973269283771515,
0.052536457777023315,
0.418159157037735,
-0.4764905571937561,
-0.08159004151821136,
-0.24472679197788239,
0.37803950905799866,
0.24939954280853271,
-0.3223397135734558,
-0.08370780944824219,
-0.20558097958564758,
1.0143115520477295,
0.15291282534599304,
0.1410650759935379,
0.7699761390686035,
0.9071070551872253,
0.1097688227891922,
0.11911331117153168,
-0.26667162775993347,
0.27931681275367737,
0.536728024482727,
-0.17268745601177216,
-0.3031555712223053,
0.08330327272415161,
0.5880513191223145,
-0.10195029526948929,
-0.397407203912735,
0.28307923674583435,
0.6929113864898682,
-0.20227085053920746,
-0.006357491947710514,
-0.5054779648780823,
-0.1643902212381363,
-0.14663632214069366,
-0.11617295444011688,
-0.3340730667114258,
-0.2278950959444046,
0.1804826855659485,
-0.4397132694721222,
-0.1868758648633957,
-0.18106937408447266,
-0.3507559895515442,
-0.11523731797933578,
-0.6284308433532715,
-0.17485830187797546,
-0.23726646602153778,
-0.07851734012365341,
0.7471168041229248,
-0.32617098093032837,
0.7577257752418518,
0.4790228307247162,
0.13184568285942078,
-0.2241542637348175,
0.30132296681404114,
0.1390058994293213,
0.4509217143058777,
-0.22858618199825287,
-0.7414876222610474,
0.25801679491996765,
-0.1670132428407669,
0.20592965185642242,
-0.192734956741333,
0.3771861791610718,
-0.3979542851448059,
-0.5900729298591614,
0.0886635035276413,
-0.38874438405036926,
0.31587520241737366,
0.1011255607008934,
-0.07123007625341415,
-0.36163103580474854,
0.7058508992195129,
-0.3357470631599426,
-0.1446188986301422,
-0.04735339432954788,
0.9516952037811279,
0.7138888835906982,
-0.5978603959083557,
0.2472320795059204,
0.12293537706136703,
-0.3314446806907654,
-0.23411786556243896,
-0.08482188731431961,
0.4078826904296875,
0.38871046900749207,
0.40306994318962097,
0.03594750165939331,
0.6306924819946289,
-0.5400953888893127,
0.5722618103027344,
0.26213470101356506,
-0.3639165759086609,
0.23829585313796997,
0.24231112003326416,
-0.09082549810409546,
-0.4823398292064667,
0.5426065325737,
-0.10146427154541016,
0.20909081399440765,
0.871577799320221,
0.1990709751844406,
0.05458078160881996,
-0.14776872098445892,
0.7577282190322876,
0.18150965869426727,
0.22134891152381897,
0.32136356830596924,
0.1561957597732544,
-0.19594672322273254,
-0.7620983719825745,
0.10956656187772751,
0.4052641987800598,
0.12598851323127747,
0.5972958207130432,
-0.5442026257514954,
0.6331580877304077,
0.04519400745630264,
0.18577946722507477,
0.06165847182273865,
-0.3225589394569397,
-0.07488550245761871,
0.9540303945541382,
-0.35486847162246704,
-0.27571794390678406,
-0.2231006920337677,
-0.1897697001695633,
-0.03704684227705002,
-0.29697465896606445,
0.1467955857515335,
-1.0680252313613892,
0.8358352780342102,
-0.3342127799987793,
-0.02778613567352295,
-0.5050824284553528,
-0.07515041530132294,
-0.5038633942604065,
0.9112002849578857,
0.208272323012352,
-0.0731281191110611,
-0.3515787124633789,
0.045386649668216705,
-0.603980541229248,
-0.2145007997751236,
0.12025037407875061,
0.16782929003238678,
0.5193886756896973,
0.14082889258861542,
0.9094630479812622,
0.22687770426273346,
0.2414259910583496,
0.5006192922592163,
-0.2662881314754486,
-0.5168516635894775,
-0.1642615646123886,
-0.6682401299476624,
-0.2328927367925644,
-0.07970354706048965,
0.2585086226463318,
0.48149940371513367,
0.24152255058288574,
-0.021288849413394928,
0.4560439884662628,
-0.04104723781347275,
-0.3151494264602661,
0.744717538356781,
-0.5966634154319763,
-0.15842871367931366,
0.2815588116645813,
-0.5129685997962952,
-0.14500172436237335,
0.001572953537106514,
0.7777889966964722,
0.37315401434898376,
0.25201091170310974,
0.3269764184951782,
-0.0033771079033613205,
0.3249274790287018,
0.04986340552568436,
-0.33791300654411316,
0.03744669631123543,
-0.4907784163951874,
-0.1106439009308815,
-0.4612520635128021,
0.3971443176269531,
0.16599206626415253,
-0.07210252434015274,
-0.3962318003177643,
0.16746139526367188,
-0.04014888033270836,
0.3839000165462494,
0.11123894900083542,
0.2791135907173157,
0.2522073984146118,
-0.22613583505153656,
0.2519754469394684,
1.1193718910217285,
-0.0837002694606781,
0.16018138825893402,
0.007271462585777044,
0.41232821345329285,
0.028752952814102173,
0.0565958134829998,
-0.45327028632164,
0.09600239247083664,
-0.2127847671508789,
-0.47752442955970764,
-0.29655295610427856,
0.09912151098251343,
-0.19452084600925446,
-1.124711036682129,
0.8089709877967834,
0.8161539435386658,
0.7807800769805908,
-0.6163745522499084,
0.6694344878196716,
0.11955835670232773,
-0.10097496956586838,
-0.08341411501169205,
-1.1601003408432007,
0.18876628577709198,
-0.2757968604564667,
-0.5312017798423767,
-0.1408231258392334,
-0.26292943954467773,
-0.16594235599040985,
-0.305593341588974,
0.04011090472340584,
-0.5864440202713013,
0.0684957280755043,
0.012555008754134178,
0.14523418247699738,
0.4574955105781555,
0.9990699887275696,
-0.11477693915367126
] |
200221
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saipan
|
Saipan
|
Saipan ( , , formerly in , and in ) is the largest island of the Northern Mariana Islands, a commonwealth of the United States in the western Pacific Ocean. According to 2017 estimates by the United States Census Bureau and the Commonwealth's Department of Commerce, Saipan's population was 47,565.
The legislative and executive branches of Commonwealth government are located in the village of Capitol Hill on the island; the judicial branch is headquartered in the village of Susupe. Since the entire island is organized as a single municipality, most publications designate Saipan as the Commonwealth's capital.
As of 2015, Saipan's mayor is David M. Apatang and the governor of the Northern Mariana Islands is Ralph Torres.
History
Prehistory
Traces of human settlements on Saipan have been found by archaeologists ranging over 4,000 years, including ancient Latte Stones, and other artifacts pointing to cultural affinities with Melanesia and with similar stone monuments in Micronesia and Palau.
Spanish colonial period
Saipan, together with Tinian, was possibly first sighted by Europeans by the Spanish expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, when it made a landing in the southern Marianas on 6 March 1521. It is likely Saipan was sighted by Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa in 1522 on board of Spanish ship Trinidad, which he commanded after the death of Ferdinand Magellan in an attempt to reach Panama. This is likely to have occurred after the sighting of the Maug Islands between the end of August and the end of September, 1522. Gonzalo de Vigo deserted in the Maugs from Gomez de Espinosa's Trinidad and in the next four years, living with the local indigenous Chamorro people, visited thirteen main islands in the Marianas and possibly Saipan among them. The first clear evidence of Europeans arriving to Saipan was by the Manila galleon Santa Margarita commanded by Juan Martínez de Guillistegui, that wrecked on the island in February, 1600 and whose survivors stayed on it for two years, until 250 were rescued by the Santo Tomas and the Jesus María. The Spanish formally occupied the island in 1668, with the missionary expedition of Diego Luis de San Vitores who named it San José. After 1670, it became a port of call for Spanish and occasional English, Dutch and French ships as a supply station for food and water. The native population shrank dramatically due to European-introduced diseases and conflicts over land. The survivors were forcibly relocated to Guam in 1720 for better control and assimilation. Under Spanish rule, the island was developed into ranches for raising cattle and pigs, which were used to provision Spanish galleons on their way to Mexico.
Around 1815, many Carolinians from Satawal settled Saipan during a period when the Chamorros were imprisoned on Guam, which resulted in a significant loss of land and rights for the Chamorro natives. The initial leader of this company was an individual named "Chief Aghurubw".
German colonial period
After the Spanish–American War of 1898, Saipan was occupied by the United States. However, it was then sold by Spain to the German Empire in 1899. The island was administered by Germany as part of German New Guinea, but during the German period, there was no attempt to develop or settle the island, which remained under the control of its Spanish and mestizo landowners.
Japanese colonial period
In 1914, during World War I, the island was captured by the Empire of Japan. Japan was awarded formal control of the island in 1919 by the League of Nations as a part of its mandated territory of the South Seas Mandate. Militarily and economically, Saipan was one of the most important islands in the mandate and became the center of subsequent Japanese settlement. Immigration began in the 1920s by ethnic Japanese, Koreans, Taiwanese and Okinawans, who developed large-scale sugar plantations. The South Seas Development Company built sugar refineries and, under Japanese rule, extensive infrastructure development occurred, including the construction of port facilities, waterworks, power stations, paved roads and schools, along with entertainment facilities and Shinto shrines. By October 1943, Saipan had a civilian population of 29,348 Japanese settlers and 3,926 Chamorro and Carolinian Islanders.
World War II
Japan considered Saipan to be part of the last line of defenses for the Japanese homeland, and thus had strongly committed to defending it. The Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy garrisoned Saipan heavily from the late 1930s, building numerous coastal artillery batteries, shore defenses, underground fortifications and an airstrip. In mid-1944, nearly 30,000 troops were based on the island.
The Battle of Saipan, from 15 June to 9 July 1944, was one of the major campaigns of World War II. The United States Marine Corps and United States Army landed on the beaches of the south-western side of the island and, after more than three weeks in heavy fighting, captured the island from the Japanese. The battle cost the Americans 3,426 killed and 10,364 wounded. Of the estimated 30,000 Japanese defenders, only 921 were taken prisoner. The weapons used, and the tactics of close quarter fighting, also resulted in high civilian casualties. Some 20,000 Japanese civilians perished during the battle, including over 1,000 who jumped from "Suicide Cliff" and "Banzai Cliff" rather than be taken prisoner.
Seabees of the U.S. Navy also landed, to initiate construction projects. With the capture of Saipan, the American military was only
from the Japanese home islands, which placed most Japanese cities within striking distance of United States' B-29 Superfortress bombers. The loss of Saipan was a heavy blow to both the military and civilian administration of Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō, who was forced to resign.
The wartime history is interpreted on Saipan at American Memorial Park and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Museum of History and Culture. After the war, nearly all of the surviving Japanese settlers were repatriated to Japan.
American Colonial Period
After the end of World War II, Saipan became part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, administered by the United States. The island continued to be dominated by the United States military. Since 1978, the island has been a municipality of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The military presence began to be replaced by tourism in the 1990s, but still plays an important role in the local economy.
Geography
Saipan is the largest island in the Northern Mariana Islands. It is about north of Guam and northeast of Tinian, from which it is separated by the Saipan Channel. Saipan is about long and wide, with a land area of .
The western side of the island is lined with sandy beaches and an offshore coral reef creates a large lagoon. The eastern shore is composed primarily of rugged rocky cliffs and a reef. A narrow underwater bank of Marpi Reef lies north of the Saipan, and CK Reef lies in the west of the island.
The highest elevation on Saipan is a limestone-covered mountain called Mount Tapochau at . Unlike many of the mountains in the Mariana Islands, it is not an extinct volcano but is a limestone formation.
To the north of Mount Tapochau towards Banzai Cliff, is a ridge of hills. Mount Achugao, situated about 2 miles north, has been interpreted to be a remnant of a stratified composite volcanic cone whose Eocene center was not far north of the present peak.
Flora and fauna
The flora of Saipan is predominantly limestone forest. Some developed areas on the island are covered with Leucaena leucocephala, also known as "tangan-tangan" trees, which were spread broadly sometime after World War II.
Tangan-Tangan trees were introduced, primarily, as an erosion-prevention mechanism, due to the decimation of the landscape brought on by WWII. Remaining native forest occurs in small isolated fragments on steep slopes at low elevations and highland conservation areas of the island. Coconuts, papayas, and Thai hot peppers – locally called "donni' såli" or "boonie peppers" – are among the fruits that grow wild. Mango, taro root, breadfruit (locally called "Lemai"), and bananas are a few of the many foods cultivated by local families and farmers.
Saipan is home to multiple endemic bird species. Among them: the Mariana fruit dove, white-throated ground dove, bridled white-eye, golden white-eye, Micronesian myzomela and the endangered Saipan reed warbler.
The island used to have a large population of giant African land snails, introduced either deliberately as a food source, or accidentally by shipping, which became an agricultural pest. In the last few decades, its numbers have been substantially controlled by an introduced flatworm, Platydemus manokwari. Unfortunately, possibly due to the flatworm, the native tree-snails also became extinct.
Climate
Saipan has a borderline tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af)/tropical monsoon climate (Köppen Am), moderated by seasonal trade winds from the northeast from November to March, and easterly winds from May to October. Average year-round maximum temperature is . There is little seasonal temperature variation, and Saipan has been cited by the Guinness Book of World Records as having the least fluctuating temperatures in the world. However, the temperature is affected by elevation; hence, the island shows considerable variations between the coastal and mountainous areas.
The drier season runs from December to June and the rainier season from July to November. Typhoon season runs from July to December, and Saipan, along with the rest of the Mariana Islands, is subject to at least one typhoon each year.
Music
Music on Saipan can generally be broken down into three categories: local, mainland American, and Asian. Local consists of Chamorro, Carolinian, Micronesian Hawaiian Reggae and Palauan music, often with traditional dance for many occasions. Mainland American consists of much of the same music that can be found on U.S. radio. Asian consists of Japanese, Korean, Thai and Philippine music, among others. There are seven radio stations on Saipan, which play mainly popular and classic English-language songs as well as local and Philippine music.
Television
Local television stations on Saipan are the following:
KPPI-LP (ABC7), the ABC affiliate (simulcasts KTGM), which is owned by Sorensen Media Group.
KSPN 2, which is owned by the Flame Tree Network.
The Visitors Channel 3, which is owned by the Flame Tree Network.
WSZE-TV 10, the NBC affiliate (repeats KUAM-TV in Guam), which is owned by Pacific Telestations.
Transportation
Travel to and from the island is available from nine international airlines via Saipan International Airport. A ferry once operated between Saipan and Tinian but was halted in 2010, reportedly for maintenance, but was never reinstated.
One of the island's two main thoroughfares, Beach Road, is located on the western coast of Saipan. At some parts of the road, the beach is only a few feet away. Flame trees and pine trees line the street. The street also connects more than six villages that lie on the western coast of the island. Middle Road is the island's largest road and runs through its central section. Like Beach Road, Middle Road connects several villages throughout the island. Several offices, shops, hotels, and residences lie on or nearby these highways. Middle Road is labeled "Chalan Pale Arnold" on maps, but very few people call it that. As of 2017, a few vehicle companies, such as Toyota and Mazda, have opened up on Saipan, leading to a major shift to cars.
Villages and towns
The island of Saipan has a total of 30 "official" villages. However, there are many sub-areas and neighborhoods located in certain villages such as Afetnas in San Antonio and Tapochau and I Denne in Capitol Hill. Those marked "SV:" are the sub-villages.
Achugao
As Lito
As Matuis
As Perdido
As Teo
As Terlaje
Capitol Hill SV: I Denne, Tapochau, and Wireless Ridge
Chalan Kanoa SV: Laly I, II, III, and IV
Chalan Kiya
Chalan Laulau SV: Quartermaster
Chalan Piao
Chinatown
Dandan SV: Airport Road, Naftan, and Obyan
Fina Sisu
Garapan
Gualo Rai
Kagman SV: I, II, and III"
Kannat Tabla
Koblerville SV: As Gonno Lower Base
Marpi
Navy Hill SV: Chalan Galaide and Rapagao Oleai
Papago
Sadog Tasi SV: As Mahetog San Antonio SV: Afetnas San Jose
San Roque
San Vicente SV: Lao Lao Beach Susupe
Tanapag
Economy
Tourism had traditionally been a vital source of the island's revenue and economic activities. But in the 1980s, garment manufacturing became one of the main economic driving forces in Saipan when the U.S. government agreed that the CNMI would be exempted from certain federal minimum wage and immigration laws. While one result of these changes was an increase in hotels and tourism, the main consequence was that dozens of garment factories opened and clothing manufacturing became the island's chief economic force, employing thousands of foreign contract laborers (mostly young Chinese women) at low wages. The manufacturers could legally label these low cost garments "Made in the U.S.A." and the clothing shipped to the U.S. market was also exempt from U.S. tariffs. By 1998, the Saipan garment industry exported close to $1 billion worth of apparel products to the mainland. The working conditions and treatment experienced by employees in these factories were the subject of controversy and criticism.
As of March 2007, 19 companies manufactured garments on Saipan. In addition to many foreign-owned and run companies, many well-known U.S. brands also operated garment factories in Saipan for much of the last three decades. Brands included Gap (as of 2000 operating six factories there), Levi Strauss, Phillips-Van Heusen, Abercrombie & Fitch, L'Oreal subsidiary Ralph Lauren (Polo), Lord & Taylor, Tommy Hilfiger, and Walmart.
When the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) expired in 2005, thus eliminating quotas on textile exports to the United States, Saipan's garment factories started closing one after the other. From a high of 34 garment factories in the late 1990s, Saipan's last factory closed on January 15, 2009. On November 28, 2009, the federal government took control of immigration to the Northern Mariana Islands.
More recently, casino gaming has come to Saipan with at least five casinos now operating on the island. As of 2016, Imperial Pacific International Holdings, a Chinese company listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange (but majority owned by billionaire businesswoman Cui Lijie), which develops and operates casinos, hotels, and restaurants in CNMI, was reportedly the largest taxpayer in Saipan. In 2014, Imperial Pacific was granted a 25-year license to build and operate casinos on Saipan with an option to extend the license for another 15 years. The Imperial Pacific Resort, still unfinished as of June 2019, is set to include a luxury hotel, casino, restaurants, retail space, and leisure facilities. The complex was supposed to be completed by August 2018. The existing casinos are already handling over $2 billion monthly in VIP bets, more than the largest casinos in Macau, leading to accusations of money laundering. There has been criticism by local doctors after dead and seriously injured Chinese workers have appeared at the hospital, often illegally working under tourist visas.
Labor controversies
Jack Abramoff CNMI scandal
Jack Abramoff and his law firm were paid at least $6.7 million by the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) from 1995 to 2001 to change and/or prevent Congressional action regarding the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) and businesses on Saipan, its capital, commercial center, and one of its three principal islands.
Later lobbying efforts involved mailings from a Ralph Reed marketing company and bribery of Roger Stillwell, a Department of the Interior official who in 2006 pleaded guilty to accepting gifts from Abramoff.
Foreign contract labor abuse and exemptions from U.S. federal regulations
Excerpted from "Immigration and the CNMI: A report of the US Commission on Immigration Reform", January 7, 1998:
On March 31, 1998, US Senator Daniel Akaka said:
In 1991, Levi Strauss & Co. was embarrassed by a scandal involving six subsidiary factories run on Saipan by the Tan Holdings Corporation. It was revealed that Chinese laborers in those factories suffered under what the U.S. Department of Labor called "slavelike" conditions. Cited for sub-minimal wages, seven-day work week schedules with twelve-hour shifts, poor living conditions and other indignities (including the alleged removal of passports and the virtual imprisonment of workers), Tan would eventually pay what was then the largest fines in U.S. labor history, distributing more than $9 million in restitution to some 1200 employees. At the time, Tan factories produced 3% of Levi's jeans with the "Made in the U.S.A." label. Levi Strauss claimed that it had no knowledge of the offenses, severed ties to the Tan family, and instituted labor reforms and inspection practices in its offshore facilities.
In 1999, Sweatshop Watch, Global Exchange, Asian Law Caucus, Unite, and the garment workers themselves filed three separate lawsuits in class-action suits on behalf of roughly 30,000 garment workers in Saipan. The defendants included 27 U.S. retailers and 23 Saipan garment factories. By 2004, they had won a 20 million dollar settlement against all but one of the defendants. Levi Strauss & Co. was the only successful defendant, winning the case against them in 2004.
In 2005–2006, the issue of immigration and labor practices on Saipan was brought up during the American political scandals of Congressman Tom DeLay and lobbyist Jack Abramoff, who visited the island on numerous occasions. Ms. magazine published an exposé in their Spring 2006 article "Paradise Lost: Greed, Sex Slavery, Forced Abortion and Right-Wing Moralists".
On February 8, 2007, the United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources received testimony about federalizing CNMI labor and immigration.
On July 19, 2007, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Insular Affairs David B. Cohen testified before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources Regarding S. 1634 (The Northern Mariana Islands Covenant Implementation Act). He said:
A movement to federalize labor and immigration in the Northern Marianas Islands began in early 2007. A letter writing campaign to reform CNMI labor and immigration was debated in the local newspapers. Worker groups organized a successful Unity March December 7, 2007. Despite a strong lobby effort by Governor Fitial to stop it, President Bush signed PL 110-229 into law on May 8, 2008 and the U.S. immigration takeover began November 28, 2009.
Contract laborers arriving from China are usually required to pay their (Chinese National) recruitment agents fees equal to a year's total salary (roughly $3,500) and occasionally as high as two years' salary, though the contracts are only one-year contracts, renewable at the employer's discretion.
Sixty percent of the population of the CNMI is contract workers. These workers cannot vote. They are not represented, and can be deported if they lose their jobs. Meanwhile, the minimum wage remains well below that on the U.S. mainland, and abuses of vulnerable workers are commonplace.
In John Bowe's 2007 book Nobodies: Modern American Slave Labor and the Dark Side of the New Global Economy, he provides a focus on Saipan, exploring how its culture, isolation and American ties have made it a favorable environment for exploitative garment manufacturers and corrupt politicos. Bowe goes into detail about the island's factories, and also its karaoke bars and strip joints, some of which have had connections with politicos. The author depicts Saipan as a vulnerable, truly suffering community, where poverty rates have climbed as high as 35 percent, and proposes that the guest worker setup, by allowing many native islanders to avoid work, has actually crippled the competitiveness and job readiness of the native population.
Chinese national, Chun Yu Wang, in her 2009 book, Chicken Feathers and Garlic Skin: Diary of a Chinese Garment Factory Girl on Saipan (as told to Walt F.J. Goodridge), provides the only known first-hand account of factory work conditions and life in the barracks, a historical timeline of the garment factory era on Saipan, and provides revealing insights from a Chinese perspective into the experience typical of many of the garment factory workers on Saipan.
Imperial Pacific Holdings Casino
On 23 March 2017, one of Imperial Pacific's Chinese construction workers fell off a scaffold and died. This led the Federal Bureau of Investigations to search one of Imperial Pacific's offices and make an arrest. On 15 February 2018, Bloomberg Businessweek published an investigative report on the circumstances surrounding the death of this construction worker. An attorney for the Torres Brothers law firm which represented this worker said the report omitted several facts about the case. Imperial Pacific disputed all allegations of wrongdoing and sued Bloomberg for defamation. The Federal Bureau of Investigation and U.S. Department of Homeland Security investigated the case and charged five individuals with harboring undocumented workers. Companies linked to the governing Torres family have close links to the corporation, receiving $126,000 in 2017.
Other local issues
Despite an annual rainfall of , the Commonwealth Utilities Corporation (CUC), the local government-run water utility company on Saipan, is unable to deliver 24-hour-a-day potable water to its customers in certain areas. As a result, several large hotels use reverse osmosis to produce fresh water for their customers. In addition, many homes and small businesses augment the sporadic and sometimes brackish water provided by CUC with rainwater collected and stored in cisterns. Most locals buy drinking water from water distributors and use tap water only for bathing or washing as it has a strong sulfur taste.
On October 18, 2018, Typhoon Yutu, the second strongest typhoon to have ever made impact on U.S. territory, made landfall on Saipan. With sustained winds of 130 mph and gusts up to 190 mph, it caused significant damage.
Demographics
According to the 2010 United States Census, Saipan's population was 48,220, a drop of 22.7% from the 2000 US Census; the population decrease is largely attributed to working immigrants and their families either returning to their home countries after the collapse of the garment industry or moving to other locations with economic opportunities such as Guam and the United States. The population of Saipan corresponds to approximately 90% of the population of the Northern Mariana Islands.
Large numbers of Filipino, Chinese, Bangladeshi, Nepalese and smaller numbers of Sri Lankan and Burmese unskilled workers and professionals migrated to the Northern Mariana Islands including Saipan during the late 1900s mostly during the 1980s and 1990s. In addition, a large percentage of the island's population includes first-generation immigrants and their descendants from Japan, China, Korea, the Philippines, Bangladesh and immigrants from other Micronesian islands.
According to the 2010 United States Census, Saipan was 50.9% Asian (35.3% Filipino, 6.8% Chinese, 4.2% Korean, 1.5% Japanese, 0.9% Bangladeshi, 0.5% Thai, 0.4% Nepalese, 0.3% Other Asian), 34.9% Pacific Islander (23.9% Chamorro, 4.6% Carolinian, 2.3% Chuukese, 2.2% Palauan, 0.8% Pohnpeian, 0.4% Yapese, 0.1% Kosraean, 0.1% Marshallese, and 0.5% Other Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander), 2.1% White and 0.2% others.
Religion
The majority of the native Chamorro and Carolinian population are Catholic. About half of the general population on the island are foreign contract workers, mainly Catholic Filipinos. Numerous Christian churches are active in Saipan, providing services in various languages including English, Chamorro, Tagalog, Korean and Chinese. In conjunction to the rest of the Northern Mariana Islands, there are Chinese and Filipino Protestant and Catholic churches, a Korean Protestant church, three mosques for the Bangladeshi community and a Buddhist temple.
Education
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Public School System serves Saipan. Public high schools:
Kagman High School (Kagman)
Marianas High School (Susupe)
Saipan Southern High School (Koblerville)
There are many private schools on Saipan, including:
Brilliant Star Montessori School - Navy Hill
Saipan International School – As Lito
Mount Carmel School – Chalan Kanoa
Grace Christian Academy – Navy Hill
Marianas Baptist Academy – Dandan
Saipan Community School (grades K-8) – A Protestant school, it was established in 1976. Prior to SCS no Protestant schools were in Saipan.
Saipan Seventh-day Adventist School (18 months-grade 8) – the previous campus of the Calvary School in Chalan Kiya
Northern Marianas Academy (Fina Sisu).
Whispering Palms School (grades K-8) – Navy Hill (closed)
Northern Marianas College is a two-year community college serving the Northern Mariana Islands. Eucon International College is a four-year college that offers degrees in Bible and Education.
Joeten-Kiyu Public Library (JKPL) of the State Library of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands is in Susupe, Saipan.
Japanese Community School of Saipan (サイパン日本人補習校 Saipan Nihonjin Hoshūkō), a supplementary Japanese school operated by the Japanese Society of the Northern Marianas (北マリアナ日本人会) Educational Department, is in Saipan. Classes are on the second floor of the USL Building in Gualo Rai. It was established on November 5, 1983 (Shōwa 58)."北米の補習授業校一覧（平成25年4月15日現在）." () Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan). Retrieved on May 5, 2014. "サイパン Japanese Society of NMI Educational Department Japanese Society of NMI Educational Department PMB 165 Box 10000 Saipan, MP 96950 U.S.A."
Public middle schools:
Tanapag Middle School
Hopwood Middle School
Chacha Ocean View Middle School
Francisco Mendiola Sablan Middle School
Dandan Middle School
Public elementary schools:
Gregorio T. Camacho (GTC) Elementary School
San Vicente Elementary School
Koblerville Elementary School
William S. Reyes Elementary School
Kagman Elementary School
Oleai Elementary School
Garapan Elementary School
Notable people
From Saipan
Theresa H. Arriola
Tina Stege
Jayatirtha Dasa
From the mainland United States
Larry Hillblom: 1980s–1995
William Millard: 1986–2011
Appearances in literature and media
Saipan was a major part of the plot in the Tom Clancy novel Debt of Honor.
The 1960 movie Hell to Eternity tells the true-life story of GI Guy Gabaldon's role in convincing 800 Japanese soldiers to surrender during the WWII Battle of Saipan. Key to Gabaldon's success was his ability to speak Japanese fluently due to having been raised in the 1930s by a Japanese-American foster family.
Much of the action in the 2002 film Windtalkers takes place during the invasion of Saipan during World War II.
In 2011, a Japanese film about Captain Sakae Oba took place in Saipan. Titled Oba: The Last Samurai, it revolved around Oba holding out on Saipan until December 1, 1945.
A significant part of the novel Amrita by Japanese author Banana Yoshimoto takes place in Saipan with regular references to the landscape and spirituality of the island.
Saipan also appears in Kyō Kara Ore Wa!! manga as a place that Mitsuhashi visits after winning a lotto.
Saipan is the setting for the P.F. Kluge novel The Master Blaster''. This novel is structured as first-person narratives of five characters, four of whom arrive on the same flight, and the unfolding of their experiences on the island. The book weaves together a mysterious tale of historical fiction with reference to Saipan's multi-ethnic past, from Japanese colonization to American WWII victory and the post-Cold War evolution of the island. The Master Blaster is the home-grown anonymous critic who blogs about the corruption and exploitation by developers, politicians, and government officials.
Saipan is also known in the association football community as the site of the training camp for the Republic of Ireland national football team prior to the 2002 FIFA World Cup in which an incident of heated argument occurred between then-captain Roy Keane and then-manager Mick McCarthy which eventually led to the dismissal and departure of Keane from the squad. This incident has come to be known colloquially as "the Saipan incident" or "the Saipan saga".
In 2016, a horror film directed by Hiroshi Katagiri was released on Netflix entitled "Gehenna: Where Death Lives" in which American developers encounter a supernatural entity in a World War 2 hidden bunker while searching for land to build their resort.
See also
Birth tourism
Commonwealth (United States insular area)
Amelia Earhart § Speculation on disappearance
Kalabera
List of Registered Historic Places in the Northern Mariana Islands
List of villages in the Marianas
Saipan Sucks
Pedro A. Tenorio
References
External links
The Insular Empire: America in the Mariana Islands, PBS documentary film & website
Saipan Municipality, United States Census Bureau
Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs – Links to cultural and informational sites about the CNMI as well as to government sites
Islands of the Northern Mariana Islands
Capitals of country subdivisions in Oceania
Capitals of political divisions in the United States
Capitals in Oceania
Stratovolcanoes of the United States
Volcanoes of the Northern Mariana Islands
Former German colonies
Municipalities of the Northern Mariana Islands
|
[
0.4087759852409363,
-0.18792597949504852,
0.06324610859155655,
-0.002339346567168832,
-0.174019455909729,
0.29585105180740356,
0.30882301926612854,
0.6024470925331116,
-0.28771719336509705,
0.010841554030776024,
-0.16894017159938812,
-0.2746746242046356,
-0.04140797257423401,
0.4727652966976166,
-0.6052573919296265,
0.26037588715553284,
0.757753312587738,
0.5083522796630859,
0.2345593273639679,
-0.40338045358657837,
-0.5846673846244812,
-0.28859224915504456,
0.2072427123785019,
-0.38462918996810913,
0.39863255620002747,
-0.2279670685529709,
-0.2762911021709442,
0.13020062446594238,
0.04056749865412712,
0.2826739549636841,
-0.15748843550682068,
0.08307483047246933,
-0.4519176483154297,
0.05719258636236191,
-0.03148325905203819,
-0.1336592733860016,
-0.1254764199256897,
-0.08243824541568756,
0.06237073242664337,
0.0809771716594696,
-0.2466520518064499,
0.06794232130050659,
0.8853679895401001,
0.1654539406299591,
0.20486578345298767,
-0.14282016456127167,
-0.8232462406158447,
0.49282193183898926,
-0.4516960680484772,
0.5926662683486938,
-0.8699548244476318,
0.026083260774612427,
0.07247752696275711,
0.40952935814857483,
0.17670094966888428,
0.24722810089588165,
-0.4807223975658417,
-0.28773555159568787,
0.05070982500910759,
-0.36259227991104126,
-0.016967786476016045,
0.5624842643737793,
0.42150649428367615,
-0.07759995013475418,
-0.07720756530761719,
-0.11612847447395325,
0.4902384877204895,
0.04760690778493881,
-0.07100899517536163,
-0.33208996057510376,
0.07403410971164703,
0.29537224769592285,
-0.044271886348724365,
0.13241809606552124,
-0.31935763359069824,
-0.6855075359344482,
-0.5816718339920044,
0.45810285210609436,
-0.46674880385398865,
0.4900321364402771,
-0.18638566136360168,
0.20344147086143494,
0.47861310839653015,
-0.3698946237564087,
0.6176934838294983,
0.04631870239973068,
-0.1443127989768982,
0.2105141431093216,
-0.5311812162399292,
0.47351691126823425,
-0.19257859885692596,
0.9236075282096863,
0.5154419541358948,
-0.0025599615182727575,
-0.21108677983283997,
-0.540827214717865,
-0.10991654545068741,
0.46691322326660156,
0.5996261835098267,
0.5624836087226868,
-0.6502000689506531,
0.11508554220199585,
1.137060284614563,
0.22423607110977173,
-0.4531612992286682,
-0.5930044054985046,
0.2778339385986328,
-0.02237025834619999,
-0.13703010976314545,
0.05789691582322121,
-0.5327317714691162,
0.10647761076688766,
0.48589521646499634,
0.34228023886680603,
-0.6287062168121338,
0.5444567203521729,
0.29100096225738525,
-0.6851077079772949,
-0.09558402001857758,
-0.7361788749694824,
0.4332401156425476,
0.4244460165500641,
-0.6755506992340088,
-0.034828729927539825,
0.15763524174690247,
0.005377084016799927,
0.444509357213974,
0.24821311235427856,
-0.046812135726213455,
-0.26195478439331055,
0.08563052862882614,
0.12963324785232544,
-0.1870579719543457,
0.25351208448410034,
0.030097778886556625,
-0.6817975044250488,
-0.1908087432384491,
-0.02086029015481472,
0.7054681181907654,
0.060735397040843964,
-1.1789090633392334,
-0.21463371813297272,
-0.6568255424499512,
-0.29353395104408264,
0.4367595911026001,
-0.024443401023745537,
-0.3369460999965668,
-0.8005724549293518,
-0.6901874542236328,
0.12019088864326477,
0.10471034795045853,
0.2012801319360733,
0.07131391763687134,
0.28840702772140503,
-0.3322731554508209,
-0.680257260799408,
0.9291487336158752,
-0.4973304271697998,
0.42509725689888,
0.1587267816066742,
-0.5449733734130859,
-0.4512995779514313,
0.44583186507225037,
-0.010723980143666267,
-0.10226035863161087,
0.10408065468072891,
0.5338283777236938,
0.24388882517814636,
-0.10181555896997452,
0.38407886028289795,
-0.27105531096458435,
0.024148879572749138,
0.36814695596694946,
-0.10108844190835953,
-0.5077903866767883,
-0.9937881827354431,
0.16053345799446106,
0.1427854746580124,
-0.014710587449371815,
-0.5228231549263,
-0.5563156008720398,
0.26339566707611084,
0.20335565507411957,
0.32043904066085815,
-0.7044163346290588,
-0.11728991568088531,
0.2797251343727112,
0.047160204499959946,
-0.07214324921369553,
0.144887313246727,
0.16502687335014343,
-0.5188182592391968,
-0.22836419939994812,
-0.19086430966854095,
0.6446213722229004,
0.35796186327934265,
-0.5161973834037781,
0.8866952657699585,
0.11889900267124176,
0.7807936072349548,
0.15111608803272247,
-0.22672486305236816,
0.44027939438819885,
0.04635997861623764,
-0.6723165512084961,
0.1329473853111267,
0.41709569096565247,
-0.013793893158435822,
0.6020787954330444,
-0.06138177961111069,
-0.3981710374355316,
-0.22535085678100586,
0.030585261061787605,
0.11414873600006104,
-0.20521867275238037,
-0.44136521220207214,
0.00018438114784657955,
-0.051304690539836884,
0.4617079794406891,
-0.5566668510437012,
0.6524665951728821,
0.06566035747528076,
0.12933486700057983,
-0.010293521918356419,
0.4691650867462158,
0.976164698600769,
0.2137458473443985,
-0.14663676917552948,
0.04546226188540459,
0.12395273149013519,
0.17290477454662323,
-0.3798041045665741,
0.17322000861167908,
-0.09920179843902588,
0.2671639621257782,
0.3256959915161133,
0.47548478841781616,
-0.5345882177352905,
0.2233394980430603,
-0.12809990346431732,
0.24567408859729767,
0.1703651398420334,
-0.5101779103279114,
0.38435789942741394,
0.23148243129253387,
0.4289889335632324,
0.03415025398135185,
-0.22092096507549286,
-0.4272657036781311,
-0.19042058289051056,
-0.38296955823898315,
-0.4112281799316406,
-0.21559761464595795,
0.21442969143390656,
0.09368649125099182,
-0.07150324434041977,
-0.4324396550655365,
-0.011523921974003315,
0.3545273244380951,
-0.2966041564941406,
-0.49657851457595825,
0.3104301691055298,
-0.06510438770055771,
0.24885372817516327,
-0.2805715501308441,
-0.45112133026123047,
0.6399442553520203,
-0.41197746992111206,
0.6245067119598389,
0.2804526686668396,
0.3876841366291046,
-0.5226156115531921,
-0.18176975846290588,
-0.6076335310935974,
-0.33365899324417114,
-0.09873439371585846,
-0.15166665613651276,
-0.29993051290512085,
-0.39395296573638916,
-0.030335089191794395,
0.793825626373291,
0.17064732313156128,
-0.284900426864624,
-0.6772026419639587,
-0.25982776284217834,
-0.7591208815574646,
0.30363965034484863,
-1.3043044805526733,
-0.5536152720451355,
0.5798888802528381,
-0.016752105206251144,
-0.2585369944572449,
-0.4638368785381317,
0.22412052750587463,
-0.46836671233177185,
0.06759538501501083,
-0.2720855474472046,
0.2760452628135681,
0.4612715542316437,
-0.8280413150787354,
-0.9309674501419067,
-0.35069116950035095,
-0.15704281628131866,
0.06337439268827438,
0.2693002223968506,
-0.10717186331748962,
-0.05255021154880524,
0.19491368532180786,
-5.6639018058776855,
0.287481427192688,
-0.5179470181465149,
0.19825181365013123,
0.3844150900840759,
0.1552399843931198,
-0.057768870145082474,
-0.08209580928087234,
0.22752326726913452,
-0.296353280544281,
0.7080272436141968,
0.3842926323413849,
-0.03191930800676346,
0.3711940050125122,
0.1633915901184082,
0.7066383361816406,
0.45776018500328064,
-0.029614673927426338,
0.12654779851436615,
-0.5486998558044434,
-0.6455762386322021,
0.014552569016814232,
0.4473336338996887,
1.2463582754135132,
0.33504554629325867,
1.0352023839950562,
-0.4398391842842102,
-0.044773805886507034,
-0.251598984003067,
-0.2947157323360443,
-0.4941336512565613,
-0.1828298270702362,
0.3828807473182678,
-0.1655869036912918,
-0.45873913168907166,
0.26828300952911377,
0.5569941401481628,
0.022549182176589966,
0.13142916560173035,
-0.6011822819709778,
-0.21017484366893768,
0.03766327723860741,
-0.17506256699562073,
-0.30569782853126526,
0.645618200302124,
-0.28742581605911255,
-0.4212329387664795,
-0.3930034637451172,
0.11218690872192383,
0.21860675513744354,
0.18801090121269226,
0.19599489867687225,
-0.16815581917762756,
-0.4533696174621582,
0.24597731232643127,
0.019558217376470566,
-0.08310207724571228,
-0.0321088507771492,
-0.7714843153953552,
0.014892932027578354,
0.6036134362220764,
-0.13839095830917358,
-0.4712750017642975,
-0.30860257148742676,
0.11439009755849838,
-0.1833583563566208,
-0.16602885723114014,
0.16966286301612854,
0.473626047372818,
-0.45024508237838745,
-0.492262601852417,
0.2020788937807083,
-0.14474624395370483,
-0.8272908926010132,
0.35215917229652405,
-0.3277434706687927,
-0.682527482509613,
0.011476857587695122,
-0.407771497964859,
0.18153643608093262,
-0.6650530695915222,
0.3811397850513458,
-0.19412918388843536,
0.8895270228385925,
0.2828201353549957,
-0.19689548015594482,
-0.3364730775356293,
0.22235049307346344,
-0.0040268367156386375,
0.23126532137393951,
-0.08623218536376953,
-0.28920215368270874,
0.47466832399368286,
0.2068728357553482,
0.22133778035640717,
0.31806495785713196,
0.1605655699968338,
0.3194173276424408,
0.3267245292663574,
-0.4609453082084656,
0.9856690168380737,
-0.03921337053179741,
-0.009740921668708324,
-0.2116834968328476,
0.12195070832967758,
-0.14040380716323853,
0.4141818583011627,
0.7506279349327087,
0.42136573791503906,
0.3195652961730957,
0.1259036511182785,
0.015897775068879128,
-0.2623511552810669,
-0.29089197516441345,
0.19880954921245575,
-0.07662596553564072,
-0.42642515897750854,
0.3641197979450226,
0.6612982749938965,
0.044755998998880386,
0.11005336791276932,
0.38948872685432434,
-0.07737860083580017,
0.27573901414871216,
-0.34257078170776367,
-0.7676756381988525,
-0.30584150552749634,
0.253241628408432,
-0.030185217037796974,
0.29606756567955017,
0.43742135167121887,
-0.11802905052900314,
0.5639541149139404,
0.07689739018678665,
0.00598261458799243,
-0.060161739587783813,
0.13190767168998718,
-0.7988367080688477,
0.03703518584370613,
0.01116553507745266,
-0.0426839254796505,
0.0780235007405281,
-0.22187426686286926,
0.38419583439826965,
0.0920708030462265,
0.1766596883535385,
-0.2885793447494507,
-0.49853238463401794,
-0.28540605306625366,
0.2298658937215805,
0.0729270800948143,
-0.6265624165534973,
-0.28119444847106934,
-0.3719047009944916,
-0.48366591334342957,
-0.2669660747051239,
0.3379022479057312,
0.41941216588020325,
-0.06749539077281952,
0.23657791316509247,
0.03233836218714714,
-0.4997313618659973,
-0.4567405581474304,
-0.15972118079662323,
0.19050316512584686,
-1.0825276374816895,
-0.2313884198665619,
0.113906130194664,
-0.17596755921840668,
-0.02397345006465912,
0.6554943919181824,
-0.22335825860500336,
-0.2401181310415268,
0.09396300464868546,
0.38130223751068115,
-0.23553535342216492,
-0.1726769357919693,
0.6020742654800415,
0.03714042901992798,
-0.080376997590065,
0.08110525459051132,
-0.2526668608188629,
-0.7352101802825928,
0.3262847065925598,
0.08543912321329117,
-0.29096370935440063,
0.12402987480163574,
0.018649959936738014,
0.14612020552158356,
0.15823231637477875,
-0.05430177226662636,
-0.2634972929954529,
-0.010002585127949715,
0.7037551403045654,
-0.4932466447353363,
-0.3312276005744934,
-0.22272925078868866,
0.9106869697570801,
0.1989549845457077,
-0.35666319727897644,
-0.3100213408470154,
0.06331800669431686,
-1.1977430582046509,
0.27580007910728455,
-0.016968559473752975,
-0.04482505843043327,
0.28723451495170593,
0.4469755291938782,
0.18097661435604095,
-0.1273195743560791,
-0.6747933030128479,
-0.3419722318649292,
0.004483782220631838,
0.38338911533355713,
-0.07163544744253159,
0.13954384624958038,
0.2741023600101471,
-0.531799852848053,
0.4127446115016937,
-0.6689548492431641,
0.2613784372806549,
0.09123741835355759,
0.08027137815952301,
-0.17212514579296112,
-0.11298386007547379,
1.2751903533935547,
0.036121658980846405,
-0.6884016394615173,
0.12930980324745178,
-0.8814485669136047,
0.17897990345954895,
-0.14043553173542023,
0.13621029257774353,
0.4447462558746338,
0.07736930251121521,
0.09717210382223129,
0.1270308792591095,
-0.16447092592716217,
0.3125556409358978,
0.815987229347229,
0.7446385025978088,
0.7360039949417114,
-0.08016610145568848,
-0.29025551676750183,
-0.39194589853286743,
0.20491856336593628,
0.27182403206825256,
-0.330504834651947,
-0.3902214467525482,
0.29785507917404175,
-0.04060114175081253,
-0.7808374762535095,
-0.479617178440094,
-0.16140636801719666,
0.7856521010398865,
-0.5622691512107849,
0.05360693484544754,
0.3403436541557312,
-0.6637346148490906,
-0.45029833912849426,
-0.034466568380594254,
-0.5457803606987,
-0.4255613386631012,
0.40834662318229675,
0.24085544049739838,
-0.4037303626537323,
-0.5903438925743103,
0.502541184425354,
0.05087881535291672,
-0.3025812804698944,
-0.27411767840385437,
0.4621446430683136,
0.34367939829826355,
0.0751320868730545,
0.15375596284866333,
0.09089360386133194,
0.5549947023391724,
0.31247520446777344,
-0.06509874016046524,
0.1268366277217865,
-0.43946099281311035,
0.029333287850022316,
0.05784153938293457,
-0.7703329920768738,
-0.2235088050365448,
-0.716054379940033,
0.10423512011766434,
-0.05333786830306053,
-0.4786031246185303,
0.3954257071018219,
-0.43638408184051514,
-0.5170716643333435,
0.7784435749053955,
-0.9226408004760742,
-0.3014914393424988,
-0.18365778028964996,
0.03731187805533409,
0.29261472821235657,
-0.05063418298959732,
0.11988148093223572,
-0.9748829007148743,
0.168999582529068,
-0.2408863753080368,
-0.7097862958908081,
0.27429282665252686,
-0.5596704483032227,
-0.021224429830908775,
-0.4818010628223419,
-0.34594494104385376,
0.3692384362220764,
0.2673627436161041,
0.012401745654642582,
0.5090868473052979,
0.5083804726600647,
-0.4549475312232971,
0.6676885485649109,
0.5518909096717834,
-0.578659176826477,
-0.26225200295448303,
0.4600417912006378,
-0.2162763774394989,
-0.7384831309318542,
0.21943144500255585,
0.7061461210250854,
0.35121530294418335,
0.2200808972120285,
0.3297277092933655,
-0.5775430798530579,
0.36685511469841003,
0.027259360998868942,
0.04972102865576744,
-0.36800992488861084,
-0.18072257936000824,
-0.18102283775806427,
-0.18477852642536163,
-0.5190778374671936,
0.14946140348911285,
-0.2838391363620758,
-0.6799169778823853,
0.7215161323547363,
0.8365454077720642,
0.5047243237495422,
-0.5615403056144714,
-0.17554861307144165,
0.17444102466106415,
-0.06613486260175705,
0.09319339692592621,
0.03876182436943054,
0.6612361669540405,
-0.014713567681610584,
0.8862383961677551,
0.4802759289741516,
0.3405263125896454,
0.030221987515687943,
0.3679470419883728,
0.10702671855688095,
-0.29592975974082947,
-0.800870418548584,
-0.18628504872322083,
-0.2488379329442978,
0.11439874023199081,
0.08425240218639374,
0.3352038860321045,
0.3020102381706238,
-0.16159804165363312,
-0.22348864376544952,
-0.06599172204732895,
-0.08260305225849152,
-0.47250527143478394,
0.12391281872987747,
0.4911275804042816,
0.4698803722858429,
0.12135747075080872,
-0.16252070665359497,
0.1931862086057663,
0.9530233144760132,
-0.26699185371398926,
0.11609005928039551,
-0.01830602064728737,
-0.22787067294120789,
-0.30031618475914,
-0.10618769377470016,
0.2567152976989746,
-1.1431827545166016,
0.07287492603063583,
0.349551796913147,
0.09144104272127151,
-0.16689932346343994,
-0.2883516848087311,
1.1093319654464722,
0.033197011798620224,
-0.10372035950422287,
0.26195940375328064,
-0.1483994871377945,
-0.1077258512377739,
-0.27629444003105164,
0.34902432560920715,
0.6118384003639221,
0.4233747124671936,
0.31760263442993164,
0.42153024673461914,
0.5108305215835571,
0.3214612603187561,
0.1449020504951477,
0.0021546254865825176,
0.2590300440788269,
-0.5064603090286255,
-0.1351768523454666,
-0.27176231145858765,
-0.3971770405769348,
0.5788688659667969,
-0.029795417562127113,
-0.18259558081626892,
-0.12729506194591522,
-0.2895086705684662,
0.6997058391571045,
0.8114410638809204,
-0.1702607125043869,
0.10037495195865631,
0.25969773530960083,
-0.01877274364233017,
-0.516092836856842,
-0.5081818103790283,
0.6863840222358704,
-0.09759439527988434,
-0.2514418959617615,
0.3444252610206604,
-0.01574103534221649,
-0.9685319066047668,
0.20660017430782318,
-0.013498404994606972,
-0.28461700677871704,
-0.18838931620121002,
0.30406513810157776,
-0.3534296452999115,
-0.6806306838989258,
-0.13374930620193481,
0.5594848990440369,
0.41630762815475464,
-0.8588477969169617,
-0.2644845247268677,
0.21478553116321564,
0.1504734605550766,
-0.34655389189720154,
0.9789867997169495,
-0.5327565670013428,
-0.20513412356376648,
-0.2539784014225006,
-0.6329663395881653,
0.7058666348457336,
0.324383407831192,
-0.2794688642024994,
0.39614012837409973,
0.2650444507598877,
-0.022489681839942932,
0.15728773176670074,
1.1977152824401855,
0.18363817036151886,
0.48621466755867004,
-0.12760800123214722
] |
200222
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Duluth
|
USS Duluth
|
Two ships of the United States Navy have been named Duluth, after the city of Duluth, Minnesota.
was a light cruiser commissioned late in World War II.
was an commissioned in 1966 and decommissioned in 2005.
United States Navy ship names
|
[
-0.6073200702667236,
0.17923767864704132,
-0.4117720127105713,
0.01272636465728283,
-0.44655656814575195,
0.5527993440628052,
0.8355455994606018,
0.263275146484375,
-0.6133043766021729,
-0.46897685527801514,
-0.207231342792511,
0.3304755985736847,
-0.07970264554023743,
0.8265963196754456,
0.07220733910799026,
0.5377041101455688,
0.05618588253855705,
0.8528224229812622,
-0.06809794157743454,
-0.16708092391490936,
-0.4569128155708313,
-0.19370540976524353,
0.5930197238922119,
0.19723834097385406,
0.17064104974269867,
0.17624536156654358,
0.13968700170516968,
0.050858914852142334,
0.2382344752550125,
0.3821360468864441,
0.07292967289686203,
0.5154547691345215,
-0.39720767736434937,
0.21623557806015015,
-0.054589323699474335,
0.20245400071144104,
-0.07748503983020782,
-0.11813069134950638,
-0.19214262068271637,
0.19356080889701843,
-0.1343345046043396,
-0.09381759911775589,
0.4613383710384369,
0.20529183745384216,
-0.15435141324996948,
0.30810731649398804,
-1.7024563550949097,
0.24878600239753723,
0.2706097662448883,
-0.10091620683670044,
-0.7035230398178101,
-0.41428327560424805,
0.36074474453926086,
0.5604650974273682,
0.03135746344923973,
0.5142520666122437,
-0.8421927690505981,
0.6083807349205017,
-0.3188214600086212,
-0.49476051330566406,
-0.058113645762205124,
0.5142140984535217,
0.25591471791267395,
0.2702185809612274,
-0.2025800198316574,
0.25573381781578064,
-0.08138388395309448,
0.5997084379196167,
-0.22096474468708038,
-0.37392717599868774,
0.11929202824831009,
-0.28489843010902405,
0.17426952719688416,
0.5615274906158447,
-0.5126619338989258,
-0.3178287148475647,
-0.22111472487449646,
-0.37074097990989685,
-0.029983244836330414,
0.2128012776374817,
0.08029884099960327,
0.1914922297000885,
0.8567914366722107,
0.013069835491478443,
0.23614680767059326,
0.3126639723777771,
-0.7921947836875916,
0.042321301996707916,
-0.375200480222702,
0.8961719870567322,
-0.6598244905471802,
-0.09889084100723267,
0.646687388420105,
0.5656540393829346,
0.2701645493507385,
-0.15099985897541046,
-0.12424243241548538,
0.3512730598449707,
0.6189901232719421,
0.5910384058952332,
-0.12051080167293549,
0.0062119439244270325,
0.7026115655899048,
0.19372260570526123,
-0.5308534502983093,
-0.4545641243457794,
-0.14841289818286896,
-0.2926653027534485,
-0.23188690841197968,
-0.4202444553375244,
-0.3145016133785248,
0.16867764294147491,
-0.3181535303592682,
0.00015344421262852848,
-0.44280850887298584,
-0.04046475142240524,
0.15817032754421234,
-0.6225969195365906,
-0.22745200991630554,
-0.6719340085983276,
0.2995980978012085,
0.5704190731048584,
-0.2347857505083084,
-0.3427470624446869,
-0.1653030514717102,
0.4431550204753876,
0.355276882648468,
0.5943148136138916,
-0.6261944770812988,
-0.31952571868896484,
-0.10556814819574356,
0.7639088034629822,
-0.5724363327026367,
0.4563474953174591,
-0.26310494542121887,
-0.4734978675842285,
-0.009458938613533974,
0.32742559909820557,
-0.3425060212612152,
0.13475126028060913,
-1.000533938407898,
0.06515106558799744,
-1.2301338911056519,
-0.3256286680698395,
0.7343884706497192,
-0.37406155467033386,
-0.0029680810403078794,
0.26262181997299194,
-0.0720200464129448,
0.030414661392569542,
0.2782675623893738,
-0.14246559143066406,
-0.28815731406211853,
0.2899596095085144,
-0.44925209879875183,
0.1632491499185562,
0.4938914179801941,
-0.2664824426174164,
0.9388961791992188,
0.44793814420700073,
-0.16409286856651306,
0.27758023142814636,
-0.43966034054756165,
0.11416045576334,
-0.14121828973293304,
-0.212411031126976,
0.27602624893188477,
0.09618932008743286,
-0.1092299073934555,
-0.07410870492458344,
-0.11463834345340729,
0.16527853906154633,
0.45473676919937134,
0.4209764003753662,
-0.27338746190071106,
0.0536811463534832,
0.31833016872406006,
0.38369661569595337,
0.20508989691734314,
-0.8546133041381836,
-0.2654338479042053,
0.09012214839458466,
0.7157805562019348,
0.4373604655265808,
0.12151084840297699,
-0.13553637266159058,
-0.002962352242320776,
-0.3716509938240051,
0.38954654335975647,
-0.27843162417411804,
-0.1743742823600769,
-0.6453858017921448,
0.13550017774105072,
0.07552643120288849,
1.004377841949463,
0.07813628762960434,
-0.445556104183197,
0.30074256658554077,
0.1351197063922882,
0.24854880571365356,
0.7111191749572754,
-0.30354347825050354,
-0.07388748228549957,
0.3155541718006134,
-0.7529124021530151,
0.9780782461166382,
0.28274065256118774,
0.07938382774591446,
-0.04713981971144676,
0.5557602047920227,
-0.00574070168659091,
-0.7080685496330261,
0.19804303348064423,
0.439114511013031,
-0.14884427189826965,
-0.09027525782585144,
-0.1315269023180008,
-0.6759463548660278,
0.4049105644226074,
-0.8682539463043213,
0.5241628289222717,
0.3623994290828705,
-0.24441373348236084,
-0.030420470982789993,
-0.09444199502468109,
0.27744561433792114,
-0.455121248960495,
0.78407883644104,
-0.28187504410743713,
0.00009658838098403066,
0.45128029584884644,
0.11582572013139725,
-0.23622363805770874,
-0.22646698355674744,
0.4077218770980835,
-0.19265705347061157,
0.5149423480033875,
-0.01841486617922783,
0.2977157235145569,
-0.33264222741127014,
0.18852712213993073,
0.07413122802972794,
-0.19336654245853424,
0.6300921440124512,
0.43001875281333923,
-0.4054635465145111,
0.34716060757637024,
-0.14030562341213226,
0.09508884698152542,
-0.5050734877586365,
0.8629820346832275,
-0.3812515139579773,
0.37938421964645386,
-0.12507101893424988,
-0.263559490442276,
-0.5022850036621094,
0.007638361304998398,
-0.10090012103319168,
0.22974276542663574,
-0.20239968597888947,
0.22844550013542175,
-0.0076674968004226685,
-0.3606794774532318,
0.08245697617530823,
0.39687249064445496,
-0.5315421223640442,
-0.08836084604263306,
-0.4973843991756439,
0.5023775100708008,
0.25888577103614807,
-0.49541404843330383,
0.3180292844772339,
0.19833950698375702,
-1.2794528007507324,
0.13522464036941528,
0.17704986035823822,
-0.23517319560050964,
0.48802077770233154,
-0.6682512760162354,
-0.13675148785114288,
0.4719851315021515,
0.3903117775917053,
-0.3947397768497467,
-0.6918407678604126,
-0.29173970222473145,
-0.8002728223800659,
-0.0004076859331689775,
-0.4859377443790436,
-0.607089638710022,
0.06795588880777359,
-0.22900991141796112,
-0.8071321249008179,
-0.2970629632472992,
0.3442404568195343,
-0.2570439279079437,
0.28679159283638,
-0.24525099992752075,
-0.06176236271858215,
0.3513427972793579,
-0.7175750136375427,
-0.07966646552085876,
-0.04880961775779724,
-0.12982815504074097,
-0.08537182956933975,
-0.1298106461763382,
-0.5048556923866272,
-0.3537895977497101,
-0.07669763267040253,
-5.406642913818359,
-0.09981003403663635,
-0.4858063757419586,
-0.31915634870529175,
0.14070014655590057,
0.03648092970252037,
0.2500302791595459,
-0.2844744920730591,
0.3096749782562256,
-0.28585538268089294,
0.4785548746585846,
0.6531872749328613,
-0.19905240833759308,
0.5474693179130554,
0.1477137804031372,
0.2470344454050064,
1.21575927734375,
-0.487628698348999,
0.41001805663108826,
-0.35864341259002686,
0.15818189084529877,
-0.03135303407907486,
0.20803774893283844,
0.4808051884174347,
0.11164204776287079,
0.42567798495292664,
-0.915657103061676,
-0.12344057857990265,
-0.5598985552787781,
-0.3316531479358673,
0.11160057038068771,
-0.08152961730957031,
-0.2484806925058365,
0.3471122682094574,
-0.2902242839336395,
-0.14571677148342133,
0.15087153017520905,
0.37193891406059265,
0.1824057400226593,
-0.8980749845504761,
0.04502885788679123,
0.6918110251426697,
0.09208168834447861,
-0.21190372109413147,
0.7691762447357178,
-0.29169851541519165,
-0.2365323007106781,
0.2435736358165741,
0.5535338521003723,
1.0015168190002441,
-0.22724871337413788,
0.2757006287574768,
0.6935232877731323,
0.7716253399848938,
0.43911248445510864,
-0.5991144180297852,
0.16955623030662537,
-0.001497315475717187,
-0.3370663821697235,
-0.013129329308867455,
-0.023486828431487083,
0.010640495456755161,
-0.024607045575976372,
-0.5897618532180786,
0.030281970277428627,
-0.3416103720664978,
-0.22339777648448944,
-0.08933286368846893,
-0.10370839387178421,
-0.11994080245494843,
-0.43516045808792114,
0.8838108777999878,
0.05870124697685242,
-0.7837520241737366,
0.1616315394639969,
-0.40333932638168335,
-0.7302213311195374,
-0.14377379417419434,
-0.060843564569950104,
0.1358049064874649,
-0.3656386137008667,
-0.09544488042593002,
-0.3241589367389679,
0.6054556965827942,
0.4129849970340729,
-0.4728047549724579,
-0.23653368651866913,
0.39923742413520813,
0.3046717643737793,
-0.5018765330314636,
0.045041948556900024,
-0.4714115560054779,
0.7425254583358765,
0.3782545030117035,
0.21408112347126007,
-0.08297237753868103,
0.07396238297224045,
0.42659080028533936,
0.6872079968452454,
-0.7790440917015076,
0.41237229108810425,
-0.735090434551239,
0.22677966952323914,
-0.02747134119272232,
0.14541099965572357,
-0.14898741245269775,
0.0015435840468853712,
-0.1833336055278778,
0.8391585350036621,
-0.19493524730205536,
-0.1642887443304062,
-0.6019896268844604,
-0.06360769271850586,
-0.5654902458190918,
0.8429863452911377,
-0.12874387204647064,
0.12907764315605164,
0.4328159689903259,
0.4207381010055542,
0.37388643622398376,
-0.1797640174627304,
0.37730517983436584,
-0.3110072612762451,
0.278373658657074,
-0.22387558221817017,
-0.7534235119819641,
0.04779886454343796,
-0.5190794467926025,
-0.3902520537376404,
0.4831867814064026,
0.2851943075656891,
0.5563547015190125,
0.5469560623168945,
0.1568770855665207,
0.01870032213628292,
-0.4743267893791199,
0.20077335834503174,
-0.7836830019950867,
0.009467342868447304,
-0.22845657169818878,
-0.22148935496807098,
0.3396158814430237,
-0.8928190469741821,
0.31786295771598816,
0.37686634063720703,
0.8462662100791931,
0.21644553542137146,
-0.0629793033003807,
-0.32059332728385925,
0.6299850940704346,
-0.8420096635818481,
-0.9010365605354309,
-0.06755952537059784,
-0.5700733065605164,
-0.12593962252140045,
0.2658033072948456,
0.61434406042099,
0.4062671959400177,
-0.26981601119041443,
0.3750074505805969,
0.2098304033279419,
-0.17307572066783905,
-0.5231270790100098,
-0.16397210955619812,
0.15898184478282928,
-0.07960762083530426,
0.10357686877250671,
-0.4198884665966034,
0.03397868573665619,
0.39636605978012085,
0.4221561551094055,
-0.08966389298439026,
-0.633980393409729,
0.15029682219028473,
0.3273327350616455,
0.171866774559021,
-0.23592929542064667,
-0.2927303910255432,
0.08408261090517044,
0.32138216495513916,
0.17160525918006897,
-0.4220276176929474,
-0.5909271240234375,
0.5836184024810791,
-0.28276386857032776,
-0.20932744443416595,
-0.5360957980155945,
-0.22732187807559967,
0.06978597491979599,
0.08906343579292297,
-0.1622239351272583,
-0.21848244965076447,
-0.03769269585609436,
0.0033972500823438168,
-0.7114254832267761,
0.14686079323291779,
0.07694719731807709,
-0.020651021972298622,
0.5150462985038757,
-0.6110826134681702,
0.09501586109399796,
0.8533097505569458,
-1.4531008005142212,
0.20874232053756714,
0.18964143097400665,
-0.5560593605041504,
0.38123637437820435,
0.09429338574409485,
0.08916432410478592,
-0.002895426470786333,
-0.6187506914138794,
-0.6109272241592407,
0.4829770624637604,
0.7177736163139343,
0.11731575429439545,
-0.25528964400291443,
-0.03908543288707733,
0.1490696221590042,
-0.5451973676681519,
-0.5536631941795349,
-0.6652005314826965,
-0.273575097322464,
0.006124960724264383,
-0.6638718247413635,
-0.5881837606430054,
0.5357800722122192,
0.028021464124321938,
-0.164327934384346,
0.319827675819397,
-0.5840257406234741,
-0.19942180812358856,
0.264566570520401,
-0.19579647481441498,
0.17451034486293793,
0.7657089829444885,
-0.3298560380935669,
-0.2678437829017639,
0.06646277755498886,
0.37818193435668945,
0.18103015422821045,
0.661591112613678,
1.0688871145248413,
0.13182902336120605,
-0.10009481757879257,
-0.06067940965294838,
-0.08693858981132507,
0.5509806871414185,
-0.1024070456624031,
-0.581782341003418,
0.5343618988990784,
-0.31819894909858704,
-0.8197299242019653,
-1.025104284286499,
-0.7013638019561768,
0.9815097451210022,
-0.6489417552947998,
0.10907474160194397,
0.27084633708000183,
-0.1206178292632103,
-0.14373259246349335,
-0.486948698759079,
0.05371686816215515,
-0.8411732316017151,
0.7395113706588745,
0.45794445276260376,
0.30213236808776855,
-0.40906089544296265,
-0.2936927080154419,
0.11503224819898605,
0.048982907086610794,
-0.09361518174409866,
0.3348757028579712,
0.5211387872695923,
0.19907359778881073,
-0.39708200097084045,
0.5808544158935547,
-0.1943688988685608,
0.05929684638977051,
0.16467171907424927,
-0.18583129346370697,
-0.19253183901309967,
0.01738634519279003,
-0.4092171788215637,
-0.92140132188797,
-0.31732800602912903,
-0.7978593707084656,
0.25477710366249084,
-0.5193811655044556,
-0.54776930809021,
-0.024825572967529297,
0.275862455368042,
-0.31012850999832153,
0.04614708200097084,
-0.25062671303749084,
-0.3246503174304962,
0.4699338674545288,
-0.05131819099187851,
0.5789498090744019,
-0.12070836126804352,
0.5985149145126343,
-0.8651717901229858,
0.6709498167037964,
-0.43147963285446167,
-0.49252068996429443,
0.07549291849136353,
0.32829686999320984,
-0.18020883202552795,
-0.01528923213481903,
-0.21148781478405,
0.02275017648935318,
-0.24563251435756683,
-0.29205581545829773,
0.5239880084991455,
0.8274967074394226,
-0.2913335859775543,
0.4913410246372223,
0.6435630917549133,
-0.5266266465187073,
-0.33731839060783386,
-0.20332680642604828,
-0.0070173898711800575,
-0.5802411437034607,
0.5261390805244446,
0.7468677163124084,
0.21484588086605072,
0.9659489393234253,
-0.5783122777938843,
-0.07069377601146698,
0.2764345705509186,
0.7340583801269531,
-0.14100691676139832,
-0.637895941734314,
-0.3451164960861206,
0.6345800161361694,
-0.1266792118549347,
-0.2879628837108612,
0.545933187007904,
-0.5154240727424622,
-0.7971646189689636,
0.5433424711227417,
0.4907892048358917,
0.4110715389251709,
-0.2416050136089325,
-0.29749783873558044,
0.08523201197385788,
0.2886485159397125,
-0.34418120980262756,
0.6648840308189392,
-0.09708449244499207,
-0.414639413356781,
0.1847890466451645,
0.17748984694480896,
0.26023414731025696,
0.22462397813796997,
0.15601712465286255,
0.236737459897995,
0.6263399124145508,
-0.47391536831855774,
-0.17088918387889862,
-0.8593886494636536,
-0.23526372015476227,
-0.48883408308029175,
0.6110590100288391,
0.048750873655080795,
-0.14978094398975372,
-0.2062605768442154,
0.14720526337623596,
0.1732374131679535,
-0.06399594247341156,
0.07760804891586304,
0.23592878878116608,
0.5911695957183838,
-0.06657993793487549,
-0.12865100800991058,
0.2863794267177582,
0.8082871437072754,
0.09703519195318222,
-0.29873907566070557,
0.4742406904697418,
0.15157972276210785,
-0.45985934138298035,
0.554537296295166,
-0.2431344985961914,
-0.7870898842811584,
0.13668681681156158,
0.24295669794082642,
-0.3387341797351837,
0.6730184555053711,
0.416875958442688,
0.16023804247379303,
0.8339362144470215,
0.18290264904499054,
-0.24292364716529846,
0.07652834057807922,
0.5847368836402893,
-0.008745926432311535,
-0.0074366009794175625,
0.3916420042514801,
0.5544224977493286,
0.3610115647315979,
-0.001870424603112042,
0.3190792202949524,
0.12621793150901794,
0.5587788820266724,
-0.3863726854324341,
-0.17463462054729462,
-0.4342014491558075,
0.2289944589138031,
0.11262039840221405,
-0.4763818085193634,
-0.11520399153232574,
-0.2933909595012665,
-0.5831960439682007,
-0.35015809535980225,
-0.2731761932373047,
-0.017172230407595634,
0.8362486362457275,
-0.8247392773628235,
-0.5757142901420593,
-0.296106219291687,
0.3815923035144806,
-0.13572266697883606,
0.07720962166786194,
0.37980103492736816,
-0.2702588140964508,
-0.28167298436164856,
-0.14688318967819214,
-0.5543009042739868,
-0.1387176811695099,
0.1989394575357437,
0.21134606003761292,
-0.0698874369263649,
-0.45985233783721924,
0.5955103039741516,
-0.08953087776899338,
-0.46467724442481995,
-0.08722621947526932,
0.6526832580566406,
0.6676086783409119,
-0.2581653296947479,
-0.2959744334220886,
-0.5151833891868591,
0.0738351121544838,
-0.26189446449279785,
-1.2504510879516602,
0.09777224808931351,
-0.3480343520641327,
-0.5852222442626953,
0.08387340605258942,
0.7785144448280334,
0.3484206199645996,
-0.4963747262954712,
0.19498667120933533,
0.20869973301887512,
0.5580037832260132,
-0.04061237350106239,
0.42632168531417847,
-0.30430564284324646,
0.40031883120536804,
0.3027077317237854
] |
200226
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Duluth%20%28CL-87%29
|
USS Duluth (CL-87)
|
USS Duluth (CL-87) was a United States Navy light cruiser.
She was launched 13 January 1944 by Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company, Newport News, Virginia; sponsored by Mrs. E. H. Hatch, wife of the Mayor of Duluth, Minnesota; and commissioned 18 September 1944, Captain Donald Roderick Osborn, Jr., US Naval Academy class of 1920, in command.
Design
Duluth was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . Her standard displacement amounted to and increased to at full load. The ship was powered by four General Electric steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by four oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. Rated at , the turbines were intended to give a top speed of . Her crew numbered 1285 officers and enlisted men.
The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 6 in /47 caliber Mark 16 guns in four 3-gun turrets on the centerline. Two were placed forward in a superfiring pair; the other two turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in another superfiring pair. The secondary battery consisted of twelve /38 caliber dual purpose guns mounted in twin turrets. Two of these were placed on the centerline, one directly behind the forward main turrets and the other just forward of the aft turrets. Two more were placed abreast of the conning tower and the other pair on either side of the aft superstructure. Anti-aircraft defense consisted of twenty-eight Bofors guns in four quadruple and six double mounts and ten Oerlikon guns in single mounts.
The ship's belt armor ranged in thickness from , with the thicker section amidships where it protected the ammunition magazines and propulsion machinery spaces. Her deck armor was thick. The main battery turrets were protected with faces and sides and tops, and they were supported by barbettes 6 inches thick. Duluths conning tower had 5-inch sides.
Service history
Construction and World War II
The keel for Duluth was laid down in November 1942 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company in Newport News, Virginia, with the hull number CL-87. Her completed hull was launched on 13 January 1944, and fitting-out work was completed by September. The ship was commissioned on 18 September and thereafter began sea trials. Duluth operated as a training cruiser based in Newport, Rhode Island, from 14 December to 2 March 1945 as her crew familiarized themselves with the ship. She thereafter steamed to Norfolk, Virginia, for a short refit. On 7 April, Duluth got underway to join the war effort in the Pacific. After transiting the Panama Canal, she arrived in Pearl Harbor on 29 April.
Duluth left Pearl Harbor on 8 May to join 5th Fleet, which she met on 27 May. While cruising with the fleet off Okinawa on 5 June, Duluth was damaged by a severe typhoon, along with a number of other vessels. She had to sail south to Guam for repairs, which lasted for more than a month. She returned to the Fast Carrier Task Force on 21 July, which had by that time passed to 3rd Fleet, being renamed Task Force 38. Duluth was assigned to the subordinate unit Task Group 38.1, along with five aircraft carriers, three fast battleships, four other cruisers, and several destroyers. She served as part of the anti-aircraft screen that protected the carriers as they carried out a series of air strikes on various targets in Japan. These operations continued until the end of the war on 14 August.
During this period, on 18 July, Duluth was temporarily transferred to Task Group 35.4, along with the cruisers , , and and eight destroyers. The unit carried out a sweep for Japanese coastal shipping that night, but failed to locate any significant targets. Duluth thereafter returned to TG 38.1 and remained with it for the next month during the initial occupation operations. The ships entered Sagami Bay on 27 August with the rest of TF 38 to begin preparations for the formal surrender of Japan, which took place aboard the battleship on 2 September. Duluth moved to Tokyo Bay on 16 September as part of the occupation effort. The ship got underway on 1 October to return home, arriving in Seattle, Washington, on 19 October, where she took part in Navy Day celebrations. The ship received two battle stars during her brief service during the war.
Postwar career
The ship was thereafter based in San Pedro, California, and was sent on a deployment to East Asian waters that lasted from 3 January 1946 to 27 September. The ship sailed to Pearl Harbor on 24 February 1947 for a lengthy visit to the port. Duluth went on a major cruise to the southern and western Pacific between May and July. During the voyage, she visited Melbourne and Sydney, Australia; Truk and Guam in the central Pacific, and Manila in the Philippines. During the latter visit, Duluth cruised with the aircraft carrier and a division of destroyers, and it was timed for the first anniversary of the Philippines' independence.
The ship was then sent to the coast of China to patrol the region during the Chinese Civil War. Her deployment lasted from 22 September 1947 to 19 May 1948, which concluded with the transfer of Duluth to Long Beach, California, where she was based for the remainder of her career. In mid-1948, she embarked on a training cruise for NROTC midshipmen that included a visit to British Columbia. The ship took part in cold-weather training exercises held off Kodiak, Alaska, in February 1949, before being decommissioned on 25 June and assigned to the reserve fleet. She remained there for more than a decade, before being sold to ship breakers on 14 November 1960.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Navy photographs of Duluth (CL-87)
history.navy.mil: USS Duluth
hazegray.org: USS Duluth
Cleveland-class cruisers
World War II cruisers of the United States
United States Navy Minnesota-related ships
1944 ships
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
|
[
-0.594761848449707,
0.1801433563232422,
-0.10989347100257874,
0.32604706287384033,
-0.3705257475376129,
0.07492415606975555,
0.5097271203994751,
-0.06624504178762436,
-0.5411148071289062,
0.2575204074382782,
0.3776381313800812,
0.5538098216056824,
-0.20302973687648773,
0.41933363676071167,
0.17556846141815186,
0.002590128453448415,
0.25954028964042664,
0.541743278503418,
0.0370212197303772,
-0.3866646885871887,
-0.46606960892677307,
-0.20992204546928406,
0.4292859435081482,
0.24254506826400757,
0.0015919754514470696,
0.5818328261375427,
0.20822396874427795,
0.10502182692289352,
0.3267437219619751,
0.06043773517012596,
0.2033153921365738,
0.8606131076812744,
0.10309940576553345,
-0.08759738504886627,
-0.2617129683494568,
0.06703489273786545,
0.06628510355949402,
-0.2966735064983368,
-0.0479184128344059,
-0.22436806559562683,
-0.4658743441104889,
-0.02164977416396141,
0.40003108978271484,
0.4568778872489929,
0.04954905807971954,
0.3734797537326813,
-1.9125258922576904,
0.1565927416086197,
0.2120494842529297,
-0.2801853120326996,
-0.5477327704429626,
-0.31011828780174255,
0.8276600241661072,
0.32540595531463623,
0.3309711217880249,
0.6224848031997681,
-1.223848819732666,
0.5754835605621338,
-0.07663654536008835,
-0.477769672870636,
0.03265920653939247,
0.4338216781616211,
0.667216956615448,
0.1751018613576889,
0.1639372706413269,
0.27599531412124634,
-0.36835771799087524,
0.749649703502655,
0.0708501785993576,
-0.2298061102628708,
0.5241581201553345,
-0.410756379365921,
0.23151275515556335,
0.5141893029212952,
-0.14076174795627594,
0.08191945403814316,
-0.14823368191719055,
-0.7282037734985352,
0.17088331282138824,
0.11427529901266098,
-0.055422522127628326,
0.7036824226379395,
1.2128127813339233,
-0.17574389278888702,
0.5612508654594421,
-0.012666337192058563,
-1.0185779333114624,
0.010023253969848156,
-0.5453518629074097,
0.7854015827178955,
-1.1889350414276123,
0.006451938301324844,
0.05906124785542488,
0.6216924786567688,
0.24946343898773193,
-0.016338543966412544,
-0.25881990790367126,
0.4094642996788025,
0.5034854412078857,
0.6114393472671509,
0.2682513892650604,
0.1833069771528244,
0.7214980125427246,
0.09585399925708771,
-0.28086525201797485,
-0.03126468509435654,
-0.23316505551338196,
-0.09488140791654587,
-0.48326006531715393,
-0.7933852076530457,
-0.5169616937637329,
-0.07929262518882751,
-0.8251555562019348,
-0.008376573212444782,
-0.08943285793066025,
0.38978976011276245,
0.4713696837425232,
-0.6251075267791748,
-0.17167434096336365,
-0.5479174256324768,
0.21466943621635437,
0.6445732712745667,
-0.6515716910362244,
-0.030368968844413757,
0.00377889396622777,
0.8766268491744995,
0.46958720684051514,
0.5130448937416077,
-0.9388299584388733,
0.5438799858093262,
0.11215908825397491,
1.0807366371154785,
-0.19847147166728973,
0.29489266872406006,
-0.11855165660381317,
-0.5071629881858826,
0.5860573053359985,
0.16323232650756836,
0.12661431729793549,
0.4198337495326996,
-0.8291958570480347,
-0.4572427272796631,
-1.3363921642303467,
-0.32686325907707214,
0.39632001519203186,
-0.1758405566215515,
0.46479618549346924,
0.17755486071109772,
0.13218805193901062,
-0.1247643381357193,
0.26920968294143677,
-0.18564456701278687,
-0.21530023217201233,
0.14786438643932343,
-0.25733351707458496,
0.4607207179069519,
0.5235087871551514,
-0.26867419481277466,
0.6078439950942993,
0.5760326385498047,
-0.6396076679229736,
0.33059951663017273,
-0.44573089480400085,
0.06871085613965988,
-0.05701432377099991,
-0.22350025177001953,
0.2657712996006012,
-0.3525752127170563,
0.40152207016944885,
0.21963335573673248,
-0.5073683261871338,
0.4265316128730774,
0.021693101152777672,
0.2924216687679291,
-0.03441077470779419,
0.1606167107820511,
0.30776384472846985,
0.06714724004268646,
-0.169748455286026,
-0.4973191022872925,
-0.7274380922317505,
0.07353510707616806,
0.7436006665229797,
0.2053443044424057,
0.29445680975914,
0.1531580239534378,
-0.0024257926270365715,
0.03929360210895538,
0.11767324805259705,
-0.3776090741157532,
0.08325344324111938,
-0.4075130820274353,
0.3415907919406891,
-0.31961801648139954,
1.3425618410110474,
0.2366717904806137,
-0.16783779859542847,
-0.24545519053936005,
0.1813873052597046,
0.23540669679641724,
0.6905287504196167,
-0.12309815734624863,
0.12284671515226364,
0.21541932225227356,
-0.5239920616149902,
1.204650640487671,
0.1113339215517044,
0.28143763542175293,
0.0053579541854560375,
0.9131578207015991,
0.04726247116923332,
-0.707011342048645,
0.16282622516155243,
0.21597108244895935,
-0.4763897657394409,
-0.21020819246768951,
0.020548922941088676,
-0.4008239209651947,
0.13718746602535248,
-0.3677735924720764,
0.773330569267273,
0.5087787508964539,
-0.25762253999710083,
0.17780272662639618,
-0.38401123881340027,
0.2770173251628876,
-0.1943812370300293,
0.6564540863037109,
-0.2966177761554718,
0.2474249005317688,
0.364830881357193,
0.37639543414115906,
-0.6562960743904114,
-0.591130256652832,
0.4542994201183319,
0.2738821506500244,
-0.007387241348624229,
-0.1174221783876419,
0.5664218068122864,
-0.030275778844952583,
0.043033502995967865,
0.2653406262397766,
-0.7992311716079712,
0.30360618233680725,
0.1532464474439621,
-0.47201061248779297,
0.13847573101520538,
0.0034557986073195934,
0.20008236169815063,
-0.31180164217948914,
0.7790234088897705,
-0.23458705842494965,
0.11395804584026337,
-0.5820611119270325,
-0.3627855181694031,
-0.14546510577201843,
-0.24178065359592438,
-0.2605174779891968,
0.6495682597160339,
-0.28887709975242615,
0.4530041813850403,
-0.03258492425084114,
0.0836002379655838,
0.0404214933514595,
0.07793784886598587,
-0.6368544101715088,
-0.11693131178617477,
-0.23856955766677856,
0.5719407200813293,
-0.10513490438461304,
-0.16456010937690735,
0.07578892260789871,
0.386465847492218,
-1.9255229234695435,
-0.11528754979372025,
0.15112082660198212,
-0.31833940744400024,
0.7735421657562256,
-0.9091089963912964,
-0.23923508822917938,
0.5671056509017944,
0.9231895804405212,
-0.6404175758361816,
-0.36176323890686035,
-0.5738669633865356,
-0.43831419944763184,
0.17460623383522034,
-0.2720465362071991,
-0.97238689661026,
-0.828873872756958,
-0.09244545549154282,
-0.6135856509208679,
-0.5020549893379211,
0.3225231468677521,
-0.19138625264167786,
0.7948309779167175,
-0.3150187134742737,
0.019011124968528748,
0.49904298782348633,
-0.39636507630348206,
-0.21623893082141876,
0.41571277379989624,
-0.18383926153182983,
-0.008356520906090736,
-0.339478999376297,
-0.18191251158714294,
-0.7266423106193542,
0.09951741993427277,
-4.848461627960205,
0.38876208662986755,
-0.6623651385307312,
-0.2951939105987549,
0.08791468292474747,
0.3510991632938385,
0.4882952868938446,
-0.045283280313014984,
0.21794642508029938,
-0.3396562933921814,
0.08789994567632675,
0.28562742471694946,
-0.33608517050743103,
0.5213496685028076,
0.6813430786132812,
0.23484370112419128,
1.1611504554748535,
-0.5243314504623413,
0.563656747341156,
-0.5038964152336121,
0.37244912981987,
-0.2983485460281372,
0.11976136267185211,
0.10964367538690567,
-0.015669334679841995,
0.07063189148902893,
-0.7893655300140381,
0.2506360113620758,
-0.8367581367492676,
0.12138524651527405,
-0.08207497745752335,
-0.27312108874320984,
-0.3555186688899994,
0.03977459296584129,
-0.18745076656341553,
-0.1698654443025589,
0.9026660323143005,
0.30503222346305847,
-0.022075504064559937,
-0.7853078842163086,
-0.4768907427787781,
0.35220009088516235,
0.01831379346549511,
0.37844207882881165,
0.9080528020858765,
0.019294248893857002,
-0.28058862686157227,
-0.23146766424179077,
0.25237730145454407,
1.4172940254211426,
-0.1931431144475937,
0.0009300027741119266,
1.1161158084869385,
0.7018518447875977,
0.5495871901512146,
-0.6092029213905334,
-0.2073410004377365,
-0.2008581906557083,
-0.6151990294456482,
0.1428559422492981,
0.17773903906345367,
-0.21791595220565796,
0.1890268176794052,
-0.9447961449623108,
-0.16149966418743134,
-0.22313693165779114,
-0.30722901225090027,
-0.11847290396690369,
0.3650301396846771,
-0.34897884726524353,
-0.5308652520179749,
1.5370765924453735,
-0.2684265077114105,
-0.700218141078949,
0.39610013365745544,
-0.2614176571369171,
-0.22876973450183868,
-0.04865983501076698,
-0.3531297743320465,
0.2234138697385788,
0.22557909786701202,
0.05661169812083244,
-0.6420598030090332,
0.9464312195777893,
0.38012081384658813,
-0.2802872359752655,
-0.12485433369874954,
0.28176799416542053,
-0.12823012471199036,
0.06919322907924652,
0.31981775164604187,
-0.42134737968444824,
0.41964083909988403,
0.33034998178482056,
0.15538397431373596,
-0.4759616553783417,
0.003305301768705249,
0.2914283871650696,
0.7240345478057861,
-0.8668330907821655,
0.5353768467903137,
-0.580104649066925,
0.2786514461040497,
0.20172248780727386,
-0.0734938308596611,
-0.6264933943748474,
-0.2541668713092804,
-0.26473143696784973,
0.3922579884529114,
0.005137886386364698,
-0.408174991607666,
-0.4784250557422638,
-0.23391102254390717,
-0.19692738354206085,
1.012543797492981,
0.342748761177063,
-0.021165557205677032,
0.1399446725845337,
0.3694428503513336,
0.7163646817207336,
-0.07299646735191345,
0.5653209090232849,
0.15700185298919678,
-0.2910952866077423,
-0.5945277214050293,
-0.9414771795272827,
0.5746498107910156,
-0.22448836266994476,
-0.7111762762069702,
0.16364407539367676,
0.03398536890745163,
0.6635022163391113,
0.229838028550148,
0.0901385024189949,
-0.08751410990953445,
-0.7670021653175354,
-0.14948517084121704,
-0.11136860400438309,
0.07893691956996918,
-0.3239079713821411,
-0.52787846326828,
0.004114383365958929,
-0.8206177949905396,
0.29119083285331726,
0.553146243095398,
0.8432060480117798,
0.4567725658416748,
-0.04829948768019676,
-0.2242690920829773,
0.745962381362915,
-0.6908169388771057,
-0.8567073345184326,
0.028031500056385994,
-0.7238402366638184,
-0.1499524861574173,
0.6478288769721985,
0.9033665657043457,
0.2456541359424591,
0.041521504521369934,
-0.14402899146080017,
0.03615550324320793,
0.5352895259857178,
-0.11980967223644257,
-0.014802947640419006,
0.04061787948012352,
-0.0660923644900322,
-0.37113654613494873,
-0.7958207726478577,
-0.26330992579460144,
0.4832868278026581,
0.11556541174650192,
-0.46199265122413635,
-0.9823148250579834,
0.1571480929851532,
0.7077106237411499,
0.3427414000034332,
-0.6376597285270691,
-0.4991292953491211,
-0.00024524552281945944,
-0.3084498345851898,
0.17393448948860168,
-0.3903777003288269,
-0.5869520902633667,
0.45989614725112915,
0.1057765856385231,
-0.1627931147813797,
-0.7854015231132507,
-0.05378860607743263,
-0.17224359512329102,
0.2743217349052429,
0.044640958309173584,
-0.5749875903129578,
0.5861284732818604,
0.21390259265899658,
-0.7319135069847107,
-0.10603492707014084,
0.39710864424705505,
0.24145932495594025,
0.27006062865257263,
-0.8579374551773071,
-0.0819132924079895,
0.8468300700187683,
-0.8022125363349915,
0.42508211731910706,
0.22624051570892334,
-0.6146042346954346,
0.33729279041290283,
-0.2587355971336365,
-0.24772918224334717,
0.6916678547859192,
-0.06958199292421341,
-0.9799347519874573,
0.4114086925983429,
0.4811572730541229,
-0.11238289624452591,
-0.17685618996620178,
-0.015218119136989117,
0.4131632447242737,
-0.6714194416999817,
-0.631664514541626,
-0.7309951782226562,
-0.37428799271583557,
-0.2668885290622711,
-0.8379732966423035,
-1.21526038646698,
0.10132889449596405,
0.021034253761172295,
-0.03593974560499191,
-0.0645257979631424,
-0.23260462284088135,
-0.30686914920806885,
0.1572645753622055,
0.19839471578598022,
-0.207289457321167,
0.4165874719619751,
-0.018289783969521523,
-0.30238044261932373,
0.3559877574443817,
0.33981892466545105,
0.17875312268733978,
0.6242987513542175,
1.3600722551345825,
0.29711636900901794,
-0.18182328343391418,
-0.07951536029577255,
0.16959276795387268,
0.651421070098877,
-0.07667804509401321,
-0.3768182098865509,
0.20660226047039032,
0.1561601758003235,
-0.7119141817092896,
-0.9449101686477661,
-0.7097929120063782,
1.1689965724945068,
-0.7417874336242676,
-0.18645599484443665,
-0.0624236986041069,
0.16111789643764496,
-0.13214583694934845,
-0.5662462711334229,
0.12388771027326584,
-0.6802057027816772,
0.3364459276199341,
0.013785943388938904,
0.586941123008728,
-0.2687191367149353,
-0.3398732841014862,
0.43847590684890747,
-0.2614937424659729,
0.15651452541351318,
0.029169347137212753,
0.2047482281923294,
0.2034371942281723,
-0.32265815138816833,
0.26014694571495056,
-0.008271469734609127,
-0.2789222300052643,
0.2889460027217865,
-0.21645303070545197,
0.4538387656211853,
0.044961050152778625,
-0.2063416838645935,
-0.1894225776195526,
-0.6510300040245056,
-0.6170058846473694,
-0.1315009742975235,
-0.36025291681289673,
-0.15315215289592743,
0.24349433183670044,
0.09553367644548416,
-0.04761117696762085,
-0.28813108801841736,
-0.05282486230134964,
0.11010526865720749,
0.47416287660598755,
-0.39060717821121216,
0.4617364704608917,
-0.3328854739665985,
0.8363473415374756,
-0.7299712896347046,
0.7249455451965332,
-0.38763585686683655,
-0.5028676986694336,
0.06410335004329681,
0.06606793403625488,
0.057005517184734344,
0.07926236838102341,
-0.10329333692789078,
-0.09540855884552002,
-0.4238823354244232,
-0.47296321392059326,
0.2964329421520233,
1.0041958093643188,
-0.4846169054508209,
-0.001701277680695057,
0.5870180726051331,
-0.527312695980072,
-0.3726741075515747,
-0.06689132004976273,
-0.10291893035173416,
-0.15165181457996368,
0.522132396697998,
0.4717181324958801,
0.2747918963432312,
1.1551352739334106,
-0.867766261100769,
-0.10564206540584564,
0.11946479976177216,
0.7916622161865234,
-0.10729053616523743,
-0.6957626342773438,
-0.41149070858955383,
0.6457387804985046,
0.11848245561122894,
0.07530555129051208,
0.744854211807251,
-0.21767963469028473,
-0.32467958331108093,
0.6479926705360413,
0.11061034351587296,
0.5103162527084351,
-0.11885350942611694,
-0.6600688695907593,
-0.12347057461738586,
0.26528847217559814,
-0.4475516974925995,
0.6601964831352234,
-0.0647561252117157,
0.010905493050813675,
0.049910422414541245,
0.3979451060295105,
0.2450525462627411,
-0.07724803686141968,
0.045826856046915054,
-0.09446181356906891,
0.26311594247817993,
-0.7058266997337341,
0.5116561651229858,
-1.1796185970306396,
-0.39693641662597656,
-0.3163467347621918,
0.6063801050186157,
0.05111142247915268,
-0.24205031991004944,
-0.25713440775871277,
0.16133810579776764,
-0.2747649848461151,
0.1516665518283844,
0.4095313251018524,
0.1861770898103714,
0.1678539663553238,
0.19418233633041382,
0.554333508014679,
0.31609952449798584,
0.32533591985702515,
0.4334818124771118,
-0.5643226504325867,
0.09340951591730118,
0.5540301203727722,
-0.3751567602157593,
0.6827001571655273,
-0.23692971467971802,
-1.1226449012756348,
0.07745116949081421,
0.21717463433742523,
-0.34259313344955444,
0.42787885665893555,
0.4734857678413391,
0.08121901005506516,
0.7400480508804321,
-0.42304563522338867,
-0.4513002336025238,
0.18856355547904968,
0.21241435408592224,
0.37501415610313416,
-0.3055686354637146,
0.3940640687942505,
0.14343026280403137,
0.3600369393825531,
-0.19472894072532654,
0.4840601980686188,
0.2615815997123718,
0.2607435882091522,
-0.2263191193342209,
-0.08839982748031616,
-0.6418905854225159,
0.24546530842781067,
0.17163023352622986,
-0.07142091542482376,
-0.3982987403869629,
-0.3304472267627716,
-0.3567444086074829,
-0.346317321062088,
-0.2965319752693176,
0.10797472298145294,
0.6600207090377808,
-0.78276526927948,
-0.7115703225135803,
-0.11197535693645477,
0.0011881868122145534,
-0.1230025589466095,
0.13068178296089172,
-0.05694468319416046,
-0.07702533155679703,
-0.30531755089759827,
0.21935014426708221,
-0.6088145971298218,
-0.11730485409498215,
0.252824068069458,
0.2871602773666382,
-0.157866433262825,
-0.40229231119155884,
0.5286930203437805,
-0.06396820396184921,
-0.3058757483959198,
-0.16992343962192535,
0.3472386598587036,
1.311232089996338,
0.3380080759525299,
0.28346195816993713,
-0.7803505063056946,
0.1771869659423828,
-0.14745871722698212,
-2.1696553230285645,
-0.19420546293258667,
-0.5270689129829407,
-0.9695115685462952,
0.21047404408454895,
-0.027620721608400345,
0.02938852645456791,
-0.7552638053894043,
0.044853586703538895,
0.020771825686097145,
0.22717629373073578,
-0.03837590292096138,
0.1346735805273056,
-0.7603062987327576,
0.19661937654018402,
-0.14614716172218323
] |
200237
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20eagle-owl
|
Eurasian eagle-owl
|
The Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and females can grow to a total length of 75 cm (30 in), with a wingspan of 188 cm (6 ft 2 in), with males being slightly smaller. This bird has distinctive ear tufts, with upper parts that are mottled with darker blackish colouring and tawny. The wings and tail are barred. The underparts are a variably hued buff, streaked with darker colouring. The facial disc is not very visible and the orange eyes are distinctive.
Eurasian eagle-owls are found in many habitats, but are mostly birds of mountainous regions or other rocky areas, often those near varied woodland edge and shrubby areas with openings or wetlands to hunt a majority of their prey. Additionally, they inhabit coniferous forests, steppes, and other areas at varied elevations that are typically relatively remote. Eurasian eagle-owls are occasionally found amongst farmland and in park-like settings within European cities, even rarely within busier urban areas. This eagle-owl is a mostly nocturnal predator, hunting for a range of different prey species. Predominantly, their diet is composed of small mammals such as rodents and rabbits, but they also prey on larger mammals and birds of varying sizes. Other secondary prey can include reptiles, amphibians, fish, large insects and other assorted invertebrates. The species typically breeds on cliff ledges, in gullies, among rocks, or in other concealed locations. The nest is a scrape containing a clutch of two eggs typically, which are laid at intervals and hatch at different times. The female incubates the eggs and broods the young, and the male provides food for her, and when they hatch, for the nestlings, as well. Continuing parental care for the young is provided by both adults for about five months. At least 12 subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owls are described.
In addition to being one of the largest living species of owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl is also one of the most widely distributed. With a total range in Europe and Asia of about 32 million km2 (12 million sq mi) and a total population estimated to be between 250,000 and 2.5 million, the IUCN lists the bird's conservation status as being of least concern. The vast majority of eagle-owls live in Continental Europe, Scandinavia, Russia (which is almost certainly where the peak numbers and diversity of race occurs), and Central Asia. Additional minor populations exist in Anatolia, the northern Middle East, the montane upper part of South Asia and in China; in addition, an estimated 12 to 40 pairs are thought to reside in the United Kingdom as of 2016 (where they are arguably non-native), a number which may be on the rise. Tame eagle-owls have occasionally been used in pest control because of their size to deter large birds such as gulls from nesting.
Description
The Eurasian eagle-owl is among the larger birds or owls, smaller than the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), but larger than the snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus), despite some overlap in size with both species. It is sometimes referred to as the world's largest owl, although Blakiston's fish owl (B. blakistoni) is slightly heavier on average and the much lighter weight great grey owl (Strix nebulosa) is slightly longer on average. Heimo Mikkola reported the largest specimens of eagle-owl as having the same upper body mass, , as the largest Blakiston’s fish owl and attained a length around longer. In terms of average weight and wing size, the Blakiston’s is the slightly larger species seemingly, even averaging a bit larger in these aspects than the biggest eagle-owl races from Russia. Also, although shorter than the largest of the latter species, the Eurasian eagle-owl can weigh well more than twice as much as the largest great grey owl. The Eurasian eagle-owl typically has a wingspan of , with the largest specimens possibly attaining . The total length of the species can vary from . Females can weigh from , and males can weigh from . In comparison, the barn owl (Tyto alba), the world's most widely distributed owl species, weighs about 500 g (1.1 lb) and the great horned owl (B. virginianus), which fills the eagle-owl's ecological niche in North America, weighs around 1.4 kg (3.1 lb).
Besides the female being larger, little external sexual dimorphism is seen in the Eurasian eagle-owl, although the ear tufts of males reportedly tend to be more upright than those of females. When an eagle-owl is seen on its own in the field, distinguishing the individual’s sex is generally not possible. Gender determination by size is possible by in-hand measurements. In some populations, the female typically may be slightly darker than the male. The plumage coloration across at least 13 accepted subspecies can be highly variable. The upper parts may be brown-black to tawny-buff to pale creamy gray, typically showing dense freckling on the forehead and crown, stripes on the nape, sides, and back of the neck, and dark splotches on the pale ground colour of the back, mantle, and scapulars. A narrow buff band, freckled with brown or buff, often runs up from the base of the bill, above the inner part of the eye, and along the inner edge of the black-brown ear tufts. The rump and upper tail-coverts are delicately patterned with dark vermiculations and fine, wavy barring, the extent of which varies with subspecies. The underwing coverts and undertail coverts are similar, but tend to be more strongly barred in brownish-black.
The primaries and secondaries are brown with broad, dark brown bars and dark brown tips, and grey or buff irregular lines. A complete moult takes place each year between July and December. The facial disc is tawny-buff, speckled with black-brown, so densely on the outer edge of the disc as to form a "frame" around the face. The chin and throat are white with a brownish central streak. The feathers of the upper breast generally have brownish-black centres and reddish-brown edges except for the central ones, which have white edges. The chin and throat may appear white continuing down the center of the upper breast. The lower breast and belly feathers are creamy-brown to tawny buff to off-white with a variable amount of fine dark wavy barring, on a tawny-buff ground colour. The legs and feet (which are feathered almost to the talons) are likewise marked on a buff ground colour but more faintly. The tail is tawny-buff, mottled dark grey-brown with about six black-brown bars. The bill and feet are black. The iris is most often orange but is fairly variable. In some European birds, the iris is a bright reddish, blood-orange colour but then in subspecies found in arid, desert-like habitats, the iris can range into an orange-yellow colour (most closely related species generally have yellowish irises, excluding the Indian eagle-owl).
Standard measurements and physiology
Among standard measurements for the Eurasian eagle-owl, the wing chord measures , the tail measures long, the tarsus measures , and the total length of the bill is . The wings are reportedly the smallest in proportion to the body weight of any European owl, when measured by the weight per area of wing size, was found to be 0.72 g/cm2. Thus, they have quite high wing loading. The great horned owl has even smaller wings (0.8 g/cm2) relative to its body size. The golden eagle has slightly lower wing loading proportionately (0.65 g/cm2), so the aerial abilities of the two species (beyond the eagle’s spectacular ability to stoop) may not be as disparate as expected. Some other owls, such as barn owls, short-eared owls (Asio flammeus), and even the related snowy owls have lower wing loading relative to their size, so are presumably able to fly faster, with more agility, and for more extended periods than the Eurasian eagle-owl. In the relatively small race B. b. hispanus, the middle claw, the largest talon, (as opposed to rear hallux-claw, which is the largest in accipitrids) was found to measure from in length. A female examined in Britain (origins unspecified) had a middle claw measuring , on par in length with a large female golden eagle hallux-claw. Generally, owls do not have talons as proportionately large as those of accipitrids, but have stronger, more robust feet relative to their size. Accipitrids use their talons to inflict organ damage and blood loss, whereas typical owls use their feet to constrict their prey to death, the talons serving only to hold the prey in place or provide incidental damage. The talons of the Eurasian eagle-owl are very large and not often exceeded in size by diurnal raptors. Unlike the great horned owls, the overall foot size and strength of the Eurasian eagle-owl is not known to have been tested, but the considerably smaller horned owl has one of the strongest grips ever measured in a bird.
The feathers of the ear tufts in Spanish birds (when not damaged) were found to measure from . The ear openings (covered in feathers as in all birds) are relatively uncomplicated for an owl, but are also large, being larger on the right than on the left as in most owls, and proportionately larger than those of the great horned owl. In the female, the ear opening averages on the right and on the left, and in males, averages on the right and on the left. The depth of the facial disc and the size and complexity of the ear opening are directly correlated to the importance of sound in an owl’s hunting behaviour. Examples of owls with more complicated ear structures and deeper facial disc are barn owls, long-eared owls (Asio otus), and boreal owls (Aegolius funereus). Given the uncomplicated structure of their ear openings and relatively shallow, undefined facial discs, hunting by ear is secondary to hunting by sight in eagle-owls; this seems to be true for Bubo in general. More sound-based hunters such as the aforementioned species likely focus their hunting activity in more complete darkness. Also, owls with white throat patches such as the Eurasian eagle-owl are more likely to be active in low-light conditions in the hours before and after sunrise and sunset rather than the darkest times in the middle of the night. The boreal and barn owls, to extend these examples, lack obvious visual cues such as white throat patches (puffed up in displaying eagle-owls), again indicative of primary activity being in darker periods.
Distinguishing from other species
The great size, bulky, barrel-shaped build, erect ear tufts, and orange eyes render this as a distinctive species. Other than general morphology, the above features differ markedly from those of two of the next largest subarctic owl species in Europe and western Asia, which are the great grey owl and the greyish to chocolate-brown Ural owl (Strix uralensis), both of which have no ear tufts and have a distinctly rounded head, rather than the blocky shape of the eagle-owl’s head. The snowy owl is obviously distinctive from most eagle-owls, but during winter the palest Eurasian eagle-owl race (B. b. sibiricus) can appear off-white. Nevertheless, the latter is still distinctively an ear-tufted Eurasian eagle-owl and lacks the pure white background colour and variable blackish spotting of the slightly smaller species (which has relatively tiny, vestigial ear tufts that have only been observed to have flared on rare occasions).
The long-eared owl has a somewhat similar plumage to the eagle-owl, but is considerably smaller (an average female eagle-owl may be twice as long and 10 times heavier than an average long-eared owl). Long-eared owls in Eurasia have vertical striping like that of the Eurasian eagle-owl, while long-eared owls in North America show a more horizontal striping like that of great horned owls. Whether these are examples of mimicry either way is unclear but it is known that both Bubo owls are serious predators of long-eared owls. The same discrepancy in underside streaking has also been noted in the Eurasian and American representations of the grey owl. A few other related species overlap minimally in range in Asia, mainly in East Asia and the southern reaches of the Eurasian eagle-owl’s range. Three fish owls appear to overlap in range, the brown (Ketupa zeylonensis) in at least northern Pakistan, probably Kashmir, and discontinuously in southern Turkey, the tawny (K. flavipes) through much of eastern China, and Blakiston's fish owl in the Russian Far East, northeastern China, and Hokkaido. Fish owls are distinctively different looking, possessing more scraggy ear tufts that hang to the side rather than sit erect on top of the head, and generally have more uniform, brownish plumages without the contrasting darker streaking of an eagle-owl. The brown fish owl has no feathering on the tarsus or feet, and the tawny has feathering only on the upper portion of the tarsi, but the Blakiston’s is nearly as extensively feathered on the tarsi and feet as the eagle-owl. Tawny and brown fish owls are both slightly smaller than co-occurring Eurasian eagle-owls, and Blakiston’s fish owls are similar or slightly larger than co-occurring large northern eagle-owls. Fish owls, being tied to the edges of fresh water, where they hunt mainly fish and crabs, also have slightly differing, and more narrow, habitat preferences.
In the lower Himalayas of northern Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, along with the brown fish owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl at the limit of its distribution may co-exist with at least two to three other eagle-owls. One of these, the dusky eagle-owl (B. coromandus) is smaller, with more uniform tan-brownish plumage, untidy uniform light streaking rather than the Eurasian’s dark streaking below and an even less well-defined facial disc. The dusky is usually found in slightly more enclosed woodland areas than Eurasian eagle-owls. Another is possibly the spot-bellied eagle-owl (B. nipalensis), which is strikingly different looking, with stark brown plumage, rather than the warm hues typical of the Eurasian, bold spotting on a whitish background on the belly, and somewhat askew ear tufts that are bold white with light brown crossbars on the front. Both species may occur in some parts of the Himalayan foothills, but they are not currently verified to occur in the same area, in part because of the spot-bellied’s preference for dense, primary forest. Most similar, with basically the same habitat preferences and the only one verified to co-occur with the Eurasian eagle-owls of the race B. b. turcomanus in Kashmir is the Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis). The Indian species is smaller, with a bolder, blackish facial disc border, more rounded and relatively smaller wings, and partially unfeathered toes. Far to the west, the pharaoh eagle-owl (B. ascalaphus) also seemingly overlaps in range with the Eurasian, at least in Jordan. Although also relatively similar to the Eurasian eagle-owl, the pharaoh eagle-owl is distinguished by its smaller size, paler, more washed-out plumage, and the diminished size of its ear tufts.
Moulting
The Eurasian eagle-owls’ feathers are lightweight and robust, but nevertheless need to be replaced periodically as they become worn. In the Eurasian eagle-owl, this happens in stages, and the first moult starts the year after hatching with some body feathers and wing coverts being replaced. The next year, the three central secondaries on each wing and three middle tail feathers are shed and regrow, and the following year, two or three primaries and their coverts are lost. In the final year of this postjuvenile moult, the remaining primaries are moulted and all the juvenile feathers will have been replaced. Another moult takes place during years 6-12 of the bird's life. This happens between June and October after the conclusion of the breeding season, and again it is a staged process with six to nine main flight feathers being replaced each year. Such a moulting pattern lasting several years is repeated throughout the bird's life.
Taxonomy
The Eurasian eagle-owl was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Strix bulbo. Although Linnaeus specified the "habitat" as "Europa" the type locality is restricted to Sweden. The Eurasian eagle-owl is now placed in the genus Bubo that was introduced by André Duméril in 1805.
The genus Bubo with 20 extant species includes most of the larger owl species in the world today. Based on an extensive fossil record and a central distribution of extant species on that continent, Bubo appears to have evolved into existence in Africa, although early radiations seem to branch from southern Asia, as well. Two genera belonging to the scops owls complex, the giant scops owls (Otus gurneyi) found in Asia and the Ptilopsis or the white-faced scops owl found in Africa, although firmly ensconced in the scops owl group, appear to share some characteristics with the eagle-owls. The Strix genus is also related to Bubo, and is considered a "sister complex", with Pulsatrix possibly being intermediate between the two. The Eurasian eagle-owl appears to represent an expansion of the genus Bubo into the Eurasian continent. A few of the other species of Bubo seem to have been derived from the Eurasian eagle-owl, making it a "paraspecies", or they at least share a relatively recent common ancestor.
The pharaoh eagle-owl, distributed in the Arabian Peninsula and sections of the Sahara Desert through North Africa where rocky outcrops are found, was until recently considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl. The pharaoh eagle-owl apparently differs about 3.8% in mitochondrial DNA from the Eurasian eagle-owl, well past the minimum genetic difference to differentiate species of 1.5%. Smaller and paler than Eurasian eagle-owls, the pharaoh eagle-owl can also be considered a distinct species largely due to its higher-pitched and more descending call, and the observation that Eurasian eagle-owls formerly found in Morocco (B. b. hispanus) apparently did not breed with the co-existing pharaoh eagle-owls. On the contrary, the race still found together with the pharaoh eagle-owl in the wild (B. b. interpositus) in the central Middle East has been found to interbreed in the wild with the pharaoh eagle-owl, although genetical materials have indicated B. b. interpositus may itself be a distinct species from the Eurasian eagle-owl, as it differs from the nominate subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl by 2.8% in mitochondrial DNA. For three Asian Eurasian eagle-owl subspecies (B. b. ussuriensis, B. b. kiautschensis and B. b. hemachlana, respectively), it was found that they met the criterion for subspecies well, with a high haplotype diversity and in spite of a relatively recent common ancestor and low genetic diversity. The Indian eagle-owl (B. bengalensis) was also considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl until recently, but its smaller size, distinct voice (more clipped and high-pitched than the Eurasian), and the fact that it is largely allopatric in distribution (filling out the Indian subcontinent) with other Eurasian eagle-owl races has led to it being considered a distinct species. The mitochondrial DNA of the Indian species also appears considerably distinct from the Eurasian species. The Cape eagle-owl (B. capensis) appears to represent a return of this genetic line back into the African continent, where it leads a lifestyle similar to Eurasian eagle-owls, albeit far to the south. Another offshoot of the northern Bubo group is the snowy owl. It appears to have separated from other Bubo species at least 4 million years ago.
The fourth and most famous derivation of the evolutionary line that includes the Eurasian eagle-owl is the great horned owl, which appears to have been the result of primitive eagle-owls spreading into North America. According to some authorities, the great horned owls and Eurasian eagle-owls are barely distinct as species, with a similar level of divergence in their plumages as the Eurasian and North American representations of the great grey owl or the long-eared owl. More outward physical differences exist between the great horned owl and the Eurasian eagle-owl than in those two examples, including a great size difference favoring the Eurasian species, the great horned owl’s horizontal rather than vertical underside barring, yellow rather than orange eyes, and a much stronger black bracket to the facial disc, not to mention a number of differences in their reproductive behaviour and distinctive voices. Furthermore, genetic research has revealed that the snowy owl is more closely related to the great horned owl than are Eurasian eagle-owls. The most closely related species beyond the pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls to the Eurasian eagle-owl is the smaller, less powerful and African spotted eagle-owl (B. africanus), which was likely to have divided from the line before they radiated away from Africa. Somehow, genetic materials indicate the spotted eagle-owl appears to share a more recent ancestor with the Indian eagle-owl than with the Eurasian eagle-owl or even the sympatric Cape eagle-owl. Eurasian eagle-owls in captivity have produced apparently healthy hybrids with both the Indian eagle-owl and the great horned owl. The pharaoh, Indian, and Cape eagle-owls and the great horned owl are all broadly similar in size to each other, but all are considerably smaller than the Eurasian eagle-owl, which averages at least 15–30% larger in linear dimensions and 30–50% larger in body mass than these other related species, possibly as the eagle-owls adapted to warmer climates and smaller prey. Fossils from southern France have indicated that during the Middle Pleistocene, Eurasian eagle-owls (this paleosubspecies is given the name B. b. davidi) were larger than they are today, even larger were those found in Azerbaijan and in the Caucasus (either B. b. bignadensis or B. bignadensis), which were deemed to date to the Late Pleistocene. About 12 subspecies are recognized today.
Subspecies
B. b. bubo (Linnaeus, 1758) – Also known as the European eagle-owl, the nominate subspecies inhabits continental Europe from near the Arctic Circle in Norway, Sweden, Finland, the southern Kola Peninsula, and Arkhangelsk where it ranges north to about latitude 64° 30' N., southward to the Baltic Sea, central Germany, to southeastern Belgium, eastern, central, and southern France to Italy and Sicily, and through Central and Southeastern Europe to Greece. It intergrades with B. b. ruthenus in northern Russia around the basin of the upper Mezen River and in the eastern vicinity of Gorki Leninskiye, Tambov and Voronezh, and intergrades with B. b. interpositus in northern Ukraine. This is a medium-sized race, measuring in wing chord length in males and . In captive owls of this subspecies, the mean wingspan were for males and for females. The total bill length is . Adult male European eagle-owls from Norway weigh , averaging , while females there weigh from , averaging . Unsurprisingly, adult owls from western Finland were about the same size, averaging . Another set of Finnish eagle-owls averaged somewhat larger still, with males averaging and females averaging . The subspecies seems to follow Bergmann’s rule in regards to body size decreasing closer to the Equator, as specimens from central Europe average in body mass and those from Italy average about . The weight range for eagle-owls in Italy is . The nominate subspecies is perhaps the darkest and most richly coloured of eagle-owl subspecies. Many nominate birds are heavily overlaid with broad black streaking over the upper-parts, head and chest. While generally a brownish base-colour, many nominate owls can appear rich rufous, especially about the head, upper-back and wing primaries. The lower belly is usually a buff brown, as opposed to whitish or yellowish in several other subspecies. Birds seen from southern Italy and Sicily may show a tendency to be smaller than more northern birds and reportedly are duller, possessing paler ground coloration, and more narrow streaks, but museum specimens are often not hugely distinct from north Italian eagle-owls. In Scandinavia, some birds are so darkly plumaged as to give a blackish-brown impression with almost no paler colour showing.
B. b. hispanus (Rothschild and Hartert, 1910) – Also known as the Spanish eagle-owl or the Iberian eagle-owl. This subspecies mainly occurs on the Iberian Peninsula, where it occupies a majority of Spain and scattered spots in Portugal. B. b. hispanus at least historically occurred in wooded areas of the Atlas Mountains in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, making it the only subspecies of Eurasian eagle-owl known to breed in Africa, but this population is thought to be extinct. This is a fairly small-bodied subspecies. In males, wing chord length can range from and in females from . Wingspans in this subspecies can vary from , averaging about . Among standard measurements of B. b. hispanus, the tail is , the total bill length is and the tarsus is . Adult male B. b. hispanus from Spain weigh , averaging , while females weigh from , averaging . In terms of its life history, this may be the most extensively studied subspecies of eagle-owl. The Spanish eagle-owl is the most similar in plumage to the nominate subspecies amongst other subspecies, but tends to be a somewhat lighter, more greyish colour, with generally lighter streaking and a paler belly.
B. b. ruthenus (Buturlin and Zhitkov, 1906) – May be also known as the eastern eagle-owl. This subspecies replaces the nominate in eastern Russia from about latitude 660 N. in the Timan-Pechora Basin south to the western Ural Mountains and the upper Don and lower Volga Rivers. This is a fairly large subspecies going on wing chord length, which is in males and in females. The subspecies is intermediate in coloration between the nominate subspecies and B. b. sibiricus. B. b. ruthenus may be confused with B. b. interpositus, even by authoritative ornithologists. B. b. interpositus is darker than B. b. ruthenus, distinctly more yellowish, less gray, and its brown pattern is darker, heavier, and more regular. The entire colour pattern of B. b. interpositus is brighter, richer, and more contrasting than that of B. b. ruthenus, but B. b. interpositus, though very well characterized, is an intermediate subspecies.
B. b. interpositus (Rothschild and Hartert, 1910) – May be also known as Aharoni’s eagle-owl or the Byzantine eagle-owl. B. b. interpositus ranges from southern Russia, south of the nominate, with which it intergrades in northern Ukraine, from Bessarabia and the steppes of the Ukraine north to Kyiv and Kharkiv then eastward to the Crimea, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia to northwestern and northern Iran (Elburz, region of Tehran, and probably the southern Caspian districts), and through Asia Minor south to Syria and Iraq but not to the Syrian desert where it is replaced by the pharaoh eagle-owl. The latter and B. b. interpositus reportedly hybridize from western Syria south to southern Palestine. B. b. interpositus may be a distinct species from the Eurasian eagle-owl based on genetic studies. This medium-sized subspecies is about the same size as the nominate subspecies B. b. bubo, with male wing chord lengths and female lengths of . It differs from the nominate subspecies by being paler and more yellow, less ferruginous, and by having a sharper brown pattern; from B. b. turcomanus by being very much darker and less yellow, and also by being much more sharply and heavily patterned with brown. Aharoni’s eagle-owl is darker and more rusty than B. b. ruthenus.
B. b. sibiricus (Gloger, 1833) – Also known as the western Siberian eagle-owl. This subspecies is distributed from the Ural Mountains of western Siberia and Bashkiria to the mid Ob River and the western Altai Mountains, north to limits of the taiga, the most northerly distribution known in the species overall. B. b. sibiricus is a large subspecies, wherein the males measure in wing chord length, while the females are . Captive males were found to measure in wingspan and weigh ; whereas the females measure in wingspan and weigh . Males were cited with a mean body mass of approximately . This subspecies is physically the most distinctive of all the Eurasian eagle-owls, and is sometimes considered the most "beautiful and striking". It is the most pale of the eagle-owl subspecies; the general coloration is a buffy off-white overlaid with dark markings. The crown, hindneck and underparts are streaked blackish but somewhat sparingly, with the lower breast and belly indistinctly barred, the primary coverts dark, contrasting with rest of the wing. The head, back and shoulders are only somewhat dark unlike in most other subspecies. In the eastern limits of its range, B. b. sibiricus may intergrade with B. b. yenisseensis.
B. b. yenisseensis (Buturlin, 1911) – Also known as the eastern Siberian eagle-owl. This subspecies is found in central Siberia from about the Ob eastward to Lake Baikal, north to about latitudes 580 to 590 N on the Yenisei River, south to the Altai, Tarbagatai and the Saur Mountain ranges and in Tannu Tuva and Khangai Mountains in northwestern Mongolia, grading into B. b. sibiricus near Tomsk in the west and into B. b. ussuriensis in the east of northern Mongolia. The zone of intergradations with the latter in Mongolia seems to be quite extensive, with intermediate eagle-owls being especially prevalent around the Tuul River Valley, resulting in owls intermediate in coloration between B. b. yenisseensis and B. b. ussuriensis. B. b. yenisseensis is a large subspecies, with wing chord lengths of in males and in females. B. b. yenisseensis is typically much darker with more yellowish ground colour than B. b. sibiricus. It does have a similar amount of dazzling white on its underwing as does sibiricus. It is buffy-greyish overall with well-expressed dark patterning on the upper-parts and around the head. The underside is overall pale greyish with black streaking.
B. b. jakutensis (Buturlin, 1908) – May be also known as the Yakutian eagle-owl. This subspecies inhabits northeastern Siberia, from southern Yakutia north to about latitude 640 N., west in the basin of the Vilyuy River to the upper Nizhnyaya Tunguska River, and east to the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk from Magadan south to the Khabarovsk Krai. It has been reported farther north, from the regions of the upper Kolyma River and the upper Anadyr. Eurasian eagle-owls are absent in Kamchatka and north of the Verkhoyansk Range. This is a large subspecies, rivaling the proceeding two subspecies as the largest of all eagle-owls, going on wing chord length, which subspecies is largest is unclear considering the extensive size overlap in wing size. The wing chord is in males and in females. B. b. jakutensis is much darker and browner above than both B. b. sibiricus and B. b. yenisseensis, though its coloration is more diffused, less sharp than the latter. It is more distinctly streaked and barred below than B. b. sibiricus while being whiter and more heavily vermiculated below than B. b. yenisseensis. This subspecies evidences an almost disheveled, wild appearance suggesting more than other races the fish owl group. B. b. jakutensis has more muted brown and conspicuously elongated feathers, somewhat looser hanging ear tufts and a bulky, large-headed and almost neckless look even for an eagle-owl.
B. b. ussuriensis (Poljakov, 1915) – Would presumably be also known as the Ussuri eagle-owl. This subspecies ranges from southeastern Siberia, to the south of the range of B. b. jakutensis, southward through eastern Transbaikal, Amurland, Sakhalin, Ussuriland and the Manchurian portion of the Chinese provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hebei. This subspecies is also reportedly found in the southern Kuril Islands ranging down to as far as northern Hokkaido, the only Japanese representation in the Eurasian eagle-owl species, although this is apparently not a stable, viable population. Going on wing chord length, B. b. ussuriensis is slightly smaller than the various subspecies from further north in Siberia. Males have a wing chord length of and females are . This subspecies differs from B. b. jakutensis by being much darker throughout. It is also darker than B. b. yenisseensis. The brown markings on the upper parts of B. b. ussuriensis are much more extensive and diffused than in B. b. jakutensis or B. b. yenisseensis, with the result that the white markings are much less conspicuous in B. b. ussuriensis than in the other two subspecies. The under parts are also more buffy, much less white, and more heavily streaked and vermiculated in B. b. ussuriensis than in the two more northerly, larger subspecies. It overlaps considerably with jakutensis and some birds are of an intermediate appearance.
B. b. turcomanus (Eversmann, 1835) – Also known as the steppe eagle-owl. It is distributed from Kazakhstan between the Volga and upper Ural Rivers, the Caspian Sea coast and the former Aral Sea, but replaced in that country by B. b. omissus in the mountainous south and in the coastal region of the Mangyshlak Peninsula by B. b. gladkovi. Out of Kazakhstan, the range of B. b. turcomanus continues through the Transbaikal and the Tarim Basin to western Mongolia. This subspecies appears to be variable in size, but is generally medium-sized. Males can range in wing chord length from and females from . In standard measurements, the tail is , the tarsus is and the bill is . This subspecies can reportedly weigh from . The plumage background colour is pale, yellowish-buff. The dark patterns on the upper- and underparts is paler, less well-defined and more shattered than in B. b. interpositus. Dark longitudinal patterning on the under-parts discontinue above the belly. B. b. turcomanus is greyer than B. b. hemalachanus but is otherwise somewhat similar-looking. This subspecies is unique in that it seems to shun mountainous and obvious rocky habitats in favor of low hills, plateaus, lowlands, steppes, and semideserts at or near sea-level.
B. b. omissus (Dementiev, 1932) – May be also known as the Turkoman eagle-owl or the Turkmenian eagle-owl. B. b. omissus is native to Turkmenistan and adjacent regions of northeastern Iran and western Xinjiang. This is a small subspecies (only nikolskii averages smaller among currently accepted races), with males possessing a wing chord length of and females of . B. b. omissus may be considered a typical sub-desert form. The general coloration is an ochre to buffy off-yellow; with the dark pattern on the upper- and under-parts being relatively undefined. The dark shaft-streaks on nape are very narrow, while the dark longitudinal patterning on the underparts does not cover the belly. A dark cross-pattern on the belly and flanks is thinner and paler than in B. b. turcomanus and some individuals may appear almost all pale below. Compared to B. b. nikolskii, which may occupy the more southern reaches of the same upland ranges, it is somewhat larger as well as darker, less distinctly yellowish and more heavily streaked.
B. b. nikolskii (Zarudny, 1905) – May be also known in English as either the Afghan eagle-owl or the Iranian eagle-owl. The range of B. b. nikolskii appears to extend from the Balkan Mountains and Kopet Dagh in southern Transcaspia eastward to southeastern Uzbekistan or to perhaps southwestern Tadzhikistan, then southward 290 N. It may range north to Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan south to the region of Kalat, or at about latitude of Hindu Kush. In Iran, B. b. nikolskii is replaced by B. b. interpositus in the north, and probably also in the northwest, and probably by B. b. hemalachana in Badakhshan, part of northeastern Afghanistan. The birds of southern Tadzhikistan found west of the Pamirs are more or less intermediate between B. b. omissus and B. b. hemachalana. This is the smallest known subspecies of eagle-owl, though the only known measurements have been of wing chord length. Males can measure and females can measure in wing chord. Other than its smaller size, B. b. nikolskii is distinguished from the somewhat similar B. b. omissus by its rusty wash and being less dark above.
B. b. hemachalana (Hume, 1873) – Also known as the Himalayan eagle-owl. The range of B. b. hemachalana extends from the Himalayas, from Pakistan through Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh to at least Bhutan, also living in Tibet. Its range continues also westward to the Tian Shan system in Russian Turkestan, west to the Karatau, north to the Dzungarian Alatau, east to at least the Tekkes Valley in Xinjiang, and south to the regions of Kashgar, Yarkant and probably the western Kunlun Mountains. This bird is partly migratory, descending to the plains of Turkmenistan with colder winter weather, and apparently reaches northern Balochistan. This is a medium-sized subspecies, though it is larger than other potentially abutting arid Asian eagle-owl subspecies, which share a somewhat similar yellowish ground colour. The male attains a wing chord length of , while the female’s wing chord is . The bill measures in length. 11 adult eagle-owls of the subspecies from the Tibetan Plateau averaged in tail length, in tarsus length and scaled an average of in mass. This subspecies is physically similar to B. b. turcomanus but the background colour is more light yellowish-brown and less buff. The dark patterns on the upperparts and underparts are more expressed and less regular than in B. b. turcomanus and B. b. omissus and the general colour from the mantle to the ear tufts is a more consistent brownish colour than most other abutting races. B. b. hemachalana differs from B. b. yenisseensis by being much more yellow on the rump, under tail coverts, and outer tail feathers, rather than grayish or whitish, and the ground coloration of its body is more yellowish above, and is less whitish below. Dark longitudinal pattern on the under-parts cover the forebelly.
B. b. kiautschensis (Reichenow, 1903) – This subspecies could be also known as the North Chinese eagle-owl. It ranges from South Korea and China, south of the range of B. b. ussuriensis, southward to Kwangtung and Yunnan, and inland to Szechwan and southern Kansu. This is a smallish subspecies, with the male’s wing chord measuring and the female’s being . In Korea, this subspecies was found to average in mass, with a range of . B. b. kiautschensis is much darker, more tawny and rufous, and slightly smaller than B. b. ussuriensis. According to museum accounts, it resembles the nominate subspecies from Europe (though obviously considerably disparate in distribution) rather closely in coloration but differs from it by being paler, more mottled, and less heavily marked with brown on the upper parts, by having narrower dark shaft streaks on the under parts, which average also duller and more ocher, and by averaging smaller. Images from South Korea of captive and wild owls show, on the contrary, that this race may be easily as darkly marked as most nominate eagle-owls with a more rufous base colour altogether suggesting a richer and more dusky-colored eagle-owl than from almost any other population.
B. b. swinhoei (Hartert, 1913) – This subspecies could be also known as the South Chinese eagle-owl. It is endemic to southeastern China. A quite rufescent form, it is somewhat similar to B. b. kiautschensis. In this smallish subspecies, the wing chord measures in both sexes. This is a rather poorly known and described subspecies and is considered invalid by some authorities.
Habitat
Eagle-owls are distributed somewhat sparsely, but can potentially inhabit a wide range of habitats, with a partiality for irregular topography. They have been found in habitats as diverse as northern coniferous forests to the edge of vast deserts. Essentially, Eurasian eagle-owls have been found living in almost every climatic and environmental condition on the Eurasian continent, excluding the greatest extremities, i.e. they are absent from humid rainforest in Southeast Asia, and the high Arctic tundra, both of which they are more or less replaced by other species of Bubo owls. They are often found in the largest numbers in areas where cliffs and ravines are surrounded by a scattering of trees and bushes. Grassland areas such as alpine meadows or desert-like steppe can also host them so long as they have the cover and protection of rocky areas. The preference of eagle-owls for places with irregular topography has been reported in most known studies. The obvious benefit of such nesting locations is that both nests and daytime roosts located in rocky areas and/or steep slopes would be less accessible to predators, including man. Also, they may be attracted to the vicinity of riparian or wetlands areas, because the soft soil of wet areas is conducive to burrowing by the small, terrestrial mammals normally preferred in the diet, such as voles and rabbits.
Due to their preference for rocky areas, the species is often found in mountainous areas, and can be found up to elevations of in the Alps, in the Himalayas, and in the adjacent Tibetan Plateau. They can also be found living at sea level and may nest amongst rocky sea cliffs. Despite their success in areas such as subarctic zones and mountains that are frigid for much of the year, warmer conditions seem to result in more successful breeding attempts per studies in the Eifel region of Germany. In a study from Spain, areas primarily consisting of woodlands (52% of study area being forested) were preferred with pine trees predominating the oaks in habitats used, as opposed to truly mixed pine-oak woodland. Pine and other coniferous stands are often preferred in great horned owls, as well, due to the constant density, which make overlooking the large birds more likely. In mountainous forest, they are not generally found in enclosed wooded areas, as is the tawny owl (Strix alucco), instead usually near forest edge. Only 2.7% of the habitat included in the territorial ranges for eagle-owls per the habitat study in Spain consisted of cultivated or agricultural land. Compared to golden eagles, though, they can visit cultivated land more regularly in hunting forays due to their nocturnal habits, which allow them to largely evade human activity. Other accounts make clear that farmland is only frequented where its less intensively farmed, holds more extensive treed and bushy areas, and often has limited to no irrigation; farmland areas with fallow or abandoned fields are more likely to hold
more prey, so are prone to less frequent human disturbance. In the Italian Alps, almost no pristine habitat remained, and eagle-owls nested locally in the vicinity of towns, villages, and ski resorts.
Although found in the largest numbers in areas sparsely populated by humans, farmland is sometimes inhabited, and they even have been observed living in park-like or other quiet settings within European cities. Since 2005, at least five pairs have nested in Helsinki. This is due in part to feral European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) having recently populated the Helsinki area, originally from pet rabbits released to the wild. The number is expected to increase due to the growth of the European rabbit population in Helsinki. European hares (Lepus europaeus), the often preferred prey species by biomass of the eagle-owls in their natural habitat, live only in rural areas of Finland, not in the city centre. In June 2007, an eagle-owl nicknamed 'Bubi' landed in the crowded Helsinki Olympic Stadium during the European Football Championship qualification match between Finland and Belgium. The match was interrupted for six minutes. After tiring of the match, following Jonathan Johansson's opening goal for Finland, the bird left the scene. Finland's national football team have had the nickname Huuhkajat (Finnish for "Eurasian eagle-owls") ever since. The owl was named "Helsinki Citizen of the Year" in December 2007. In 2020, a brood of three eagle-owl chicks was raised by their mother on a large, well-foliaged planter on an apartment window in the city centre of Geel, Belgium.
Distribution
The Eurasian eagle-owl is one of the most widely distributed of all owl species, although it is far less wide-ranging than the barn owl, the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) and long-eared owl and lacks the circumpolar range of boreal species such as great grey owl, boreal owl and northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula). This eagle-owl reaches its westernmost range in the Iberian peninsula, both almost throughout Spain and more spottily in Portugal. From there, the Eurasian eagle-owl ranges widely in the south of France from Toulouse to Monaco and as far north into the central part of the country as in Allier. Farther north, they are found sporadically and discontinuously in Luxembourg, southern and western Belgium and scarcely into the Netherlands.Its is infrequently found in southern and central United Kingdom. In Germany, the eagle-owl can be found in large but highly discontinuous areas, mostly in the south and central areas but is almost entirely absent in areas such as Brandenburg. Across from its south German range, this species range is nearly continuous into the Czech Republic, Slovakia, northern and eastern Hungary and very spottily into Poland. In the fairly montane countries of Switzerland and Austria, the eagle-owl can be found fairly broadly. In Italy, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found where the habitat is favorable in much of the northern, western and central portions down to as far south Melito di Porto Salvo. From Italy, this species sweeps quite broadly along the Mediterranean coast in Southeastern Europe from Slovenia mostly continuously to most of Greece and Bulgaria. In eastern Europe, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found essentially throughout from central Romania to Estonia. The species also occupies a majority of Scandinavia, most broadly in Norway and subarctic Finland (more spottily in Sweden) and much of Denmark.
The Eurasian eagle-owl's range in Russia is truly massive, with the species apparently nearly unbound by habitat, with their distribution only excluding them from the true Arctic zone, i.e. their range stops around the tree line. If not the most densely populated species, they almost certainly stand as Russia's most widely distributed owl species. From Russia, they are found throughout Central Asia, residing continuously in each nation from Kazakhstan down to Afghanistan. In Asia Minor, they are found broadly in Georgia, Azerbaijan and somewhat so in western and southern Turkey but is quite sporadic in distribution overall in Turkey. A spotty range also exists in the Middle East in Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and western Iran, the species being found broadly only in north and western Iran. In South Asia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found mostly often in northern Pakistan, northern Nepal and Bhutan and more marginally into far northern India. This species resides throughout Mongolia, almost the entirety of China (mainly absent only from southern Yunnan and southern Guangxi). From China and eastern Russia, the Eurasian eagle-owl is found throughout Korea, Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and rarely into Japan in northern Hokkaido. Besides the Kurils, the farthest eastern part of the range for this species is in Magadan in the Russian Far East.
Behaviour
The Eurasian eagle-owl is largely nocturnal in activity, as are most owl species, with its activity focused in the first few hours after sunset and the last few hours before sunrise. In the northern stretches of its range, partial diurnal behaviour has been recorded, including active hunting in broad daylight during the late afternoon. In such areas, full nightfall is essentially non-existent at the peak of summer, so eagle-owls must presumably hunt and actively brood at the nest during daylight. The Eurasian eagle-owl has a number of vocalizations that are used at different times. It will usually select obvious topographic features such as rocky pinnacles, stark ridges and mountain peaks to use as regular song posts. These are dotted along the outer edges of the eagle-owl's territory and they are visited often but only for a few minutes at a time.
Vocal activity is almost entirely confined to the colder months from late fall through winter, with vocal activity in October through December mainly having territorial purposes and from January to February being primarily oriented towards courtship and mating purposes. Vocalizations in a Spanish study begin no sooner than 29 minutes after sunset and end no later than 55 minutes before sunrise. The territorial song, which can be heard at great distance, is a deep resonant ooh-hu with emphasis on the first syllable for the male, and a more high-pitched and slightly more drawn-out uh-hu for the female. It is not uncommon for a pair to perform an antiphonal duet. The widely used name in Germany as well as some other sections of Europe for this species is uhu due to its song. At 250–350 Hz, the Eurasian eagle-owls territorial song or call is deeper, farther-carrying and is often considering "more impressive" than the territorial songs of the great horned owl or even that of the slightly larger Blakiston's fish owl, although the horned owl’s call averages slightly longer in duration. Other calls include a rather faint, laughter-like OO-OO-oo and a harsh kveck-kveck. Intruding eagle-owls and other potential dangers may be met with a "terrifying", extremely loud hooo. Raucous barks not unlike those of ural owls or long-eared owls have been recorded but are deeper and more powerful than those species’ barks. Annoyance at close quarters is expressed by bill-clicking and cat-like spitting, and a defensive posture involves lowering the head, ruffling the back feathers, fanning the tail and spreading the wings.
The Eurasian eagle-owl rarely assumes the so-called "tall-thin position", which is when an owl adopts an upright stance with plumage closely compressed and may stand tightly beside a tree trunk. Among others, the long-eared owl is among the most often reported to sit with this pose. The great horned owl has been more regularly recorded using the tall-thin, if not as consistently as some Strix and Asio owls, and it is commonly thought to aid camouflage if encountering a threatening or novel animal or sound. The Eurasian eagle-owl is a broad-winged species and engages in a strong, direct flight, usually consisting of shallow wing beats and long, surprisingly fast glides. It has, unusually for an owl, also been known to soar on updrafts on rare occasions. The latter method of flight has led them to be mistaken for Buteos, which are smaller and quite differently proportioned. Usually when seen flying during the day, it is due to being disturbed or displaced from its roost by humans or mobbing animals, such as crows. Eurasian eagle-owls are highly sedentary, normally maintaining a single territory throughout their adult lives.
Eurasian eagle-owl are considered a completely non-migratory bird, as are all members of the Bubo genus excluding the snowy owl. Even those near the northern limits of their range, where winters are harsh and likely to bear little in food, the eagle-owl does not leave its native range. In 2020, a study presented evidence of a short distance distribution by adult eagle-owls in the fall subsequent to breeding, with 5 adults found to move over away from their nests. There are additionally claimed cases from Russia of Eurasian eagle-owls moving south for the winter, as the icebound, infamously harsh climate there may be too severe even for these hardy birds and their prey. Similarly, Eurasian eagle-owls living in the Tibetan highlands and Himalayas may in some ancedotal cases vacate their normal territories when winter hits and move south. In both of those examples, these are old, unverified reports and there is no evidence whatsoever of consistent, annual migration by Eurasian eagle-owls and the birds may eke out a living on their normal territories even in the sparsest times.
Dietary biology
Breeding
Territoriality
Eurasian eagle-owls are strictly territorial and will defend their territories from interloping eagle-owls year around, but territorial calling appears to peak around October to early January. Territory size is similar or occasionally slightly greater than great horned owl: averaging . Territories are established by the male eagle-owl, who selected the highest points in the territory from which to sing. The high prominence of singing perches allows their song to be heard at greater distances and lessens the need for potentially dangerous physical confrontations in the areas where territories may meet. Nearly as important in territorial behaviour as vocalization is the white throat patch. When taxidermied specimens with flared white throats were placed around the perimeter of eagle-owl territories, male eagle-owls reacted quite strongly and often attacked the stuffed owl, reacting more mildly to a stuffed eagle-owl with a non-flared white throat. Females were less likely to be aggressive to mounted specimens and did not seem to vary in their response whether exposed to the specimens with or without the puffed up white patch. In January and February, the primary function for vocalization becomes for the purpose of courtship. More often than not, eagle-owls will pair for life but usually engage in courtship rituals annually, most likely to re-affirm pair bonds. When calling for the purposes of courtship, males tend to bow and hoot loudly but do so in a less contorted manner than the male great horned owl. Courtship in the Eurasian eagle-owl may involve bouts of "duetting", with the male sitting upright and the female bowing as she calls. There may be mutual bowing, billing and fondling before the female flies to a perch where coitus occurs, usually taking place several times over the course of a few minutes.
Nests
The male selects breeding sites and advertises their potential to the female by flying to them and kneading out a small depression (if soil is present) and making staccato notes and clucking noises. Several potential sites may be presented, with the female selecting one. In Baden-Wurttenberg, Germany, he amount of male nest site visits were found to increase in time spent over the pre-laying breeding season from a mean of 29 minutes to 3 hours with frequent incubation like sitting by the male. Like all owls, Eurasian eagle-owls do not build nests or add material but nest on the surface or material already present. Eurasian eagle-owls normally nest on rocks or boulders, most often utilizing cliff ledges and steep slopes, as well as crevices, gullies, holes or caves. Rocky areas that also prove concealing woodlots as well as, for hunting purposes, that border river valleys and grassy scrubland may be especially attractive. If only low rubble is present, they will nest on the ground between rocks. Often, in more densely forested areas, they've been recorded nesting on the ground, often among roots of trees, under large bushes and under fallen tree trunks. Steep slopes with dense vegetation are preferred if nesting on the ground, although some ground nests are surprisingly exposed or in flat spots such as in open spots of the taiga, steppe, ledges of river banks and between wide tree trunks. All Eurasian eagle-owl nests in the largely forested Altai Krai region of Russia were found to be on the ground, usually at the base of pines. This species does not often use other bird’s nests as does the great horned owl, which often prefers nests built by other animals over any other nesting site. The Eurasian eagle-owl has been recorded in singular cases using nests built by common buzzards (Buteo buteo), golden eagle, greater spotted (Clanga clanga) and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla), common ravens (Corvus corax) and black storks (Ciconia nigra). Among the eagle-owls of the fairly heavily wooded wildlands of Belarus, they more commonly utilize nests built by other birds than most eagle-owls, i.e. stork or accipitrid nests, but a majority of nests are still located on the ground. This is contrary to the indication that ground nests are selected only if rocky areas or other bird nests are unavailable, as many will utilize ground nests even where large bird nests seem to be accessible. Tree holes being used for nesting sites are even more rarely recorded than nests constructed by other birds. While it may be assumed that the eagle-owl is too large to utilize tree hollows, when other large species like the great grey owl have never been recorded nesting in one, the even more robust Blakiston's fish owl nests exclusively in cavernous hollows. The Eurasian eagle-owl often uses the same nest site year after year.
Parental behaviour
In Engadin, Switzerland, the male eagle-owl hunts until the young are 4 to 5 weeks old and the female spends all her time brooding at the nest. After this point, the female gradually resumes hunting from both herself and the young and thus provides a greater range of food for the young. While it may seem contrary to the species’ highly territorial nature, there is one verified cases of polygamy in Germany, with a male apparently mating with two females, and cooperative brooding in Spain, with a third adult of undetermined sex helping a breeding pair care for the chicks. The response of Eurasian eagle-owls to humans approaching at the nest is quite variable. The species is often rather less aggressive than some other owls, including related species like the spot-bellied eagle-, great horned and snowy owls, many of the northern Strix species and even some rather smaller owl species, which often fearlessly attack any person found to be nearing their nests. Occasionally, if a person climbs to an active nest, the adult female eagle-owl will do a distraction display, in which they feign an injury. This is an uncommon behaviour in most owls and most often associated with small birds trying to falsely drawl the attention of potential predators away from their offspring. More commonly, the female flies off and abandons her nest temporarily, leaving the eggs or small nestlings exposed, when a human approaches it. Occasionally, if cornered both adults and nestlings will do an elaborate threat display, also rare in owls in general, in which the eagle-owls raise their wings into a semi-circle and puff up their feathers, followed by a snapping of their bills. Apparently eagle-owls of uncertain and probably exotic origin in Britain are likely to react aggressively to humans approaching the nest. Also, aggressive encounters involving eagle-owls around their nest, despite being historically rare, apparently have increased in recent decades in Scandinavia. The discrepancy of aggressiveness at the nest between the Eurasian eagle-owl and its Nearctic counterpart may be correlated to variation in the extent of nest predation that the species endured during the evolutionary process.
Eggs and offspring development
The eggs are normally laid at intervals of three days and are incubated only by the female. Laying generally begins in late winter but may be later in the year in colder habitats. During the incubation period, the female is brought food at the nest by her mate. A single clutch of white eggs is laid; each egg can measure from long by in width, and will usually weigh about . In Central Europe, eggs average , and in Siberia, eggs average . Their eggs are only slightly larger than those of snowy owls and the nominate subspecies of great horned owl, while similar in size to those of spot-bellied eagle-owls and Blakiston's fish owls. The Eurasian eagle-owl’s eggs are noticeably larger than those of Indian eagle-owl and pharaoh eagle-owls. Usually clutch size is one or two, rarely three or four, and exceptionally to six. The average number of eggs laid varies with latitude in Europe. Clutch size ranges from 2.02–2.14 in Spain and the massifs of France, and 1.82 to 1.89 in central Europe and the eastern Alps; in Sweden and Finland, the mean clutch size is 1.56 and 1.87, respectively. While variation based on climate is not unusual for different wide-ranging palearctic species, the higher clutch size of western Mediterranean eagle-owls is also probably driven by the presence of lagomorphs in the diet, which provide high nutritional value than most other regular prey. The average clutch size, attributed as 2.7, was the lowest of any European owl per one study. One species was attributed with an even lower clutch size in North America, the great grey owl with a mean of 2.6, but the mean clutch size was much higher for the same species in Europe, at 4.05.
In Spain, incubation is from mid-January to mid-March, hatching and early nestling period is from late March to early April, fledging and postfledging dependence can range from mid-April to August, and territorial/courtship is anytime hereafter; i.e. the period between the beginning of juvenile dispersal to egg laying; from September to early January. The same general date parameters were followed in southern France. In the Italian Alps, the mean egg-laying date was similarly February 27, but the young were more likely to be dependent later, as all fledglings were still being cared for by the end of August, and some even lingered under parental care until October.
The first egg hatches after 31 to 36 days of incubation. The eggs hatch successively; although the average interval between egg-laying is 3 days, the young tend to hatch no more than a day or two apart. Like all owls that nest in the open, the downy young are often a mottled grey with some white and buff, which provides camouflage. They open their eyes at 4 days of age. The chicks grow rapidly, being able to consume small prey whole after roughly 3 weeks. In Andalusia, the most noticeable development of the young before they leave the nest was the increase of body size, which was the highest growth rate of any studied owl and faster than either snowy or great horned owls. Body mass increased fourteen times over from 5 days old to 60 days old in this study. The male continues to bring prey, leaving it on or around the nest, and the female feeds the nestlings, tearing up the food into suitably sized pieces. The female resumes hunting after about 3 weeks, which increases the food supply to the chicks. Siblicide has been recorded widely in Eurasian eagle-owls, and according to some authorities, is almost a rule in the species. Many nesting attempts produce two fledglings, indicating that siblicide is not as common as in other birds of prey, especially some eagles. In Spain, males are thought to be the first egg laid to reduce the likelihood of sibling aggression due to the size difference, thus the younger female hatchling is less likely to be killed, since it is similar in size to its older sibling.
Apparently, the point at which the chicks venture out of the nest is driven by the location of the nest. In elevated nest sites, chicks usually wander out of the nest at 5 to as late as 7 weeks of age, but have been recorded leaving the nest if the nest is on the ground as early as 22 to 25 days old. The chicks can walk well at 5 weeks of age and by 7 weeks are taking short flights. Hunting and flying skills are not tested prior to the young eagle-owls leaving the nest. Young Eurasian eagle-owls leave the nest by 5–6 weeks of age and typically can be flying weakly (a few metres) by about 7–8 weeks of age. Normally, they are cared for at least another month. By the end of the month, the young eagle-owls are quite assured fliers. A few cases have been confirmed of adult eagle-owls in Spain feeding and caring for postfledgling juvenile eagle-owls that were not their own.
A study from southern France found the mean number of fledglings per nest was 1.67. In central Europe, the mean number of fledglings per nest was between 1.8 and 1.9. The mean fledgling rate in the Italian Alps was 1.89, thus being similar. In the Italian Alps, heavier rainfall during breeding decreased fledgling success because it inhibited the ability of the parents to hunt and potentially exposed nestlings to hypothermia. In the reintroduced population of eagle-owls in Eifel, Germany, occupied territories produced an average of 1.17 fledglings, but not all occupying pairs attempted to breed, with about 23% of those attempting to breed being unsuccessful. In slightly earlier studies, possibly due to higher persecution rates, the mean number of young leaving the nest was often lower, such as 1.77 in Bavaria, Germany, 1.1 in lower Austria, and 0.6 in southern Sweden. An experimental supplemental feeding program to young eagle-owls on two small Norwegian islands were found to increase mean numbers of fledglings from a mean of about 1.2 to 1.7 despite evidence that increased human activity near the nest decreased owlet survivability. While sibling owls are close in the stage between leaving the nest and fully fledged, about 20 days after leaving the nest, the family unit seems to dissolve and the young disperse quickly and directly. All told, the dependence of young eagle-owls on their parents lasts for 20 to 24 weeks. Independence in central Europe is from September to November. The young leave their parents' care normally on their own, but are also sometimes chased away by their parents. The young Eurasian eagle-owls reach sexual maturity by the following year, but do not normally breed until they can establish a territory at around 2–3 years old. Until they are able to establish their own territories, young eagle-owls spend their lives as nomadic "floaters", and while they also call, select inconspicuous perch sites unlike breeding birds. Male floaters are especially wary about intrusion into an established territory to avoid potential conspecific aggression.
Status
The Eurasian eagle-owl has a very wide range across much of Europe and Asia, estimated to be about . In Europe, the population is estimated at 19,000 to 38,000 breeding pairs, and in the whole world around 250,000 to 2,500,000 individual birds. The population trend is thought to be decreasing because of human activities, but with such a large range and large total population, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated the bird as being of least concern. Although roughly equal in adaptability and wideness of distribution, the great horned owl, with a total estimated population up to 5.3 million individuals, apparently has a total population that is roughly twice that of the Eurasian eagle-owl. Numerous factors, including a shorter history of systematic persecution, lesser sensitivity to human disturbance while nesting, somewhat greater ability to adapt to marginal habitats and widespread urbanization, and slightly smaller territories may play into the horned owls greater numbers in modern times. Eurasian eagle-owls are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.
Longevity
The Eurasian eagle-owl surely is one of the longest-living owls on average. The eagle-owl can live for up to 20 years in the wild. At one time, the oldest ringed eagle-owl was considered a 19-year-old specimen. Some studies posited that in protected areas, lifespans ranging up to 15–20 years may not be uncommon. A record-breaking specimen banded in the wild was subsequently found to survive to be 27 years and 9 months old. Like many other bird species in captivity, they can live much longer without having to endure difficult natural conditions, and have possibly survived up to 68 years in zoo collections. Healthy adults normally have no natural predators, thus are considered apex predators. The leading causes of death for this species are man-made; electrocution, traffic accidents, and shooting frequently claim the lives of eagle-owls.
Anthropogenic mortality
Electrocution was the greatest cause of mortality in 68% of 25 published studies, and accounted, on average, for 38.2% of the reported eagle-owl deaths. This was particularly true in the Italian Alps, where the number of dangerous, uninsulated pylons near nests was extremely high, but is highly problematic almost throughout the species’ European distribution. In one telemetry study, 55% of 27 dispersing young were electrocuted within 1 year of their release from captivity, while electrocution rates of wild-born young are even higher. Mortality in the Swiss Rhine Valley was variable, in radio-tagged, released individuals, most died as a result of starvation (48%) rather than human-based causes, but 93% of the wild, untagged individuals found dead were due to human activities, 46% due to electrocution, and 43% due to collision with vehicles or trains. Insulation of pylons is thought to result in a stabilisation of the local population due to floaters taking up residence in unoccupied territories that formerly held deceased eagle-owls. Eurasian eagle-owls from Finland were found mainly to die due to electrocution (39%) and collisions with vehicles (22%). Wind turbine collisions can also be a serious cause of mortality locally.
Eagle-owls have been singled out historically as a threat to game species, thus to the economic well-being of landowners, game-keepers, and even governmental agencies, and as such, have been singled out for widespread persecution. Local extinctions of Eurasian eagle-owls have been primarily due to persecution. Examples of this include northern Germany in 1830, the Netherlands sometimes in the late 19th century, Luxembourg in 1903, Belgium in 1943, and central and western Germany in the 1960s. In trying to determine causes of death for 1476 eagle-owls from Spain, most were unknown and undetermined types of trauma. The largest group that could be determined, 411 birds, was due to collisions, more than half of which were from electrocution, while 313 were due to persecution, and merely 85 were directly attributable to natural causes. Clearly, while pylon safety is perhaps the most serious factor to be addressed in Spain, persecution continues to be a massive problem for Spanish eagle-owls. Of seven European nations where modern Eurasian eagle-owl mortality is well-studied, continual persecution is by far the largest problem in Spain, although also continues to be serious (often comprising at least half of studied mortality) in France. From France and Spain, nearly equal numbers of eagle-owls are poisoned (for which raptors might not be the main target), or shot intentionally.
Conservation and reintroductions
While the eagle-owl remains reasonably numerous in some parts of its habitat where nature is still relatively little disturbed by human activity, such as the sparsely populated regions of Russia and Scandinavia, concern has been expressed about the future of the Eurasian eagle-owl in Western and Central Europe. There, very few areas are not heavily modified by human civilisation, thus exposing the birds to the risk of collisions with deadly man-made objects (e.g. pylons) and a depletion of native prey numbers due to ongoing habitat degradation and urbanisation.
In Spain, long-term governmental protection of the Eurasian eagle-owl seems to have no positive effect on reducing the persecution of eagle-owls. Therefore, Spanish conservationists have recommended to boost education and stewardship programs to protect eagle-owls from direct killing by local residents. Unanimously, biologists studying eagle-owl mortality and conservation factors have recommended to proceed with the proper insulation of electric wires and pylons in areas where the species is present. As this measure is labour-intensive and therefore rather expensive, few efforts have actually been made to insulate pylons in areas with few fiscal resources devoted to conservation such as rural Spain. In Sweden, a mitigation project was launched to insulate transformers that are frequently damaged by eagle-owl electrocution.
Large reintroduction programs were instituted in Germany after the eagle-owl was deemed extinct in the country as a breeding species by the 1960s, as a result of a long period of heavy persecution. The largest reintroduction there occurred from the 1970s to the 1990s in the Eifel region, near the border with Belgium and Luxembourg. The success of this measure, consisting in more than a thousand eagle-owls being reintroduced at an average cost of US$1,500 per bird, is a subject of controversy. Those eagle-owls reintroduced in the Eifel region appear to be able to breed successfully, and enjoy nesting success comparable with wild eagle-owls from elsewhere in Europe. Mortality levels in the Eifel region, though, appear to remain quite high due to anthropogenic factors. Also, concerns exist about a lack of genetic diversity of the species in this part of Germany. Apparently, the German reintroductions have allowed eagle-owls to repopulate neighbouring parts of Europe, as the breeding populations now occurring in the Low Countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) are believed to be the result of influx from regions further to the east. Smaller reintroductions have been done elsewhere, and the current breeding population in Sweden is believed to be primarily the result of a series of reintroductions. Conversely to numerous threats and declines incurred by Eurasian eagle-owls, areas where human-dependent, non-native prey species such as brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) and rock pigeons (Columba livia) have flourished, have given the eagle-owls a primary food source and allowed them occupy regions where they were once marginalized or absent.
Occurrence in Great Britain
The Eurasian eagle-owl at one time occurred naturally in Great Britain. Some, including the RSPB, have claimed that it had disappeared about 10,000–9,000 years ago, after the last ice age, but fossil remains found in Meare Lake Village indicate the eagle-owl occurring as recently as roughly 2,000 years ago in the fossil record. The lack of presence of the Eurasian eagle-owl in British folklore or writings in recent millennium may indicate the lack of occurrence by this species there. The flooding of the land bridge between Britain and continental Europe may have been responsible for their extirpation as they only disperse over limited distances, although early human persecution presumably played a role as well. Some reportages of eagle-owls in Britain have been revealed to actually be great horned owls or Indian eagle-owls, the latter a particularly popular owl in falconry circuits. Some breeding pairs do still occur in Britain, though the exact number of pairs and individuals is not definitely known. The World Owl Trust stated that they believe some eagle-owls occurring in North England and Scotland are naturally occurring, making the flight of roughly from the west coast of Norway to Shetland and the east coast of Scotland, as well as possibly from the coasts of the Netherlands and Belgium to the south. Although not migratory, eagle-owls can disperse some notable distances in young birds seeking a territory.
Prior studies of eagle-owl distribution have indicated a strong reluctance to cross large bodies of water in the species. Many authorities state that the Eurasian eagle-owls occurring in Britain are individuals that have escaped from captivity. While, until the 19th century, wealthy collectors may have released unwanted eagle-owls, despite press to the contrary, no evidence of any organization or individual intentionally releasing eagle-owls recently with the intent to establish a breeding population has been found. Many feel that the eagle-owl would be classified as an "alien" species. Due to its predatory abilities, many, especially those in the press, have expressed alarm of their effect on "native" species. From 1994 to 2007, 73 escaped eagle-owls were not registered as returned, while 50 escapees were recaptured. Several recorded breeding attempts have been studied, and most were unsuccessful, due in large part to incidental disturbance by humans and some due to direct persecution, with eggs having been smashed.
Effect on conservation-dependent species
As highly opportunistic predators, Eurasian eagle-owls hunt almost any appropriately sized prey they encounter. Most often, they take whatever prey is locally common and can take a large number of species considered harmful to human financial interests, such as rats, mice, and pigeons. Eurasian eagle-owls do take rare or endangered species, as well. Among the species considered at least vulnerable (up to critically endangered as in the mink and eel, both heavily overexploited by humans) to extinction known to be hunted by Eurasian eagle-owls are Russian desman (Desmana moschata) Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus), barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus), European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus), southwestern water vole (Arvicola sapidus), European mink (Mustela lutreola), marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythrops), Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), greater spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), saker falcon (Falco cherrug), houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata), great bustard (Otis tarda), spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus).
See also
Eurasian eagle-owl in Great Britain
References
External links
Eurasian eagle owl and other owl pictures
Eurasian eagle-owl Description, photos and calls
Falconry
Eurasian eagle-owl
Owls of Eurasia
Birds of Manchuria
Eurasian eagle-owl
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Articles containing video clips
|
[
0.1991095095872879,
0.20692892372608185,
-0.5244521498680115,
-0.5815975666046143,
0.16197630763053894,
0.9403496980667114,
0.5662878155708313,
0.4238615334033966,
-0.4384804964065552,
-0.3854564428329468,
-0.15879617631435394,
-0.08326035737991333,
-1.0159415006637573,
-0.01948012411594391,
-0.15662981569766998,
0.5086045861244202,
0.024636205285787582,
0.6933499574661255,
-0.4513705372810364,
-0.8023625016212463,
0.23816770315170288,
-0.23180179297924042,
0.31146663427352905,
-0.0879736915230751,
-0.11559123545885086,
-0.036729663610458374,
0.8413817882537842,
0.09675412625074387,
0.23714633285999298,
0.4998110830783844,
-0.34144431352615356,
0.6641963720321655,
0.17131295800209045,
0.09778892248868942,
0.20011943578720093,
0.2632281482219696,
-0.23118752241134644,
-0.14810101687908173,
-0.06266023963689804,
-0.7851815819740295,
0.4641546607017517,
0.14102526009082794,
-0.20416153967380524,
0.837145984172821,
-0.10624764114618301,
-0.9185566902160645,
-1.2805933952331543,
0.560965895652771,
-0.2992236912250519,
-0.29139310121536255,
0.0415174700319767,
0.3881220519542694,
-0.13625086843967438,
0.731600284576416,
-0.010331375524401665,
0.023526744917035103,
-0.7995781302452087,
-0.574797511100769,
0.5119287371635437,
0.41198569536209106,
-0.05832448974251747,
0.33439499139785767,
-0.2549843490123749,
0.38226452469825745,
0.2068791687488556,
0.20692239701747894,
0.6628720760345459,
0.5946521162986755,
-0.019490357488393784,
-0.3083234131336212,
-0.715677797794342,
-0.09898994117975235,
-0.29975923895835876,
0.09289689362049103,
-0.7248806953430176,
-0.39377596974372864,
0.5282344818115234,
0.1005999818444252,
0.7647063732147217,
0.062033191323280334,
0.7129932045936584,
0.46897590160369873,
0.7088760733604431,
0.09565338492393494,
-0.031852010637521744,
0.10732623934745789,
-1.0870281457901,
-0.27239376306533813,
-0.5054519176483154,
-0.04009024798870087,
-0.2803097069263458,
-0.3881758749485016,
0.2314961850643158,
0.5283234715461731,
-0.15245769917964935,
0.06562324613332748,
-0.7648599147796631,
-0.009045244194567204,
0.494051456451416,
-0.38950932025909424,
-0.3753540515899658,
0.6058312058448792,
0.27648937702178955,
-0.4777826964855194,
-0.29396143555641174,
-0.5963596105575562,
-0.7214836478233337,
-0.04003901034593582,
-0.23380613327026367,
0.3605188727378845,
-0.7114563584327698,
0.1118316724896431,
0.45186829566955566,
-0.09818609803915024,
0.21651960909366608,
1.1616212129592896,
0.22260059416294098,
-0.7766280174255371,
-0.2204248309135437,
-0.1875215470790863,
0.3948039412498474,
1.3120720386505127,
-0.7710427641868591,
0.6363064646720886,
0.20720791816711426,
0.12190046161413193,
0.5884579420089722,
0.22639970481395721,
-0.8413143754005432,
-0.002750758081674576,
0.3037862181663513,
1.2977725267410278,
-0.6020138263702393,
0.3754640519618988,
-0.25079041719436646,
0.4116463363170624,
0.10610053688287735,
0.22374814748764038,
0.39619699120521545,
0.201059028506279,
-1.6274880170822144,
-0.6020382046699524,
-0.11451753228902817,
0.09302667528390884,
0.41631433367729187,
0.45269373059272766,
0.16463147103786469,
-0.2054663449525833,
-0.30045053362846375,
-0.09471820294857025,
0.08782234787940979,
-0.12298847734928131,
0.0404038280248642,
-0.2485354095697403,
-0.733583927154541,
-0.08654765784740448,
1.0584849119186401,
-0.6109654307365417,
0.8862739205360413,
-0.16693955659866333,
0.3260374963283539,
-0.016427509486675262,
-0.3098542094230652,
-0.33074429631233215,
0.08583464473485947,
-0.12876266241073608,
0.12680085003376007,
0.0397246852517128,
-0.08048577606678009,
0.1834222823381424,
-0.08911798894405365,
-0.13016104698181152,
0.3208366632461548,
-0.010876068845391273,
0.1993739753961563,
-0.5908607244491577,
0.10327067226171494,
0.3073744773864746,
0.7947842478752136,
0.011860567145049572,
-0.7237345576286316,
0.3548882007598877,
0.3043352961540222,
-0.34703800082206726,
0.09834030270576477,
0.2673019468784332,
0.17762905359268188,
0.20740526914596558,
-0.3220723569393158,
-0.05566128343343735,
-0.006256795488297939,
-0.17865397036075592,
-0.012013321742415428,
0.019700922071933746,
0.5731728076934814,
-0.6228588819503784,
-0.7713299989700317,
0.46213677525520325,
-0.15619081258773804,
0.35432302951812744,
-0.844183087348938,
-0.48257941007614136,
0.6967819929122925,
0.3651864230632782,
-0.7633751630783081,
0.34401848912239075,
-0.29855766892433167,
0.05544619262218475,
0.6923268437385559,
0.6921936273574829,
0.6426059603691101,
-0.3062188923358917,
-0.13534630835056305,
0.2545766532421112,
0.22863560914993286,
0.42107927799224854,
-0.4524093568325043,
0.3370838463306427,
-0.2478053867816925,
-0.0702737495303154,
0.8138096332550049,
-0.5282413959503174,
0.07261336594820023,
-0.12431474775075912,
0.46241655945777893,
0.3445145785808563,
0.4133095443248749,
-0.511397123336792,
0.20509448647499084,
-0.5773605108261108,
-0.17383159697055817,
0.3762734830379486,
0.3358708918094635,
-0.08244199305772781,
-0.6491386890411377,
-1.0914688110351562,
-0.5384703278541565,
-0.4338691532611847,
0.454251229763031,
0.0721612349152565,
0.10209912061691284,
0.29802659153938293,
-0.18768030405044556,
0.20672324299812317,
0.20799122750759125,
-0.43542423844337463,
0.32226821780204773,
0.5099956393241882,
-0.3862181007862091,
-0.12108028680086136,
0.2932046353816986,
0.6045389771461487,
-0.014401332475244999,
-0.5531390905380249,
-0.0111471489071846,
0.07135392725467682,
0.226059690117836,
0.3306323289871216,
0.4899022877216339,
-0.17863471806049347,
0.1981254369020462,
0.255121111869812,
0.06446793675422668,
-0.050827160477638245,
0.17254474759101868,
-0.5670917630195618,
-0.8297322988510132,
-0.27108994126319885,
0.17996500432491302,
-0.08817435801029205,
0.6518113017082214,
-0.13404259085655212,
-0.40863820910453796,
0.21751481294631958,
-0.20119602978229523,
-0.44241538643836975,
-0.18691490590572357,
-0.15870529413223267,
-0.4761795997619629,
-0.4675416052341461,
-0.054521650075912476,
0.9031645059585571,
0.5803685188293457,
-0.588994026184082,
-0.199411541223526,
-0.4496859610080719,
0.41356971859931946,
-0.6929391026496887,
0.04335298761725426,
-0.7013148069381714,
0.33951467275619507,
0.3213611841201782,
0.02263721637427807,
0.41505518555641174,
-0.8320953249931335,
0.30141353607177734,
-0.23680008947849274,
0.8821741342544556,
0.5113320350646973,
-0.5783650875091553,
0.25219762325286865,
0.28669795393943787,
0.1872972697019577,
0.09290686994791031,
0.6112803816795349,
-0.5424774289131165,
0.07945416122674942,
0.24388083815574646,
-5.308285236358643,
0.4270270764827728,
-0.29243698716163635,
-0.11677002161741257,
-0.08423515409231186,
0.11386264860630035,
0.47666704654693604,
-0.07092039287090302,
-0.07882509380578995,
0.28481096029281616,
0.36546897888183594,
0.2730196416378021,
-0.01885044388473034,
0.2239125370979309,
0.4563177525997162,
0.45610567927360535,
0.13342568278312683,
0.02315664477646351,
0.3771238923072815,
0.051513027399778366,
0.4344809949398041,
0.17926613986492157,
-0.22452864050865173,
0.4503704905509949,
0.40735742449760437,
0.07956601679325104,
-0.06945216655731201,
-0.2934008836746216,
0.11610179394483566,
-0.3844175338745117,
-0.2405926138162613,
-0.6886142492294312,
0.1265808641910553,
0.03402116522192955,
-0.02456388808786869,
0.12059225887060165,
0.7601972818374634,
0.7168739438056946,
0.004498400259763002,
-0.19506825506687164,
0.14853207767009735,
0.502670407295227,
0.5958122611045837,
-0.14627449214458466,
0.43089553713798523,
-0.18732501566410065,
-0.22554901242256165,
-0.04439852014183998,
-0.1310478001832962,
0.7292851209640503,
-0.2873538136482239,
-0.16749915480613708,
0.1043405756354332,
0.6371761560440063,
0.551118016242981,
-0.1545475274324417,
0.21446339786052704,
0.4937268793582916,
-0.08271623402833939,
0.21421697735786438,
0.6648627519607544,
-0.4119654893875122,
-0.16903123259544373,
-1.0140959024429321,
0.14036163687705994,
-0.06153435260057449,
-0.9598753452301025,
-0.41880398988723755,
0.21153275668621063,
-0.07489006966352463,
-0.3198813199996948,
0.3825647532939911,
-0.6741925477981567,
-0.8996351361274719,
0.5385642647743225,
-0.5201203227043152,
-0.41489601135253906,
0.16942255198955536,
-0.4580896198749542,
-0.15346761047840118,
-0.2310827672481537,
-0.2499963790178299,
-0.4556495249271393,
0.443004846572876,
0.42087918519973755,
-0.13025802373886108,
-0.10663498193025589,
0.23468592762947083,
-0.6075752973556519,
0.09447844326496124,
0.8838216066360474,
-0.5877148509025574,
-0.37976497411727905,
0.5863611698150635,
0.5781053900718689,
0.618160605430603,
0.20402510464191437,
-0.25909167528152466,
0.6793318390846252,
0.14219129085540771,
0.7176194787025452,
-0.29554519057273865,
-0.5632009506225586,
-0.4539095163345337,
0.12932735681533813,
-0.3797353506088257,
0.2624852657318115,
0.39614951610565186,
0.8518087863922119,
-0.06640419363975525,
0.2054688036441803,
-0.466807097196579,
-0.16643404960632324,
-0.42432132363319397,
0.12497186660766602,
0.1617540866136551,
0.3735949993133545,
0.2537999451160431,
0.11180958896875381,
0.15268947184085846,
-0.3168628215789795,
-0.11637920141220093,
-0.5798443555831909,
0.17919513583183289,
0.12113123387098312,
-0.6959132552146912,
-0.4108164608478546,
0.22926867008209229,
-1.1032978296279907,
-0.6089859008789062,
-0.43076133728027344,
0.019124848768115044,
-0.05897195264697075,
0.10835273563861847,
0.5193558931350708,
0.22076281905174255,
-0.02843342162668705,
-0.2248249650001526,
0.6546899080276489,
-0.3684978187084198,
-1.1117804050445557,
-0.5245881676673889,
-0.05621451511979103,
0.024555912241339684,
-0.023195656016469002,
0.5512821674346924,
-0.3266790807247162,
-0.07504669576883316,
-0.5733643770217896,
0.934666097164154,
0.18400152027606964,
-0.25822243094444275,
0.2982082962989807,
0.1294364631175995,
0.11471778899431229,
-0.27375343441963196,
0.511725127696991,
0.2306368499994278,
0.20791035890579224,
-0.4946447014808655,
0.36933434009552,
-0.4491402804851532,
0.13897183537483215,
0.262821763753891,
0.6422989368438721,
-0.007918915711343288,
-0.08839459717273712,
-0.5158486366271973,
-0.38493749499320984,
0.7667580246925354,
0.4109415113925934,
0.1930767148733139,
-0.5771343111991882,
0.15418235957622528,
0.3504830598831177,
-0.15691101551055908,
-0.2687055468559265,
0.19339755177497864,
-0.39516913890838623,
-0.23627443611621857,
0.31757378578186035,
0.33657151460647583,
-0.18212935328483582,
0.26126667857170105,
0.606253981590271,
-0.39217838644981384,
0.14373788237571716,
-0.09389326721429825,
-0.37122055888175964,
-0.5754289627075195,
0.28121086955070496,
0.8172571063041687,
0.4501397907733917,
-0.16691990196704865,
-0.46633440256118774,
-0.017761176452040672,
0.0860229879617691,
0.09004022926092148,
-0.2153620719909668,
-0.5678079128265381,
0.016515685245394707,
0.3333143889904022,
0.13812655210494995,
0.29994264245033264,
-0.3031187057495117,
-0.5030127763748169,
0.4702681005001068,
-0.143919438123703,
-0.6354904174804688,
0.08556688576936722,
-0.3931109607219696,
-0.5392374992370605,
-0.5652987360954285,
0.9105936884880066,
-0.6369457244873047,
0.3775961399078369,
0.3470403552055359,
0.046440090984106064,
-0.5757945775985718,
0.4563118517398834,
-0.3852115571498871,
-0.2803593575954437,
0.14155907928943634,
-0.19488370418548584,
-0.6364301443099976,
0.647928774356842,
0.4957297146320343,
0.2915025055408478,
0.7663567662239075,
-0.8078250885009766,
-0.2562187910079956,
-0.32478946447372437,
0.08754163235425949,
-0.2772037982940674,
-0.13937006890773773,
0.26782864332199097,
0.19115424156188965,
-0.48615771532058716,
0.23510056734085083,
1.068382978439331,
0.6240623593330383,
1.1519789695739746,
0.22633890807628632,
-0.2436418980360031,
-0.4080883860588074,
0.29131999611854553,
0.3072989284992218,
-0.6398005485534668,
-0.9928396344184875,
-0.5062306523323059,
0.20888827741146088,
0.006463005207479,
-0.10417010635137558,
-0.05023875832557678,
0.6733349561691284,
-0.528472900390625,
-0.4898880124092102,
0.16789178550243378,
-0.3299098312854767,
-0.06358053535223007,
0.12592272460460663,
-0.28472450375556946,
-1.071663498878479,
0.176841139793396,
-0.09507161378860474,
-0.010044106282293797,
-1.0461775064468384,
0.302956759929657,
-0.3487507402896881,
0.240780770778656,
0.07397368550300598,
-0.3240220546722412,
0.49122005701065063,
0.27582982182502747,
-0.18506333231925964,
-0.058601729571819305,
-0.24126018583774567,
-0.8210498094558716,
0.1216505765914917,
0.29872530698776245,
-0.42760413885116577,
0.09024890512228012,
0.4795505106449127,
-0.6153177618980408,
-0.18488089740276337,
-0.30293864011764526,
-0.10498891770839691,
-0.6053294539451599,
-0.04083159938454628,
-0.4517250061035156,
-0.6908450722694397,
0.013907752931118011,
-0.3055989146232605,
-0.13070784509181976,
0.18119853734970093,
0.3198517858982086,
0.11430882662534714,
0.021369798108935356,
0.4635632038116455,
-0.026057343930006027,
-1.2277270555496216,
0.48287728428840637,
-0.15507230162620544,
-0.2521228492259979,
0.3917474150657654,
-0.14102673530578613,
-0.06781616806983948,
0.0659811794757843,
0.006000776309520006,
0.16324347257614136,
0.2997904121875763,
-0.29159924387931824,
0.3478560447692871,
0.6389530301094055,
0.4417833089828491,
0.4535026550292969,
0.18024112284183502,
-0.5360751748085022,
0.38948243856430054,
-0.0631861612200737,
0.3588687479496002,
0.3227885365486145,
0.717919111251831,
0.41007718443870544,
-0.339579313993454,
0.5420565009117126,
-0.8342410922050476,
0.2097347378730774,
-0.03428352624177933,
0.157271146774292,
0.5881428122520447,
0.3454746901988983,
-0.40199241042137146,
-0.03421993926167488,
0.10191906243562698,
-0.481471449136734,
0.12755608558654785,
-0.9119755625724792,
-0.36564967036247253,
0.8736696243286133,
1.0065488815307617,
0.8067471981048584,
-0.3843303322792053,
0.25321874022483826,
-0.28043654561042786,
0.005041304510086775,
-0.5471339821815491,
-0.02906406670808792,
0.232712984085083,
0.006047318689525127,
0.561329185962677,
-0.583067774772644,
-0.13011762499809265,
-0.7268863916397095,
0.16560348868370056,
0.00999047327786684,
0.14933453500270844,
-0.18859225511550903,
-0.4803308844566345,
-0.004790597129613161,
-0.01201675832271576,
0.36207321286201477,
-0.231940358877182,
-0.2763197422027588,
-0.6431592106819153,
0.1778528243303299,
-0.6047794818878174,
-0.8708236217498779,
-0.1792086511850357,
-0.34252893924713135,
0.28640690445899963,
0.07111462950706482,
0.2407911717891693,
0.06820275634527206,
0.5692610740661621,
0.563106894493103,
-0.2466166913509369,
0.3189660310745239,
0.13456109166145325,
-0.3032885491847992,
-0.2703152894973755,
0.12495336681604385,
0.4136686325073242,
-0.6799324750900269,
0.4019986689090729,
-0.41488200426101685,
-0.17915424704551697,
-0.21211528778076172,
0.19240207970142365,
-0.19301876425743103,
-0.4003939926624298,
-0.5068022012710571,
-0.2046421468257904,
0.03503694385290146,
-0.1830417662858963,
-1.067397117614746,
0.08175935596227646,
0.8622592687606812,
-0.42983487248420715,
0.0922614336013794,
0.46698030829429626,
-0.2029399275779724,
-0.23357605934143066,
0.22661791741847992,
0.8209390044212341,
0.40789347887039185,
-0.5844900012016296,
0.5101632475852966,
-1.013861060142517,
0.6308394074440002,
0.6391505002975464,
-0.18401238322257996,
-0.003397950902581215,
-0.024154536426067352,
0.6883400082588196,
-0.13696017861366272,
0.5347794890403748,
-0.5826095342636108,
-0.5471318364143372,
-0.3809124231338501,
0.2579764425754547,
-0.9293910264968872,
0.4265325665473938,
0.1348879337310791,
-0.5055208802223206,
-0.12957580387592316,
0.34261229634284973,
0.08357200026512146,
-0.9638007283210754,
0.5739855766296387,
-0.018677011132240295,
0.18005754053592682,
-0.2602967917919159,
-0.016220079734921455,
-0.2670261263847351,
-0.4344542324542999,
0.2924768924713135,
0.5958844423294067,
0.2617393434047699,
-0.6348632574081421,
0.12595254182815552,
-0.3095379173755646,
0.5342755913734436,
0.09210336953401566,
-0.05602903291583061,
-0.2967427670955658,
-0.1628040373325348,
-0.8117350935935974,
-0.5857732892036438,
0.6844062805175781,
0.021742427721619606,
-0.1927688717842102,
0.1738409847021103,
-0.11836609989404678,
-0.728841245174408,
0.14405545592308044,
0.254534512758255,
-0.3314960300922394,
0.21033306419849396,
-0.24862274527549744
] |
200246
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merlin%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Merlin (disambiguation)
|
Merlin is a wizard in Arthurian legend.
Merlin may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Film and television
Merlin (2008 TV series), BBC One series also known as The Adventures of Merlin, starring Colin Morgan and Bradley James
Merlin (miniseries), a 1998 NBC miniseries starring Sam Neill
Merlin: The Quest Begins (1998), a TV film featuring Jason Connery
Merlin: The Return, a 2000 film
Mr. Merlin, a TV Series 1981–1982
Merlin (2018 film), an Indian film
Fictional characters
Merlin (DC Comics), a half-demon sorcerer
Merlin (Disney character)
Merlin (Jewel Riders)
Merlin (Marvel Comics), the name of several characters
Merlin (Merlin character), protagonist of the BBC drama Merlin
Merlin (Shrek)
Merlin of Amber, the protagonist of the latter five novels of Roger Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber
Merlin the Magician (comics), a Quality Comics character
Moros (Stargate), a character also known as Merlin
Merlin, a character in Kingsman: The Secret Service
Merlin Prismriver, one of the Prismriver Sisters in the Touhou Project video game series
Merlin, a young bat in Mama Mirabelle's Home Movies
Merlin Jones, in the Walt Disney movies The Misadventures of Merlin Jones and The Monkey's Uncle
Myrddin Wyllt, also known as Merlin Sylvestris, a figure in medieval Welsh legend
Merlin, an engine in Thomas and Friends
Merlin: Boar's Sin of Gluttony, a sin from The Seven Deadly Sins (2014 TV series)
Merlin, a character in the manga Seven Deadly Sins
Video gaming
Merlin (console), a handheld electronic game by Parker Brothers
Merlin (video game), a Game Boy Color game by RFX Interactive; see List of Game Boy Color games
Literature
Merlin, a pen name used by poet Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)
Merlin (literary magazine), published in Paris between 1952 and 1954
Merlin (poem), by Robert de Boron
Merlin (Robinson), a dramatic narrative poem by Edwin Arlington Robinson
Merlin, a novel by Robert Nye
Mary Stewart's Merlin Trilogy, a novel series
Music
Merlin (Albéniz), English-language opera by Isaac Albéniz
Merlin (Brazilian band), an Esperanto-language Brazilian band
Merlin (Goldmark), German-language opera by Karl Goldmark 1886
Merlin (musical), a 1983 Broadway musical
Merlin (metal band), a Russian death metal band
Merlin, a band formed by Dino Merlin
Merlin (rapper), a 1980s/90s UK hip hop artist
Merlin Network, a nonprofit organization for independent music
Merlin (Kayak album), a 1981 album by the Dutch progressive rock band Kayak
Merlin - Bard of the Unseen (2003), a new version of side 1 of the above album
Merlin Rhys-Jones, guitarist and lyricist on the Ian Dury and the Blockheads album Mr. Love Pants
Merlin (Merlin album), by the band Merlin
Places
Merlin, Ontario, Canada, a small farming community
Merlin, California, United States, an unincorporated community
Merlin, Oregon, United States, an unincorporated community
Merlin diamond mine, Australia
2598 Merlin, an asteroid
People
Merlin (given name)
Merlin (surname)
Merlin, a pen name used by poet Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)
Science and technology
Aerospace
Rolls-Royce Merlin, a British Second World War fighter and bomber aircraft engine
AgustaWestland AW101, Merlin, a military helicopter
Blue Yonder Merlin, an ultralight airplane
Hick Merlin, a British sailplane which first flew in 1936
Merlin (rocket engine family), developed by SpaceX
Miles Merlin, a 1930s British monoplane
Seedwings Europe Merlin, an Austrian hang glider design
Swearingen Merlin, a twin turboprop business aircraft
TechProAviation Merlin 100, Czech homebuilt aircraft design
Biology
Merlin (bird), a species of falcon
Merlin (protein), a cytoskeletal protein
Merlin Bird ID, a mobile app for bird identification
Computing and telecommunications
Merlin (assembler), a popular assembler for the Apple II family and Commodore 64/128
Merlin (database), a database run by the Metropolitan Police Service
Merlin M4000, a personal computer sold by British Telecom in the 1980s
Merlin, a first-generation computer developed in 1956 by Brookhaven National Laboratory
OS/2 Warp, version 4 (previously codenamed "Merlin"), an operating system mostly developed by IBM
Merlin, the Office Assistant from Microsoft Office
Merlin, the code-name of Novell's PalmDOS, a successor to DR-DOS 6.0
AT&T Merlin, a telephone system
IBM "Merlin" hard disk drives, see
Other
MERLIN, an array of radio telescopes
MERLIN reactor, a nuclear reactor in the United Kingdom
MERLIN (ISS), a storage freezer on the International Space Station
Business
Merlin Airways, an airline based in the United States
Merlin (bicycles), a manufacturer specializing in custom models
Merlin Entertainments, an operator of amusement parks and other attractions
Merlin Express, a cargo airline based in Puerto Rico
Merlin Publishing, produced soccer trading cards and stickers in the 1990s before being taken over by Topps in 1995
Project Merlin, an agreement between the British Government and the four major high street banks in the United Kingdom covering aspects of banking activity
The Monmouthshire Merlin, a 19th-century Welsh newspaper - see Monmouthshire Beacon
Royal Navy
, the name of several Royal Navy ships
Merlin-class sloop, a class of Royal Navy wooden sloops built between 1743 and 1746
Unclassified
Medical Emergency Relief International, a charity
Operation Merlin, an alleged CIA covert operation in 2000 to thwart Iran's nuclear ambitions
Crailsheim Merlins, a German professional basketball team
AEC Merlin, type of single-deck bus used in London between 1966 and 1981
See also
Merlyn (disambiguation)
Marlin
|
[
-0.3098975121974945,
0.37407976388931274,
-0.12067925930023193,
-0.20830735564231873,
-0.48341190814971924,
0.04027537256479263,
0.8776515126228333,
-0.08040956407785416,
-0.3134191632270813,
0.024414516985416412,
-0.5213051438331604,
0.05378861352801323,
0.02522304467856884,
0.6227927803993225,
-0.058316510170698166,
0.34804612398147583,
-0.17646707594394684,
0.47050583362579346,
0.16643217206001282,
-0.8393346667289734,
-0.23062093555927277,
-0.03280787914991379,
0.2673526704311371,
-0.4509473145008087,
0.385176420211792,
0.26166054606437683,
0.11629904806613922,
-0.24369381368160248,
-0.4419134855270386,
-0.19741520285606384,
-0.14604943990707397,
0.2384401559829712,
-0.06047932058572769,
-0.3905145227909088,
-0.1730501651763916,
-0.30303552746772766,
-0.24728791415691376,
-0.6451079249382019,
-0.29728370904922485,
-0.49487486481666565,
0.43878084421157837,
0.09549844264984131,
0.7116354703903198,
0.3508765995502472,
-0.9041005969047546,
-0.09871036559343338,
-1.657606840133667,
-0.04589802771806717,
-0.11504240334033966,
-0.22110658884048462,
-0.7271041870117188,
0.20033647119998932,
0.20828931033611298,
0.06687609106302261,
-0.0018530504312366247,
0.4648914933204651,
-0.661505401134491,
0.012162264436483383,
0.23627334833145142,
-0.37187454104423523,
0.495356023311615,
0.5195051431655884,
-0.03984030708670616,
0.3891724944114685,
0.16198879480361938,
0.1679561883211136,
0.3443302810192108,
0.27334028482437134,
-0.2989831268787384,
-0.5220950245857239,
-0.1868996024131775,
0.0443466417491436,
-0.21480807662010193,
0.2738485634326935,
-0.42838600277900696,
0.022213926538825035,
0.602658748626709,
-0.24033935368061066,
0.5991576313972473,
-0.07603806257247925,
0.026865771040320396,
0.011342156678438187,
0.7926335334777832,
0.1985536366701126,
0.29670411348342896,
-0.17644168436527252,
-0.2864292562007904,
0.13275331258773804,
0.10792894661426544,
0.2781456410884857,
-0.27379757165908813,
-0.4745601713657379,
-0.06553008407354355,
0.29866254329681396,
-0.6401212215423584,
-0.12346507608890533,
0.15087823569774628,
-0.3037782311439514,
-0.0610157810151577,
-0.20051740109920502,
0.02694818377494812,
-0.3781541883945465,
0.12375190109014511,
-0.5045899748802185,
-0.3454958498477936,
0.011589025147259235,
-0.42680779099464417,
0.043708350509405136,
-0.06473495066165924,
-0.290439635515213,
-0.5142326951026917,
0.4831971526145935,
-0.47700729966163635,
0.36732620000839233,
0.27636608481407166,
0.11495255678892136,
0.24899323284626007,
-0.18254250288009644,
-0.019021503627300262,
0.06824129819869995,
0.7061731815338135,
0.5491886734962463,
0.2356681078672409,
0.5987909436225891,
0.25333744287490845,
-0.05684932321310043,
0.08251676708459854,
0.5628649592399597,
-0.3432016968727112,
-0.2372761219739914,
0.8334845900535583,
1.0764341354370117,
-0.09362376481294632,
-0.7281138300895691,
0.0515005961060524,
0.1554151028394699,
-0.28394758701324463,
0.25956669449806213,
0.18383249640464783,
0.5621883869171143,
-0.5292479395866394,
-0.2354811578989029,
-1.5571690797805786,
0.7322600483894348,
0.31577804684638977,
0.17259569466114044,
0.30183911323547363,
-0.040946997702121735,
-0.022327538579702377,
0.6654726266860962,
-0.2637426555156708,
0.5926682949066162,
-0.43609359860420227,
0.4319148659706116,
0.06337560713291168,
-0.13278909027576447,
0.26657634973526,
-0.34043702483177185,
0.6113341450691223,
-0.025011641904711723,
0.08111434429883957,
0.25427237153053284,
-0.3372265100479126,
0.2959303557872772,
0.1167593002319336,
-0.21412470936775208,
-0.047940246760845184,
-0.5076568126678467,
-0.7019798755645752,
-0.17502781748771667,
-0.8332420587539673,
0.01677422970533371,
0.45433881878852844,
-0.5338993072509766,
-0.32270726561546326,
0.024126315489411354,
0.5846216082572937,
-0.046507976949214935,
0.6392088532447815,
-0.25567862391471863,
-0.7038248777389526,
0.03532189503312111,
0.07747438549995422,
-0.4916796088218689,
0.4744069576263428,
0.5109238624572754,
-0.0776299387216568,
0.2984226644039154,
0.15581285953521729,
-0.0846264660358429,
-0.4464769959449768,
0.13970373570919037,
0.3737336993217468,
-0.508689284324646,
0.2788713574409485,
0.1833367645740509,
-0.2866191864013672,
0.5401737093925476,
0.12020618468523026,
0.2831409275531769,
0.48050281405448914,
-0.4624032974243164,
-0.11566093564033508,
-0.04262295737862587,
-0.3258274495601654,
0.8768764138221741,
0.08994101732969284,
-0.05426259711384773,
0.3725258409976959,
0.15873098373413086,
0.5361221432685852,
0.07605182379484177,
0.1028531864285469,
-0.2431650012731552,
-0.3195193111896515,
0.2051086127758026,
-0.010503583587706089,
-0.31327688694000244,
0.19475650787353516,
-0.26378530263900757,
0.7107662558555603,
-0.1190243735909462,
-0.010155151598155499,
-0.31546488404273987,
0.25892674922943115,
0.9173944592475891,
-0.19059795141220093,
0.007971014827489853,
-0.19173166155815125,
-0.702857255935669,
-0.4669516980648041,
0.40223175287246704,
-0.08079516887664795,
-0.24163340032100677,
0.16309334337711334,
-0.5367447137832642,
-0.2192171961069107,
-0.2938227355480194,
0.19114923477172852,
-0.14952972531318665,
0.3556348383426666,
-0.01078736875206232,
-0.27541789412498474,
0.656665027141571,
0.3124006390571594,
0.43830206990242004,
-0.1441689431667328,
0.3761987090110779,
0.006855582352727652,
-0.1893552839756012,
0.269637793302536,
-0.1959969401359558,
-0.10398700088262558,
0.07712037861347198,
0.6157708168029785,
0.13403968513011932,
-0.44075945019721985,
-0.16382797062397003,
-0.26288720965385437,
0.33982980251312256,
-0.3385174870491028,
0.3056619465351105,
-0.23316635191440582,
-0.3241634964942932,
0.4780045747756958,
-0.5656712651252747,
-0.6437389850616455,
-0.6510792374610901,
0.35161498188972473,
0.31196165084838867,
-0.18019674718379974,
-0.011309249326586723,
-0.6507721543312073,
-0.6249836087226868,
0.20761212706565857,
0.057969238609075546,
-0.14600977301597595,
0.22887185215950012,
-0.18447189033031464,
-0.07348097115755081,
-0.18460118770599365,
0.40223199129104614,
-0.28192293643951416,
-0.45996636152267456,
-0.16000685095787048,
-0.350181519985199,
0.27306491136550903,
-0.6651047468185425,
-0.1221240758895874,
-0.5811480283737183,
-0.3574821949005127,
0.3919452428817749,
-0.2656359076499939,
-0.07835384458303452,
-0.14491988718509674,
0.16871494054794312,
-0.13516990840435028,
0.22840553522109985,
-0.08906511962413788,
-0.32327115535736084,
-0.2494221329689026,
0.39300107955932617,
-0.1710945963859558,
-0.1967678815126419,
0.2598651647567749,
-0.33772167563438416,
-0.24201196432113647,
0.36724480986595154,
-5.922757625579834,
0.055402252823114395,
-0.09879408031702042,
-0.01505617517977953,
0.023389087989926338,
0.43980053067207336,
0.37680932879447937,
0.38199591636657715,
0.03356163576245308,
-0.6369273662567139,
0.45042330026626587,
-0.41984549164772034,
0.5155627727508545,
0.5418175458908081,
0.2820069491863251,
0.3374960422515869,
0.6425062417984009,
-0.11248710006475449,
0.019030386582016945,
0.13203065097332,
0.12642532587051392,
0.1025020033121109,
-0.5735001564025879,
0.08832833915948868,
0.3392097055912018,
0.19989557564258575,
-0.2643081843852997,
-0.10238298028707504,
-0.7988890409469604,
-0.0374564491212368,
0.09490463137626648,
0.18323662877082825,
-0.013374730944633484,
-0.17770452797412872,
-0.3795872926712036,
-0.08320632576942444,
0.48816168308258057,
0.10602810978889465,
0.533538281917572,
-0.09783945977687836,
-0.6037696599960327,
-0.09381832182407379,
-0.15156114101409912,
0.3715238571166992,
0.24497750401496887,
-0.14109525084495544,
-0.49499204754829407,
-0.10653898864984512,
-0.06289859116077423,
0.3293526768684387,
-0.6315710544586182,
-0.33975812792778015,
0.7995449900627136,
0.0655200332403183,
0.3625391721725464,
-0.18810681998729706,
-0.5208846926689148,
0.3861195147037506,
-0.17294491827487946,
0.45712870359420776,
0.2643352448940277,
-0.2814301550388336,
0.15466924011707306,
-0.5770348906517029,
-0.6527676582336426,
-0.2909240424633026,
-0.2508508861064911,
-0.33056479692459106,
0.41543492674827576,
0.2149689644575119,
-0.676654040813446,
0.09672638028860092,
0.16300855576992035,
-0.5979142785072327,
0.14699792861938477,
0.024623246863484383,
-0.09134424477815628,
0.2113025039434433,
0.3656311333179474,
-0.36213651299476624,
-0.6413739323616028,
-0.5346188545227051,
-0.5227065086364746,
-0.06043270230293274,
0.2821655869483948,
-0.10835884511470795,
-0.1969624161720276,
-0.08970808237791061,
0.005312956403940916,
0.026003926992416382,
0.7025544047355652,
0.30626729130744934,
-0.03519603982567787,
0.5729654431343079,
0.1888064593076706,
0.862189531326294,
0.14683902263641357,
-0.23790481686592102,
0.8432228565216064,
0.6148494482040405,
0.14161553978919983,
-0.24102316796779633,
0.4430463910102844,
0.10744643211364746,
0.24431735277175903,
0.06464992463588715,
-0.05987812206149101,
-0.053309615701436996,
0.4956991672515869,
-0.113340824842453,
0.07917378097772598,
-0.23837164044380188,
-0.4802406132221222,
0.4114890694618225,
0.34084922075271606,
-0.16088047623634338,
0.33622997999191284,
0.47087809443473816,
1.0218003988265991,
0.3230627477169037,
0.05191908776760101,
0.5122635364532471,
0.05209031328558922,
-0.6225281953811646,
-0.3827287554740906,
-0.20189997553825378,
0.7132554054260254,
0.0679265633225441,
0.10852793604135513,
0.19998587667942047,
0.13178327679634094,
0.4092710316181183,
0.2980479300022125,
-0.489058256149292,
-0.0739891529083252,
-0.16240368783473969,
0.08934570848941803,
-0.12098155170679092,
-0.3506526052951813,
-0.2644629180431366,
0.25614437460899353,
-0.6454804539680481,
0.07115578651428223,
0.11896549165248871,
-0.00013115537876728922,
-0.3105214238166809,
0.7170325517654419,
-0.15863271057605743,
-0.008812486194074154,
0.9499185085296631,
0.30761802196502686,
0.39811939001083374,
1.31890869140625,
-0.6760874390602112,
-0.35306623578071594,
0.031245127320289612,
0.21456332504749298,
0.3828669488430023,
-0.3530486822128296,
0.058802466839551926,
0.10166016221046448,
-0.330659419298172,
-0.5813936591148376,
0.1803562194108963,
0.5587878227233887,
-0.3512943387031555,
-0.2653989791870117,
-0.367247998714447,
0.2124253213405609,
0.6844054460525513,
-0.18070493638515472,
0.03167241811752319,
-0.5120670795440674,
0.3414532244205475,
0.7023187875747681,
0.21092252433300018,
-0.23106984794139862,
0.34750741720199585,
-0.08614718914031982,
-0.24160484969615936,
0.5874830484390259,
-0.0471874363720417,
-0.561415433883667,
-0.23186399042606354,
0.2135382890701294,
-0.40092137455940247,
-0.23780375719070435,
-0.2355397641658783,
-0.5881943106651306,
0.059892989695072174,
-0.18489645421504974,
0.5633904933929443,
0.41743138432502747,
0.42394593358039856,
-0.527635931968689,
0.16324713826179504,
-0.055564749985933304,
0.5767847299575806,
0.5411162972450256,
-0.39754238724708557,
0.0067694890312850475,
0.16395071148872375,
-0.6944360733032227,
-0.3160622715950012,
0.4570607841014862,
-1.1722919940948486,
0.22959277033805847,
-0.6539869904518127,
-0.21083787083625793,
0.4110509753227234,
-0.3234429955482483,
-0.5653463006019592,
-0.1737598180770874,
0.25407344102859497,
0.21616724133491516,
-0.5474693775177002,
0.041538164019584656,
-0.2747534513473511,
0.0629860907793045,
-0.20695248246192932,
0.40903908014297485,
-0.18207985162734985,
0.24913381040096283,
0.06185505539178848,
-0.02761433832347393,
-0.3199383020401001,
0.5859021544456482,
-0.21026532351970673,
0.6559842228889465,
-0.11241227388381958,
-0.02327589876949787,
0.328660249710083,
0.034707579761743546,
0.3972162902355194,
-0.27404558658599854,
-0.011457848362624645,
0.47636550664901733,
0.12861666083335876,
0.04687584564089775,
-0.04714005067944527,
0.6066687107086182,
0.9620133638381958,
-0.05372181907296181,
-0.5153955817222595,
-0.22128228843212128,
0.06441235542297363,
-0.23517963290214539,
-0.5663376450538635,
-0.28376758098602295,
-0.01657656766474247,
0.03972175344824791,
-0.3129817545413971,
-0.0767228901386261,
-0.523331344127655,
1.176945686340332,
-0.41102877259254456,
0.6238023042678833,
0.10758058726787567,
0.3384634256362915,
-0.2826326787471771,
0.42058101296424866,
-0.1460658609867096,
-0.3707291781902313,
0.06151001155376434,
-0.32387062907218933,
0.43229272961616516,
-0.3108593225479126,
-0.25162965059280396,
0.26131725311279297,
-0.5558348894119263,
-0.17628517746925354,
0.11285073310136795,
0.02166743390262127,
0.5071373581886292,
0.1866917908191681,
-0.05813724547624588,
-0.28260165452957153,
-0.3353179395198822,
0.04519398882985115,
-0.14007174968719482,
-0.11196335405111313,
0.5724064707756042,
0.17213720083236694,
-0.12759201228618622,
-0.24887670576572418,
0.16615821421146393,
-0.05582427605986595,
-0.26247259974479675,
-0.006334183271974325,
-0.4278969466686249,
-0.1953335851430893,
0.1905829906463623,
0.34332412481307983,
0.17847783863544464,
-0.10338696837425232,
0.28825169801712036,
-0.30592018365859985,
0.2648928463459015,
0.26787805557250977,
-0.3343926966190338,
-0.5464926362037659,
0.46781471371650696,
0.7099059224128723,
-0.20533539354801178,
0.0891098752617836,
0.05064638704061508,
0.004001721739768982,
-0.4980989396572113,
-0.10953736305236816,
-0.48748889565467834,
0.3618003726005554,
-0.04002887010574341,
0.08469224721193314,
0.44257572293281555,
-0.2169857770204544,
-0.42052996158599854,
0.22568316757678986,
-0.4751603901386261,
-0.2865358591079712,
0.3906558156013489,
0.2309294492006302,
0.053521446883678436,
0.9305765628814697,
-0.1281803995370865,
-0.2187040150165558,
0.6988831758499146,
-0.44809022545814514,
0.5201797485351562,
-0.052846383303403854,
-0.13887029886245728,
0.5188465714454651,
-0.31544414162635803,
-0.5811841487884521,
0.5445528030395508,
-0.33165186643600464,
-0.05087678134441376,
0.7329111695289612,
-0.17299921810626984,
-0.16319675743579865,
0.5774244070053101,
0.3360174596309662,
-0.14273744821548462,
-0.2296459823846817,
0.18413688242435455,
-0.04681796208024025,
0.6363644003868103,
-0.05840672180056572,
0.2750092148780823,
-0.28485050797462463,
0.14325638115406036,
0.15401466190814972,
-0.07019093632698059,
0.057878199964761734,
-1.019339680671692,
0.3629003167152405,
0.030957618728280067,
0.14926940202713013,
-0.09105594456195831,
0.04618806019425392,
-0.713269829750061,
0.1636323779821396,
-0.5057793259620667,
0.6911328434944153,
-0.13733726739883423,
-0.3242586851119995,
0.10412434488534927,
0.17551836371421814,
-0.45183807611465454,
-0.09311900287866592,
-0.07415108382701874,
0.47557365894317627,
-0.244284987449646,
-0.6493792533874512,
0.05519196018576622,
-0.262982040643692,
-0.035470567643642426,
0.3233034908771515,
0.11085877567529678,
0.05208246409893036,
-0.257942795753479,
-0.35388439893722534,
-0.31334012746810913,
-0.31119677424430847,
-0.07963326573371887,
0.08103953301906586,
0.11940015107393265,
0.08410176634788513,
0.14540733397006989,
-0.2346053570508957,
0.343042254447937,
0.24700066447257996,
0.38345858454704285,
0.038403239101171494,
0.00026752069243229926,
-0.42208132147789,
-0.30631351470947266,
-0.48844048380851746,
0.47975608706474304,
-0.16298477351665497,
0.2659435570240021,
0.29327914118766785,
0.0786036029458046,
0.09097599238157272,
0.2388973981142044,
-0.12745189666748047,
-0.03429986163973808,
-0.5341054797172546,
-0.303031325340271,
-0.5871714949607849,
0.2553532123565674,
0.2657575011253357,
-0.2499750405550003,
-0.26680657267570496,
-0.11297719925642014,
0.3009392321109772,
-0.6539779305458069,
0.2193087637424469,
0.08064370602369308,
0.05855543166399002,
-0.04547789692878723,
-0.18878689408302307,
0.3908388018608093,
-0.2757194936275482,
0.01504336018115282,
-0.6342043876647949,
0.22465206682682037,
0.5935214757919312,
0.1498558074235916,
-0.3602678179740906,
0.2710665166378021,
0.055321160703897476,
-0.2322213053703308,
-0.9553583860397339,
0.4406425654888153,
-0.49373096227645874,
-0.3150464594364166,
0.7196306586265564,
0.40161097049713135,
-0.1963127851486206,
-0.09395302087068558,
-0.43994709849357605,
-0.06735990941524506,
0.14374354481697083,
0.357621431350708,
-1.5060232877731323,
-0.5176637768745422,
0.08356308192014694,
-0.5555894374847412,
-0.16932514309883118,
0.3304567039012909,
0.5613265037536621,
-0.2318367063999176,
-0.06505519151687622,
-0.2580420672893524,
0.07478490471839905,
0.34919145703315735,
0.3383587598800659,
-0.7942743897438049,
0.5474978685379028,
0.5442772507667542
] |
200249
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Valmy
|
Battle of Valmy
|
The Battle of Valmy, also known as the Cannonade of Valmy, was the first major victory by the army of France during the Revolutionary Wars that followed the French Revolution. The battle took place on 20 September 1792 as Prussian troops commanded by the Duke of Brunswick attempted to march on Paris. Generals François Kellermann and Charles Dumouriez stopped the advance near the northern village of Valmy in Champagne-Ardenne.
In this early part of the Revolutionary Wars—known as the War of the First Coalition—the new French government was in almost every way unproven, and thus the small, localized victory at Valmy became a huge psychological victory for the Revolution at large. The outcome was thoroughly unexpected by contemporary observers—a vindication for the French revolutionaries and a stunning defeat for the vaunted Prussian army. The victory emboldened the newly assembled National Convention to formally declare the end of monarchy in France and to establish the French Republic. Valmy permitted the development of the Revolution and all its resultant ripple effects, and for that it is regarded by historians as one of the most significant battles in history.
Background
As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their countries. The War of the First Coalition was an effort to stop the revolution, or at least contain it to France. King Frederick William II of Prussia had the support of Great Britain and the Austrian Empire to send the Duke of Brunswick towards Paris with a large army. In the war's early encounters of mid-1792, French troops did not distinguish themselves, and enemy forces advanced dangerously deep into France intending to pacify the country, restore the traditional monarchy, and end the Revolution. The French commander Charles Dumouriez, meanwhile, had been marching his army northeast to attack the Austrian Netherlands, but this plan was abandoned because of the more immediate threat to Paris. A second army under General François Kellermann was ordered to link up with him in a mutual defense.
Just over half of the French infantry were regulars of the old Royal Army, as were nearly all of the cavalry and, most importantly, the artillery, which were widely regarded as the best in Europe at the time. These veterans provided a professional core to steady the enthusiastic volunteer battalions. Combined, Dumouriez' Army of the North and Kellermann's Army of the Centre totalled approximately 54,000 troops. Heading towards them was Brunswick's coalition army of about 84,000, all veteran Prussian and Austrian troops augmented by large complements of Hessians and the French royalist Army of Condé.
Battle
The invading army handily captured Longwy on 23 August and Verdun on 2 September, then moved on toward Paris through the defiles of the Forest of Argonne. In response, Dumouriez halted his advance to the Netherlands and reversed course, approaching the enemy army from its rear. From Metz, Kellermann moved to his assistance, joining him at the village of Sainte-Menehould on 19 September.
The French forces were now east of the Prussians, behind their lines. Theoretically the Prussians could have marched straight towards Paris unopposed, but this course was never seriously considered: the threat to their lines of supply and communication was too great to be ignored. The unfavorable situation was compounded by bad weather and an alarming increase in sickness among the troops. With few other options available, Brunswick turned back and prepared to do battle.
The troops trudged laboriously through a heavy downpour—"rain as of the days of Noah", in the words of Thomas Carlyle. Brunswick headed through the northern woods believing he could cut off Dumouriez. At the moment when the Prussian manœuvre was nearly completed, Kellermann advanced his left wing and took up a position on the slopes between Sainte-Menehould and Valmy. He centered his command around an old windmill, which he quickly razed to prevent enemy artillery spotters from using it as a sighting location. His veteran artillerists were well-placed upon its accommodating ridge to begin the so-called "Cannonade of Valmy". Brunswick moved toward them with about 34,000 of his troops. As they emerged from the woods, a long-range gunnery duel ensued and the French batteries proved superior. The Prussian infantry made a cautious, and fruitless, effort to advance under fire across the open ground.
As the Prussians wavered, a pivotal moment was reached when Kellermann raised his hat and made his famous cry of "Vive la Nation". The cry was repeated again and again by all the French army, and had a crushing effect upon Prussian morale. The French troops sang "La Marseillaise" and "Ça Ira", and a cheer went up from the French line. To the surprise of nearly everyone, Brunswick broke off the action and retired from the field. The Prussians rounded the French positions at a great distance and commenced a rapid retreat eastward. The two engaged forces had been essentially equal in size, Kellermann with approximately 36,000 troops and 40 cannon, and Brunswick with 34,000 and 54 cannon. Yet by the time Brunswick retreated, casualties had risen no higher than three hundred French and two hundred Prussians.
Prussian retreat
The precipitous end to the action provoked elation among the French. The question of exactly why the Prussians withdrew has never been definitively answered. Most historians ascribe the retreat to some combination of the following factors: the highly defensible French position together with the rapidly growing numbers of reinforcements and citizen volunteers with their discouraging and thoroughly unexpected élan which persuaded the cautious Brunswick to spare himself a dangerous loss of manpower, particularly when the Russian invasion of Poland had already raised concerns for Prussia's defensibility in the east. Others have put forward more shadowy motives for the decision, including a secret plea by Louis XVI to avoid an action which might cost him his life, and even bribery of the Prussians, allegedly paid for with the Bourbon crown jewels.
An analysis by Dr Munro Price, Reader in History at the University of Bradford and a modern specialist in this period, concludes that there is no convincing proof of bribery turning back the Prussians. The more likely explanation remains that, having initially adopted an aggressive strategy, Brunswick lacked the will to carry it through when confronted by an unexpectedly determined and disciplined opposition. Brunswick had actually been offered command of the French armies prior to the outbreak of war and émigré factions subsequently used this as a basis to allege treachery on his part. In any case, the battle ended decisively, the French pursuit was not seriously pressed, and Brunswick's troops managed a safe if inglorious eastward retreat.
Aftermath
This engagement was the turning point of the Prussians' campaign. Beset with food shortages and dysentery, their retreat continued well past the Rhine River. French troops soon struck forward into Germany, taking Mainz in October. Dumouriez once again moved against the Austrian Netherlands and Kellermann ably secured the front at Metz.
Dumouriez would bear a harsh change of fortune: after one more influential success in November 1792 at Jemappes, he was by the following year a broken man. His army had suffered such catastrophic losses that he defected to the royalist side for the rest of his life. Kellermann, however, continued in a long and distinguished military career. In 1808 he was ennobled by Napoleon and became Duke of Valmy.
Legacy
In terms of military history the battle introduced features that reshaped modern warfare. It exemplified key components of "total war" in terms of political propaganda, psychological warfare, and eager participation of large numbers of politicized civilians.
After a while the battle came to be celebrated as the first great victory of the armies of the French Revolution. In the varied historiography of the French Revolution, it is typically portrayed as the first victory of a citizen army, inspired by liberty and nationalism. Many thousands of volunteers did indeed swell the ranks, but at least half of the French forces were professional soldiers, particularly among Kellermann's critical artillery units. The French artillery also held a tactical advantage in its modern Gribeauval gun system which proved highly successful on the battlefield. But in popular conception, Valmy was a victory of citizen-soldiers: the battle was emblemized by Kellermann's cry, augmented by the troops' singing of "La Marseillaise" and the "Ça Ira" while under fire.
On the day of the battle, the Legislative Assembly had duly transferred its power to the National Convention.
Over the next two days, flush with the news from Valmy, the new Convention deputies abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the French Republic. The victory was a much-needed source of pride for the revolutionary French state, and provided enduring inspiration for the years that followed. It was considered by many contemporaries to be a miraculous event for France, and a "decisive defeat" for one of the most effective armies in Europe. Scholars continue to count it among the most significant clashes in military history.
The Prussians themselves recognized the importance of the battle, not merely as a setback in the war but as a crucial advancement for the Revolution as a whole. The German writer and poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who was present at the battle with the Prussian army, later wrote that he was approached by some of his comrades in a state of dejection. He had previously cheered them up with memorable and clever quotes but his only consolation this time was, "Here and today, a new epoch in the history of the world has begun, and you can boast you were present at its birth."
References
Sources
Meyer, Élise. "Valmy: The victory and its reputation." Annales historiques de la Revolution francaise. No. 4. 2020. abstract
Wainwright, E. H. "The cannonade of Valmy." Kleio 5.2 (1973): 62-76.
Further reading
Forrest, Alan. The Legacy of the French Revolutionary Wars: The Nation-in-Arms in French Republican Memory (Cambridge University Press, 2009)
Lynn, John A. "Valmy" MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History (Fall 1992), 5#1 pp 88–97.
Scott, Samuel F. From Yorktown to Valmy: the transformation of the French Army in an age of revolution (University Press of Colorado, 1998)
Thoral, Marie-Cécile. From Valmy to Waterloo: France at War, 1792–1815 (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2011)
External links
Cannon Thunder at Valmy, David A. Norris, Warfare History Network, 21 March 2019
HTML version of The Battle of Valmy from Edward Shepherd Creasy's The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World
Battles involving Prussia
Marne (department)
1792 in France
Conflicts in 1792
Battles of the War of the First Coalition
Battles in Grand Est
Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
|
[
-0.7041295170783997,
-0.68826824426651,
0.19747447967529297,
0.5651973485946655,
0.012107213959097862,
0.2416544407606125,
0.8286612629890442,
0.19591738283634186,
-0.2841011583805084,
-0.41840189695358276,
-0.2887723445892334,
0.8987606167793274,
-0.025699997320771217,
0.8309783339500427,
-0.07435919344425201,
0.8325010538101196,
0.7376612424850464,
-0.3515549898147583,
0.34368374943733215,
-0.7306564450263977,
-0.024848928675055504,
-0.07841537147760391,
0.5401051640510559,
0.5770734548568726,
0.21387453377246857,
0.11783625185489655,
0.28273671865463257,
0.12146805971860886,
-0.054344598203897476,
0.031329356133937836,
-0.25900909304618835,
0.2948058247566223,
-0.1240760087966919,
-0.09926071017980576,
-0.9742435216903687,
-0.013132480904459953,
-0.16033510863780975,
-0.437275230884552,
-0.4601380228996277,
-0.5322775840759277,
0.028193147853016853,
0.03599800541996956,
0.05778426304459572,
-0.01100395992398262,
0.05947929620742798,
0.31483808159828186,
-1.0665496587753296,
-0.15205523371696472,
-1.3696627616882324,
-0.3561914563179016,
-0.49273210763931274,
0.36780017614364624,
0.288358211517334,
0.6283635497093201,
-0.5179426670074463,
0.04876430332660675,
-0.8300073146820068,
-0.28839772939682007,
0.18480326235294342,
-0.39996910095214844,
0.7495890259742737,
0.4878268837928772,
0.10446440428495407,
-0.03955388814210892,
-0.01847684197127819,
-0.3442925810813904,
0.48110976815223694,
0.20030783116817474,
-0.05640842020511627,
-0.5896651148796082,
0.6361976265907288,
0.05413820967078209,
0.15078970789909363,
0.3240804374217987,
-0.5130107402801514,
-0.48673102259635925,
-0.019259236752986908,
0.15633361041545868,
0.47163182497024536,
-0.2930297553539276,
0.009811332449316978,
-0.24731384217739105,
0.7618131041526794,
-0.08346622437238693,
-0.20802389085292816,
0.6969542503356934,
-0.17576073110103607,
0.33280128240585327,
-0.5779935717582703,
0.3180752098560333,
0.044803742319345474,
-0.4237583875656128,
0.19643990695476532,
-0.1620604693889618,
-0.11997373402118683,
-0.11650440841913223,
0.3064153492450714,
0.17799358069896698,
-0.12290956825017929,
0.3951716423034668,
0.34261807799339294,
-0.0038213138468563557,
0.14048004150390625,
0.5267385840415955,
-0.5236632227897644,
-0.1694215089082718,
-0.27513739466667175,
-0.23576711118221283,
0.1654529571533203,
-0.2286202758550644,
-0.31116652488708496,
0.49787572026252747,
-0.21652425825595856,
-0.10768426954746246,
0.4494224488735199,
-0.11635886877775192,
0.5673680901527405,
-0.4192027449607849,
0.10931630432605743,
0.5844104886054993,
0.2815861999988556,
-0.1284380853176117,
-0.15926538407802582,
0.2475782334804535,
-0.0014407606795430183,
-0.34311339259147644,
0.14936693012714386,
0.5090171694755554,
-0.6648798584938049,
0.154120534658432,
0.39233890175819397,
0.5638346672058105,
-0.2709343433380127,
-0.04268353059887886,
-0.08415758609771729,
-0.17091841995716095,
0.16215640306472778,
0.1864279955625534,
-0.5972902774810791,
-0.4302195608615875,
-1.1136441230773926,
-0.2603874206542969,
-0.6449692845344543,
-0.034479010850191116,
0.38157784938812256,
-0.5058516263961792,
0.2594713866710663,
-0.36654016375541687,
0.28255370259284973,
-0.04343568533658981,
0.21963179111480713,
0.35121580958366394,
-0.8101776838302612,
-0.1427736133337021,
-0.03856340050697327,
0.532686173915863,
0.6608628034591675,
-0.19727939367294312,
0.5596983432769775,
0.5950180292129517,
0.1557803601026535,
0.3615163266658783,
0.1688925325870514,
0.1411447376012802,
0.19631646573543549,
-0.2873273193836212,
0.47338709235191345,
-0.2899632155895233,
-0.25728708505630493,
0.029967088252305984,
-0.04298127442598343,
-0.028248706832528114,
-0.2336370348930359,
-0.15789251029491425,
-0.1526123732328415,
0.5312665104866028,
0.7419629096984863,
0.6197127103805542,
0.8241371512413025,
-0.5942976474761963,
-0.42557933926582336,
-0.008072693832218647,
0.7638720870018005,
-0.22796103358268738,
0.8362939357757568,
1.0819960832595825,
0.6359103322029114,
-0.08460953086614609,
-0.1357356160879135,
0.15659819543361664,
0.1650291383266449,
-0.19141466915607452,
-0.19197525084018707,
-0.9671811461448669,
0.9614461660385132,
-0.048400573432445526,
-0.39478084444999695,
0.29905715584754944,
-0.032262906432151794,
0.5218297243118286,
-0.5479156374931335,
0.13244828581809998,
0.46962183713912964,
0.3484698534011841,
-0.5980801582336426,
-0.0912703201174736,
-0.11313537508249283,
0.6414754986763,
0.5427308678627014,
0.453714519739151,
0.32299187779426575,
-0.23640866577625275,
-0.10728217661380768,
0.29211950302124023,
-0.021163759753108025,
-0.29715147614479065,
-0.6491273641586304,
-0.4146697521209717,
0.5346552133560181,
0.0797303318977356,
-0.033584337681531906,
-0.5190134048461914,
0.05006559565663338,
0.27757972478866577,
0.04994525760412216,
0.23725208640098572,
-0.005844154395163059,
0.2486695647239685,
-0.30423516035079956,
-1.073237657546997,
-0.24394917488098145,
0.06151505932211876,
-0.17041948437690735,
0.5028799772262573,
0.4102601408958435,
-0.628734290599823,
-0.31473445892333984,
-0.06655195355415344,
0.2603321373462677,
-0.24191918969154358,
0.43120670318603516,
-0.13216489553451538,
0.25466030836105347,
0.8543678522109985,
0.1860525757074356,
0.18199148774147034,
0.5650611519813538,
0.40107324719429016,
0.33186009526252747,
-0.9457338452339172,
0.047086745500564575,
0.06755092740058899,
0.1499723196029663,
0.2051210254430771,
0.6681206226348877,
-0.470660001039505,
0.450395792722702,
0.1430448591709137,
-0.22925658524036407,
0.18158259987831116,
0.010065299458801746,
-0.18842487037181854,
-0.3165096938610077,
0.24318921566009521,
0.3350830078125,
0.019705889746546745,
-0.6768779158592224,
0.08722437918186188,
0.1600380688905716,
0.2443586140871048,
-0.06774048507213593,
0.19405363500118256,
0.26511773467063904,
-0.2866695821285248,
0.15987926721572876,
-0.23780564963817596,
-0.017396651208400726,
0.9267857074737549,
-0.20837949216365814,
-0.5571008920669556,
-0.13529202342033386,
0.8794913291931152,
-0.38520580530166626,
-0.5170719027519226,
-0.4993872344493866,
-0.07242953032255173,
0.2517046630382538,
-0.012452147901058197,
0.37464839220046997,
-0.24725870788097382,
-0.0508967861533165,
-0.4531649649143219,
-0.281864732503891,
0.030337871983647346,
0.10242657363414764,
-0.013729410246014595,
-0.3951158821582794,
0.03509560972452164,
0.1774912178516388,
-0.047261711210012436,
-0.32701051235198975,
-0.16506271064281464,
-0.00851428508758545,
-0.2849777638912201,
0.5094424486160278,
-0.6615328788757324,
0.7569438219070435,
0.5592209100723267,
-5.445280075073242,
-0.1531970351934433,
-0.09561871737241745,
0.19957546889781952,
0.07602372765541077,
0.10317683219909668,
0.37875422835350037,
0.1802332103252411,
0.14155422151088715,
-0.07706545293331146,
-0.2633521854877472,
-0.08553110063076019,
-0.35303911566734314,
-0.001359565299935639,
0.4095437824726105,
-0.08603359013795853,
0.6697751879692078,
-0.1066294014453888,
-0.07063130289316177,
0.08034359663724899,
-0.39533481001853943,
0.12479308992624283,
0.3044123649597168,
0.342460960149765,
0.24724037945270538,
-0.2437009960412979,
-0.001099695567972958,
0.11130174994468689,
-0.7125325202941895,
-0.12011097371578217,
-0.33698388934135437,
0.19932788610458374,
0.8625456690788269,
-0.3717000484466553,
0.21641692519187927,
-0.46416014432907104,
0.13028733432292938,
0.8769745230674744,
0.16938534379005432,
-0.5592722296714783,
0.010196526534855366,
-0.10826916992664337,
-0.23101620376110077,
-0.1069418415427208,
0.9360460042953491,
-0.7705381512641907,
-0.45085084438323975,
0.5516194701194763,
0.0014732620911672711,
-0.09051141887903214,
0.11860095709562302,
-0.25515955686569214,
0.09212324768304825,
0.054484568536281586,
0.26695895195007324,
-0.34478822350502014,
0.15886637568473816,
-0.21109379827976227,
-0.14760902523994446,
0.5162091255187988,
0.5708202123641968,
-0.08482691645622253,
0.207763209939003,
-0.56807541847229,
0.517728865146637,
-0.40096452832221985,
0.02840123511850834,
0.5324169397354126,
-0.05332768335938454,
0.3740623891353607,
0.02491522952914238,
1.2610563039779663,
-0.6931381225585938,
-0.9477257132530212,
-0.32212135195732117,
0.14586268365383148,
-0.447494775056839,
0.15463940799236298,
0.4646831750869751,
-0.07937193661928177,
-0.13398712873458862,
-0.3061360716819763,
-0.06074420362710953,
-0.022412346675992012,
0.3234710693359375,
-0.23335343599319458,
-0.20146837830543518,
0.3104713261127472,
-0.3111957609653473,
-0.4003899395465851,
0.6932240128517151,
0.17275649309158325,
0.16674019396305084,
-0.1693565845489502,
0.06886354833841324,
-0.3286764323711395,
-0.3405822217464447,
0.19166447222232819,
0.6923215389251709,
-0.02351672202348709,
0.029302865266799927,
0.06889884173870087,
0.422736793756485,
-0.6205369234085083,
-0.13227304816246033,
-0.1289556920528412,
-0.2619580924510956,
0.08223164081573486,
0.696406900882721,
0.12399432063102722,
-0.5377970933914185,
0.17370371520519257,
-0.157187819480896,
-0.41987985372543335,
0.2834327220916748,
-0.6526814103126526,
0.364551305770874,
-0.08195944875478745,
0.710747241973877,
-0.20220652222633362,
-0.15172642469406128,
0.4528442323207855,
-0.31833401322364807,
0.432547390460968,
0.6474053859710693,
-0.6352982521057129,
-0.30195578932762146,
0.2433144450187683,
-0.3379729092121124,
0.3604855239391327,
0.34492722153663635,
0.4477797746658325,
-0.03475545346736908,
-0.31723570823669434,
0.06428142637014389,
-0.7016063928604126,
0.4732331335544586,
-1.069801926612854,
-0.32167989015579224,
-0.30141493678092957,
0.07451917976140976,
-0.3188078999519348,
-0.2302054613828659,
0.22041456401348114,
0.1757032424211502,
-0.013389813713729382,
0.2911347448825836,
0.474214106798172,
-0.44077420234680176,
1.1174064874649048,
-0.6167123317718506,
-0.7180190086364746,
0.8396288752555847,
-0.11648862808942795,
0.4853275418281555,
-0.25269463658332825,
-0.05653763934969902,
0.1500752866268158,
-0.1715840995311737,
-0.4597015380859375,
0.26422375440597534,
0.035344406962394714,
-0.8155805468559265,
-0.10077738761901855,
-0.28228485584259033,
-0.104195237159729,
-0.5795149207115173,
-0.6149072647094727,
-0.2707688510417938,
0.48914849758148193,
0.6520096063613892,
0.04545015096664429,
-1.073133945465088,
-0.09387487173080444,
0.051857199519872665,
-0.3539585471153259,
-0.4244682490825653,
0.33745720982551575,
0.09964749962091446,
-1.058905005455017,
0.7773315906524658,
-0.022554462775588036,
0.3306029140949249,
0.7187651991844177,
0.6077025532722473,
-0.19885876774787903,
-0.24540138244628906,
0.09610416740179062,
-0.2920370399951935,
0.22947993874549866,
-0.2414613515138626,
0.06932412832975388,
-0.5339387059211731,
-0.08000876754522324,
-0.4590730667114258,
-0.24392260611057281,
-0.43664079904556274,
0.08345400542020798,
-0.35281601548194885,
-0.3149186670780182,
-0.30158287286758423,
0.7908456921577454,
-0.2683958411216736,
0.3423343300819397,
-0.10289248824119568,
-1.0029678344726562,
0.5618496537208557,
0.334324449300766,
-0.7752758860588074,
0.48894479870796204,
-0.5415863990783691,
-0.40286892652511597,
0.06891585886478424,
0.439983993768692,
-0.47696855664253235,
-0.48365840315818787,
-0.022632760927081108,
0.15906989574432373,
-0.3963201940059662,
-0.4563290774822235,
0.03808557614684105,
0.019154926761984825,
-0.05310310423374176,
-0.37551602721214294,
-0.6461126208305359,
-0.00990259274840355,
0.799436092376709,
-0.1311054676771164,
1.0798485279083252,
-0.24290718138217926,
-0.37547874450683594,
-0.39299699664115906,
-0.04266037419438362,
-0.23303396999835968,
0.6078765392303467,
0.1678309291601181,
0.7287006974220276,
-0.09439024329185486,
-0.36961057782173157,
0.46075955033302307,
-0.176659494638443,
1.024584412574768,
0.33156418800354004,
-0.22654196619987488,
0.33503881096839905,
-0.40333235263824463,
0.16785520315170288,
0.03714989125728607,
-0.189676895737648,
0.024645783007144928,
-0.46899351477622986,
0.16505134105682373,
-0.46810635924339294,
0.35220447182655334,
0.969768226146698,
-1.178869366645813,
-0.12775704264640808,
-0.08860375732183456,
0.29964128136634827,
0.6820726990699768,
-0.20630639791488647,
0.10725750029087067,
-0.9442123174667358,
-0.06707523763179779,
0.28207600116729736,
-0.1530003696680069,
-0.44353291392326355,
0.04210960119962692,
-0.6017347574234009,
0.27225908637046814,
0.22699886560440063,
-0.6702079176902771,
-0.1668057143688202,
0.1733996570110321,
0.20010234415531158,
0.08869071304798126,
-0.2093076854944229,
-0.4315531849861145,
0.9302114248275757,
-0.34013065695762634,
-1.2869864702224731,
-0.08568494021892548,
-0.1533345729112625,
-0.5959227085113525,
0.1330898404121399,
-0.8468642234802246,
-0.500592052936554,
0.2052464634180069,
-0.0037089053075760603,
0.4214533865451813,
-0.11057952791452408,
-0.12529517710208893,
-0.2254861742258072,
0.24604427814483643,
0.38182127475738525,
-0.004757334943860769,
-0.1266237050294876,
0.9226909279823303,
-0.43852099776268005,
0.5653553605079651,
-0.6001384258270264,
0.6490838527679443,
-0.1832403540611267,
-0.9747352004051208,
0.330204039812088,
0.2680168151855469,
-0.3324616849422455,
-0.29838138818740845,
-0.23757915198802948,
0.3644484877586365,
0.24937032163143158,
0.14300236105918884,
-0.3879638612270355,
0.08748617023229599,
-0.2318509966135025,
-0.0012117980513721704,
0.5669705271720886,
-0.3291754126548767,
-0.22211644053459167,
-0.12132037431001663,
0.12491796165704727,
-0.18128983676433563,
0.06288781762123108,
0.664743959903717,
0.09444406628608704,
0.601751983165741,
-0.5865961313247681,
-0.4957299530506134,
0.08084602653980255,
0.43875929713249207,
0.024693772196769714,
0.1986406296491623,
-1.2860503196716309,
1.0537928342819214,
-0.7486613392829895,
-0.2809697389602661,
-0.6438650488853455,
-0.7649136781692505,
-0.02059139683842659,
0.3826308846473694,
0.47968167066574097,
0.44883644580841064,
-0.31426775455474854,
-0.2081325799226761,
0.015607481822371483,
0.46819305419921875,
0.09893523156642914,
-0.16851139068603516,
0.1009703055024147,
-0.5184267163276672,
0.6292056441307068,
-0.8833285570144653,
0.2937138080596924,
-1.0557500123977661,
0.1420118510723114,
0.14953425526618958,
0.009759270586073399,
-0.6387544870376587,
0.0452178493142128,
-0.028525955975055695,
-0.36020445823669434,
-0.8529444336891174,
0.11794667690992355,
-0.45682093501091003,
-0.15476836264133453,
0.10111066699028015,
-0.07217960059642792,
0.12149635702371597,
0.2646811902523041,
0.21074312925338745,
0.37119734287261963,
-0.0006926559144631028,
0.10433695465326309,
-0.6557005643844604,
0.4694908559322357,
0.365757018327713,
-0.4419410228729248,
0.32567018270492554,
0.0496927872300148,
-0.308921217918396,
-0.3193885087966919,
0.8369103074073792,
-0.3542606830596924,
-0.2644961476325989,
-0.237822487950325,
-0.3047025799751282,
0.10623516142368317,
0.19970360398292542,
0.07328716665506363,
-0.585801899433136,
0.42689618468284607,
-0.9696815609931946,
-0.45491698384284973,
0.3043555021286011,
-0.32613056898117065,
-0.28014543652534485,
-0.059991177171468735,
0.6129358410835266,
0.4878830313682556,
0.4148212969303131,
-0.06681547313928604,
0.3222626745700836,
0.11519137024879456,
0.25002384185791016,
0.052627258002758026,
0.8934183716773987,
-0.11620587855577469,
-0.0249971691519022,
-0.06892538070678711,
0.4059533476829529,
0.3272802531719208,
-0.21805021166801453,
-0.17855437099933624,
0.4843580424785614,
-0.2581437826156616,
-1.210243582725525,
0.6344366073608398,
-0.26408079266548157,
0.028692390769720078,
-1.3361023664474487,
0.01741942949593067,
-0.33771783113479614,
0.3079507648944855,
-0.2199682891368866,
-0.29242411255836487,
-0.5735582113265991,
0.03840883448719978,
-0.17523320019245148,
0.1426970213651657,
0.5392423868179321,
-0.12941472232341766,
-0.10284771025180817,
-0.5963379144668579,
-0.031924910843372345,
-0.2198912352323532,
0.1822330355644226,
0.8052658438682556,
0.13145095109939575,
0.06856393069028854,
-0.36960873007774353,
-0.01652410812675953,
-0.10983797907829285,
0.7581708431243896,
0.4214636981487274,
0.30086639523506165,
-0.25194308161735535,
0.283128023147583,
0.1272035837173462,
0.13378310203552246,
0.4681379497051239,
0.571998119354248,
0.47873803973197937,
0.9780129790306091,
-0.1352291703224182,
-0.15009789168834686,
0.33823418617248535,
0.11586267501115799,
-0.6819456815719604,
-0.4621949791908264,
0.6420881748199463
] |
200250
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiichi%20Miyazawa
|
Kiichi Miyazawa
|
was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1991 to 1993. He was a member of the National Diet of Japan for over 50 years.
Early life and education
Miyazawa was born into a wealthy, politically active family in Fukuyama, Hiroshima, on 8 October 1919. His father was a member of the Diet and his grandfather a cabinet minister. He graduated from Tokyo Imperial University with a degree in law.
Career
In 1942, Miyazawa joined the Ministry of Finance, avoiding military service during World War II. While in the Ministry, he became a protégé of future prime minister Hayato Ikeda. He was a prefectural director of the Kempeitai, the Japanese secret military police, during the war.
In 1953, at Ikeda's urging, Miyazawa ran for and won election to the Upper House of the National Diet, where he remained until moving to the Lower House in 1967. As a leading figure in Ikeda's Kōchikai policy group, Miyazawa was considered a member of Ikeda's "brains trust." In 1961, Miyazawa accompanied Ikeda to a summit meeting with U.S. President John F. Kennedy, and due to his excellent English, served as Ikeda's sole translator during the latter's "yacht talks" with Kennedy on Kennedy's presidential yacht, the Honey Fitz.
Beginning with the Ikeda cabinet, Miyazawa held a number of important government posts, including Director of the Economic Planning Agency (1962-1964), Director of the Economic Planning Agency (1966-1968), Minister of International Trade and Industry (1970–1971), Minister of Foreign Affairs (1974–1976), Director of the Economic Planning Agency (1977–1978), and Chief Cabinet Secretary (1984–1986). He became Minister of Finance under the government of Noboru Takeshita in July 1986. However, Miyazawa had to resign from this post amid the Recruit scandal in 1988.
Prime minister
Miyazawa became Prime Minister on 5 November 1991 backed by his faction. Miyazawa gained brief fame in the United States when President George H. W. Bush vomited in his lap and fainted during a state dinner on 8 January 1992.
In 1992, while he was in South Korea, he formally apologized for Japan's use of comfort women, making him the first Japanese leader to acknowledge that Japan's military coerced women into sexual slavery before and during the second world war.
His government passed a law allowing Japan to send its forces overseas for peacekeeping missions as well as negotiating a trade agreement with the United States. It also introduced financial reforms to address the growing economic malaise in Japan in the 1990s. Miyazawa resigned in 1993 after losing a vote of no confidence marking an end to 38 years of Liberal Democratic Party government. The reason for the vote was a scandal involving Fumio Abe, a member of Miyazawa's faction. The Liberal Democratic Party returned to power in June 1994.
Subsequent career
Miyazawa later returned to frontbench politics when he was once again appointed finance minister from 1998 to 2001 in the governments of Keizō Obuchi and Yoshirō Mori. In 1998, Miyazawa replaced Hikaru Matsunaga as finance minister.
He served a total of 14 terms in both upper and lower houses before retiring from politics in 2003. The reason for his retirement was that then prime minister Junichiro Koizumi set an age limit of 73 for LDP political candidates.
Personal life
Miyazawa married while studying in the United States. He and his wife, Yoko, had two children: Hiro, an architect, and Keiko, who became wife of diplomat Christopher J. Lafleur. He published a book, entitled Secret Talks Between Tokyo and Washington, which was translated into English by Robert D. Eldridge in 2007. The book is about Miyazawa's views concerning the relationships between the US and Japan in terms of the political, economic, and security-related negotiations during the period of 1949 and 1954.
Death
Miyazawa died in Tokyo at the age of 87 on 28 June 2007.
References
External links
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1919 births
2007 deaths
20th-century prime ministers of Japan
People from Fukuyama, Hiroshima
University of Tokyo alumni
Prime Ministers of Japan
Deputy Prime Ministers of Japan
Economic planning ministers of Japan
Ministers of Finance of Japan
Ministers of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan
Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) politicians
Members of the House of Councillors (Japan)
Members of the House of Representatives (Japan)
Foreign ministers of Japan
Kiichi
Politicians from Hiroshima Prefecture
|
[
-0.4997996389865875,
-0.31641700863838196,
-0.6763067245483398,
-0.06431017816066742,
-0.9328994750976562,
0.699743926525116,
0.5565958619117737,
0.18278175592422485,
0.030872857198119164,
0.15881949663162231,
0.7242201566696167,
0.3490463197231293,
-0.1644142121076584,
0.29497718811035156,
-0.2770065367221832,
-0.352224200963974,
0.11207934468984604,
0.4182196259498596,
-0.27732938528060913,
-0.1576756238937378,
-0.06634391099214554,
-0.5432237386703491,
-0.18838857114315033,
-0.14444328844547272,
0.1803109347820282,
0.3407714068889618,
0.36754512786865234,
0.9555917382240295,
-0.1059814915060997,
-0.1298220455646515,
0.06002451479434967,
0.6161595582962036,
0.28472065925598145,
-0.26727694272994995,
-0.3386859893798828,
-0.0702248141169548,
0.14439882338047028,
0.019764667376875877,
-0.02243484929203987,
0.09593010693788528,
-0.01568790338933468,
0.29585155844688416,
0.19781984388828278,
0.019062532112002373,
0.032510604709386826,
-0.9839120507240295,
-1.9857385158538818,
-0.14280158281326294,
-0.6083282828330994,
-0.3235810697078705,
-0.00697077764198184,
0.4227137565612793,
0.6371982097625732,
0.01994279772043228,
-0.39952558279037476,
0.8922213912010193,
0.17570573091506958,
-0.2592310905456543,
-0.4424993097782135,
-0.2945895493030548,
-0.023319115862250328,
-0.6434066295623779,
0.4634474515914917,
-0.2148018628358841,
-0.030028050765395164,
0.4041270315647125,
0.24560414254665375,
-0.010575235821306705,
0.14310987293720245,
-0.1306217461824417,
0.18297167122364044,
0.8639563322067261,
0.5172271132469177,
0.5646077394485474,
-0.08971446752548218,
-0.735027551651001,
-0.2754555940628052,
0.1567377895116806,
-0.05169535055756569,
0.26712682843208313,
-0.5148391723632812,
-0.4248048663139343,
-0.004816571716219187,
0.5790771245956421,
0.24913445115089417,
-0.4767671823501587,
-0.33719292283058167,
0.6687362194061279,
-0.5808570384979248,
0.8010413646697998,
-0.5795979499816895,
-0.4686521589756012,
0.2622659504413605,
-0.16021671891212463,
-0.32006868720054626,
0.0072159068658947945,
-0.2614161968231201,
0.8285249471664429,
-0.00988007616251707,
-0.5733026266098022,
0.1494421362876892,
-0.013135717250406742,
-0.052868638187646866,
-0.05014149099588394,
-0.9695690274238586,
-0.3684008717536926,
-0.3511087894439697,
-0.1124889925122261,
-0.36261075735092163,
-0.05944221094250679,
-0.2718985676765442,
0.7556059956550598,
-0.16883662343025208,
0.2717832922935486,
-0.1676260232925415,
0.3358495235443115,
0.057027023285627365,
-0.12115391343832016,
0.23838914930820465,
-0.03965503349900246,
0.06293598562479019,
0.032151203602552414,
-0.5428451299667358,
-0.15126042068004608,
-0.4101715385913849,
0.5183383822441101,
-0.3777492642402649,
-0.3930099904537201,
-0.2612855136394501,
0.16782863438129425,
0.7224345803260803,
1.136698842048645,
-0.7157787084579468,
0.32042548060417175,
0.22480793297290802,
-0.36943408846855164,
0.36935707926750183,
-0.025387868285179138,
-0.3469163179397583,
-0.3700697720050812,
-0.4075355529785156,
-0.004733665380626917,
-1.1289863586425781,
-0.3356962203979492,
-0.1813899576663971,
0.1919395625591278,
-0.35890987515449524,
-0.5627431869506836,
-0.33280304074287415,
-0.09646590799093246,
0.35745733976364136,
0.2681407034397125,
-0.007716022431850433,
0.1977405995130539,
-0.2745847702026367,
0.2147759348154068,
0.5391581654548645,
-0.46681779623031616,
0.11557900905609131,
0.2961314916610718,
-0.25359442830085754,
-0.05684817209839821,
-0.35481151938438416,
0.40860724449157715,
-0.018188204616308212,
-0.30576568841934204,
0.15083087980747223,
-0.2604654133319855,
-0.3782949149608612,
0.21042031049728394,
0.0641351044178009,
-0.5549513101577759,
-0.48355311155319214,
-0.4469161033630371,
0.5020826458930969,
-0.2813171446323395,
0.791726291179657,
-0.1621347814798355,
-0.1722046285867691,
-0.08092305064201355,
-0.7565820813179016,
-0.6110088229179382,
-0.24842385947704315,
0.21281975507736206,
0.5293126106262207,
0.46208271384239197,
0.17208413779735565,
0.3498346209526062,
0.8509108424186707,
0.3396032750606537,
-0.27292272448539734,
-0.4565335214138031,
0.03975795954465866,
-0.16307255625724792,
0.41376155614852905,
0.3613879084587097,
0.015260863117873669,
-0.2155110239982605,
-0.09351889044046402,
0.7062014937400818,
0.16772566735744476,
-0.31259942054748535,
0.10140247642993927,
-0.2277795672416687,
0.2741371989250183,
0.7189193367958069,
0.3597409427165985,
0.1943998485803604,
-0.03575782850384712,
0.8407934904098511,
0.2695261538028717,
0.4377775192260742,
-0.4560677111148834,
-0.0031630995217710733,
-0.2549036741256714,
-0.24154344201087952,
-0.4236944615840912,
0.05505501478910446,
0.4435608685016632,
-0.4870349168777466,
0.5305028557777405,
0.3107895851135254,
-0.6545506715774536,
0.6112765669822693,
0.33182603120803833,
1.103299617767334,
0.24673837423324585,
0.367885947227478,
-0.003680006368085742,
-0.720332145690918,
0.18898266553878784,
0.12165673822164536,
-0.052406225353479385,
-0.20829951763153076,
-0.31869587302207947,
0.44603651762008667,
0.7358505725860596,
-0.0306804608553648,
-0.29690688848495483,
-0.12116347998380661,
0.44021841883659363,
0.47073277831077576,
-0.1760236769914627,
0.2231876105070114,
0.5225185751914978,
0.1574297994375229,
-0.3295607566833496,
0.511725127696991,
-1.0964869260787964,
0.017458688467741013,
0.5463655591011047,
-0.0020168088376522064,
0.8082235455513,
-0.25442174077033997,
0.21791958808898926,
-0.44839760661125183,
0.04976852238178253,
-0.43320444226264954,
-0.39865371584892273,
0.17472705245018005,
-0.1885627806186676,
-0.23063156008720398,
0.6586215496063232,
-0.29174503684043884,
-0.09794655442237854,
0.001848149229772389,
0.5050674676895142,
-0.0716593936085701,
-0.1526147425174713,
-0.5953822731971741,
-0.007516209036111832,
-0.3035922348499298,
-0.24837659299373627,
-0.555651843547821,
0.04243812710046768,
-0.5829838514328003,
-0.617874264717102,
0.7568390369415283,
-0.46344566345214844,
-0.47390034794807434,
0.8401780128479004,
0.632658839225769,
-0.48971614241600037,
-0.2067084163427353,
-0.3016134202480316,
0.16394293308258057,
-0.7092602252960205,
-0.3214714229106903,
-0.45261523127555847,
0.021321075037121773,
-0.4938907325267792,
0.45869773626327515,
-0.5041734576225281,
-0.14145627617835999,
-0.38437438011169434,
0.29417455196380615,
-0.3640642762184143,
-0.6585606932640076,
0.765690803527832,
-0.19600382447242737,
-0.8424192667007446,
0.037478163838386536,
0.33321160078048706,
0.49579304456710815,
0.4575078785419464,
0.2569991648197174,
-0.16719618439674377,
-0.21473252773284912,
-5.279339790344238,
0.3930676281452179,
-0.09978761523962021,
-0.21681945025920868,
0.18658213317394257,
0.5983460545539856,
0.8212777376174927,
-0.05759894847869873,
0.34480664134025574,
-0.20931588113307953,
-0.052323780953884125,
0.0913495123386383,
0.829295814037323,
0.8399121761322021,
0.22531108558177948,
0.1863781213760376,
0.7399157285690308,
-0.2497454285621643,
0.19236820936203003,
-0.25504225492477417,
-0.026829442009329796,
-0.15117034316062927,
-0.2842937409877777,
0.6712073683738708,
0.38429000973701477,
0.535236656665802,
-1.043390154838562,
0.8102232217788696,
-0.49173688888549805,
-0.07288328558206558,
-0.4189566373825073,
-0.014533382840454578,
-0.37100547552108765,
0.5207461714744568,
-0.5253574848175049,
-0.35055696964263916,
0.12913428246974945,
0.1975473165512085,
0.16578534245491028,
0.30952733755111694,
-0.18622209131717682,
-0.38131171464920044,
-1.1373867988586426,
0.2834298610687256,
0.5762417912483215,
-0.6370998620986938,
-0.7908939123153687,
-0.1582092046737671,
0.09814087301492691,
0.32866188883781433,
0.5166652202606201,
-0.10064280033111572,
0.6405707001686096,
-0.07940786331892014,
0.3878903090953827,
-0.20754104852676392,
0.33393409848213196,
-0.14575374126434326,
-0.7696709036827087,
-0.11495841294527054,
0.03268599882721901,
-0.35016265511512756,
0.14168934524059296,
-0.4195871353149414,
0.01828404888510704,
-0.37693169713020325,
0.30472448468208313,
0.09188257902860641,
0.11860841512680054,
0.30949291586875916,
-1.0097894668579102,
0.4517393708229065,
0.6117135286331177,
-0.9623093008995056,
0.4555946886539459,
0.0660298690199852,
-0.16153208911418915,
0.18546196818351746,
-0.3510857820510864,
-0.6597251296043396,
-0.4664094150066376,
-0.18237854540348053,
0.06329602748155594,
0.29620394110679626,
0.11550676822662354,
0.17067866027355194,
0.385429710149765,
0.23957559466362,
0.11958711594343185,
0.41130825877189636,
0.5895020365715027,
-0.6668186783790588,
0.4033680260181427,
0.17327390611171722,
0.9550151228904724,
-0.02107214368879795,
-0.32271090149879456,
0.3467053174972534,
0.4712141752243042,
-0.7901835441589355,
-0.37785908579826355,
-0.25809523463249207,
-1.0277957916259766,
-0.6658528447151184,
0.017066163942217827,
-0.5360162854194641,
-0.4662179946899414,
-0.09868665039539337,
0.15071134269237518,
0.7390360236167908,
-0.16380558907985687,
-0.19861777126789093,
-0.44990208745002747,
0.2530277669429779,
0.6844415068626404,
-0.22499144077301025,
-0.22333569824695587,
0.2279496043920517,
0.4447977542877197,
0.17016297578811646,
-0.2565321922302246,
0.40476229786872864,
0.0248409491032362,
-0.8405960202217102,
0.7204400897026062,
0.20326028764247894,
0.008111505769193172,
0.3993990123271942,
-0.25483956933021545,
0.410925030708313,
0.23097024857997894,
1.0498054027557373,
-0.08703209459781647,
-0.3724329471588135,
0.4699620008468628,
-0.7402511835098267,
-1.0006064176559448,
-0.4575844705104828,
0.39841702580451965,
0.23274706304073334,
0.20996937155723572,
-0.2967291474342346,
-0.1485842615365982,
0.10597552359104156,
-0.35484328866004944,
0.3898865282535553,
-0.34516027569770813,
0.08404576778411865,
-0.09478466957807541,
0.6496526002883911,
-0.3112875521183014,
-0.9994946718215942,
0.10288657993078232,
-0.35983511805534363,
-0.11805741488933563,
0.5068861246109009,
-0.6592421531677246,
-0.2865804135799408,
-0.6970868706703186,
-0.005357123911380768,
0.08433406800031662,
-0.3811434507369995,
-1.1672860383987427,
0.30230194330215454,
0.20866642892360687,
-0.14112581312656403,
-0.5265761017799377,
-0.0887199193239212,
-0.0181545689702034,
0.9544811844825745,
0.387398362159729,
-0.3648163974285126,
-0.457213431596756,
0.13279131054878235,
0.34290972352027893,
0.08823295682668686,
0.6130620837211609,
0.3293643593788147,
-0.47172412276268005,
0.01501341350376606,
0.07363840937614441,
0.6100707650184631,
-0.44431430101394653,
0.3157155215740204,
0.1915493607521057,
-0.5544489622116089,
-0.6950998902320862,
-0.3984405994415283,
-0.4534491002559662,
0.009536665864288807,
0.2036348581314087,
-0.34547555446624756,
0.2512609660625458,
0.9977428317070007,
0.0865088626742363,
-0.2237459123134613,
0.25219857692718506,
-0.12333137542009354,
-0.24027124047279358,
-0.39274725317955017,
-0.43058454990386963,
0.034403663128614426,
0.05459475517272949,
-0.413230299949646,
-0.3274509310722351,
-0.67729252576828,
0.34934699535369873,
0.7933582663536072,
0.7987673282623291,
-0.15121006965637207,
-0.35266005992889404,
-0.12029220163822174,
-0.33088576793670654,
-0.14725549519062042,
0.17562532424926758,
0.127767413854599,
0.4205563962459564,
0.47967591881752014,
-0.4324982762336731,
-0.8432864546775818,
-0.24413615465164185,
0.2472061812877655,
-0.5270372033119202,
-0.2552933096885681,
-0.3424367606639862,
0.2643759250640869,
0.5390535593032837,
0.33914053440093994,
-0.3109813332557678,
-0.34594598412513733,
-0.4112728238105774,
0.32146283984184265,
0.43191370368003845,
-0.18427401781082153,
-0.07977084815502167,
0.024845901876688004,
0.22901512682437897,
-0.0014887509169057012,
0.8113000392913818,
-0.25067952275276184,
0.565872073173523,
0.8347299695014954,
0.5171277523040771,
0.16573584079742432,
0.21541865170001984,
0.8130694031715393,
0.03562541306018829,
0.04407384991645813,
0.07630214840173721,
0.7882185578346252,
0.1254270374774933,
0.05150654539465904,
-0.5463132262229919,
-0.3417437672615051,
0.9003998041152954,
-0.7709860801696777,
-0.13568665087223053,
0.496501088142395,
0.07682839781045914,
-0.026845457032322884,
-0.3057180941104889,
0.37723490595817566,
0.30452093482017517,
0.01743415929377079,
0.3133179545402527,
0.5988223552703857,
-0.52025306224823,
0.3113194406032562,
-0.17954373359680176,
-1.2033658027648926,
-0.9392552375793457,
-0.38401585817337036,
-0.2379642128944397,
0.857709527015686,
-0.2221783846616745,
0.36254462599754333,
-0.11242316663265228,
-0.28241100907325745,
-0.19518662989139557,
-0.07240031659603119,
-0.5761300921440125,
-0.17030738294124603,
0.21386362612247467,
-0.46294596791267395,
-0.46984541416168213,
-0.8286346793174744,
0.09324800968170166,
0.11781295388936996,
0.0028120470233261585,
0.06910336762666702,
-0.6792905330657959,
-0.2014552652835846,
-0.23540876805782318,
-0.23340971767902374,
-0.6045538187026978,
0.17420323193073273,
-0.38865768909454346,
-0.17727774381637573,
-0.6205374598503113,
-0.010121543891727924,
0.004108373541384935,
0.079611636698246,
0.325847327709198,
0.5705584287643433,
0.7863136529922485,
0.16591385006904602,
-0.2545759677886963,
-0.21826647222042084,
0.2641207277774811,
0.27537545561790466,
0.27483415603637695,
-0.03495824337005615,
0.031212512403726578,
0.5462667942047119,
-0.5580782294273376,
-0.05953679978847504,
0.03461617976427078,
-0.25055035948753357,
-0.5353941321372986,
-0.6429082751274109,
0.8935256004333496,
-0.09686654061079025,
0.14029185473918915,
0.42627546191215515,
0.8470986485481262,
0.5067750215530396,
0.4338984787464142,
-0.024977749213576317,
-0.3019765615463257,
0.4721742868423462,
0.21978707611560822,
0.02954375185072422,
-0.08739111572504044,
0.42176610231399536,
-0.40345504879951477,
0.1353977620601654,
-0.17831535637378693,
-0.7476071715354919,
0.44723668694496155,
-0.32727065682411194,
0.5511019229888916,
0.9676588773727417,
-0.9137584567070007,
0.14335700869560242,
0.37762054800987244,
0.09683313965797424,
-0.6126279830932617,
0.09638559818267822,
0.4300461709499359,
0.6416556239128113,
0.5650403499603271,
0.5802581310272217,
0.35424208641052246,
-0.7059177160263062,
-0.4168984293937683,
0.12838520109653473,
0.3291199803352356,
-0.2920559346675873,
0.33660101890563965,
-0.32260632514953613,
-0.0146034462377429,
-0.32477226853370667,
0.47539839148521423,
0.1699986606836319,
0.18165476620197296,
0.21414484083652496,
-0.7123767137527466,
-0.3958277404308319,
-0.0429716594517231,
0.20668569207191467,
-0.13110551238059998,
-0.43208712339401245,
-0.08685989677906036,
0.2744831144809723,
0.44979995489120483,
-0.02404867671430111,
0.8106165528297424,
-0.10650493949651718,
-0.06131203845143318,
-0.16245350241661072,
0.0731160119175911,
0.41175028681755066,
-0.18778444826602936,
-0.4555642902851105,
0.6178345680236816,
0.526711106300354,
-0.27850741147994995,
0.27748745679855347,
-0.3598257005214691,
0.1306591033935547,
-0.131148561835289,
-0.3781887888908386,
-0.3921773433685303,
0.8451139330863953,
-0.26868897676467896,
0.12974368035793304,
-0.024813082069158554,
0.11221680790185928,
0.8311589956283569,
-0.14266926050186157,
0.009223521687090397,
-0.3302508294582367,
-0.742583692073822,
0.45608094334602356,
-0.3843839168548584,
0.2502804696559906,
-0.8036770820617676,
0.41833817958831787,
-0.23584610223770142,
0.3633520305156708,
0.39481672644615173,
0.7871097922325134,
-0.4618968069553375,
0.2665165364742279,
-0.5903872847557068,
-0.3946996033191681,
1.0487024784088135,
-0.21700578927993774,
-0.03425354138016701,
0.14526130259037018,
0.10927888751029968,
-0.19084487855434418,
0.36106085777282715,
0.5104034543037415,
0.18048477172851562,
0.07562743872404099,
0.7332294583320618,
-0.11103258281946182,
0.20620878040790558,
0.6101824641227722,
-0.628256618976593,
-0.5909202694892883,
0.010266365483403206,
-0.07491438090801239,
0.00614570640027523,
0.3237912058830261,
0.655234694480896,
0.6255096197128296,
0.6950505375862122,
-0.13826468586921692,
0.07280853390693665,
-0.11983536928892136,
0.4948054254055023,
-0.2551288604736328,
-1.1682969331741333,
-0.18515005707740784,
-0.03438993915915489,
-0.5993307828903198,
-0.18332019448280334,
-0.5251228213310242,
0.35416874289512634,
-0.5378894805908203,
0.6410277485847473,
-0.26574215292930603,
0.319271981716156,
-0.329356849193573,
0.4214034676551819,
-0.7326339483261108,
0.270502507686615,
-0.6391533613204956
] |
200252
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morihiro%20Hosokawa
|
Morihiro Hosokawa
|
is a Japanese politician and noble who was Prime Minister of Japan from 1993 to 1994, leading a coalition government which was the first non-Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) government of Japan since 1955. After a funding scandal in early 1994, he was forced to resign. He later ran unsuccessfully as a candidate for Governor of Tokyo in the February 2014 gubernatorial election as an independent supported by the Democratic Party of Japan. He has been, since 2005, the head of the Kumamoto-Hosokawa clan, one of the noble families of Japan.
Early life
Morihiro Hosokawa was born in Tokyo as the eldest grandson of Moritatsu, 3rd Marquess Hosokawa, and head of the Hosokawa clan. His maternal grandfather is the pre-war prime minister Prince Fumimaro Konoe. As a great-great-grandson of Prince Kuni Asahiko, he is a third cousin of the present emperor, Naruhito. He is also a descendant of Christian heroine Gracia Hosokawa.
Hosokawa received his LL.B. degree from Sophia University in 1961. After working for the newspaper Asahi Shimbun as journalist for five years, he made an unsuccessful run in the 1969 general election. He was elected to the House of Councillors of Japan as an LDP representative of Kumamoto Prefecture in 1971, with his campaign funded by party boss Kakuei Tanaka.
After serving two terms in the National Diet, he left in 1983 to become the governor of Kumamoto, where he served until 1991. During his term as governor, he complained about the powerful bureaucracy of the central government. Hosokawa pursued an aggressive economic policy and strengthened environmental laws. In May 1992, an ongoing campaign contribution scandal inspired him to form the reformist Japan New Party (JNP), which won four seats (one of which Hosokawa assumed) in the 1992 House of Councillors election.
Prime minister
In the July 1993 general election, in a change very few had foreseen even a year earlier, the LDP lost its majority in the Diet for the first time in thirty-eight years, winning only 223 out of 511 seats in the House of Representatives. The previous LDP government of Kiichi Miyazawa was replaced by an eight-party coalition government which promised a series of social, political, and economic reforms. Excluding the JCP, the coalition was backed by all of the former opposition parties, which included the newly formed JNP, the Japan Socialist Party, the Japan Renewal Party (Shinseito), Komeito, the Democratic Socialist Party, the Socialist Democratic Federation, the RENGO and the New Party Sakigake, who together controlled 243 seats in the House of Representatives. Hosokawa, one of the major voices in forming the coalition, was chosen as the new Prime Minister.
Walter Mondale, then the US ambassador to Japan, characterized Hosokawa as having a "Kennedy-esque" ability to focus on ideals; nonetheless, Hosokawa's coalition had no common ideas other than their opposition to the LDP, which undermined Hosokawa throughout his term as prime minister. He was also at odds with Japan's bureaucracy, which he sought to reform after decades of bureaucratic entrenchment under the LDP.
Foreign policy
Hosokawa made several unprecedented moves toward atonement with Japan's Asian neighbors during his term as prime minister. In his first news conference in office, he made an unprecedented statement acknowledging that Japan waged a war of aggression in World War II.
He later said: "You can obviously define 'aggression' in any number of ways, depending on context. But if you have any common sense, you just cannot say in good conscience that Japan was not the aggressor when Japan did in fact cause tremendous anguish and loss of life in China, Korea and Southeast Asian nations in order to protect its own interests. I knew my opinion was going to invite heated controversy."
On 6 November 1993, he visited South Korea, where he had a summit with President Kim Young-sam in Gyeongju and again offered a clear apology to the Korean people for Japan's actions in the war, statements which were widely applauded in Korea. Hosokawa viewed the Japanese annexation of Korea as wrong and rejected the common view in Japan that it was with Korea's consent and was beneficial to Korea. On 19 March 1994, he visited China, and the two governments signed an agreement of cooperation in environmental protection.
In May 1994, right-wing extremist Masakatsu Nozoe fired a gunshot into the ceiling of a Tokyo hotel where Hosokawa was giving a speech, in apparent protest at Hosokawa's statements.
Hosokawa's acts toward China and Korea inspired Russian president Boris Yeltsin to apologize to Hosokawa for the Soviet detention of Japanese prisoners of war in Siberia. Hosokawa later speculated that if both men had remained in office longer Russian-Japanese relations would have improved significantly. Hosokawa also had a good personal relationship with Bill Clinton, but trade disputes between Japan and the United States dominated US-Japan relations during Hosokawa's tenure.
Domestic policy
The Hosokawa government pushed for changes to Japanese election laws intended to fight political corruption, including elimination of corporate political donations to individual candidates and a redrawing of the electoral system, both intended to prevent the LDP from continuing to employ its past electoral practices. After an extended legislative fight, the LDP was able to force several concessions to maintain their advantage, retaining corporate political donations with a cap, while pushing back on some more radical changes to the electoral map and ensuring that most candidates would keep essentially the same seats in the next election. These compromises had a negative impact on the public approval of the Hosokawa coalition.
A law of December 1993 amending the Basic Law on measures for physically and mentally disabled persons of 1970 aimed to promote the independence of disabled people and their participation in activities in any field such as culture, the economy, and community affairs. Amendments made to regulations under the Industrial Safety and Health Law of 1972 on 30 March 1994 included accidents involving the collapsing of cranes and breaking of wires that needed to be reported to the authorities. On 1 April 1994, a 40-hour workweek was introduced.
Hosokawa also enacted cuts in income and resident taxes, intended to help Japan out of the recession that had followed the Japanese asset price bubble of the late 1980s and early 1990s. After pressure from the finance ministry, the government compensated for these cuts by announcing an increase in the consumption tax from 3% to 7%, effective from 1997. The move was controversial within the cabinet, as Ichiro Ozawa favored a 10% rate while the Japan Socialist Party would not agree to an increase. Hosokawa announced the increase but retracted the announcement the next day, leaving the tax at 3%. The government's response to the issue weakened its hold on power and was said to hasten its demise. The tax was eventually increased to 5% in 1997 by LDP Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto.
Resignation
Hosokawa was forced to resign in April 1994 after it came to light that he had accepted a 100-million-yen loan from a trucking company previously accused of bribery and links to organized crime. Amid allegations of bribery, Hosokawa argued that the money was a loan and produced a receipt to show that he had paid it back; LDP members passed around a copy remarking that it looked like a sloppy fake. Although Hosokawa still had high public approval at the time, opinion was growing that he could not meet the expectations set at the start of his term.
Hosokawa's resignation was abrupt and led to a number of frenzied meetings aimed at saving the coalition, which was torn between the rival camps of Ichiro Ozawa and Masayoshi Takemura. After his resignation, the coalition was taken over by the Shinseito president Tsutomu Hata.
Cabinet
The Hosokawa cabinet was a product of his multi-party coalition but was dominated by individuals viewed as conservatives. Its key ministers were members of the Shinseito party led by Ichiro Ozawa. Hosokawa's own Japan New Party had no other representatives in the cabinet.
Later political life
Hosokawa joined the New Frontier Party in 1994 but, following further disputes with Ichiro Ozawa, left in 1997 with four other legislators who formed the short-lived From Five party. In 1998, From Five merged into the Good Governance Party, which itself merged into the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) later that year.
After the LDP returned to power in 1994, Hosokawa teamed up with Junichiro Koizumi of the LDP and Shusei Tanaka of New Party Sakigake in a strategic dialogue across party lines regarding Japan becoming a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. Although this idea was not popular within the LDP and never came to fruition, Hosokawa and Koizumi maintained a close working relationship in subsequent years. Hosokawa tacitly served as Koizumi's personal envoy to China at times of strained Sino-Japanese relations during Koizumi's term as prime minister from 2001 to 2006.
Hosokawa retired from politics in 1998 at the age of 60. In his retirement, he took up pottery, studying intensively for 18 months under pottery master Shiro Tsujimura. Hosokawa's pottery has been exhibited in Japan and Europe. He uses his pottery for tea ceremonies at a tea house originally constructed for a visit by Jacques Chirac, which was cancelled due to the outbreak of the Iraq War. He is also a special consultant to The Japan Times. Upon his father's death in 2005, Hosokawa succeeded him as the head of the Hosokawa family.
Tokyo gubernatorial bid
In 2014, at the age of 75, Hosokawa was approached by the DPJ to run in the Tokyo gubernatorial election. Although Hosokawa initially turned down their request, former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi encouraged him to run for the primary purpose of gathering public opposition to Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's pro-nuclear policies, and Hosokawa again considered running for the office. This was initially perceived as a blow to Yōichi Masuzoe, the LDP-supported candidate who was also supported by elements within the DPJ and who had previously been considered the lone front-runner in the race; the race between Masuzoe and Hosokawa became widely dubbed as a "proxy contest" between Abe and Koizumi.
Hosokawa announced his candidacy alongside Koizumi on January 14. His campaign was supported by several key members of his 1993-94 coalition: Banri Kaieda and Ichirō Ozawa, who had since become the heads of the Democratic Party of Japan and People's Life Party respectively, threw their support behind Hosokawa, while Shusei Tanaka and Yoriko Madoka were enlisted as his policy advisors.
During his campaign, Hosokawa criticized the Abe government's nuclear policy, stating: "Tokyo is shoving nuclear power plants and nuclear waste to other regions, while enjoying the convenience (of electricity) as a big consumer." He also criticized Abe's foreign policy in the run-up to the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, questioning "whether pugnacious diplomacy will help the festival of peace to be held smoothly."
Hosokawa failed to gain momentum and trailed behind Masuzoe in the polls through the final week of the campaign, with only a 30–40% support rating within the DPJ and PLP and particularly low support among women. Masuzoe was declared the winner in exit polls shortly after voting ended on February 9, but Hosokawa vowed to continue anti-nuclear advocacy.
Personal life
Hosokawa lives in Yugawara, Kanagawa. His wife, Kayoko Hosokawa, to whom he has been married since 23 October 1971, served as honorary chair of the Special Olympics Nippon Foundation and headed NPOs devoted to providing vaccines to children in developing nations and helping the intellectually disabled. He and Kayoko have three children: Morimitsu, Satoko and Yūko.
Notes
References
External links
Policy speech to the 127th Session of the National Diet 23 August 1993
Policy speech to the 128th Session of the National Diet 21 September 1993
Policy speech to the 129th Session of the National Diet 4 March 1994
1938 births
Living people
20th-century prime ministers of Japan
People from Tokyo
Democratic Party of Japan politicians
Governors of Kumamoto Prefecture
Higo-Hosokawa clan
Konoe family
Japan New Party politicians
Japanese Buddhists
Japanese journalists
Japanese potters
Japanese tea masters
Liberal Democratic Party (Japan) politicians
Members of the House of Councillors (Japan)
Members of the House of Representatives (Japan)
New Frontier Party (Japan) politicians
20th-century Japanese politicians
The Asahi Shimbun people
People from Kumamoto
Politicians from Tokyo
Prime Ministers of Japan
Sophia University alumni
Tokyo gubernatorial candidates
|
[
-0.44848835468292236,
-0.29183512926101685,
-0.23229862749576569,
-0.010530638508498669,
-0.8505995273590088,
0.5614792704582214,
0.09701752662658691,
-0.27109265327453613,
-0.04289171099662781,
0.23915976285934448,
0.11812891066074371,
0.4023686349391937,
-0.06794053316116333,
0.35856300592422485,
-0.33833977580070496,
-0.11677917838096619,
0.2183707058429718,
0.13633963465690613,
-0.502991259098053,
-0.29487988352775574,
-0.35031858086586,
-0.3286629617214203,
-0.06901963800191879,
-0.054191943258047104,
0.23709537088871002,
0.22712446749210358,
0.3665604293346405,
0.4705922305583954,
0.07304900884628296,
-0.029792461544275284,
-0.03151864558458328,
0.4750928580760956,
0.3816031515598297,
-0.09826461225748062,
-0.44085633754730225,
-0.12063056230545044,
0.23515740036964417,
-0.07009343802928925,
0.17128153145313263,
0.16037286818027496,
0.25872448086738586,
0.14795860648155212,
0.31965315341949463,
0.018964024260640144,
0.037685103714466095,
-0.7367008924484253,
-1.2844407558441162,
0.2660903036594391,
-0.6731942892074585,
-0.3500780165195465,
-0.08676427602767944,
0.18048810958862305,
0.3917587697505951,
0.14513441920280457,
-0.18546539545059204,
0.6195593476295471,
-0.28055110573768616,
-0.27878838777542114,
-0.2741423547267914,
-0.2579817473888397,
-0.3325449824333191,
-0.23099763691425323,
0.8057910799980164,
-0.2661549746990204,
-0.21132642030715942,
0.3348686695098877,
0.3641882836818695,
-0.06342815607786179,
0.09214471280574799,
-0.006820771377533674,
0.16084939241409302,
0.45320597290992737,
0.3950641453266144,
0.45694199204444885,
0.08111647516489029,
-0.7642021775245667,
-0.2420043796300888,
0.4239892363548279,
0.013317294418811798,
0.31432440876960754,
-0.4102471172809601,
-0.5131345987319946,
0.10614903271198273,
0.3092201054096222,
0.17437449097633362,
-0.44273316860198975,
0.07893683761358261,
0.7616273760795593,
-0.574913740158081,
0.7395045757293701,
-0.25740179419517517,
-0.27320972084999084,
0.5189113616943359,
-0.09370973706245422,
-0.6733013391494751,
-0.38313454389572144,
-0.028275812044739723,
0.4635617434978485,
0.16360977292060852,
-0.2633708715438843,
-0.16009356081485748,
0.3120902478694916,
0.121516153216362,
-0.07736963778734207,
-0.9311359524726868,
-0.5256388187408447,
-0.19797848165035248,
-0.22679999470710754,
-0.8854755759239197,
0.04390840604901314,
-0.31229159235954285,
0.6641749739646912,
0.05253996700048447,
0.4833548963069916,
0.07860254496335983,
0.30256956815719604,
0.03422150760889053,
-0.03151442110538483,
0.16893862187862396,
0.19594156742095947,
0.17909319698810577,
0.09956797957420349,
-0.2134702205657959,
0.16002576053142548,
-0.14357081055641174,
0.20133563876152039,
-0.37072452902793884,
-0.5993130803108215,
-0.2425421178340912,
-0.1541750133037567,
1.0402165651321411,
0.984146773815155,
-0.5256774425506592,
0.2666529417037964,
0.11212702095508575,
-0.3648305833339691,
0.3514207601547241,
-0.14976166188716888,
-0.10823589563369751,
-0.3697299659252167,
-0.8488413095474243,
0.24295614659786224,
-0.39438459277153015,
-0.1456385850906372,
0.11752773821353912,
0.39477717876434326,
-0.4966135621070862,
-0.44871729612350464,
-0.6177228093147278,
-0.16784244775772095,
0.03331025689840317,
0.1859527826309204,
0.1290932297706604,
-0.19673745334148407,
-0.10547713190317154,
0.15123972296714783,
0.8032337427139282,
-0.42867881059646606,
0.19746357202529907,
0.45511335134506226,
0.08577896654605865,
-0.32941827178001404,
-0.13919775187969208,
0.4741220474243164,
0.1604396104812622,
-0.17890925705432892,
0.30919283628463745,
0.24704109132289886,
-0.5271489024162292,
0.3158401548862457,
-0.08479493111371994,
-0.5686898231506348,
-0.47824251651763916,
-0.47884634137153625,
0.26798176765441895,
0.3612157106399536,
0.6531546711921692,
-0.22759835422039032,
0.14623534679412842,
-0.06403350830078125,
-0.7598390579223633,
-0.6532531976699829,
-0.1323554366827011,
0.013320979662239552,
0.13060252368450165,
0.4256167709827423,
-0.26198095083236694,
0.053720224648714066,
0.9336870312690735,
0.11127989739179611,
-0.33490318059921265,
-0.2654605805873871,
0.1937776654958725,
-0.15539804100990295,
0.21343955397605896,
0.618812620639801,
-0.11885171383619308,
0.3379594385623932,
0.17977534234523773,
0.7139291763305664,
0.20580926537513733,
-0.4877055585384369,
0.0859997421503067,
-0.4286618232727051,
0.15012341737747192,
0.11574412137269974,
0.26592445373535156,
0.5580058097839355,
-0.1407787799835205,
0.5196843147277832,
0.12579135596752167,
0.493548184633255,
-0.23881173133850098,
0.09989136457443237,
-0.0061692362651228905,
-0.04996093362569809,
-0.31543785333633423,
-0.17652852833271027,
0.2363022267818451,
-0.2515661120414734,
0.21849346160888672,
0.60793536901474,
-0.762945294380188,
0.6153228282928467,
0.08873514831066132,
1.3065472841262817,
0.1631869375705719,
0.23492570221424103,
-0.14680016040802002,
-0.23844248056411743,
0.4681151807308197,
0.2307533472776413,
-0.06341153383255005,
0.058790381997823715,
0.06943175941705704,
0.4737650454044342,
0.5175007581710815,
-0.05147475749254227,
-0.13391649723052979,
-0.32508978247642517,
0.5518388748168945,
0.4526127278804779,
-0.09139782190322876,
0.32636991143226624,
0.36997663974761963,
0.07253565639257431,
-0.5035759210586548,
0.7176914215087891,
-1.0480895042419434,
0.10413699597120285,
0.2576383650302887,
-0.05542488023638725,
0.6876632571220398,
0.2618803381919861,
0.32041803002357483,
-0.7486523985862732,
0.10968133807182312,
-0.04135043919086456,
-0.7213081121444702,
0.09986033290624619,
-0.1360226571559906,
-0.1756392866373062,
0.4368373155593872,
-0.15811516344547272,
0.20822283625602722,
0.29117733240127563,
0.2799254059791565,
-0.016928570345044136,
-0.001062994240783155,
-0.18380868434906006,
-0.14217160642147064,
-0.1933201551437378,
-0.6548178791999817,
0.19964317977428436,
-0.0386626198887825,
-0.8852415084838867,
-0.8150075078010559,
0.5979719758033752,
-0.6436225771903992,
-0.9254058003425598,
0.8661126494407654,
0.5780045986175537,
-0.5474275946617126,
-0.6118119955062866,
-0.5546496510505676,
-0.5360231399536133,
-0.857585072517395,
-0.8572489619255066,
-0.4903222918510437,
0.19510747492313385,
-0.4317166209220886,
0.7522319555282593,
-0.06732091307640076,
-0.6881954073905945,
-0.5738637447357178,
0.4612363576889038,
-0.3331875205039978,
-0.46742531657218933,
0.5882865190505981,
-0.18896318972110748,
-0.43406978249549866,
-0.33314093947410583,
0.30347001552581787,
0.6367382407188416,
0.4825053811073303,
0.1672743558883667,
0.17089468240737915,
-0.2564709484577179,
-5.63668155670166,
-0.08096682280302048,
0.22451795637607574,
-0.26446080207824707,
0.22899244725704193,
0.5789240598678589,
0.5468993782997131,
-0.06130547448992729,
0.4413331151008606,
-0.5782785415649414,
0.26900234818458557,
0.06433653831481934,
0.9365732073783875,
0.6385281682014465,
0.03734930232167244,
0.25376084446907043,
0.45928677916526794,
0.04283635690808296,
0.42202994227409363,
-0.03711562231183052,
-0.12064556032419205,
-0.08712177723646164,
-0.5264135003089905,
0.9228183627128601,
0.28299641609191895,
0.5100520849227905,
-0.9201828837394714,
0.5818842649459839,
-0.47579336166381836,
-0.13916222751140594,
-0.33567389845848083,
-0.002161310752853751,
-0.07037527114152908,
0.3895631730556488,
-0.7117363810539246,
-0.2665906250476837,
0.1650710552930832,
0.15981720387935638,
-0.18297652900218964,
0.3102545142173767,
0.1693524718284607,
-0.5411440134048462,
-0.8682356476783752,
-0.14465957880020142,
0.051429618149995804,
-0.49364057183265686,
-0.5750122666358948,
-0.0012290908489376307,
0.11515604704618454,
0.5110092163085938,
0.3457525372505188,
0.1354294866323471,
0.6647456288337708,
-0.4485557973384857,
0.5111135840415955,
0.27194270491600037,
0.14276249706745148,
0.31357717514038086,
-0.5867667198181152,
-0.12707893550395966,
-0.11878450959920883,
-0.1547713428735733,
0.21120260655879974,
-0.006808300502598286,
-0.20399236679077148,
-0.17423942685127258,
0.2945476770401001,
0.24706630408763885,
0.40703073143959045,
0.05561288446187973,
-0.7712993025779724,
0.22274746000766754,
0.4599286913871765,
-1.162457823753357,
0.3624749779701233,
-0.43825849890708923,
0.05415238440036774,
0.19964265823364258,
-0.6883195042610168,
-0.24076181650161743,
-0.45068004727363586,
-0.19533690810203552,
0.1379072517156601,
0.1840377300977707,
0.15691521763801575,
0.19597120583057404,
0.14063827693462372,
0.20928245782852173,
0.22240206599235535,
0.5127577781677246,
0.13292840123176575,
-0.740483820438385,
0.3591296374797821,
0.017219560220837593,
0.9244236350059509,
0.01542544923722744,
-0.32800912857055664,
0.7574223279953003,
0.35066285729408264,
-0.3731606900691986,
0.12307831645011902,
-0.27347812056541443,
-0.620070219039917,
-0.4858877956867218,
-0.037943337112665176,
-0.3877897262573242,
0.01351900678128004,
-0.12821106612682343,
0.0996280089020729,
0.7384294867515564,
0.15893083810806274,
-0.060213323682546616,
-0.35759299993515015,
-0.48006513714790344,
0.3558613955974579,
-0.3114287555217743,
-0.23657160997390747,
0.17177614569664001,
0.2755216956138611,
0.2317761927843094,
-0.13250452280044556,
0.31310221552848816,
-0.5418695211410522,
-0.5300512313842773,
0.20311489701271057,
0.04772868752479553,
-0.27144956588745117,
0.06591399759054184,
-0.23950587213039398,
0.029030315577983856,
0.19129221141338348,
0.799078643321991,
-0.12707851827144623,
-0.06558230519294739,
0.43439942598342896,
-0.6718429327011108,
-0.8015482425689697,
-0.4656324088573456,
0.029505260288715363,
0.3437574803829193,
0.004829744342714548,
-0.4178628921508789,
-0.427141934633255,
0.05186304822564125,
-0.2863844633102417,
0.1731380820274353,
-0.3294787108898163,
0.15557600557804108,
0.18456782400608063,
0.632672905921936,
0.08005033433437347,
-0.908237099647522,
0.20092584192752838,
-0.10520334541797638,
-0.37794917821884155,
0.0931229367852211,
-0.8052994608879089,
-0.1344069540500641,
-0.5073872208595276,
0.047461431473493576,
0.07182088494300842,
-0.5295897126197815,
-0.820582389831543,
0.21670787036418915,
0.2554326355457306,
-0.06846146285533905,
-0.4078150689601898,
-0.18433277308940887,
-0.4280201196670532,
0.3754115700721741,
0.5259024500846863,
-0.5310496091842651,
-0.23370857536792755,
0.07706372439861298,
0.4252658486366272,
-0.21480537950992584,
0.5903984308242798,
0.12427204847335815,
-0.36239558458328247,
-0.0004080153885297477,
0.13778294622898102,
0.588336706161499,
-0.47988468408584595,
0.10402462631464005,
0.2658841907978058,
-0.35445836186408997,
-0.29349568486213684,
-0.49412181973457336,
-0.47284558415412903,
-0.36446911096572876,
0.208462193608284,
-0.23221363127231598,
0.14783427119255066,
0.9521130919456482,
0.1921565979719162,
-0.4968087375164032,
0.03165128082036972,
-0.2953500747680664,
-0.24248741567134857,
-0.37325817346572876,
-0.32746994495391846,
-0.07797673344612122,
-0.20629340410232544,
-0.4630316495895386,
0.04669611155986786,
-0.4925764799118042,
-0.003231809241697192,
0.446116179227829,
0.8056259751319885,
0.026972804218530655,
-0.48116081953048706,
-0.26078683137893677,
0.06825657933950424,
-0.5244951248168945,
0.2522946000099182,
0.03077605552971363,
0.40213286876678467,
-0.2015608698129654,
-0.27246221899986267,
-0.9982457756996155,
-0.3304893672466278,
0.02029278874397278,
-0.17239663004875183,
-0.21222138404846191,
-0.1953527331352234,
0.3402496874332428,
0.4466126263141632,
-0.13116049766540527,
-0.10356228053569794,
-0.5142596364021301,
-0.47674232721328735,
0.17173153162002563,
0.20212101936340332,
0.3451497554779053,
-0.41126781702041626,
0.3140181005001068,
0.16353830695152283,
0.18655964732170105,
0.47112154960632324,
0.04275364801287651,
0.38738641142845154,
0.8273823261260986,
0.5561404228210449,
-0.038899846374988556,
-0.06794621050357819,
0.732752799987793,
0.41015225648880005,
0.14102569222450256,
0.1979198306798935,
0.7396746277809143,
0.26678046584129333,
-0.07956641912460327,
-0.17043212056159973,
-0.1286545693874359,
0.7500714063644409,
-0.9112681150436401,
-0.10912272334098816,
-0.004605126101523638,
-0.21763572096824646,
0.3308527171611786,
-0.14130839705467224,
0.2776418924331665,
0.3202873766422272,
-0.08899856358766556,
0.09935404360294342,
0.6398214101791382,
-0.6755772233009338,
0.2948180139064789,
-0.2305413782596588,
-1.071555495262146,
-0.6750386953353882,
-0.2807166874408722,
-0.48860809206962585,
0.6493844389915466,
-0.15748894214630127,
0.335395485162735,
0.07172641903162003,
0.12044733017683029,
-0.19259771704673767,
-0.4944971799850464,
-0.8208353519439697,
0.06373506784439087,
0.31540626287460327,
-0.5535416007041931,
-0.6156712174415588,
-1.116028070449829,
0.1720724254846573,
-0.09858161956071854,
-0.006549266166985035,
0.007434869185090065,
-0.6667094826698303,
-0.3951582610607147,
-0.10927199572324753,
-0.29794496297836304,
-0.3978491723537445,
0.2520398497581482,
-0.42449504137039185,
0.07346567511558533,
-0.6264262795448303,
0.08981596678495407,
0.0401911735534668,
-0.07546666264533997,
0.35341349244117737,
0.8117971420288086,
0.5581517219543457,
-0.0374884232878685,
-0.28219982981681824,
-0.017994314432144165,
0.03142853453755379,
0.4195006191730499,
0.5292356014251709,
-0.15588043630123138,
0.1988964080810547,
0.5010618567466736,
-0.3934183716773987,
0.1926078200340271,
-0.00528075871989131,
-0.13245603442192078,
-0.6330125331878662,
-0.3071773052215576,
0.6046395301818848,
-0.002580671338364482,
-0.06326483190059662,
0.09839153289794922,
0.7378067970275879,
0.28046369552612305,
0.393536776304245,
0.39757439494132996,
-0.2651031017303467,
0.3124147951602936,
0.25998008251190186,
-0.05217645317316055,
-0.12250106781721115,
0.320740282535553,
-0.47794315218925476,
-0.20853257179260254,
-0.2470208704471588,
-0.6398386359214783,
0.5117773413658142,
0.08139864355325699,
0.5879623889923096,
0.7421922087669373,
-0.936704158782959,
-0.02128848433494568,
0.48292621970176697,
0.003905520774424076,
-0.11454388499259949,
0.10821002721786499,
0.2664797604084015,
0.6871649622917175,
0.6628549695014954,
0.2808815836906433,
0.41999632120132446,
-0.5609336495399475,
-0.05031602829694748,
0.5367346405982971,
0.052034471184015274,
-0.037442971020936966,
0.29262876510620117,
-0.09448841959238052,
-0.12081270664930344,
-0.46041950583457947,
0.4821893572807312,
0.550235390663147,
0.3759436309337616,
0.21830353140830994,
-0.9043470025062561,
-0.1864643543958664,
-0.1781991869211197,
-0.12589408457279205,
-0.12901616096496582,
-0.41381388902664185,
-0.31478485465049744,
0.4221024513244629,
0.16353699564933777,
0.10080607980489731,
0.8339188098907471,
0.03953198716044426,
0.2677685618400574,
-0.15318679809570312,
-0.43903547525405884,
0.24470184743404388,
0.10446475446224213,
-0.3203046917915344,
0.5069789886474609,
0.38924935460090637,
-0.06197349354624748,
0.5189006328582764,
-0.3351389169692993,
0.12991569936275482,
0.0917963758111,
-0.5364783406257629,
-0.4851677119731903,
1.1228888034820557,
-0.20918762683868408,
0.04117007553577423,
0.32308176159858704,
0.28947821259498596,
0.9061857461929321,
0.26030832529067993,
0.1412980705499649,
-0.03256966918706894,
-0.20612186193466187,
0.12406352162361145,
-0.15162944793701172,
0.03214477002620697,
-0.8084262013435364,
0.08452847599983215,
-0.34102317690849304,
0.14868931472301483,
0.2134295552968979,
0.5188077092170715,
-0.2685258984565735,
0.03242407739162445,
-0.6230525970458984,
-0.6677734851837158,
0.8425277471542358,
-0.2927348017692566,
0.03699658438563347,
0.010050020180642605,
-0.1642903834581375,
0.02078467421233654,
0.3426678776741028,
0.5200388431549072,
-0.13305461406707764,
0.14384229481220245,
0.7724804878234863,
-0.12555812299251556,
-0.17271147668361664,
0.8317315578460693,
-0.4991256296634674,
-0.3336562216281891,
0.16177135705947876,
-0.3214552402496338,
0.06837739050388336,
0.0911482721567154,
0.4631437361240387,
0.5883749127388,
0.2575623393058777,
-0.4527878165245056,
-0.12903565168380737,
0.04595222696661949,
0.3514106571674347,
-0.20104512572288513,
0.24854594469070435,
0.1538572460412979,
-0.024968750774860382,
-0.4252330958843231,
-0.6377649903297424,
-0.6594018340110779,
0.23458589613437653,
-0.44034212827682495,
0.5784062147140503,
-0.2176569104194641,
0.32194605469703674,
-0.5116734504699707,
0.6682793498039246,
-0.06870059669017792,
0.4095982611179352,
-0.42591342329978943
] |
200253
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsutomu%20Hata
|
Tsutomu Hata
|
was a Japanese politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan for nine weeks in 1994. He took over from Morihiro Hosokawa at the head of a coalition government. Shortly after he had been appointed Prime Minister, the Japanese Socialist Party left the government, leading to his early departure from office. He was a member of the lower house representing Nagano district #3. He was elected 14 times, retiring in 2012.
Early years
Hata was born in Tokyo on 24 August 1935, a son of the Liberal Democratic Party Member of Parliament Bushiro Hata. Hata graduated from Seijo University and was employed by the Odakyu bus company from 1958 to 1969.
Political career
In 1969, Hata entered the House of Representatives of Japan, representing Nagano Prefecture as a member of the Liberal Democratic Party. He rose to become a top lieutenant in the Tanaka/Takeshita faction in the 1980s.
In 1991, he served as Minister of Finance under Kiichi Miyazawa. He left the LDP in 1993 to found the Japan Renewal Party with longtime LDP ally Ichirō Ozawa, which became part of Morihiro Hosokawa's anti-LDP coalition government later that year. Hata served as foreign minister in the Hosokawa cabinet.
On 28 April 1994, Hosokawa resigned and Hata became prime minister. However, the Japan Socialist Party had recently left the coalition, destroying its majority in the Diet. Rather than face a vote of no confidence, Hata elected to resign in June, allowing SDP leader Tomiichi Murayama to take over the position on 30 June.
A number of progressive reforms were introduced during Hata's tenure as prime minister. A law passed on 17 June 1994 to amend the Law concerning Stabilization of Employment for Older Persons aimed to encourage employers to plan continuous employment for older employees after the age of 60, as well as to prohibit employers from setting a compulsory retirement age lower than 60 and appoint public corporations as centres "for the practical use of older workers' experience." On 22 June 1994, the Support Centre for Employment of the Disabled was established by law to provide practical advice, vocational training, and information to disabled workers and employers. A health insurance amendment law passed on 29 June 1994 exempted employees from the requirement to pay National Health Insurance fees during child-care leave.
After the Shinseito merged into the Shinshinto in late 1994, Hata contested the leadership against Ichiro Ozawa. After losing this contest, he and twelve other Diet members formed the splinter Sun Party (太陽党 Taiyōtō). The Sun Party in January 1998 became a part of the Good Governance Party which itself was subsumed by the
Democratic Party of Japan in April 1998.
Personal life
Hata's son, Yuichiro (1967–2020), was a member of the House of Councillors of Japan. He was appointed the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism on 4 June 2012. Tsutomu "Too Hot" Hata is recognized as the godfather of the Hacket, a short sleeve blazer which he also coined as an "E-cool suit". Hata was ahead of his time in this regard and concern for sensible sustainable fashion. Japanese Men Dress Down To Cut Summer's Energy Costs
Death
Hata died on 28 August 2017 in Tokyo, four days after his 82nd birthday.
Honours
:
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers (29 April 2013)
:
Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry (2 December 1993)
References
Further reading
Sanger, David E. "Man in the News; Cautious Leader in Japan: Tsutomu Hata." The New York Times. April 23, 1994.
External links
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1935 births
2017 deaths
20th-century prime ministers of Japan
People from Tokyo
Deputy Prime Ministers of Japan
Prime Ministers of Japan
Foreign ministers of Japan
Ministers of Finance of Japan
Members of the House of Representatives (Japan)
Japanese Buddhists
Japanese Shintoists
Democratic Party of Japan politicians
Japan Renewal Party politicians
New Frontier Party (Japan) politicians
20th-century Japanese politicians
Sun Party politicians
Good Governance Party politicians
21st-century Japanese politicians
Seijo University alumni
Historical negationism
Recipients of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers
|
[
-0.18928676843643188,
-0.49282002449035645,
-0.36865749955177307,
-0.026050982996821404,
-0.8827015161514282,
0.3949994146823883,
0.40675121545791626,
-0.18543589115142822,
-0.09701874852180481,
0.1926170289516449,
0.6254627108573914,
0.460906982421875,
-0.354390025138855,
-0.06296588480472565,
-0.2941341996192932,
-0.366067498922348,
0.10949790477752686,
0.05244135484099388,
-0.40124180912971497,
-0.501914918422699,
-0.10089582204818726,
-0.36464378237724304,
0.03246546909213066,
-0.49620872735977173,
0.34507066011428833,
0.06589893996715546,
0.3274330496788025,
0.6314418315887451,
0.0022513933945447206,
-0.038413189351558685,
0.04339835047721863,
0.48504796624183655,
0.22369080781936646,
-0.0417410172522068,
-0.4278116524219513,
-0.12026071548461914,
0.0958409234881401,
0.1754225641489029,
0.24199178814888,
-0.13256551325321198,
0.05070863664150238,
0.1755470335483551,
0.11009792983531952,
-0.1695561408996582,
0.18443623185157776,
-0.8858298659324646,
-1.4789291620254517,
-0.0076019479893147945,
-0.6977553367614746,
-0.39567357301712036,
0.0758575052022934,
0.450591504573822,
0.35047397017478943,
0.2555675208568573,
-0.317230761051178,
0.744756817817688,
-0.07682458311319351,
-0.037530649453401566,
-0.605147123336792,
-0.0926411971449852,
-0.16339169442653656,
-0.4989389181137085,
0.3876689076423645,
0.038432616740465164,
0.0056513226591050625,
0.23358575999736786,
0.48102515935897827,
-0.2867991328239441,
0.4046471416950226,
-0.2165493220090866,
0.21845729649066925,
0.4762629568576813,
0.2608487904071808,
0.4814229905605316,
0.172159343957901,
-0.676196277141571,
-0.3819938004016876,
0.12642505764961243,
0.1663038581609726,
0.4848353862762451,
-0.5094906091690063,
-0.4524371922016144,
-0.07628724724054337,
0.2474694401025772,
0.13054826855659485,
-0.29318851232528687,
0.08851107209920883,
0.41290438175201416,
-0.40624362230300903,
0.9090359210968018,
-0.36743250489234924,
-0.4544195532798767,
0.3045499324798584,
-0.1621999740600586,
-0.5974320769309998,
-0.15362043678760529,
-0.07842801511287689,
0.6080038547515869,
-0.11686615645885468,
-0.6371080875396729,
0.19477517902851105,
-0.05722148343920708,
0.13827656209468842,
-0.15323781967163086,
-1.0023030042648315,
-0.3669997751712799,
-0.13921724259853363,
-0.09817307442426682,
-0.3154425621032715,
-0.2529789209365845,
-0.10366534441709518,
0.5968641638755798,
0.07409193366765976,
0.34955549240112305,
-0.05635010823607445,
0.26822805404663086,
0.3099859654903412,
0.06525952368974686,
0.27713441848754883,
0.10846655070781708,
0.07091324031352997,
-0.05012683570384979,
0.04358869418501854,
0.03437928482890129,
-0.16375614702701569,
0.5360211133956909,
-0.18086738884449005,
-0.7433527708053589,
-0.06339743733406067,
-0.11826817691326141,
0.7683449387550354,
0.9003298878669739,
-0.6191471815109253,
0.45266661047935486,
0.2169008105993271,
-0.3936992585659027,
0.33314692974090576,
0.04695696756243706,
-0.28127652406692505,
-0.22126297652721405,
-0.5973044633865356,
0.3152681589126587,
-0.9477562308311462,
-0.26758015155792236,
-0.2899007201194763,
0.24978958070278168,
-0.3252915143966675,
-0.8132913708686829,
-0.2032800167798996,
0.09237723797559738,
0.09917613863945007,
0.332624614238739,
0.2632969915866852,
0.11524638533592224,
0.05421752855181694,
-0.027503078803420067,
0.7998613715171814,
-0.23776133358478546,
-0.13656729459762573,
0.17206960916519165,
0.03671781346201897,
0.07626920193433762,
-0.11226750165224075,
0.5538721084594727,
-0.01406968291848898,
-0.4217545688152313,
0.009661493822932243,
-0.046644482761621475,
-0.2497423142194748,
0.09310264885425568,
0.030059318989515305,
-0.5470632314682007,
-0.5471736192703247,
-0.366102933883667,
0.423171728849411,
0.27972492575645447,
0.47683560848236084,
-0.252450555562973,
-0.345859557390213,
-0.033560410141944885,
-0.6329358816146851,
-0.5001797676086426,
-0.12517695128917694,
0.07046598196029663,
0.49706128239631653,
0.14777864515781403,
0.44248324632644653,
0.34254521131515503,
0.5955701470375061,
0.11410446465015411,
-0.054158084094524384,
-0.2803401052951813,
0.3807184398174286,
-0.12479092925786972,
0.2608373463153839,
0.4591190218925476,
-0.16556335985660553,
0.18773417174816132,
0.40902262926101685,
0.5470306277275085,
0.19883641600608826,
-0.19374611973762512,
0.17690999805927277,
-0.21925382316112518,
0.20640161633491516,
0.6886348128318787,
0.1272161900997162,
0.5289543271064758,
-0.16608601808547974,
0.8029284477233887,
0.252464234828949,
0.23243474960327148,
-0.5435988306999207,
0.17424076795578003,
-0.11918061971664429,
-0.22486995160579681,
-0.47819024324417114,
0.0759330540895462,
0.5755266547203064,
-0.10794480890035629,
0.3011196255683899,
0.4123368263244629,
-0.6880292296409607,
0.39291074872016907,
0.058131612837314606,
1.1340745687484741,
0.024528739973902702,
0.252010315656662,
-0.03280112147331238,
-0.6864126324653625,
0.293118953704834,
0.061778854578733444,
-0.09310900419950485,
0.06803439557552338,
0.13189680874347687,
0.5582989454269409,
0.7123531699180603,
0.07943722605705261,
-0.44311705231666565,
-0.42232465744018555,
0.3909614086151123,
0.5833768248558044,
-0.15147213637828827,
0.2774137556552887,
0.35994550585746765,
0.20307472348213196,
-0.5234900712966919,
0.6682907342910767,
-0.98134845495224,
0.17411558330059052,
0.3201409578323364,
-0.2065420150756836,
0.3375035524368286,
0.07543778419494629,
0.14372198283672333,
-0.5223164558410645,
-0.012357956729829311,
-0.5559439063072205,
-0.4202318787574768,
0.025182871147990227,
-0.385109007358551,
-0.15624988079071045,
0.6925447583198547,
-0.16758982837200165,
0.07702643424272537,
-0.16408668458461761,
0.42361339926719666,
-0.21174268424510956,
0.09264914691448212,
-0.12925472855567932,
-0.040356092154979706,
-0.30781832337379456,
-0.3190214931964874,
-0.581957995891571,
0.16657789051532745,
-0.7566308379173279,
-0.4253797233104706,
0.8403341174125671,
-0.4229840636253357,
-0.6838110089302063,
0.7099564075469971,
0.765536904335022,
-0.315090537071228,
-0.37854868173599243,
-0.3612613379955292,
-0.20127226412296295,
-0.5692707300186157,
-0.3931884169578552,
-0.18747477233409882,
0.11926986277103424,
-0.4257742464542389,
0.5935940146446228,
-0.12865154445171356,
-0.7857373356819153,
-0.26894238591194153,
0.34105440974235535,
-0.21541203558444977,
-0.5415588021278381,
0.7406953573226929,
-0.2273777723312378,
-0.3539753556251526,
-0.28653189539909363,
0.1880749762058258,
0.37612131237983704,
0.6539431810379028,
0.09417051821947098,
-0.19090671837329865,
-0.36374449729919434,
-5.7282867431640625,
0.20355278253555298,
0.1630220115184784,
-0.5474584698677063,
0.12936191260814667,
0.5349401235580444,
0.8868647217750549,
0.15486203134059906,
0.3251461088657379,
-0.3244127035140991,
0.051966141909360886,
0.17044587433338165,
0.8723689317703247,
0.653850257396698,
0.19877555966377258,
0.14792004227638245,
0.39181503653526306,
-0.1640074998140335,
0.4588693082332611,
-0.04959773272275925,
-0.04586667940020561,
-0.3225645422935486,
-0.34615546464920044,
0.6342017650604248,
0.23514431715011597,
0.5209414958953857,
-0.8812673091888428,
0.5932610034942627,
-0.7015170454978943,
0.2240728735923767,
-0.4752443730831146,
-0.04643024504184723,
-0.4778130054473877,
0.45340874791145325,
-0.6089510321617126,
-0.6610456109046936,
0.25342658162117004,
0.12069953233003616,
0.0021042898297309875,
0.3830215632915497,
-0.03112529218196869,
-0.49760156869888306,
-0.9537516236305237,
0.18866156041622162,
0.264828622341156,
-0.2998790740966797,
-0.521151602268219,
-0.2530393600463867,
-0.09606029093265533,
0.20421595871448517,
0.4497973620891571,
-0.041652753949165344,
0.6978943347930908,
-0.4097593426704407,
0.22642017900943756,
0.1820814311504364,
-0.11187474429607391,
0.2247111201286316,
-0.6603607535362244,
-0.4684341251850128,
-0.13086816668510437,
-0.20359183847904205,
0.4199715554714203,
-0.326750785112381,
-0.003947076853364706,
-0.09621874988079071,
0.4916679561138153,
0.21729110181331635,
0.33359551429748535,
0.2081812024116516,
-0.974994421005249,
0.26406028866767883,
0.4900987446308136,
-0.889340341091156,
0.3689608871936798,
0.17683909833431244,
0.016336379572749138,
0.3118022680282593,
-0.2359454333782196,
-0.746273934841156,
-0.7253497242927551,
-0.26252272725105286,
0.2048330157995224,
0.029327163472771645,
0.4454888701438904,
0.46160686016082764,
-0.018849018961191177,
0.40674468874931335,
0.060620300471782684,
0.5737660527229309,
0.5784985423088074,
-0.6830081343650818,
0.36622703075408936,
0.07784710824489594,
0.9360649585723877,
-0.0032041361555457115,
-0.23891215026378632,
0.46285954117774963,
0.31023678183555603,
-0.40185967087745667,
-0.13725748658180237,
0.0452486127614975,
-0.7082644701004028,
-0.6663728952407837,
-0.3114108145236969,
-0.49975383281707764,
-0.3563806414604187,
0.16434898972511292,
0.08529640734195709,
0.4367678761482239,
-0.03133006393909454,
0.05469852313399315,
-0.26097220182418823,
0.2723897397518158,
0.5477314591407776,
-0.4106431007385254,
-0.29617610573768616,
0.14758045971393585,
0.16167399287223816,
0.36236295104026794,
-0.4361666142940521,
0.24644532799720764,
-0.23007462918758392,
-0.9384690523147583,
0.6551659107208252,
0.10636932402849197,
-0.31954771280288696,
0.2897985279560089,
-0.1961485892534256,
0.37275874614715576,
0.25448518991470337,
0.7518431544303894,
0.3097490668296814,
-0.24015015363693237,
0.4712543487548828,
-0.6117002367973328,
-0.9255284667015076,
-0.4615022838115692,
0.44711512327194214,
0.3336004912853241,
-0.17074109613895416,
-0.25419989228248596,
-0.4112713932991028,
0.21188561618328094,
-0.18143419921398163,
0.020759217441082,
-0.32908275723457336,
-0.11458585411310196,
-0.24339912831783295,
0.5199142098426819,
-0.023743268102407455,
-1.0769009590148926,
0.13644684851169586,
-0.420918732881546,
-0.18077994883060455,
0.6197900176048279,
-0.5281431674957275,
-0.42889830470085144,
-0.5583370923995972,
0.32302144169807434,
0.006994310300797224,
-0.1975245475769043,
-1.4381588697433472,
0.32396554946899414,
0.037427570670843124,
-0.20675039291381836,
-0.2905372679233551,
-0.11963384598493576,
-0.19898129999637604,
0.3911082148551941,
0.32692065834999084,
-0.43711355328559875,
-0.18465648591518402,
0.10720505565404892,
0.35834765434265137,
0.01727955974638462,
0.1674828976392746,
0.37052395939826965,
-0.3915868401527405,
0.04251830652356148,
-0.0005733848083764315,
0.6157019734382629,
-0.2668214440345764,
0.17302192747592926,
0.005152539815753698,
-0.27444198727607727,
-0.4021719694137573,
-0.3665972948074341,
-0.3904202878475189,
0.08694732934236526,
0.0004355393466539681,
-0.22501838207244873,
0.21579156816005707,
1.045790195465088,
-0.13853442668914795,
-0.14325392246246338,
0.3775431215763092,
0.21074731647968292,
-0.11600475013256073,
-0.18588142096996307,
-0.14229002594947815,
0.009195955470204353,
-0.008065486326813698,
-0.48977378010749817,
-0.19191014766693115,
-0.2937745749950409,
0.13804946839809418,
0.4903358519077301,
0.798443615436554,
-0.42687317728996277,
-0.6118146181106567,
-0.10814496874809265,
-0.267939031124115,
-0.2999536097049713,
0.22334158420562744,
0.210781067609787,
0.47764715552330017,
0.14495766162872314,
-0.25216183066368103,
-0.939499020576477,
-0.08367712050676346,
0.5188350081443787,
-0.6425321102142334,
-0.4056677222251892,
-0.16494108736515045,
0.10999695956707001,
0.6073964834213257,
-0.08197777718305588,
-0.22387346625328064,
-0.28482258319854736,
-0.4333081841468811,
0.3577176034450531,
0.32750949263572693,
0.2541784346103668,
-0.39919328689575195,
0.05906759947538376,
0.06953649967908859,
-0.08795201778411865,
0.6960106492042542,
-0.0882456973195076,
0.5318615436553955,
0.7263338565826416,
0.618794322013855,
0.08261863142251968,
-0.04808135703206062,
0.683385968208313,
0.23620718717575073,
-0.06229435279965401,
0.24680255353450775,
0.6981987357139587,
0.37820684909820557,
0.03502336144447327,
-0.431975781917572,
-0.16773010790348053,
0.5914523005485535,
-0.7277616262435913,
0.037622176110744476,
0.2587231397628784,
0.17455504834651947,
0.1379658430814743,
-0.20666426420211792,
0.2493608146905899,
0.26648998260498047,
0.006291380617767572,
0.11315345764160156,
0.681016206741333,
-0.47496235370635986,
0.12539441883563995,
-0.3465334177017212,
-1.0730586051940918,
-0.8306707143783569,
-0.46627432107925415,
-0.4281705319881439,
0.6082949042320251,
-0.143686905503273,
0.03686678409576416,
0.013467906974256039,
-0.06378105282783508,
-0.2979898154735565,
-0.0010933218291029334,
-0.5681408643722534,
0.1492018699645996,
0.48663732409477234,
-0.3406132459640503,
-0.3233361542224884,
-0.9382111430168152,
0.2812313139438629,
-0.010953600518405437,
-0.13859236240386963,
0.20120297372341156,
-0.4282943606376648,
-0.11632832884788513,
-0.17088356614112854,
-0.5062087774276733,
-0.4714566171169281,
0.18099252879619598,
-0.11114062368869781,
-0.21514461934566498,
-0.4491836726665497,
-0.0021254837047308683,
-0.015431935898959637,
-0.2535768747329712,
0.37820419669151306,
0.6316283345222473,
0.43178805708885193,
-0.14700166881084442,
-0.138234943151474,
-0.4254648685455322,
0.06326504796743393,
0.4089294970035553,
0.36650142073631287,
-0.003961286041885614,
0.09851260483264923,
0.562900722026825,
-0.42691585421562195,
-0.16469088196754456,
0.03250439092516899,
-0.027501879259943962,
-0.6351869702339172,
-0.3696966767311096,
0.6821248531341553,
-0.23726886510849,
0.14352764189243317,
0.2793794572353363,
0.9048615097999573,
0.4935995042324066,
0.5894378423690796,
0.06785145401954651,
-0.4973216652870178,
0.4378466010093689,
0.4710492193698883,
-0.12474219501018524,
-0.056526098400354385,
0.3779582381248474,
-0.2798217535018921,
-0.029210759326815605,
-0.025322645902633667,
-0.46864083409309387,
0.43931880593299866,
-0.2279369980096817,
0.8647412061691284,
0.7138785123825073,
-0.6106099486351013,
0.21554352343082428,
0.5802090764045715,
-0.15361331403255463,
-0.2415233552455902,
0.09261491894721985,
0.06718935817480087,
0.7192355990409851,
0.9902331233024597,
0.3850908875465393,
0.15535874664783478,
-0.9139347672462463,
-0.08717933297157288,
0.11034756898880005,
0.3527904748916626,
-0.22332599759101868,
0.11939990520477295,
-0.5860520005226135,
-0.2088543176651001,
-0.32757633924484253,
0.2692612111568451,
0.5019361972808838,
0.1608603298664093,
0.09441019594669342,
-0.6914332509040833,
-0.011228160001337528,
-0.15057803690433502,
-0.007173359394073486,
-0.3835687041282654,
-0.4612271785736084,
-0.13920073211193085,
0.48413223028182983,
-0.08312487602233887,
-0.05324495956301689,
0.7306551933288574,
-0.08565951138734818,
0.07100754976272583,
-0.1671445518732071,
-0.022668419405817986,
0.11563105136156082,
-0.017841819673776627,
-0.17782385647296906,
0.28158971667289734,
0.39237087965011597,
0.07051411271095276,
0.20301556587219238,
-0.4432569742202759,
0.10755006968975067,
0.0504903681576252,
-0.044801097363233566,
-0.16977658867835999,
0.8497772812843323,
-0.23080354928970337,
0.3068161904811859,
-0.19165489077568054,
0.22057661414146423,
0.5287398099899292,
0.16878297924995422,
0.07442444562911987,
-0.2180650383234024,
-0.29601094126701355,
0.22260478138923645,
-0.013378824107348919,
0.06908047199249268,
-0.8322809934616089,
0.13774701952934265,
-0.4869312345981598,
0.2426002472639084,
0.39597541093826294,
0.6577847003936768,
-0.25019145011901855,
0.0968632847070694,
-0.2536827325820923,
-0.37942466139793396,
0.722135066986084,
-0.25625649094581604,
0.09959273785352707,
0.14137707650661469,
0.04518106207251549,
-0.1570884883403778,
0.26846635341644287,
0.6690559387207031,
-0.1232263520359993,
-0.06485044211149216,
0.6140979528427124,
-0.14404107630252838,
-0.09585944563150406,
0.5615887641906738,
-0.38221895694732666,
-0.4493159353733063,
0.07607023417949677,
-0.35824447870254517,
0.17573712766170502,
0.3544689118862152,
0.3955499231815338,
0.6250098943710327,
0.2834059000015259,
-0.22145698964595795,
-0.13129211962223053,
-0.1845056712627411,
0.3961860239505768,
-0.2317502647638321,
-0.7778193950653076,
0.001655174302868545,
-0.07340576499700546,
-0.2304559350013733,
-0.48709627985954285,
-0.589403510093689,
0.19749021530151367,
-0.4133464992046356,
0.3327435255050659,
-0.14772649109363556,
0.3026884198188782,
-0.51047682762146,
0.49856358766555786,
-0.58168625831604,
0.3445492386817932,
-0.2993168234825134
] |
200254
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Quan%20Judge
|
William Quan Judge
|
William Quan Judge (April 13, 1851 – March 21, 1896) was an Irish-American mystic, esotericist, and occultist, and one of the founders of the original Theosophical Society. He was born in Dublin, Ireland. When he was 13 years old, his family emigrated to the United States. He became a naturalized citizen of the USA at age 21 and passed the New York state bar exam, specializing in commercial law.
Judge was one of the seventeen co-founders of the Theosophical Society. Like Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, he stayed in the organization when others left. When Olcott and Blavatsky left the United States for India, he stayed behind to manage the Society's work, all the while working as a lawyer.
When Blavatsky and Olcott left America, they left Theosophy in North America in Judge's hands. While Judge kept in close contact with both Blavatsky and Olcott through correspondence, there was little if any organized activity for the next several years. His difficulties over this period of time are illustrated by a biographical passage written by Mrs. Archibald Keightley: "It was a time when Madame Blavatsky – she who was then the one great exponent, had left the field ... the interest excited by her ... striking mission had died down. The T.S. was henceforth to subsist on its philosophical basis ... From his twenty - third year until his death, (Mr. Judge's) best efforts and all the fiery energies of his undaunted soul were given to this work."
In 1876, business affairs caused him to visit South America, where he contracted "Chagres fever", and he was ever after a sufferer from that torturing disease. Other "phases" of his experiences on this journey are recorded in his writings, often allegorical, suggesting the character of the occult contacts which may have been established on this journey.
In India, Blavatsky established a new headquarters. As a European, her efforts to restore respect for the Hindu faith were quite effective. As a result, she made enemies among the missionaries of Christianity. The Theosophical Movement 1875-1950 sets out some of the events that followed: "William Q. Judge, who arrived in India soon after the Coulombs had been sent away from headquarters, made a detailed examination of the false door constructed in Madam Blavatsky's "occult room". He showed the product of Coulomb's interrupted labours to some three hundred witnesses who signed their names to a description of the place. He removed the "shrine" in which the Coulombs had attempted to plant evidence of fraud. Even many years later, these actions provide cogent evidence of "the Coulomb Conspiracy" and vindicate Madame Blavatsky.
In 1885, after his return to America, Judge set about to revitalize the Movement in the United States. The real beginning of the work of Theosophy in the United States began in 1886, when Judge established The Path, an independent Theosophical magazine. Until this time, not much had been accomplished in the way of growth of the Society in America. Mr. Judge addressed the common man in homely language and with simple reason. The Path showed that he had found himself and was now cultivating the area of his greatest usefulness, as a writer. His natural interest in the welfare of others affected everything he did, so that his articles and Theosophical talks are cast in the idiom of the common man. In his first editorial, he wrote: "It is not thought that utopia can be established in a day ... Certainly, if we all say that it is useless ... nothing will ever be done. A beginning must be made and it has been made by the Theosophical society ... Riches are accumulating in the hands of the few while the poor are ground harder every day as they increase in number ... All this points unerringly to a vital error somewhere ... What is wanted is true knowledge of the spiritual condition of man, his aim, and destiny ... those who must begin the reform are those who are so fortunate as to be placed in the world where they can see and think out the problems all are endeavouring to solve, even if they know that the great day may not come until after their death."
He also wrote: "The Christian nations have dazzled themselves with a baneful glitter of material progress. They are not the peoples who will furnish the clearest clues to the Path ... The Grand Clock of the Universe points to another hour, and now Man must seize the key in his hands and himself – as a whole – open the gate ... Our practice consists in a disregard of any authority in matters of religion and philosophy except such propositions as from their innate quality we feel to be true."
It has been said of Judge: "Everything he wrote of a metaphysical nature can be found, directly or indirectly, in the works of Madame Blavatsky. He attempted no new "revelation" but illustrated in his own works the ideal use of the concepts of the Theosophical Teachings." The Theosophical Mov't, 1875 - 1950. Over the years, Mr. Judge attracted to the Movement a nucleus of devoted followers. The movement grew steadily in America.
Judge wrote theosophical articles for various theosophical magazines, and also the introductory volume, The Ocean of Theosophy in 1893. He became the General Secretary of the American Section of the Theosophical Society in 1884, with Abner Doubleday as President.
Judge left no record of the period before the founding of the Theosophical Society but some of his published statements reveal the character of his relationship with Blavatsky during this period. On the occasion of her death in 1891, he referred to their first meeting in her rooms in January 1875. He wrote:
It was her eye that attracted me, the eye of one whom I must have known in lives long passed away. She looked at me in recognition for that first hour, and never since has that look changed. Not as a questioner of philosophies did I come before her, not as one groping in the dark for lights that schools and fanciful theories had obscured, but as one who, wandering through the corridors of life, was seeking the friends who could show where the designs for the work had been hidden. And, true to the call, she responded, revealing plans once again, and speaking no words to explain, simply pointed them out and went on with the task. It was as if but the evening before we had parted, leaving yet to be done some detail of a task taken up with one common end; it was teacher and pupil, elder brother and younger, both bent on the one single end, but she with the power and knowledge that belong but to lions and sages.
Blavatsky often referred to the founding of the Theosophical Society as coming about as a result of occult direction from her teachers. Judge later wrote that the objects of the Society had been given to Olcott by the Masters before the meeting at which they were adopted. Thus, the founding of the Theosophy Society may be seen to have been inspired.
In 1881, looking back on the founding of the Society, Blavatsky wrote: "Our society as a body might certainly be wrecked by mismanagement or the death of its founders, but the IDEA which it represents and which has gained so wide a currency, will run on like a crested wave of thought until it dashes upon the hard beach where materialism is picking and sorting its pebbles ... " At this time, the affairs of the Society were largely in Olcott's hands. Meetings were held irregularly, and many plans for occult experimentation were proposed. Neither Blavatsky nor Judge took any active part in the meetings after the first few sessions. He was busy with his law practice. She was beginning to write her first book, Isis Unveiled.
After Blavatsky died in 1891, Judge became involved in a dispute with Olcott and Annie Besant, whom he considered to have deviated from the original teaching of the Mahatmas. As a result, he ended his association with Olcott and Besant during 1895 and took most of the Society's American Section with him. Despite being hounded by devotees to Besant, Judge managed his new organization for about a year until his death in New York City, whereupon Katherine Tingley became manager. The organization originating from the faction of Olcott and Besant is based nowadays in India and known as the Theosophical Society - Adyar, while the organization managed by Judge is known nowadays simply as the Theosophical Society, but often with the specification, "international headquarters, Pasadena, California".
Judge died in 1896 in New York City.
In 1898, Ernest Temple Hargrove, who had initially supported Tingley, left with other members to form the Theosophical Society in America (Hargrove) Branch. Other new organizations split off from his, including the Temple of the People (whose library bears his name) during 1898 and the United Lodge of Theosophists or ULT during 1909.
References
External links
The Edgar Rice Burroughs Library
Books by Judge
Articles by Judge
Theosophy Library Online
Articles by William Quan Judge and his biography
1851 births
1896 deaths
19th-century Irish people
Irish writers
Irish occultists
Irish occult writers
American occult writers
Irish Theosophists
American Theosophists
Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923)
People from Dublin (city)
|
[
0.2544437646865845,
0.7317087054252625,
-0.6732368469238281,
0.13170315325260162,
-0.2758876085281372,
0.06261133402585983,
1.2244036197662354,
-0.25624319911003113,
0.27569127082824707,
-0.05879376083612442,
-0.2563769817352295,
0.18511639535427094,
-0.37779533863067627,
0.2898743748664856,
-0.32711267471313477,
-0.42372390627861023,
0.36856207251548767,
-0.518819272518158,
-0.2924991250038147,
-0.1390577107667923,
-0.25138193368911743,
-0.06528474390506744,
-0.16549061238765717,
-0.16960863769054413,
-0.3826710879802704,
0.25061938166618347,
-0.43887126445770264,
-0.4833097755908966,
0.14165587723255157,
0.31961944699287415,
0.4153499901294708,
0.4810815453529358,
0.2880352735519409,
-0.5621750354766846,
-0.5370883941650391,
0.6102407574653625,
-0.40023064613342285,
0.03128695860505104,
0.09462340921163559,
0.08855811506509781,
-0.1205059066414833,
0.38594192266464233,
0.3651528060436249,
0.5375437140464783,
-0.36731117963790894,
-0.1600813865661621,
-1.645346760749817,
0.24949033558368683,
-1.3810654878616333,
0.2720421850681305,
0.059010203927755356,
0.4101741909980774,
0.05553950369358063,
-0.03586091473698616,
-0.14011503756046295,
0.5646242499351501,
-1.1238957643508911,
-0.11221375316381454,
0.23109179735183716,
-0.16791385412216187,
0.5531710386276245,
0.38085341453552246,
0.8137072324752808,
-0.2984861135482788,
-0.3632417917251587,
0.5186389088630676,
-0.017156479880213737,
0.37927815318107605,
-0.18865807354450226,
-0.21707865595817566,
0.14222605526447296,
0.5785747170448303,
0.18695281445980072,
0.3095920979976654,
0.19017885625362396,
-0.008038907311856747,
0.012861954979598522,
-0.07934728264808655,
-0.06635218858718872,
0.21823528409004211,
-0.42378678917884827,
-0.07746721059083939,
1.2018401622772217,
0.5261296629905701,
0.32251405715942383,
-0.25712502002716064,
-0.6246352791786194,
0.1814080774784088,
-0.2752646505832672,
0.47886377573013306,
-0.01596873439848423,
0.07586245983839035,
0.2911090552806854,
0.017218517139554024,
-0.3290777802467346,
-0.003952673636376858,
0.7593138813972473,
-0.21380913257598877,
-0.2516091763973236,
-0.31295955181121826,
0.5649189949035645,
0.2632215917110443,
0.18361255526542664,
-0.3210556209087372,
-0.11892937868833542,
0.4525330662727356,
0.2655518352985382,
-1.0712426900863647,
0.04983426257967949,
-0.016156408935785294,
-0.910144567489624,
0.2868487536907196,
0.03409891203045845,
-0.13240014016628265,
0.24904857575893402,
0.6567592024803162,
0.31182315945625305,
-0.8866134285926819,
-0.5265564918518066,
-0.21343699097633362,
0.17316952347755432,
0.17924633622169495,
0.15797825157642365,
0.2562585175037384,
0.03375794738531113,
0.15807950496673584,
0.47902974486351013,
0.6508662104606628,
-0.04364413022994995,
0.40978026390075684,
0.31297993659973145,
0.26686006784439087,
-0.04086156189441681,
-0.8784334063529968,
-0.4811957776546478,
-0.13926978409290314,
0.5841757655143738,
-0.029446471482515335,
-0.0376209057867527,
0.8368881940841675,
-0.3995988965034485,
-0.2192528247833252,
-0.536163330078125,
-0.16710272431373596,
0.5915120244026184,
0.1825164407491684,
0.19348663091659546,
-0.12663166224956512,
-0.23640018701553345,
0.13667865097522736,
-0.7757322788238525,
-0.22043587267398834,
0.3223046660423279,
0.10610314458608627,
0.36845627427101135,
0.3350639045238495,
-0.06900300085544586,
0.557306170463562,
-0.0034713197965174913,
0.024721655994653702,
-0.07637938112020493,
-0.04108692333102226,
-0.0487004853785038,
-0.04935643821954727,
-0.25922441482543945,
0.03264523670077324,
0.4199923276901245,
-0.12500222027301788,
-0.5723027586936951,
0.12200774252414703,
-0.3210258483886719,
-0.16228778660297394,
0.12253466993570328,
-0.1117662563920021,
-0.15412010252475739,
0.5386781096458435,
0.6077108383178711,
-0.04742840304970741,
0.020277980715036392,
-0.5984922647476196,
-0.5029745101928711,
-0.1297074556350708,
0.07752946019172668,
-0.015042910352349281,
0.650282084941864,
-0.20266006886959076,
0.11574142426252365,
-0.32556119561195374,
0.18967865407466888,
0.03655131906270981,
-0.6776200532913208,
-0.06033161282539368,
0.15138082206249237,
0.04955266788601875,
1.0573480129241943,
0.17777465283870697,
0.010453478433191776,
0.6682072877883911,
-0.1050584465265274,
0.28960564732551575,
0.2562415301799774,
-0.33901751041412354,
-0.06858625262975693,
0.023029344156384468,
-0.25746506452560425,
0.3620792031288147,
0.14152278006076813,
0.2838195860385895,
0.2272452414035797,
0.0385357141494751,
0.7896264791488647,
-0.6210193037986755,
-0.0663461908698082,
0.2164597362279892,
-0.5888918042182922,
-0.3326626121997833,
-0.4913640320301056,
-0.011699925176799297,
0.27240824699401855,
-0.15189386904239655,
0.5709968209266663,
0.005414289887994528,
0.17374154925346375,
0.5089505314826965,
0.24297773838043213,
0.7797487378120422,
-0.38051143288612366,
-0.4049498438835144,
-0.058556538075208664,
-0.6199132204055786,
-0.24638810753822327,
-0.12964187562465668,
0.6355226039886475,
-0.47099560499191284,
0.5602405071258545,
0.0385299026966095,
-0.002720621647313237,
-0.9340677857398987,
0.11691788583993912,
-0.6266680955886841,
0.1735183745622635,
-0.12335919588804245,
-0.4472835659980774,
0.3428308367729187,
-0.34923556447029114,
0.3830453157424927,
-0.4501113295555115,
-0.043178144842386246,
-0.11242412775754929,
0.3186954855918884,
-0.10824862867593765,
0.6658231019973755,
0.43010929226875305,
0.2506657540798187,
0.26168736815452576,
-0.14076575636863708,
0.07787279039621353,
0.3138878345489502,
0.4388889968395233,
0.07648717612028122,
-0.25567883253097534,
0.221721813082695,
0.19235464930534363,
-0.08951476216316223,
-0.3062850534915924,
-0.4361773133277893,
0.19069744646549225,
0.10987837612628937,
0.22375954687595367,
-0.08054162561893463,
1.1226489543914795,
-0.5646885633468628,
-0.2727173864841461,
0.26928701996803284,
-0.29501041769981384,
-0.40955284237861633,
-0.14679118990898132,
0.236921027302742,
-0.8012397885322571,
-0.3792140483856201,
0.21026447415351868,
0.6160009503364563,
-0.12294770032167435,
-0.02774241380393505,
0.28662753105163574,
-0.34647077322006226,
-0.15067964792251587,
-0.570500373840332,
0.3533726930618286,
-0.06054631993174553,
0.03182126209139824,
1.1332718133926392,
-0.042424920946359634,
-0.397794634103775,
-0.254097044467926,
0.12331277132034302,
0.03455863147974014,
0.07685206085443497,
-0.2032078355550766,
0.3202136754989624,
-0.2803226709365845,
0.22988726198673248,
-0.20794275403022766,
0.5024860501289368,
0.4867509603500366,
-0.02075205184519291,
-0.15533961355686188,
0.25320443511009216,
-5.720631122589111,
0.29716163873672485,
-0.13151881098747253,
-0.17373579740524292,
-0.2093752920627594,
0.30586549639701843,
0.8177036643028259,
0.008748842403292656,
-0.20909681916236877,
-0.5397073030471802,
-0.04185358062386513,
-0.6091334819793701,
-0.0023934112396091223,
0.330929160118103,
0.16458876430988312,
0.7648521065711975,
0.10601198673248291,
-0.27795687317848206,
0.12327399849891663,
0.38765013217926025,
-0.06078248843550682,
-0.21478497982025146,
-0.11330555379390717,
0.9761470556259155,
0.18143823742866516,
0.20858509838581085,
-0.27034470438957214,
0.20501208305358887,
-0.4231639802455902,
-0.03217414766550064,
0.11325953900814056,
-0.2675282657146454,
-0.6681039333343506,
-0.37786445021629333,
-0.1346612423658371,
-0.3098623752593994,
0.8324446082115173,
-0.12181361764669418,
0.011392504908144474,
-0.16100920736789703,
-0.4095401465892792,
0.07986287772655487,
-0.5149855017662048,
0.26601627469062805,
0.6787204146385193,
-0.04699743166565895,
-0.6215466260910034,
0.3863638639450073,
-0.42096710205078125,
0.02427227795124054,
-0.0048135085962712765,
-0.46184948086738586,
-0.014492951333522797,
-0.5634990930557251,
-0.08398234844207764,
0.24717357754707336,
-0.6698275208473206,
0.041922420263290405,
-0.9663223624229431,
0.18146999180316925,
0.6804488897323608,
-0.2946081757545471,
0.2909592092037201,
0.0766071155667305,
0.1360762119293213,
-0.14447663724422455,
0.1639639437198639,
-0.2772018611431122,
0.4879608750343323,
0.009571749716997147,
-0.20238134264945984,
1.0183370113372803,
-0.20533080399036407,
-1.1709046363830566,
0.03827947378158569,
0.055537961423397064,
0.16190816462039948,
-0.1771792620420456,
-0.09357408434152603,
0.18933556973934174,
-0.08338841050863266,
-0.2503446042537689,
0.07710110396146774,
0.6004468202590942,
0.33673572540283203,
0.34857460856437683,
-0.36256593465805054,
0.19424958527088165,
-1.1852712631225586,
0.04394051805138588,
-0.12056181579828262,
0.08409258723258972,
0.12860026955604553,
0.7043101191520691,
0.34417399764060974,
0.2227436900138855,
-0.1838660091161728,
0.3625800907611847,
0.2706659138202667,
0.6949294209480286,
-0.1776941865682602,
-0.2934597432613373,
0.6653048396110535,
-0.39245977997779846,
0.032606445252895355,
0.05016462504863739,
-0.3036889433860779,
0.5101801753044128,
0.5086454153060913,
0.008115879260003567,
-0.2048368752002716,
0.35996466875076294,
-0.11683791875839233,
-0.010381576605141163,
0.2857293486595154,
-0.25658103823661804,
0.2731020748615265,
0.42669638991355896,
0.1137714609503746,
0.3349195718765259,
-0.17597830295562744,
0.4415368437767029,
-0.15827415883541107,
-0.7734965682029724,
0.17391805350780487,
-0.4683311879634857,
0.4153249263763428,
-0.09057310223579407,
0.23459622263908386,
0.016240820288658142,
-0.18203824758529663,
0.41962775588035583,
-0.21609380841255188,
0.4105071723461151,
-0.030393432825803757,
-0.4081507623195648,
-0.7265329360961914,
-0.6510501503944397,
-0.5466683506965637,
0.5530124306678772,
0.24080707132816315,
-0.20394901931285858,
0.15051543712615967,
0.2820383608341217,
0.6479105353355408,
-0.15392066538333893,
-0.16587036848068237,
-0.4115021824836731,
0.00572279654443264,
0.7929397821426392,
0.2590346932411194,
-0.23694103956222534,
0.879796028137207,
-0.49647194147109985,
-0.712710976600647,
0.36931487917900085,
0.22531020641326904,
0.23396052420139313,
-0.024426640942692757,
-0.08288338035345078,
-0.2458251714706421,
-0.22803305089473724,
-0.694653332233429,
-0.24389339983463287,
-0.13181914389133453,
0.11583737283945084,
-0.31365966796875,
0.07901445031166077,
-0.9006202220916748,
0.0426449179649353,
-0.044741373509168625,
-0.5453964471817017,
-0.25670501589775085,
0.050858307629823685,
0.349701464176178,
0.4142972528934479,
-0.2781398296356201,
0.3544543385505676,
-0.3155897557735443,
-0.3221120834350586,
0.08742750436067581,
0.29085537791252136,
-0.7128808498382568,
-0.2681713402271271,
0.8012507557868958,
-0.5807275176048279,
0.06261856108903885,
-0.16489998996257782,
-0.23540200293064117,
0.13558880984783173,
-0.028998231515288353,
0.0762171819806099,
0.08566763997077942,
0.9224385619163513,
0.014582594856619835,
-0.2772335708141327,
0.05757541209459305,
0.43348562717437744,
0.13441123068332672,
0.03227793052792549,
0.42231500148773193,
-0.09019318968057632,
-0.3693193197250366,
-0.408255398273468,
0.4710422158241272,
-0.9257906079292297,
-0.1954224556684494,
-0.4457179605960846,
0.15989838540554047,
0.8801034688949585,
0.25574344396591187,
-0.2886563539505005,
-0.42803293466567993,
-0.11351870000362396,
0.03874632343649864,
-0.06819142401218414,
0.07790900021791458,
-0.25319504737854004,
-0.21074418723583221,
-0.868808925151825,
0.33391913771629333,
-0.14711213111877441,
-0.3566235899925232,
-0.12139179557561874,
-0.22174854576587677,
-0.164331316947937,
0.5629174113273621,
0.17263779044151306,
0.37171387672424316,
-0.14819614589214325,
-0.5513034462928772,
0.5973826050758362,
-0.1487579196691513,
0.5032203197479248,
-0.29451021552085876,
-0.23123686015605927,
0.5047796964645386,
0.6290122270584106,
-0.5858136415481567,
-0.20921945571899414,
-0.22073550522327423,
0.5455011129379272,
0.35378503799438477,
-0.29454731941223145,
-0.09760817140340805,
0.22660675644874573,
0.32419973611831665,
-0.18858623504638672,
0.03002864308655262,
-0.02839217521250248,
0.248130202293396,
-0.47147655487060547,
-0.38730818033218384,
-0.4051516056060791,
0.3867398798465729,
-0.4762544333934784,
0.19226348400115967,
-0.05574842914938927,
0.13105490803718567,
-0.8196626305580139,
0.06510406732559204,
-0.30121996998786926,
-0.465058833360672,
-0.16325923800468445,
-0.5957882404327393,
0.25076791644096375,
-0.20014528930187225,
-0.4971573054790497,
0.415785551071167,
-1.092505693435669,
0.39321261644363403,
-0.492689847946167,
-0.025041719898581505,
0.3269735872745514,
-0.6634384393692017,
-0.12590083479881287,
0.05682915821671486,
-0.6755144596099854,
-0.2286459058523178,
-0.26531484723091125,
-0.444207102060318,
-0.16938620805740356,
0.16665542125701904,
0.23240594565868378,
0.4542818069458008,
-0.8389956951141357,
-0.037366196513175964,
-0.7617233991622925,
-0.54525226354599,
0.025693275034427643,
-0.668109118938446,
0.5831971764564514,
0.281030535697937,
-0.2881414294242859,
-0.16151607036590576,
0.11393661051988602,
0.1330205351114273,
0.40529462695121765,
-0.11174421012401581,
-0.2403666079044342,
-0.42157623171806335,
0.18273937702178955,
0.7072156667709351,
-0.17986571788787842,
-0.026180829852819443,
-0.4416472315788269,
-0.023073002696037292,
-0.6794576644897461,
-0.20192530751228333,
-0.09432421624660492,
0.555698573589325,
0.15197770297527313,
-0.0723586231470108,
0.2525225877761841,
-0.6595817804336548,
-0.06581736356019974,
0.4224552810192108,
-0.44962385296821594,
-0.1486506313085556,
0.32676124572753906,
-0.021117176860570908,
0.468420147895813,
0.7618826627731323,
-0.3579508364200592,
0.4230806231498718,
0.46147844195365906,
0.2049960047006607,
0.34378325939178467,
-0.5327191948890686,
-0.09466354548931122,
0.11792708933353424,
0.11578409373760223,
-0.10723406076431274,
0.3464875817298889,
0.12875549495220184,
-0.11989136785268784,
-0.3242344558238983,
-0.5369511842727661,
-0.4344247877597809,
0.3555946350097656,
0.3219028115272522,
0.6674476861953735,
-0.10434002429246902,
0.03890465945005417,
-0.25690823793411255,
0.04788167402148247,
-0.03590425103902817,
0.4857848882675171,
0.03351343050599098,
0.7539567947387695,
0.3976552188396454,
0.0671154037117958,
0.2589800953865051,
-0.6917378306388855,
0.7572116851806641,
-0.024560265243053436,
-0.19515684247016907,
0.12783177196979523,
-0.4503103196620941,
0.10726477950811386,
-0.3112417459487915,
-0.10772652924060822,
0.5955861806869507,
-0.1462894082069397,
0.02878975309431553,
0.6860172748565674,
-0.10311004519462585,
-1.1028469800949097,
0.07879313826560974,
0.4366019666194916,
0.10269326716661453,
-0.06333621591329575,
-0.20221559703350067,
1.078447699546814,
0.27260544896125793,
-0.13136471807956696,
0.9906911849975586,
-0.16839797794818878,
-0.03891434147953987,
-0.032496072351932526,
-0.5787796974182129,
-0.41457313299179077,
-0.2056978940963745,
-0.4766504168510437,
0.6684684157371521,
0.1692701280117035,
-0.031551603227853775,
0.04984182491898537,
-0.26122957468032837,
0.13627363741397858,
0.30253931879997253,
-0.14796647429466248,
0.23636184632778168,
-0.13028810918331146,
0.053024593740701675,
0.5235252976417542,
-0.04803056642413139,
0.3573644757270813,
0.02466314285993576,
-0.047902368009090424,
-0.3050491511821747,
0.19768492877483368,
0.5388568639755249,
-0.5071478486061096,
-0.15450531244277954,
0.20010502636432648,
-0.3385820686817169,
-0.24053893983364105,
-0.6834250092506409,
0.7454193234443665,
-0.297182559967041,
-0.13813701272010803,
-0.28362056612968445,
0.5388879776000977,
-0.11092176288366318,
0.1247386708855629,
0.7204155325889587,
0.3563564419746399,
-0.5754734873771667,
-0.31088775396347046,
-0.6005215644836426,
0.23776282370090485,
-0.1307005137205124,
0.34005752205848694,
-0.36272549629211426,
-0.0719260424375534,
0.12118663638830185,
-0.47424837946891785,
0.08909827470779419,
0.16054674983024597,
-0.030718035995960236,
-0.5627437829971313,
-0.28478366136550903,
-0.28512904047966003,
-0.022305011749267578,
-0.34852364659309387,
0.5700888633728027,
0.7576838731765747,
0.06530342996120453,
-0.40748000144958496,
0.0645187646150589,
0.06166244298219681,
-0.41301456093788147,
-0.1278177946805954,
0.4229162633419037,
0.3085117042064667,
-0.1489098072052002,
-0.9350945353507996,
0.23371285200119019,
0.7687150239944458,
-0.017873330041766167,
-0.5364401936531067,
-0.05195365101099014,
-1.0116158723831177,
-0.04058811068534851,
-0.03692961856722832,
0.21415534615516663,
-0.21982254087924957,
0.5452653765678406,
-0.0715237706899643
] |
200255
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valmy
|
Valmy
|
Valmy () is a commune in the Marne department in north-eastern France.
Geography
The town stands on the west flank of the Argonne massif, midway between Verdun and Paris, near Vouziers.
History
Valmy provided the setting for the Battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792. The largest ship-of-the-line ever constructed, the Valmy, was named after this battle.
See also
Communes of the Marne department
References
External links
Illustrated article about the Battle of Valmy at 'Battlefields Europe'
Communes of Marne (department)
|
[
-0.7350298762321472,
-0.40769803524017334,
0.36783286929130554,
0.27480143308639526,
0.515804648399353,
0.44547197222709656,
0.29218435287475586,
0.44233238697052,
-0.5637959837913513,
-0.8882721066474915,
-0.6272981762886047,
0.8132065534591675,
-0.04481462389230728,
0.6158880591392517,
0.33239924907684326,
0.9339438676834106,
0.6965360641479492,
-0.1851903647184372,
0.10536397993564606,
-0.9150778651237488,
-0.04991394281387329,
0.202452152967453,
0.4582272171974182,
0.11583814024925232,
-0.5321913361549377,
0.8333432674407959,
-0.2834421992301941,
0.757886528968811,
-0.10343830287456512,
0.15492002665996552,
-0.7956005930900574,
0.7543905377388,
-0.3107261061668396,
-0.1983422338962555,
-0.8779565095901489,
0.3006459176540375,
0.31695395708084106,
-0.22688578069210052,
0.26553186774253845,
-0.018216067925095558,
-0.30441129207611084,
0.43474331498146057,
-0.19487272202968597,
-0.5401361584663391,
0.017079131677746773,
-0.1802271455526352,
-0.9313759803771973,
0.33850765228271484,
-0.9552792310714722,
-0.1454380601644516,
-0.1247081607580185,
-0.11625850945711136,
0.21536827087402344,
-0.13442768156528473,
0.09861201792955399,
0.4097362160682678,
-0.8564476370811462,
0.4908601641654968,
0.3071133494377136,
0.1803329885005951,
-0.40482890605926514,
0.2802140712738037,
-0.22325293719768524,
-0.27624884247779846,
0.5709094405174255,
-0.3780725300312042,
-0.37711209058761597,
-0.5760098099708557,
-0.09796921163797379,
-0.5551431775093079,
-0.14713329076766968,
0.07028704881668091,
0.38090163469314575,
0.13514180481433868,
-0.17895926535129547,
-0.11219776421785355,
-0.10543153434991837,
-0.38524848222732544,
0.2621208131313324,
0.09007647633552551,
0.07323648035526276,
-0.5748587250709534,
0.610538899898529,
0.6457855701446533,
-0.37198325991630554,
0.34625375270843506,
-0.5161296129226685,
0.6795368194580078,
-0.28597113490104675,
0.7665606141090393,
-0.4302191734313965,
-0.08024795353412628,
-0.14931130409240723,
-0.3118610978126526,
-0.048528432846069336,
0.055647414177656174,
0.20742259919643402,
-0.11851703375577927,
-0.1698077768087387,
0.5225452780723572,
-0.6131407618522644,
-0.005520287901163101,
0.16121114790439606,
-0.21252839267253876,
-0.2859528064727783,
-0.6473026871681213,
-1.2479584217071533,
-0.04031477868556976,
-0.4052850008010864,
-0.10480736941099167,
-1.1679177284240723,
1.1268337965011597,
0.03782518208026886,
-0.010952897369861603,
0.6543320417404175,
-0.0045383404940366745,
0.8391715288162231,
-0.30154910683631897,
-0.42598387598991394,
0.27636682987213135,
0.592953622341156,
0.469023734331131,
0.13419745862483978,
-0.046880416572093964,
0.08005162328481674,
-0.1054309606552124,
-0.14834623038768768,
0.29355278611183167,
-0.7415804862976074,
0.8843852281570435,
0.24774734675884247,
0.559522807598114,
-0.8261404037475586,
0.09093628823757172,
-0.11385857313871384,
0.2225950062274933,
0.0945441797375679,
0.16412584483623505,
0.43995770812034607,
0.1370391994714737,
-1.2327558994293213,
0.5618754029273987,
-1.1648027896881104,
-0.036107949912548065,
0.33592307567596436,
0.35544756054878235,
0.46898704767227173,
-0.24741464853286743,
0.04562326520681381,
-0.25701212882995605,
0.000006684987056360114,
0.6634232997894287,
0.17118996381759644,
0.2758687138557434,
-0.6003158688545227,
0.006208566017448902,
0.8149927854537964,
0.32953035831451416,
0.05073448643088341,
0.35252100229263306,
0.5254626870155334,
-0.04550609737634659,
0.26962366700172424,
-0.021077284589409828,
0.784626841545105,
-0.3456629812717438,
-0.3805096745491028,
0.15886814892292023,
0.4724904000759125,
0.0039131599478423595,
-0.3190629184246063,
0.5413244366645813,
0.9297647476196289,
-0.26649177074432373,
-0.22188596427440643,
-0.005811769049614668,
0.4063657820224762,
0.6821200847625732,
0.6072939038276672,
-0.4263594448566437,
-0.8415269255638123,
0.22819611430168152,
0.2119714766740799,
-0.1432301253080368,
0.1417669951915741,
0.8642199039459229,
0.272020548582077,
-0.03279976174235344,
0.038370225578546524,
0.44957125186920166,
-0.09730325639247894,
0.061355624347925186,
0.5891122817993164,
-1.0222569704055786,
0.46870115399360657,
0.019657893106341362,
0.12253948301076889,
0.15609391033649445,
-0.4808169901371002,
-0.21385644376277924,
-0.7641317248344421,
0.10512521117925644,
0.6245360374450684,
0.48255932331085205,
-0.34895944595336914,
0.8081759214401245,
0.45325857400894165,
-0.3422253429889679,
-0.2657932639122009,
0.938528299331665,
-0.14635683596134186,
-0.28507739305496216,
0.8209770917892456,
0.9663268327713013,
-0.1913917064666748,
-0.11372750997543335,
-1.3668071031570435,
-0.33024871349334717,
-0.11456997692584991,
0.01705748215317726,
-0.11606404930353165,
-0.1877271980047226,
0.14447379112243652,
0.26807141304016113,
-0.4558955132961273,
0.6031138300895691,
0.6876420378684998,
0.4199686050415039,
-0.3518218994140625,
-0.6403855681419373,
-0.45460307598114014,
0.32427483797073364,
0.04854309558868408,
0.07801331579685211,
0.2137630134820938,
-0.04122297465801239,
0.40976107120513916,
-0.30778196454048157,
0.2823859453201294,
-0.4650287628173828,
0.07270926982164383,
0.09512418508529663,
0.4060070514678955,
0.532142698764801,
0.7499827146530151,
1.086587905883789,
0.026848388835787773,
0.6605891585350037,
0.3526635468006134,
-1.3202378749847412,
-0.08011899143457413,
0.35050085186958313,
0.49036306142807007,
0.10975831747055054,
0.36999157071113586,
-0.3649986982345581,
-0.2091357558965683,
0.40401503443717957,
-0.003186891321092844,
0.16069291532039642,
0.06446553766727448,
0.2245800644159317,
0.11693806201219559,
0.3744436204433441,
0.11865319311618805,
-0.056801386177539825,
-0.1925102174282074,
-0.06789928674697876,
0.4063011705875397,
-0.10035387426614761,
-0.3947029113769531,
-0.0944843664765358,
-0.04190993309020996,
-0.6781622171401978,
-0.1635000854730606,
0.018442172557115555,
-0.19041948020458221,
0.28284013271331787,
-0.09638170152902603,
0.03219195827841759,
-0.00041725696064531803,
1.0147781372070312,
-0.43756431341171265,
0.6461278796195984,
0.15563921630382538,
-0.28948691487312317,
0.5655811429023743,
-0.5906022191047668,
1.251244306564331,
-0.3534606397151947,
-0.2103070169687271,
-0.20752166211605072,
-0.6972513198852539,
0.9980401396751404,
-0.1497534215450287,
-0.7358725666999817,
-0.5448901653289795,
-0.14909817278385162,
-0.37172362208366394,
-0.3287833631038666,
-0.5848669409751892,
-0.11949228495359421,
0.28696370124816895,
0.29455333948135376,
-0.293374240398407,
-0.40595346689224243,
0.8684225082397461,
-0.2779119610786438,
-4.274296283721924,
0.2196303755044937,
0.17033705115318298,
0.28598999977111816,
0.27512553334236145,
-0.12082307040691376,
-0.24776379764080048,
-0.19354915618896484,
-1.0500959157943726,
-0.07052356004714966,
-0.8782426118850708,
-0.3372592031955719,
-0.08675309270620346,
0.6822109818458557,
1.296339511871338,
0.16139408946037292,
-0.10059734433889389,
-0.5060790181159973,
0.1141241043806076,
-0.3171219527721405,
-0.4314206540584564,
0.42153215408325195,
0.4312208592891693,
0.13538087904453278,
0.3817102611064911,
0.10252533107995987,
0.11067874729633331,
-0.16130518913269043,
-0.9906964302062988,
-0.5237672924995422,
-0.003972887992858887,
0.5196017026901245,
0.2837720215320587,
-0.38494712114334106,
0.26667290925979614,
-0.1792173832654953,
0.025225207209587097,
0.3795785903930664,
0.7803197503089905,
-0.6381224989891052,
-0.15554304420948029,
0.352231502532959,
-0.27894243597984314,
-0.17249318957328796,
0.38077273964881897,
-0.41530269384384155,
-0.30594149231910706,
0.07624537497758865,
0.32177868485450745,
0.8519974946975708,
0.42245832085609436,
-0.5281665921211243,
0.6548025608062744,
0.29462066292762756,
0.6415975689888,
-0.7745955586433411,
0.007977226749062538,
-0.07320638000965118,
0.1754024177789688,
1.486555814743042,
0.35249635577201843,
-0.5721520185470581,
-0.1528560221195221,
-0.3285139501094818,
0.11449894309043884,
-0.6053375601768494,
-0.22795331478118896,
0.3726271390914917,
0.08146578818559647,
0.2723124623298645,
-0.5514418482780457,
0.9148740172386169,
-0.7677298784255981,
-0.8154133558273315,
-1.2160673141479492,
-0.4030515253543854,
-0.31629157066345215,
0.6543048024177551,
-0.1328437626361847,
-0.11813844740390778,
0.18139849603176117,
-0.9755958914756775,
0.061964161694049835,
0.29699116945266724,
0.25354546308517456,
-0.5281131863594055,
0.054612673819065094,
0.3097178339958191,
0.02545088715851307,
-0.8660206198692322,
0.5976356863975525,
0.45788121223449707,
0.603584349155426,
-0.3976577818393707,
-0.18961989879608154,
0.3150506913661957,
0.6727890968322754,
0.010986963286995888,
-0.1819065511226654,
-0.3149040639400482,
-0.5984147787094116,
-0.0767279863357544,
0.9240818619728088,
-0.5334383845329285,
-0.45434290170669556,
-0.5734441876411438,
-0.03015301562845707,
0.1360258311033249,
0.8231075406074524,
0.5120171904563904,
-0.126542866230011,
0.4346837103366852,
-0.971638023853302,
-0.7405049204826355,
0.839015543460846,
-0.11191112548112869,
-0.25830015540122986,
1.008288025856018,
0.154073566198349,
0.21088364720344543,
0.584343433380127,
0.755595326423645,
0.28495365381240845,
0.30546805262565613,
0.8967164158821106,
-0.4608788788318634,
0.3129664659500122,
0.41686123609542847,
-0.41929176449775696,
0.5575270652770996,
0.228171244263649,
0.38580629229545593,
-0.6967380046844482,
-0.894520103931427,
0.2545190453529358,
-0.984024167060852,
0.43680763244628906,
-0.5080401301383972,
-0.01211773045361042,
0.026307597756385803,
0.8526613116264343,
-0.38816753029823303,
-0.958594024181366,
0.017543181777000427,
-0.3557322919368744,
-0.2265576869249344,
0.9162026047706604,
0.7226361036300659,
-0.37427401542663574,
0.7789827585220337,
-0.5460043549537659,
-0.5464144945144653,
0.4662664532661438,
-0.7525230646133423,
0.2358415722846985,
-0.07464341819286346,
-0.01661183312535286,
0.3094910979270935,
0.03362530842423439,
-0.1091160774230957,
-0.2585532069206238,
-0.27173060178756714,
-1.3272678852081299,
0.6140944957733154,
-0.24423818290233612,
-0.01648847572505474,
-0.7226212024688721,
-0.5496062636375427,
-1.090861201286316,
0.4803886115550995,
0.7118443846702576,
-0.6584683656692505,
-0.7760645151138306,
-0.5798473358154297,
-0.022210555151104927,
-0.5694199800491333,
0.2702425718307495,
0.31898102164268494,
0.012413361109793186,
-0.8028632998466492,
0.2468135803937912,
0.1881103515625,
0.051102664321660995,
-0.10966460406780243,
0.6104652881622314,
-0.9965345859527588,
-0.21078452467918396,
-0.33409544825553894,
-0.7067339420318604,
-0.8473423719406128,
-0.18960949778556824,
-0.03070099838078022,
-0.5067733526229858,
0.026523279026150703,
-0.2340558022260666,
-0.9867344498634338,
-0.09172553569078445,
-0.5910909175872803,
-0.5981085300445557,
-0.8054798245429993,
0.09296391159296036,
0.3708077073097229,
0.10107731819152832,
0.6709462404251099,
0.1056276187300682,
-1.0000560283660889,
0.4602360129356384,
0.36820220947265625,
-0.9299836754798889,
0.24524296820163727,
-1.2842437028884888,
-0.5534062385559082,
0.660595715045929,
0.7718198299407959,
-0.5120392441749573,
-0.15835589170455933,
-0.017147032544016838,
1.1044349670410156,
-0.9666048884391785,
0.1376313865184784,
-0.5196418762207031,
-0.3800375461578369,
0.15597690641880035,
-0.3494388163089752,
-1.5624830722808838,
-0.7063046097755432,
0.32774072885513306,
-0.059974007308483124,
1.3674732446670532,
-0.3350084722042084,
-0.4318261444568634,
-0.21941746771335602,
0.25559529662132263,
-0.8680075407028198,
0.5709882974624634,
0.1480170488357544,
0.2646285891532898,
0.1995265930891037,
0.7207696437835693,
-0.7695862054824829,
-0.09145504981279373,
0.7301658391952515,
0.4638080894947052,
-0.43810969591140747,
0.05489066243171692,
0.09703022986650467,
0.16648417711257935,
-0.09634748101234436,
-0.09221559762954712,
0.36604368686676025,
-0.19403168559074402,
0.12821657955646515,
-0.68873131275177,
0.7793899178504944,
0.6690599322319031,
0.024538472294807434,
-0.39041832089424133,
0.4281053841114044,
0.7846770882606506,
1.1933326721191406,
-0.25914397835731506,
-0.16794291138648987,
-0.43625956773757935,
-0.04935622215270996,
0.14798322319984436,
-0.29556843638420105,
0.5023162364959717,
0.18786416947841644,
-0.3145752251148224,
0.05516255274415016,
-0.6255846619606018,
-0.5916885733604431,
-0.46325379610061646,
0.2970693111419678,
-0.7798493504524231,
0.362821102142334,
-0.3784058392047882,
-0.662396252155304,
0.422794908285141,
-0.1937267929315567,
-1.1788955926895142,
0.4039449691772461,
0.12175173312425613,
0.13067123293876648,
-0.4409005045890808,
-0.7489559054374695,
0.006390284281224012,
0.699799656867981,
-0.04833276942372322,
0.5925248861312866,
-0.4357113838195801,
-0.3823080360889435,
0.1139688640832901,
-0.017839517444372177,
0.10668529570102692,
-0.14136330783367157,
0.15142321586608887,
0.3974491357803345,
-0.2138955444097519,
0.6965979337692261,
-0.20849959552288055,
0.08766552060842514,
-0.2402065396308899,
-0.8962664008140564,
0.8749874234199524,
0.7874715924263,
-0.5086699724197388,
-0.2669562101364136,
0.2608649432659149,
0.6619380116462708,
-0.20533548295497894,
-0.07997070997953415,
0.28324195742607117,
0.7493850588798523,
0.14079098403453827,
0.4392792284488678,
0.507418692111969,
-0.6650424599647522,
-0.9560191631317139,
0.1296132504940033,
0.3518005907535553,
-0.3854546844959259,
0.17253728210926056,
0.27488455176353455,
0.3968944847583771,
0.49897485971450806,
-0.3701610565185547,
-0.7165141701698303,
0.4237079918384552,
0.256793349981308,
-0.19099777936935425,
0.25753849744796753,
-0.7917311191558838,
0.7208477258682251,
-0.8290956020355225,
-0.5835518836975098,
-1.0405927896499634,
-0.3270612955093384,
0.5148634910583496,
0.1295764148235321,
0.6053711771965027,
0.7933370471000671,
-0.2657604515552521,
-0.0012972794938832521,
0.053396549075841904,
0.6983442306518555,
0.1692861020565033,
-0.22991622984409332,
0.7799345850944519,
-0.6763902306556702,
0.31844276189804077,
-0.5583674311637878,
0.052181702107191086,
-0.800373911857605,
-0.4839728772640228,
0.4477734863758087,
0.6471810936927795,
-1.5039477348327637,
-0.4934863746166229,
-0.1442747563123703,
0.30900266766548157,
-1.090438723564148,
0.42239588499069214,
0.011311239562928677,
-0.6059123873710632,
-0.6230806708335876,
0.16973406076431274,
-0.10518079996109009,
-0.15535707771778107,
0.038795266300439835,
-0.5282421708106995,
0.3954550623893738,
0.3549685776233673,
-0.751859188079834,
0.6562443971633911,
0.19993956387043,
-0.005615261849015951,
0.27431443333625793,
-0.4176136553287506,
-0.10985635221004486,
0.29992836713790894,
0.39767661690711975,
-0.6251290440559387,
0.3980005085468292,
-0.3309507369995117,
-0.05510706454515457,
0.32943835854530334,
0.0517549142241478,
0.7099208235740662,
-0.2799025774002075,
0.41416701674461365,
-1.1415048837661743,
-0.6590812802314758,
0.2109678089618683,
-0.4490059018135071,
-0.30935418605804443,
-0.031442467123270035,
0.5425801873207092,
0.31953370571136475,
0.20710864663124084,
0.20357486605644226,
0.5438107848167419,
-0.580927312374115,
0.5360195636749268,
0.5690579414367676,
0.05224863812327385,
-0.3851269781589508,
0.2849617302417755,
-1.0749690532684326,
1.1273292303085327,
0.9906094074249268,
0.5597795248031616,
0.09686853736639023,
0.47849926352500916,
0.26373055577278137,
-0.5621920228004456,
0.5406453609466553,
0.13633950054645538,
0.18325094878673553,
-0.22551430761814117,
-0.09106925129890442,
-0.8889809846878052,
0.3142087757587433,
0.778063178062439,
0.010229190811514854,
-0.07592841237783432,
-0.48399630188941956,
-0.2957545220851898,
0.7906535267829895,
-0.28882646560668945,
-0.1475510448217392,
0.17264717817306519,
-0.5752654671669006,
0.08299819380044937,
-0.1505352109670639,
-0.10970153659582138,
0.504173219203949,
0.2600420117378235,
0.14401771128177643,
-0.5355061292648315,
-0.16939805448055267,
0.5839282870292664,
0.334614634513855,
0.27951163053512573,
-0.9851016402244568,
0.28814393281936646,
-0.24256788194179535,
-0.19676373898983002,
-0.23580673336982727,
-0.352986603975296,
-0.1942112147808075,
-0.37600627541542053,
0.683586061000824,
-0.7302106022834778,
-0.38804203271865845,
0.6556723117828369,
0.3303004205226898,
-0.6202331781387329,
-0.04639752581715584,
0.46169134974479675
] |
200260
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total%20Request%20Live
|
Total Request Live
|
Total Request Live (known commonly as TRL) was an American television program broadcast on MTV that premiered on September 14, 1998. The series featured popular music videos played during its countdown, and was also used as a promotion tool by musicians, actors, and other celebrities to promote their newest works to the show's target teen demographic.
During the original run of the program, TRL played the ten most requested music videos of the day, as voted by viewers via phone or online. The show generally aired Monday through Thursday for one hour, though the scheduling and length of the show fluctuated over the years. Although TRL was billed as a live show, many episodes were actually pre-recorded. Due to declining ratings, and the larger secular decline of music-based television in favor of online services, MTV would announce the cancellation of TRL on September 15, 2008. The special three-hour finale episode, Total Finale Live, aired on November 16, 2008.
Less than a decade later, TRL would be revived on October 2, 2017. In 2019, the show aired Saturday mornings at 10:00 a.m. ET as TRL Top 10. The show was then rebranded to Fresh Out Live.
History
Origin
Total Request Live originated from several pre-existing programs on MTV. Dial MTV, the first video request show on the network, had aired from 1986 to 1996. In 1997, MTV launched two new shows that became the predecessors of TRL: Total Request, a revival of the Dial MTV concept hosted by Carson Daly, and MTV Live, which was hosted by Toby Amies, Daly, and Ananda Lewis and featured live performances and interviews from musical artists.
Total Request was more subdued than MTV Live, as Daly introduced music videos from an empty, dimly lit set. As the show progressed and gained more momentum with viewers tuning in, it was soon added to the list of daytime programming during MTV's Summer Share in Seaside Heights, New Jersey. The countdown would prove to be one of the most watched and most interactive shows in recent MTV history, demonstrating that it had potential to become an even larger success by combining with the element of live television.
Original run (1998–2008)
Carson Daly era
In Fall 1998, MTV producers merged the real-time aspect of MTV Live with the fan-controlled countdown power of Total Request into Total Request Live. The program made its debut from MTV Studios on September 14, 1998. The show then grew to become MTV's unofficial flagship program.
The original host of TRL, Carson Daly, brought popularity to the show. The widely known abbreviation of TRL was adopted as the official title of the show in February 1999, after Daly and Dave Holmes began using the abbreviation on air regularly. In the years following, the program was rarely referred to by its complete title. The show's countdown started off successfully while receiving hundreds of votes for favorite artists such as Hanson, Aaliyah, Blaque,TLC,Eminem, Christina Aguilera, Britney Spears, Korn, Limp Bizkit, Kid Rock, Janet Jackson, *NSYNC, and Backstreet Boys.
TRL spent its first year developing a cult-type following. In Fall 1999, a live studio audience was added to the show. By Spring 2000, the countdown reached its peak, becoming a very recognizable pop culture icon in its first two years of existence. A weekend edition of the show known as TRL Weekend, with a countdown consisting an average of the week's Top 10, aired for a short time in 2000.
In 2001, the popularity of TRL was at such a level that it spawned a country music spin-off, CMT Most Wanted Live, on sister network CMT, until 2004. In July 2001, MTV sponsored the Total Request Live Tour, which played over 30 dates in North America and featured acts like Destiny's Child, Jessica Simpson, Eve, and Nelly.
Some evolutionary changes were made to TRL throughout the next few years. The show received a new set and on-screen graphics for the debut of the Fall 2001 season. A year later, on October 23, 2002, TRL celebrated its 1,000th episode. The number-one video on that day was "Dirrty" by Christina Aguilera. Also throughout the year of 2002, original host Carson Daly would be seen gradually less and less as he had branched out with his own late-night talk show Last Call with Carson Daly on NBC. The show had near-daily segments from MTV News correspondents reporting on the latest in national or entertainment and music news from inside the studio.
Post-Carson Daly era
In 2003, the next generation of TRL was ushered in as Carson Daly officially stepped down as host. Daly left the show to focus on his own talk show which premiered a year earlier on NBC. Following Daly stepping down, a revolving door of VJs hosted TRL, including Damien Fahey, Hilarie Burton, Vanessa Minnillo, Quddus, La La Vasquez, and Susie Castillo. Some of these VJs made their debut on the show in earlier years, so they recently had the opportunity to host the show on days in which Daly was absent.
Some changes were made to TRLs voting process in 2005. The show previously allowed anyone to vote online several times, but as part of these changes, only registered members on MTV.com could vote online. Additionally, a limit of one vote per day was added. Then, on July 10, 2006, MTV announced that votes would not be taken by phone, ending the legacy of the "DIAL MTV" phone number, which had been in use for voting on MTV since the premiere of the countdown show Dial MTV in the mid-1980s.
[[File:TRL studios in Times Square in 2006.jpg|thumb|upright=1|TRLs studios in Times Square in 2006.]]
In September 2006, TRL reached its eighth anniversary and, at that point, it was the longest-running live program that MTV had ever produced. It is also the third-longest-running program of all time in the network's history, following behind The Real World, which has aired for the past 21 years, and 120 Minutes, which aired for 17 years. Around this time, TRL began airing officially on just four days a week (Monday through Thursday), as opposed to all five weekdays.
On November 2, 2006, TRL introduced what was billed as the first-ever hip hop public service announcement on global warming. The three-minute piece, titled "Trees", warned about deforestation and the dangers of global warming. The video corresponded with MTV's social campaign, Break the Addiction, as part of think MTV.
The hosts of TRL in 2008 were Damien Fahey and Lyndsey Rodrigues. Additionally, Stephen Colletti, former cast member on Laguna Beach, has appeared on TRL as host numerous times. The rest of the VJs are or have been working on separate projects. Hilarie Burton left TRL in 2004, after joining the cast of The WB/CW's One Tree Hill, playing Peyton Sawyer. Quddus hosted from 2001 to 2006. He left to move to California to be a host of TV One Access.
On May 22, 2007, TRL celebrated its 2000th episode, showing highlights from the past 2000 episodes, and a special countdown of ten of the most successful videos to ever appear on the show. Justin Timberlake's "Cry Me a River" topped the special countdown.
The end of TRL
In 2007, rumors began circulating stating that the ratings-challenged music video countdown show was to be canceled. In early 2007, an average of 373,000 viewers regularly watched the program. New York Daily News were one of the first to publish this rumor. In February 2007, MTV said the rumor was unfounded and claimed TRL will continue to air for the foreseeable future.
The producers of TRL experimented with web-based viewer interaction throughout the 2006–2007 season, showing viral videos, allowing viewers to send feedback on a video via internet forums and webcams, along with a heavy emphasis on MTV's since discontinued Overdrive video portal. However, MTV still secretly planned to cancel the show and replace one with even more emphasis on viewer interaction, named YouRL (a homophone of URL.)
Consequently, in July 2007, it was reported that YouRL was not received well by test audiences and that the concept of YouRL has been abandoned for the time being. Total Request Live proceeded with a new season as usual on September 4, marking the tenth season of the show.
On September 15, 2008, it was announced that TRL would be shut down. The final regular weekday episode aired on November 13, 2008, with guest Seth Green and The All-American Rejects. The Rejects spent the entire episode assisting in the tear down of the set which was a theme for the episode. At the end of the episode, Lindsey and Damien cooperatively added the last step in the demolition process by shutting down all the lights. Preceding was a montage of cast and crew members saying their goodbyes by waving to the camera.
A three-hour special marking the end of the show aired on November 16, 2008. Several artists made appearances, including Ludacris, Snoop Dogg, Nelly, Beyoncé, 50 Cent, Fall Out Boy, Backstreet Boys, Justin Timberlake, Kid Rock, JC Chasez, Christina Aguilera, Travis Barker, Taylor Swift, Hilary Duff, Eminem, and Korn's Jonathan Davis. Former host Carson Daly described the media atmosphere after his departure from TRL, in an interview with TV Guide: "MySpace was sold. Social networking took off. Technology went crazy. The whole tectonic shift of mass media. There were a lot of reasons why TRL became kind of a different show after I left. I don't necessarily think it had anything to with me leaving as much as it had to do with the changing landscape."
The last music video to be played on TRL (during the final episode) was "...Baby One More Time" by Britney Spears, being the video that made number one on the countdown of the most iconic videos of all time. As the show did its final countdown of all-time videos, her now-iconic first hit, "... Baby One More Time", emerged as the top video, and played as the credits of the show ran for the last time. .
Final top 10
TRL chose the top ten most iconic videos and aired them as their final countdown.
Revivals (2014–2016)
On June 25, 2014, MTV announced that they would bring back Total Request Live for a one-off special edition on July 2, presented by MTV personality Sway with recording artist Ariana Grande, who performed her single "Problem" and premiered her song "Break Free", as well as having her hip hop knowledge tested in a "Hip Hop Mix Up" game. The special was titled Total Ariana Live and was broadcast from MTV's Times Square studio in front of a live audience. Grande called it "a huge honor" to bring back TRL. The episode drew an average of 456,000 viewers.
On September 27, 2016, as part of MTV's Elect This campaign, the network revived the program for a one-hour live special called Total Registration Live. It was simulcast on MTV's website, app, Facebook and YouTube pages, and ElectThis.com. It was hosted by Nessa and featured performances by Ty Dolla $ign from his politically motivated mixtape Campaign. Kendall Jenner appeared in Times Square on behalf of Rock the Vote, and Ana Marie Cox and Jamil Smith from MTV News appeared on-air for segments. There were other appearances by Joss Whedon, Camila Cabello, Vic Mensa, Natalia Dyer, and Mack Wilds. Stories of millennials who have been activists were spotlighted.
MTV Classic
Following the launch of MTV Classic on August 1, 2016, music video blocks have consistently aired on the network under the name Total Request Playlist. When broadcast, however, this is merely an automated playlist of pop, rap/hip-hop, R&B, and rock videos from the late 1990s to the early 2000s.
Return (2017–present)
On July 30, 2017, MTV announced that the network would revive TRL. In addition to the hosts, Liza Koshy, The Dolan Twins, Eva Gutowski, Gabbie Hanna and Gigi Gorgeous were correspondents.
Since January 22, 2018, TRL was halved from a full hour to only a half-hour per day. The program then went on a hiatus until April 23, 2018. Jackson left the show in 2018.
In February 2018, a half-hour late-night edition of TRL, Total Request LateNight was launched. The show aired Monday and Tuesday at 11 PM and was often an after-show for a preceding program. MTV announced plans to expand the show to three nights in the summer and four nights by the end of the year, but this never materialized.
On April 23, 2018, MTV launched a pre-recorded, hour-long daily morning edition of TRL titled Total Request AM. The show aired at 8am and was hosted by Sway. Vinny from Jersey Shore was brought on as host for the week and the first guests were boy band PrettyMuch. The program featured the return of a top ten countdown focusing on a specific playlist (Monday Motivation being the first countdown).
In 2019, saw another retooling and name change as TRL Top 10, which featured hosts Sway, Kevan Kenney and Jamila Mustafa. An off-shoot of the program, Fresh Out Live, airs every Friday on MTV.
Impact
TRL became "appointment after-school TV, its studio at 1515 Broadway a pop-culture fishbowl where rabid teens could catch a glimpse of their favorite stars." Debuting before social media platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook, the show is considered one "of the first truly interactive television shows, utilizing the synergy of the internet and television to countdown the top music videos of the day." Among the interactive features of TRL was the video shoutout, a 15-second video clip where fans could "appear, screen-within-screen, during the airing of a music video" screaming about their love for an artist or band. Because TRL was initially filmed in an age before social media, the show was seen as "the last pure view of...big celebrities. You were getting unadulterated ego." The show had a number of notably unscripted moments happen in studio, such as band members streaking or celebrities showing up unannounced. Hanson, a frequent guest on TRL, said "Before you could see what an artist had for breakfast from Twitter, TRL was the place you were going to hear about it."
TRL not only became "destination TV" for young people to get news on their favorite stars and on pop culture, but also became a place for viewers to stay updated with major world events as MTV News reporters would make regular appearances announcing news headlines. As MTV News correspondent SuChin Pak said, "For young people, TRL was not only where you got to see your rock idols and pop stars, but where you connected with the major events happening around the world, outside the small town you were living in."
The show was likened to the millennial generation's version of American Bandstand or Soul Train, averaging 853,000 viewers in 1999 according to Nielsen. TRL is widely viewed as the show that launched the careers of many artists from the late 1990s and early 2000s. MTV News correspondent John Norris said, "It's an interesting debate whether NSYNC, Backstreet Boys, Britney, Christina [Aguilera], Jessica [Simpson] and Good Charlotte would have had the careers they had without TRL." Writing for Spin, Peter Gaston opined that TRL "helped keep the major labels afloat by boosting pop artists sales numbers on the Billboard charts." TRL became a "must-stop on every celebrity's promotional itinerary." Musicians themselves including Eminem and Britney Spears would sometimes fill in for the hosts. The show was also the site of in-studio performances by big artists promoting album releases.
Boy bands
Even though late ‘90s boy bands like Backstreet Boys and NSYNC released albums before TRL began in the fall of 1998, both groups only reached their commercial peaks after their videos were seen on TRL. In 1999, the Backstreet Boys' second LP, Millennium, achieved the highest first week sales ever from an LP at the time.
In 2000, when NSYNC released their second LP No Strings Attached, they topped the Backstreet Boys' first week sales and set a record for first-week album sales that would last for 15 years until Adele’s 25 surpassed the record in 2015. Fans numbering in the thousands stood outside TRL's studio to see NSYNC or Backstreet Boys appear as guests, resulting in the closure of Times Square. Throughout most of 1998, 1999, and 2000, videos by the Backstreet Boys and *NSYNC would claim the top position on the countdown. Other boy bands of the era who achieved number one videos or received heavy rotation on the show included 98 Degrees, O-Town, B2K, soulDecision, and LFO.
Pop princesses
Pop singers like Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, Mandy Moore and Jessica Simpson all made their music debuts on TRL as well. Spears, Aguilera, and Simpson would often appear as guests and their music videos would receive regular airplay. Simpson’s video "Irresistible" reached number two on the countdown in 2001. Shakira made her English-language pop debut with "Whenever, Wherever", and saw regular number one spot status with the songs "Objection (Tango)", "La Tortura" (the first only Spanish-speaking song to reach number one on the countdown), and "Hips Don't Lie". Mandy Moore saw success on the show with her debut single's "Candy" in 1999 and "I Wanna Be with You", but did not score her first number-one video until her 2002 single "Crush".
Jessica Simpson's younger sister Ashlee Simpson is another pop singer that has had success on TRL. Ashlee would go on to score three videos in the number one spot with "Pieces of Me", "Boyfriend" and "Invisible." The artist with the most retired videos is Britney Spears with 13 videos retired, an honorary retired video ("I'm a Slave 4 U"), and three videos retired number one. A "pop princess" streak occurred in March 2007, where the number one and number two spots were women for every show. There was no other month in the history of TRL where every show had a woman at the top spot.
Rock bands
Although best known for featuring pop acts, TRL regularly featured videos and performances from rock bands in genres such as nu metal, pop punk and emo pop. The metal bands Korn and Limp Bizkit were particularly popular on the program in the late 1990s, and often shared airtime with Britney Spears and the Backstreet Boys. In later years, Green Day, Blink-182, My Chemical Romance, Linkin Park, Fall Out Boy and Sum 41 also were successful on the TRL chart.
Disney stars
Vanessa Hudgens premiered "Come Back to Me", which peaked at number three, and "Say OK", which only went to number ten. The Jonas Brothers premiered their songs "Hold On" and "SOS" on the show; "SOS" made it on the countdown peaking at number six. "When You Look Me in the Eyes" was on the charts for several weeks before peaking at number one, after fans crushed and flooded the TRL site by requesting the video hundreds of times on March 19, 2008. "Burnin' Up" has also made it to the number-one spot on TRL. Ashley Tisdale premiered "He Said She Said" on TRL and it reached the number-one spot for 16 days and was retired at 40 days in the countdown, becoming the most successful song for a Disney recording artist in the show. Aly & AJ's videos for "Rush", "Chemicals React" and "Potential Breakup Song" have all been on the countdown with "Rush" peaking at number two and "Chemicals React" peaking at number four, and "Potential Breakup Song" peaking at number five. Miley Cyrus's "7 Things" premiered on TRL and reached number four on the show.
Video game
A PC video game called MTV Total Request Live Trivia was developed by Hypnotix and published by Take-Two Interactive, with a release on August 14, 2001. GameRankings rates it at 53.89% acclaim, with a 48/100 grade from Metacritic.
International versions
Past programs
The first version of TRL outside the US was in Italy. Started on MTV Italy on 2 November 1999, it was hosted by Marco Maccarini and Giorgia Surina, followed by Federico Russo and Carolina Di Domenico. Since the 2005–06 season, Surina returned to TRL with a new co-host, Alessandro Cattelan. After the 2005–06 season, the show was hosted only by Alessandro Cattelan. For the 2007–08 season, the show was hosted for the first moment by Alessandro Cattelan and Elena Santarelli, and for the summer, the male host was replaced by Carlo Pastore. Later Carlo Pastore was still the main host, but the female host changed to Elisabetta Canalis. Throughout its eight seasons, TRL was broadcast from Milan, Rome, Venice, Naples, Genoa and Turin. TRL Italy is the longest-running show on MTV Italy: on 23 December 2004, a special two-hour event, "TRL #1000", was aired to celebrate the programme's 1000th episode. From 2006 to 2012, there was also a award programme called TRL Awards where the people choose the artist of the year via web or mobile, and in the summer of 2007 was aired a special weekly-appointment called TRL Extra Live, who best-known Italian singers did a mini-concert. The final version of the programme was hosted by Brenda Lodigiani, Alessandro Arcodia, Wintana Rezene and Andrea Cadioli, under the name TRL on the Road, and ended on 24 September 2010.
MTV România launched the Romanian version of TRL from an Orange concept store on Calea Victoriei (a major commercial avenue in the centre of Bucharest) on 23 January 2006. The show aired two times a week, on Tuesday and Wednesday. The graphic was similar to that of the Italian version. The show has closed during 2009.
The British version, known as TRL UK, was hosted by Dave Berry, Alex Zane, Jo Good, and Maxine Akhtar. It was broadcast live from MTV Networks Europe Studios in Camden, London, then moving to Leicester Square in London from second series. Following the second series' broadcast from Leicester Square, the top ten countdown was removed from the show. The second series finished at the end of 2005 and the show never returned to air.
The Australian version of TRL began as a weekend show, but then began aired live Monday through Friday. It was hosted by Maz Compton, Lyndsey Rodrigues, Nathan Sapsford, and Jason Robert Dundas. In early 2006, it returned to airing only on Friday evenings. The show was cancelled at the end of 2006 and was replaced by "The Lair". A revival of TRL returned in 2019. It is hosted by Ash London, Angus O'Loughlin, Flex Mami, and Lisa Hamilton.
After a Polish version of TRL was unsuccessful, MTV Poland decided to launch a new chart show based on TRLs structure titled RMF MAXXX Hits, which aired from Monday to Saturday at 2 p.m.
MTV France has launched the French version () of the US show on 24 January 2007. The format was different from the original concept: there wasn't the countdown with the ten favourite videos and in every episode there was a film's mini-documentaries entitled "". The show closed after only an episode on 25 January 2007 and it has cancelled from the schedule of MTV France.
The German version of TRL was very successful throughout Europe (after Italy), and it was known as Total Request Live Germany. TRL Germany had the highest television ratings of all the TRL versions in Europe. The show was hosted by Joko Winterscheidt and Mirjam Weichselbraun or Patrice Bouédibéla from Tuesday to Friday from 4.30 to 5.30 pm, and it was divided in four versions: Urban TRL (hip-hop music), Rock TRL (rock music), regular TRL (various genres), and TRL XXL (special live guest). It was replaced with MTV Home in Summer 2009.
In Brazil, MTV aired a show similar to TRL known as Disk MTV. This programme was created before TRL, existing since the launch of MTV Brasil in 1990, and has never changed its format as a top ten request show over the years. It aired weekdays from 6.00 to 7.00 pm. On 29 December 2006, MTV Brasil aired the last Disk MTV episode. It had a week-long special about the best videos of its sixteen-year run; the final video shown in the programme was Nirvana's "Smells Like Teen Spirit". The show was cut due to the decision of network of not airing music videos on its 2007 schedule, claiming that videos are something that can be viewed online on their Overdrive website.
Similar programs
In Latin America, a version of TRL called Los 10+ Pedidos (The 10 Most Requested) airs daily. The show is hosted by "Gabo" and "Macarena".
MTV Tr3s, a US channel targeted to bilingual Latino people, premiered as Mi TRL in September 2006. The show carried the same format and graphics as the English-language version of TRL. Mi TRL was initially anchored by Carlos Santos and Susie Castillo. Since then, Castillo has been with another VJ, Denise Ramerez. MTV News segments on the show are delivered from Los Angeles by correspondent Liz Hernandez.
Viacom's sister channel BET featured its own urban-oriented countdown, 106 & Park, and the two shows frequently competed with one another for guests, though by the end of the run of TRL, both shows aired with some space between them, allowing guests to appear on both shows on the same day.
Noggin featured a version of TRL called Jack's Big Music Show.
TeenNick featured a kid-friendly redention of TRL called TeenNick Top 10.
See also
TRL's Number Ones
References
Further reading
External links
1998 American television series debuts
2008 American television series endings
2017 American television series debuts
1990s American music television series
2000s American music television series
2010s American music television series
2020s American music television series
American music chart television shows
English-language television shows
MTV original programming
MTV weekday shows
Music chart shows
Pop music television series
American television series revived after cancellation
|
[
-0.07270199805498123,
-0.6536507606506348,
0.7933362126350403,
0.38959529995918274,
-0.32085734605789185,
0.02007792331278324,
0.12683601677417755,
0.38604605197906494,
-0.12440980970859528,
0.21719631552696228,
0.14872106909751892,
0.4605030119419098,
-0.30471643805503845,
0.10623328387737274,
-0.20309574902057648,
-0.3126656115055084,
0.09091424196958542,
0.0816606655716896,
0.0024457047693431377,
-0.5984966158866882,
0.26237860321998596,
-0.21754120290279388,
0.32024896144866943,
-0.20530617237091064,
0.09020448476076126,
-0.043007295578718185,
-0.2897461950778961,
-0.1540621519088745,
0.4482337236404419,
0.27861055731773376,
0.3184795379638672,
-0.021254224702715874,
-0.1403149664402008,
-0.17380771040916443,
-0.6300951838493347,
0.09350652247667313,
-0.6111307144165039,
0.3808355927467346,
-0.36771783232688904,
-0.19739435613155365,
-0.021665271371603012,
-0.36136308312416077,
-0.1934678703546524,
0.31879839301109314,
0.006883597932755947,
-0.079694464802742,
-1.4765349626541138,
-0.017896968871355057,
-0.7390260100364685,
0.44170504808425903,
-0.4857241213321686,
0.6620144844055176,
-0.1688927263021469,
0.7330704927444458,
-0.058145672082901,
0.16854707896709442,
-0.06223871558904648,
-0.31823500990867615,
-0.24401113390922546,
-0.3610702157020569,
0.05846184864640236,
-0.12806998193264008,
0.13958251476287842,
-0.23057062923908234,
0.173263281583786,
-0.20545677840709686,
0.24300295114517212,
1.0206938982009888,
-0.057492513209581375,
-0.7755053639411926,
0.20010237395763397,
-0.12417779117822647,
-0.12124156206846237,
0.02021254412829876,
0.24363131821155548,
-0.10912270098924637,
0.08490803092718124,
-0.10788962244987488,
0.1836310178041458,
0.51148921251297,
-0.3076438903808594,
0.4633912146091461,
0.8804639577865601,
0.3051483929157257,
0.1264634132385254,
-0.1406867355108261,
0.04870826005935669,
-0.2711655795574188,
-0.37611123919487,
0.39872264862060547,
-1.042607069015503,
-0.02858954295516014,
1.1578984260559082,
-0.23064054548740387,
0.1193973645567894,
0.09844976663589478,
-0.5199832916259766,
0.47719401121139526,
0.03421710431575775,
0.003086173441261053,
-0.16987650096416473,
-0.0910673663020134,
0.014598459005355835,
-0.8193556070327759,
-0.3555350601673126,
0.08480975031852722,
0.025425957515835762,
-0.4109298288822174,
0.43728211522102356,
0.33518800139427185,
-0.3646616041660309,
0.1398959755897522,
0.2886689305305481,
0.23276926577091217,
-0.0215191338211298,
0.696039617061615,
-0.02437750995159149,
-0.31681588292121887,
-0.4073903560638428,
0.17142254114151,
-0.45303547382354736,
0.03554828464984894,
-0.06882369518280029,
-0.011219467036426067,
-0.3187307119369507,
0.18401598930358887,
0.7108550667762756,
0.5055397152900696,
-0.21260382235050201,
-0.1129438504576683,
-0.047537561506032944,
0.8724888563156128,
0.3317987322807312,
0.1478579044342041,
-0.038445040583610535,
0.40636423230171204,
0.5825822353363037,
-0.3527035117149353,
-0.22503340244293213,
-0.3479872941970825,
-0.6890361905097961,
-0.234004408121109,
-0.7775464653968811,
-0.29078051447868347,
0.45491793751716614,
-0.21201179921627045,
0.13316413760185242,
-0.5763217210769653,
-0.27298033237457275,
-0.5674044489860535,
-0.24959906935691833,
-0.29812541604042053,
0.12193557620048523,
-0.290859580039978,
0.40780550241470337,
0.6974940896034241,
0.21295872330665588,
0.22968339920043945,
0.2162896692752838,
-0.0880291536450386,
-0.029448507353663445,
0.2952304482460022,
-0.3873971402645111,
-0.2277350276708603,
-0.49009379744529724,
0.07886726409196854,
-0.5400267839431763,
0.16427727043628693,
0.24883051216602325,
-0.2865097224712372,
-0.3668838143348694,
0.09708880633115768,
0.11333101242780685,
0.6262486577033997,
0.12179497629404068,
-0.1652415692806244,
0.6856604814529419,
0.37770769000053406,
-0.06196729466319084,
0.02372899278998375,
-0.505150556564331,
0.2524285912513733,
0.9810793399810791,
-0.4668567478656769,
0.5150395631790161,
-0.721843957901001,
0.8722139000892639,
0.2423558533191681,
-0.2248726189136505,
-0.0067869131453335285,
-0.5737655758857727,
-0.05251600965857506,
-0.1589748114347458,
0.006822748575359583,
0.9359759092330933,
-0.1057104840874672,
-0.8489119410514832,
1.3882197141647339,
0.302266001701355,
1.1169219017028809,
0.11494777351617813,
0.297294557094574,
0.7379392385482788,
0.17485962808132172,
-0.5543657541275024,
-0.02246258594095707,
-0.09752931445837021,
-0.6596599221229553,
0.1971018761396408,
0.42826104164123535,
-0.06304585933685303,
-0.5073466300964355,
0.09623268991708755,
0.3244225084781647,
-0.36067134141921997,
-0.1496991068124771,
-0.7671074271202087,
-0.06494556367397308,
0.23798757791519165,
-0.4767993688583374,
0.9080293774604797,
0.04739263653755188,
-0.043735478073358536,
0.10757827013731003,
-0.7026137709617615,
0.5634658336639404,
-0.507305920124054,
0.29972726106643677,
0.61904376745224,
-0.0521516278386116,
-0.4543285369873047,
0.26153457164764404,
-0.5267825722694397,
-0.21411748230457306,
-0.04832415655255318,
0.4317905008792877,
0.7042226791381836,
-0.48596495389938354,
-0.6087362170219421,
-0.2961888909339905,
0.8653092980384827,
0.10263664275407791,
-0.21337395906448364,
0.15155461430549622,
0.06618349999189377,
0.10001721233129501,
0.03993791714310646,
0.12252211570739746,
0.14986740052700043,
0.042462270706892014,
-0.04690549895167351,
0.13241082429885864,
-0.2559436857700348,
-0.12820711731910706,
-0.38906702399253845,
0.24434629082679749,
0.16856184601783752,
-0.17131307721138,
-0.008220060728490353,
0.1976006031036377,
0.46299177408218384,
0.12690332531929016,
0.12882544100284576,
0.2007012665271759,
0.060740966349840164,
-1.2647672891616821,
-0.35778483748435974,
-0.1096903458237648,
-0.09898544102907181,
0.12297522276639938,
0.23468796908855438,
-0.09314525127410889,
-0.16630153357982635,
0.11243518441915512,
-0.31474748253822327,
-0.5238599181175232,
0.14111308753490448,
-0.08515481650829315,
-0.18759353458881378,
-0.7596158981323242,
0.11852125078439713,
0.16152064502239227,
0.6420380473136902,
-0.3393952250480652,
0.0635203942656517,
0.07973124086856842,
-0.36726221442222595,
0.22348546981811523,
-0.12187191098928452,
-0.40769556164741516,
0.21529753506183624,
-0.20242054760456085,
-0.13222283124923706,
0.4745655953884125,
0.5443434119224548,
0.13942918181419373,
0.882794976234436,
-0.09208976477384567,
-0.29132306575775146,
0.46256089210510254,
-0.9112809896469116,
-0.18835385143756866,
-0.34060588479042053,
-0.3723655939102173,
-0.10012464225292206,
-0.6079968810081482,
0.4142928421497345,
-0.46099093556404114,
-5.773157119750977,
0.0006713896873407066,
-0.17912374436855316,
-0.24188196659088135,
0.16227224469184875,
0.02341420017182827,
0.45710524916648865,
-0.001419048523530364,
-0.03241436183452606,
0.12635576725006104,
-0.5549726486206055,
-0.06875382363796234,
-0.43040797114372253,
0.4275990426540375,
0.59865802526474,
-0.12414111196994781,
-0.2393462359905243,
0.7343517541885376,
0.20427753031253815,
0.110024593770504,
-0.26916995644569397,
-0.4065234959125519,
0.196389839053154,
-0.04046061262488365,
0.16570985317230225,
0.5507301092147827,
0.13705481588840485,
0.42557087540626526,
-0.13189783692359924,
-0.04383749142289162,
0.06512952595949173,
-0.31187528371810913,
-0.5526296496391296,
-0.18600212037563324,
-0.33039480447769165,
0.08738186210393906,
1.1326758861541748,
-0.39579930901527405,
0.2820679843425751,
-0.9726179242134094,
-0.026349186897277832,
-0.07239055633544922,
0.1612183004617691,
-0.05476798117160797,
0.7951852679252625,
0.09767990559339523,
-0.501090943813324,
0.18335676193237305,
-0.10859647393226624,
0.43767455220222473,
0.23783594369888306,
0.14940519630908966,
0.5180957913398743,
0.3138924539089203,
-0.5353327393531799,
-0.35232609510421753,
-0.2460690438747406,
-0.02010023035109043,
0.4425153434276581,
0.614353358745575,
0.6422445774078369,
-0.11231640726327896,
0.01536717638373375,
-0.7673607468605042,
0.002908113179728389,
-0.2856234312057495,
-0.18156413733959198,
0.2162148505449295,
0.29069262742996216,
0.3311516046524048,
0.5736008286476135,
0.3352377116680145,
0.2435949444770813,
-0.8962106704711914,
-0.23172278702259064,
-0.6852902770042419,
-0.05362524837255478,
0.024240441620349884,
-0.3098255693912506,
0.4037662148475647,
0.12557509541511536,
0.3174806833267212,
-0.25136926770210266,
0.07589896768331528,
-0.4211978018283844,
-0.4050394892692566,
-0.01711222343146801,
0.07084435224533081,
-0.286966472864151,
-0.10441199690103531,
0.3928680419921875,
-0.5018904805183411,
0.04063696786761284,
0.3212859630584717,
-0.48024630546569824,
-0.06753794103860855,
0.4916853904724121,
0.9388744235038757,
0.021555228158831596,
0.19689451158046722,
0.1086973249912262,
-0.27277737855911255,
0.4290655851364136,
-0.6439664959907532,
-0.06717066466808319,
-0.7264696955680847,
-0.4377654194831848,
0.38080739974975586,
0.6816473603248596,
0.1545761376619339,
-0.39526844024658203,
0.43504247069358826,
-0.561872661113739,
-0.1261736899614334,
-0.031882695853710175,
0.7856442332267761,
-0.5712875127792358,
-0.14888647198677063,
0.2947423756122589,
0.11746248602867126,
0.13122445344924927,
0.2635745108127594,
-0.04232450947165489,
-0.31466519832611084,
0.11103212833404541,
0.04618677496910095,
-0.11013202369213104,
0.04896203801035881,
-0.2550398111343384,
-0.574607789516449,
0.1893605887889862,
0.6709175109863281,
0.6609384417533875,
0.5085237622261047,
0.02589394338428974,
-0.7277097702026367,
0.018713638186454773,
-0.24634599685668945,
0.6322681307792664,
-0.38521522283554077,
-0.19004306197166443,
-0.21751311421394348,
-0.2818855941295624,
0.5639060139656067,
0.10924424231052399,
0.3338985741138458,
-0.07424423843622208,
0.011086658574640751,
-0.9040836691856384,
0.2098032832145691,
0.02570122294127941,
-0.9570518732070923,
0.22844378650188446,
-0.34071168303489685,
0.29514607787132263,
-0.0714331716299057,
-0.02095865085721016,
0.043827977031469345,
-0.011967233382165432,
-0.5491134524345398,
-0.1512940376996994,
-0.2855514883995056,
-0.26101189851760864,
-0.13670815527439117,
-0.17588505148887634,
-0.03515511006116867,
-0.26138147711753845,
-0.6841456890106201,
-0.3229013979434967,
0.13959169387817383,
-0.2676847577095032,
-0.18509182333946228,
-0.05654529109597206,
-0.18477502465248108,
0.6811033487319946,
0.5716574788093567,
0.01154336053878069,
-0.4452333450317383,
0.24900944530963898,
0.5957755446434021,
0.2697388529777527,
-0.23708684742450714,
-0.21663817763328552,
0.1332291215658188,
0.6765701174736023,
-0.22916661202907562,
-0.7551735043525696,
0.31037119030952454,
0.3106485903263092,
0.25396814942359924,
-0.2481682002544403,
0.46440133452415466,
0.15027666091918945,
-0.04409649595618248,
-0.31488215923309326,
-0.09714898467063904,
0.1334233283996582,
0.9575087428092957,
-0.36186498403549194,
-0.6380606889724731,
-0.012508412823081017,
0.051118701696395874,
-0.16312183439731598,
0.03448634222149849,
0.32268401980400085,
-0.3071223497390747,
0.2713983356952667,
0.13019230961799622,
-0.47748106718063354,
0.0829543024301529,
-0.16539989411830902,
-0.24644559621810913,
-0.1365046501159668,
0.06425610929727554,
-0.2772447466850281,
0.30838918685913086,
-0.15115615725517273,
-0.7207933068275452,
-0.1469728797674179,
-0.27017566561698914,
-0.2851473093032837,
-0.11094709485769272,
-0.5470561981201172,
-0.04201928898692131,
-0.8750330209732056,
-0.23068904876708984,
-0.17381924390792847,
-0.39233988523483276,
-0.05159629508852959,
-0.08534687012434006,
0.3734990954399109,
-0.3776003420352936,
-0.0884564220905304,
0.47125864028930664,
0.21929658949375153,
0.3533586263656616,
-0.09623539447784424,
0.09139850735664368,
-0.48616573214530945,
0.31803831458091736,
0.4032129943370819,
0.5164159536361694,
-0.14114290475845337,
-0.13258974254131317,
-0.008822287432849407,
-0.23792922496795654,
-0.006613642442971468,
0.3946862518787384,
-0.34052056074142456,
0.0869440883398056,
0.41571274399757385,
-0.27432042360305786,
-0.86806321144104,
0.030760474503040314,
0.9420832395553589,
-0.5010454058647156,
0.14742445945739746,
-0.13482721149921417,
-0.16236253082752228,
0.10357658565044403,
0.06687750667333603,
0.07986945658922195,
-0.7187747359275818,
0.5333894491195679,
0.442408949136734,
0.6270673274993896,
0.058749645948410034,
0.02043517306447029,
-0.15729427337646484,
-0.16083146631717682,
0.28311651945114136,
0.0029395143501460552,
-0.38955220580101013,
0.3281386196613312,
0.33156201243400574,
0.14663520455360413,
0.6075991988182068,
-0.6790001392364502,
0.5566761493682861,
0.21547766029834747,
-0.6551563143730164,
-0.17290163040161133,
-0.29273852705955505,
-0.1475725769996643,
0.18428918719291687,
-0.6341866850852966,
0.017747392877936363,
0.2893029451370239,
-0.08950290828943253,
0.6285659670829773,
-0.13050852715969086,
0.6669158935546875,
0.25724539160728455,
0.44769713282585144,
-0.06438802182674408,
-0.34806957840919495,
0.9102943539619446,
-0.21670091152191162,
0.13412591814994812,
0.05833238363265991,
-0.46688219904899597,
0.051772914826869965,
0.022073527798056602,
-0.6684857606887817,
0.140473410487175,
-0.17811399698257446,
0.2617720663547516,
0.007949743419885635,
0.4251677095890045,
0.29059889912605286,
0.5240656137466431,
-0.496003121137619,
0.5465288758277893,
0.7177709341049194,
-1.2268214225769043,
-0.4805983304977417,
0.9969552159309387,
-0.21200864017009735,
0.19762933254241943,
-0.12723219394683838,
0.17017818987369537,
-0.07364118099212646,
-0.12001608312129974,
0.31573963165283203,
0.24536703526973724,
0.47707489132881165,
-0.036527153104543686,
-0.1593477725982666,
0.19777385890483856,
0.1314750760793686,
0.7000382542610168,
-0.3903902769088745,
-0.2800496816635132,
0.2675105333328247,
-0.238815039396286,
-0.6768743395805359,
-0.011447849683463573,
-0.0770949050784111,
-0.4956941604614258,
0.18926534056663513,
0.1732233762741089,
0.155410498380661,
-0.17160771787166595,
0.07309909164905548,
-0.09283329546451569,
0.715559184551239,
0.1536465734243393,
-0.06938287615776062,
0.28829607367515564,
-0.2231178879737854,
0.22206909954547882,
-0.3075352609157562,
0.5282120108604431,
0.15883095562458038,
0.4050152897834778,
-0.27334892749786377,
0.0056341905146837234,
-0.1499715894460678,
0.19366773962974548,
-0.4000808000564575,
0.25864332914352417,
0.2497873455286026,
0.636657178401947,
0.027761489152908325,
-0.6073733568191528,
-0.11610544472932816,
0.10797761380672455,
-0.022284576669335365,
0.10604282468557358,
0.4809684157371521,
0.057239167392253876,
0.6692143678665161,
-0.16624952852725983,
-0.04766423627734184,
-0.1359168440103531,
0.21644358336925507,
0.5173168182373047,
0.6208837032318115,
-0.05572585016489029,
-0.010475565679371357,
0.11411989480257034,
-0.32855111360549927,
0.2043077051639557,
-0.5593940019607544,
-0.19930338859558105,
0.2592194676399231,
-0.006020655389875174,
0.1817650943994522,
-0.16517171263694763,
-0.1644745022058487,
-0.1452513337135315,
-1.0313174724578857,
0.12802119553089142,
0.06652198731899261,
-0.6912775635719299,
-0.2000068575143814,
0.029315052554011345,
0.38948774337768555,
0.1282869428396225,
0.1002408042550087,
0.47464877367019653,
0.07689947634935379,
-0.129352867603302,
-0.126553013920784,
-0.5640665292739868,
0.46508464217185974,
-1.0124449729919434,
-0.7855726480484009,
-0.42627468705177307,
0.6868472695350647,
0.5151141881942749,
0.3678685426712036,
-0.06460820883512497,
0.6048403978347778,
-0.21648381650447845,
0.14699769020080566,
1.2772828340530396,
-0.19072318077087402,
0.1319035440683365,
-0.4602961540222168,
-0.5715555548667908,
0.25515642762184143,
-0.21309728920459747,
0.7678106427192688,
-0.13722458481788635,
0.3025602400302887,
0.3901534974575043,
-0.3588092029094696,
-0.33171260356903076,
0.6808563470840454,
-0.20989732444286346,
-0.17937655746936798,
-0.4594256281852722,
0.1913706362247467,
-0.27587050199508667,
-0.12641914188861847,
-0.41375094652175903,
0.367270827293396,
0.653855562210083,
-0.17498824000358582,
0.30636072158813477,
-0.022024553269147873,
-0.38141387701034546,
-0.32427310943603516,
-0.27558809518814087,
-0.07979801297187805,
0.3720531463623047,
-0.5395104289054871,
-1.2942348718643188,
-0.23639525473117828,
-0.14165297150611877,
-0.25446656346321106,
0.3855825364589691,
-0.22117626667022705,
-0.4758598804473877,
0.24258175492286682,
0.28650522232055664,
-0.3227422833442688,
-0.20705124735832214,
0.42358189821243286
] |
200261
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress%20K%C5%8Djun
|
Empress Kōjun
|
, born , was a member of the Imperial House of Japan, the wife of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito) and the mother of Shigeko Higashikuni, Princess Sachiko Hisa-nomiya, Kazuko Takatsukasa, Atsuko Ikeda, the Emperor Emeritus Akihito, Prince Masahito Hitachi-nomiya and Takako Shimazu.
Her posthumous name is Kōjun (香淳), which means "fragrant purity". Empress Kōjun was empress consort (皇后 kōgō) from 25 December 1926 to 7 January 1989, making her the longest-serving empress consort in Japanese history.
Early life
Princess Nagako was born in Kuni-no-miya's family home in Tokyo, Japan on 6 March 1903, into one of the Ōke branches of the Imperial House of Japan, which are eligible to provide an heir to the throne of Japan (by adoption). She was therefore a princess by birth, as the daughter of Kuniyoshi, Prince Kuni (1873–1929) by his consort, Chikako (1879–1956). While her father was a scion of the imperial family itself, her mother descended from daimyōs, the feudal or military aristocracy. Nagako would become one of the last Japanese who could remember what life was like inside the Japanese aristocracy in the years before the Second World War.
As a young girl, Nagako attended the Girls' Department of Peers' School in Tokyo (now Gakushūin), which was a school set up especially for the daughters of the aristocracy and imperial family. Among her cohort was Crown Princess Bangja of Korea (then known as Princess Masako Nashimoto). Following her betrothal at age fourteen, Nagako was withdrawn from this school and began a six-year training program aimed at developing the accomplishments deemed necessary for an empress.
Marriage and children
Nagako was betrothed to her distant cousin the Crown Prince Hirohito, later the Emperor Showa (1901–1989) at a very young age, in a match arranged by their parents, which was usual in Japanese society at that time. Her lineage and her father's unblemished military career were the major considerations. In January 1919, the engagement of Princess Nagako to the then-Crown Prince Hirohito was announced. In a step away from tradition, Hirohito was allowed to choose his own bride. Nagako herself had no choice in the matter. In 1917, at the age of 14, she and other eligible women participated in a tea ceremony at the Imperial Palace while the Crown Prince watched unseen from behind a screen. He eventually selected Nagako.
Princess Nagako married the Crown Prince Hirohito on 26 January 1924 and became the Crown Princess of Japan. She became the empress of Japan upon Hirohito's accession to the throne on 25 December 1926. Unlike his royal predecessors, Emperor Hirohito decided to abandon his 39 court concubines. Over the first decade of marriage, Empress Nagako gave birth to four daughters (see Issue). It was only on 23 December 1933, almost ten years after their wedding, that the young couple had a son, and gave Japan an heir, in the birth of , now the emeritus emperor. In all, Hirohito and Nagako had seven children, five daughters and two sons. (see Issue)
Life as the Empress of Japan
Empress Nagako performed her ceremonial duties in a traditional manner. She initially came to live in the palace during the time when people spoke an archaic imperial form of Japanese that has largely disappeared. Her role required her to attend special ceremonies such as those for the 2600th anniversary of the legendary foundation of the Empire of Japan in 1940 or the conquest of Singapore in 1942.
Nagako accompanied Emperor Hirohito on his European tour in 1971 and later on his state visit to the United States in 1975. She suffered a fall two years later, injuring her spine, and following another serious fall in 1980 was confined to a wheelchair for the remainder of her life.
Life as empress dowager
After the Emperor's death on 7 January 1989, she became empress dowager. At that time, she was in failing health herself and did not attend her husband's funeral; and she remained in seclusion for the rest of her life. In 1995, she became the longest-living dowager empress of Japan, breaking the record of Empress Kanshi, who had died 868 years earlier.
At the time of her death at the age of 97 in 2000, Nagako had been an empress for 74 years. In her final days, the Imperial Household Agency announced that she was suffering from breathing problems but that the illness was not serious. Nagako died at 4:46 pm on 16 June 2000, with her family at her side.
Emperor Akihito granted his mother the posthumous title of Empress Kōjun. Her final resting place is in a mausoleum named Musashino no Higashi no Misasagi, near that of her husband within the Musashi Imperial Graveyard.
Honours
National
Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of Meiji
Grand Mistress Paulownia Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown
Foreign
Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium)
Knight of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark)
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, Special Class (Germany)
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece)
Member of the Most Glorious Order of the Benevolent Ruler (Kingdom of Nepal)
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain)
Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (Sweden)
Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri (Thailand)
Dame Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Crown of Tonga (Tonga)
Issue
Empress Kōjun and Emperor Shōwa had seven children (two sons and five daughters).
Ancestry
See also
Empress of Japan
Ōmiya Palace
Notes
Citations
References
Connors, Leslie. (1987). The Emperor's Adviser: Saionji Kinmochi and Pre-war Japanese Politics. London: Routledge.
Koyama, Itoko. (1958). Nagako, Empress of Japan (translation of Kogo sama). New York: J. Day Co.
Large, Stephen S. (1992). Emperor Hirohito and Shōwa Japan: Political Biography. London: Routledge.
External links
Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun at the Imperial Household Agency website
BBC News: Japan mourns Empress Nagako
BBC News: In pictures: Japan's imperial funeral
Chicago Tribune: photo of Empress Nagako at White House during State Visit in 1975
1903 births
2000 deaths
People from Tokyo
Japanese empresses
Kuni-no-miya
Hirohito
Grand Cordons (Imperial Family) of the Order of the Precious Crown
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class
Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Dames Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
|
[
-0.6930574774742126,
-0.28892889618873596,
-0.008549656718969345,
-0.06973599642515182,
-1.080546259880066,
0.770215630531311,
0.12774187326431274,
-0.37439295649528503,
-0.08659443259239197,
-0.2740885317325592,
0.26272162795066833,
0.15166589617729187,
-0.08166985213756561,
0.49773502349853516,
-0.4027460515499115,
-0.06238226220011711,
0.4198404550552368,
0.7485195994377136,
-0.2896144688129425,
-0.5861784219741821,
-0.2561476230621338,
-0.5826202034950256,
-0.1428336799144745,
0.02326815389096737,
0.6432525515556335,
0.2173229604959488,
0.5017300844192505,
0.14231328666210175,
0.556342601776123,
0.19456598162651062,
0.024269308894872665,
0.4204424321651459,
0.3878287076950073,
-0.07676708698272705,
-0.6001848578453064,
-0.2636706829071045,
0.3233086168766022,
0.20689409971237183,
-0.06288447976112366,
0.24027317762374878,
0.046245913952589035,
-0.06089113652706146,
0.2046525925397873,
0.4408959150314331,
-0.40471822023391724,
-0.6593853235244751,
-2.049548864364624,
0.5228976011276245,
-0.28468507528305054,
-0.3016713261604309,
-0.2904277741909027,
-0.09348615258932114,
0.7041018605232239,
0.6125140190124512,
-0.04474451765418053,
0.47646647691726685,
-0.5931975245475769,
0.015505525283515453,
-0.11988981813192368,
-0.4676125943660736,
0.27599793672561646,
-0.13224998116493225,
0.6426218152046204,
-0.06314363330602646,
-0.1757543981075287,
0.11748344451189041,
0.2501339018344879,
0.11698893457651138,
-0.13552667200565338,
-0.08178868889808655,
0.3337439298629761,
0.6458797454833984,
0.46110203862190247,
0.2870851457118988,
-0.1330799013376236,
-0.589796781539917,
-0.4063088297843933,
-0.05414639413356781,
0.5926172733306885,
0.29575836658477783,
0.06131071224808693,
-0.835152268409729,
0.22160331904888153,
0.20737457275390625,
0.3898511230945587,
-0.07671650499105453,
0.48559650778770447,
0.27003368735313416,
-0.9739348888397217,
0.42811840772628784,
-0.1100790873169899,
0.32851487398147583,
-0.03827498108148575,
0.014680278487503529,
-0.364271342754364,
0.39186379313468933,
0.41986459493637085,
0.22826991975307465,
0.13711947202682495,
-0.04423980414867401,
-0.6796601414680481,
-0.018851501867175102,
-0.14109496772289276,
-0.3968981206417084,
-1.2572509050369263,
-0.9185082316398621,
-0.3251607418060303,
0.04147614166140556,
-0.6462356448173523,
0.1809059977531433,
0.06691295653581619,
0.3499244451522827,
0.19170010089874268,
-0.13919784128665924,
-0.2542095184326172,
0.03761691227555275,
0.023141279816627502,
-0.05349753424525261,
0.3705490529537201,
-0.15500085055828094,
0.47371798753738403,
-0.22165977954864502,
0.11764443665742874,
-0.10851495712995529,
0.10697926580905914,
0.19707021117210388,
-0.18444286286830902,
-0.04115061089396477,
-0.40530627965927124,
-0.24863870441913605,
0.22837917506694794,
0.5756138563156128,
-0.45842793583869934,
0.620745837688446,
0.4757603704929352,
-1.0886867046356201,
-0.04469170421361923,
0.04946621134877205,
0.2678704857826233,
0.0937214344739914,
-1.0172513723373413,
0.2508107125759125,
-0.7042269110679626,
0.010451738722622395,
0.8449726104736328,
0.2566560208797455,
-0.8187726736068726,
-0.06732584536075592,
-0.43559396266937256,
0.06985463201999664,
-0.6590567231178284,
-0.29531964659690857,
0.13317938148975372,
-0.011795790866017342,
-0.3734930157661438,
0.30488067865371704,
0.16853366792201996,
-0.4059586524963379,
0.3387683928012848,
0.5347878932952881,
0.19962401688098907,
0.11608219146728516,
-0.14975127577781677,
0.19300216436386108,
0.3382396996021271,
-0.2053804099559784,
-0.08935597538948059,
0.8598268032073975,
-0.7027518153190613,
-0.3994814157485962,
-0.5339673757553101,
-0.3798340857028961,
-0.6686593890190125,
-0.34488150477409363,
0.13962234556674957,
0.14193002879619598,
-0.1118754893541336,
-0.23316466808319092,
-0.16357390582561493,
-0.3583100140094757,
-0.7126711010932922,
0.4299558699131012,
-0.18218795955181122,
0.18369993567466736,
0.23802845180034637,
0.7050430178642273,
-0.413614422082901,
0.5053744912147522,
0.36171194911003113,
-0.04616203531622887,
-0.2137589454650879,
-0.5560299158096313,
0.15650147199630737,
0.16880963742733002,
0.5094135403633118,
0.18354448676109314,
0.2692415416240692,
0.5394926071166992,
0.2409628927707672,
0.44070878624916077,
0.5424595475196838,
-0.3928060531616211,
0.009825311601161957,
-0.5536965131759644,
0.12049649655818939,
0.15706223249435425,
-0.023267611861228943,
-0.16872923076152802,
0.2535364031791687,
0.747761607170105,
-0.08295175433158875,
0.3400312066078186,
0.19634263217449188,
0.011719761416316032,
-0.0586341992020607,
0.18622149527072906,
-0.4343082904815674,
-0.1818620264530182,
0.4014829099178314,
-0.09660090506076813,
0.248454749584198,
0.5597434043884277,
-0.198429137468338,
0.34116366505622864,
-0.6478958129882812,
0.7153946161270142,
0.2825976312160492,
0.46470025181770325,
-0.2644675672054291,
-0.5309057235717773,
0.551278293132782,
0.11752926558256149,
0.3672241270542145,
0.046383269131183624,
0.3615189790725708,
0.2557697892189026,
0.5482740998268127,
0.5384834408760071,
0.28033116459846497,
-0.0682908371090889,
-0.24659942090511322,
0.6061205863952637,
-0.24358996748924255,
0.719260036945343,
0.007074114866554737,
-0.04116753861308098,
-0.5008772015571594,
0.1314464956521988,
-0.8489865660667419,
-0.6156647205352783,
0.5149285793304443,
0.1922290325164795,
0.14069847762584686,
-0.21093381941318512,
0.1636616289615631,
-0.8883183598518372,
0.053228285163640976,
0.38960573077201843,
-0.24513714015483856,
0.20198720693588257,
-0.14369836449623108,
0.20973022282123566,
0.25674813985824585,
-0.00393392238765955,
0.17182251811027527,
0.6394959688186646,
0.673567533493042,
-0.724120020866394,
0.6278322339057922,
0.0909571498632431,
0.30100488662719727,
-0.04695822671055794,
-0.43482986092567444,
-0.33491194248199463,
-0.08238343894481659,
-0.742857038974762,
-0.8813931345939636,
0.9202920794487,
-0.20506064593791962,
-0.7813518047332764,
0.18055331707000732,
0.30770638585090637,
-0.2927381098270416,
-0.6253170967102051,
-0.782838761806488,
-0.8363227844238281,
-0.5359714031219482,
-0.8238328695297241,
-0.389939546585083,
0.2169947326183319,
-0.24793490767478943,
0.49347636103630066,
-0.29899147152900696,
-0.516655445098877,
0.14862217009067535,
0.5726404190063477,
-0.6203402280807495,
0.3971145451068878,
0.4656383693218231,
-0.29656341671943665,
-0.8725727200508118,
-0.08976287394762039,
0.26334741711616516,
0.13200201094150543,
0.5535041093826294,
0.3784309923648834,
0.13201642036437988,
-0.03385666385293007,
-5.780355930328369,
0.22887775301933289,
-0.16297858953475952,
0.1429559588432312,
0.557418942451477,
0.07632094621658325,
0.6623438000679016,
-0.12457138299942017,
0.5816723704338074,
0.18337059020996094,
0.6082533001899719,
0.6993064284324646,
0.03751140460371971,
0.19542084634304047,
0.050427354872226715,
0.37643498182296753,
0.18839244544506073,
-0.17685724794864655,
-0.07931971549987793,
0.1532476395368576,
-0.1714850515127182,
-0.07918621599674225,
-0.16646409034729004,
1.1575160026550293,
0.45516401529312134,
0.08965936303138733,
-0.3127250373363495,
-0.19938933849334717,
-0.6044688820838928,
-0.3990008234977722,
0.02023719623684883,
0.09761591255664825,
-0.041057080030441284,
0.3568076193332672,
-0.0069922469556331635,
0.22723190486431122,
0.4711745083332062,
0.16836532950401306,
-0.06653495877981186,
-0.1479189544916153,
0.09992935508489609,
-0.1715286672115326,
-0.29859453439712524,
0.09941865503787994,
-0.603702962398529,
-0.6452244520187378,
-0.6012163758277893,
-0.20138880610466003,
-0.438366562128067,
0.403198778629303,
-0.18833406269550323,
-0.10062441974878311,
0.3231530785560608,
-0.6124739050865173,
0.3376578986644745,
0.3170259892940521,
-0.26674753427505493,
0.4776005148887634,
-0.29508286714553833,
-0.28603801131248474,
0.22074967622756958,
-0.2598643898963928,
-0.0476587638258934,
0.057004332542419434,
-0.10578707605600357,
-0.2489500194787979,
0.23664669692516327,
0.30389541387557983,
0.013784253969788551,
0.09323413670063019,
-0.37607723474502563,
0.4633421301841736,
0.14008940756320953,
-1.0366170406341553,
0.12927833199501038,
-0.4179658889770508,
-0.2933363914489746,
0.43511226773262024,
-0.25057438015937805,
-0.1541042923927307,
0.017265567556023598,
0.039273712784051895,
0.6768320798873901,
0.8521581292152405,
0.04626327008008957,
0.1933288723230362,
0.5000321865081787,
-0.12741947174072266,
0.05272601544857025,
0.6472841501235962,
0.06163981184363365,
-0.904670000076294,
0.15639753639698029,
0.262964129447937,
0.19557639956474304,
0.45407432317733765,
-0.19558362662792206,
-0.1309979110956192,
0.03223960101604462,
-0.33183184266090393,
0.6596693992614746,
0.16746874153614044,
-0.1657712608575821,
-0.07816345244646072,
0.03669653460383415,
-0.7010069489479065,
-0.19604460895061493,
0.25277644395828247,
0.5861622095108032,
-0.3707541525363922,
0.16687458753585815,
-0.18010792136192322,
0.11900955438613892,
-0.850856363773346,
0.7106620669364929,
-0.24839499592781067,
0.17135819792747498,
0.6370351314544678,
0.5900513529777527,
-0.06977783888578415,
-0.22528117895126343,
0.7582738995552063,
-0.9605926275253296,
-0.12885846197605133,
0.6731302738189697,
0.49062636494636536,
-0.38416263461112976,
-0.011340930126607418,
-0.5054326057434082,
0.25330448150634766,
0.22081796824932098,
-0.4684019684791565,
-0.025785842910408974,
-0.017272599041461945,
0.20968596637248993,
-0.8365064263343811,
-0.5633018612861633,
-0.6475368738174438,
0.0593714639544487,
-0.2828136086463928,
-0.06770417094230652,
-0.40468892455101013,
-0.8985230326652527,
0.39241132140159607,
-0.3788646459579468,
0.2822842299938202,
-0.049952182918787,
-0.3646387755870819,
-0.06066140905022621,
0.6603804230690002,
-0.7165219187736511,
-0.8097427487373352,
0.4500810503959656,
-0.11447247862815857,
-0.4241984188556671,
0.039480917155742645,
-0.026409199461340904,
0.2618325352668762,
-0.49710139632225037,
0.5561694502830505,
-0.45746952295303345,
-0.7826676368713379,
-0.17248857021331787,
0.022805098444223404,
-0.5343655943870544,
-0.2728116810321808,
-0.04913138598203659,
-0.008933134377002716,
-0.5470895171165466,
0.6536136269569397,
0.2813374102115631,
-0.4253172278404236,
0.07339702546596527,
-0.05198727920651436,
0.18560974299907684,
-0.11507945507764816,
0.3860096037387848,
0.3469824492931366,
-0.10484632104635239,
-0.15991048514842987,
-0.026469824835658073,
-0.023221036419272423,
-0.33406347036361694,
0.4213472008705139,
0.33227962255477905,
0.4504278600215912,
-0.016010940074920654,
-0.5422407388687134,
-0.4632789194583893,
0.3907912075519562,
-0.07677792012691498,
-0.3508950173854828,
-0.42638134956359863,
0.22166912257671356,
-0.46073901653289795,
-0.30038169026374817,
0.32627618312835693,
-0.035714756697416306,
-0.1557619571685791,
0.3321302533149719,
0.01596057042479515,
0.394956111907959,
-0.4676688611507416,
-0.04668024554848671,
0.1088634505867958,
-0.6145487427711487,
0.09161552041769028,
0.07740315794944763,
0.425820529460907,
0.09150154888629913,
0.005771482829004526,
-0.42055243253707886,
0.2874905467033386,
0.30526262521743774,
0.1229415014386177,
0.30833956599235535,
0.14958491921424866,
-0.35844582319259644,
0.2635662257671356,
-0.9464414715766907,
-0.15119032561779022,
-0.13222041726112366,
-0.544148862361908,
-0.22918234765529633,
-0.11877337843179703,
0.5849775671958923,
0.1669139564037323,
-0.2306358516216278,
0.3370370864868164,
-0.08060865849256516,
-0.2996397614479065,
0.560758650302887,
0.13112935423851013,
0.28279638290405273,
-0.2678379416465759,
-0.47490066289901733,
0.5770671367645264,
0.05915563553571701,
0.36098623275756836,
0.04582466185092926,
0.756399393081665,
0.561603844165802,
0.17054423689842224,
0.13188566267490387,
-0.22963349521160126,
0.22908125817775726,
-0.5159764885902405,
-0.40555211901664734,
0.22514398396015167,
0.5000408291816711,
0.202302023768425,
-0.29798853397369385,
-0.10800720751285553,
-0.4666326344013214,
0.18388420343399048,
-1.1370829343795776,
0.29716622829437256,
0.5946342349052429,
-0.5025804042816162,
0.4357551336288452,
-0.30850455164909363,
0.11841616779565811,
0.14595794677734375,
-0.2915753126144409,
0.10870975255966187,
1.0571290254592896,
-0.5079750418663025,
0.04367024451494217,
-0.026126815006136894,
-0.3642078638076782,
-0.28291380405426025,
-0.24998454749584198,
-0.07916662842035294,
0.12736938893795013,
-0.3520925045013428,
0.6212761998176575,
-0.6267460584640503,
0.5892395973205566,
-0.007548714522272348,
-0.08381664007902145,
-0.3244493007659912,
-0.5176147222518921,
-0.11776980012655258,
-0.28173935413360596,
0.025862421840429306,
-0.6418390274047852,
0.11161781847476959,
-0.1540450006723404,
-0.08545216172933578,
0.20360636711120605,
-0.379023939371109,
-0.001979008549824357,
0.15826205909252167,
-0.2311570644378662,
0.0034973681904375553,
0.6681290864944458,
0.23547017574310303,
0.19403022527694702,
-0.5241880416870117,
0.032919254153966904,
-0.27380087971687317,
0.036077551543712616,
0.3899538815021515,
0.9460735321044922,
0.015886478126049042,
0.05718745291233063,
-0.07103598117828369,
-0.08698892593383789,
-0.09737201780080795,
0.2421388179063797,
0.28051266074180603,
0.10514787584543228,
0.6927143335342407,
0.1466805636882782,
-0.4036737084388733,
0.21385407447814941,
-0.47699928283691406,
0.07133258134126663,
-0.36738908290863037,
-0.42688190937042236,
0.2886551320552826,
0.010240963660180569,
-0.27661725878715515,
0.4994211792945862,
0.2553290128707886,
-0.07071402668952942,
-0.022721264511346817,
0.28255176544189453,
-0.011281397193670273,
-0.038529105484485626,
0.18943460285663605,
0.6150727272033691,
-0.2659149169921875,
0.373195618391037,
-0.013819982297718525,
-0.35237348079681396,
-0.04462851583957672,
-0.49514052271842957,
0.5846679210662842,
0.28929898142814636,
0.503389298915863,
0.3881955146789551,
-0.8271409273147583,
-0.054271399974823,
0.18831486999988556,
0.4381958246231079,
-0.30534976720809937,
0.1976313292980194,
0.037001315504312515,
-0.20914724469184875,
0.5116338729858398,
0.03799896314740181,
-0.299958735704422,
-0.44106489419937134,
-0.019877757877111435,
0.6911414861679077,
-0.0572856105864048,
-0.3154699504375458,
0.09216298162937164,
-0.12934741377830505,
-0.7402325868606567,
-0.42704126238822937,
0.1844162791967392,
0.14493852853775024,
0.19514481723308563,
-0.021392960101366043,
-0.2956271171569824,
0.16407710313796997,
-0.046266671270132065,
-0.14373661577701569,
-0.08291011303663254,
-0.6002610325813293,
-0.27034157514572144,
0.12241768091917038,
0.43290451169013977,
0.3848246932029724,
0.49165284633636475,
-0.22176291048526764,
0.34056761860847473,
-0.10651007294654846,
-0.297368586063385,
0.012561446987092495,
0.3762260675430298,
-0.6395717263221741,
0.27200886607170105,
0.25632283091545105,
-0.08333742618560791,
0.2723577320575714,
-0.580603837966919,
0.4330187737941742,
0.3701638877391815,
-0.02176426164805889,
-0.03713040426373482,
0.24143525958061218,
-0.20103175938129425,
-0.27204564213752747,
-0.0011735447915270925,
-0.25790539383888245,
0.6457165479660034,
0.33791863918304443,
-0.19617289304733276,
0.39282262325286865,
0.06240041181445122,
0.20181846618652344,
-0.15237979590892792,
0.9584544897079468,
-0.681492805480957,
0.045143574476242065,
0.14949508011341095,
0.06720921397209167,
0.21504053473472595,
-0.2601846754550934,
-0.13776172697544098,
0.12665238976478577,
-0.28966274857521057,
-0.1135178729891777,
0.829628050327301,
-0.1929740309715271,
-0.1428147703409195,
-0.34228450059890747,
-0.3223899304866791,
-0.257412314414978,
0.32685577869415283,
0.5945240259170532,
-0.0640600174665451,
0.21973653137683868,
-0.0322878360748291,
-0.19141976535320282,
0.12614360451698303,
0.5530243515968323,
-0.24100229144096375,
-0.00865597277879715,
-0.03240977227687836,
-0.30602893233299255,
0.2309146225452423,
0.3752555847167969,
-0.15448027849197388,
0.3084489107131958,
0.42200079560279846,
-0.20589189231395721,
-0.41529381275177,
0.44590112566947937,
0.31566333770751953,
0.20147596299648285,
0.456601619720459,
0.20416361093521118,
0.015531775541603565,
-0.7837544083595276,
-0.535473108291626,
-0.3839028477668762,
0.06889726966619492,
-0.05852595344185829,
0.09631083160638809,
-0.10822181403636932,
-0.3298194408416748,
-0.9368479251861572,
0.5213870406150818,
-0.3295036554336548,
0.5218579769134521,
-0.10000697523355484
] |
200262
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Steel%20Olcott
|
Henry Steel Olcott
|
Colonel Henry Steel Olcott (2 August 1832 – 17 February 1907) was an American military officer, journalist, lawyer, Freemason and the co-founder and first President of the Theosophical Society.
Olcott was the first well-known American of European ancestry to make a formal conversion to Buddhism. His subsequent actions as president of the Theosophical Society helped create a renaissance in the study of Buddhism. Olcott is considered a Buddhist modernist for his efforts in interpreting Buddhism through a Westernized lens.
Olcott was a major revivalist of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and he is still honored in Sri Lanka for these efforts. Olcott has been called by Sri Lankans "one of the heroes in the struggle of our independence and a pioneer of the present religious, national and cultural revival".
Biography
Olcott was born on 2 August 1832 in Orange, New Jersey, the oldest of six children, to Presbyterian businessman Henry Wyckoff Olcott and Emily Steele Olcott. As a child, Olcott lived on his father's New Jersey farm.
During his teens he attended first the College of the City of New York and later Columbia University, where he joined the St. Anthony Hall fraternity, a milieu of well-known people. In 1851 his father's business failed and he had to leave the university.
While living in Amherst, Ohio, Olcott was introduced to spiritualism by relatives who had formed a spiritualist circle after seeing the Fox sisters on tour in Cleveland. During this period, Olcott became interested in studies of "psychology, hypnotism, psychometry, and mesmerism" In 1853, after returning to New York, Olcott became a founding member of the New York Conference of Spiritualists. He also published letters and articles on spiritualist topics in the Spiritual Telegraph under the pseudonym "Amherst."
From 1858 to 1860 Olcott was the agricultural correspondent for the New York Tribune and the Mark Lane Express, but occasionally submitted articles on other subjects. He was present for John Brown's execution.
He also published a genealogy of his family extending back to Thomas Olcott, one of the founders of Hartford, Connecticut, in 1636.
In 1860 Olcott married Mary Epplee Morgan, daughter of the rector of Trinity parish, New Rochelle, New York. They had four children, two of whom died in infancy.
He served in the US Army during the American Civil War and afterward was admitted as the Special Commissioner of the War Department in New York. He was later promoted to the rank of colonel and transferred to the Department of the Navy in Washington, DC. He was well respected, and in 1865, following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, assisted in the investigation of the assassination.
In 1868 he became a lawyer specializing in insurance, revenue, and fraud.
In 1874 he became aware of the séances of the Eddy Brothers of Chittenden, Vermont. His interest aroused, Olcott wrote an article for the New York Sun, in which he investigated Eddy Farms. His article was popular enough that other papers, such as the New York Daily Graphic, republished it. His 1874 publication People from the Other World began with his early articles concerning the Spiritualist movement.
Also in 1874, Olcott met Helena Blavatsky while both were visiting the Eddy farm. His foundational interest in the Spiritualist movement and his budding relationship with Blavatsky helped foster his development of spiritual philosophy.
Olcott continued to act as a lawyer during the first few years of the establishment of the Theosophical Society, in addition to being a financial supporter of the new religious movement. In early 1875 Olcott was asked by prominent Spiritualists to investigate an accusation of fraud against the mediums Jenny and Nelson Holmes, who had claimed to materialize the famous "spirit control" Katie King (Doyle 1926: volume 1, 269–277).
In 1880 Helena Blavatsky and Olcott became the first Westerners to receive the refuges and precepts, the ceremony by which one traditionally becomes a Buddhist; thus Blavatsky was the first Western woman to do so. Olcott once described his adult faith as "pure, primitive Buddhism," but his was a unique sort of Buddhism.
Theosophical Society
From 1874 on, Olcott's spiritual growth and development with Blavatsky and other spiritual leaders would lead to the founding of the Theosophical Society.
In 1875, Olcott, Blavatsky, and others, notably William Quan Judge, formed the Theosophical Society in New York City, USA. Olcott financially supported the earliest years of the Theosophical Society and was acting president while Blavatsky served as the Society's Secretary.
In December 1878, they left New York in order to move the headquarters of the Society to India.
They arrived at Bombay on February 16, 1879. Olcott set out to experience the native country of his spiritual leader, the Buddha. The headquarters of the Society were established at Adyar, Chennai as the Theosophical Society Adyar, starting also the Adyar Library and Research Centre within the headquarters.
While in India, Olcott strove to receive the translations of sacred oriental texts which were becoming available as a result of western researches. His intent was to avoid the Westernized interpretations often encountered in America, and to discover the pure message of texts from the Buddhist, Hindu, and Zoroastrian religions, in order to properly educate Westerners.
Olcott's research and translation efforts put him in dialogue with early, ostensibly secular anthropologists and scholars of religion. He corresponded extensively with Max Müller, asking questions related to his interest in Hinduism and Buddhism and sharing discoveries from his travels in South Asia. He also personally met both Müller and Edward Burnett Tylor at least once at the University of Oxford.
Olcott's main religious interest was Buddhism, and he is commonly known for his work in Sri Lanka. After a two-year correspondence with Sri Piyaratana Tissa Mahanayake Thero, he and Blavatsky arrived in the then capital Colombo on May 16, 1880. Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steele Olcott took Five Precepts at the Wijayananda Viharaya located at Weliwatta in Galle on May 19, 1880.
On that day Olcott and Blavatsky were formally acknowledged as Buddhists, although Olcott noted that they had previously declared themselves Buddhists, while still living in America.
During his time in Sri Lanka Olcott strove to revive Buddhism within the region, while compiling the tenets of Buddhism for the education of Westerners. It was during this period that he wrote the Buddhist Catechism (1881), which is still used today.
The Theosophical Society built several Buddhist schools in Ceylon, most notably Ananda College in 1886, Dharmaraja College Kandy in 1887, Maliyadeva College Kurunegala in 1888, Siddhartha Kumara Maha Vidyalaya (First named as "Buddhist boys' School") Gampaha in 1891, Dharmadutha College Badulla in 1891, Mahinda College Galle in 1892, Nalanda College, Colombo in 1925, Musaeus Girls College in Colombo and Dharmasoka College in Ambalangoda.
Olcott also acted as an adviser to the committee appointed to design a Buddhist flag in 1885. The Buddhist flag designed with the assistance of Olcott was later adopted as a symbol by the World Fellowship of Buddhists and as the universal flag of all Buddhist traditions.
Helena Blavatsky eventually went to live in London, where she died in 1891, but Olcott stayed in India and pursued the work of the Theosophical Society there. Olcott's role in the Theosophical Society would still be as president, but the induction of Annie Besant sparked a new era of the movement. Upon his death, the Theosophical Society elected her to take over as president and leader of the movement.
Buddhist catechism
Text of "Buddhist Catechism"
Olcott's "Buddhist Catechism", composed in 1881, is one of his most enduring contributions to the revival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and remains in use there today. The text outlines what Olcott saw to be the basic doctrines of Buddhism, including the life of the Buddha, the message of the Dharma, the role of the Sangha. The text also treats how the Buddha's message correlates with contemporary society. Olcott was considered by South Asians and others as a Buddhist revivalist.
It is presented in the same format of question and answer used in some Christian catechisms. Here are a few examples from that text:
Olcott's catechism reflects a new, post-Enlightenment interpretation of traditional Buddhist tenets. As David McMahan stated, "[Olcott] allied Buddhism with scientific rationalism in implicit criticism of orthodox Christianity, but went well beyond the tenets of conventional science in extrapolating from the Romantic- and Transcendentalist-influenced 'occult sciences' of the nineteenth century."
Olcott's science and theosophy
The Theosophists combination of spiritualism and science to investigate the supernatural reflected the society's desire to combine religion and reason and to produce a rationally spiritual movement. This "occult science" within the Theosophical Society was used to find the "truth" behind all of the world's major religions. Through their research, Olcott and Blavatsky concluded that Buddhism best embodied elements of what they found significant in all religions.
Olcott utilized scientific reasoning in his synthesis and presentation of Buddhism. This is clearly seen in a chapter of his "Buddhist Catechism", entitled "Buddhism and Science". Notably, his efforts represent one of the earliest attempts to combine scientific understanding and reasoning with Buddhist religion. The interrelationship he saw between Buddhism and Science paralleled his Theosophical approach to show the scientific bases for supernatural phenomena such as auras, hypnosis, and Buddhist "miracles".
Death and legacy
Olcott was President of the Theosophical Society until his death on February 17, 1907.
Two major streets in Colombo and Galle have been named Olcott Mawatha, to commemorate him. A statue of him has been erected in front of Colombo Fort Railway Station. Many other schools that he helped found or have been founded in his memory possess commemorative statues in honour of his contribution to Buddhist education. He is still remembered fondly by many Sri Lankans today. On September 10, 2011, a statue of Colonel Olcott was unveiled at a Buddhist temple near Princeton, New Jersey.
The date of his death is often remembered by Buddhist centers and Sunday schools in present-day Sri Lanka, as well as in Theosophical communities around the globe. Olcott believed himself to be Asia's savior, the outsider hero who would sweep in at the end of the drama to save a disenchanted subcontinent from spiritual death.
The effort to revitalize Buddhism within Sri Lanka was successful and influenced many native Buddhist intellectuals. Sri Lanka was dominated by British colonial power and influence at the time, and many Buddhists heard Olcott's interpretation of the Buddha's message as socially motivating and supportive of efforts to overturn colonialist efforts to ignore Buddhism and Buddhist tradition. This was despite the fact that his re-interpretation of the Buddha was along modern liberal ideas promoted by the British in Sri Lanka. As David McMahan wrote, "Henry Steel Olcott saw the Buddha as a figure much like the ideal liberal freethinker – someone full of 'benevolence,' 'gratitude,' and 'tolerance,' who promoted 'brotherhood among all men' as well as 'lessons in manly self-reliance". His Westernized view of Buddha influenced Sri Lankan leaders, such as Anagarika Dharmapala.
Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala were associates, which reflects both men's awareness of the divide between East and West—as seen in their presentation of Buddhism to the West. Olcott helped financially support the Buddhist presence at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago, 1893. The inclusion of Buddhists in the Parliament allowed for the expansion of Buddhism within the West in general and in America specifically, leading to other Buddhist Modernist movements.
As Stephen Prothero wrote,
It was Olcott who most eloquently articulated and most obviously embodied the diverse religious and cultural traditions that shaped Protestant Buddhism, who gave the revival movement both its organizational shape and its emphasis on education-as-character-building. The most Protestant of all early Protestant Buddhists, Olcott was the liminoid figure, the griot who because of his awkward standing betwixt and between the American Protestant grammars of his youth and the Asian Buddhist lexicon of his adulthood was able to conjure traditional Sinhalese Buddhism, Protestant modernism, metropolitan gentility, and academic Orientalism into a decidedly new creole tradition. This creole tradition Olcott then passed on to a whole generation of Sinhalese students educated in his schools.
Olcott is probably the only major contributor to the nineteenth-century Sinhalese Buddhist revival who was actually born and raised in the Protestant Christian tradition, though he had already left Protestantism for Spiritualism long before he became a Buddhist. His childhood Protestantism is a reason that many scholars have referred to the Buddhist modernism he influenced as "Protestant Buddhism".
Works
Sorgho and Imphee, the Chinese and African sugar canes; A. O. Moore, New York 1857
Outlines of the first course of Yale agricultural lectures; C. M. Saxton, Barker & Co., New York 1860
Descendents of Thomas Olcott, 1872
Human Spirits and Elementaries; 1875
People from the other world American Publishing Co., Hartford 1875
A Buddhist catechism; Madras 1881
Theosophy, Religion, and Occult Science; New York 1885
Old Diary Leaves (6 volumes), (New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1895)
The Hindu Dwaita Catechism; 1886
The Golden Rules of Buddhism; 1887
The kinship between Hinduism and Buddhism; The Maha-Bodhi society, Calcutta 1893
The Poor Pariah; Addison & Co., Madras 1902
The Life of the Buddha and its Lessons; 1912
The Spirit of Zoroastrianism; 1913
Old diary leaves, Inside the occult, the true story of Madame H. P. Blavatsky; Running Press, Philadelphia 1975 (reprint);
See also
Buddhist flag
Anagarika Dharmapala
Buddhist modernism
Buddhism in Sri Lanka
Theosophy and Buddhism
Notes
References
Caldwell, Daniel H. (ed) The Esoteric World of Madame Blavatsky: Insights Into the Life of a Modern Sphinx, Quest Books, 2000. , .
Doyle, Arthur Conan. The History of Spiritualism. New York: G.H. Doran, Co. Volume 1: 1926 Volume 2: 1926
Guruge, Ananda W. P. Free at Last in Paradis, Authuhouse, Bloomington, Ind, 1998
Guruge, A. (2007, January). "Henry Steel Olcott in Sri Lanka: death centennial tribute". Theosophical History, 13(1), 10–13. Retrieved April 27, 2009, from ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials database.
From the Living Fountains of Buddhism, Colombo, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1984
Return to Righteousness, Colombo, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1965/1991
Killingley, D. (1998, April). "The White Buddhist: the Asian odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott". International Journal of Hindu Studies, 2(1), 153–154. Retrieved April 27, 2009, from ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials database.
Kuhn, Alvin Boyd. 1930. Theosophy: A Modern Revival of Ancient Wisdom. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
Motwani, Kewal: Colonel H. S. Olcott, a forgotten page in American history; Ganesh, Madras 1955 (English)
Murphet, Howard: Hammer on the mountain, life of Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907); Theosophical Publishing House, Wheaton 1972;
Prothero, Stephen R.: The White Buddhist: The Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott; Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1996;
Prothero, Stephen R.. "Henry Steel Olcott and 'Protestant Buddhism.'" Journal of the American Academy of Religion 63: 281–302.
Williams, Gertrude Marvin. Priestess of the Occult, Madame Blavatsky. New York : A. A. Knopf, 1946
External links
Colonel Olcott, His Service to Buddhism by B.P. Kirthisinghe & M.P. Amarasuriya
Henry S. Olcott: 100 years anniversary
When Olcott came to Ceylon
Page at Aryasangha.org
Articles by and relating to H.S. Olcott
Articles on Olcott
The great name in Buddhist History
The Man from New Jersey
1832 births
1907 deaths
19th-century American writers
19th-century occultists
19th-century male writers
People from Orange, New Jersey
American spiritualists
American Theravada Buddhists
American Theosophists
Buddhist revivalists
Columbia University alumni
Converts from Presbyterianism
Converts to Buddhism from Protestantism
Mystics
People of the American Civil War
Theosophy
Theravada Buddhism writers
Union Army officers
|
[
0.11965887993574142,
0.8179475665092468,
-1.0195930004119873,
0.3608051538467407,
0.04867314174771309,
0.15410618484020233,
0.9607671499252319,
-0.3242030143737793,
-0.16033504903316498,
-0.07105694711208344,
-0.15629109740257263,
-0.13785555958747864,
-0.25124695897102356,
0.522943377494812,
-0.59998619556427,
-0.02632039785385132,
-0.08193672448396683,
-0.06269656866788864,
-0.5671980977058411,
-0.04738263040781021,
-0.7264333963394165,
-0.16677643358707428,
0.23278002440929413,
-0.21327604353427887,
-0.42508020997047424,
0.003272899892181158,
0.1737327128648758,
-0.8858353495597839,
-0.012049590237438679,
0.3017137348651886,
0.33889082074165344,
0.5477160215377808,
0.41702648997306824,
-0.31534987688064575,
-0.8510915637016296,
0.23415930569171906,
-0.2669021785259247,
0.08689449727535248,
0.4251585304737091,
-0.10511567443609238,
0.25446394085884094,
-0.06857752799987793,
0.6398167014122009,
0.24576884508132935,
-0.43572798371315,
-0.07250858843326569,
-1.7685816287994385,
0.2604120671749115,
-1.194787859916687,
-0.2127872109413147,
0.03443164378404617,
0.08630812913179398,
0.1618756204843521,
0.0364111103117466,
0.06512223184108734,
0.7858853936195374,
-1.158530831336975,
-0.14730869233608246,
0.13482792675495148,
-0.4607389271259308,
0.2988264262676239,
0.10936576873064041,
0.6491541266441345,
0.01691795326769352,
0.039570972323417664,
-0.05021672323346138,
-0.1658240109682083,
0.4403136670589447,
-0.2582813799381256,
-0.05170074477791786,
0.10566920787096024,
0.02681777812540531,
0.13043414056301117,
0.19944141805171967,
0.49296140670776367,
-0.38906848430633545,
0.018564889207482338,
0.26529791951179504,
0.3066665828227997,
-0.312492698431015,
-0.01077230740338564,
0.17840753495693207,
1.009921669960022,
0.5530999302864075,
-0.015081655234098434,
0.10641777515411377,
-0.69436115026474,
0.15689460933208466,
-0.6989346146583557,
0.2410374879837036,
0.09653560072183609,
0.056515034288167953,
0.2575069069862366,
-0.0994526669383049,
0.3585963249206543,
0.34620389342308044,
0.6102482080459595,
0.15654511749744415,
-0.5413604378700256,
-0.43333420157432556,
0.49433600902557373,
0.06680074334144592,
-0.019097939133644104,
-0.017042674124240875,
-0.12399879097938538,
0.5885049104690552,
0.2793712913990021,
-0.6453717350959778,
0.2671160101890564,
0.045756980776786804,
-0.8912322521209717,
0.1602257341146469,
-0.07427085936069489,
-0.13243360817432404,
-0.14839299023151398,
0.3392186164855957,
0.44543761014938354,
-0.816532552242279,
-0.6944485306739807,
-0.47659218311309814,
-0.14756853878498077,
0.5233604311943054,
-0.31097227334976196,
0.22259521484375,
-0.6555933356285095,
0.44432488083839417,
0.03420550376176834,
0.5314992070198059,
0.019411824643611908,
0.4555692672729492,
0.30681124329566956,
0.8115230202674866,
0.06541791558265686,
-0.7347807884216309,
-0.5045971274375916,
-0.11469351500272751,
0.7070594429969788,
-0.1634884625673294,
-0.2477443963289261,
0.6269750595092773,
-0.07620980590581894,
-0.3548845946788788,
-0.832215428352356,
0.040055446326732635,
0.4073438346385956,
-0.188924640417099,
0.13109128177165985,
0.24441568553447723,
-0.17158854007720947,
0.2099248468875885,
0.18980710208415985,
-0.17522162199020386,
-0.09657394140958786,
0.1822945773601532,
0.4166708290576935,
0.1818934977054596,
0.7830989360809326,
0.04697665572166443,
0.43578752875328064,
0.5213403701782227,
0.13600915670394897,
-0.5611634254455566,
-0.34590405225753784,
-0.2470199167728424,
0.05612737312912941,
-0.050251517444849014,
0.4071204662322998,
-0.3160921335220337,
-0.6084620952606201,
0.35369667410850525,
-0.44686850905418396,
-0.41252416372299194,
0.07105306535959244,
0.37492457032203674,
-0.04482879489660263,
0.36938169598579407,
0.8775749206542969,
0.5150258541107178,
0.4274744987487793,
-0.5812664031982422,
-0.6668278574943542,
-0.2847450077533722,
0.21955297887325287,
0.0019301380962133408,
0.7616528272628784,
0.23259826004505157,
0.28477782011032104,
-0.5002943277359009,
0.06401590257883072,
-0.3695020079612732,
-0.2810364365577698,
-0.7260417938232422,
0.10988697409629822,
-0.06857848912477493,
1.6271967887878418,
0.24911810457706451,
-0.23194563388824463,
0.20304007828235626,
0.08608479052782059,
0.34783005714416504,
0.18174336850643158,
-0.3285605013370514,
-0.005554324947297573,
0.0015548262745141983,
-0.22624753415584564,
0.9757984280586243,
0.44127896428108215,
-0.1591862589120865,
-0.20357012748718262,
0.36492326855659485,
0.6023440361022949,
-0.5489923357963562,
0.00591041287407279,
0.5470584630966187,
-0.37557169795036316,
-0.6914276480674744,
-0.5222415328025818,
-0.26237550377845764,
0.41757020354270935,
0.05570918694138527,
0.2966933846473694,
0.04912160336971283,
-0.022568322718143463,
0.7658041715621948,
0.44605615735054016,
0.29646044969558716,
-0.31539061665534973,
0.11862155795097351,
-0.27111294865608215,
-0.03625330701470375,
-0.33209654688835144,
0.2859671115875244,
0.6509566307067871,
-0.7557088732719421,
0.7903910875320435,
-0.1283491998910904,
-0.4479946494102478,
-0.6587460041046143,
0.1842837631702423,
-0.4373228847980499,
0.04564116895198822,
0.09499720484018326,
-0.4162222743034363,
0.5306553244590759,
-0.3940557539463043,
0.46924304962158203,
-0.05408412590622902,
-0.21624360978603363,
-0.0795876607298851,
0.08403227478265762,
0.21629038453102112,
0.49930039048194885,
0.4243011772632599,
-0.14234094321727753,
0.0620424821972847,
0.21175022423267365,
0.40234044194221497,
0.11969860643148422,
0.0891234278678894,
0.1586134284734726,
-0.14782120287418365,
-0.2644520401954651,
-0.18570926785469055,
0.08672083914279938,
0.0327104888856411,
-0.6974684596061707,
0.15573035180568695,
-0.4210580289363861,
-0.05641143023967743,
-0.08823763579130173,
1.1059290170669556,
-0.2673119306564331,
-0.19483552873134613,
0.7237555980682373,
0.047271646559238434,
-0.0941304937005043,
-0.07703367620706558,
0.2828976809978485,
-0.9538587927818298,
-0.7022383213043213,
0.20457696914672852,
0.7573276162147522,
-0.09215158969163895,
0.08601486682891846,
0.12170097231864929,
-0.2201702743768692,
0.10366695374250412,
-0.6542669534683228,
0.1800995022058487,
-0.42740845680236816,
0.02764677070081234,
1.0638879537582397,
-0.14495055377483368,
-0.25529611110687256,
-0.2518938183784485,
0.5471867322921753,
-0.4312991797924042,
-0.412172794342041,
-0.3051386773586273,
-0.2691347599029541,
-0.49246570467948914,
0.25659501552581787,
0.18617774546146393,
0.10535021126270294,
0.7399531006813049,
-0.1287541687488556,
-0.057411786168813705,
0.26220273971557617,
-5.460217475891113,
0.2743045687675476,
-0.2998919188976288,
-0.2667980492115021,
0.11160042136907578,
0.6201223731040955,
0.6352951526641846,
-0.0659751147031784,
-0.5756558775901794,
-0.6894980072975159,
0.2662726938724518,
-0.07175686955451965,
-0.007816001772880554,
0.5888510942459106,
0.4506537914276123,
0.5933090448379517,
0.29768678545951843,
-0.07273413240909576,
0.5134730339050293,
0.2955649793148041,
0.062414512038230896,
-0.4305379092693329,
-0.03791191428899765,
0.9835169315338135,
0.5451969504356384,
0.03761228173971176,
-0.500588059425354,
0.3751331865787506,
-0.03267699480056763,
-0.17486435174942017,
0.32256075739860535,
0.14326702058315277,
-0.17847295105457306,
-0.566700279712677,
0.18803688883781433,
0.1726737916469574,
0.5380463600158691,
0.4012385606765747,
-0.1999097764492035,
-0.013359316624701023,
-0.11083974689245224,
-0.3752429485321045,
-0.7978775501251221,
0.09049955755472183,
0.2700716257095337,
-0.25466305017471313,
-0.4670594036579132,
0.49540871381759644,
-0.6229249835014343,
0.4154537618160248,
0.05956660583615303,
-0.0507763996720314,
-0.24349990487098694,
-0.38860976696014404,
-0.23739388585090637,
-0.0817791298031807,
0.044467609375715256,
-0.009737037122249603,
-0.7946544289588928,
0.15851005911827087,
0.6918901205062866,
-0.2521449327468872,
0.32936328649520874,
0.09044505655765533,
-0.04193313792347908,
-0.5203557014465332,
-0.15442974865436554,
-0.0869860127568245,
-0.12221318483352661,
-0.35707414150238037,
-0.17262636125087738,
1.3879145383834839,
-0.04472751542925835,
-1.1450642347335815,
-0.24934713542461395,
-0.12440473586320877,
0.27020522952079773,
-0.14771243929862976,
-0.13349685072898865,
0.15896786749362946,
0.09275562316179276,
-0.2916299104690552,
-0.08507823199033737,
1.2840782403945923,
0.36877986788749695,
0.37942975759506226,
-0.38307416439056396,
0.1951937973499298,
-0.9026368260383606,
-0.424401193857193,
-0.4075630009174347,
0.019106248393654823,
0.033259518444538116,
0.6516149044036865,
0.38351139426231384,
0.19475819170475006,
0.048639342188835144,
0.4162502884864807,
0.25456634163856506,
0.5306342244148254,
-0.4238797724246979,
0.2475011795759201,
0.34804561734199524,
-0.04968992993235588,
0.2873556315898895,
0.010166874155402184,
-0.3654700517654419,
0.21766658127307892,
0.3302004933357239,
0.13728660345077515,
-0.3246668577194214,
-0.01292414590716362,
-0.09716003388166428,
-0.4293135106563568,
0.061239369213581085,
-0.12106776982545853,
0.41273802518844604,
0.3842200040817261,
0.4823017120361328,
0.27863389253616333,
-0.5797393321990967,
0.594836413860321,
-0.07685423642396927,
-0.6714116334915161,
-0.12896975874900818,
-0.23523788154125214,
0.2163970023393631,
-0.28979718685150146,
-0.06715667992830276,
0.07837734371423721,
-0.43820056319236755,
0.9685932397842407,
0.14687861502170563,
0.4596656262874603,
0.0771530270576477,
-0.42899054288864136,
-0.4185696244239807,
-0.0856364443898201,
-0.5714396238327026,
-0.10166194289922714,
0.12509001791477203,
-0.09025318175554276,
-0.2644362449645996,
0.341787189245224,
0.587393045425415,
-0.168292835354805,
0.37491390109062195,
0.17275895178318024,
-0.06559168547391891,
0.8361691236495972,
-0.46121007204055786,
-0.18457284569740295,
0.8094066381454468,
-0.4076135456562042,
-0.2440776228904724,
0.4441107213497162,
0.06908799707889557,
0.05103030428290367,
-0.43303704261779785,
-0.42172783613204956,
-0.5353670120239258,
-0.028027869760990143,
-1.0137584209442139,
-0.6901994943618774,
0.47992026805877686,
0.10277342796325684,
-0.647880494594574,
-0.10596166551113129,
-1.1076836585998535,
-0.013329468667507172,
0.1466079205274582,
-0.39577561616897583,
-0.08004042506217957,
0.058514226227998734,
0.26681312918663025,
0.2076185792684555,
-0.447434663772583,
-0.056949686259031296,
-0.3457995355129242,
-0.7590386271476746,
0.14333674311637878,
-0.027325620874762535,
-0.6750471591949463,
-0.36836889386177063,
0.4763714373111725,
-0.23909850418567657,
-0.2320071905851364,
-0.7296870946884155,
0.12057717144489288,
0.17174555361270905,
-0.14524585008621216,
-0.14670932292938232,
0.3202953040599823,
1.0692330598831177,
-0.009827125817537308,
0.1864919513463974,
0.14378154277801514,
0.009038240648806095,
0.14323656260967255,
-0.777148425579071,
0.08288867771625519,
-0.09779460728168488,
-0.05393252521753311,
-0.08619911223649979,
-0.2135799676179886,
-0.8619967699050903,
-0.16385988891124725,
-0.0426487997174263,
0.057469822466373444,
0.8362541198730469,
0.1444774866104126,
0.03291652724146843,
-0.2854277491569519,
0.22721122205257416,
-0.28563225269317627,
-0.08489251136779785,
0.35940656065940857,
0.14556965231895447,
-0.6365234851837158,
-0.2768627405166626,
-0.16894938051700592,
0.25180551409721375,
-0.2549660801887512,
-0.4309096932411194,
-0.4156196713447571,
-0.030746713280677795,
0.6344040036201477,
0.2030678689479828,
0.6111980676651001,
-0.32567721605300903,
-0.6144721508026123,
0.4329659640789032,
-0.06887699663639069,
0.46980997920036316,
-0.2513486444950104,
-0.24325820803642273,
0.3442749083042145,
0.42970511317253113,
-0.8264894485473633,
-0.6667537689208984,
-0.4046669602394104,
0.542099118232727,
0.21135228872299194,
-0.6986798048019409,
-0.17088185250759125,
-0.047670260071754456,
0.41460204124450684,
-0.11757824569940567,
0.04093035310506821,
-0.06334219872951508,
0.700009822845459,
-0.19854296743869781,
-0.40025240182876587,
-0.32306328415870667,
0.42804768681526184,
-0.4280131459236145,
-0.11378329992294312,
0.22260399162769318,
0.29086941480636597,
-0.5009419322013855,
0.10591503232717514,
-0.1620366871356964,
-0.2589353322982788,
0.3237497806549072,
-0.5992915630340576,
0.3071913719177246,
0.16684745252132416,
-0.5036194324493408,
0.5235530138015747,
-0.6439086198806763,
-0.05273555591702461,
-0.6611194014549255,
-0.3321739137172699,
0.21939408779144287,
-0.4979285001754761,
0.08872588723897934,
0.17551890015602112,
-0.5342367887496948,
-0.19366949796676636,
0.09283281117677689,
-0.6268470287322998,
-0.03141099959611893,
0.14862701296806335,
-0.3165321946144104,
-0.20286549627780914,
-1.2409183979034424,
-0.34270167350769043,
-0.22478249669075012,
-0.13232013583183289,
-0.363359272480011,
-0.6618742346763611,
0.30931422114372253,
-0.1944885551929474,
-0.4321509599685669,
-0.13373413681983948,
-0.09588082879781723,
-0.20560000836849213,
0.2877654433250427,
-0.040210604667663574,
-0.19351285696029663,
-0.6420723795890808,
0.45008185505867004,
0.4563550651073456,
-0.6562501788139343,
0.009683866053819656,
-0.08811827003955841,
-0.3092057704925537,
-0.2033996880054474,
-0.6193448305130005,
0.34106090664863586,
0.3854333162307739,
-0.2852531373500824,
-0.11527631431818008,
0.7172122001647949,
-0.7856276035308838,
-0.1573457568883896,
0.6294223070144653,
-0.3349360525608063,
-0.06746114790439606,
0.22285762429237366,
-0.3744155764579773,
0.4685792028903961,
0.5887425541877747,
-0.2631972134113312,
-0.057966213673353195,
0.38243961334228516,
0.08151218295097351,
0.3894425630569458,
-0.4071497321128845,
0.36521053314208984,
0.15635909140110016,
-0.08173467963933945,
-0.35725098848342896,
0.8079781532287598,
-0.03939736261963844,
-0.2017522007226944,
-0.32297593355178833,
-0.41599705815315247,
-0.3288452923297882,
0.33304479718208313,
-0.06605307012796402,
0.37774863839149475,
0.041850149631500244,
-0.035325922071933746,
-0.40005335211753845,
0.16412343084812164,
-0.4081154763698578,
0.3359631597995758,
-0.4255073666572571,
0.6880671977996826,
0.7392812371253967,
0.20872032642364502,
0.06634071469306946,
-0.6340468525886536,
0.43153589963912964,
-0.5239042639732361,
0.37963756918907166,
0.35743069648742676,
-0.35311511158943176,
0.3212180733680725,
0.03382069617509842,
0.029461782425642014,
1.1553817987442017,
-0.3144594132900238,
-0.07380577176809311,
0.6146143674850464,
0.28116244077682495,
-0.9238117933273315,
0.13789218664169312,
0.244425967335701,
0.05277753248810768,
-0.4464552700519562,
0.02506467141211033,
0.9644063115119934,
0.08271989226341248,
0.2352091521024704,
0.8771618008613586,
0.13916753232479095,
0.5703469514846802,
-0.10977335274219513,
-0.5451226830482483,
-0.17939870059490204,
-0.27164074778556824,
-0.5808286666870117,
0.2996898889541626,
-0.006186910439282656,
0.23232491314411163,
-0.11463604867458344,
0.2560604214668274,
-0.37175795435905457,
0.5260435938835144,
-0.30362018942832947,
0.026301570236682892,
-0.053870804607868195,
-0.20045769214630127,
0.13054093718528748,
0.10543514043092728,
0.7665074467658997,
0.1112729161977768,
-0.11159253120422363,
-0.6065192818641663,
-0.03241012617945671,
0.43361523747444153,
-0.2685190737247467,
0.06818737834692001,
0.0009200124186463654,
-0.1239003986120224,
0.0611254908144474,
-0.7791541814804077,
0.7739534378051758,
-0.4027112126350403,
0.5135286450386047,
-0.3190476894378662,
0.8450421094894409,
-0.23014752566814423,
-0.04501498490571976,
0.7002330422401428,
0.17782463133335114,
-0.31006017327308655,
-0.14546281099319458,
-0.07608375698328018,
0.16677144169807434,
-0.22024790942668915,
-0.1215234026312828,
-0.6189459562301636,
0.03189876303076744,
0.11939185112714767,
-0.4032931923866272,
0.15386970341205597,
0.20089253783226013,
-0.17321115732192993,
-0.37804991006851196,
-0.5587250590324402,
-0.20259052515029907,
-0.37352439761161804,
-0.47933605313301086,
0.49611273407936096,
0.9019374847412109,
-0.17566564679145813,
-0.6366702318191528,
0.4260355234146118,
0.097562275826931,
-0.13790182769298553,
-0.2191338837146759,
0.8826271891593933,
0.4384239614009857,
-0.292877197265625,
-0.3548364043235779,
0.1334758698940277,
1.062918782234192,
0.31384381651878357,
-0.3244953453540802,
-0.08701697736978531,
-0.8158454895019531,
0.47796693444252014,
-0.024621114134788513,
0.1639910787343979,
-0.3138563930988312,
0.8776166439056396,
0.20039838552474976
] |
200264
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophical%20Society
|
Theosophical Society
|
The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE. It also encompasses wider religious philosophies like Vedānta, Mahāyāna Buddhism, Qabbalah, and Sufism.
The Theosophical Society functions as a bridge between East and West, emphasizing the commonality of human culture.
The term "theosophy" comes from the Greek theosophia, which is composed of two words: theos ("god," "gods," or "divine") and sophia ("wisdom"). Theosophia, therefore, may be translated as "wisdom of the gods", "wisdom in things divine", or "Divine Wisdom".
Locations
The original organization, after splits and realignments, has several successors. Following the death of Helena Blavatsky, competition emerged between factions within the Society, particularly among founding members. The organization split into the Theosophical Society Adyar (Olcott-Besant) and the Theosophical Society Pasadena (Judge).
The former group, headquartered in India, is the most widespread international group holding the name "Theosophical Society" today.
Theosophical Society-Adyar is located at Adyar situated in the Indian city of Chennai.
History
Formation and objectives
The Theosophical Society was officially formed in New York City, United States, on 17 November 1875 by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Colonel Henry Steel Olcott, William Quan Judge, and 16 others. It was self-described as "an unsectarian body of seekers after Truth, who endeavor to promote Brotherhood and strive to serve humanity." Olcott was its first president, and remained president until his death in 1907. In the early months of 1875, Olcott and Judge had come to realize that, if Blavatsky was a spiritualist, she was no ordinary one. The society's initial objective was the "study and elucidation of Occultism, the Cabala etc." After a few years Olcott and Blavatsky moved to India and established the International Headquarters at Adyar, in Madras (now Chennai). They were also interested in studying Eastern religions, and these were included in the Society's agenda.
After several iterations the Society's objectives were incorporated at Chennai (Madras) on 3 April 1905. The Three Objects of the Theosophical Society are as follows :
Sympathy with the above objects was the sole condition of admission to the society. The Society was organized as a non-sectarian entity. The following was stated in the Constitution and Rules of the Theosophical Society
The Society reformulated this view in a resolution passed by the General Council of the Theosophical Society on December 23, 1924.
Three years before, in 1921, it was signed the institutive charter of the Spanish Sociedad Teosófica, which had local branches in Madrid, Tarrasa, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia, Alicante, Zanoni, Cadiz and Dharma.
The Hidden Masters
One of the central philosophical tenets promoted by the Society was the complex doctrine of The Intelligent Evolution of All Existence, occurring on a cosmic scale, incorporating both the physical and non-physical aspects of the known and unknown Universe, and affecting all of its constituent parts regardless of apparent size or importance. The theory was originally promulgated in the Secret Doctrine, the 1888 magnum opus of Helena Blavatsky. According to this view, humanity's evolution on earth (and beyond) is part of the overall cosmic evolution. It is overseen by a hidden spiritual hierarchy, the so-called Masters of the Ancient Wisdom, whose upper echelons consist of advanced spiritual beings.
Blavatsky portrayed the Theosophical Society as being part of one of many attempts throughout the millennia by this hidden Hierarchy to guide humanity – in concert with the overall intelligent cosmic evolutionary scheme – towards its ultimate, immutable evolutionary objective: the attainment of perfection and the conscious, willing participation in the evolutionary process. These attempts require an earthly infrastructure (such as the Theosophical Society) which she held was ultimately under the inspiration of a number of Mahatmas, members of the Hierarchy.
Schisms
After Helena Blavatsky's death in 1891, the Society's leaders seemed at first to work together peacefully. This did not last long. Judge was accused by Olcott and then prominent Theosophist Annie Besant of forging letters from the Mahatmas; he ended his association with Olcott and Besant in 1895 and took most of the Society's American Section with him. The original organisation led by Olcott and Besant remains today based in India and is known as the Theosophical Society – Adyar. The group led by Judge further splintered into a faction led by Katherine Tingley, and another associated with Judge's secretary Ernest Temple Hargrove. While Hargrove's faction no longer survives, the faction led by Tingley is today known as the Theosophical Society with the clarifying statement, "International Headquarters, Pasadena, California". A third organization, the United Lodge of Theosophists or ULT, in 1909 split off from the latter organization.
In 1902, Rudolf Steiner became General Secretary of the German-Austrian division of the Theosophical Society. He maintained a Western-oriented course, relatively independent from the Adyar headquarters. After serious philosophical conflicts with Annie Besant and other members of the international leadership on the spiritual significance of Christ and on the status of the young boy Jiddu Krishnamurti (see section below), most of the German and Austrian members split off in 1913 and under Steiner's leadership formed the Anthroposophical Society, which then expanded to many other countries.
The English headquarters of the Theosophical Society are at 50 Gloucester Place, London. The Theosophical Society in Ireland , based in Pembroke Road, Dublin, is a wholly independent organisation which claims to have received its charter directly from Helena Blavatsky. The original group contained (among others) George William Russell (A. E.) poet and mystic, and the leadership role later fell to Russell's friend P. G. Bowen, (author and teacher of practical occultism) and later still to Bowen's long time student Dorothy Emerson. The current leadership of this group were students of Emerson. The independent Dublin organisation should not be confused with a similarly named group affiliated to Adyar which is based in Belfast but claims an all-Ireland jurisdiction.
The "World Teacher"
In addition to the stated objectives, as early as 1889 Blavatsky publicly declared that the purpose of establishing the Society was to prepare humanity for the reception of a World Teacher: according to the Theosophical doctrine described above, a manifested aspect of an advanced spiritual entity (the Maitreya) that periodically appears on Earth in order to direct the evolution of humankind. The mission of these reputedly regularly appearing emissaries is to practically translate, in a way and language understood by contemporary humanity, the knowledge required to propel it to a higher evolutionary stage.
If the present attempt, in the form of our Society, succeeds better than its predecessors have done, then it will be in existence as an organized, living and healthy body when the time comes for the effort of the 20th century. The general condition of men's minds and hearts will have been improved and purified by the spread of its teachings, and, as I have said, their prejudices and dogmatic illusions will have been, to some extent at least, removed. Not only so, but besides a large and accessible literature ready to men's hands, the next impulse will find a numerous and united body of people ready to welcome the new torch-bearer of Truth. He will find the minds of men prepared for his message, a language ready for him in which to clothe the new truths he brings, an organization awaiting his arrival, which will remove the merely mechanical, material obstacles and difficulties from his path. Think how much one, to whom such an opportunity is given, could accomplish. Measure it by comparison with what the Theosophical Society actually has achieved in the last fourteen years, without any of these advantages and surrounded by hosts of hindrances which would not hamper the new leader.
This was repeated by then prominent Theosophist Annie Besant in 1896, five years after Blavatsky's death. Besant, who became President of the Society in 1907, thought the appearance of the World Teacher would happen sooner than the time-frame in Blavatsky's writings, who had indicated that it would not take place until the last quarter of the 20th century.
Jiddu Krishnamurti
One of the people who expected the imminent reappearance of the Maitreya as World Teacher was Charles Webster Leadbeater, then an influential Theosophist and occultist. In 1909 he "discovered" Jiddu Krishnamurti, an adolescent Indian boy, who he proclaimed as the most suitable candidate for the "vehicle" of the World Teacher. Krishnamurti's family had relocated next to the Theosophical Society headquarters in Adyar, India, a few months earlier. Following his "discovery", Krishnamurti was taken under the wing of the Society, and was extensively groomed in preparation for his expected mission.
However, by 1925 Krishnamurti had begun to move away from the course expected of him by the leaders of the Theosophical Society Adyar and by many Theosophists. In 1929 he publicly dissolved the Order of the Star, a worldwide organization created by the leadership of the Theosophical Society to prepare the world for the Coming of the Maitreya, and abandoned his assumed role as the "vehicle" for the World Teacher. He eventually left the Theosophical Society altogether, yet remained on friendly terms with individual members of the Society. He spent the rest of his life traveling the world as an independent speaker, becoming widely known as an original thinker on spiritual, philosophical, and psychological subjects.
Related individuals and organizations
Well-known intellectuals associated with the Theosophical Society include Thomas Edison and William Butler Yeats.
See also
Ascended Master Teachings
Christian theosophy
Religion and mythology
Theosophical mysticism
References
External links
Theosophical Society Headquarters
The Theosophical Society in England
The Theosophical Society in America
A Modern Revival of Ancient Wisdom (PDF).
Beginnings of the Theosophical Society.
Blavatsky and The Theosophical Society.
Skeptics Dictionary: entry on Theosophy.
The Theosophical Network.
Kerala Theosophical Federation.
Theosophical Movement 1875–1950.
The Theosophical Society in Ireland
Video
The Theosophical Society in America: An Illustrated History
1875 establishments in New York (state)
Magical organizations
Organizations established in 1875
Freemasonry-related controversies
|
[
0.40713679790496826,
0.44058382511138916,
-0.5116174221038818,
-0.19069762527942657,
-0.2797890901565552,
0.061384692788124084,
0.532332181930542,
0.17250050604343414,
-0.2663448750972748,
-0.3644348084926605,
-0.16326108574867249,
-0.008837754838168621,
-0.23950015008449554,
0.4302379786968231,
-0.32281580567359924,
-0.08639564365148544,
0.7432608008384705,
-0.09597858786582947,
-0.36612948775291443,
-0.41904544830322266,
-0.8135040998458862,
0.27030250430107117,
0.36163750290870667,
-0.2799711525440216,
0.06389104574918747,
0.027279334142804146,
0.487395703792572,
-0.21178217232227325,
0.4359855651855469,
-0.11307297646999359,
0.484314888715744,
0.6882015466690063,
-0.05952423810958862,
-0.34473276138305664,
-0.45939067006111145,
0.07174202799797058,
-0.0762401893734932,
-0.0365634523332119,
-0.08829338848590851,
-0.3677029609680176,
0.8825492858886719,
-0.2319122552871704,
0.13945473730564117,
0.6343866586685181,
-0.40662771463394165,
0.2877265214920044,
-1.2499806880950928,
0.6294335126876831,
-1.0470778942108154,
0.05139804631471634,
-0.32953062653541565,
0.20855912566184998,
0.403097927570343,
0.49667081236839294,
-0.13382305204868317,
0.4968997836112976,
-1.2051491737365723,
-0.005799748934805393,
-0.28309890627861023,
-0.4458026587963104,
-0.10246191173791885,
0.26069775223731995,
0.5922816395759583,
-0.19353827834129333,
-0.1726388931274414,
-0.3743489384651184,
-0.16613851487636566,
0.12592685222625732,
-0.479576051235199,
-0.5035563111305237,
0.08641966432332993,
-0.5597773790359497,
-0.31011641025543213,
0.19814540445804596,
-0.16311506927013397,
-0.5778195858001709,
0.1452363282442093,
-0.038920629769563675,
0.5770432353019714,
-0.19469653069972992,
0.0683288648724556,
0.46004554629325867,
0.5534500479698181,
0.3671514689922333,
0.5833173990249634,
0.4573991000652313,
-0.3134438693523407,
0.3877289295196533,
-0.42175835371017456,
0.445260614156723,
0.6203925013542175,
-0.13930489122867584,
0.7290128469467163,
-0.6327143907546997,
0.5777841210365295,
0.19513383507728577,
0.7408367395401001,
0.06506658345460892,
0.09242398291826248,
-0.16482263803482056,
0.1333298683166504,
0.648531973361969,
-0.4634796380996704,
-0.19919265806674957,
-0.17295533418655396,
0.13360711932182312,
0.5232058763504028,
-1.103156328201294,
0.238762766122818,
-0.008066095411777496,
-0.3515301048755646,
0.1347600370645523,
-0.4204431474208832,
0.24169813096523285,
0.04235313460230827,
0.2791175842285156,
0.3144594430923462,
-0.7495929002761841,
-0.7892880439758301,
-0.056836556643247604,
0.30426010489463806,
0.8019231557846069,
-0.09234180301427841,
0.1847550868988037,
0.2295461744070053,
0.5535691380500793,
0.15291935205459595,
0.8150268197059631,
-0.2824157476425171,
-0.160018652677536,
0.07243264466524124,
0.5713648796081543,
0.04111822322010994,
-0.9028576016426086,
-0.02169930376112461,
0.09899428486824036,
1.0715596675872803,
0.12493526190519333,
0.037599314004182816,
0.5901967883110046,
-0.4413565993309021,
-0.4460122883319855,
-0.8387677073478699,
-0.3411772847175598,
0.37555980682373047,
-0.12244990468025208,
0.3160798251628876,
-0.19283482432365417,
-0.38288968801498413,
-0.34155312180519104,
-0.021306009963154793,
-0.15562961995601654,
0.0320393368601799,
0.13422980904579163,
0.5575664639472961,
0.1471315324306488,
0.7382779717445374,
0.03369319438934326,
0.37140247225761414,
0.24019089341163635,
-0.0516655407845974,
-0.5222740173339844,
-0.11917337775230408,
-0.187869593501091,
0.23222386837005615,
-0.18602494895458221,
0.33905842900276184,
-0.09798165410757065,
-0.06813710927963257,
0.44297510385513306,
-0.42121392488479614,
-0.22888724505901337,
-0.10636939108371735,
0.18024370074272156,
0.42325693368911743,
-0.1584194153547287,
1.067783236503601,
0.3848911225795746,
0.3243083655834198,
-0.32425305247306824,
-0.7419853806495667,
0.039616767317056656,
0.09462300688028336,
-0.3364444673061371,
1.0132001638412476,
0.20744290947914124,
0.36873018741607666,
-0.030797170475125313,
-0.28637459874153137,
0.2179955542087555,
-0.4124308228492737,
-0.33645883202552795,
0.17265324294567108,
-0.24195225536823273,
2.0855298042297363,
-0.27039751410484314,
-0.13565343618392944,
0.6518067717552185,
-0.2172274887561798,
-0.008893405087292194,
0.06954725831747055,
-0.20104020833969116,
0.08631613105535507,
0.28332728147506714,
-0.776646614074707,
0.32665517926216125,
0.22750744223594666,
0.22895458340644836,
-0.0003713260521180928,
-0.22415515780448914,
0.19567444920539856,
-0.6411818861961365,
0.15731847286224365,
0.10757642984390259,
-0.1186005249619484,
-0.44660574197769165,
-0.21264685690402985,
0.5026965141296387,
-0.07969247549772263,
-0.17294983565807343,
0.8260822892189026,
-0.5954851508140564,
0.4964979588985443,
0.3547237813472748,
0.11129815876483917,
0.16150441765785217,
0.3993777334690094,
0.23948408663272858,
0.3743871748447418,
-0.07177078723907471,
0.009482340887188911,
0.03454670310020447,
0.4185704290866852,
-0.6129356622695923,
0.1887390911579132,
0.23383000493049622,
-0.2780287265777588,
-0.8840452432632446,
0.004123079590499401,
0.08922332525253296,
0.2972939610481262,
-0.2681179940700531,
-0.4539060890674591,
0.6435559988021851,
-0.33877259492874146,
0.3165757358074188,
0.05147995054721832,
0.6011410355567932,
-0.2529138922691345,
0.2857140004634857,
-0.29113534092903137,
0.5598165988922119,
0.21649684011936188,
-0.363821804523468,
-0.24228554964065552,
0.14845377206802368,
-0.08867295831441879,
-0.14947451651096344,
0.43549227714538574,
0.4079624116420746,
-0.43408656120300293,
-0.24888615310192108,
-0.2419121265411377,
0.31915685534477234,
-0.03570732846856117,
-0.7155886888504028,
-0.21811720728874207,
-0.7996403574943542,
0.3004314601421356,
-0.03553551435470581,
1.4247682094573975,
-0.08063305914402008,
-0.4761129915714264,
0.461883008480072,
-0.45266085863113403,
-0.2603664994239807,
-0.1117406114935875,
-0.09520874917507172,
-0.591223418712616,
-0.5473238229751587,
-0.5300841331481934,
0.48409271240234375,
0.3661399185657501,
-0.04015929251909256,
-0.07610125094652176,
0.02882995642721653,
-0.003152914345264435,
-0.7377400994300842,
0.5131716132164001,
-0.3494725525379181,
0.5222213268280029,
0.11233492195606232,
0.12118453532457352,
-0.7110452055931091,
0.3370955288410187,
0.5878806710243225,
-0.1642216444015503,
0.4633465111255646,
-0.500434398651123,
0.17651820182800293,
-0.5585017204284668,
0.32808414101600647,
-0.23894840478897095,
0.127615287899971,
0.8128962516784668,
-0.19727982580661774,
-0.1484454870223999,
0.18382969498634338,
-5.546138286590576,
0.11448666453361511,
-0.5338814854621887,
0.12856778502464294,
-0.011660388670861721,
0.4263761043548584,
0.8595608472824097,
-0.6118353009223938,
-0.4533329904079437,
-0.3773368299007416,
-0.6283808946609497,
0.2227444350719452,
0.016449207440018654,
0.8351044058799744,
-0.007481576409190893,
0.5013183355331421,
-0.49703553318977356,
-0.03201176971197128,
0.006000515539199114,
0.1049150675535202,
0.13272587954998016,
-0.25075310468673706,
0.01649499498307705,
0.901379406452179,
0.5669345855712891,
0.5896754860877991,
-0.30073443055152893,
0.1658053696155548,
0.4954105317592621,
0.5991158485412598,
-0.24045366048812866,
-0.28149551153182983,
0.37914201617240906,
-0.6847820281982422,
0.3543371558189392,
0.41010475158691406,
0.5051958560943604,
0.18068186938762665,
0.025771137326955795,
-0.29395171999931335,
-0.36195772886276245,
0.2622597813606262,
-0.4583527743816376,
-0.1357501894235611,
-0.1287902146577835,
-0.1422387957572937,
-0.13449715077877045,
-0.2872163951396942,
-0.7329291105270386,
0.5894977450370789,
0.21359723806381226,
-0.3689744472503662,
-0.11169783025979996,
-0.7510689496994019,
0.02385995350778103,
-0.4320814907550812,
0.5072665214538574,
-0.27301520109176636,
-0.10766534507274628,
-0.2164747267961502,
0.3807099759578705,
0.1555994153022766,
0.26579415798187256,
-0.46633511781692505,
-0.16212761402130127,
-0.11968523263931274,
-1.155492901802063,
-0.09874489903450012,
0.5442630648612976,
-0.18516521155834198,
-0.35693711042404175,
1.0196577310562134,
-0.3837088644504547,
-0.5982759594917297,
0.023655032739043236,
-0.4262171685695648,
0.38024789094924927,
-0.2683982253074646,
0.27738863229751587,
0.6358584761619568,
0.14018025994300842,
-0.07112535834312439,
-0.16842733323574066,
0.8002281785011292,
-0.20272333920001984,
-0.431530624628067,
0.2933032512664795,
-0.2779009938240051,
-1.2460651397705078,
-0.46098917722702026,
0.3457982540130615,
0.10486073046922684,
0.14440762996673584,
1.0595191717147827,
0.3190773129463196,
0.7938281893730164,
0.04692016914486885,
0.34008827805519104,
0.4624134600162506,
-0.16586536169052124,
0.2164134830236435,
-0.2218019813299179,
0.1063908189535141,
-0.2772735357284546,
0.1062343493103981,
-0.08251786977052689,
-0.8094384074211121,
0.32805606722831726,
0.5392946004867554,
0.1376849263906479,
-0.44813427329063416,
-0.19234463572502136,
-0.25253480672836304,
-0.7913586497306824,
0.1472010463476181,
0.21762672066688538,
-0.11031562834978104,
-0.09779778867959976,
0.08331117033958435,
0.056830473244190216,
-0.2351641207933426,
0.35467833280563354,
0.02613845095038414,
0.12499987334012985,
-0.36894965171813965,
0.0038376981392502785,
0.05451836809515953,
0.0030856451485306025,
-0.07081729173660278,
0.12811017036437988,
0.33251410722732544,
0.31947556138038635,
-0.011355762369930744,
-0.001236503478139639,
0.3322816491127014,
0.09367568045854568,
-0.7400609850883484,
-0.12609194219112396,
-0.260803759098053,
0.027456140145659447,
0.321220338344574,
-0.06757677346467972,
-0.18623682856559753,
-0.040491003543138504,
0.351190447807312,
0.16615867614746094,
-0.32988545298576355,
0.3416937589645386,
0.2954442799091339,
0.7254121899604797,
0.4091247618198395,
-0.02698974497616291,
0.5566540956497192,
0.32171499729156494,
0.33514779806137085,
0.20384804904460907,
0.4304749667644501,
0.5303009748458862,
-0.28534647822380066,
-0.49802854657173157,
-0.2578203082084656,
-0.2583483159542084,
-0.7605262398719788,
-0.14300616085529327,
0.670640766620636,
-0.4821259081363678,
-0.4088841378688812,
-0.6691551804542542,
-0.23499464988708496,
-0.11596592515707016,
-0.041544750332832336,
0.14336973428726196,
-0.23114588856697083,
-0.2703244984149933,
0.21425972878932953,
0.0656912550330162,
-0.27341434359550476,
0.18502682447433472,
-0.6624868512153625,
-0.33626922965049744,
0.3277400732040405,
-0.3145049810409546,
-0.25345560908317566,
-0.031702157109975815,
0.5835960507392883,
-0.18598847091197968,
0.3628343939781189,
-0.10934969782829285,
-0.005608603358268738,
0.5746257901191711,
-0.14662322402000427,
0.3471241891384125,
0.2745380997657776,
0.36509859561920166,
-0.019794892519712448,
-0.4467221200466156,
-0.3104861378669739,
0.3504851162433624,
-0.22336116433143616,
-0.23355387151241302,
0.3727509081363678,
0.697283148765564,
0.10092924535274506,
-0.25346657633781433,
0.327940434217453,
-0.8260814547538757,
0.08309539407491684,
-0.35721075534820557,
-0.14901450276374817,
0.7609046697616577,
0.16687177121639252,
0.07819121330976486,
-0.09647692739963531,
-0.10517238080501556,
-0.7089279890060425,
-0.04997897893190384,
0.19679155945777893,
-0.6181851625442505,
-0.37078264355659485,
0.01595175825059414,
0.16110840439796448,
0.11295127123594284,
-0.508292019367218,
-0.021565936505794525,
-0.03434431925415993,
0.3634732663631439,
0.5496952533721924,
-0.34933212399482727,
-0.3169023096561432,
-0.17157350480556488,
-0.421627014875412,
-0.19826935231685638,
-0.2235693782567978,
-0.22732335329055786,
-0.004753966350108385,
-0.46824485063552856,
0.22792834043502808,
0.4949552118778229,
-0.4327639639377594,
-0.5649872422218323,
-0.6123124957084656,
0.029451608657836914,
0.14725637435913086,
-0.8754101395606995,
-0.1655597984790802,
0.29439687728881836,
0.2745771110057831,
-0.4013335704803467,
-0.3854861557483673,
-0.39845171570777893,
0.38550981879234314,
-0.3136867582798004,
-0.7260138392448425,
-0.6119903922080994,
0.27506229281425476,
0.09351149946451187,
-0.7486326694488525,
-0.30470287799835205,
0.15048342943191528,
-0.4340144991874695,
0.39277201890945435,
-0.37286821007728577,
-0.7312159538269043,
-0.06583771109580994,
-0.10132017731666565,
0.11084772646427155,
0.5591390132904053,
-0.7066032290458679,
-0.05758628994226456,
-0.9169436693191528,
0.025016967207193375,
0.10966824740171432,
0.5982270240783691,
0.17474691569805145,
-0.1419895887374878,
-0.23214706778526306,
0.03407446667551994,
-0.6508971452713013,
-0.29350394010543823,
0.36930641531944275,
-0.0770537331700325,
0.2017742395401001,
0.18078070878982544,
0.08342717587947845,
0.34243035316467285,
-1.2674826383590698,
-0.124655582010746,
-0.2683694362640381,
0.04498527571558952,
-0.47919344902038574,
-0.1383453756570816,
-0.3146279454231262,
-0.1653645932674408,
-0.051885880529880524,
-0.35400983691215515,
-0.12275796383619308,
-0.13843055069446564,
-0.2631188929080963,
-0.1580498367547989,
0.03400927782058716,
-0.6671345233917236,
0.4465950131416321,
0.2274436205625534,
-0.8215295076370239,
0.21874678134918213,
0.31668439507484436,
-0.3121550977230072,
-0.10168497264385223,
-0.3087252974510193,
0.43112704157829285,
0.5972561240196228,
-0.48050034046173096,
-0.11366945505142212,
0.7552397847175598,
-0.7215802073478699,
0.08725092560052872,
0.1700202077627182,
-0.6787825226783752,
0.6868752837181091,
0.5844220519065857,
-0.1456378698348999,
0.9884099364280701,
0.4191654622554779,
0.0006860107532702386,
0.04347921535372734,
-0.13282127678394318,
-0.2603113353252411,
0.3886737525463104,
-0.06320863217115402,
0.10429439693689346,
0.807375967502594,
0.6141633987426758,
-0.050209470093250275,
0.708755612373352,
-0.14639917016029358,
-0.5549209117889404,
-0.14687418937683105,
-0.9226627945899963,
-0.8936644792556763,
0.5735004544258118,
0.2696181833744049,
-0.028341073542833328,
-0.15110917389392853,
0.08957064896821976,
-0.4043786823749542,
0.7119699120521545,
-0.016488345339894295,
-0.14854195713996887,
-0.22490249574184418,
0.7984915375709534,
0.9270572066307068,
0.010732694528996944,
0.424440860748291,
-0.008331566117703915,
0.29754841327667236,
-0.43254905939102173,
0.38546058535575867,
0.15060542523860931,
-0.1794484555721283,
-0.062101855874061584,
0.21296261250972748,
0.7982136607170105,
0.37540531158447266,
-0.0971253514289856,
0.33757051825523376,
0.719299852848053,
0.412551611661911,
-1.0431691408157349,
0.663624107837677,
0.15550296008586884,
0.38006290793418884,
0.01312846690416336,
-0.6406000256538391,
0.8483007550239563,
-0.003132604993879795,
-0.1704285889863968,
0.7889254093170166,
0.4024856686592102,
0.34820306301116943,
-0.17682288587093353,
-0.7029244899749756,
-0.06812310963869095,
-0.44124794006347656,
-0.8262059688568115,
-0.20873041450977325,
-0.3596092462539673,
-0.04492867365479469,
-0.3824613094329834,
-0.4109552800655365,
-0.06765192002058029,
-0.4175676107406616,
-0.8531704545021057,
-0.012175447307527065,
0.0318351574242115,
-0.004791731014847755,
-0.32219183444976807,
0.22798682749271393,
0.5930444002151489,
-0.015398760326206684,
0.09440652281045914,
-0.5356965065002441,
0.10539167374372482,
0.2745257318019867,
-0.3617039620876312,
-0.06722844392061234,
0.10561838746070862,
-0.18619327247142792,
-0.280833899974823,
-0.5684497356414795,
0.08411207795143127,
0.104733407497406,
0.4010556936264038,
0.08463236689567566,
1.1316909790039062,
0.17152611911296844,
0.4133177399635315,
0.19678856432437897,
-0.03942568972706795,
-0.30393221974372864,
-0.29332953691482544,
-0.15481941401958466,
0.23025982081890106,
-0.4224901497364044,
-0.011421317234635353,
-0.34879276156425476,
-0.304718554019928,
0.12692825496196747,
-0.3878920376300812,
-0.14284376800060272,
0.2358265370130539,
-0.22006753087043762,
-0.34653377532958984,
-0.6761208176612854,
0.44695842266082764,
-0.5374917984008789,
-0.13184422254562378,
0.4769212007522583,
0.2307307869195938,
0.031467609107494354,
-0.5673595070838928,
0.05646946653723717,
-0.07987888157367706,
-0.01358462031930685,
0.24785856902599335,
0.5660057067871094,
0.3262915313243866,
-0.16792123019695282,
-0.22719548642635345,
-0.7752740383148193,
0.5560802817344666,
0.4697718322277069,
-0.33050018548965454,
-0.15988187491893768,
-0.5520979762077332,
0.1860746443271637,
-0.2045808583498001,
0.16120769083499908,
-0.679893434047699,
0.6763487458229065,
0.2879358232021332
] |
200269
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie%20Besant
|
Annie Besant
|
Annie Besant (née Wood; 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a British socialist, theosophist, women's rights activist, writer, orator, educationist, and philanthropist. Regarded as a champion of human freedom, she was an ardent supporter of both Irish and Indian self-rule. She was a prolific author with over three hundred books and pamphlets to her credit. As an educationist, her contributions included being one of the founders of the Banaras Hindu University. For fifteen years Besant was a public proponent in England of atheism, scientific materialism. Besant's goal was to provide better employment, living conditions, and education for the poor.
Besant then became a prominent speaker for the National Secular Society (NSS), as well as a writer, and a close friend of Charles Bradlaugh. In 1877 they were prosecuted for publishing a book by birth control campaigner Charles Knowlton. The scandal made them famous, and Bradlaugh was subsequently elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton in 1880.
Thereafter, Besant became involved with union actions, including the Bloody Sunday demonstration and the London matchgirls strike of 1888. She was a leading speaker for both the Fabian Society and the Marxist Social Democratic Federation (SDF). She was also elected to the London School Board for Tower Hamlets, topping the poll, even though few women were qualified to vote at that time.
In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky, and over the next few years her interest in theosophy grew, whilst her interest in secular matters waned. She became a member of the Theosophical Society and a prominent lecturer on the subject. As part of her theosophy-related work, she traveled to India. In 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu School, and in 1922 she helped establish the Hyderabad (Sind) National Collegiate Board in Bombay (today's Mumbai), India. In 1902, she established the first overseas Lodge of the International Order of Co-Freemasonry, Le Droit Humain. Over the next few years, she established lodges in many parts of the British Empire. In 1907 she became president of the Theosophical Society, whose international headquarters were, by then, located in Adyar, Madras, (Chennai).
Besant also became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National Congress. When World War I broke out in 1914, she helped launch the Home Rule League to campaign for democracy in India, and dominion status within the British Empire. This led to her election as president of the Indian National Congress, in late 1917. In the late 1920s, Besant traveled to the United States with her protégé and adopted son Jiddu Krishnamurti, who she claimed was the new Messiah and incarnation of Buddha. Krishnamurti rejected these claims in 1929. After the war, she continued to campaign for Indian independence and for the causes of theosophy, until her death in 1933.
Early life
Annie Wood was born on 1 October 1847 in London into an upper-middle-class family. She was the daughter of William Burton Persse Wood (1816–1852) and Emily Roche Morris (died 1874). The Woods originated from Devon and her great-uncle was the Whig politician Sir Matthew Wood, 1st Baronet from whom derives the Page Wood baronets. Her father was an Englishman who lived in Dublin and attained a medical degree, having attended Trinity College Dublin. Her mother was an Irish Catholic, from a family of more modest means. Besant would go on to make much of her Irish ancestry and supported the cause of Irish self-rule throughout her adult life. Annie's father died when she was five years old, leaving the family almost penniless. Her mother supported the family by running a boarding house for boys at Harrow School. However, she was unable to support Annie and persuaded her friend Ellen Marryat to care for her. Marryat made sure that she had a good education. Annie was given a strong sense of duty to society and an equally strong sense of what independent women could achieve. As a young woman, she was also able to travel widely in Europe. There she acquired a taste for Roman Catholic colour and ceremony that never left her.
In 1867, at age twenty, she married 26-year-old clergyman Frank Besant (1840–1917), younger brother of Walter Besant. He was an evangelical Anglican who seemed to share many of her concerns. On the eve of her marriage, she had become more politicised through a visit to friends in Manchester, who brought her into contact with both English radicals and the Manchester Martyrs of the Irish Republican Fenian Brotherhood, as well as with the conditions of the urban poor.
Soon Frank became vicar of Sibsey in Lincolnshire. Annie moved to Sibsey with her husband, and within a few years they had two children, Arthur and Mabel; however, the marriage was a disaster. As Annie wrote in her Autobiography, "we were an ill-matched pair". The first conflict came over money and Annie's independence. Annie wrote short stories, books for children, and articles. As married women did not have the legal right to own property, Frank was able to collect all the money she earned. Politics further divided the couple. Annie began to support farmworkers who were fighting to unionise and to win better conditions. Frank was a Tory and sided with the landlords and farmers. The tension came to a head when Annie refused to attend Communion. In 1873 she left him and returned to London. They were legally separated and Annie took her daughter with her.
Besant began to question her own faith. She turned to leading churchmen for advice, going to see Edward Bouverie Pusey, one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement within the Church of England. When she asked him to recommend books that would answer her questions, he told her she had read too many already. Besant returned to Frank to make a last unsuccessful effort to repair the marriage. She finally left for London.
Birkbeck
In the late 1880s Besant studied at the Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution, where her religious and political activities caused alarm. At one point the Institution's governors sought to withhold the publication of her exam results.
Reformer and secularist
Besant fought for the causes she thought were right, starting with freedom of thought, women's rights, secularism, birth control, Fabian socialism and workers' rights. She was a leading member of the National Secular Society alongside Charles Bradlaugh and the South Place Ethical Society.
Divorce was unthinkable for Frank and was not really within the reach of even middle-class people. Annie was to remain Mrs. Besant for the rest of her life. At first, she was able to keep contact with both children and to have Mabel live with her; she also got a small allowance from her husband.
Once free of Frank Besant and exposed to new currents of thought, she began to question not only her long-held religious beliefs but also the whole of conventional thinking. She began to write attacks on the churches and the way they controlled people's lives. In particular, she attacked the status of the Church of England as a state-sponsored faith.
Soon she was earning a small weekly wage by writing a column for the National Reformer, the newspaper of the NSS. The NSS argued for a secular state and an end to the special status of Christianity and allowed her to act as one of its public speakers. Public lectures were very popular entertainment in Victorian times. Besant was a brilliant speaker and was soon in great demand. Using the railway, she crisscrossed the country, speaking on all of the most important issues of the day, always demanding improvement, reform, and freedom.
For many years Besant was a friend of the National Secular Society's leader, Charles Bradlaugh. Bradlaugh, a former soldier, had long been separated from his wife; Besant lived with him and his daughters, and they worked together on many projects. He was an atheist and a republican; he was also trying to get elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Northampton.
Besant and Bradlaugh became household names in 1877 when they published Fruits of Philosophy, a book by the American birth-control campaigner Charles Knowlton. It claimed that working-class families could never be happy until they were able to decide how many children they wanted. It also suggested ways to limit the size of their families. The Knowlton book was highly controversial and was vigorously opposed by the Church. Besant and Bradlaugh proclaimed in the National Reformer:
We intend to publish nothing we do not think we can morally defend. All that we publish we shall defend.
The pair were arrested and put on trial for publishing the Knowlton book. They were found guilty but released pending appeal. As well as great opposition, Besant and Bradlaugh also received a great deal of support in the Liberal press. Arguments raged back and forth in the letters and comment columns as well as in the courtroom. Besant was instrumental in founding the Malthusian League during the trial, which would go on to advocate for the abolition of penalties for the promotion of contraception. For a time, it looked as though they would be sent to prison. The case was thrown out finally only on a technical point, the charges not having been properly drawn up.
The scandal cost Besant custody of her children. Her husband was able to persuade the court that she was unfit to look after them, and they were handed over to him permanently.
On 6 March 1881 she spoke at the opening of Leicester Secular Society's new Secular Hall in Humberstone Gate, Leicester. The other speakers were George Jacob Holyoake, Harriet Law and Charles Bradlaugh.
Bradlaugh's political prospects were not damaged by the Knowlton scandal and he was elected to Parliament in 1881. Because of his atheism, he asked to be allowed to affirm rather than swear the oath of loyalty. When the possibility of affirmation was refused, Bradlaugh stated his willingness to take the oath. But this option was also challenged. Although many Christians were shocked by Bradlaugh, others (like the Liberal leader Gladstone) spoke up for freedom of belief. It took more than six years before the matter was completely resolved (in Bradlaugh's favour) after a series of by-elections and court appearances.
Meanwhile, Besant built close contacts with the Irish Home Rulers and supported them in her newspaper columns during what are considered crucial years, when the Irish nationalists were forming an alliance with Liberals and Radicals. Besant met the leaders of the Irish home rule movement. In particular, she got to know Michael Davitt, who wanted to mobilise the Irish peasantry through a Land War, a direct struggle against the landowners. She spoke and wrote in favour of Davitt and his Land League many times over the coming decades.
However, Bradlaugh's parliamentary work gradually alienated Besant. Women had no part in parliamentary politics. Besant was searching for a real political outlet, where her skills as a speaker, writer, and organiser could do some real good.
In 1893, she was a representative of The Theosophical Society at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago. The World Parliament is famous in India because of Indian monk Swami Vivekananda addressed in the same event and which has received global recognition.
In 1895, together with the founder-president of the Theosophical Society, Henry Steel Olcott, as well as Marie Musaeus Higgins and Peter De Abrew, she was instrumental in developing the Buddhist school, Musaeus College, in Colombo on the island of Sri Lanka.
Political activism
For Besant, politics, friendship and love were always closely intertwined. Her decision in favour of Socialism came about through a close relationship with George Bernard Shaw, a struggling young Irish author living in London, and a leading light of the Fabian Society who considered Besant to be "The greatest orator in England". Annie was impressed by his work and grew very close to him too in the early 1880s. It was Besant who made the first move, by inviting Shaw to live with her. This he refused, but it was Shaw who sponsored Besant to join the Fabian Society. In its early days, the society was a gathering of people exploring spiritual, rather than political, alternatives to the capitalist system. Besant began to write for the Fabians. This new commitment – and her relationship with Shaw – deepened the split between Besant and Bradlaugh, who was an individualist and opposed to Socialism of any sort. While he defended free speech at any cost, he was very cautious about encouraging working-class militancy.
Unemployment was a central issue of the time, and in 1887 some of the London unemployed started to hold protests in Trafalgar Square. Besant agreed to appear as a speaker at a meeting on 13 November. The police tried to stop the assembly, fighting broke out, and troops were called. Many were hurt, one man died, and hundreds were arrested; Besant offered herself for arrest, an offer disregarded by the police.
The events created a great sensation, and became known as Bloody Sunday. Besant was widely blamed – or credited – for it. She threw herself into organising legal aid for the jailed workers and support for their families. Bradlaugh finally broke with her because he felt she should have asked his advice before going ahead with the meeting.
Another activity in this period was her involvement in the London matchgirls strike of 1888. She was drawn into this battle of the "New Unionism" by a young socialist, Herbert Burrows. He had made contact with workers at Bryant and May's match factory in Bow, London, who were mainly young women and were very poorly paid. They were also prey to industrial illnesses, like the bone-rotting Phossy jaw, which was caused by the chemicals used in match manufacture. Some of the match workers asked for help from Burrows and Besant in setting up a union.
Besant met the women and set up a committee, which led the women into a strike for better pay and conditions, an action that won public support. Besant led demonstrations by "match-girls", who were cheered in the streets, and prominent churchmen wrote in their support. In just over a week they forced the firm to improve pay and conditions. Besant then helped them to set up a proper union and a social centre.
At the time, the matchstick industry was a very powerful lobby, since electric light was not yet widely available, and matches were an essential commodity; in 1872, lobbyists from the match industry had persuaded the British government to change its planned tax policy. Besant's campaign was the first time anyone had successfully challenged the match manufacturers on a major issue and was seen as a landmark victory of the early years of British Socialism.
In 1884, Besant had developed a very close friendship with Edward Aveling, a young socialist teacher who lived in her house for a time. Aveling was a scholarly figure and it was he who first translated the important works of Marx into English. He eventually went to live with Eleanor Marx, daughter of Karl Marx. Aveling was a great influence on Besant's thinking and she supported his work, yet she moved towards the rival Fabians at that time. Aveling and Eleanor Marx had joined the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and then the Socialist League, a small Marxist splinter group which formed around the artist William Morris.
It seems that Morris played a large part in converting Besant to Marxism, but it was to the SDF, not his Socialist League, that she turned in 1888. She remained a member for a number of years and became one of its best speakers. She was still a member of the Fabian Society; neither she nor anyone else seemed to think the two movements incompatible at the time.
Soon after joining the Marxists, Besant was elected to the London School Board in 1888. Women at that time were not able to take part in parliamentary politics but had been brought into the local electorate in 1881.
Besant drove about with a red ribbon in her hair, speaking at meetings. "No more hungry children", her manifesto proclaimed. She combined her socialist principles with feminism:
"I ask the electors to vote for me, and the non-electors to work for me because women are wanted on the Board and there are too few women candidates." Besant came out on top of the poll in Tower Hamlets, with over 15,000 votes. She wrote in the National Reformer: "Ten years ago, under a cruel law, Christian bigotry robbed me of my little child. Now the care of the 763,680 children of London is placed partly in my hands."
Besant was also involved in the London dock strike of 1889, in which the dockers, who were employed by the day, were led by Ben Tillett in a struggle for the "Dockers' Tanner". Besant helped Tillett draw up the union's rules and played an important part in the meetings and agitation which built up the organisation. She spoke for the dockers at public meetings and on street corners. Like the match-girls, the dockers won public support for their struggle, and the strike was won.
Theosophy
Besant was a prolific writer and a powerful orator. In 1889, she was asked to write a review for the Pall Mall Gazette on The Secret Doctrine, a book by H. P. Blavatsky. After reading it, she sought an interview with its author, meeting Blavatsky in Paris. In this way, she was converted to Theosophy. Besant's intellectual journey had always involved a spiritual dimension, a quest for transformation of the whole person. As her interest in theosophy deepened, she allowed her membership of the Fabian Society to lapse (1890) and broke her links with the Marxists. In her Autobiography, Besant follows her chapter on "Socialism" with "Through Storm to Peace", the peace of Theosophy. In 1888, she described herself as "marching toward the Theosophy" that would be the "glory" of her life. Besant had found the economic side of life lacking a spiritual dimension, so she searched for a belief based on "Love". She found this in Theosophy, so she joined the Theosophical Society, a move that distanced her from Bradlaugh and other former activist co-workers. When Blavatsky died in 1891, Besant was left as one of the leading figures in theosophy and in 1893 she represented it at the Chicago World Fair.
In 1893, soon after becoming a member of the Theosophical Society, she went to India for the first time. After a dispute the American section split away into an independent organisation. The original society, then led by Henry Steel Olcott and Besant, is today based in Chennai, India, and is known as the Theosophical Society Adyar. Following the split, Besant devoted much of her energy not only to the society but also to India's freedom and progress. Besant Nagar, a neighbourhood near the Theosophical Society in Chennai, is named in her honour.
Co-freemasonry
Besant saw freemasonry, in particular Co-Freemasonry, as an extension of her interest in the rights of women and the greater brotherhood of man and saw co-freemasonry as a "movement which practised true brotherhood, in which women and men worked side by side for the perfecting of humanity. She immediately wanted to be admitted to this organisation", known now as the International Order of Freemasonry for Men and Women, "Le Droit Humain".
The link was made in 1902 by the theosophist Francesca Arundale, who accompanied Besant to Paris, along with six friends. "They were all initiated, passed, and raised into the first three degrees and Annie returned to England, bearing a Charter and founded there the first Lodge of International Mixed Masonry, Le Droit Humain." Besant eventually became the Order's Most Puissant Grand Commander and was a major influence in the international growth of the Order.
President of Theosophical Society
Besant met fellow theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater in London in April 1894. They became close co-workers in the theosophical movement and would remain so for the rest of their lives. Leadbeater claimed clairvoyance and reputedly helped Besant become clairvoyant herself in the following year. In a letter dated 25 August 1895 to Francisca Arundale, Leadbeater narrates how Besant became clairvoyant. Together they clairvoyantly investigated the universe, matter, thought-forms, and the history of mankind, and co-authored a book called Occult Chemistry.
In 1906 Leadbeater became the centre of controversy when it emerged that he had advised the practice of masturbation to some boys under his care and spiritual instruction. Leadbeater stated he had encouraged the practice to keep the boys celibate, which was considered a prerequisite for advancement on the spiritual path. Because of the controversy, he offered to resign from the Theosophical Society in 1906, which was accepted. The next year Besant became president of the society and in 1908, with her express support, Leadbeater was readmitted to the society. Leadbeater went on to face accusations of improper relations with boys, but none of the accusations were ever proven and Besant never deserted him.
Until Besant's presidency, the society had as one of its foci Theravada Buddhism and the island of Sri Lanka, where Henry Olcott did the majority of his useful work. Under Besant's leadership there was more stress on the teachings of "The Aryavarta", as she called central India, as well as on esoteric Christianity.
Besant set up a new school for boys, the Central Hindu College (CHC) at Banaras which was formed on underlying theosophical principles, and which counted many prominent theosophists in its staff and faculty. Its aim was to build a new leadership for India. The students spent 90 minutes a day in prayer and studied religious texts, but they also studied modern science. It took 3 years to raise the money for the CHC, most of which came from Indian princes. In April 1911, Besant met Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and they decided to unite their forces and work for a common Hindu University at Banaras. Besant and fellow trustees of the Central Hindu College also agreed to the Government of India's precondition that the college should become a part of the new University. The Banaras Hindu University started functioning from 1 October 1917 with the Central Hindu College as its first constituent college.
Blavatsky had stated in 1889 that the main purpose of establishing the society was to prepare humanity for the future reception of a "torch-bearer of Truth", an emissary of a hidden Spiritual Hierarchy that, according to theosophists, guides the evolution of mankind. This was repeated by Besant as early as 1896; Besant came to believe in the imminent appearance of the "emissary", who was identified by theosophists as the so-called World Teacher.
"World Teacher" project
In 1909, soon after Besant's assumption of the presidency, Leadbeater "discovered" fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986), a South Indian boy who had been living, with his father and brother, on the grounds of the headquarters of the Theosophical Society at Adyar, and declared him the probable "vehicle" for the expected "World Teacher". The "discovery" and its objective received widespread publicity and attracted a worldwide following, mainly among theosophists. It also started years of upheaval and contributed to splits in the Theosophical Society and doctrinal schisms in theosophy. Following the discovery, Jiddu Krishnamurti and his younger brother Nityananda ("Nitya") were placed under the care of theosophists and Krishnamurti was extensively groomed for his future mission as the new vehicle for the "World Teacher". Besant soon became the boys' legal guardian with the consent of their father, who was very poor and could not take care of them. However, his father later changed his mind and began a legal battle to regain guardianship, against the will of the boys. Early in their relationship, Krishnamurti and Besant had developed a very close bond and he considered her a surrogate mother – a role she happily accepted. (His biological mother had died when he was ten years old.)
In 1929, twenty years after his "discovery", Krishnamurti, who had grown disenchanted with the World Teacher Project, repudiated the role that many theosophists expected him to fulfil. He dissolved the Order of the Star in the East, an organisation founded to assist the World Teacher in his mission, and eventually left the Theosophical Society and theosophy at large. He spent the rest of his life travelling the world as an unaffiliated speaker, becoming in the process widely known as an original, independent thinker on philosophical, psychological, and spiritual subjects. His love for Besant never waned, as also was the case with Besant's feelings towards him; concerned for his wellbeing after he declared his independence, she had purchased of land near the Theosophical Society estate which later became the headquarters of the Krishnamurti Foundation India.
Home Rule movement
As early as 1902 Besant had written that "India is not ruled for the prospering of the people, but rather for the profit of her conquerors, and her sons are being treated as a conquered race." She encouraged Indian national consciousness, attacked caste and child marriage, and worked effectively for Indian education. Along with her theosophical activities, Besant continued to actively participate in political matters. She had joined the Indian National Congress. As the name suggested, this was originally a debating body, which met each year to consider resolutions on political issues. Mostly it demanded more of a say for middle-class Indians in British Indian government. It had not yet developed into a permanent mass movement with a local organisation. About this time her co-worker Leadbeater moved to Sydney.
In 1914 World War I broke out, and Britain asked for the support of its Empire in the fight against Germany. Echoing an Irish nationalist slogan, Besant declared, "England's need is India's opportunity". As editor of the New India newspaper, she attacked the colonial government of India and called for clear and decisive moves towards self-rule. As with Ireland, the government refused to discuss any changes while the war lasted.
In 1916, Besant launched the All India Home Rule League along with Lokmanya Tilak, once again modelling demands for India on Irish nationalist practices. This was the first political party in India to have regime change as its main goal. Unlike the Congress itself, the League worked all year round. It built a structure of local branches, enabling it to mobilise demonstrations, public meetings, and agitations. In June 1917, Besant was arrested and interned at a hill station, where she defiantly flew a red and green flag. The Congress and the Muslim League together threatened to launch protests if she were not set free; Besant's arrest had created a focus for protest.
The government was forced to give way and to make vague but significant concessions. It was announced that the ultimate aim of British rule was Indian self-government, and moves in that direction were promised. Besant was freed in September 1917, welcomed by crowds all over India, and in December she took over as president of the Indian National Congress for a year. Both Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi spoke of Besant's influence with admiration.
After the war, a new leadership of the Indian National Congress emerged around Mahatma Gandhi – one of those who had written to demand Besant's release. He was a lawyer who had returned from leading Asians in a peaceful struggle against racism in South Africa. Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi's closest collaborator, had been educated by a theosophist tutor.
The new leadership was committed to action that was both militant and non-violent, but there were differences between them and Besant. Despite her past, she was not happy with their socialist leanings. Until the end of her life, however, she continued to campaign for India's independence, not only in India but also on speaking tours of Britain. In her own version of Indian dress, she remained a striking presence on speakers' platforms. She produced a torrent of letters and articles demanding independence.
Later years and death
Besant tried as a person, theosophist, and president of the Theosophical Society, to accommodate Krishnamurti's views into her life, without success; she vowed to personally follow him in his new direction although she apparently had trouble understanding both his motives and his new message. The two remained friends until the end of her life.
In 1931 she became ill in India.
Besant died on 20 September 1933, at age 85, in Adyar, Madras Presidency, British India. Her body was cremated.
She was survived by her daughter, Mabel. After her death, colleagues Jiddu Krishnamurti, Aldous Huxley, Guido Ferrando, and Rosalind Rajagopal, built the Happy Valley School in California, now renamed the Besant Hill School of Happy Valley in her honour.
Descendants
The subsequent family history became fragmented. A number of Besant's descendants have been traced in detail from her son Arthur Digby's side. Arthur Digby Besant (1869–1960) was President of the Institute of Actuaries, 1924–26. He wrote The Besant Pedigree (1930) and was director of the Theosophical bookstore in London. One of Arthur Digby's daughters was Sylvia Besant, who married Commander Clem Lewis in the 1920s. They had a daughter, Kathleen Mary, born in 1934, who was given away for adoption within three weeks of the birth and had the new name of Lavinia Pollock. Lavinia married Frank Castle in 1953 and raised a family of five of Besant's great-great-grandchildren – James, Richard, David, Fiona, and Andrew Castle – the last and youngest sibling being a former British professional tennis player and now television presenter and personality.
Criticism of Christianity
Besant opined that for centuries the leaders of Christian thought spoke of women as a necessary evil and that the greatest saints of the Church were those who despised women the most, "Against the teachings of eternal torture, of the vicarious atonement, of the infallibility of the Bible, I leveled all the strength of my brain and tongue, and I exposed the history of the Christian Church with unsparing hand, its persecutions, its religious wars, its cruelties, its oppressions. (Annie Besant, An Autobiography Chapter VII)." In the section named "Its Evidences Unreliable" of her work "Christianity", Besant presents the case of why the Gospels are not authentic: "before about A.D. 180 there is no trace of FOUR gospels among the Christians."
Works
Besides being a prolific writer, Besant was a "practised stump orator" who gave sixty-six public lectures in one year. She also engaged in public debates.
List of Works on Online Books Annie Besant (Besant, Annie, 1847-1933) | The Online Books Page
List of Work on Open Library Annie Wood Besant
The Political Status of Women (1874)
Christianity: Its Evidences, Its Origin, Its Morality, Its History (1876)
The Law of Population (1877)
My Path to Atheism (1878, 3rd ed 1885)
Marriage, As It Was, As It Is, And As It Should Be: A Plea for Reform (1878)
The Atheistic Platform: 12 Lectures One by Besant (1884)
Autobiographical Sketches (1885)
Why I Am a Socialist (1886)
Why I Became a Theosophist (1889)
The Seven Principles of Man (1892)
Bhagavad Gita (translated as The Lord's Song) (1895)
Karma (1895)
In the Outer Court(1895)
The Ancient Wisdom (1897)
Dharma (1898)
Thought Forms with C. W. Leadbeater (1901)
The Religious Problem in India (1901)
Thought Power: Its Control and Culture (1901)
Esoteric Christianity (1905 2nd ed)
A Study in Consciousness: A contribution to the science of psychology. (ca 1907, rpt 1918) A study in consciousness; a contribution to the science of psychology.
Occult Chemistry with C. W. Leadbeater (1908) Occult chemistry;: clairvoyant observations on the chemical elements
An Introduction to Yoga (1908) An introduction to yoga; four lectures delivered at the 32nd anniversary of the Theosophical Society, held at Benares, on Dec. 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th, 1907
Australian Lectures (1908)
Annie Besant: An Autobiography (1908 2nd ed)
The Religious Problem in India Lectures on Islam, Jainism, Sikhism, Theosophy (1909) The religious problem in India: four lectures delivered during the twenty-sixth annual convention of the Theosophical Society at Adyar, Madras, 1901
Man and His Bodies (1896, rpt 1911) Theosophy: Man and His Bodies by Annie Besant
Elementary Lessons on Karma (1912)
A Study in Karma (1912)
Initiation: The Perfecting of Man (1912) Theosophy: Initiation The Perfecting of Man by Annie Besant - MahatmaCWLeadbeater.org
Man's Life in This and Other Worlds (1913) Man's life in this and other worlds
Man: Whence, How and Whither with C. W. Leadbeater (1913) Man, whence, how and whither: a record of clairvoyant investigation / by Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater.
The Doctrine of the Heart (1920) Theosophy: Doctrine of the Heart by Annie Besant
The Future of Indian Politics 1922
The Life and Teaching of Muhammad (1932) Annie Besant The Life And Teachings Of Muhammad ( The Prophet Of Islam)
Memory and Its Nature (1935) Memory and Its Nature - by Annie Besant & H.P.Blavatsky - Adyar Pamphlets No. 203 & 204
Various writings regarding Helena Blavatsky (1889–1910) Blavatsky Archives contains 100s of articles on HP Blavatsky & Theosophy
Selection of Pamphlets as follows: Pamphlets
"Sin and Crime" (1885)
"God's Views on Marriage" (1890)
"A World Without God" (1885)
"Life, Death, and Immortality" (1886)
"Theosophy" (1925?)
"The World and Its God" (1886)
"Atheism and Its Bearing on Morals" (1887)
"On Eternal Torture" (n.d.)
"The Fruits of Christianity" (n.d.)
"The Jesus of the Gospels and the Influence of Christianity" (n.d.)
"The Gospel of Christianity and the Gospel of Freethought" (1883)
"Sins of the Church: Threatenings and Slaughters" (n.d.)
"For the Crown and Against the Nation" (1886)
"Christian Progress" (1890)
"Why I Do Not Believe in God" (1887)
"The Myth of the Resurrection" (1886)
"The Teachings of Christianity" (1887)
Indian National Movement
The Commonweal (a weekly dealing on Indian national issues)
New India (a daily newspaper which was a powerful mouthpiece for 15 years advocating Home Rule and revolutionizing Indian journalism)
Recognition in popular media
On 1 October 2015, search engine Google commemorated Annie Besant with a Doodle on her 168th birth anniversary. Google commented: "A fierce advocate of Indian self-rule, Annie Besant loved the language, and over a lifetime of vigorous study cultivated tremendous abilities as a writer and orator. She published mountains of essays, wrote a textbook, curated anthologies of classic literature for young adults and eventually became editor of the New India newspaper, a periodical dedicated to the cause of Indian Autonomy".
See also
Agni Yoga
Alice Bailey
Annie Besant School Allahabad
Benjamin Creme
Helena Roerich
History of feminism
Order of the Star in the East
Theosophy and Christianity
Theosophy and visual arts
References
Further reading
Briggs, Julia. A Woman of Passion: The Life of E. Nesbit. New Amsterdam Books, 2000, 68, 81–82, 92–96, 135–139
Chandrasekhar, S. A Dirty, Filthy Book: The Writing of Charles Knowlton and Annie Besant on Reproductive Physiology and Birth Control and an Account of the Bradlaugh-Besant Trial. University of California Berkeley 1981
Grover, Verinder and Ranjana Arora (eds.) Annie Besant: Great Women of Modern India – 1: Published by Deep of Deep Publications, New Delhi, India, 1993
Kumar, Raj Rameshwari Devi and Romila Pruthi. Annie Besant: Founder of Home Rule Movement, Pointer Publishers, 2003
Kumar, Raj, Annie Besant's Rise to Power in Indian Politics, 1914–1917. Concept Publishing, 1981
Manvell, Roger. The trial of Annie Besant and Charles Bradlaugh. Elek, London 1976
Nethercot, Arthur H. The first five lives of Annie Besant Hart-Davis: London, 1961
Nethercot, Arthur H. The last four lives of Annie Besant Hart-Davis: London (also University of Chicago Press 1963)
Taylor, Anne. Annie Besant: A Biography, Oxford University Press, 1991 (also US edition 1992)
Uglow, Jennifer S., Maggy Hendry, The Northeastern Dictionary of Women's Biography. Northeastern University, 1999
External links
Annie Besant Biography at varanasi.org.in
Annie Besant's Multifaceted Personality. A Biographical Sketch
Annie Besant's Quest for Truth: Christianity, Secularism, and New Age Thought
Framke, Maria: Besant, Annie, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
The British Federation of the International Order of Freemasonry for Men and Women, Le Droit Humain, founded by Annie Besant in 1902
The International Order of Freemasonry for Men and Women, Le Droit Humain
Thought power, its control, and culture Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection.
William Thomas Stead, “Character Sketch: October of Mrs. Annie Besant” 349–367 in Review of Reviews IV:22, October 1891.
1847 births
1933 deaths
19th-century English women writers
19th-century Indian politicians
19th-century Indian women politicians
19th-century Indian women writers
19th-century Indian writers
20th-century Indian politicians
20th-century Indian women politicians
20th-century Indian women writers
20th-century Indian writers
Alumni of Birkbeck, University of London
Banaras Hindu University people
British birth control activists
British reformers
English activists
English emigrants to India
English feminists
English Freemasons
English non-fiction writers
English occult writers
English people of Irish descent
English socialists
English spiritual writers
English suffragists
English Theosophists
English women activists
English women writers
Esoteric Christianity
Feminism and spirituality
English feminist writers
Former Anglicans
Former atheists and agnostics
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
History of Chennai
Indian philanthropists
Indian women philanthropists
Members of the Fabian Society
Members of the London School Board
People from Clapham
People from Sibsey
Presidents of the Indian National Congress
Scouting and Guiding in India
Social Democratic Federation members
English socialist feminists
Theosophy
Translators of the Bhagavad Gita
Victorian women writers
Women Indian independence activists
Women mystics
Indian suffragists
Google Doodles
|
[
0.22064773738384247,
0.11046361923217773,
-1.1039929389953613,
-0.39774003624916077,
-0.20967617630958557,
1.26661217212677,
0.6015046238899231,
-0.03930431604385376,
-0.30757105350494385,
-0.1660904735326767,
-0.38246262073516846,
-0.4673048257827759,
-0.011383291333913803,
0.5921661853790283,
-0.05303099378943443,
-0.09890346974134445,
-0.674263060092926,
0.26088863611221313,
-0.328849732875824,
-0.11304552108049393,
-0.06875431537628174,
0.035638488829135895,
0.3286820650100708,
0.11910156160593033,
-0.544664740562439,
-0.28620827198028564,
0.37010276317596436,
-0.7973747849464417,
0.20038175582885742,
0.06163128837943077,
0.5783020257949829,
0.2659439444541931,
0.40618711709976196,
0.19012320041656494,
-0.2782672941684723,
0.2025146782398224,
-0.6380347013473511,
0.19880448281764984,
-0.22403866052627563,
-0.2931649088859558,
-0.5317821502685547,
0.13477078080177307,
0.36428338289260864,
0.504694938659668,
-0.19795705378055573,
-0.06882228702306747,
-2.2977006435394287,
0.692518949508667,
-0.6542597413063049,
-0.00022028517560102046,
-0.3128935396671295,
0.5433930158615112,
1.685070514678955,
0.26426416635513306,
-0.4307703673839569,
0.47549891471862793,
-1.0308105945587158,
0.04926518350839615,
-0.11522215604782104,
-0.5684107542037964,
0.22137920558452606,
0.058496154844760895,
0.8153415322303772,
-0.0971216931939125,
0.40826430916786194,
0.14695340394973755,
-0.12100356072187424,
0.09175115823745728,
-0.11573795974254608,
-0.3581840991973877,
-0.07829097658395767,
-0.42941516637802124,
0.3036520183086395,
0.702174186706543,
-0.09842081367969513,
-0.6128144860267639,
0.1913188248872757,
0.12610667943954468,
0.6456919312477112,
0.16089525818824768,
-0.07093935459852219,
0.16416899859905243,
0.4623281955718994,
0.5099501609802246,
0.2641233801841736,
-0.017905469983816147,
-0.27529650926589966,
0.10707678645849228,
-0.7320020198822021,
0.41854128241539,
-0.2108771950006485,
-0.03216099366545677,
0.14780592918395996,
-0.15148957073688507,
-0.03727218136191368,
0.4346071183681488,
0.8181005716323853,
-0.2528223991394043,
-0.4773014187812805,
-0.5033262372016907,
0.20256763696670532,
0.10956620424985886,
0.016846897080540657,
0.04667212814092636,
-0.4382360279560089,
0.16654200851917267,
-0.08301367610692978,
-0.7708998918533325,
0.27057933807373047,
0.11057385802268982,
-0.28775596618652344,
0.006975992117077112,
-0.3990882337093353,
-0.22732292115688324,
-0.2953595221042633,
0.029245179146528244,
0.19403131306171417,
-0.40947213768959045,
-0.50644850730896,
-0.38163265585899353,
-0.251117080450058,
-0.39823615550994873,
0.23651589453220367,
0.08398502320051193,
-0.5238649845123291,
0.12164413928985596,
-0.09306170791387558,
0.212032750248909,
0.018265236169099808,
0.5107832551002502,
-0.030156539753079414,
0.8728445768356323,
-0.5122175812721252,
-0.7654494047164917,
-0.07218579947948456,
-0.2698637545108795,
0.583728015422821,
-0.4076273441314697,
0.4959372878074646,
0.6700310707092285,
0.15714986622333527,
0.6359875798225403,
-0.6063564419746399,
0.018347308039665222,
1.0244567394256592,
-0.26413050293922424,
-0.08661869913339615,
0.21891507506370544,
-0.35876667499542236,
-0.61310213804245,
-0.4174884855747223,
-0.2125786393880844,
0.08696651458740234,
-0.1127367913722992,
-0.5784158706665039,
0.09300921112298965,
0.23306812345981598,
0.14729046821594238,
-0.1640411615371704,
0.29406797885894775,
0.3264743387699127,
0.20409534871578217,
0.26000553369522095,
0.05566346272826195,
-0.4208332300186157,
-0.2290533483028412,
0.24217510223388672,
0.09820862114429474,
-0.2581319510936737,
-0.021469276398420334,
-0.29824426770210266,
0.05230585113167763,
0.1425744742155075,
0.1413901150226593,
-0.2816354036331177,
0.613531231880188,
-0.029537996277213097,
0.47276243567466736,
-0.10244836658239365,
-0.4418221116065979,
-0.9067661762237549,
0.2149798572063446,
-0.2289656102657318,
0.6498088836669922,
0.7139537930488586,
-0.39573922753334045,
0.40060198307037354,
-0.3436020314693451,
-0.04225831851363182,
0.1790393739938736,
-0.7883397936820984,
-0.7245920896530151,
-0.13992628455162048,
0.15847672522068024,
0.9479133486747742,
0.188877135515213,
-0.23453402519226074,
0.43436726927757263,
0.30879706144332886,
-0.10609818994998932,
0.0733184665441513,
-0.16010533273220062,
-0.8993293046951294,
-0.8019829988479614,
-0.677935779094696,
0.6157015562057495,
0.14248593151569366,
0.4271482825279236,
-0.3499133288860321,
0.339065283536911,
0.16466844081878662,
-0.542823851108551,
0.6806656718254089,
0.29224589467048645,
-0.3689224123954773,
-0.5482605695724487,
-0.48711511492729187,
0.1581180989742279,
0.7392082810401917,
0.2071133702993393,
-0.10918073356151581,
0.25205278396606445,
0.18502846360206604,
0.20276014506816864,
-0.016706274822354317,
-0.06648993492126465,
-0.2500859498977661,
0.40281251072883606,
0.36201661825180054,
-0.6823329925537109,
0.09547934681177139,
0.3222193121910095,
0.18923243880271912,
-0.3080989122390747,
0.7268338203430176,
-0.010925635695457458,
-0.19724451005458832,
0.005029580090194941,
0.28756511211395264,
-0.5306726098060608,
0.08247870206832886,
0.010113799944519997,
0.00515627209097147,
0.2848309874534607,
-0.5941296219825745,
0.5021647810935974,
-0.3007713854312897,
-0.08147399127483368,
0.3176722824573517,
0.11879707127809525,
0.5712944865226746,
0.8786921501159668,
0.454606831073761,
0.2465265840291977,
-0.27767741680145264,
-0.34447965025901794,
0.16198323667049408,
-0.12893113493919373,
0.9992030262947083,
0.207795187830925,
0.43637821078300476,
-0.0651235282421112,
-0.1272953599691391,
0.5441010594367981,
-0.18357409536838531,
-0.45793616771698,
0.25812220573425293,
-0.9104710221290588,
0.20458385348320007,
-0.06575953960418701,
1.0138126611709595,
0.02966873161494732,
0.07565827667713165,
0.5855369567871094,
0.45726317167282104,
0.16352617740631104,
-0.03873938322067261,
0.4310265779495239,
-1.0213968753814697,
-0.655200719833374,
0.06731703132390976,
0.8254136443138123,
-0.1219637468457222,
-0.13619370758533478,
0.06286215037107468,
0.3190670609474182,
0.1219225600361824,
-0.18193203210830688,
-0.15831151604652405,
-0.0035921602975577116,
0.13843467831611633,
0.8338697552680969,
-0.47150179743766785,
-0.4538080394268036,
0.2706606090068817,
0.17948587238788605,
-0.5078407526016235,
0.3418937623500824,
-0.3236667215824127,
-0.09092676639556885,
0.0477445125579834,
0.5248672366142273,
-0.17515829205513,
0.22242799401283264,
0.6185569763183594,
0.12595893442630768,
-0.03352351486682892,
-0.036829639226198196,
-5.482314586639404,
0.5922391414642334,
0.2252325415611267,
-0.4009022116661072,
-0.34552401304244995,
-0.015836521983146667,
0.29840734601020813,
0.06156209111213684,
-0.5574236512184143,
-0.4941304624080658,
0.2910034954547882,
0.15444137156009674,
-0.41253170371055603,
-0.10020236670970917,
0.39084142446517944,
0.6416080594062805,
0.14880795776844025,
-0.5226321816444397,
-0.03377635404467583,
0.916217029094696,
0.13066129386425018,
-0.021395713090896606,
-0.23854558169841766,
1.0679025650024414,
0.10487299412488937,
-0.47542113065719604,
0.5998493432998657,
-0.06502940505743027,
-0.43283528089523315,
-0.19391150772571564,
0.6498358249664307,
-0.035502348095178604,
0.08166822046041489,
-0.5126312375068665,
0.5179364681243896,
0.06186448410153389,
0.3874457776546478,
0.024534529075026512,
-0.1810329407453537,
-0.4480937123298645,
-0.35020744800567627,
0.26045963168144226,
-0.058758050203323364,
-0.06276602298021317,
0.3342522978782654,
-0.2352052927017212,
-0.5382072925567627,
0.2266400009393692,
-0.19183194637298584,
0.159942165017128,
0.03633386641740799,
-0.24010856449604034,
-0.0941256731748581,
-0.09327336400747299,
-0.14158305525779724,
0.40811270475387573,
-0.8631498217582703,
-0.6690653562545776,
-1.0530756711959839,
-0.18569497764110565,
0.5667707920074463,
0.1426389068365097,
0.48713210225105286,
0.09676273912191391,
-0.07781074196100235,
-0.5388528108596802,
-0.2215767651796341,
-0.14442846179008484,
-0.6815124154090881,
0.013210895471274853,
-0.07914514094591141,
0.6022055149078369,
0.10106156021356583,
-0.9568352699279785,
-0.6375349760055542,
-0.4270724952220917,
-0.19327512383460999,
0.1322343647480011,
-0.19465027749538422,
0.03450435400009155,
0.28889188170433044,
-1.0554418563842773,
0.459960013628006,
0.7603071928024292,
0.5286887884140015,
-0.06595231592655182,
-0.13825006783008575,
0.11919128149747849,
-1.1109977960586548,
0.08651068806648254,
-0.5907807350158691,
0.12188541889190674,
-0.16272594034671783,
0.9008760452270508,
0.5393886566162109,
-0.027323143556714058,
-0.024464169517159462,
0.039076969027519226,
0.06760933250188828,
0.6024991869926453,
-0.5010793209075928,
-0.14430676400661469,
0.20377062261104584,
-0.11834277212619781,
0.3639237880706787,
0.0780014842748642,
-0.7381877899169922,
-0.005495788529515266,
0.5550245642662048,
-0.5232300162315369,
-0.2007768154144287,
-0.05555837228894234,
0.02531130425632,
-0.06337381154298782,
-0.053263235837221146,
-0.32406124472618103,
0.42975568771362305,
0.1116892620921135,
0.688429594039917,
0.25034403800964355,
-0.3226701617240906,
0.2125362902879715,
-0.6056004762649536,
0.13999952375888824,
0.11271664500236511,
-0.1506640613079071,
0.5658144354820251,
-0.4660467207431793,
-0.24652475118637085,
0.3411650061607361,
-0.19498278200626373,
-0.1742226779460907,
-0.14607064425945282,
-0.10883919894695282,
-0.21665427088737488,
-0.11619444191455841,
-0.9248201847076416,
0.16588900983333588,
-0.3399568498134613,
-0.05269563943147659,
-0.35619881749153137,
0.2344672530889511,
-0.40984633564949036,
0.05668942630290985,
0.9622738361358643,
0.10135415941476822,
-0.3127855658531189,
-0.023739652708172798,
-0.2203858345746994,
0.41284745931625366,
-0.4765191376209259,
0.1863950490951538,
0.5273290276527405,
0.10839051753282547,
-0.36308279633522034,
0.10696946829557419,
-0.011500295251607895,
0.21416549384593964,
-0.005010039545595646,
-0.2937496304512024,
-0.6335994005203247,
-0.14905081689357758,
-0.888086199760437,
-0.508445680141449,
0.011247384361922741,
0.3013378381729126,
0.5667315125465393,
-0.6219186782836914,
-0.07610982656478882,
0.12508395314216614,
-0.2942374050617218,
-0.44877180457115173,
0.37714001536369324,
0.18807077407836914,
-0.1963348537683487,
-0.10949941724538803,
-0.2026154100894928,
-0.09594292938709259,
-0.23557637631893158,
-0.02075856365263462,
-0.4761832356452942,
-0.5734554529190063,
-0.3050045967102051,
-0.017067033797502518,
0.025552252307534218,
0.12314007431268692,
-0.22622647881507874,
-0.4412640333175659,
-0.29484233260154724,
-0.2165565937757492,
0.0974731594324112,
-0.2243468463420868,
-0.1159653291106224,
0.8087511658668518,
-0.98057621717453,
0.02137266844511032,
0.19790583848953247,
0.1713809072971344,
-0.014954185113310814,
-0.3537023365497589,
-0.04616329446434975,
0.12341564893722534,
-0.248271182179451,
-0.26623770594596863,
0.2899792790412903,
-0.956312894821167,
-0.22999033331871033,
0.06563318520784378,
-0.15464776754379272,
0.986011266708374,
-0.24763134121894836,
0.16139847040176392,
0.21035559475421906,
0.3282555937767029,
0.1973785161972046,
0.14603713154792786,
-0.20231963694095612,
-0.25335559248924255,
0.018347876146435738,
-0.4306705594062805,
-0.6125651001930237,
-0.37080326676368713,
-0.46438461542129517,
-0.34302833676338196,
-0.14283689856529236,
0.42932388186454773,
0.1700553447008133,
0.31226345896720886,
0.5445680618286133,
-0.06350857019424438,
-1.1326204538345337,
0.5937458872795105,
0.0905105471611023,
0.4638761281967163,
0.07421394437551498,
-0.32984259724617004,
0.39743635058403015,
0.29966992139816284,
-0.21582402288913727,
-0.3934122323989868,
0.2755376100540161,
0.09887104481458664,
0.11649181693792343,
0.1045314222574234,
0.07964006066322327,
0.3784584701061249,
0.14777874946594238,
-0.024590391665697098,
-0.31097522377967834,
0.20252464711666107,
0.08639832586050034,
-0.04313140735030174,
-0.4662573039531708,
-0.5277644991874695,
-0.02613997831940651,
-0.6166911125183105,
-0.06085873767733574,
0.21174000203609467,
0.2674143612384796,
0.21687795221805573,
0.4225617051124573,
0.14244434237480164,
0.1900724321603775,
0.280003160238266,
0.1510821133852005,
0.6220263242721558,
0.25852876901626587,
-0.5955316424369812,
0.18636657297611237,
-0.6759640574455261,
0.4186447262763977,
0.07734980434179306,
-0.6680625081062317,
-0.5222830176353455,
-0.08040696382522583,
0.07537423819303513,
-0.27530866861343384,
-0.40701353549957275,
0.32400068640708923,
-0.5370141863822937,
-0.13428810238838196,
-0.1349785178899765,
0.03897811472415924,
-0.39808928966522217,
-0.04023153707385063,
-1.088244915008545,
0.10536393523216248,
-0.6012817621231079,
-0.49591967463493347,
-0.3545914590358734,
-0.15705296397209167,
0.24956242740154266,
0.539307713508606,
0.21570126712322235,
-0.12578800320625305,
0.43426817655563354,
-0.6965962052345276,
0.06618277728557587,
-0.2748873233795166,
-0.18465405702590942,
-0.5371261835098267,
0.5789285898208618,
0.6768521070480347,
0.04144749417901039,
0.04531007632613182,
-0.2262403815984726,
0.020090097561478615,
-0.33214157819747925,
-0.4525344669818878,
0.05119647458195686,
0.1691487580537796,
-0.18686453998088837,
0.5063831210136414,
0.4044887125492096,
-0.753916323184967,
-0.13190340995788574,
0.21720175445079803,
-0.3752822279930115,
0.23935836553573608,
0.1493048071861267,
-0.9066858291625977,
0.3939478397369385,
0.5272955894470215,
-0.16015663743019104,
0.05077425763010979,
0.09721711277961731,
0.09314727783203125,
1.0890072584152222,
-0.33324337005615234,
0.6546556949615479,
-0.014637415297329426,
-0.04800112545490265,
-0.18191646039485931,
0.8965648412704468,
0.28327417373657227,
-0.4033868908882141,
0.10032255202531815,
-0.054899077862501144,
0.10858555138111115,
0.06751541793346405,
0.17421172559261322,
0.1957816779613495,
0.08895270526409149,
0.4500933885574341,
0.04001181572675705,
0.442633718252182,
-0.023069636896252632,
0.7840122580528259,
-0.5010976791381836,
0.6131473779678345,
1.039350152015686,
0.5933108925819397,
0.018883973360061646,
-0.4666464328765869,
0.6717008352279663,
0.1594577580690384,
0.7717616558074951,
0.022048046812415123,
-0.7995235919952393,
0.5657767057418823,
0.06905930489301682,
-0.0802745446562767,
0.593477189540863,
-0.7215947508811951,
0.08699387311935425,
-0.18444696068763733,
0.24346499145030975,
-0.5980966091156006,
-0.03115002065896988,
0.09888844937086105,
0.8269297480583191,
0.044043585658073425,
-0.6324790716171265,
0.2178630828857422,
0.5628024339675903,
0.34046831727027893,
0.5404860973358154,
-0.3970704972743988,
0.4498205780982971,
-0.013834887184202671,
-0.11235406994819641,
0.12504714727401733,
0.18170173466205597,
-0.24437512457370758,
0.24606719613075256,
-0.625963568687439,
0.2225901037454605,
0.06738380342721939,
0.1634734869003296,
-0.34344592690467834,
0.21751074492931366,
-0.2812085747718811,
-0.518783688545227,
-0.19911880791187286,
-0.18456397950649261,
0.08027208596467972,
-0.1315855085849762,
0.8065948486328125,
0.32413679361343384,
-0.5141270756721497,
-0.42742443084716797,
0.4753338098526001,
-0.34939754009246826,
-0.03166300803422928,
0.30092117190361023,
0.5001392960548401,
0.04874586686491966,
-0.026986222714185715,
-1.1060971021652222,
0.11209525913000107,
-0.2031371146440506,
0.15093664824962616,
-0.09431829303503036,
0.640210747718811,
-0.14322024583816528,
0.7414421439170837,
0.7200285196304321,
0.37899336218833923,
-0.5459991097450256,
-0.5004953742027283,
0.6916216611862183,
0.10949984937906265,
-0.08392547070980072,
-0.3531264364719391,
-0.5660772919654846,
0.317258358001709,
0.10070246458053589,
-0.3102182149887085,
0.10358816385269165,
0.16530576348304749,
-0.5294913649559021,
0.2426479458808899,
-0.08315294981002808,
-0.01633242331445217,
-0.5477837920188904,
0.6562061905860901,
0.06069735065102577,
0.47059866786003113,
-0.17866168916225433,
-0.5006442070007324,
0.21657119691371918,
0.027752317488193512,
0.47853514552116394,
-0.12204227596521378,
0.60954749584198,
0.5238329172134399,
-0.19642610847949982,
0.1088578850030899,
-0.14025965332984924,
0.7528725266456604,
0.05210064351558685,
-0.025985997170209885,
-0.5301969647407532,
-0.7751517295837402,
0.678432822227478,
-0.51590496301651,
0.10985657572746277,
-0.5186925530433655,
0.17901043593883514,
-0.04199156537652016
] |
200281
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20Shigao
|
An Shigao
|
An Shigao (, Korean: An Sego, Japanese: An Seikō, Vietnamese: An Thế Cao) (fl. c. 148-180 CE) was an early Buddhist missionary to China, and the earliest known translator of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia, nicknamed the "Parthian Marquess", who renounced his claim to the royal throne of Parthia in order to serve as a Buddhist missionary monk in China.
Origins
The prefix An in An Shigao's name has raised many questions and hypotheses as to his origin and story. Some believe that it is an abbreviation of Anxi, the Chinese name given to the regions ruled by the Parthian Empire. Most visitors from that country who took a Chinese name received the An prefix to indicate their origin in Anxi.It is still unknown whether he was a monk or layperson or whether he should be considered a follower of the Sarvāstivāda or Mahāyāna, though affiliation with these two groups need not be viewed as mutually exclusive. The unresolved mystery of who An Shigao was is studied in the academic work of Antonino Forte.
An Shigao migrated eastward into China, settling at the Han capital of Luoyang in 148 CE, where he produced a substantial number of translations of Indian Buddhist texts and attracted a devoted community of followers. More than a dozen works by An Shigao are currently extant, including texts dealing with meditation, abhidharma, and basic Buddhist doctrines. An Shigao's corpus does not contain any Mahāyāna scriptures, though he himself is regularly referred to as a "bodhisattva" in early Chinese sources. Scholarly studies of his translations have shown that they are most closely affiliated with the Sarvāstivāda school.
Works
In Erik Zürcher's pioneering studies of the works attributed to An Shigao, he uses both the information provided by later Chinese catalogues and internal stylistic evidence to conclude that only sixteen of the nearly two hundred translations attributed to him by later Chinese catalogues may be regarded as authentic. Stefano Zacchetti has proposed, in light of recent research, that thirteen of the sixteen texts originally listed by Zürcher can be reliably ascribed to An Shigao. These thirteen are (listed by Taishō number):
T 13 Chang Ahan shi bao fa jing 長阿含十報法經
T 14 Ren ben yu sheng jing 人本欲生經
T 31 Yiqie liu sheshou yin jing 一切流攝守因經
T 32 Si di jing 四諦經
T 36 Ben xiang yi zhi jing 本相猗致經
T 48 Shi fa fei fa jing 是法非法經
T 57 Lou fenbu jing 漏分佈經
T 98 Pu fa yi jing 普法義經
T 112 Ba zheng dao jing 八正道經
T 150a Qi chu san guan jing 七處三觀經
T 603 Yin chi ru jing 陰持入經
T 607 Dao di jing 道地經
T 1508 Ahan koujie shi'er yinyuan jing 阿含口解十二因緣經
The remaining three translations enumerated by Zürcher that (according to Zacchetti) should be reconsidered are:
T 602 Da anban shouyi jing 大安般守意經
T 605 Chan xing fa xiang jing 禪行法想經
T 792 Fa shou chen jing 法受塵經
Recent scholarship has proposed a number of additional texts that may be attributed to An Shigao. Paul Harrison has provided evidence that An Shigao translated the previously anonymous collection of saṃyuktāgama sutras, Za ahan jing (Taishō 101). Stefano Zacchetti has suggested that, though initially considered inauthentic according to Zürcher's conservative criteria, Taishō 1557, Apitan wu fa xing jing , may indeed be the work of An Shigao.
Two manuscripts discovered by Kajiura Susumu in 1999 in the collection of the Kongōji in Osaka Prefecture, Japan, present four heretofore unknown works which, based on their apparent antiquity, may be attributable to An Shigao. The first three of these texts are related to meditation practices such as ānāpānasmṛti ("mindfulness of breathing") and the "twelve gates". The fourth appears to be a record of an oral commentary on topics covered in the preceding texts.
Another Anxi translator, a layman named An Xuan, was a disciple of An Shigao. An Xuan also worked in Luoyang (together with a Chinese collaborator, Yan Fotiao), producing a translation of a Mahāyāna scripture, the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra (in Chinese, the Fajing jing, Taishō no. 322) c. 181 CE.
See also
Lokaksema
Persian Buddhism
References
Further reading
E. Zürcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China. Leiden, 1959.
J. Nattier, A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations: Texts from the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms Periods Bibliotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica, Vol. X. The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, 2008.
A. Cotterell, From Aristotle to Zoroaster. 1998.
Richard Foltz, Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present, London: Oneworld, 2013.
Phra Kiattisak Kittipanyo (2014), Mission, Meditation and Miracles: An Shigao in Chinese Tradition, MA thesis, Dunedin, NZ: University of Otago
2nd-century Buddhist monks
Buddhist monks from the Western Regions
Han dynasty Buddhist monks
Parthian princes
Iranian Buddhists
Buddhist missionaries
2nd-century Iranian people
|
[
-0.3614220917224884,
-0.012444086372852325,
-0.41852450370788574,
-0.3296709954738617,
-0.22397814691066742,
0.1756061464548111,
0.13690006732940674,
0.1416126787662506,
-0.4721733033657074,
0.39723077416419983,
-0.11716397851705551,
0.33138197660446167,
-0.00745221134275198,
0.25017109513282776,
0.0567939318716526,
0.11658912152051926,
0.6170198321342468,
0.3860730528831482,
0.19142059981822968,
-0.6011838316917419,
-0.1841275990009308,
-0.5301288962364197,
0.015153626911342144,
-0.2663302421569824,
0.30817848443984985,
-0.17237383127212524,
0.09470390528440475,
0.3321457505226135,
0.6214872002601624,
-0.03673067316412926,
-0.29411575198173523,
0.7390432953834534,
0.137415811419487,
-0.4035499393939972,
0.3385215401649475,
0.04021122679114342,
0.05245804041624069,
-0.310248464345932,
-0.3097214102745056,
-0.08309324085712433,
-0.33063942193984985,
0.22620806097984314,
0.44144928455352783,
0.6206144690513611,
-0.16441448032855988,
-0.6143447756767273,
-1.4576656818389893,
0.3932077884674072,
-0.3407335877418518,
0.34667181968688965,
-0.4212491810321808,
0.3184528648853302,
0.016734670847654343,
-0.20721156895160675,
-0.3435700237751007,
0.9011543393135071,
-0.880622148513794,
-0.05479348823428154,
0.27558693289756775,
-0.4293467700481415,
0.6517893671989441,
-0.13731339573860168,
0.3019571900367737,
0.4581160247325897,
-0.20771294832229614,
0.6170203685760498,
-0.3277769982814789,
0.15225470066070557,
0.0001666921889409423,
-0.006708172615617514,
0.4113512635231018,
0.2995063364505768,
0.17334459722042084,
-0.015707485377788544,
-0.4944905638694763,
-0.30329737067222595,
-0.573202908039093,
-0.4471900761127472,
0.3771100640296936,
0.274985671043396,
0.3006993234157562,
-0.5158880352973938,
0.4188607335090637,
-0.21816101670265198,
0.262994647026062,
0.10611607134342194,
-0.3038994371891022,
-0.06635705381631851,
-0.7081825733184814,
0.48244401812553406,
-0.022183625027537346,
-0.017000263556838036,
0.42588335275650024,
0.2253263145685196,
-0.04342922568321228,
0.14210157096385956,
-0.07818550616502762,
0.8216965198516846,
0.4764024317264557,
-0.15787075459957123,
-0.5230588316917419,
0.6976165771484375,
0.27584949135780334,
0.15910597145557404,
-0.8236181139945984,
-0.09943153709173203,
-0.4968893826007843,
-0.4052330553531647,
-0.05324679613113403,
-0.42754092812538147,
-0.30470728874206543,
0.43098896741867065,
0.3351409435272217,
0.28653785586357117,
-0.7166329622268677,
-0.18900495767593384,
0.27891477942466736,
-0.016556261107325554,
0.4763193130493164,
0.11158325523138046,
0.5151810050010681,
0.5437348484992981,
-0.1775023192167282,
0.10373471677303314,
0.14323829114437103,
-0.19764913618564606,
-0.20686399936676025,
0.25032612681388855,
-0.4295954704284668,
0.3796468675136566,
0.3517068922519684,
0.5379330515861511,
-0.34858036041259766,
0.2711544334888458,
0.04175122082233429,
-0.26632294058799744,
0.09285707771778107,
0.05618644878268242,
0.5564984679222107,
0.20359580218791962,
-1.3795037269592285,
0.5070229172706604,
-1.2580019235610962,
0.375693142414093,
0.3645005226135254,
0.6303938627243042,
-0.9000484347343445,
-0.2903892397880554,
-0.253145307302475,
-0.32827669382095337,
-0.2952941060066223,
-0.1712077111005783,
0.24065537750720978,
0.6701818108558655,
-0.5773272514343262,
-0.015112574212253094,
-0.1763692945241928,
-0.03692584112286568,
0.18807169795036316,
-0.208845317363739,
0.024366116151213646,
0.12626250088214874,
0.11523765325546265,
0.21241724491119385,
0.3545995056629181,
-0.09455499798059464,
0.4035628139972687,
0.3988734185695648,
-0.4348624050617218,
0.15333250164985657,
-0.2916029393672943,
0.13243761658668518,
0.549470067024231,
-0.19201432168483734,
0.04122207313776016,
0.28670039772987366,
0.3573070466518402,
0.24942947924137115,
0.09891407936811447,
0.09141356498003006,
-0.6713684797286987,
0.4956265985965729,
0.2580481171607971,
-0.10470255464315414,
0.2921629548072815,
0.4457296133041382,
0.5327105522155762,
0.2440166175365448,
0.47783997654914856,
0.5066304206848145,
-0.2336074709892273,
-0.3223961591720581,
-0.09968641400337219,
0.275247186422348,
0.6576308012008667,
0.04769472777843475,
0.0643121749162674,
0.14615412056446075,
0.4601883590221405,
0.7674660682678223,
-0.20815497636795044,
-0.3486681878566742,
0.16425929963588715,
0.27001944184303284,
-0.698991596698761,
0.8551254868507385,
0.35921511054039,
0.2306048721075058,
0.6984365582466125,
-0.05351395159959793,
-0.18064363300800323,
-0.6001068949699402,
0.42085525393486023,
-0.5449731945991516,
-0.18257829546928406,
-0.14780744910240173,
-0.14609694480895996,
-0.23136715590953827,
-0.2946961522102356,
-0.16998621821403503,
0.3882794678211212,
0.12210182845592499,
-0.42888233065605164,
0.6388534903526306,
-0.22631767392158508,
0.6774418354034424,
0.5424852967262268,
-0.32243895530700684,
0.06210920587182045,
-0.6551827192306519,
0.2489691823720932,
-0.08557195216417313,
-0.07155640423297882,
-0.06766758859157562,
-0.2110588550567627,
0.22403328120708466,
0.24385236203670502,
-0.12289974838495255,
0.5507822036743164,
-0.6054291725158691,
0.020839056000113487,
0.32736021280288696,
0.050934940576553345,
0.4795190989971161,
0.013385380618274212,
0.25715675950050354,
-0.10670757293701172,
0.1300821453332901,
0.1778641641139984,
-0.19924888014793396,
0.07295454293489456,
0.3753260374069214,
0.13591919839382172,
-0.053499430418014526,
-0.06663502007722855,
-0.8095259070396423,
-0.2840560972690582,
0.22073717415332794,
0.05378802493214607,
-0.487782746553421,
-0.75035160779953,
0.32058045268058777,
0.47680020332336426,
0.11850283294916153,
0.2716236710548401,
-0.33803242444992065,
-0.12084707617759705,
-0.5107539892196655,
0.6675789952278137,
0.11330597847700119,
-0.19678516685962677,
0.11509571969509125,
-0.12469004094600677,
-0.9473375678062439,
-0.4229983985424042,
-0.1435440480709076,
0.10861015319824219,
-0.05944843590259552,
-0.6929613351821899,
-0.28066304326057434,
0.12976054847240448,
0.38236162066459656,
0.13538210093975067,
-0.6207287907600403,
0.17551597952842712,
-0.5259785652160645,
-0.006289138458669186,
-0.21932609379291534,
-0.2482372224330902,
0.01678607240319252,
-0.10673311352729797,
-0.2610625624656677,
-0.16502344608306885,
0.15447045862674713,
-0.02587122470140457,
0.2921537458896637,
-0.193012997508049,
0.34494638442993164,
-0.01187987718731165,
-0.4347665011882782,
-0.508456289768219,
0.02220575325191021,
-0.22698979079723358,
0.21646742522716522,
0.4016961455345154,
0.3608851134777069,
-0.2958923876285553,
0.4707872271537781,
-6.004042625427246,
0.15144170820713043,
-0.25099271535873413,
0.3553259074687958,
-0.15975643694400787,
-0.09456287324428558,
0.16131941974163055,
-0.43279650807380676,
-0.0038186905439943075,
-0.5874097347259521,
-0.45806819200515747,
0.2601861357688904,
0.028545940294861794,
0.39294931292533875,
-0.06766493618488312,
0.36448532342910767,
0.00581314554437995,
0.2317933738231659,
-0.21009916067123413,
-0.16429275274276733,
-0.5183143615722656,
0.7299434542655945,
-0.46521708369255066,
0.6438736915588379,
-0.07141491025686264,
0.43649694323539734,
-0.21138101816177368,
-0.15271998941898346,
-0.4966138005256653,
-0.04607902839779854,
-0.46052104234695435,
-0.2581351697444916,
0.11022390425205231,
-0.00011862991959787905,
-0.2231098711490631,
0.12879876792430878,
0.4746326208114624,
-0.061766862869262695,
0.4003029465675354,
0.14503584802150726,
-0.10315678268671036,
-0.0522361658513546,
0.0015785384457558393,
0.6628866791725159,
0.11162841320037842,
-0.6412326097488403,
-0.3146427869796753,
0.010050718672573566,
0.0810069665312767,
0.1868092268705368,
0.03483567759394646,
-0.23252879083156586,
0.3573005795478821,
-0.26685401797294617,
0.06718342751264572,
0.5209025144577026,
0.42438367009162903,
-0.26641538739204407,
-0.009493573568761349,
-0.2744781970977783,
0.35532301664352417,
-0.24537727236747742,
-0.4850962162017822,
-0.1191786676645279,
0.2813127934932709,
-0.07120009511709213,
0.47235769033432007,
0.0934821143746376,
0.5213216543197632,
0.20694096386432648,
-0.32682862877845764,
0.4113357961177826,
-0.4098922610282898,
-1.1224515438079834,
-0.1931873857975006,
-0.05176018923521042,
-0.615829586982727,
0.1865987628698349,
-0.04099370539188385,
0.45715686678886414,
-0.05001060664653778,
0.03370634466409683,
-0.006731321103870869,
0.6454918384552002,
0.1031828448176384,
-0.5651398301124573,
0.3890499174594879,
0.37349486351013184,
0.05871008709073067,
0.4737568795681,
0.2611698806285858,
0.10129015147686005,
0.6509178280830383,
0.11725060641765594,
0.5605249404907227,
0.5105545520782471,
0.2047187238931656,
-0.24742569029331207,
0.7204961180686951,
-0.6337887048721313,
0.5557305812835693,
-0.20027127861976624,
0.1803562492132187,
-0.3532034158706665,
-0.4521539807319641,
-0.016672378405928612,
0.05091211944818497,
0.6250958442687988,
0.650801420211792,
0.19881866872310638,
0.14328160881996155,
0.2025696039199829,
-0.3145025372505188,
-0.09439677745103836,
0.7350115776062012,
0.07025652378797531,
-0.011750973761081696,
0.21219854056835175,
0.14781388640403748,
-0.03136603161692619,
0.2502422034740448,
0.9103738069534302,
-0.18070752918720245,
-0.44986578822135925,
-0.16988295316696167,
-0.3062659502029419,
-0.052903808653354645,
-0.07780800014734268,
-0.4601769745349884,
0.4241946339607239,
-0.10011797398328781,
-0.5917264819145203,
0.167472705245018,
0.15333768725395203,
0.07187479734420776,
-0.8311108350753784,
-0.6787256598472595,
-0.7918840050697327,
-0.22155383229255676,
-0.5250838994979858,
-0.20833690464496613,
-0.06216645613312721,
-0.194166362285614,
0.5368672013282776,
-0.2536484897136688,
0.46122217178344727,
-0.4042114019393921,
-0.04223419725894928,
-0.22129161655902863,
0.5546192526817322,
-0.1407390683889389,
-0.8843686580657959,
0.04463845118880272,
-0.5067716836929321,
-0.6719663143157959,
-0.07331569492816925,
-0.19790634512901306,
0.31183162331581116,
0.3276890814304352,
0.13986524939537048,
-0.12644235789775848,
-0.4675366282463074,
-0.9803686738014221,
-0.3732604384422302,
0.14600807428359985,
-0.7118843197822571,
0.29813751578330994,
-0.1708192378282547,
-0.3872168958187103,
0.6658902764320374,
-0.08958951383829117,
-0.44303232431411743,
-0.31282374262809753,
-0.012804057449102402,
0.38370510935783386,
0.021630382165312767,
0.47761279344558716,
0.14083980023860931,
-0.09699222445487976,
-0.2957315444946289,
-0.015431034378707409,
0.22233501076698303,
-0.14073389768600464,
0.5364951491355896,
0.23926079273223877,
-0.34997090697288513,
-0.3123202323913574,
-0.23339825868606567,
-0.39380690455436707,
0.4538845717906952,
0.18732385337352753,
0.14206117391586304,
0.014343705959618092,
0.6676202416419983,
-0.37564367055892944,
-0.167028546333313,
-0.14058814942836761,
0.902137041091919,
0.14604085683822632,
0.2799816131591797,
0.17141927778720856,
-0.04729693382978439,
-0.5693446397781372,
0.34876522421836853,
-0.2219213992357254,
-0.5188544988632202,
0.5694164037704468,
-0.18465392291545868,
-0.08899413049221039,
0.08701954782009125,
0.27545440196990967,
-1.0428084135055542,
0.2916303873062134,
0.510009229183197,
-0.06142845004796982,
0.16844482719898224,
0.05817730352282524,
0.2825024425983429,
-0.2878568172454834,
-0.8768255114555359,
-0.13566100597381592,
-0.5518620610237122,
-0.5742852091789246,
-0.5553479194641113,
-0.369706392288208,
0.5695538520812988,
0.22316838800907135,
0.17947575449943542,
0.19047316908836365,
0.049328602850437164,
0.15177218616008759,
0.09520404040813446,
0.2818268835544586,
-0.041255831718444824,
0.1444462090730667,
-0.19004352390766144,
-0.17908614873886108,
-0.388518750667572,
0.13583150506019592,
0.2540753483772278,
0.5742764472961426,
0.62251877784729,
0.006441069301217794,
0.05888192355632782,
-0.7929242849349976,
0.20163367688655853,
-0.034110598266124725,
-0.44437065720558167,
-0.4945780038833618,
-0.0801737830042839,
0.25920388102531433,
-0.24562755227088928,
-0.5195208787918091,
-0.15303005278110504,
0.9030081629753113,
-0.45752081274986267,
0.2810569703578949,
0.46408000588417053,
-0.0976923257112503,
0.3327683210372925,
-0.0013022184139117599,
0.4629608690738678,
-0.10601814836263657,
0.09705588966608047,
-0.23433861136436462,
-0.2005062699317932,
-0.5949161052703857,
-0.2400480955839157,
-0.008077478967607021,
-0.27395081520080566,
-0.14940044283866882,
-0.1423484981060028,
0.5039427280426025,
0.47994115948677063,
0.1510232836008072,
0.12330277264118195,
-0.5839524865150452,
-0.1294131577014923,
-0.33610114455223083,
0.04168935865163803,
-0.5765882134437561,
-0.13406504690647125,
-0.2744084596633911,
-0.21714068949222565,
0.0034696590155363083,
-0.07803478091955185,
-0.15560267865657806,
-0.046533867716789246,
-0.023750783875584602,
-0.2258681207895279,
-0.012128029949963093,
-0.21692396700382233,
-0.0801028162240982,
0.04708818718791008,
0.23554405570030212,
0.4391545355319977,
-0.05728862062096596,
0.10729218274354935,
-0.2659129202365875,
0.08454924076795578,
-1.525087594985962,
0.3392780125141144,
0.29650431871414185,
-0.09574241191148758,
0.18804147839546204,
-0.11201313883066177,
0.16513074934482574,
-0.2321271300315857,
-0.7383714914321899,
0.36333778500556946,
0.08581272512674332,
0.40722331404685974,
-0.3502954840660095,
0.7220378518104553,
0.1843457818031311,
-0.08428315073251724,
0.0605739988386631,
-0.26357167959213257,
-0.02381247654557228,
0.5284232497215271,
0.7365677356719971,
-0.3683815896511078,
0.0844469666481018,
0.47407907247543335,
0.12182486057281494,
-0.18247337639331818,
-0.6886908411979675,
-0.09031166881322861,
0.1972329467535019,
0.45809754729270935,
0.33558711409568787,
-0.182192862033844,
0.05642247572541237,
0.024143816903233528,
-0.17878437042236328,
-0.2512805163860321,
0.21644307672977448,
-0.6346612572669983,
-0.08141376823186874,
0.23840051889419556,
0.6205297708511353,
0.46893957257270813,
0.06970157474279404,
-0.3613838851451874,
0.428661972284317,
-0.39145758748054504,
-0.15584783256053925,
-0.10295810550451279,
0.05421711504459381,
-0.35332775115966797,
0.48448115587234497,
0.061419181525707245,
0.9296782612800598,
-0.5792267322540283,
0.13413040339946747,
0.3697684705257416,
-0.3588337302207947,
-0.34507521986961365,
-0.014520574361085892,
-0.10606195032596588,
-0.19684049487113953,
0.6228585839271545,
-0.2346729040145874,
0.2361283302307129,
-0.3059666156768799,
0.08784598112106323,
-0.22932277619838715,
-0.33934617042541504,
-0.14866244792938232,
0.38365650177001953,
0.3397519588470459,
-0.4429376423358917,
0.07367391139268875,
0.5656151175498962,
0.41624465584754944,
0.2038937509059906,
-0.054847367107868195,
0.32384300231933594,
-0.1850026696920395,
-0.04864288493990898,
-0.2794085144996643,
0.24178436398506165,
0.2603984773159027,
-0.2549513876438141,
0.5628323554992676,
-0.01565304771065712,
0.1180340126156807,
-0.06404849886894226,
-0.5039024949073792,
0.43085452914237976,
-0.2785705327987671,
0.07871340215206146,
-0.6184321641921997,
0.12354309856891632,
0.12248528748750687,
-0.15190885961055756,
-0.3838232755661011,
0.3198282718658447,
0.23025429248809814,
0.08600575476884842,
-0.1596325933933258,
0.368692547082901,
-0.09744121879339218,
0.5910810828208923,
-0.2902113199234009,
0.3722318708896637,
-0.25355324149131775,
0.27281326055526733,
-0.46274563670158386,
0.25286850333213806,
0.4556480646133423,
0.44459789991378784,
-0.054416727274656296,
0.683714747428894,
-0.07476475834846497,
-0.09147145599126816,
0.6423895359039307,
-0.40972408652305603,
-0.01887061633169651,
-0.5998663306236267,
0.02304353378713131,
-0.40250274538993835,
-0.11823256313800812,
0.18682628870010376,
-0.1547439843416214,
-0.13963498175144196,
0.03812311217188835,
-0.1469338983297348,
-0.09093111753463745,
0.4175099730491638,
-0.04990095645189285,
0.013175430707633495,
-0.27255842089653015,
0.16089914739131927,
-0.7115769982337952,
-0.3270133435726166,
0.13220834732055664,
0.67378169298172,
-0.10130433738231659,
-0.02144690230488777,
0.2977404296398163,
-0.20864816009998322,
-0.20690929889678955,
-0.018004557117819786,
-0.410333514213562,
-0.49921780824661255,
-0.25353288650512695,
-0.5455455183982849,
0.1800200641155243,
0.06559564918279648,
0.12455661594867706,
-0.4288310408592224,
0.34466660022735596,
-0.03275085240602493,
-0.47271811962127686,
-0.29418236017227173,
-0.11024942249059677,
-0.27455541491508484,
0.11026322096586227,
0.09830010682344437
] |
200282
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalanda
|
Nalanda
|
Nalanda (, ) was a renowned Buddhist monastic university in ancient Magadha (modern-day Bihar), India. Considered by historians to be the world's very first residential university, and among the greatest centers of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now Rajgir) and about southeast of Pataliputra (now Patna), operating from 427 to 1197 CE. Nalanda was established during the Gupta Empire era, and was supported by numerous Indian and Javanese patrons – both Buddhists and non-Buddhists. Over some 750 years, its faculty included some of the most revered scholars of Mahayana Buddhism. Nalanda Mahavihara taught six major Buddhist schools and philosophies such as Yogacara and Sarvastivada as well as subjects such as grammar, medicine, logic and mathematics. The university was also a major source of the 657 Sanskrit texts carried by pilgrim Xuanzang and the 400 Sanskrit texts carried by Yijing to China in the 7th-century, which influenced East Asian Buddhism. Many of the texts composed at Nalanda played an important role in the development of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism including the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra of Shantideva. It was sacked and destroyed by the troops of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, partly restored thereafter, and continued to exist till about 1400 CE. Today, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In 2010, the Government of India passed a resolution to revive the famous university, and a contemporary institute, Nalanda University, was established at Rajgir. It has been listed as an "Institute of National Importance" by the government.
Location
Nalanda is about north of the city of Rajgir and about southeast of Patna, connected via NH 31, 20 and 120 to India's highway network. It is about northeast of Bodhgaya – another important Buddhist site in Bihar. The Nalanda archaeological site is spread over a large area to the northwest of Bargaon (Nalanda) village, and is between the historical manmade lakes Gidhi, Panashokar and Indrapuskarani. On the south bank of the Indrapushkarani lake is the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara – a university founded in its memory.
Etymology
According to the early 7th-century Tang Dynasty Chinese pilgrim, Xuanzang, the local tradition explains that the name (Hindi/Magahi: नालन्दा) came from a Naga – serpent deity in Indian religions – whose name was Nalanda. He offers an alternate meaning "charity without intermission", from "na-alam-da"; however, this split does not mean this. Hiranand Sastri, an archaeologist who headed the excavation of the ruins, attributes the name to the abundance of (lotus-stalks) in the area and believes that Nalanda would then represent the giver of lotus-stalks.
In some Tibetan sources, including the 17th-century work of Taranatha, Nalanda is referred to as Nalendra, and is likely synonymous with Nala, Nalaka, Nalakagrama found in Tibetan literature.
History
Early History ( 1200 BCE–300 CE)
The history of Nalanda in the 1st-millennium BCE is linked to the nearby city of Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) – the capital of Magadha and on the trade routes of ancient India. Early Buddhist texts state that Buddha visited a town near Rajagriha called Nalanda on his preregrinations. He delivered lectures in a nearby mango grove named Pavarika and one of his two chief disciples, Shariputra, was born in the area and later attained nirvana there. These Buddhist texts were written down centuries after the death of the Buddha, are not consistent in either the name or the relative location. For example, texts such as the Mahasudassana Jataka states that Nalaka or Nalakagrama is about a yojana (10 miles) from Rajagriha, while texts such as Mahavastu call the place Nalanda-gramaka and place it half a yojana away. A Buddhist text Nikayasamgraha does state that emperor Ashoka established a vihara (monastery) at Nalanda. However, archaeological excavations so far have not yielded any monuments from Ashoka period or from another 600 years after his death.
The Jaina text Sutrakritanga in chapter 2.7 states that Nalanda is a "suburb" of capital Rajagriha, has numerous buildings, and this is where Mahavira (6th/5th century BCE) spent fourteen varshas – a term that refers to a traditional retreat during monsoons for the monks in Indian religions. This is corroborated in the Kalpasutra, another cherished text in Jainism. However, other than the mention of Nalanda, Jaina texts do not provide further details, nor were they written down for nearly a millennium after Mahavira's death. Like the Buddhist texts, this has raised questions about reliability and whether the current Nalanda is same as the one in Jaina texts. According to Scharfe, though the Buddhist and Jaina texts generate problems with place identification, it is "virtually certain" that the modern Nalanda is near or the site these texts are referring to.
Archaeological excavations at sites near Nalanda, such as the Juafardih site about 3 kilometers away, have yielded black ware and other items. These have been carbon dated to about 1200 BCE. This suggests that the region around Nalanda in Magadha had a human settlement centuries before the birth of the Mahavira and the Buddha.
Faxian visit (399–412 CE)
Faxian, also referred to as Fa-hsien, was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk who came to India to acquire Buddhist texts and left a travelogue. He spent 10 years in India in early 5th-century, inspired other Chinese and Korean Buddhists to visit India over the centuries, and visited major Buddhist pilgrimage sites including Nalanda area. He mentions many Buddhist monasteries and monuments across India. However, he makes no mention of any monastery or university at Nalanda even though he was looking for Sanskrit texts and took a large number of them from other parts of India back to China. Combined with a lack of any archaeological discoveries of pre-400 CE monuments in Nalanda, the silence in Faxian memoir suggests that Nalanda monastery-university did not exist around 400 CE.
Foundation, Gupta dynasty (300–550 CE)
Nalanda's datable history begins in the 5th-century. A seal discovered at the site identifies a monarch named Shakraditya () as its founder and attributes the foundation of a sangharama (monastery) at the site to him. This is corroborated by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang travelogue. In the Indian tradition and texts, kings were called by many epithets and names. Scholars such as Andrea Pinkney and Hartmut Scharfe conclude that Shakraditya is same as Kumaragupta I. He was one of the kings in the Hindu dynasty of the Guptas. Further, numismatic evidence discovered at Nalanda corroborate that Kumaragupta I was the founder patron of the Nalanda monastery-university.
His successors, Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and Vajra, later extended and expanded the institution by building additional monasteries and temples. Nalanda, thus flourished through the 5th and 6th-centuries under the Guptas. These Gupta-era contributions to Nalanda are corroborated by the numerous Buddhist and Hindu seals, artwork, iconography and inscriptions discovered at Nalanda, which are in the Gupta-style and Gupta-era scripts. During this period, the Gupta kings were not the only patrons of Nalanda. They reflect a broad and religiously-diverse community of supporters. It is remarkable, states Scharfe, that "many donors were not Buddhists; the emblems on their seals show Lakshmi, Ganesha, Shivalinga and Durga".
Post-Gupta dynasty (550–600 CE)
After the decline of the Guptas, the most notable patron of the Nalanda Mahavihara was Harsha (known as Śīlāditya in some Buddhist records). He was the 7th-century emperor with capital at Kannauj (Kanyakubja). According to Xuanzang, Harsha was a third generation Hindu king from the Vaishya caste, who built majestic Buddhist viharas, as well as three majestic temples – Buddha, Surya and Shiva, all of the same size. He states (c. 637 CE), "a long succession of kings" had built up Nalanda till "the whole is truly marvellous to behold".
In accordance with the ancient Indian traditions of supporting temples and monasteries, inscriptions found at Nalanda suggest that it received gifts, including grants of villages by kings to support the operation of Nalanda. Harsha himself granted 100 villages. He also directed 200 households from each these villages to supply the institution's monks with requisite daily supplies such as of rice, butter, and milk. This supported over 1,500 faculty and 10,000 student monks at Nalanda. These numbers, however, may be exaggerated. They are inconsistent with the much lower numbers (over 3000) given by I-tsing, another Chinese pilgrim who visited Nalanda a few decades later. According to Asher, while the Nalanda excavated site is large and number of viharas so far found are impressive, they simply cannot support 10,000 or more student monks. The total number of known rooms and their small size is such that the number of monks must have been far less than Xuanzang's claims or the Nalanda site was many times larger than numerous excavations have so far discovered and what Xuanzang describes.
Xuanzang Visit (630–643 CE)
Xuanzang (also known as Hiuen Tsang) travelled around India between the years of 630 and 643 CE, and visited Nalanda first in 637 and then again in 642, spending a total of around two years at the monastery. He was warmly welcomed in Nalanda where he received the Indian name of Mokshadeva and studied under the guidance of Shilabhadra, the venerable head of the institution at the time. He believed that the aim of his arduous overland journey to India had been achieved as in Shilabhadra he had at last found an incomparable teacher to instruct him in Yogachara, a school of thought that had then only partially been transmitted to China. Besides Buddhist studies, the monk also attended courses in grammar, logic, and Sanskrit, and later also lectured at the Mahavihara.
In the detailed account of his stay at Nalanda, the pilgrim describes the view out of the window of his quarters thus,
Xuanzang returned to China with 657 Sanskrit texts and 150 relics carried by 20 horses in 520 cases. He translated 74 of the texts himself.
Yijing Visit (673–700 CE)
In the thirty years following Xuanzang's return, no fewer than eleven travellers from China and Korea are known to have visited famed Nalanda. On of these was Yijing, also known as I-tsing. Unlike Faxian and Xuanzang, Yijing followed the sea route through Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka. He arrived in 673 CE, and stayed in India for fourteen years, ten of which he spent at the Nalanda Mahavihara. When he returned to China in 695, he had with him 400 Sanskrit texts and 300 grains of Buddha relics which were subsequently translated in China.
Unlike his predecessor, Xuanzang, who also describes the geography and culture of 7th-century India, Yijing's account primarily concentrates on the practice of Buddhism in India and detailed descriptions of the customs, rules, and regulations of the monks at the monastery. In his chronicle, Yijing notes that revenues from 200 villages (as opposed to 100 in Xuanzang's time) had been assigned toward the maintenance of Nalanda. He described there being eight vihara with as many as 300 cells. According to him, Nalanda monastery has numerous daily Nikaya procedures and rules for the monks. He gives many examples. In one subsection he explains that the monastery has ten great pools. The morning begins with the ghanta (bell) being rung. Monks take their bathing sheets and go to one of these pools. They bathe with their underwear on, then get out slowly to avoid disturbing anyone else. They wipe their bodies, then wrap this 5 foot long and 1.5 foot wide sheet around the waist, change their clothes with this wrap in place. Then rinse, wring and dry the sheet. The entire procedure, says Yijing, is explained in the Buddhist Nikaya procedures. The day must begin with bathing, but bathing after meals is forbidden. The Nalanda Nikaya has many such daily procedures and rituals set out for the monks to follow.
Korean and Tibetan pilgrims (650–1400 CE)
In addition to Chinese pilgrims, Buddhist pilgrims from Korea also visited India about the same time as Xuanzang and Yingji. The Chinese travelogues about India became known in the 19th-century and have been well published. After mid-20th century, the Korean pilgrim journeys have come to light. For example, monks such as Kyom-ik began visiting Indian monasteries by the mid 6th-century. They too carried Indian texts and translated them, producing 72 chuan of translated texts. In mid 7th-century, the Silla (Korean: 신라) monk Hyon-jo visited and stayed at several Indian monasteries, including three years at Nalanda, his visit corroborated by Yingji. He sent his students Hye-ryun and Hyon-gak to Nalanda for studies, the latter died at Nalanda. They adopted Indian names to interact with the fellow students; for example, Hye-ryun was known as Prajnavarman and it is this name that is found in the records. According to Korean records, monks visited India through the ninth century – despite arduous travel challenges – to study at various monasteries, and Nalanda was the most revered.
In and after the 7th-century, Tibetan monks such as Thonmi Sambhota came to Nalanda and other Indian monasteries to study, not only Buddhism, but Sanskrit language, grammar and other subjects. Sambhota is credited with applying the principles of Sanskrit and its grammar to remodel Tibetan language and its script. It is after Sambhota's first return from Nalanda, that the Tibetan king adopted Buddhism and committed to making it the religion of his people. Tibetan monks lived closer to Nepal, Sikkim and eastern India, with simpler travel itinerary than the Koreans and others. Tibetans continued to visit Magadha during the Pala era, and beyond through the 14th-century, thereby participated in the crucible of ideas at Nalanda and other monasteries in Bihar and Bengal. However, after the 8th-century, it was the esoteric mandala and deities-driven Vajrayana Buddhism that increasingly dominated the exchange. After the Islamic conquest, the destruction and the demise of Nalanda, other monasteries and Buddhist culture from the plains of Bihar and Bengal, the brand memory of "Nalanda" remained the most revered in Tibet. In 1351, Tibetans committed to recreating a monastery in the heart of Tibet, staffing it with monk-scholars from diverse Buddhist schools, and name it the "Nalanda monastery" in the honor of the ancient Nalanda, according to the Blue Annals (Tibetan: དེབ་ཐེར་སྔོན་པོ). This institution emerged north of Lhasa in 1436 through the efforts of Rongtön Mawé Sengge, then expanded in the 15th-century. It is now called the Tibetan Nalanda, to distinguish it from this site.
Pala Dynasty (750–1200 CE)
The Palas established themselves in eastern regions of India in mid-8th century and reigned until the last quarter of the 12th century. They were a Buddhist dynasty. However, under the Palas, the traditional Mahayana Buddhism of Nalanda that inspired East Asian pilgrims such as Xuanzang was superseded by the then newly emerging Vajrayana tradition, a Tantra-imbibed, eros- and deity-inclusive esoteric version of Buddhism. Nalanda continued to get support from the Palas, but they subscribed to Vajrayana Buddhism and they were prolific builders of new monasteries on Vajrayana mandala ideas such as those at Jagaddala, Odantapura, Somapura, and Vikramashila. Odantapura was founded by Gopala, the progenitor of the royal line, only from Nalanda. These competing monasteries, some just a few kilometers away from Nalanda likely drew away a number of learned monks from Nalanda.
Inscriptions, literary evidence, seals, and ruined artwork excavated at the Nalanda site suggest that Nalanda remained active and continued to thrive under the Palas. Kings Dharmapala and Devapala were active patrons. A number of 9th-century metallic statues containing references to Devapala have been found in its ruins as well as two notable inscriptions. The first, a copper plate inscription unearthed at Nalanda, details an endowment by the Shailendra King, Balaputradeva of Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra in modern-day Indonesia). This Srivijayan king, "attracted by the manifold excellences of Nalanda" had built a monastery there and had requested Devapala to grant the revenue of five villages for its upkeep, a request which was granted. The Ghosrawan inscription is the other inscription from Devapala's time and it mentions that he received and patronised a learned Vedic scholar named Viradeva who was later elected the head of Nalanda.
Inscriptions issued between the 9th- and 12th-centuries attest gifts and support to Nalanda for the upkeep of the monastery, maintenance of the monks, copying of palm leaf manuscripts (necessary for preservation given the Indian tropical climate). One inscription also mentions the destruction of a Nalanda library of manuscripts by fire, and support for its restoration. Another 10th-century inscription quotes Bhadracari of the Sautrantikas tradition, attesting the activity of diverse schools of Buddhism at Nalanda. Another Nalanda inscription from the 11th-century mentions a gift of "revolving bookcase".
While the Palas continued to patronize Nalanda liberally, the fame and influence of Nalanda helped the Palas. The Srivijaya kingdom of southeast Asia maintained a direct contact with Nalanda and the Palas, thus influencing the 9th to 12th century art in Sumatra, Java, southern Thailand and regions that actively traded with the Srivijaya kingdom. The influence extended to the Indonesian Shailendra dynasty. The Indonesian bronzes and votive tablets from this period show the creativity of its people, yet the iconographic themes overlap with those found at Nalanda and nearby region. Monks from Indonesia, Myanmar and other parts of southeast Asia came to Nalanda during the Pala rule.
Destruction under Bakhtiyar Khalji (c. 1200 CE)
The troops of the Ghurid Empire general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed and began the demise of Nalanda and other monasteries near it, such as the Odantapura Vihar (now called Bihar Sharif) about 6 miles away from Nalanda. This destruction is corroborated by three sources, which are congruent but contain uncertainties that raise some questions as well a minor dispute about the exact date. The first evidence is from a Muslim historian. The second are the records found in Tibet of Buddhist monks from 13th-century onwards. The third evidence is archaeological, where layers of charcoal deposits were discovered covering ruins, remains of the Nalanda libraries, and other damaged artworks. Buddhist studies scholars and historians such as Peter Harvey, Charles Prebish, Damien Keown, Donald Mitchell, Steven Darian, Stephen Berkwitz and others attribute Nalanda's destruction to Bakhtiyar Khalji.
The first evidence is from the Persian historian, Minhaj-i-Siraj who in his Tabaqat-i Nasiri writes of a loot and massacre near Bihar Sharif:
This record of Minhaj-i-Siraj is not an eyewitness account, but it is an account of Samsamuddin who was with Muhammad-i Bakhtiyar Khalji, and Minhaj-i-Siraj merely summarizes it. The above abridged quote refers to an attack on a Buddhist monastery (the "Bihar" or Vihara) and its monks (the shaved Brahmans). Minhaj-i-Siraj record dates it to 1193 CE, prefaces the above quoted sentences with "Khalji had already been busy a year or two in this region" before this attack, and mentions the sack of a college-monastery in the context of an Islamic conquest of Bihar Sharif region, but he does not explicitly state it was Nalanda. It could have been one of several monasteries near Nalanda. However, considering that these two Mahaviharas were only a few kilometres apart and little qualms about the massacre of clean shaven residents there, it is very likely that Minhaj-i-Siraj summary is not an extensive record and both befell a similar fate. The other great Mahaviharas of the age such as Vikramshila and later, Jagaddala, also met their ends at the hands of the Turks at around the same time.
The Tibetan records are the second source of the events at Nalanda in late 12th-century and much of the 13th-century. These were the decades of widespread systematic destruction of monasteries in this region, and historical records in Tibet affirm that monks from Nalanda and nearby monasteries such as the Vikramashila monastery who "survived the slaughter, fled to Tibet", according to Scharfe. Among the Tibetan records, the most useful is the biography of the Tibetan monk-pilgrim, Dharmasvamin discovered in 1936 and in bsdus-yig style, Tibetan script. It is useful because Dharmasvamin met the fleeing monks and famous scholars during his studies from about mid 1200s to 1226, he had learnt Indian languages and Sanskrit, he walked to and stayed in Nepal starting in 1226 and visited Bihar about 1234, including spending one monsoon season in Nalanda. He described the condition in the decades after the sack of Nalanda and other Buddhist monasteries in Magadha-region of India. His account states that the destruction of Nalanda was not an accident or misunderstanding but a part of the widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries and monuments including a destruction of Bodhgaya. The vast manuscript libraries of Magadha had been mostly lost. Other Tibetan monks and he had shifted to Nepal, as the place to study, copy and move manuscripts to Tibet. According to his account, the Turushka-Qarluq (Turk) conquest extended from about 1193 to 1205, the destruction was systematic with "Turushka soldiers razing a monastery to the ground and throwing the stones into Ganges river", states Roerich. The fear of persecution was strong in the 1230s, and his colleagues dissuaded him from going to Magadha. According to George Roerich, "his [Chag lo-tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal, Dharmasvamin] account conveys something of the anxiety of [the Buddhist community of] those days."
Chapter 10 of Dharmasvamin's biography describes Nalanda in c. 1235 CE. Dharmasvamin found it "largely damaged and deserted". Despite the perils, some had re-gathered and resumed the scholastic activities in Nalanda, but at a vastly smaller scale and with donations from a wealthy layperson named Jayadeva. His account states:
While he stayed there for six months under the tutelage of Rahula Shribhadra, Dharmasvamin makes no mention of the legendary library of Nalanda which possibly did not survive the initial wave of Turkic attacks. He also states that some structures had survived, with "eighty small viharas, built of bricks and many left undamaged" but "there was absolutely no one to look after them". He recites the arrest of their patron and lay-supporter Jayadeva by Muslim soldiers who threaten to kill him for honoring (supporting) the monks of Nalanda. Jayadeva sends them a message that the Turushka soldiers are sure to kill "Guru [Rahulasribhadra] and his disciples" and they should "flee!".
Dharmasvamin also provides an eyewitness account of an attack on the derelict Mahavihara by the Muslim soldiers stationed at nearby Odantapura (now Bihar Sharif) which had been turned into a military headquarters. Only the Tibetan and his nonagenarian instructor stayed behind and hid themselves while the rest of the monks fled. Another Tibetan source is that of Lama Taranatha, but this is from late 16th-century and it is unclear what its sources were. The Taranatha account about Buddhism in India repeats the legendary accounts of Nalanda from the Buddha and Ashoka periods found in Xuanzang and other sources, then shifts to centuries of the 2nd-millennium. It describes Islamic raids in 12th-century India, states that whole of Magadha fell to the Turushka (Turks, a common term for Muslims in historic Indic and Tibetan texts). Their armies, asserts Taranatha, destroyed Odantapuri as well as Vikramashila. Given the hundreds of years of gap between the events and Taranatha's account, and no clear chain of sources within the Tibetan tradition of record keeping, its reliability is questionable.
The third evidence is the discovery of thick layer of ashes and charcoal discovered during the archaeological excavations on the uppermost strata, inscribed artwork and soil, and this layer was found over many buildings separated by some distance. This suggests that Nalanda's destruction was accompanied with a widespread fire after mid-12th-century. This corroborates Dharmasvamin account of the destruction.
Tibetan texts such as the 18th-century work named Pag sam jon zang and 16th/17th-century Taranatha's account include fictional Tibetan legends. These include stories such as a king Cingalaraja had brought "all Hindus and Turuskas [Muslims]" up to Delhi under his control, and converted from Brahmanism to Buddhism under the influence of his queen, and he restoring the monasteries. Others state that a southern king built thousands of monasteries and temples again, Muslim robbers murdered this king, thereafter Nalanda was repaired by Mudita Bhadra and a minister named Kukutasiddha erected a temple there. One describes the tale of two angry Tirthika (Brahmanical) monks, who gain magical powers by tantric siddha, spread ashes that erupt a fire that destroyed one of Nalanda's three libraries – Ratnodadhi, but magical water poured out of a manuscript that prevented damage and learned Buddhist monks rewrote the texts that were damaged. However, there is no evidence for the existence of such a king (or sultan), minister, Muslim robbers, thousands of Buddhist monuments built in India between 13th and 19th-century, or of any significant Nalanda repairs in or after the 13th-century.
Johan Elverskog – a scholar of Religious Studies and History, states that it is incorrect to say Nalanda's end was sudden and complete by about 1202, because it continued to have some students well into the 13th-century. Elverskog, relying on Arthur Waley's 1932 paper, states that this is confirmed by the fact a monk ordained in 13th-century Nalanda traveled to the court of Khubilai Khan. He adds that it is wrong to say that Buddhism ended in India around the 13th- or 14th-century or earlier, because "[Buddha] Dharma survived in India at least until the 17th-century".
Impact of Destruction and influence on Tibetan Buddhism tradition
The last throne-holder of Nalanda, Shakyashri Bhadra of Kashmir, fled to Tibet in 1204 at the invitation of the Tibetan translator Tropu Lotsawa (Khro-phu Lo-tsa-ba Byams-pa dpal). Some of the surviving Nalanda books were taken by fleeing monks to Tibet. He took with him several Indian masters: Sugataśrī, (an expert in Madhyamaka and Prajñāpāramitā); Jayadatta (Vinaya); Vibhūticandra (grammar and Abhidharma), Dānaśīla (logic), Saṅghaśrī (Candavyākaraṇa), Jīvagupta (books of Maitreya), Mahābodhi,(Bodhicaryāvatāra); and Kālacandra (Kālacakra).
Tibetan Buddhist tradition is regarded to be a continuation of the Nalanda tradition. The Dalai Lama states:
The Dalai Lama refers to himself as a follower of the lineage of the seventeen Nalanda masters.
An Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra manuscript preserved at the Tsethang monastery has superbly painted and well preserved wooden covers and 139 leaves. According to its colophon it was donated by the mother of the great pandita Sri Asoka in the second year of the reign of King Surapala, at the very end of the 11th century.
Nalanda still continued to operate into the 14th-century as the Indian monk, Dhyānabhadra was said to have been a monk at Nalanda prior to his travels in East Asia.
Under East India Company and British Empire (1800–1947)
After its decline, Nalanda was largely forgotten until Francis Buchanan-Hamilton surveyed the site in 1811–1812 after locals in the vicinity drew his attention to some Buddhist and Brahmanical images and ruins in the area. He, however, did not associate the mounds of earth and debris with famed Nalanda. That link was established by Major Markham Kittoe in 1847. Alexander Cunningham and the newly formed Archaeological Survey of India conducted an official survey in 1861–1862. Systematic excavation of the ruins by the ASI did not begin until 1915 and ended in 1937. The first four excavations were led by Spooner between 1915 and 1919. The next two were led by Sastri in 1920 and 1921. The next seven seasons of archaeological excavations through 1928 were led by Page. These efforts were not merely digging, observation and cataloging of discoveries, they included conservation, restoration and changes to the site such as drainage to prevent damage to unearthed floors. After 1928, Kuraishi led two seasons of excavations, Chandra led the next four. The last season was led by Ghosh, but the excavations were abbreviated in 1937 for financial reasons and budget cuts. Chandra and final ASI team leaders noted that the "long row of monasteries extend further into the modern village of Bargaon" and the "extent of entire monastic establishment can only be determined by future excavations".
Post India's Independence (Post-1947)
Post independence The second round of excavation and restoration took place between 1974 and 1982. In 1951, the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (New Nalanda Mahavihara), a modern centre for Pali and Buddhism in the spirit of the ancient institution, was founded by the Government of Bihar near Nalanda's ruins at the suggestion of Rajendra Prasad, India's first president. It was deemed to be a university in 2006.
1 September 2014 saw the commencement of the first academic year of a modern Nalanda University, with 15 students, in nearby Rajgir. Nalanda University (also known as Nalanda International University) is an international and research-intensive university located in the historical city of Rajgir in Bihar, India. It was established by an Act of Parliament to emulate the famous ancient university of Nalanda, which functioned between the 5th and 13th centuries. The idea to resurrect Nalanda University was endorsed in 2007 at the East Asia Summit, represented mostly by Asian countries including China, Singapore, Japan, Malaysia and Vietnam, apart from Australia and New Zealand, and as such, the university is seen as one of the flagship projects of the Government of India. It has been designated as an "Institution of National Importance" by the Parliament, and began its first academic session on 1 September 2014. Initially set up with temporary facilities in Rajgir, a modern campus spanning over 160 hectares (400 acres) is expected to be finished by 2020. This campus, upon completion, will be the largest of its kind in India, and one of the largest in Asia.
The Mahavihara
While its excavated ruins today only occupy an area of around by or roughly 12 hectares, Nalanda Mahavihara occupied a far greater area in medieval times. The subjects taught at Nalanda covered every field of learning, and it attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.
The University
At its peak the school attracted scholars and students from near and far, with some travelling from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia. The highly formalised methods of Buddhist studies helped the establishment of large teaching institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda, and Vikramashila, which are often characterised as India's early universities. Archaeological evidence also notes contact with the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex. Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the 5th and 6th centuries, and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kannauj. The liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth and prosperity until the ninth century CE. The subsequent centuries were a time of gradual decline, a period during which the tantric developments of Buddhism became most pronounced in eastern India under the Pala Empire.
Much of our knowledge of Nalanda comes from the writings of pilgrim monks from Asia, such as Xuanzang and Yijing, who travelled to the Mahavihara in the 7th century CE. Vincent Smith remarked that "a detailed history of Nalanda would be a history of Mahayanist Buddhism." Many of the names listed by Xuanzang in his travelogue as alumni of Nalanda are the names of those who developed the overall philosophy of Mahayana. All students at Nalanda studied Mahayana, as well as the texts of the eighteen (Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. Their curriculum also included other subjects, such as the Vedas, logic, Sanskrit grammar, medicine, and Samkhya.
Nalanda was destroyed three times but was rebuilt only twice. It was ransacked and destroyed by an army of the Mamluk Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in . While some sources note that the Mahavihara continued to function in a makeshift fashion after this attack, it was eventually abandoned altogether and forgotten until the 19th century, when the site was surveyed and preliminary excavations were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India. Systematic excavations commenced in 1915, which unearthed eleven monasteries and six brick temples neatly arranged on grounds in area. A trove of sculptures, coins, seals, and inscriptions have also been discovered in the ruins, many of which are on display in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum, situated nearby. Nalanda is now a notable tourist destination, and a part of the Buddhist tourism circuit.
On 25 November 2010, the Indian government, through an Act of Parliament, 'resurrected' the ancient university through the Nalanda University Bill, with which they chose to create a new and unrelated Nalanda University relatively nearby. It has been designated as an "International University of National Importance," and has accordingly been subject to intense government oversight, with both of its past chancellors explicitly citing Government actions for them leaving their post and courses being shut down due to members of the ruling party disapproving of them.
The Library
It is evident from the large numbers of texts that Yijing carried back with him after his 10-year residence at Nalanda, that the Mahavihara must have featured a well-equipped library. Traditional Tibetan sources mention the existence of a great library at Nalanda named Dharmaganja (Piety Mart) which comprised three large multi-storeyed buildings, the Ratnasagara (Ocean of Jewels), the Ratnodadhi (Sea of Jewels), and the Ratnaranjaka (Jewel-adorned). Ratnodadhi was nine storeys high and housed the most sacred manuscripts including the Prajnyaparamita Sutra and the Guhyasamaja.
The exact number of volumes in the Nalanda library is not known, but it is estimated to have been in the hundreds of thousands. When a Buddhist scholar at Nalanda died, his manuscripts were added to the library collection. The library not only collected religious manuscripts but also had texts on such subjects as grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine. The Nalanda library must have had a classification scheme which was possibly based on a text classification scheme developed by the Sanskrit linguist, Panini. Buddhist texts were most likely divided into three classes based on the Tripitaka's three main divisions: the Vinaya, Sutra, and the Abhidhamma.
Curriculum
In his biography of Xuanzang, Hwui-Li states that all the students of Nalanda studied the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) as well as the works of the eighteen (Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. In addition to these, they studied other subjects such as the Vedas, Hetuvidyā (Logic), Shabdavidya (Grammar and Philology), Chikitsavidya (Medicine), the works on magic (the Atharvaveda), and Samkhya.
Xuanzang himself studied a number of these subjects at Nalanda under Shilabhadra and others. Besides Theology and Philosophy, frequent debates and discussions necessitated competence in Logic. A student at the Mahavihara had to be well-versed in the systems of Logic associated with all the different schools of thought of the time as he was expected to defend Buddhist systems against the others. Other subjects believed to have been taught at Nalanda include law, astronomy, and city-planning.
Tibetan tradition holds that there were "four doxographies" () which were taught at Nalanda:
Sarvastivada Vaibhashika
Sarvastivada Sautrantika
Madhyamaka, the Mahayana philosophy of Nagarjuna
Chittamatra, the Mahayana philosophy of Asanga and Vasubandhu
In the 7th century, Xuanzang recorded the number of teachers at Nalanda as being around 1510. Of these, approximately 1000 were able to explain 20 collections of sutras and shastras, 500 were able to explain 30 collections, and only 10 teachers were able to explain 50 collections. Xuanzang was among the few who were able to explain 50 collections or more. At this time, only the abbot Shilabhadra had studied all the major collections of sutras and shastras at Nalanda.
Administration
The Chinese monk Yijing wrote that matters of discussion and administration at Nalanda would require assembly and consensus on decisions by all those at the assembly, as well as resident monks:
Xuanzang also noted:
Influence on Buddhism
A vast amount of what came to comprise Tibetan Buddhism, both its Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, stems from the teachers and traditions at Nalanda. Shantarakshita, who pioneered the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet in the 8th century was a scholar of Nalanda. He was invited by the Tibetan king, Khri-sron-deu-tsan, and established the monastery at Samye, serving as its first abbot. He and his disciple Kamalashila (who was also of Nalanda) essentially taught Tibetans how to do philosophy. Padmasambhava, who was also invited from Nalanda Mahavihara by the king in 747 CE, is credited as a founder of Tibetan Buddhism.
The scholar Dharmakirti (), one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic, as well as one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, taught at Nalanda.
Other forms of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, flourished within the walls of the ancient school. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts such as the Shurangama Sutra, an important sutra in East Asian Buddhism, with the Buddhist tradition at Nalanda. Ron Epstein also notes that the general doctrinal position of the sutra does indeed correspond to what is known about the Buddhist teachings at Nalanda toward the end of the Gupta period when it was translated.
Several Buddhist institutions overseas have chosen to call themselves Nalanda to acknowledge Nalanda's influence. These include Nalanda Buddhist Society in Malaysia and Nalanda College, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Nalanda Buddhist Education Foundation, Indonesia, Nalanda Buddhist Institute, Bhutan
World Heritage Sites Recognization
The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. Nalanda stands out as the most ancient university of the Indian Subcontinent. It engaged in the organized transmission of knowledge over an uninterrupted period of 800 years. The historical development of the site testifies to the development of Buddhism into a religion and the flourishing of monastic and educational traditions.
Historical figures associated with Nalanda
Traditional sources state that Nalanda was visited by both Mahavira and the Buddha in 6th and 5th century BCE. It is also the place of birth and nirvana of Shariputra, one of the famous disciples of Buddha.
Other historical figures associated with Nalanda include:
Aryabhata
Aryadeva, student of Nagarjuna
Asanga, proponent of the Yogacarya school
Atisha, Mahayana and Vajrayana scholar
Buddhaguhya, Vajrayana Buddhist monk and scholar
Chandrakirti, student of Nagarjuna
Dharmakirti, logician
Dharmapala
Dhyānabhadra
Dignaga, founder of Buddhist Logic
Kamalaśīla, abbot of Nalanda
Maitripada, Indian Buddhist Mahasiddha
Nagarjuna, formaliser of the concept of Shunyata
Naropa, student of Tilopa and teacher of Marpa
Śāntarakṣita, founder of Yogācāra-Mādhyamika
Shantideva, composer of the Bodhisattvacarya
Shilabhadra, the teacher of Xuanzang
Vajrabodhi, 7th-8th century Indian esoteric monk and one of the patriarchs of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and Shingon Buddhism
Vasubandhu, brother of Asanga
Xuanzang, Chinese Buddhist traveller
Yijing, Chinese Buddhist traveller
The excavated remains
After its decline, Nalanda was largely forgotten until Francis Buchanan-Hamilton surveyed the site in 1811–1812 after locals in the vicinity drew his attention to a vast complex of ruins in the area. He, however, did not associate the mounds of earth and debris with famed Nalanda. That link was established by Major Markham Kittoe in 1847. Alexander Cunningham and the newly formed Archaeological Survey of India conducted an official survey in 1861–1862. Systematic excavation of the ruins by the ASI did not begin until 1915 and ended in 1937. The second round of excavation and restoration took place between 1974 and 1982.
The remains of Nalanda today extend some north to south and around east to west. Excavations have revealed eleven monasteries (also known as vihara) and six major brick temples arranged in an ordered layout. A wide passage runs from north to south with the temples to its west and the monasteries to its east. Most structures show evidence of multiple periods of construction with new buildings being raised atop the ruins of old ones. Many of the buildings also display signs of damage by fire on at least one occasion.
The map gives the layout of the excavated structures. Temple 3 in the south was the most imposing structure. Temple 12, 13, 14 face the monasteries and face east. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south-west corner of the buildings. Temple 2 was to the east.
All the monasteries at Nalanda are very similar in layout and general appearance. Their plan involves a rectangular form with a central quadrangular court which is surrounded by a verandah which, in turn, is bounded by an outer row of cells for the monks - a typical design of vihara architecture. The central cell facing the entrance leading into the court is a shrine chamber. Its strategic position means that it would have been the first thing that drew the eye when entering the edifice. With the exception of those designated 1A and 1B, the monasteries all face west with drains emptying out in the east and staircases positioned in the south-west corner of the buildings.
Monastery 1 is considered the oldest and the most important of the monastery group and shows as many as nine levels of construction. Its lower monastery is believed to be the one sponsored by Balaputradeva, the Srivijayan king, during the reign of Devapala in the 9th century (see Nalanda copper-plate of Devapala). The building was originally at least 2 storeys high and contained a colossal statue of a seated Buddha.
Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco figures including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have once rested. According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which itself had Kushana era influences. In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the Museum.
Temple no. 2 notably features 211 sculptured religious and secular panels. These include Shiva, Parvati, Kartikeya, and Gajalakshmi, Kinnaras playing musical instruments, various representations of Makaras, as well as human couples in amorous postures, as well as scenes of art and of everyday life. Susan Huntington and Bhaskara Misra – scholars of Indian architecture and arts, state Temple 2 as a Hindu temple. However, Huu Phuoc Le – a scholar of Buddhist architecture, questions this purely "Hindu affiliation", stating that it could be a temple based on the mandala principles, and one reflecting "Hindu-Buddhist syncretism" of the 8th- to 12th-century when Shaiva and Shakti deities were integrated into Vajrayana Buddhism. The site of Temple no. 13 features a brick-made smelting furnace with four chambers. The discovery of burnt metal and slag suggests that it was used to cast metallic objects.
To the north of Temple 13 lie the remains of Temple no. 14. An enormous image of the Buddha was discovered here. The image's pedestal features fragments of the only surviving exhibit of mural painting at Nalanda.
To the east of Temple 2, lie the remains of Sarai Temple in the recently excavated Sarai Mound. This multi-storeyed Buddhist temple with many stupas and shrines was enclosed by a massive wall enclosure. The remains in the sanctum suggest that the Buddha statue was around high.
Numerous sculptures, as well as many murals, copper plates, inscriptions, seals, coins, plaques, potteries and works in stone, bronze, stucco, and terracotta, have been unearthed within the ruins of Nalanda. The Buddhist sculptures discovered notably include those of the Buddha in different postures, Avalokiteshvara, Jambhala, Manjushri, Marichi, and Tara. Brahmanical idols of Vishnu, Shiva-Parvathi, Ganesha, Mahishasura Mardini, and Surya have also been found in the ruins.
A Black Buddha temple (termed by locals as the Telia Bhairav, "tel" refers to use of oil) is near Temple 14 with has an ancient large black Buddha image in bhumisparha mudra. This the same temple termed Baithak Bhairab in Cunningham's 1861–62 ASI report.
Surviving Nalanda manuscripts
Fleeing monks took some of the Nalanda manuscripts. A few of them have survived and are preserved in collections such as those at:
Los Angeles County Museum of Art Folios from a Dharanisamgraha, circa 1075.
Asia Society This Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita manuscript records, in Sanskrit and Tibetan, the history of the manuscript from its creation at the famous Nalanda monastery in India through its use in Tibet by the compiler of the first Tibetan canon of Buddhism, Buton.
Yarlung Museum, Tsetang (From the On ke ru Lha khang monastery) Astasahahasrika Prajnaparamita Sanskrit palm-leaf manuscript, with 139 leaves and painted wooden covers. According to the colophon, this manuscript was donated by the mother of the great pandita Sri Asoka in the second year of the reign of King Surapala at end of the 11th century.
Nalanda inscriptions
A number of inscriptions were found during the excavation, which are now preserved in the Nalanda Museum. These include:
Son of a minister of Yashovarman donated to the temple built by king Baladitya. 8th cent CE, basalt slab found in monastery 1.
Murnavarman constructed an brass image of Buddha. 7th cent CE, basalt slab, found in Sarai mound.
Monk Vipulshrimitra built a monastery. Basalt slab, later half of 12th cent, found in the uppermost level of Monastery 7.
Donation of Balaputradeva, the king of Suvarnadvipa of Sailendra dynasty. 860 CE Copperplate found by Hirananda Shastri in 1921 in the antechamber of Monastery 1 at Nalanda.
Tourism
Nalanda is a popular tourist destination in the state attracting a number of Indian and overseas visitors. It is also an important stop on the Buddhist tourism circuit.
Nalanda Archaeological Museum
The Archaeological Survey of India maintains a museum near the ruins for the benefit of visitors. The museum, opened in 1917, exhibits the antiquities that have been unearthed at Nalanda as well as from nearby Rajgir. Out of 13,463 items, only 349 are on display in four galleries.
Xuanzang Memorial Hall
The Xuanzang Memorial Hall is an Indo-Chinese undertaking to honour the famed Buddhist monk and traveller. A relic, comprising a skull bone of the Chinese monk, is on display in the memorial hall.
Nalanda Multimedia Museum
Another museum adjoining the excavated site is the privately run Nalanda Multimedia Museum. It showcases the history of Nalanda through 3-D animation and other multimedia presentations.
Nalanda Vipasana Centre
Gallery
See also
Related Sites and Place
Odantapuri - Another ancient Mahavihara in Bihar, India
Telhara - Telhara was the site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient India
Bakhtiarpur - named after Bakhtiar Khilji who destroyed Nalanda Mahavira
Ancient Indian learning centers:
Takshashila, Punjab
Valabhi, Gujarat
Odantapuri, adjacent to Nalanda
Pushpagiri Vihara, Odissa
Sharada Peeth, Kashmir
Somapura, Bengal
Teladhaka, near Nalanda
Vikramashila, Bihar
Jagaddala, Bengal
Further reading
Ancient higher-learning institutions
List of Monuments of National Importance in Bihar
Kurkihar hoard
Notes
References
Bibliography
The account was narrated by Dharmasvamin to his student, Chos-dar.
External links
The life of Hiuen-Tsiang (1914) by Xuanzang's biographer, Hwui Li (translated by Samuel Beal), p. 105-113
A record of the Buddhist religion as practised in India and the Malay archipelago (1896) by Yijing (translated by J. Takakasu), searchable for Nalanda
Pag Sam Jon Zang (Dpag bsam ljon bzaṅ), Part I: History of the Rise, Progress, and Downfall of Buddhism in India (1908) by Sumpa Khan-po Yeçe Pal Jor (in Tibetan with an index in English, edited by Sarat Chandra Das)
Tabakat-i-Nasiri – A General History of the Muhammadan Dynasties of Asia Including Hindustan by Minhaj-i-Siraj (translated by Major H. G. Raverty), p. 552.
Misc
Seals and figurines from Nalanda at the British Museum
Interactive walking tour from Google
Buddhist sites in Bihar
Ancient universities of the Indian subcontinent
Buddhist universities and colleges
Buddhist libraries
Former Buddhist temples
Former populated places in India
History of Bihar
Archaeological sites in Bihar
Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
Cities and towns in Nalanda district
Education in Bihar
Nalanda district
Ruins in India
5th-century establishments in India
Educational institutions established in the 5th century
World Heritage Sites in India
Ancient libraries
Religious organizations established in the 5th century
Religious organizations disestablished in the 13th century
Indo-Aryan archaeological sites
Tourist attractions in Nalanda district
|
[
-0.0951690524816513,
0.10391223430633545,
-0.2537294626235962,
-0.142278790473938,
0.2301449477672577,
0.5630771517753601,
0.5088323354721069,
0.35866987705230713,
-0.8857086896896362,
0.1431828886270523,
-0.04527651146054268,
-0.20737390220165253,
0.1765989512205124,
0.33039039373397827,
-0.24359430372714996,
-0.524286150932312,
0.7598581314086914,
-0.11583956331014633,
0.485695481300354,
-0.09919977188110352,
-0.4100882411003113,
0.3797691762447357,
-0.10346373170614243,
0.7113125920295715,
0.29363176226615906,
-0.055064570158720016,
0.20138025283813477,
-0.37551435828208923,
-0.12882427871227264,
-0.18666957318782806,
0.8238707780838013,
0.14130379259586334,
-0.006250476930290461,
0.22520366311073303,
-0.16297726333141327,
-0.00017197054694406688,
-0.07822481542825699,
0.5390526652336121,
-0.6108052730560303,
-0.49767377972602844,
-0.25727659463882446,
-0.4190562069416046,
0.07020003348588943,
0.5071894526481628,
-0.5326805710792542,
-0.557533323764801,
-1.2097599506378174,
1.1331522464752197,
-0.5236832499504089,
0.38595423102378845,
-0.6152454018592834,
0.10901007801294327,
0.4062623977661133,
-0.3338681161403656,
-0.09618117660284042,
1.2033956050872803,
-0.8184213042259216,
0.4822169542312622,
-0.22446058690547943,
-0.5774014592170715,
0.5757577419281006,
0.1874009668827057,
0.1311781257390976,
0.382622092962265,
-0.14437943696975708,
-0.2242499589920044,
-0.05085453391075134,
0.2022712230682373,
0.09069007635116577,
-0.09788135439157486,
-0.0960499495267868,
0.2485455572605133,
-0.6207002997398376,
0.43912702798843384,
-0.5246899724006653,
-0.8501985669136047,
-0.2367573082447052,
-0.46884679794311523,
0.5480806827545166,
-0.6170194745063782,
0.24458082020282745,
-0.06759278476238251,
0.04339582845568657,
-0.05015171691775322,
0.4489230513572693,
-0.09629184752702713,
-1.0207393169403076,
-0.44490209221839905,
-0.22277717292308807,
-0.02041284181177616,
-0.2051447182893753,
0.6512051224708557,
-0.06305669248104095,
-0.005714968778192997,
-0.3081556558609009,
-0.08096339553594589,
-0.009373098611831665,
-0.5795236825942993,
0.3437144160270691,
-0.14357316493988037,
-0.4278814196586609,
-0.1804700642824173,
0.24779336154460907,
0.061278603971004486,
-0.2268097698688507,
-0.24022381007671356,
-0.047080326825380325,
-0.15739494562149048,
-0.5391792058944702,
-0.13726772367954254,
-0.8797890543937683,
-0.09308413416147232,
-0.2895779609680176,
0.18547973036766052,
-0.5422868132591248,
0.08274765312671661,
-0.1316819190979004,
-0.6092706322669983,
-0.5841839909553528,
-0.03392166644334793,
-0.08876946568489075,
0.6007784008979797,
-0.11735056340694427,
-0.010660757310688496,
0.08280326426029205,
0.41545864939689636,
0.25706398487091064,
0.361239492893219,
-0.931033194065094,
0.11222594976425171,
-0.1911487877368927,
0.49720731377601624,
-0.16153013706207275,
-0.24969248473644257,
-0.39821863174438477,
0.3311197757720947,
0.6369876861572266,
0.22508685290813446,
0.13992789387702942,
0.5651269555091858,
-0.4371235966682434,
-0.2955102324485779,
-0.6124274134635925,
-0.018234858289361,
0.009759352542459965,
-0.14375147223472595,
0.05654335021972656,
-0.3983818292617798,
-0.3640804886817932,
-0.5542129874229431,
-0.2370079904794693,
0.5910595059394836,
-0.14371778070926666,
-0.04727252945303917,
-0.005746176466345787,
0.996826171875,
0.0966658666729927,
0.6232044100761414,
0.1544547975063324,
-0.11520333588123322,
-0.12923569977283478,
-0.03288305178284645,
-0.1754246950149536,
-0.2623240053653717,
-0.36110687255859375,
-0.21676765382289886,
0.8304332494735718,
0.077818363904953,
-0.25502702593803406,
-0.007757598999887705,
-0.8654130101203918,
-0.44277748465538025,
0.1673220992088318,
0.3079870641231537,
-0.448011577129364,
-0.13357311487197876,
0.036090027540922165,
-0.30383890867233276,
-0.15444840490818024,
0.245193749666214,
-0.8281356692314148,
0.7690839767456055,
-0.026909813284873962,
0.17469218373298645,
0.011258027516305447,
0.35183361172676086,
-0.041804857552051544,
0.12655340135097504,
-0.4104980230331421,
0.13062511384487152,
-0.18323978781700134,
0.10327614843845367,
-0.1534632444381714,
0.49025940895080566,
1.226283311843872,
0.547718346118927,
-0.005060338415205479,
1.1977707147598267,
-0.6239047646522522,
0.8135188221931458,
-0.013154055923223495,
0.23692722618579865,
-0.20313745737075806,
-0.46828415989875793,
-0.3321397006511688,
0.1902991235256195,
0.09727269411087036,
0.25056540966033936,
0.908532977104187,
0.4842596650123596,
0.20507314801216125,
-0.14558058977127075,
0.2207542210817337,
0.24431703984737396,
0.09487822651863098,
0.07951703667640686,
-0.7499712109565735,
-0.09695856273174286,
-0.02966565079987049,
-0.35344380140304565,
0.9880245923995972,
0.07248444110155106,
0.44595369696617126,
0.47512465715408325,
0.19188205897808075,
0.3245655596256256,
-0.1574755162000656,
0.6161513924598694,
0.268457293510437,
-0.37245506048202515,
0.11336343735456467,
-0.15937036275863647,
0.24098099768161774,
0.024396557360887527,
-0.37285205721855164,
-0.16825762391090393,
-0.08940412104129791,
-0.08015315234661102,
0.3848574459552765,
-0.08041348308324814,
-0.038360849022865295,
0.13386450707912445,
-0.45634639263153076,
0.6926500797271729,
0.014984870329499245,
-0.24158957600593567,
-0.2109222263097763,
-0.442130446434021,
-0.05912802740931511,
-0.16417348384857178,
0.21441252529621124,
0.07452918589115143,
0.409851610660553,
0.09792152047157288,
0.004924299661070108,
-0.04139447957277298,
0.036213524639606476,
0.1780541092157364,
0.8418984413146973,
0.017076635733246803,
0.2912190854549408,
-0.046562667936086655,
0.16141526401042938,
0.13732869923114777,
-0.23219141364097595,
-0.2886269688606262,
0.2328522503376007,
-0.7928552627563477,
0.5739902853965759,
0.28793564438819885,
-0.2870769798755646,
-0.46876439452171326,
-0.06359046697616577,
0.18839994072914124,
-0.11142347007989883,
-1.1148136854171753,
-0.005405168980360031,
0.20884259045124054,
-0.43320441246032715,
-0.23117248713970184,
-0.08952987939119339,
0.19948765635490417,
-0.023109029978513718,
-0.8089149594306946,
-0.26457706093788147,
0.35909566283226013,
-0.5548722147941589,
-0.836105227470398,
0.23885715007781982,
0.295541912317276,
0.27405881881713867,
0.18904665112495422,
-0.09523803740739822,
-0.14661771059036255,
0.534719705581665,
0.2800044119358063,
0.25818514823913574,
0.1149217039346695,
-0.0419958233833313,
-0.23580044507980347,
-0.6299842000007629,
0.9960283637046814,
-0.30644989013671875,
0.28815922141075134,
-0.07129786908626556,
0.2357426881790161,
-0.37688198685646057,
-0.06565375626087189,
-5.735853672027588,
0.24906563758850098,
-0.24452440440654755,
-0.34571439027786255,
0.14004331827163696,
0.027964984998106956,
0.3325437307357788,
0.12893331050872803,
0.2738555371761322,
-0.3465915322303772,
0.2241806536912918,
0.1812462955713272,
-0.5321611762046814,
0.24985091388225555,
0.07291849702596664,
0.6181844472885132,
0.22517700493335724,
-0.008506447076797485,
-0.07014322280883789,
0.48894003033638,
-0.08506792038679123,
0.31765684485435486,
0.051012225449085236,
0.8380945324897766,
-0.1658051460981369,
0.5455501079559326,
-0.26092061400413513,
-0.2663518488407135,
-0.48423144221305847,
0.25884270668029785,
-0.33949214220046997,
0.10254944115877151,
0.09490953385829926,
-0.31589382886886597,
-0.1241074800491333,
0.6120973825454712,
0.6946263313293457,
0.14668558537960052,
0.7037191987037659,
0.529910683631897,
0.08941688388586044,
-0.046264514327049255,
0.4466620981693268,
0.49412620067596436,
-0.3196156322956085,
-0.7711405754089355,
-0.5131387710571289,
0.2367466539144516,
-0.5281566381454468,
0.7893399596214294,
-0.7890446782112122,
-0.09132366627454758,
0.5606802105903625,
-0.16229379177093506,
-0.285969078540802,
-0.4095885455608368,
-0.021458644419908524,
0.07163345068693161,
-0.4367329478263855,
0.028199655935168266,
0.04106432572007179,
-0.07543990761041641,
-0.1627752184867859,
-0.8074591159820557,
0.1840180903673172,
-0.08540327101945877,
-0.2808290719985962,
-0.22170759737491608,
-0.0784059539437294,
0.21735090017318726,
-0.5287367701530457,
0.13447152078151703,
-0.5119631886482239,
-0.9238165616989136,
-0.6770704388618469,
-0.8421173095703125,
-0.3831968307495117,
-0.19745610654354095,
-0.0032465364784002304,
0.12882289290428162,
0.1326894909143448,
0.3359730541706085,
-0.08980805426836014,
0.6535061001777649,
0.025996865704655647,
-0.27122190594673157,
-0.3506093919277191,
-0.55426025390625,
-0.36038148403167725,
0.15610042214393616,
0.7192059755325317,
-0.12391351908445358,
0.2259344905614853,
0.50081467628479,
0.40272068977355957,
0.4836465120315552,
-0.17383027076721191,
-0.21649105846881866,
0.2674064338207245,
-0.4978627860546112,
0.6660763621330261,
0.28990232944488525,
0.030357638373970985,
-0.018725641071796417,
-0.809671938419342,
-0.4053998589515686,
-0.5012624859809875,
0.416488915681839,
0.47173449397087097,
-0.5446566343307495,
-0.09819839149713516,
-0.6025893688201904,
0.09730969369411469,
-0.23466701805591583,
0.13110089302062988,
0.29701054096221924,
0.11136940121650696,
0.3277217149734497,
0.2897600829601288,
0.04309851676225662,
0.45442822575569153,
-0.1651955097913742,
0.013007840141654015,
0.1875760555267334,
0.1523783653974533,
-0.32598087191581726,
-0.046979375183582306,
-0.05740680173039436,
-0.4786662757396698,
-0.16125889122486115,
0.2549959719181061,
-0.8948063850402832,
0.5680914521217346,
0.36368313431739807,
-0.6266242861747742,
0.3303161561489105,
-0.10935570299625397,
-0.44844695925712585,
-0.18223156034946442,
-0.2645007371902466,
-0.25667881965637207,
0.12699733674526215,
-0.17314644157886505,
0.8086163997650146,
0.3408733308315277,
0.12434927374124527,
-0.3052196502685547,
0.27969592809677124,
0.12622375786304474,
-0.06339578330516815,
-0.4919512867927551,
-0.720412015914917,
0.05206393823027611,
0.2375630885362625,
-0.615962564945221,
0.03520071133971214,
0.6635457873344421,
0.34092602133750916,
0.2562926709651947,
0.730817973613739,
-0.21805982291698456,
-0.21996650099754333,
-0.5273688435554504,
-0.24279247224330902,
-0.11428391933441162,
0.28354477882385254,
0.4808093011379242,
-0.46087145805358887,
-0.30086034536361694,
0.20271743834018707,
0.7294019460678101,
-0.14657220244407654,
-0.6854277849197388,
-0.11551711708307266,
0.4466939866542816,
0.5283117294311523,
0.2780025601387024,
0.09898902475833893,
0.21658115088939667,
0.619232714176178,
-0.1227700263261795,
-0.8648281693458557,
-0.09606645256280899,
0.6474462151527405,
0.4057060182094574,
-0.07947167009115219,
-0.4957238733768463,
-0.9573157429695129,
-0.04234129562973976,
0.3131948709487915,
0.5770100951194763,
-0.4862857162952423,
0.10795727372169495,
0.3867433965206146,
0.010292012244462967,
-0.7510024905204773,
-0.21393164992332458,
0.2974355220794678,
-0.13134197890758514,
-0.001398766878992319,
-0.19200493395328522,
0.6947517395019531,
-0.5720237493515015,
0.7160215377807617,
0.32207179069519043,
-0.49527159333229065,
0.3269437849521637,
0.12203161418437958,
0.07887542992830276,
0.37447330355644226,
0.013651289977133274,
-0.3473241329193115,
0.41656723618507385,
0.41914498805999756,
-0.28780898451805115,
0.4337596893310547,
-0.5601093173027039,
-0.1882782280445099,
-0.34267622232437134,
-0.06647086888551712,
-0.7884487509727478,
0.1368001103401184,
-0.22206996381282806,
-0.7253438830375671,
-0.34408339858055115,
0.5157693028450012,
0.03811241313815117,
-0.1275399774312973,
-0.3846842050552368,
-0.0016814105911180377,
-0.03215952217578888,
-0.11770167946815491,
0.27061212062835693,
-0.5188596248626709,
0.1376333236694336,
-0.6320603489875793,
0.4440244436264038,
0.4002262353897095,
0.2872377038002014,
0.3395425081253052,
0.11612012982368469,
0.37093088030815125,
-0.20213483273983002,
0.05768425017595291,
0.016925591975450516,
0.21159084141254425,
-0.04123317450284958,
0.13697688281536102,
0.015854177996516228,
0.2011188268661499,
0.49381834268569946,
-0.04936109483242035,
-0.4418678283691406,
-0.20103707909584045,
0.3897382616996765,
0.0030177554581314325,
-0.10312596708536148,
0.40288954973220825,
-0.05561850219964981,
-0.5471956133842468,
-0.004096230026334524,
-0.08894641697406769,
-0.3325396180152893,
-0.265438050031662,
-0.41475170850753784,
-0.2503497898578644,
-0.5643302202224731,
-0.839496374130249,
0.7745388746261597,
-0.8497834801673889,
0.64444500207901,
-0.5324568748474121,
0.5891631245613098,
-0.1339615136384964,
0.19252236187458038,
0.2850223779678345,
-0.3936302661895752,
-0.09156098961830139,
0.4443470239639282,
0.09857945889234543,
-0.005641542375087738,
-0.2702676057815552,
-0.207342267036438,
-0.057614173740148544,
0.37133049964904785,
-0.9344143867492676,
0.2834796607494354,
0.43304604291915894,
0.3157597780227661,
0.2306678295135498,
-0.6710669994354248,
-0.19902504980564117,
0.5522565841674805,
0.5510560274124146,
-0.006466306746006012,
-0.06102973222732544,
0.18151189386844635,
0.7795975208282471,
-0.3895427882671356,
-0.25683528184890747,
-0.8831285238265991,
-0.22032706439495087,
0.7444111704826355,
0.036035165190696716,
-0.012384953908622265,
0.35925886034965515,
0.4174126982688904,
-0.07876713573932648,
-0.36431026458740234,
0.2101273238658905,
-0.08971259742975235,
-0.28300371766090393,
0.6360020637512207,
-0.08137210458517075,
-0.5508689880371094,
0.1089710146188736,
0.053277015686035156,
-0.6836946606636047,
0.5609070062637329,
0.030003782361745834,
0.3671523332595825,
0.1917472928762436,
-0.05988533794879913,
-0.2592087984085083,
0.42522481083869934,
0.34302830696105957,
-0.5051556825637817,
-0.022804787382483482,
-0.1755201518535614,
0.6292979717254639,
0.1980324387550354,
-0.3347315192222595,
-0.27906033396720886,
0.7176833748817444,
0.10102418810129166,
-0.5974461436271667,
0.012611567042768002,
-0.84163498878479,
-0.6377601623535156,
0.38790297508239746,
0.5134763121604919,
0.2536839544773102,
0.23942679166793823,
0.32642829418182373,
-0.9493485689163208,
0.31984248757362366,
0.5384778380393982,
0.05808701366186142,
-0.2788968086242676,
-0.17399872839450836,
0.19811874628067017,
-0.043873727321624756,
0.03555918484926224,
0.3991665542125702,
0.1492619663476944,
-0.14057202637195587,
0.5685922503471375,
-0.24869447946548462,
0.19477270543575287,
-0.1379275768995285,
-0.1331016570329666,
0.4389142394065857,
0.40768203139305115,
0.31217071413993835,
0.10603310912847519,
0.5699336528778076,
0.4854162633419037,
-0.6071817278862,
-0.19629444181919098,
0.17481644451618195,
-0.34456342458724976,
0.08335253596305847,
-0.22029288113117218,
0.3125811815261841,
-0.09213973581790924,
-0.20540572702884674,
-0.3181351125240326,
0.4110756814479828,
0.03364386036992073,
0.1475280225276947,
-0.19546948373317719,
-0.3543936312198639,
0.04836428910493851,
-0.22137947380542755,
-0.09209869801998138,
-0.3715963065624237,
-0.16528978943824768,
0.24742740392684937,
-0.5639382004737854,
0.2639390826225281,
-0.022002970799803734,
-0.4630514085292816,
-0.07112611085176468,
0.6757611036300659,
-0.11389195173978806,
0.5617469549179077,
-0.054825861006975174,
0.17712220549583435,
0.30285224318504333,
0.09996306151151657,
0.07148002088069916,
-0.05351347103714943,
0.08481298387050629,
0.4638727307319641,
-0.5109339356422424,
0.12520496547222137,
-0.08046181499958038,
0.21998943388462067,
-0.4346437156200409,
0.09994369000196457,
-0.6796330213546753,
-0.10626108944416046,
0.29081597924232483,
0.046056799590587616,
-0.1850031018257141,
0.6244434714317322,
0.5377125144004822,
-0.2795666754245758,
-0.38210636377334595,
0.3665299117565155,
-0.09099797159433365,
-0.17952567338943481,
-0.1327173113822937,
0.3015969693660736,
0.09764464199542999,
-0.7251256704330444,
0.31093141436576843,
0.6969167590141296,
-1.2652827501296997,
0.13931816816329956,
0.38714390993118286,
-0.3505341410636902,
-0.8319522738456726,
0.4599475562572479,
-0.24440662562847137,
-0.01896173320710659,
0.29304155707359314,
0.2751159965991974,
0.19633188843727112,
-0.24598626792430878,
0.20925776660442352,
0.3296813666820526,
0.5202891230583191,
0.16778016090393066,
0.0862698182463646,
-0.15421470999717712,
0.03027893602848053,
-0.14311093091964722,
-0.47923678159713745,
0.7097352743148804,
-0.15796084702014923,
0.14070014655590057,
0.919626772403717,
-0.29413658380508423,
0.0995396226644516,
-0.06236204877495766,
-0.2345125675201416,
-0.5035076141357422,
0.5084963440895081,
0.4313143491744995
] |
200289
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat-twelve%20engine
|
Flat-twelve engine
|
A flat-twelve engine, also known as a horizontally opposed-twelve, is a twelve-cylinder piston engine with six cylinders on each side of a central crankshaft.
Flat-twelve engines are less common than V12 engines, however they have been used in various racing cars during the 1960s and 1970s, and in mid-engined Ferrari road cars from 1973 to 1996.
Design
Unlike most flat-twin, flat-four and flat-six engines, flat-twelve engines typically use the crankshaft configuration of a 180° V engine instead of a boxer engine. Therefore, most flat-twelve engines have each pair of pistons sharing a crankpin, instead of the boxer design of each piston having its own crankpin.
Compared with a V12 engine, a flat-twelve has a lower center of gravity, however a flat-twelve is wider therefore it is rarely used in front-engined cars.
Racing cars
Formula One
The first known flat-twelve engine was built by Porsche in 1947 for the abandoned Cisitalia Grand Prix racing car. The engine, known as the Porsche Typ 360, was supercharged and had a displacement of . One engine was built and the car conducted top speed testing, however it never competed in any races.
In 1964–65, the Ferrari 512 F1 competed in several Formula One races. The 512 F1 was powered by a flat-twelve engine and raced alongside the V8-engined Ferrari 158 upon which it was based. Ferrari returned to using flat-twelve engines in 1970, when the Ferrari 312B switched from the V12 engine used by its predecessor. The successor to the 312B, the Ferrari 312T was introduced in 1975 and won the Formula One constructors championships from 1975 to 1979. The success of the Ferrari 312T led other Formula One teams to build flat-twelve engines, such as the 1979 Alfa Romeo 177.
In 1990, the Subaru 1235 flat-twelve engine was built for Subaru's unsuccessful attempt to compete in Formula One as an engine manufacturer.
Sports car racing
In 1969, the Porsche 917 sports prototype racing car introduced an air-cooled flat-twelve engine. This flat-twelve engine was based on the previous flat-eight engine, however it used a V12 crankshaft configuration instead of the boxer configuration used by the flat-eight. The domination of the Porsche 917 probably influenced Ferrari, because they switched from V12 engines to flat-twelve engines (using a boxer configuration) for the Ferrari 312 PB, which competed from 1971 to 1973. Alfa Romeo also used flat-twelve engines in the 1973-1976 Alfa Romeo 33TT12 and Alfa Romeo 33SC12 sports prototype racing cars.
For the 1991 sports-prototype racing category, Mercedes-Benz switched from a twin-turbo V8 engine to a naturally-aspirated flat-twelve engine for in the Mercedes-Benz C291 racing car. This engine employed a cylinder-head design with exhaust ports where the intake ports would normally be (on top of the engine, pointing upwards). The intake ports are between the intake and exhaust camshafts, just above the spark-plugs, pointing at an outward angle from the vertical. This was done to allow the engine to be installed lower in the chassis. The C291 was unsuccessful and Mercedes withdrew from sports-prototype racing after the 1991 season.
Production cars
From 1973 to 1996, Ferrari used flat-twelve engines in various production models: the 1973-1976 Ferrari 365 GT/4 BB, the 1976-1981 Ferrari 512 BB, the 1981-1984 Ferrari 512 BBi, the 1984-1991 Ferrari Testarossa, the 1991-1994 Ferrari 512 TR and the 1994-1996 Ferrrari F512 M.
Other uses
During World War II, the British Covenanter tank was powered by a Meadows D.A.V flat-12, 340 hp (250 kW) and the Churchill by a 350 hp (261 kW) Bedford engine flat 12. Another military vehicle usage was the Panhard EBR armored cars during the 1950s.
During the 1940s, the Franklin Engine Company in the United States produced a flat-twelve aircraft engine called the O-805-2.
References
12
Piston engine configurations
|
[
0.2090873271226883,
0.015748590230941772,
-0.24715398252010345,
-0.06075221300125122,
0.04716493934392929,
0.000795429979916662,
-0.1013115718960762,
-0.09952764958143234,
-0.03728614002466202,
-0.31868091225624084,
0.14839772880077362,
1.1631330251693726,
-0.11611876636743546,
0.175128772854805,
-0.24205845594406128,
0.3307543694972992,
0.7103157043457031,
0.10230794548988342,
0.1054096445441246,
-0.16735312342643738,
0.05407183617353439,
0.08244884759187698,
0.9165740609169006,
0.12490816414356232,
-0.3933973014354706,
0.05669625103473663,
0.8127006888389587,
-0.0777498409152031,
0.02002769708633423,
0.26600056886672974,
0.09913939237594604,
0.9226146340370178,
0.11075945943593979,
-0.18889251351356506,
0.26089203357696533,
-0.22776545584201813,
0.37267646193504333,
-0.593658983707428,
-0.11825616657733917,
-0.5257304310798645,
-0.5825409889221191,
-0.2836114764213562,
0.3405202329158783,
0.6286068558692932,
0.13890616595745087,
0.2266991138458252,
-1.1059894561767578,
-0.1130293756723404,
-0.1505144089460373,
0.15601074695587158,
-0.05472123622894287,
0.174972802400589,
0.3637267053127289,
1.0357710123062134,
0.2811545431613922,
0.5834915041923523,
-0.08543005585670471,
0.29136335849761963,
0.012049928307533264,
-0.1221698746085167,
0.1546788066625595,
0.10979309678077698,
0.21954073011875153,
0.8546090722084045,
0.3693161606788635,
0.16939567029476166,
-0.6240857839584351,
-0.434917151927948,
-0.6731144189834595,
0.7211246490478516,
-1.0050179958343506,
-0.9899032711982727,
-0.12855330109596252,
-0.3834325969219208,
0.10411537438631058,
0.11962398141622543,
-0.649548351764679,
-0.50339674949646,
0.06845652312040329,
0.14671947062015533,
0.007111745420843363,
-0.1273747980594635,
-0.032583579421043396,
0.4181059002876282,
0.4397081732749939,
0.358120322227478,
-0.5593799352645874,
-0.2511850893497467,
-0.231778085231781,
0.5636110901832581,
0.10315994918346405,
-0.6116876006126404,
0.34743595123291016,
0.20855481922626495,
-0.6839104294776917,
-0.1640578657388687,
0.11162489652633667,
0.1663985401391983,
0.12501271069049835,
-0.22965498268604279,
0.5885201096534729,
0.3480463922023773,
1.0670876502990723,
0.15505559742450714,
-0.9163429737091064,
-0.28745943307876587,
-0.45254549384117126,
-0.3303987979888916,
0.03826848790049553,
0.28431200981140137,
-0.2094210982322693,
0.038812920451164246,
0.5357812643051147,
-0.16967575252056122,
-0.35583317279815674,
-0.19234175980091095,
-0.4319397211074829,
-0.30766424536705017,
0.3260817229747772,
0.3023378849029541,
0.40917202830314636,
0.1059669554233551,
-0.09717785567045212,
0.4887624680995941,
0.11109421402215958,
0.3131197690963745,
0.27929580211639404,
0.9890453815460205,
0.08451557159423828,
-0.41219305992126465,
0.497134804725647,
0.313498854637146,
0.06294026225805283,
-0.1922486424446106,
-0.5129258632659912,
0.30012306571006775,
0.18761464953422546,
-0.12016035616397858,
0.31696203351020813,
0.38978132605552673,
-0.6490128636360168,
-0.038912367075681686,
0.36960381269454956,
-0.6344383358955383,
-0.2379680871963501,
0.07468578219413757,
-0.10205123573541641,
-0.28067997097969055,
-0.3354686200618744,
-0.41233402490615845,
0.08633989095687866,
-0.2095806747674942,
0.04399013891816139,
-0.3439670205116272,
-0.061830855906009674,
-0.3095465898513794,
0.3397916555404663,
-0.24058791995048523,
-0.005158646497875452,
-0.37400126457214355,
-0.6339110136032104,
-0.1285923421382904,
0.3876447379589081,
0.1640988290309906,
0.301632821559906,
-0.6169828176498413,
0.6621548533439636,
-0.102185919880867,
-0.11512980610132217,
-0.29486316442489624,
-0.17103342711925507,
-0.0073031275533139706,
0.6150707602500916,
-0.26063206791877747,
-0.03343444690108299,
-0.43949636816978455,
1.0406980514526367,
-0.029991140589118004,
0.8379763960838318,
-0.3923036456108093,
-0.7897887229919434,
-0.11565390229225159,
0.7545936107635498,
0.25806859135627747,
0.11470972001552582,
0.005980323534458876,
0.16252928972244263,
-0.09332568198442459,
-0.28096508979797363,
0.10317166894674301,
-0.09615601599216461,
-0.4792458415031433,
0.3889060914516449,
-0.39635199308395386,
0.6270533800125122,
-0.5944945812225342,
-0.39595067501068115,
0.0322367288172245,
0.30343058705329895,
-0.20658309757709503,
-0.15835101902484894,
0.13721896708011627,
0.18403023481369019,
-0.17209108173847198,
-0.7762395739555359,
0.15036426484584808,
0.3913007974624634,
0.13594697415828705,
-0.007973721250891685,
0.012037998996675014,
0.013870744034647942,
-0.644036591053009,
0.7502326369285583,
0.05790412798523903,
-0.32437464594841003,
-0.37549129128456116,
-0.4831750690937042,
0.3998766541481018,
0.526910126209259,
0.15274380147457123,
0.5916966199874878,
-0.023510940372943878,
-0.8950695395469666,
0.11872521042823792,
0.0002727830142248422,
0.0338410846889019,
0.48276957869529724,
0.019440380856394768,
-0.04148029536008835,
-0.10078702867031097,
0.312218576669693,
0.08303701877593994,
0.06678736209869385,
-0.4314480721950531,
-0.0021655173040926456,
0.525969922542572,
-0.13053472340106964,
-0.19530828297138214,
0.6320294141769409,
-0.19744481146335602,
0.04600474238395691,
0.8357206583023071,
-1.1416176557540894,
0.3191523849964142,
0.10667084157466888,
-0.515941858291626,
0.22867144644260406,
0.15073849260807037,
0.28111833333969116,
-0.1755925714969635,
0.2221156805753708,
-0.06946975737810135,
0.8104014992713928,
-0.490618497133255,
-0.7449367642402649,
0.0078880051150918,
-0.16771306097507477,
-0.010893256403505802,
0.34291210770606995,
-0.24002619087696075,
-0.7212002277374268,
-0.6282090544700623,
0.18319684267044067,
-0.3232073485851288,
-0.04697680473327637,
-0.686532735824585,
-0.8323484063148499,
-0.017441775649785995,
-0.3975403606891632,
-0.048317939043045044,
0.07015623897314072,
0.21600300073623657,
0.2532057464122772,
-0.5031520128250122,
0.08594588935375214,
-0.4086662232875824,
-0.3715865910053253,
0.5103577375411987,
-0.7565422654151917,
-0.15024933218955994,
0.40865159034729004,
0.4410426616668701,
0.6327172517776489,
-0.4977194368839264,
-0.6463236212730408,
0.37800365686416626,
0.0834609866142273,
-0.23601488769054413,
0.25582027435302734,
-0.39171135425567627,
-0.03769785165786743,
0.01855568215250969,
-0.2765897512435913,
0.2832280695438385,
0.638356626033783,
0.35546958446502686,
0.1634247750043869,
-0.2156585454940796,
-0.08295350521802902,
-0.44025301933288574,
0.07910614460706711,
-0.10563535988330841,
-0.5038954019546509,
-0.41535237431526184,
0.2396216243505478,
0.6014988422393799,
-0.34415701031684875,
0.028138000518083572,
-5.613362789154053,
-0.24719928205013275,
-0.5182521939277649,
-0.6229235529899597,
0.7260196208953857,
-0.24638588726520538,
0.11225482076406479,
-0.04431505128741264,
-0.5814344882965088,
0.1854812651872635,
0.0304584763944149,
-0.08798132836818695,
-0.16387596726417542,
0.07078172266483307,
0.3786408007144928,
0.3181396722793579,
0.5144724249839783,
-0.35241732001304626,
0.5076133012771606,
0.0602540522813797,
0.06552323698997498,
0.027796242386102676,
-0.14882498979568481,
0.49211058020591736,
0.4092393219470978,
0.26953384280204773,
0.5898081660270691,
-0.10925961285829544,
-0.7212945222854614,
0.3006752133369446,
-0.5605788230895996,
-0.6487772464752197,
-0.30075082182884216,
-0.051073044538497925,
0.3589983880519867,
-0.38954097032546997,
0.30538415908813477,
0.3525598347187042,
0.7648922801017761,
0.6517788171768188,
-0.2653091549873352,
0.48522794246673584,
0.3813397288322449,
0.2720159590244293,
0.00933734979480505,
-0.008328108116984367,
-0.18115606904029846,
-0.3799279034137726,
0.09204576164484024,
0.7713239192962646,
0.15076324343681335,
0.2928052842617035,
0.3383733332157135,
-0.10477452725172043,
0.7917165160179138,
0.0898691788315773,
0.2796552777290344,
-0.2768314778804779,
-0.1503133773803711,
-0.3054358959197998,
-0.3413116931915283,
-0.17636094987392426,
-0.22720195353031158,
0.03218105062842369,
0.24088172614574432,
-0.2835693061351776,
-0.13526952266693115,
-0.40850743651390076,
0.828029215335846,
0.3359156847000122,
0.09662268310785294,
0.23503662645816803,
0.4866622984409332,
-1.0629147291183472,
0.3407343327999115,
-0.11591822654008865,
0.08370162546634674,
-0.12434812635183334,
-0.09358532726764679,
-0.3809150159358978,
-0.43129825592041016,
0.08813058584928513,
-0.7390304803848267,
0.2611965835094452,
0.26527225971221924,
-0.2812851667404175,
-0.2673245072364807,
0.37634027004241943,
0.24250926077365875,
-0.22645391523838043,
1.0822025537490845,
-0.18568137288093567,
0.6492254734039307,
0.10955514013767242,
0.28984880447387695,
0.1653139293193817,
-0.08811643719673157,
0.24457812309265137,
0.5632750988006592,
-0.5805396437644958,
0.0913640707731247,
-0.472358375787735,
-0.27173030376434326,
-0.16939668357372284,
-0.37533608078956604,
-0.1370883733034134,
-0.2975030243396759,
0.3907766342163086,
0.4470286965370178,
0.20157524943351746,
0.019179848954081535,
-0.2773917615413666,
-0.4429008364677429,
-0.5339975953102112,
0.27925726771354675,
0.0960339903831482,
-0.3966568112373352,
0.5128650665283203,
0.24074500799179077,
-0.18532413244247437,
0.4554557204246521,
0.1921226978302002,
-0.7983577847480774,
-0.6971458792686462,
0.08382603526115417,
0.19013290107250214,
0.1501825600862503,
-0.3528684377670288,
-0.03469839319586754,
-0.245085209608078,
-0.04585018754005432,
0.3634144365787506,
0.03005748987197876,
0.36606690287590027,
-0.10834761708974838,
-0.2722965180873871,
-0.5077566504478455,
0.4570614695549011,
-0.5510668158531189,
0.18509887158870697,
-0.1773143857717514,
0.05055376514792442,
-0.1139039397239685,
-0.48244357109069824,
1.048337697982788,
0.4065452516078949,
-0.0269303098320961,
0.0031812814995646477,
-0.19287145137786865,
0.7871098518371582,
0.329711377620697,
-0.9036356210708618,
0.1367877572774887,
-0.5136154294013977,
-0.1557288020849228,
0.27486473321914673,
-0.07216457277536392,
0.13123773038387299,
-0.13680054247379303,
-0.5171080827713013,
0.15555021166801453,
0.16577069461345673,
-0.8846545219421387,
0.11573343724012375,
0.48698925971984863,
0.7037567496299744,
0.31815510988235474,
-0.7969980835914612,
-0.767514169216156,
0.6832231879234314,
0.18012671172618866,
-0.6187121868133545,
-0.4855608642101288,
-0.2155294567346573,
0.7008686661720276,
0.13822178542613983,
0.053503137081861496,
-0.02626752480864525,
-0.28713458776474,
-0.0639057606458664,
-0.3145952522754669,
0.4195464849472046,
-0.7249799966812134,
0.896454393863678,
0.19056007266044617,
-0.5622463822364807,
-0.6248776316642761,
0.23110932111740112,
-0.10890580713748932,
-0.13272102177143097,
0.4920647144317627,
-0.07530074566602707,
0.5973443388938904,
0.24526016414165497,
-0.6099636554718018,
-0.28090351819992065,
0.42471009492874146,
0.3088788390159607,
-0.3899206817150116,
-0.6693745851516724,
-0.11548835784196854,
0.3759714663028717,
-0.5501406788825989,
-0.126386821269989,
0.4516984522342682,
-0.22339782118797302,
0.5593273043632507,
-0.200118750333786,
-0.3054584860801697,
0.7535929083824158,
0.2439359426498413,
-0.78123539686203,
0.37286481261253357,
0.2818681001663208,
-0.09239700436592102,
-0.056352708488702774,
0.32947295904159546,
-0.38927504420280457,
-0.17894020676612854,
-0.7105487585067749,
-0.148437038064003,
-0.3861260414123535,
-0.056936219334602356,
-0.32927533984184265,
-0.026030095294117928,
-0.17637081444263458,
0.25153085589408875,
-0.0435473695397377,
0.19401541352272034,
-0.12878011167049408,
0.050357379019260406,
0.056201402097940445,
-0.4861767292022705,
-0.11860135942697525,
0.21640199422836304,
-0.5703168511390686,
-0.4989486336708069,
0.49858787655830383,
0.09869850426912308,
-0.152121439576149,
0.37840768694877625,
1.229724407196045,
0.47569766640663147,
-0.11050626635551453,
-0.0837867483496666,
-0.5328176021575928,
0.464971125125885,
-0.9829788208007812,
-0.4992987811565399,
0.24141593277454376,
0.34881046414375305,
-0.23185624182224274,
-1.1634762287139893,
-0.4280335009098053,
0.36568233370780945,
-0.29165133833885193,
-0.16482365131378174,
-0.013615074567496777,
-0.046208854764699936,
1.2374509572982788,
0.09638740867376328,
0.4270332455635071,
-0.39388924837112427,
0.011487591080367565,
0.0038206782191991806,
-0.055997755378484726,
-0.6242766380310059,
-0.345287948846817,
0.139663964509964,
-0.523876965045929,
0.07206118851900101,
0.3644128143787384,
0.29876020550727844,
-0.1260903775691986,
0.554642379283905,
-0.11591929197311401,
-0.30853715538978577,
-0.4398054778575897,
0.021285464987158775,
0.3591601550579071,
-0.5156537890434265,
0.18396228551864624,
0.0034767582546919584,
-0.37130606174468994,
-0.17872050404548645,
0.40943780541419983,
-0.34680819511413574,
-0.4459347128868103,
0.16262304782867432,
0.08709926158189774,
-0.10483719408512115,
-0.670839250087738,
-0.23402398824691772,
0.21761319041252136,
-0.3247179687023163,
-0.04278804361820221,
0.5254613161087036,
0.3328480124473572,
0.185212641954422,
0.9356329441070557,
-0.30625998973846436,
0.8264236450195312,
0.2552122473716736,
-0.46564799547195435,
0.5871080756187439,
-0.39740943908691406,
-0.006334882695227861,
-0.5337780714035034,
-0.4748874604701996,
0.5354278683662415,
0.19553004205226898,
-0.12670844793319702,
-0.2071250081062317,
1.4318886995315552,
-0.3820558488368988,
0.24332772195339203,
0.9495177268981934,
-0.028333066031336784,
0.08093604445457458,
0.10485869646072388,
0.09586754441261292,
0.16162507236003876,
-0.07633069157600403,
-0.03204486519098282,
-0.3321550786495209,
0.2745375335216522,
-0.9032012224197388,
-0.6735560297966003,
0.5000978708267212,
0.5683848857879639,
0.7709476947784424,
0.4079318642616272,
-0.4502921998500824,
0.49878910183906555,
-0.4351363778114319,
0.24950595200061798,
-0.04760495200753212,
-0.6342040300369263,
-0.5641197562217712,
0.0004761847376357764,
0.8225246667861938,
0.1341654658317566,
0.054452862590551376,
-0.549277126789093,
0.003743223613128066,
0.32436713576316833,
0.1337178498506546,
0.038218844681978226,
-0.2590828239917755,
0.5271008014678955,
0.09439054131507874,
-0.13781660795211792,
0.6978286504745483,
-0.15667510032653809,
-0.4485011696815491,
-0.11546245962381363,
0.48901283740997314,
-0.11686115711927414,
0.32598569989204407,
0.2207067906856537,
-0.09023302048444748,
0.5301945805549622,
0.29977941513061523,
-0.4309939742088318,
0.19495625793933868,
0.19540610909461975,
0.9295567274093628,
-0.7289867401123047,
-0.04484611377120018,
0.14013636112213135,
0.16727763414382935,
0.20108579099178314,
-0.12001097947359085,
-0.00461979117244482,
0.23180410265922546,
-0.3004212975502014,
0.4793355166912079,
-0.14256681501865387,
-0.23314477503299713,
0.05751693621277809,
-0.018427487462759018,
-0.12540262937545776,
-0.9318894147872925,
-0.49026480317115784,
-0.4518721401691437,
-0.7459177374839783,
-0.4735899269580841,
-0.26456883549690247,
0.1448632925748825,
-0.014053594321012497,
-0.1632666289806366,
-0.41284024715423584,
-0.5327487587928772,
-0.2838233709335327,
-0.6570069193840027,
-0.21556398272514343,
-0.23714709281921387,
0.2479412704706192,
0.10436538606882095,
1.1520681381225586,
-0.10721856355667114,
0.36648115515708923,
0.31546685099601746,
-0.11391012370586395,
-0.22148478031158447,
-0.21725976467132568,
0.41032013297080994,
0.3985486626625061,
-0.35145658254623413,
0.2585587203502655,
0.06030993163585663,
-0.3882787823677063,
0.38862261176109314,
0.26780781149864197,
-0.26121729612350464,
-0.41668394207954407,
0.7534077763557434,
-0.4340812563896179,
0.2321656495332718,
-0.2360946089029312,
-0.10877056419849396,
-0.2175091952085495,
-0.03593877702951431,
-0.092345230281353,
-0.4194274842739105,
-0.14569656550884247,
0.5059680342674255,
-0.5963472723960876,
-0.44360384345054626,
0.613077700138092,
-0.2836792767047882,
0.3844165802001953,
-0.4724595546722412,
-0.13036414980888367,
-0.5107212662696838,
-0.15187379717826843,
0.5598049163818359,
0.4314369559288025,
0.2841632664203644,
0.17437982559204102,
0.779783308506012,
0.15161269903182983,
-0.6969101428985596,
0.3182728588581085,
0.17525321245193481,
-0.23084047436714172,
-0.3617374002933502,
0.05315662547945976,
-0.14713458716869354,
0.6717769503593445,
0.27152183651924133,
-0.037547964602708817,
-0.48151934146881104,
-0.2729238271713257,
0.19820572435855865,
-0.5401880145072937,
0.39218777418136597,
-0.8816959857940674,
0.0846075788140297,
-0.029328498989343643
] |
200295
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRK
|
NRK
|
NRK, an abbreviation of the Norwegian Norsk rikskringkasting AS, generally expressed in English as the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, is the Norwegian government-owned radio and television public broadcasting company, and the largest media organisation in Norway. All other TV channels, broadcast from Norway, were banned between 1960 and 1981. NRK broadcasts three national TV channels and three national radio channels on digital terrestrial television, digital terrestrial radio and subscription television. All NRK radio stations are streamed online at NRK.no, which also offers an extensive TV service. NRK is a founding member of the European Broadcasting Union.
Financing
Until the start of 2020, about 94% of NRK's funding came from a mandatory annual licence fee payable by anyone who owns or uses a TV or device capable of receiving TV broadcasts. The remainder came from commercial activities such as programme and DVD sales, spin-off products, and certain types of sponsorships. NRK's license income in 2012 was more than 5 billion NOK. In the autumn of 2015, the government announced that it planned to change the way NRK is financed. This was in part a reaction to the decline of TV ownership in Norway. From the start of 2020, NRK funding is an item in the national budget and the costs are covered through taxation for each individual liable for income taxes in Norway.
History
, a privately owned company and the predecessor of NRK, started regular radio broadcasts in Norway in 1925. NRK itself was founded in 1933. Based on a model similar to that of the BBC and located in Oslo, it was a replacement for privately operated radio stations in larger cities. NRK initially set out to cover the entire country and had a monopoly on broadcasting in Norway. The monopoly came under intense pressure when Norwegian TV companies began broadcasting from abroad in addition to international cable TV. Cable TV started in 1982 and satellite TV in 1986 (the launch of TV3 in 1987 and TVNorge in 1988). It was not until the launch of TV 2 on 5 September 1992, that NRK's monopoly on television broadcasting in Norway ended.
During the Nazi German occupation, Norwegian transmitters were used to broadcast Nazi German war propaganda to Northern Europe (particularly Scotland and the northern half of Ireland, where the sea path ensured a good signal) and Scandinavia.
Prior to the Nazi German occupation, NRK had also been partly financed by radio commercials.
NRK was one of 23 founding broadcasting organisations of the European Broadcasting Union, which was founded in 1950. In 1954, NRK started broadcasting television shows, on a trial basis. Regular broadcasts started in 1960.
In 1969, NRK adopted its current corporate logo which consists of the lowercased "nrk" wordmark that has the letter "n" being made up of a rectangle and a reversed-italic rectangle, the letter "r" being made up of a rectangle and a circle, and the letter "k" being made up of a rectangle and reflecting-mirrored italic rectangles. This became the current corporate logo for NRK and it is having a long use throughout today.
NRK was the last of the major European public broadcasters to introduce a second radio station, officially starting as late as 1984. In 1993, NRK launched a third radio station, the youth-oriented P3. A 24-hour station for classical music, (now called "NRK Klassisk"), introduced in 1995, was the first of its kind to be broadcast digitally using digital audio broadcasting. The 24-hour news station Alltid Nyheter started in 1997, followed by a radio station for teenagers, mP3 in 2000, which mostly plays pop music.
On 1 September 1996, a second television channel called NRK2 was launched. The original television channel is now known as NRK1. On 3 September 2007, NRK launched its third channel: a youth channel called NRK3. Later that year, on 1 December, NRK launched its fourth television channel, NRK Super, which is aimed at children. NRK3 and NRK Super share the same channel, with NRK Super broadcasting from 06:00 to 19:30 and NRK3 from 19:30 to 06:00.
In 1999, following NRK Interaktiv's relaunch as NRK.no, NRK redesigned its current corporate logo (that were introduced in 1969), so that it could be similar to its old version. This new version of NRK's current corporate logo made its first appearance in an ident in 2000 by making its overhaul to NRK's radio and television channels.
A traditional music radio station, NRK (now known as "NRK Folkemusikk") was launched in 2004 on DAB and internet radio.
NRK's international radio transmissions, known as , began shortwave transmission in 1948. Initially broadcasting in Norwegian, English-language programs were added later. The service was discontinued on 1 January 2002. All NRK broadcasting activities on shortwave ceased on 1 January 2004. NRK's mediumwave transmitter at Kvitsøy on 1314 kHz used to be widely heard internationally and was one of the most commonly heard trans-Atlantic DX signals in eastern North America. The frequency carried a mixture of NRK's radio channels P1 and P2, and was called (literally "The Europe Channel"). However, these mediumwave transmissions were discontinued on 1 July 2006.
All of NRK's radio stations are now available on the internet. Several of NRK's television programmes are also available on the internet.
On 16 April 2015, the Norwegian Ministry of Culture announced its intention to eventually switch off all FM transmitters in the country, with the first such transmitter expected to be switched off on 11 January 2017, therefore making Norway the first country in the world to completely transition to digital radio. According to the Ministry of Culture, the decision was justified because transmitting through the FM network was eight times more expensive than transmitting through digital audio broadcasting, and because only five national radio stations are transmitting on FM, compared to the 42 digital radio stations allocated in Norway, with 22 stations transmitting on the latter. NRK Radio is expected to transition from FM to digital radio before commercial radio stations do so.
NRK claimed to have the longest-running radio show, Lørdagsbarnetimen (The Saturday Children's Hour), which ran from 20 December 1924 until 11 September 2010.
Organisation
The CEO began major organisational changes in 2008, with the aim of creating a more agile NRK, while still adhering to the principles of the broadcaster-producer model introduced in January 2001. By January 2009, the number of programme-producing divisions had been reduced from five to three, separated more along geographical than functional lines, and at the same time simplifying trading in the internal market. The programme-producing divisions are:
Marienlyst covering all facilities in Oslo
Distrikt, encompassing all regional offices and with their headquarters in Trondheim
Sami, the producer of Sámi programmes situated in Karasjok
Thor Gjermund Eriksen has been director-general of the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation since 12 March 2013. The previous directors were Olav Midttun (1934–1947, except during the Nazi occupation), Kaare Fostervoll (1948–1962), Hans Jacob Ustvedt (1962–1971), Torolf Elster (1972–1981), Bjartmar Gjerde (1981–1988), Einar Førde (1989–2001), John G. Bernander (2001–2007) and Hans-Tore Bjerkaas (2007–2012). After WW2, all but Hans-Tore Bjerkaas and John G. Bernander had been active politically in socialist parties. The current director-general, Thor Gjermund Eriksen, came from Sosialistisk Venstreparti (SV), a membership he resigned 4 days before the date of accession.
The chairman of the board is Birger Magnus, Marius Lillelien heads the broadcasting department, and the head of the news department is Marius Tetlie. In 2017, NRK employed 3419 and 266 temporary staff.
Notable television programmes
NRK productions
Dagsnytt Atten
Dagsrevyen
Melodi Grand Prix (The Norwegian national selection for Eurovision Song Contest)
Nytt på nytt
Skam
Skavlan and Først & sist
Urix
Other shows
Eurovision Song Contest 1986, Eurovision Song Contest 1996 and Eurovision Song Contest 2010
Slow television
Channels
Radio
NRK P1 – generalist channel, with regional opt outs
NRK P2 – cultural channel
NRK P3 – youth oriented channel
NRK Alltid Nyheter – 24/7 news
NRK Vær sør 24/7 weather forecast
NRK Folkemusikk – 24/7 Traditional Norwegian folk music
NRK P1+ – A spinoff of P1, targeting a mature audience
NRK P13 – 24/7 rock and indie music
NRK Jazz
NRK Klassisk – 24/7 classical music
NRK mP3 – 24/7 dance music (also called mP3)
NRK Sápmi – in Sami languages
NRK Sport – 24/7 sports channel
NRK Stortinget – broadcasts when parliament (Storting) is in session.
NRK Super – 24/7 for children
Television
NRK1
NRK2
NRK3 / NRK Super
Regional broadcasting
NRK has 12 regional offices around Norway. Each office has its own broadcasts on both television (on NRK 1) and radio (on NRK P1), as well their own news sites on the internet. They also contribute news coverage to national news programmes. NRK's headquarters are at Marienlyst in Oslo and Tyholt in Trondheim.
FM radio switch-off
Norway was the first country to announce a complete switch-off of national FM radio stations, including NRK P1 with regional services, NRK P2 and NRK P3, NRK mP3 and NRK Alltid Nyheter. Switch off started on 11 January 2017, and ended on 13 December 2017.
From 2018, all FM transmitters are replaced with broadcast via DAB +, internet and cable.
FM TV 04
NRK has an HD outside broadcast van, producing high-definition video. The first Norwegian series filmed in HD was En Udødelig Mann ("An Immortal Man") about the young Henrik Ibsen. The action six-part miniseries called was also filmed in HD. Promotional videos are freely downloadable from NRK's site, and the full-length last episode is available.
NRK uses H.264 as the compression codec for the digital terrestrial network which is commonly used to compress videos stored as mp4.
NRK has also started to offer HD content via BitTorrent. This is currently a very limited offer due to rights restrictions, but it is growing steadily.
In preparation for the Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, NRK announced that they would launch a high-definition channel, and their first native HD broadcast would be from Vancouver. NRK1 HD is a simulcast of NRK1.
See also
List of Norwegian-language radio stations
List of Norwegian television channels
List of NRK regional services
List of programs broadcast by Norsk rikskringkasting
yr.no – Weather forecasting service hosted by NRK
References
Notes
External links
About NRK
NRK's History in Brief
NRK's Channels
Television schedules
NRK Media Player for TV (Available for Norwegian IP addresses only)
Radio schedules, Internet radio
NRK Media Player for Radio
yr.no: Online weather service
ut.no: Hiking traimls and cabins
Government-owned companies of Norway
Television networks in Norway
Publicly funded broadcasters
Television companies of Norway
Commercial-free television networks
Mass media companies of Norway
European Broadcasting Union members
Multilingual broadcasters
Mass media companies established in 1933
1933 establishments in Norway
Television channels and stations established in 1954
|
[
0.2101989984512329,
0.26051852107048035,
0.1806667149066925,
-0.23861533403396606,
-0.7054010629653931,
-0.27221179008483887,
0.21586653590202332,
-0.06447259336709976,
-0.8012188673019409,
0.24517123401165009,
-0.4183010160923004,
0.44730818271636963,
0.068950355052948,
0.14413762092590332,
-0.4551358222961426,
0.021064279600977898,
0.360684871673584,
0.5597038269042969,
0.16860556602478027,
-0.6198067665100098,
-0.2313399761915207,
-0.2868475019931793,
0.3805924355983734,
-0.07098830491304398,
0.416639119386673,
-0.39337068796157837,
0.1696041077375412,
-0.45207324624061584,
-0.3855862021446228,
0.3524610698223114,
0.1856495887041092,
-0.17621031403541565,
-0.03060612641274929,
0.1815083622932434,
-0.21625261008739471,
-0.0693255066871643,
0.18233832716941833,
-0.2428550273180008,
-0.07862858474254608,
0.2612907290458679,
0.04336385428905487,
-0.5998212099075317,
-0.20509950816631317,
0.6717795133590698,
-0.19816707074642181,
-0.5021360516548157,
-0.5952009558677673,
0.6984255909919739,
-0.17325152456760406,
0.7031359672546387,
-1.0704326629638672,
-0.08636219054460526,
-0.30955350399017334,
0.9466524124145508,
0.07865113765001297,
-0.2857121229171753,
-0.16798941791057587,
0.5517881512641907,
-0.36767637729644775,
-0.16275784373283386,
0.13250507414340973,
-0.38966140151023865,
0.1645849347114563,
0.028404386714100838,
0.5807819366455078,
0.02205520123243332,
0.22905555367469788,
0.27510228753089905,
-0.3464682102203369,
-0.10459241271018982,
-0.3990520238876343,
0.10304377228021622,
-0.4149168133735657,
-0.04478093609213829,
0.3681585192680359,
-0.48169010877609253,
0.052801989018917084,
-0.3648311495780945,
-0.08314767479896545,
-0.059412822127342224,
0.3652153015136719,
0.4954652190208435,
0.19874639809131622,
-0.08480089157819748,
0.3216918706893921,
-0.2586096227169037,
-0.2562146782875061,
-0.20005832612514496,
-0.6406857967376709,
-0.26227426528930664,
0.19716304540634155,
-0.23070426285266876,
0.6373512744903564,
-0.45257142186164856,
-0.45024746656417847,
0.6559504866600037,
0.3667237162590027,
0.34978005290031433,
-0.22885002195835114,
0.18179528415203094,
0.1329997330904007,
0.2968617081642151,
-0.00822670292109251,
-0.2863467335700989,
-0.7594813704490662,
-0.28537338972091675,
0.2916143238544464,
-0.1143338680267334,
0.031731925904750824,
-0.03728523477911949,
-0.25407642126083374,
0.3539981544017792,
-0.006493198219686747,
0.3994719088077545,
-0.22912833094596863,
-0.07320252060890198,
0.2458796352148056,
-0.7073535323143005,
-0.29991862177848816,
0.04749773070216179,
0.06324377655982971,
0.4870195984840393,
0.21453560888767242,
0.01545656193047762,
-0.039332520216703415,
-0.02019687369465828,
0.31070181727409363,
0.6019771695137024,
-0.11456666141748428,
-0.3205797076225281,
0.2962245047092438,
0.28192123770713806,
-0.110650934278965,
0.3625407814979553,
0.13107995688915253,
-0.13475634157657623,
0.13591957092285156,
0.21955932676792145,
0.276538223028183,
0.2635357081890106,
-0.39248064160346985,
0.21805348992347717,
-0.23880156874656677,
-0.09293119609355927,
-0.04148215055465698,
-0.46886035799980164,
-0.3125927448272705,
-0.01704508811235428,
-0.02730751410126686,
0.03861374408006668,
-0.010360675863921642,
-0.2923505902290344,
0.3007712960243225,
-0.004113187547773123,
-0.4810030162334442,
0.22480933368206024,
0.528907835483551,
0.24875693023204803,
0.7140694856643677,
0.44097062945365906,
0.30069756507873535,
-0.13674785196781158,
-0.22056671977043152,
0.09673172980546951,
-0.09032267332077026,
0.04355061426758766,
0.07565909624099731,
0.9922522306442261,
0.22659915685653687,
-0.7552836537361145,
0.03738297149538994,
-0.29281914234161377,
0.6933009028434753,
0.06436571478843689,
0.03791317343711853,
-0.2479056864976883,
0.04259103536605835,
-0.028046047315001488,
-0.06309232115745544,
-0.10994433611631393,
-0.7674976587295532,
0.16524864733219147,
0.4426491856575012,
-0.30415624380111694,
0.04152175039052963,
-0.1071171760559082,
0.1940515786409378,
0.3207109868526459,
-0.34320172667503357,
0.19666774570941925,
-0.46710553765296936,
-0.9100450873374939,
0.3623230457305908,
0.09077715873718262,
0.517646849155426,
-0.02427756041288376,
-0.1865793913602829,
0.6905115246772766,
0.09531976282596588,
0.15799690783023834,
0.42279669642448425,
-0.688996434211731,
0.5205115079879761,
-0.5221299529075623,
-0.06428175419569016,
0.7935745120048523,
0.23081649839878082,
-0.024560078978538513,
0.1765821874141693,
-0.3057427406311035,
0.16490772366523743,
-0.35279205441474915,
0.7232156991958618,
-0.20108553767204285,
-0.2836167812347412,
-0.25398340821266174,
-0.2627720236778259,
0.2896283268928528,
-0.1327286958694458,
0.1500024050474167,
0.7936710715293884,
0.02827383205294609,
0.10107466578483582,
0.21227407455444336,
-0.2002207189798355,
0.388047456741333,
0.10047756880521774,
0.32954853773117065,
0.40234535932540894,
0.14802205562591553,
-0.14151917397975922,
-0.3655819892883301,
0.07743338495492935,
0.04048873856663704,
-0.13527201116085052,
0.11395319551229477,
-0.1141204684972763,
0.7093276977539062,
0.5598332285881042,
-0.5289474725723267,
0.32765960693359375,
0.18924608826637268,
-0.25439149141311646,
0.4692360460758209,
0.6018537878990173,
0.4902673661708832,
-0.344876229763031,
0.04308363422751427,
-0.17250896990299225,
0.07521794736385345,
-0.1056554839015007,
-0.46595996618270874,
-0.1348400115966797,
-0.1808607131242752,
-0.21572905778884888,
-0.01966388337314129,
0.6703773736953735,
0.03814321756362915,
0.7527909278869629,
0.11412970721721649,
-0.008628835901618004,
-0.539118766784668,
-0.1577388197183609,
0.03957003355026245,
-0.30741366744041443,
-0.6107167601585388,
-0.4254573881626129,
-0.45076486468315125,
0.7143043279647827,
-0.015672102570533752,
0.4182504713535309,
0.34303611516952515,
-0.09319721162319183,
0.131670743227005,
-0.15402434766292572,
-0.48947393894195557,
0.5408082604408264,
0.27742496132850647,
-0.206571564078331,
-0.5512675046920776,
-0.37007632851600647,
0.14848555624485016,
0.3994653820991516,
-0.5634286999702454,
-0.40491631627082825,
-0.21191370487213135,
-0.23694103956222534,
-0.5253544449806213,
0.0628068670630455,
0.2228965014219284,
-0.10053108632564545,
0.37559065222740173,
-0.02058800496160984,
-0.12346898764371872,
0.15136690437793732,
0.07675539702177048,
0.43780794739723206,
0.3989027440547943,
-0.018393946811556816,
-0.154673233628273,
-0.716221034526825,
0.3223588466644287,
-0.31385987997055054,
0.0723201110959053,
-0.23925045132637024,
-0.001803816412575543,
0.04458028823137283,
-0.753764808177948,
-5.912330150604248,
0.08523961901664734,
-0.12462280690670013,
-0.3845515847206116,
0.05120169371366501,
0.030605649575591087,
0.6280368566513062,
-0.20476287603378296,
0.2813515365123749,
-0.14936049282550812,
0.004819189198315144,
-0.1455826312303543,
0.19261033833026886,
0.7435798048973083,
0.12812159955501556,
0.013011899776756763,
0.029540378600358963,
0.6878992319107056,
0.26415082812309265,
0.3603973984718323,
0.06328826397657394,
-0.3760991394519806,
0.6557767987251282,
0.035211846232414246,
0.45345211029052734,
0.46365904808044434,
-0.424079030752182,
-0.21702401340007782,
-0.13358476758003235,
-0.6201293468475342,
0.5320600271224976,
-0.5854005813598633,
0.4562586843967438,
-0.10943789035081863,
0.3150336444377899,
-0.2637649476528168,
0.48162737488746643,
0.2242678701877594,
0.3626265227794647,
-0.6045466065406799,
0.5430569052696228,
0.31262117624282837,
0.40517473220825195,
-0.24572938680648804,
0.6745764017105103,
0.0695941224694252,
-0.3023684322834015,
-0.039750147610902786,
-0.8087191581726074,
0.830564558506012,
-0.05643555521965027,
0.025940528139472008,
0.30955037474632263,
-0.2184544950723648,
-0.3739478290081024,
-0.40649834275245667,
-0.4478921890258789,
-0.10705915093421936,
0.0008659893646836281,
-0.03135018050670624,
-0.031398672610521317,
0.3087845742702484,
-0.27690693736076355,
-0.7247886061668396,
-0.6970024704933167,
-0.4790007174015045,
-0.32785314321517944,
-0.25214123725891113,
0.8700689673423767,
-0.10180426388978958,
-0.21255511045455933,
0.1442006379365921,
0.7136070132255554,
-0.707578718662262,
-0.2548050880432129,
-1.046269416809082,
-0.09671574085950851,
0.20133408904075623,
0.3516314923763275,
0.26067593693733215,
-0.4530503749847412,
-0.5385988354682922,
-0.3865877091884613,
0.38629329204559326,
0.029156740754842758,
-0.5432620644569397,
0.022888606414198875,
0.23627516627311707,
0.26200371980667114,
-0.4293156862258911,
0.721789538860321,
-0.5733602046966553,
0.12749522924423218,
0.5019814968109131,
-0.11053633689880371,
0.7647653818130493,
-0.05096573382616043,
0.43143564462661743,
0.3483704924583435,
-0.07048133760690689,
0.49173489212989807,
-0.07787469774484634,
-0.21178221702575684,
-0.6530275940895081,
-0.30746427178382874,
-0.144398495554924,
-0.24839574098587036,
-0.07789745181798935,
0.5336348414421082,
-0.8474351167678833,
-0.3033345341682434,
-0.09470310062170029,
-0.8316819071769714,
-0.4829452633857727,
0.5254296660423279,
-0.3785295784473419,
-0.4422963559627533,
0.32725921273231506,
0.3185175359249115,
-0.14026899635791779,
0.6248812675476074,
0.3245725631713867,
0.33995968103408813,
-0.31594783067703247,
-1.1319915056228638,
-0.12645459175109863,
-0.382124662399292,
-0.1050087958574295,
-0.25522130727767944,
-0.20102988183498383,
0.3500592112541199,
0.2089347541332245,
0.47160130739212036,
-0.2462112307548523,
0.32990095019340515,
0.2607244849205017,
0.015790468081831932,
0.038972433656454086,
0.2563769519329071,
-0.3317164480686188,
0.008150771260261536,
0.16333508491516113,
0.06908303499221802,
0.3491625487804413,
-0.1480557918548584,
0.5206963419914246,
-0.13745969533920288,
-0.13975822925567627,
-0.5429850220680237,
-0.1850861757993698,
-0.10545904189348221,
-0.16767460107803345,
0.8071548342704773,
-0.47054457664489746,
0.4424005448818207,
0.2286318838596344,
0.02089678682386875,
-0.07954838871955872,
-0.5399688482284546,
-0.37498682737350464,
-0.10041493922472,
-0.6812618970870972,
-0.6547923684120178,
0.15392328798770905,
0.7826425433158875,
-0.5287131071090698,
-0.8224642276763916,
0.18576952815055847,
0.04898746684193611,
0.262898713350296,
-0.2046816051006317,
-0.05512002110481262,
-0.2562662363052368,
-0.4337043762207031,
0.050685491412878036,
0.24202147126197815,
0.10177366435527802,
0.1986447125673294,
-0.16094940900802612,
0.4163452386856079,
0.42656785249710083,
0.34931254386901855,
-0.39153507351875305,
0.7248205542564392,
0.2535925507545471,
-0.5255486965179443,
-0.1630127727985382,
0.32281336188316345,
-0.028731519356369972,
0.5157405138015747,
0.8516577482223511,
-0.3100988268852234,
0.184836745262146,
-0.1655171513557434,
-0.18654073774814606,
-0.34089961647987366,
-0.3272724747657776,
0.056513942778110504,
-0.10716690123081207,
0.10769122838973999,
0.38796839118003845,
0.6733368635177612,
-0.6491447687149048,
-0.12035036087036133,
0.13212653994560242,
-0.4454333484172821,
0.3291538953781128,
0.16048836708068848,
-0.5209341049194336,
0.30555960536003113,
-0.9092721939086914,
-0.3601745367050171,
-0.15968942642211914,
0.15009883046150208,
-0.26235654950141907,
-0.1657167226076126,
-0.12633539736270905,
-0.5978895425796509,
-0.09035822004079819,
-0.5104752779006958,
-0.043908264487981796,
-0.3950415849685669,
0.0014956955565139651,
0.30885761976242065,
-0.09099743515253067,
0.13130688667297363,
-0.029413610696792603,
-0.15083950757980347,
-0.1773880273103714,
-0.8266425132751465,
0.422042578458786,
0.129447340965271,
0.257883220911026,
0.15607759356498718,
-0.10002832114696503,
-0.11700385808944702,
0.2660004496574402,
0.7006962299346924,
0.21375954151153564,
0.7616956233978271,
0.6107342839241028,
0.4676869511604309,
-0.20597118139266968,
-0.41557222604751587,
-0.047611042857170105,
0.4617955982685089,
0.9360239505767822,
-0.08732768148183823,
-0.03812320902943611,
0.20746612548828125,
-0.012850695289671421,
-0.501183807849884,
-0.6654702425003052,
-0.09666316211223602,
0.9862584471702576,
-0.6354644894599915,
0.24200285971164703,
0.2744424045085907,
0.06965865939855576,
-0.31851086020469666,
-0.2586560547351837,
-0.2941928803920746,
-0.3505714535713196,
0.7511879205703735,
0.24863944947719574,
0.20148338377475739,
-0.9733160734176636,
-0.3799504041671753,
0.15223048627376556,
-0.20801755785942078,
-0.8654712438583374,
-0.34926554560661316,
0.5393695831298828,
0.14104706048965454,
0.6477851867675781,
0.3255036175251007,
0.11978411674499512,
0.3466246724128723,
-0.16571305692195892,
-0.18137674033641815,
-0.26729851961135864,
-0.02274213917553425,
0.30642884969711304,
-0.32325634360313416,
-0.2687791883945465,
-1.0096501111984253,
-0.16005036234855652,
0.06499389559030533,
-0.34417489171028137,
-0.01514930184930563,
-0.10824504494667053,
-0.6261878609657288,
0.2164819836616516,
0.5081907510757446,
-0.19602124392986298,
0.051287099719047546,
0.5707768201828003,
0.5381212830543518,
0.2560144364833832,
0.21291996538639069,
-0.5079436898231506,
-0.48066675662994385,
-0.13787199556827545,
-0.14031343162059784,
0.24258391559123993,
0.36962953209877014,
-0.01300602313131094,
-0.09090965986251831,
0.03567514196038246,
-0.08159057050943375,
-0.14209513366222382,
-0.10349223017692566,
0.04374094307422638,
0.7175324559211731,
-0.7410640120506287,
-0.07665801048278809,
0.6308062076568604,
-0.3821493685245514,
0.07496264576911926,
0.22535058856010437,
0.4428040683269501,
-0.11803150177001953,
0.060424502938985825,
0.6600603461265564,
-0.3546264171600342,
0.7907134890556335,
0.14295975863933563,
-0.14434726536273956,
0.06362652778625488,
-0.3311239778995514,
0.49535834789276123,
0.060300663113594055,
-0.34027355909347534,
0.3714468777179718,
-0.645844578742981,
-0.6120139956474304,
-0.24098818004131317,
0.2604900002479553,
-0.5005803108215332,
0.570106565952301,
0.45343926548957825,
0.022500084713101387,
-0.5606881976127625,
-0.13136796653270721,
-0.04187970235943794,
0.15912863612174988,
0.2964393198490143,
-0.4645862281322479,
0.0009425880271010101,
0.16412721574306488,
0.2200508564710617,
-0.25208547711372375,
-0.23177632689476013,
-0.1797339916229248,
-0.3094697594642639,
-0.09470877051353455,
-0.038645993918180466,
-0.33726152777671814,
0.25439217686653137,
-0.12627024948596954,
-0.051566507667303085,
-0.00498965522274375,
-0.0703280046582222,
0.7063610553741455,
-0.4162307381629944,
-0.15901073813438416,
0.3727385401725769,
0.07716898620128632,
0.6051931381225586,
-0.07285082340240479,
0.07325800508260727,
-0.0683181956410408,
-0.4110763370990753,
-0.29534897208213806,
-0.6598021388053894,
0.032441407442092896,
0.5629446506500244,
-0.05290483310818672,
-0.25874239206314087,
0.12461861222982407,
-0.46135595440864563,
0.2024541050195694,
-0.02592773176729679,
-0.7260966897010803,
-0.20644375681877136,
0.3563400208950043,
-0.3451581299304962,
-0.33520129323005676,
-0.5601927042007446,
0.416017085313797,
0.2951246201992035,
-0.2526077330112457,
0.48907870054244995,
0.2664615511894226,
-0.36761319637298584,
0.05782289803028107,
0.23382745683193207,
0.1712898164987564,
0.23922337591648102,
-0.2581726014614105,
-0.2499474436044693,
0.6617352366447449,
-0.116597980260849,
0.08688155561685562,
-0.14496082067489624,
0.5062915086746216,
-0.17554835975170135,
-0.5598989129066467,
0.34280672669410706,
-0.2720126211643219,
0.44525566697120667,
0.2353833168745041,
0.15402300655841827,
0.08205191045999527,
-0.3204455077648163,
-0.28116726875305176,
0.9634681344032288,
-0.11683464050292969,
0.12110954523086548,
0.30198267102241516,
-0.060792699456214905,
-0.319670706987381,
0.12794817984104156,
0.4249091148376465,
0.2707805037498474,
-0.27579542994499207,
0.3985150158405304,
0.07634711265563965,
-0.5237712860107422,
0.36354467272758484,
-0.9657046794891357,
-0.03400568291544914,
-0.8362050652503967,
-0.14027658104896545,
-0.7679498791694641,
0.35797879099845886,
-0.25822535157203674,
-0.0508272647857666,
0.36209338903427124,
-0.6257615685462952,
-0.18691673874855042,
0.3112441301345825,
0.41233769059181213,
0.15791331231594086,
0.26164114475250244,
0.40778231620788574,
0.17100021243095398,
-0.08051792532205582,
-0.99090975522995,
-0.09327931702136993,
0.15290404856204987,
-0.5685216784477234,
0.6931639909744263,
0.04239371418952942,
0.05248543992638588,
-0.41114169359207153,
0.9963011145591736,
0.06896212697029114,
0.9509180188179016,
0.23871949315071106
] |
200296
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20C.%20Dik
|
Simon C. Dik
|
Simon Cornelis Dik (September 6, 1940 in Delden – March 1, 1995 in Holysloot) was a Dutch linguist, most famous for developing the theory of functional grammar. He occupied the chair of General Linguistics at University of Amsterdam between 1969 and 1994. During these 25 years he developed the theory of functional grammar, the foundations for which had been laid in his 1968 dissertation on coordination.
Two years before his death, Dik fell ill. As much as his illness allowed, he worked on developing his theory until his death. The second part of his work, The Theory of Functional Grammar, was published posthumously in 1997.
Selected publications
The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part I: The Structure of the clause), 1989
The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part II: Complex and Derived Constructions), 1997 (pt. I); (pt. I paperback); (pt. II); (pt. II paperback)
External links
Biography (Dutch)
1940 births
1995 deaths
People from Hof van Twente
Linguists from the Netherlands
University of Amsterdam faculty
20th-century linguists
|
[
-0.4191908538341522,
0.5285680294036865,
-0.6174516677856445,
-0.4683932960033417,
-0.3907487094402313,
0.8590163588523865,
1.1224830150604248,
0.14576250314712524,
0.1526706963777542,
-0.29896479845046997,
-0.16582559049129486,
0.574223518371582,
-0.15830941498279572,
-0.2604667544364929,
0.34717169404029846,
-0.0091403191909194,
0.26693567633628845,
-0.5079460144042969,
-0.5807960629463196,
-0.3107333779335022,
-0.23281478881835938,
-0.21292991936206818,
0.041986867785453796,
0.32530057430267334,
-0.09397526830434799,
0.23787367343902588,
0.45792385935783386,
0.4632495641708374,
0.00006688410212518647,
-0.16578559577465057,
0.24862852692604065,
0.5990990400314331,
0.05972985550761223,
-0.012191745452582836,
-0.4146721065044403,
0.7137266397476196,
-0.3611845374107361,
-0.389556348323822,
0.15120109915733337,
0.33116742968559265,
-0.1668855994939804,
0.19060274958610535,
-0.3865843415260315,
0.24044005572795868,
-0.7703542709350586,
-0.45694848895072937,
-2.4563255310058594,
-0.021099435165524483,
-1.1864813566207886,
-0.4716569483280182,
-0.4044466018676758,
0.08525940030813217,
0.5367347598075867,
0.6783045530319214,
-0.3316012918949127,
0.06354046612977982,
-0.937910795211792,
-0.4060261845588684,
0.4466323256492615,
-0.08547373861074448,
0.4766247868537903,
0.2766282558441162,
-0.19510610401630402,
0.19255425035953522,
0.36313387751579285,
0.39826831221580505,
-0.6932873725891113,
0.34803494811058044,
-0.9266502857208252,
-0.42340558767318726,
-0.03621706739068031,
0.24647986888885498,
0.13508425652980804,
0.2526671290397644,
0.05522455275058746,
-0.0804779902100563,
0.16204304993152618,
0.1537550389766693,
-0.37294286489486694,
-0.19021373987197876,
-0.3409782946109772,
-0.07973817735910416,
1.2344112396240234,
-0.14504672586917877,
0.45780524611473083,
0.04003186151385307,
-0.4205341935157776,
0.012571289204061031,
-0.8988326787948608,
-0.012180358171463013,
-0.35221177339553833,
-0.3434292674064636,
-0.03283737599849701,
0.28418830037117004,
0.036397431045770645,
0.43505173921585083,
0.019518539309501648,
1.1190953254699707,
-0.13895070552825928,
0.3303319215774536,
-0.09752392023801804,
0.048668842762708664,
0.4299764931201935,
-0.11970903724431992,
-0.8412730693817139,
-0.30344176292419434,
0.17028191685676575,
-0.1496167778968811,
-0.35182347893714905,
-0.5183260440826416,
-0.8445392847061157,
-0.15159344673156738,
0.02666759118437767,
-0.0986640453338623,
0.2878158688545227,
0.6508370637893677,
-0.27651143074035645,
0.23800569772720337,
-0.7218127846717834,
0.09531466662883759,
-0.2974751889705658,
0.3292345702648163,
0.14920096099376678,
0.05613395944237709,
-0.6232463717460632,
0.11024162918329239,
-0.39731350541114807,
0.7840132713317871,
-0.2864108085632324,
0.17759139835834503,
0.36241084337234497,
1.3827099800109863,
0.20606423914432526,
-0.45396915078163147,
-0.6021503210067749,
-0.30129075050354004,
0.6358563303947449,
0.5596147775650024,
-0.28522777557373047,
0.3547412157058716,
-0.771470308303833,
-0.3408650755882263,
-0.727176308631897,
-0.22551999986171722,
0.11652041971683502,
0.09554727375507355,
-0.1046958863735199,
0.03712345287203789,
0.050115954130887985,
0.2877458930015564,
-0.06986968964338303,
0.09215319901704788,
-0.10224825888872147,
-0.33721545338630676,
-0.4971873164176941,
1.3756204843521118,
0.14611254632472992,
0.0877784937620163,
-0.027430634945631027,
0.4452643096446991,
0.1913633942604065,
-0.5106437802314758,
-0.6328181028366089,
0.18446777760982513,
0.16783377528190613,
-0.5640295743942261,
-0.008193849585950375,
0.16913540661334991,
0.015925761312246323,
0.5552107095718384,
-0.11603778600692749,
-0.3926098048686981,
0.14020070433616638,
-0.17420841753482819,
0.03968779370188713,
-0.12323025614023209,
0.4115302562713623,
-0.36325135827064514,
0.21223975718021393,
0.1849561631679535,
-0.8861448764801025,
0.1416466236114502,
0.2780701816082001,
-0.1736987978219986,
0.4568156898021698,
0.2052055150270462,
0.7565315365791321,
-0.36209604144096375,
0.35297393798828125,
-0.07272125780582428,
-0.3669435381889343,
-0.6443661451339722,
0.2642086148262024,
-0.457783579826355,
1.2363380193710327,
0.4268697500228882,
-0.44538962841033936,
1.0700912475585938,
0.1338278204202652,
1.0329803228378296,
-0.010407987050712109,
-0.603656530380249,
-0.05693669617176056,
0.2973271608352661,
0.6604767441749573,
1.206200361251831,
-0.26245400309562683,
0.023084789514541626,
0.004133354406803846,
1.1277779340744019,
0.3805631697177887,
-0.31001126766204834,
0.07549049705266953,
0.25250256061553955,
-0.05793417617678642,
-0.8192649483680725,
0.6078312993049622,
-0.4976810812950134,
-0.1387632191181183,
-0.5276897549629211,
0.7108012437820435,
0.03794228285551071,
-0.27784472703933716,
0.8462628126144409,
-0.027861224487423897,
0.7043591141700745,
0.7516557574272156,
0.5000936388969421,
0.7920000553131104,
-0.771367073059082,
-0.35450202226638794,
0.2832523286342621,
0.5962303876876831,
-0.6851344704627991,
0.3789719045162201,
-0.39572328329086304,
-0.1558714658021927,
-0.3601057827472687,
-0.19605179131031036,
0.005344492848962545,
0.21570727229118347,
-0.0033834497444331646,
-0.42420634627342224,
-0.28906193375587463,
0.1061168685555458,
0.3793350160121918,
-0.16078992187976837,
0.29709869623184204,
-0.22049076855182648,
-0.05923312529921532,
0.48279696702957153,
0.5386106371879578,
-0.08228431642055511,
-0.6541196703910828,
-0.7059112787246704,
0.2598981261253357,
0.12061072885990143,
0.20225055515766144,
0.6349923014640808,
0.45774587988853455,
0.13776861131191254,
0.04470949247479439,
0.15932774543762207,
-0.07084893435239792,
-0.2852868139743805,
-0.49292510747909546,
0.36281633377075195,
-0.09411965310573578,
0.1463089883327484,
-0.2294376641511917,
0.12279768288135529,
-0.5597729682922363,
-0.05734383687376976,
-0.4970157742500305,
-0.5886271595954895,
-0.987190842628479,
-0.1953851878643036,
-0.17998066544532776,
-0.9635065197944641,
-0.5160179138183594,
0.21907557547092438,
0.7138022184371948,
-0.17187103629112244,
-0.2929801940917969,
-0.056665245443582535,
-0.03498462215065956,
-0.1762125939130783,
-0.4630574584007263,
0.19417975842952728,
-0.33802399039268494,
-0.00611258065328002,
0.5781278014183044,
-0.38688555359840393,
-0.2139723300933838,
-0.6673406958580017,
0.27419108152389526,
-0.3256393373012543,
-0.6491056084632874,
0.13845817744731903,
-0.2057446539402008,
-0.5898640155792236,
0.53932785987854,
-0.0653718113899231,
0.8112108707427979,
0.017801420763134956,
0.22038765251636505,
-0.7985658645629883,
0.37042006850242615,
-5.212614059448242,
0.3254919648170471,
-0.013610485009849072,
-0.15244723856449127,
0.039467718452215195,
0.21887747943401337,
0.40256786346435547,
-0.06500492244958878,
0.28807932138442993,
0.01367436908185482,
-0.1460518091917038,
-0.5548839569091797,
-0.6257065534591675,
0.5745422840118408,
0.8519750833511353,
0.08883550763130188,
0.5514786243438721,
-0.22952701151371002,
0.49129363894462585,
0.6362446546554565,
0.3063327968120575,
-0.27244240045547485,
0.28656262159347534,
0.21432960033416748,
-0.07036322355270386,
0.49266448616981506,
-0.45922499895095825,
0.46780332922935486,
-0.7224299311637878,
-0.7503058910369873,
-0.14695143699645996,
-0.654579758644104,
-0.3075976073741913,
0.3301141560077667,
-0.4084073603153229,
-0.08865508437156677,
0.6530423164367676,
0.9652038812637329,
-0.16155435144901276,
-0.4160555601119995,
0.16814234852790833,
0.2674865126609802,
-0.19996687769889832,
0.13256824016571045,
-0.39221686124801636,
0.28314006328582764,
-1.1317484378814697,
-0.38295724987983704,
-0.4750889539718628,
0.5144906044006348,
-0.46337759494781494,
-0.23154433071613312,
0.2960430681705475,
0.5643634796142578,
0.5845985412597656,
-0.26740407943725586,
0.7919080257415771,
-0.17616522312164307,
-0.5402663350105286,
0.801324188709259,
0.47718897461891174,
-0.6376447081565857,
-0.061819881200790405,
-0.8246588706970215,
-0.4743368625640869,
0.0022207587026059628,
-0.1674308329820633,
-0.4166777431964874,
0.18029408156871796,
-0.4253925681114197,
-0.29625293612480164,
0.4410216808319092,
-0.13760174810886383,
-0.7259016036987305,
0.06582751870155334,
-0.5370373129844666,
-0.2677305042743683,
-0.6715033054351807,
-0.24881651997566223,
0.3948894739151001,
0.1977154016494751,
-0.3355361521244049,
-0.19318906962871552,
0.9518817067146301,
0.4852776825428009,
-0.09284784644842148,
-0.4723002016544342,
0.35544461011886597,
-0.3362261950969696,
-0.26400911808013916,
0.00043599310447461903,
0.2899795472621918,
0.15991048514842987,
0.37924784421920776,
0.21079021692276,
-0.24980810284614563,
-0.11086118966341019,
-0.058764733374118805,
0.5637496709823608,
-0.10871358960866928,
-0.2060849368572235,
-0.20257608592510223,
-0.03745701164007187,
0.0086516747251153,
0.35093462467193604,
-0.0038155715446919203,
-0.9751827716827393,
0.07706928998231888,
0.4804748296737671,
0.3292481005191803,
0.03160048648715019,
0.7835483551025391,
-0.5085018277168274,
-0.4255172610282898,
0.021047472953796387,
0.2261992245912552,
-0.5365256667137146,
0.32023921608924866,
-0.09941425174474716,
0.3182872533798218,
-0.4971310794353485,
0.3140072822570801,
-0.20635302364826202,
0.11371243745088577,
0.2577964663505554,
-0.4841027855873108,
0.13735154271125793,
0.1316770315170288,
-0.40140479803085327,
-0.267296701669693,
-0.30322110652923584,
0.4307737350463867,
0.064185231924057,
0.09354851394891739,
0.3753582835197449,
-0.7523327469825745,
-0.47035038471221924,
-0.2537707984447479,
0.3808380365371704,
-0.14022165536880493,
0.26398777961730957,
-0.40972357988357544,
0.35355228185653687,
-0.05465393513441086,
0.5076717138290405,
-0.2597182095050812,
0.052850086241960526,
-0.30009517073631287,
-0.5328787565231323,
0.3011186420917511,
0.553852915763855,
-0.4346972703933716,
0.206051766872406,
-0.35585880279541016,
-0.46357184648513794,
0.014749572612345219,
-0.20451976358890533,
0.27489981055259705,
0.2175106555223465,
-0.25710761547088623,
0.47894376516342163,
-0.19534166157245636,
-0.3362762928009033,
0.06922630965709686,
0.3730410039424896,
-0.10662835091352463,
-0.3448110818862915,
0.0797077864408493,
-0.8000388741493225,
0.0881754457950592,
0.01659070886671543,
-0.6597393155097961,
-0.9295141696929932,
0.30894985795021057,
0.48045310378074646,
-0.07838636636734009,
0.32454317808151245,
0.36272427439689636,
0.11614847183227539,
0.2283855825662613,
0.27729934453964233,
0.3610682785511017,
-0.49750709533691406,
1.0464599132537842,
0.9601396322250366,
-0.3761274814605713,
0.03461850434541702,
-0.04244714230298996,
-0.7607371211051941,
-0.3886851668357849,
0.34295931458473206,
-0.14302082359790802,
0.6258043050765991,
0.6459068655967712,
-0.26329854130744934,
-0.39139866828918457,
0.5909151434898376,
0.15380270779132843,
-0.21977852284908295,
-0.6400226950645447,
0.38042718172073364,
0.5850363969802856,
-0.15923641622066498,
-0.0060505736619234085,
0.5149194598197937,
-1.319239616394043,
-0.05863475427031517,
-0.04111085832118988,
-0.4663127064704895,
0.7734665274620056,
-0.27034950256347656,
-1.2671563625335693,
-0.12248691916465759,
-0.24703893065452576,
-0.8049421906471252,
-0.2982865273952484,
0.7026856541633606,
-0.3269360363483429,
-0.5761972069740295,
-0.24269117414951324,
-0.38123416900634766,
-0.4871475398540497,
-0.3985418379306793,
0.03424537181854248,
-0.5675151944160461,
-0.10411884635686874,
-0.014435343444347382,
0.06644102931022644,
0.6341105103492737,
-0.4300813376903534,
0.0012678030179813504,
-0.14865291118621826,
0.3060300350189209,
0.6024062037467957,
-0.5321609973907471,
-0.5940036177635193,
0.06605500727891922,
0.830985426902771,
-0.2984272837638855,
-0.14869138598442078,
0.4131290018558502,
0.6890012621879578,
0.6024602055549622,
-0.2087715119123459,
0.3498365879058838,
0.07653208822011948,
0.8355475068092346,
-0.2790302038192749,
-0.710893988609314,
0.4231603145599365,
-0.12120146304368973,
0.09230577200651169,
-0.9460323452949524,
-0.03587298095226288,
1.201735496520996,
0.2989811599254608,
-0.25917863845825195,
-0.3430621027946472,
0.2657206058502197,
0.44285088777542114,
-0.055689744651317596,
0.09338150173425674,
0.42396849393844604,
0.48361366987228394,
-0.1958288997411728,
0.3422943353652954,
-0.6313633322715759,
-0.14318573474884033,
0.7194466590881348,
-0.21983946859836578,
-0.2932436466217041,
-0.9285227656364441,
-0.4036850035190582,
0.1639459878206253,
-0.16056972742080688,
-0.14715145528316498,
0.47835785150527954,
-0.09520813077688217,
0.36022746562957764,
0.04242532700300217,
-0.2220970243215561,
0.010690892115235329,
0.11702832579612732,
-0.49301382899284363,
0.27874282002449036,
-0.00839341338723898,
-0.30991408228874207,
-0.16753478348255157,
0.002257040236145258,
0.5031760334968567,
-0.7809872627258301,
0.10956209152936935,
-0.42080116271972656,
0.4230075776576996,
-0.599286675453186,
0.08874496072530746,
-0.08703284710645676,
0.4611624777317047,
-0.38022223114967346,
-0.30004027485847473,
-0.10858067870140076,
0.6148995757102966,
0.23810340464115143,
0.12016700953245163,
0.4064333140850067,
0.00422464357689023,
0.035693854093551636,
-0.16797085106372833,
0.15834783017635345,
0.32445526123046875,
0.015642348676919937,
0.2667502164840698,
0.4880005419254303,
0.4848198890686035,
-0.1562131643295288,
0.2671506106853485,
0.6892609596252441,
-0.5083606243133545,
-0.02393491007387638,
0.016863899305462837,
0.07195544242858887,
-0.16718260943889618,
0.39349374175071716,
-0.6203950643539429,
-0.30814328789711,
1.464280366897583,
0.25717517733573914,
-0.12392066419124603,
-0.026555493474006653,
0.05349196121096611,
0.10069384425878525,
0.40022197365760803,
-0.16925400495529175,
0.14456580579280853,
0.08602496236562729,
-0.27842313051223755,
-0.04780955612659454,
-0.03702552616596222,
0.5614970922470093,
0.043092720210552216,
-0.3115772306919098,
1.2836344242095947,
-0.4607430100440979,
0.1224261224269867,
-0.07100129872560501,
-0.014706074260175228,
0.29195287823677063,
0.7043980360031128,
0.07108456641435623,
0.31787562370300293,
0.731332004070282,
-0.036257218569517136,
0.35234445333480835,
0.014485842548310757,
-0.1660837084054947,
-0.12901584804058075,
0.4101155996322632,
-0.34639185667037964,
0.20809951424598694,
0.15119975805282593,
0.08463627099990845,
0.39997076988220215,
-0.14805491268634796,
0.05364721268415451,
0.05678698047995567,
-0.040452949702739716,
0.20577795803546906,
-0.1705251932144165,
0.5075172781944275,
0.35715964436531067,
-0.031661033630371094,
-0.22078153491020203,
0.15502005815505981,
0.5114672780036926,
0.043741777539253235,
-0.023144539445638657,
0.9636861681938171,
-0.2738822102546692,
-0.2643865644931793,
-0.31784361600875854,
-0.34678009152412415,
-0.459622323513031,
-0.05818454176187515,
0.29627785086631775,
0.43838608264923096,
-0.26520705223083496,
-0.6908764243125916,
0.3585622012615204,
-0.13209187984466553,
0.22773593664169312,
0.1886027455329895,
-0.7006431221961975,
-0.13758976757526398,
-0.1518019735813141,
-0.8166983127593994,
0.4217097759246826,
-0.7560795545578003,
0.7855077385902405,
0.25516459345817566,
-0.5348773002624512,
-0.15452246367931366,
-0.14933301508426666,
-0.10368380695581436,
-0.2150922268629074,
-0.406566858291626,
0.13167361915111542,
-0.4680437445640564,
0.4720897078514099,
-0.3163696527481079,
1.0128413438796997,
0.38165169954299927,
0.14037950336933136,
-0.561551570892334,
0.9220983386039734,
0.004377967678010464,
0.6088520288467407,
-0.06287217885255814,
-0.11872968077659607,
-0.17033973336219788,
0.31588026881217957,
-0.2748740613460541,
-0.01914682425558567,
-0.33870255947113037,
-0.17294523119926453,
0.45430120825767517,
0.40674299001693726,
0.22006626427173615,
0.6092764139175415,
-0.562055230140686,
0.0148008456453681,
0.49882739782333374,
-0.09527582675218582,
-0.3303798735141754,
0.12440015375614166,
-0.04052550718188286,
0.280687153339386,
0.027859026566147804,
0.6532041430473328,
0.20358404517173767,
-0.5135172605514526,
0.15218989551067352,
0.09480160474777222,
-0.7151736617088318,
0.43402862548828125,
-1.5926482677459717,
0.2601775527000427,
-0.044387537986040115,
-0.46599581837654114,
-0.3385923504829407,
0.07219722121953964,
0.2958657741546631,
-0.12874235212802887,
0.12679162621498108,
-0.4128998816013336,
-0.3728083372116089,
0.13339433073997498,
-0.3119734227657318,
-0.5167489647865295,
0.4490625560283661,
-0.08708580583333969
] |
200297
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin%20Filon
|
Augustin Filon
|
Pierre Marie Augustin Filon (1841–1916) was a French professor of rhetoric and the author of a number of works of fiction, as well many articles, reviews and books on contemporary English politics, art and literature.
The son of the historian Charles Auguste Désiré Filon, he was born in Paris. Educated at the École normale, he lectured for some years in the Lycées of Nice and Grenoble. In October 1867, Duruy, then the French minister of education, appointed him tutor to the Prince Imperial. During the Empress's Regency in 1870, M. Filon acted as her private secretary. Upon the fall of the Second French Empire, the Prince Imperial was exiled to Chislehurst, Kent, accompanied by Filon, who settled in England with his family. He also wrote on English subjects, chiefly under the pseudonym of Pierre Sandrié.
His only child was the distinguished applied mathematician Louis Napoleon George Filon, who worked with Karl Pearson.
Works
(1862)
Les Mariages de Londres (1875)
Histoire de la littérature anglaise (1883)
Nos grands-pères (1887)
Garrick's Pupil (1893)
Prosper Mérimée (1894)
Le Théâtre anglais (1896)
Sous la tyrannie (1900)
La Caricature en Angleterre (1902)
Le Prince Impérial: Souvenirs et Documents (1912)
Souvenirs sur l'Impératrice Eugénie (1920)
References
External links
1841 births
1916 deaths
French non-fiction writers
French male non-fiction writers
|
[
0.2934917211532593,
0.22213274240493774,
-0.47813111543655396,
0.16407553851604462,
-0.29292213916778564,
0.8553519248962402,
0.43367353081703186,
0.1623886376619339,
-0.08957606554031372,
-0.8248476386070251,
-0.4309859573841095,
0.7109634876251221,
-0.11197283118963242,
-0.2415786236524582,
0.5356441140174866,
-0.34886911511421204,
-0.05164259299635887,
-0.43164369463920593,
-0.20768114924430847,
-0.0255679152905941,
-0.2612428665161133,
0.23565524816513062,
0.3295768201351166,
-0.16003794968128204,
-0.02025744505226612,
-0.054398372769355774,
0.38083335757255554,
-0.15295284986495972,
0.06992184370756149,
0.03706267476081848,
-0.01283065415918827,
0.22175341844558716,
0.022874101996421814,
-0.39479508996009827,
-0.9949625730514526,
-0.13791750371456146,
-0.24905230104923248,
-0.12576980888843536,
0.22659480571746826,
0.11062230169773102,
-0.16810302436351776,
0.18626800179481506,
0.6400338411331177,
-0.26315850019454956,
-0.26820364594459534,
-0.6361064314842224,
-1.78954017162323,
0.4190451204776764,
-0.4383319020271301,
-0.027178971096873283,
0.2477099746465683,
-0.022659044712781906,
0.49613797664642334,
0.6648864150047302,
-0.2739906907081604,
0.8071092963218689,
-0.8993526697158813,
-0.40024638175964355,
0.2677382826805115,
-0.515659749507904,
0.1487616002559662,
0.28454962372779846,
0.41883641481399536,
0.18837541341781616,
0.42821744084358215,
0.28105297684669495,
-0.1752888560295105,
-0.28644466400146484,
-0.24013513326644897,
0.11722330749034882,
-0.026141300797462463,
0.33859091997146606,
0.17245054244995117,
0.26924899220466614,
0.42167651653289795,
-0.07387064397335052,
0.235563725233078,
0.317504346370697,
0.025283921509981155,
0.23941360414028168,
-0.07304294407367706,
-0.16330701112747192,
1.0754247903823853,
0.43611252307891846,
-0.022707199677824974,
0.2495611160993576,
-0.11909442394971848,
0.6201065182685852,
-0.5651506185531616,
-0.3873058557510376,
-0.28400516510009766,
-0.618162214756012,
0.06577271968126297,
-0.3115926682949066,
0.15749776363372803,
0.5665185451507568,
0.6239669322967529,
0.16823455691337585,
-0.3176882266998291,
0.14454272389411926,
-0.2715921998023987,
0.3914894759654999,
0.37837469577789307,
0.14899608492851257,
-0.7094922661781311,
0.1015477105975151,
-0.39874184131622314,
-0.1306995153427124,
0.3495202362537384,
0.31848302483558655,
-0.24823302030563354,
0.3869132399559021,
0.06738646328449249,
-0.00955884251743555,
-0.09621106088161469,
0.12516233325004578,
0.5473745465278625,
-0.3008493483066559,
-0.6069530248641968,
0.12344276905059814,
-0.1643793284893036,
0.2672678828239441,
0.5632191300392151,
-0.040464676916599274,
-0.4961716830730438,
-0.18958567082881927,
0.12370476126670837,
0.22587229311466217,
-0.16272862255573273,
0.2919441759586334,
0.2701265215873718,
0.7750362157821655,
-0.3882705867290497,
-0.45481276512145996,
-0.4749607443809509,
-0.3120722770690918,
0.18650907278060913,
-0.01468217559158802,
-0.3250381648540497,
0.7634946703910828,
-0.04689253121614456,
-0.26712480187416077,
-0.48698362708091736,
0.046560339629650116,
0.2696150839328766,
-0.27071085572242737,
0.13875719904899597,
-0.07725745439529419,
0.13220584392547607,
0.1903643161058426,
-0.6825622320175171,
0.047121141105890274,
0.21190838515758514,
-0.16646988689899445,
-0.055801402777433395,
0.4799928665161133,
0.5239134430885315,
0.5877007246017456,
0.2332671880722046,
0.03624865040183067,
0.2016669362783432,
-0.12014105916023254,
-0.10583547502756119,
0.13063772022724152,
0.09731034189462662,
-0.38853055238723755,
0.07125622034072876,
0.1535736322402954,
0.0604948028922081,
0.0843762755393982,
0.009764278307557106,
-0.06355524808168411,
0.6059213876724243,
-0.38956743478775024,
-0.11578657478094101,
0.4999212920665741,
0.1600879579782486,
0.03811514377593994,
0.3276035785675049,
-0.16637873649597168,
-0.7508392930030823,
0.09604169428348541,
-0.15121422708034515,
-0.09021218121051788,
0.3957964777946472,
0.40370187163352966,
0.6552962064743042,
-0.07013840973377228,
0.36752572655677795,
-0.625601589679718,
-0.6458233594894409,
-0.7486480474472046,
-0.20948335528373718,
-0.547174870967865,
0.9705453515052795,
0.12342268228530884,
-0.5434288382530212,
1.4878689050674438,
0.04577198252081871,
0.4875384569168091,
0.053760651499032974,
-0.40883031487464905,
0.012921204790472984,
0.45452630519866943,
0.0009451942169107497,
0.3985178768634796,
-0.14414189755916595,
0.36658403277397156,
0.4634081721305847,
0.7283403277397156,
0.6746446490287781,
-0.3167484700679779,
0.23512007296085358,
0.36815303564071655,
-0.4997827410697937,
-0.40750744938850403,
-0.44765347242355347,
-0.27545440196990967,
-0.03384799510240555,
0.28896230459213257,
0.8507228493690491,
-0.21947120130062103,
0.3051668405532837,
0.8656491637229919,
-0.43996772170066833,
0.07940161228179932,
-0.05378006771206856,
0.004061912652105093,
-0.10329345613718033,
-1.0510190725326538,
-0.44277891516685486,
0.1064404547214508,
0.5470902919769287,
-0.8565025329589844,
0.29518944025039673,
0.16613782942295074,
0.138909712433815,
-0.15912200510501862,
0.2570468783378601,
-0.11640948057174683,
0.35996106266975403,
0.4036387801170349,
0.16792486608028412,
0.6239711046218872,
-0.08862347900867462,
0.612288236618042,
-0.11364797502756119,
0.1643267124891281,
0.22813600301742554,
-0.029663920402526855,
0.23152253031730652,
0.5370015501976013,
0.07357099652290344,
0.043724771589040756,
-0.15029843151569366,
-0.018576830625534058,
0.5608270764350891,
0.14583799242973328,
0.4388309121131897,
0.09056161344051361,
-0.23294173181056976,
-0.1449243426322937,
0.09345605224370956,
0.5655043125152588,
0.22630883753299713,
-0.05561572313308716,
0.5164300203323364,
-0.47289568185806274,
0.1538640558719635,
0.05386240780353546,
0.36238858103752136,
-0.04627513140439987,
-0.12380131334066391,
0.35189089179039,
0.5212492346763611,
0.1287791132926941,
-0.5021864175796509,
0.217307910323143,
-0.4620671570301056,
-0.40473440289497375,
-0.424695760011673,
0.6981996893882751,
-0.36198344826698303,
0.02170509845018387,
0.23563307523727417,
-0.5530831813812256,
-0.11928465962409973,
-0.4558580219745636,
0.4368181526660919,
-0.0710584744811058,
-0.3058015704154968,
0.18763913214206696,
-0.33864957094192505,
-0.5147440433502197,
-0.38736405968666077,
0.08072224259376526,
-0.5852707028388977,
-0.4505012631416321,
-0.4874332547187805,
-0.2197689414024353,
-0.4053826928138733,
0.35670599341392517,
-0.09922084212303162,
0.6346808671951294,
0.8282042145729065,
0.04399842396378517,
-0.3719388246536255,
0.581110954284668,
-5.865818023681641,
0.0970640778541565,
0.061087723821401596,
0.036229223012924194,
0.02862766943871975,
0.09537026286125183,
-0.011043422855436802,
-0.3631522059440613,
-0.23708252608776093,
-0.5410443544387817,
0.21917347609996796,
0.09971960633993149,
-0.266845703125,
1.0063902139663696,
0.36389806866645813,
0.5031517148017883,
-0.06178940460085869,
-0.6392196416854858,
0.10911468416452408,
0.21634481847286224,
-0.18624676764011383,
0.33733582496643066,
0.4017370939254761,
0.6852554082870483,
0.8220324516296387,
-0.4365476965904236,
-0.36216506361961365,
0.3743201792240143,
-0.2582738399505615,
0.049212224781513214,
0.16793900728225708,
0.20682352781295776,
0.5872772336006165,
-0.07267515361309052,
0.2881104052066803,
-0.04015490412712097,
0.5533974766731262,
0.16965287923812866,
-0.43642884492874146,
0.5071792006492615,
-0.21196363866329193,
0.2598860561847687,
-0.5178319811820984,
0.4525945484638214,
-0.7998952865600586,
-0.13723205029964447,
-0.5782042741775513,
0.12320735305547714,
-0.09887158125638962,
0.1160026267170906,
-0.12961485981941223,
-0.1513110250234604,
-0.13443951308727264,
-0.013447645120322704,
0.13489855825901031,
0.14312927424907684,
0.6757429838180542,
-0.32877421379089355,
-1.1425162553787231,
-0.315775066614151,
0.11015299707651138,
-0.21802350878715515,
0.16207297146320343,
-0.08888887614011765,
-0.14278317987918854,
-0.34413784742355347,
-0.2696551978588104,
0.2563774883747101,
0.17764028906822205,
-0.4842328131198883,
-0.4007193446159363,
0.8592094779014587,
-0.009809001348912716,
-1.1947641372680664,
-0.04952671751379967,
-0.08957832306623459,
-0.3133428692817688,
-0.18907099962234497,
-0.17855317890644073,
0.030200371518731117,
-0.2998376488685608,
-0.3032204210758209,
-0.08449194580316544,
1.0029644966125488,
0.4717203974723816,
-0.03130136430263519,
-0.08465461432933807,
0.18709823489189148,
-0.18232415616512299,
-0.3089631199836731,
0.12065820395946503,
-0.5181942582130432,
-0.20595838129520416,
0.17263105511665344,
0.575223982334137,
0.05364114046096802,
-0.3408881723880768,
0.15723195672035217,
0.550820529460907,
0.23368185758590698,
-0.241278275847435,
0.3560708165168762,
0.08780086785554886,
-0.5368202924728394,
0.1670646071434021,
-0.15887488424777985,
-0.5955402255058289,
0.5101269483566284,
0.40011724829673767,
-0.014998676255345345,
0.02015172503888607,
0.44480085372924805,
-0.4091830551624298,
0.15105664730072021,
-0.05009622126817703,
-0.36902669072151184,
0.11064821481704712,
0.3172326982021332,
0.33826401829719543,
0.13418392837047577,
-0.7325810790061951,
0.5379096269607544,
-0.32080531120300293,
0.1382865458726883,
-0.11758064478635788,
-0.07087656110525131,
-0.18542352318763733,
-0.45815813541412354,
-0.594194769859314,
-0.3803085684776306,
0.011564294807612896,
0.3688564896583557,
-0.2503169775009155,
0.33030539751052856,
0.5415899753570557,
-0.46046751737594604,
-0.2520065903663635,
-0.6057283282279968,
0.022500161081552505,
-0.2710927724838257,
0.08140408247709274,
-0.44800856709480286,
0.3018524646759033,
0.5743003487586975,
0.6513552069664001,
-0.46356257796287537,
-0.25526192784309387,
0.09748631715774536,
-0.4561789333820343,
0.4768647849559784,
0.0625411719083786,
0.39525219798088074,
0.7119274139404297,
-0.1211918517947197,
-0.12615293264389038,
0.2168123722076416,
-0.39420998096466064,
0.36990419030189514,
-0.18661662936210632,
-0.1887737512588501,
-0.07513410598039627,
-0.0013866302324458957,
-0.6514715552330017,
-0.3634609580039978,
0.11286970227956772,
-0.17372837662696838,
-0.595500648021698,
-0.20821231603622437,
-0.3370727598667145,
0.392730176448822,
0.2057894617319107,
-0.3789951503276825,
-0.21021249890327454,
-0.021673277020454407,
0.17061090469360352,
-0.42607948184013367,
-0.18221771717071533,
0.2258288413286209,
0.1274743229150772,
-0.13074848055839539,
0.2129898965358734,
-0.2118675708770752,
-0.29459038376808167,
-0.015546441078186035,
1.0325994491577148,
-0.08423113077878952,
-0.20460613071918488,
-0.5350083708763123,
-0.3400138318538666,
-0.2061769813299179,
0.0017492001643404365,
0.09814247488975525,
0.2524688243865967,
0.7661046981811523,
-0.3881874680519104,
-0.06808268278837204,
0.2073221057653427,
-0.08080412447452545,
-0.4032905697822571,
-0.3332371413707733,
0.1299613118171692,
-0.12106837332248688,
-0.29535380005836487,
-0.18154767155647278,
-0.23835057020187378,
-0.7166564464569092,
0.4185388386249542,
-0.6847412586212158,
0.06003677845001221,
0.862643837928772,
-0.292136549949646,
-0.6534703969955444,
0.09464118629693985,
0.335534930229187,
-0.24805599451065063,
-0.01634453609585762,
0.01699110120534897,
0.1653609573841095,
-0.6930471062660217,
-0.45698314905166626,
0.11110668629407883,
-0.521660566329956,
-0.675159215927124,
-0.2266957312822342,
-0.424660861492157,
0.0317654088139534,
0.5268572568893433,
0.016715774312615395,
0.9610289335250854,
-0.14590002596378326,
0.07217143476009369,
-0.2813153564929962,
-0.003299281932413578,
0.3748575448989868,
-0.47633451223373413,
-0.416235089302063,
0.40543466806411743,
0.08323848247528076,
-0.6659439206123352,
-0.3491787314414978,
0.3428579568862915,
0.5120794177055359,
-0.06585492938756943,
-0.11619555950164795,
-0.04553300887346268,
0.4069533348083496,
0.4834035336971283,
-0.49316322803497314,
-0.4732618033885956,
0.0886504054069519,
-0.023184865713119507,
-0.05248693749308586,
-0.5587344169616699,
-0.20127087831497192,
0.3115813136100769,
-0.47655898332595825,
-0.23671327531337738,
0.42108845710754395,
-0.04152541235089302,
0.5055647492408752,
0.22344337403774261,
-0.41833096742630005,
-0.2226337343454361,
0.0034362543374300003,
-0.3144766688346863,
0.09029784053564072,
0.2820356488227844,
-0.2703832685947418,
-0.07596179842948914,
-0.22746096551418304,
-0.504778265953064,
-0.4085615873336792,
-0.5367994904518127,
0.8644512295722961,
0.013977665454149246,
-0.10282141715288162,
-0.0772126093506813,
-0.11552678793668747,
0.37971916794776917,
-0.10653386265039444,
-0.6615109443664551,
-0.03805796056985855,
-0.24391159415245056,
-0.5627131462097168,
-0.21099704504013062,
-0.33920377492904663,
0.274639368057251,
-0.03332596272230148,
-0.06457037478685379,
0.24176548421382904,
-0.33349528908729553,
-0.05566544458270073,
0.05497263744473457,
-0.10660336166620255,
-0.0849137008190155,
0.32821857929229736,
-0.3576818108558655,
0.40232664346694946,
-0.19797131419181824,
-0.30013740062713623,
-0.07264303416013718,
0.07823701202869415,
0.840724527835846,
-0.5365355014801025,
0.5792796611785889,
-0.11857857555150986,
-0.3535076677799225,
-0.322182834148407,
-0.3448072373867035,
0.287908673286438,
0.36454930901527405,
-0.09244954586029053,
-0.13770736753940582,
0.061651717871427536,
-0.27125880122184753,
0.07914432138204575,
-0.015705527737736702,
-0.39771872758865356,
-0.1262160837650299,
0.13641758263111115,
-0.016213849186897278,
-0.0450185127556324,
0.3696928024291992,
-0.9295710921287537,
-0.18996639549732208,
0.3832094073295593,
0.21923230588436127,
0.012219848111271858,
-0.4764697551727295,
-0.02587199956178665,
0.08589553087949753,
0.16227547824382782,
-0.9339521527290344,
0.34011849761009216,
0.09703651070594788,
-0.7089757323265076,
-0.32512739300727844,
-0.41210177540779114,
0.48774778842926025,
-0.13199114799499512,
0.3322819471359253,
0.8318881392478943,
-0.2209048718214035,
0.16747024655342102,
-0.16841836273670197,
0.09379329532384872,
0.04751930385828018,
0.399132639169693,
-0.2711629867553711,
0.3490977883338928,
1.1796921491622925,
0.27376019954681396,
0.26767832040786743,
-0.6916507482528687,
0.4544267952442169,
0.2723172605037689,
0.032109543681144714,
-0.3235175609588623,
-0.1905783712863922,
0.3470737338066101,
0.11291798204183578,
-0.3026241362094879,
0.6189752221107483,
-0.3859592080116272,
-0.001246088184416294,
0.6847165822982788,
0.44613224267959595,
-0.2883724272251129,
-0.07138358801603317,
-0.03607466071844101,
-0.043306075036525726,
-0.5765770077705383,
-0.17491140961647034,
0.12414170801639557,
-0.04388784244656563,
0.1853177845478058,
0.6673910021781921,
-0.03060077130794525,
0.35403940081596375,
-0.21990777552127838,
-0.4662606418132782,
-0.04955218359827995,
-0.15161213278770447,
0.225735604763031,
0.2041417509317398,
0.05659325048327446,
0.11194866895675659,
0.11358638852834702,
-0.32856738567352295,
-0.3459431529045105,
-0.37555742263793945,
-0.6460524797439575,
-0.0948353111743927,
0.10619925707578659,
-0.8179344534873962,
0.08589202910661697,
-0.382722407579422,
0.928871750831604,
-0.18797796964645386,
-0.7465294003486633,
-0.1164432168006897,
-0.1622793972492218,
-0.11920855194330215,
-0.37520870566368103,
-0.13758927583694458,
0.27521777153015137,
-0.11927302926778793,
-0.3409745395183563,
-1.1387717723846436,
0.4549179673194885,
0.1432413011789322,
0.19782476127147675,
-0.3337154984474182,
0.4373023509979248,
-0.2384551763534546,
0.41178661584854126,
0.30837202072143555,
0.15739265084266663,
0.17817971110343933,
-0.06418469548225403,
0.5245236158370972,
0.46764466166496277,
0.20546697080135345,
-0.11234166473150253,
-0.6582696437835693,
0.2504703402519226,
0.02913333661854267,
0.159944549202919,
-0.14557193219661713,
0.2741127908229828,
-0.32456234097480774,
-0.13109907507896423,
-0.5815054774284363,
0.1859438121318817,
-0.39785778522491455,
-0.16691027581691742,
0.3978857398033142,
0.46915051341056824,
-0.06937481462955475,
-0.3065022826194763,
0.43521848320961,
0.23644576966762543,
0.19980981945991516,
0.01078097615391016,
0.008483769372105598,
0.3694918751716614,
-0.49076542258262634,
0.03204217553138733,
0.07852642238140106,
0.2357635349035263,
0.3543715476989746,
0.03340139240026474,
0.2048899382352829,
-0.543337881565094,
0.5314134955406189,
-0.13638946413993835,
0.47741082310676575,
-0.517316997051239,
0.8519905209541321,
-0.054117776453495026
] |
200298
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Auguste%20D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9%20Filon
|
Charles Auguste Désiré Filon
|
Charles Auguste Désiré Filon (1800–1875) was a French historian. He became professor of history at Douai, at École normale supérieure, and eventually inspecteur d'académie in Paris. His son, Augustin was also distinguished in the field of learning.
His principal works were:
Histoire comparée de la France et de l'Angleterre (1832)
Histoire de l'Europe au XVIe siècle (1838)
La Diplomatie française sous Louis XV (1843)
Histoire de l'Italie méridionale (1849)
Histoire du Sinai romain (1850)
Histoire de la démocratie athénienne (1854).
References
External links
1800 births
1875 deaths
French male non-fiction writers
19th-century French historians
19th-century French male writers
|
[
0.12497777491807938,
0.6524302363395691,
-0.5859674215316772,
0.05819862335920334,
-0.18150421977043152,
0.5329239368438721,
0.5965163111686707,
0.138765349984169,
-0.5191048383712769,
-0.9589041471481323,
-0.2603948712348938,
0.2488126903772354,
-0.02459024079144001,
0.6866292953491211,
0.06721772253513336,
0.15935088694095612,
-0.23748856782913208,
-0.3077316880226135,
-0.6057257056236267,
-0.5039097666740417,
-0.4653072655200958,
-0.07413561642169952,
0.40884917974472046,
-0.21485376358032227,
-0.5205046534538269,
-0.05811873450875282,
0.36264508962631226,
0.43227747082710266,
0.6392419338226318,
-0.024919677525758743,
0.371121346950531,
0.5286424160003662,
-0.053804636001586914,
-0.34614506363868713,
-0.8195840716362,
0.1850215494632721,
-0.2533891797065735,
-0.08112732321023941,
0.23896963894367218,
0.2738185226917267,
0.03994091600179672,
0.7896592020988464,
0.04390762746334076,
0.046472806483507156,
-0.18281278014183044,
-0.3467792570590973,
-1.9947564601898193,
0.38369685411453247,
-0.5610882639884949,
-0.7908040285110474,
0.201043039560318,
0.0995865985751152,
0.9675347208976746,
0.604058563709259,
-0.26503539085388184,
0.7467182278633118,
-0.8752047419548035,
-0.24290621280670166,
0.03530540317296982,
-0.08226794749498367,
0.3406006693840027,
0.34859082102775574,
0.5799403786659241,
0.1098005548119545,
0.5198349952697754,
-0.18620409071445465,
-0.16183437407016754,
0.008034804835915565,
0.295320063829422,
0.1622268408536911,
-0.12005675584077835,
0.47200414538383484,
0.9699015617370605,
-0.15298466384410858,
0.29251629114151,
-0.26981112360954285,
0.0519268736243248,
0.3991492986679077,
0.07021456211805344,
-0.14346769452095032,
-0.41282933950424194,
-0.45148155093193054,
0.9461420178413391,
0.21216540038585663,
-0.18094033002853394,
0.3309042453765869,
-0.2256905436515808,
0.36094918847084045,
-0.4539971947669983,
-0.019720057025551796,
-0.8053222894668579,
-0.46063873171806335,
0.22983525693416595,
-0.33602175116539,
0.11568131297826767,
0.7977146506309509,
0.12680861353874207,
-0.020601904019713402,
-0.02143782377243042,
0.4601733684539795,
0.0305379219353199,
0.47553959488868713,
0.3430712819099426,
-0.0672031119465828,
-0.10062675923109055,
-0.08986223489046097,
-0.7094399929046631,
0.1281149685382843,
-0.04937083274126053,
-0.6625614166259766,
-0.8597473502159119,
0.48209917545318604,
-0.2622942626476288,
-0.11364036053419113,
0.1862420290708542,
0.10924310237169266,
0.34038251638412476,
-0.40715229511260986,
-0.49891147017478943,
0.2263113409280777,
-0.8269743919372559,
0.7440668344497681,
0.09727001935243607,
-0.6404357552528381,
-0.733067512512207,
0.06811854243278503,
0.2615363299846649,
0.13213157653808594,
0.021282372996211052,
0.5416443943977356,
0.6265990734100342,
0.9114710688591003,
-0.8480738401412964,
-0.3751278519630432,
-0.7590349912643433,
-0.2643533945083618,
0.10215302556753159,
0.33828672766685486,
-0.14426162838935852,
0.3217909634113312,
-0.3457475006580353,
-0.32681673765182495,
-1.1318861246109009,
0.19847704470157623,
-0.05704452469944954,
-0.1324320137500763,
0.17641599476337433,
0.15784020721912384,
0.4670841693878174,
0.19804801046848297,
-0.59882652759552,
-0.02829032950103283,
0.4621420204639435,
0.011206068098545074,
-0.6435774564743042,
0.710860013961792,
0.39703625440597534,
0.39900609850883484,
0.198639377951622,
0.020769784227013588,
0.31029418110847473,
0.11787164956331253,
-0.08495554327964783,
0.49554821848869324,
0.8304312825202942,
-0.22961029410362244,
0.1576642394065857,
-0.06795467436313629,
0.2272096425294876,
-0.018421627581119537,
-0.28850966691970825,
-0.11782407015562057,
0.03843333199620247,
-0.7634254097938538,
-0.10161426663398743,
0.6832209229469299,
-0.0376327820122242,
0.5069538354873657,
0.3034322261810303,
-0.2856704592704773,
-0.7421907782554626,
-0.051051829010248184,
-0.15520647168159485,
-0.09321638196706772,
0.3743533492088318,
0.6967843174934387,
0.8315238356590271,
0.10739699751138687,
0.3331182301044464,
-0.7938297986984253,
-0.70344477891922,
-0.4336789846420288,
0.34957748651504517,
-1.0585640668869019,
1.225677251815796,
0.5552982687950134,
-0.5094810128211975,
1.0664327144622803,
-0.36880752444267273,
0.682363748550415,
-0.2751515209674835,
-0.16773025691509247,
0.21560871601104736,
0.521496057510376,
0.2739628851413727,
1.674830436706543,
-0.03637952730059624,
0.18684837222099304,
0.42282912135124207,
0.8137760162353516,
0.9298824667930603,
0.08697871118783951,
0.4484154284000397,
0.5855723023414612,
-0.28440624475479126,
-0.24406114220619202,
-0.6829714179039001,
0.04715504124760628,
0.17082905769348145,
0.05063091591000557,
0.6555302739143372,
-0.2693469524383545,
-0.14827914535999298,
1.070287823677063,
-0.4128102958202362,
0.35627856850624084,
0.11509423702955246,
0.17367109656333923,
0.10347839444875717,
-1.0708352327346802,
-0.44508376717567444,
0.3612525761127472,
0.23664164543151855,
-0.5856677293777466,
0.18576081097126007,
0.10542039573192596,
-0.2786872684955597,
-0.4129721522331238,
-0.10885933041572571,
-0.0876164436340332,
0.4981056749820709,
0.6031248569488525,
0.11013974994421005,
0.4626038670539856,
0.260973185300827,
0.9437253475189209,
-0.517441987991333,
0.037594206631183624,
0.23887038230895996,
-0.19890859723091125,
0.18330824375152588,
0.9404005408287048,
0.3445126712322235,
-0.36820217967033386,
-0.2070290446281433,
-0.09840402007102966,
0.5882191061973572,
0.19648614525794983,
0.8177894353866577,
0.15043121576309204,
0.40327975153923035,
-0.2294674813747406,
-0.0885680541396141,
0.3022526502609253,
0.04444664716720581,
-0.015937110409140587,
-0.14481540024280548,
-0.31188011169433594,
0.12862402200698853,
-0.13261690735816956,
-0.03914607688784599,
-0.4847581088542938,
0.24378551542758942,
-1.1315324306488037,
0.08995012193918228,
0.007791455369442701,
-0.501945436000824,
0.4159165322780609,
-0.33944594860076904,
0.10286866873502731,
-0.16587437689304352,
1.141332745552063,
-0.6056536436080933,
0.6891191601753235,
-0.1395415961742401,
-0.0927809327840805,
0.00021751903113909066,
-0.2721104323863983,
0.5633434653282166,
-0.125634104013443,
0.010250289924442768,
0.3496992588043213,
-0.7200053930282593,
-0.17503851652145386,
0.04928501322865486,
0.065329909324646,
-0.9878547787666321,
-0.6677044630050659,
0.021740013733506203,
-0.10507659614086151,
-0.8581739664077759,
0.3725380599498749,
-0.0442211851477623,
0.4980166554450989,
0.7008338570594788,
-0.10096164047718048,
0.030662527307868004,
0.4106442630290985,
-4.949084281921387,
0.047554872930049896,
-0.29632431268692017,
-0.03736221417784691,
-0.09118218719959259,
0.04819291830062866,
0.025407055392861366,
-0.3256974518299103,
-0.18659016489982605,
-0.28941890597343445,
0.31122201681137085,
0.07921900600194931,
0.04841436818242073,
0.7811198830604553,
0.40562352538108826,
0.8210535645484924,
0.03942260518670082,
-0.4376501441001892,
0.2792603671550751,
0.11167431622743607,
-0.2603406012058258,
0.3074977695941925,
0.14616887271404266,
0.6037404537200928,
0.7180442214012146,
-0.2456350177526474,
-0.0440145842730999,
0.22286170721054077,
-1.1071140766143799,
-0.32577016949653625,
0.1566639095544815,
-0.13920393586158752,
0.08915654569864273,
-0.07201290875673294,
-0.1139332503080368,
-0.2561306953430176,
0.2624223828315735,
0.908092737197876,
-0.4353969097137451,
0.29434123635292053,
-0.533393383026123,
0.5270076990127563,
-0.45720094442367554,
0.4537762999534607,
-0.7485499382019043,
-0.14047861099243164,
-0.8449462652206421,
0.27008911967277527,
-0.02321832999587059,
0.38476547598838806,
-0.09248538315296173,
-0.4121699929237366,
0.4240345358848572,
0.13140137493610382,
0.20627731084823608,
-0.10901103913784027,
0.8942221403121948,
-0.47374147176742554,
-1.2814198732376099,
0.35125142335891724,
0.4606491029262543,
-0.35559237003326416,
0.41156816482543945,
-0.4657542407512665,
-0.0825444683432579,
-0.3436979055404663,
-0.17911309003829956,
-0.21581651270389557,
-0.18198628723621368,
-0.590973436832428,
-0.3748472332954407,
0.8437548875808716,
-0.10332945734262466,
-0.9320694208145142,
-0.2681104838848114,
0.29710933566093445,
-0.5260112881660461,
-0.047576408833265305,
-0.6301375031471252,
0.1852756291627884,
0.15866652131080627,
-0.4393030107021332,
-0.20672054588794708,
1.3171577453613281,
0.8690930008888245,
0.3956863582134247,
0.025584280490875244,
0.267665833234787,
-0.4033212661743164,
-0.1323990523815155,
-0.09358154237270355,
-0.386597603559494,
0.22754612565040588,
0.3801632523536682,
0.12153955549001694,
0.31030845642089844,
0.26263538002967834,
-0.49880293011665344,
0.46642979979515076,
-0.23641252517700195,
-0.1837114840745926,
0.027484353631734848,
-0.024299364537000656,
-0.4849777817726135,
-0.12302826344966888,
-0.2952336370944977,
-0.06605112552642822,
0.32913580536842346,
0.6121389865875244,
0.6616048216819763,
-0.11808343231678009,
0.5348947048187256,
-0.6991603374481201,
0.2722933292388916,
0.4193538725376129,
-0.7194746732711792,
0.12036425620317459,
0.5292908549308777,
0.5861878991127014,
0.021802237257361412,
-0.25183936953544617,
0.4558411240577698,
-0.023091578856110573,
0.1356816291809082,
0.38670289516448975,
-0.0998101457953453,
0.029574023559689522,
-0.27988719940185547,
-0.33174899220466614,
-0.24309542775154114,
-0.11090824007987976,
0.5249695777893066,
-0.1344754695892334,
0.2951284348964691,
0.5348514914512634,
-0.4977235496044159,
-0.5547834634780884,
-0.5418630242347717,
0.15003594756126404,
0.06385762989521027,
0.2953642010688782,
-0.5262010097503662,
-0.28667977452278137,
0.9148091673851013,
0.5022894740104675,
0.2804121971130371,
0.3996710479259491,
0.18054020404815674,
-0.4858211576938629,
0.736991286277771,
-0.7670490145683289,
-0.1970648467540741,
0.7638908624649048,
-0.009501457214355469,
-0.05951160937547684,
0.3742887079715729,
0.0221770741045475,
0.6528869271278381,
-0.11791002750396729,
-0.4663477838039398,
-0.22070221602916718,
-0.44424471259117126,
-0.6306004524230957,
0.39749714732170105,
0.13586381077766418,
0.5612956881523132,
-0.7238073348999023,
0.06594901531934738,
-0.5087467432022095,
0.8031342625617981,
-0.054500166326761246,
-0.39836543798446655,
-0.5364079475402832,
-0.22477862238883972,
0.19096218049526215,
-0.432511568069458,
0.43911486864089966,
0.6566182971000671,
-0.06384197622537613,
-0.29499632120132446,
-0.0041452329605817795,
-0.0383579283952713,
-0.05903136357665062,
0.36092519760131836,
0.7187708616256714,
0.11889442056417465,
-0.28092941641807556,
-0.43273574113845825,
-0.39105021953582764,
-0.12208648025989532,
0.4212370812892914,
-0.0990447849035263,
-0.19007517397403717,
0.8883764147758484,
0.1456507444381714,
-0.46701472997665405,
-0.038896944373846054,
-0.4142876863479614,
-0.24606578052043915,
-0.6391613483428955,
0.37995272874832153,
-0.08998876810073853,
0.19943293929100037,
0.5330365300178528,
-0.44421106576919556,
-0.7911445498466492,
0.12397698312997818,
0.05927790701389313,
-0.44903865456581116,
0.6604154706001282,
-0.6731294989585876,
-0.8177174925804138,
0.1106238141655922,
0.6995696425437927,
-0.5576522350311279,
-0.057217277586460114,
0.38124170899391174,
0.39248785376548767,
-0.6946409344673157,
-0.5246557593345642,
0.2603122591972351,
-0.6114882826805115,
-0.0637412741780281,
-0.5577126741409302,
-0.506311297416687,
0.18818669021129608,
0.672972559928894,
-0.05738320201635361,
1.1071144342422485,
0.13939794898033142,
0.2967676520347595,
-0.16661757230758667,
0.03439277410507202,
-0.23605702817440033,
-0.659576952457428,
-0.3138749301433563,
0.27183017134666443,
0.32904624938964844,
-0.7044393420219421,
-0.5217666625976562,
-0.013688190840184689,
0.5693488121032715,
0.035087548196315765,
-0.6835623979568481,
-0.44490766525268555,
0.3728536069393158,
0.6026668548583984,
-0.1999562680721283,
-0.17589840292930603,
-0.050627030432224274,
-0.43234914541244507,
-0.07836764305830002,
-0.9484376907348633,
-0.3682822287082672,
0.5820083618164062,
-0.1784653663635254,
-0.5837607383728027,
0.3404763638973236,
0.16154615581035614,
0.2839178442955017,
-0.04420364275574684,
0.01680399477481842,
0.153991237282753,
-0.03742597624659538,
0.11547520756721497,
0.39257532358169556,
0.35664117336273193,
-0.022845499217510223,
-0.17536813020706177,
-0.004705899860709906,
-0.13505253195762634,
-0.6737734079360962,
-0.7471125721931458,
1.3141638040542603,
-0.21422895789146423,
-0.17111317813396454,
0.3003353476524353,
-0.16064327955245972,
0.3284430205821991,
-0.1597636640071869,
-0.2978958785533905,
-0.4296122193336487,
0.30164071917533875,
0.0227054413408041,
-0.24628132581710815,
-0.47488176822662354,
-0.1966545730829239,
0.4997546672821045,
-0.3984890282154083,
0.2508947551250458,
-0.5691892504692078,
0.013129317201673985,
-0.16423164308071136,
0.041332732886075974,
-0.2528723180294037,
0.3579902946949005,
-0.9719027876853943,
0.5592737197875977,
-0.2981473207473755,
-0.0840226486325264,
-0.382639616727829,
-0.012531274929642677,
0.5329145789146423,
-0.6339337229728699,
0.8471238613128662,
0.32363227009773254,
0.08635859191417694,
-0.10671506077051163,
0.0353897400200367,
0.17299333214759827,
0.538392961025238,
-0.2138264924287796,
0.06996922194957733,
0.02937881089746952,
-0.37502768635749817,
0.057633642107248306,
0.3913707435131073,
-0.8923868536949158,
-0.8494777679443359,
-0.1374177634716034,
-0.21481488645076752,
0.12352079898118973,
0.36764854192733765,
-0.8737431168556213,
0.1660432517528534,
0.627864420413971,
0.48766177892684937,
-0.10894129425287247,
-0.269519567489624,
-0.6052266955375671,
-0.06413343548774719,
0.17038103938102722,
-0.7470332980155945,
0.5317940711975098,
0.48948580026626587,
0.2260606288909912,
-0.41728031635284424,
-0.667133629322052,
0.2268090695142746,
0.08695688843727112,
0.1171206682920456,
1.1852552890777588,
-0.5672793388366699,
0.022990316152572632,
-0.21776925027370453,
0.6040170192718506,
-0.5553595423698425,
0.3619016408920288,
0.05706417188048363,
-0.4813729524612427,
0.47368860244750977,
-0.03844963014125824,
-0.026609670370817184,
-0.7782273292541504,
0.13253597915172577,
0.12333407998085022,
-0.03925430029630661,
-0.42780783772468567,
-0.1939932405948639,
-0.8259226679801941,
-0.013996677473187447,
-0.5888412594795227,
0.648465633392334,
-0.11842711269855499,
-0.04323360696434975,
0.45204320549964905,
0.22933124005794525,
-0.40354835987091064,
-0.2397678941488266,
0.23284529149532318,
0.037082865834236145,
-0.7200623750686646,
0.17012955248355865,
0.5700736045837402,
0.5148520469665527,
-0.3608782887458801,
0.23965206742286682,
0.0003862199664581567,
-0.5085868239402771,
-0.16249020397663116,
0.027076037600636482,
0.5448901653289795,
-0.28812548518180847,
0.016919555142521858,
0.08377673476934433,
-0.13991573452949524,
-0.18321293592453003,
-0.08126746118068695,
0.46733903884887695,
-0.4314086139202118,
0.05640153959393501,
-0.8041026592254639,
0.11791399866342545,
-0.26227429509162903,
-0.7953954339027405,
0.24940849840641022,
-0.5312228202819824,
0.7165582180023193,
0.36776337027549744,
-1.0855762958526611,
-0.084665946662426,
-0.08439894765615463,
-0.3016808331012726,
-0.4696980118751526,
0.1832704395055771,
0.593142569065094,
-0.2543039917945862,
0.10882552713155746,
-1.268634557723999,
0.383639931678772,
0.20760761201381683,
0.4646676182746887,
-0.6174215078353882,
0.31281420588493347,
0.07455597817897797,
-0.08157224208116531,
0.4683983027935028,
-0.24227023124694824,
-0.29690828919410706,
-0.05461420118808746,
0.3288401961326599,
-0.038365911692380905,
0.02530752867460251,
0.10405313223600388,
-0.5931135416030884,
-0.48181474208831787,
0.03479098901152611,
0.19263271987438202,
0.5712804198265076,
0.014139420352876186,
-0.0009189837146550417,
-0.05894162878394127,
-0.5801112055778503,
-0.036015238612890244,
-0.39206361770629883,
-0.6186305284500122,
0.7243667840957642,
0.45135971903800964,
0.4012298285961151,
-0.20057620108127594,
0.15299531817436218,
0.08243563771247864,
0.4780060946941376,
-0.3172733187675476,
-2.7639811038970947,
0.17603148519992828,
-0.2909037470817566,
-0.43304404616355896,
-0.19795824587345123,
0.3642124533653259,
0.09849250316619873,
0.18845847249031067,
0.5356731414794922,
-0.598436713218689,
0.2686343789100647,
0.1682080775499344,
-0.1854419857263565,
-0.6624547839164734,
0.5407780408859253,
-0.10628585517406464
] |
200303
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Alfred%20Pierre%2C%20comte%20de%20Falloux
|
Frédéric Alfred Pierre, comte de Falloux
|
Frédéric-Alfred-Pierre, comte de Falloux (7 May 1811 – 6 January 1886) was a French politician and author, famous for having given his name to two laws on education, favoring private Catholic teaching.
Biography
Falloux was born at Angers, Maine-et-Loire. His father had been ennobled by King Charles X of France, and Falloux began his career as a Legitimist and clerical journalist under the influence of Madame Swetchine. In 1846 he entered the legislature as deputy for the Maine-et-Loire, and with many other Catholics he gave real or pretended support to the revolution of 1848. Louis Napoleon made him minister of public instruction and worship in December 1848, but having fallen sick in September 1849, he was replaced in October.
He had nevertheless secured the passage of the Loi Falloux (15 March 1850) for the organization of primary and secondary education. This law provided that the clergy and members of ecclesiastical orders, male and female, might exercise the profession of teaching without producing any further qualification. This exemption was extended even to priests who taught in secondary schools, where a university degree was exacted from lay teachers. The primary schools were put under the management of the curés. Falloux was elected to the Académie française in 1856.
His failure to secure re-election to the legislature in 1866, 1869, 1870 and 1871 was due to the opposition of the stricter Legitimists, who viewed with suspicion his attempts to reconcile the Orléans princes with Henri, comte de Chambord. In spite of his failure to enter the National Assembly his influence was great, and was increased by his personal friendship with Adolphe Thiers. Nevertheless, in 1872 he offended both sections of the monarchical party at a conference arranged in the hope of effecting a fusion between the partisans of the comte de Chambord and of the Orléans princes, divided on the vexed question of the flag. He suggested that the comte de Chambord might recede from his position with dignity at the desire of the National Assembly, and not content with this encroachment on royalist principles, he insinuated the possibility of a transitional stage with the duc d'Aumale as president of the republic. His disgrace was so complete that he was excommunicated by the Bishop of Angers in 1876.
Of his numerous works the best known are his Histoire de Louis XVI (1840); Histoire de Saint Pie V (1845); De la contre-révolution (1876); and the posthumous Mémoires d'un royaliste (2 volumes, 1888).
References
James Guillaume, Falloux entry in the Nouveau dictionnaire de pédagogie (dir. Ferdinand Buisson), 1911.
Vicomte de Falloux du Coudray - Catholic Encyclopedia article
1811 births
1886 deaths
People from Angers
Politicians from Pays de la Loire
Legitimists
Party of Order politicians
French Ministers of Public Education and Religious Affairs
Members of the 7th Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Members of the 1848 Constituent Assembly
Members of the National Legislative Assembly of the French Second Republic
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
Members of the Académie Française
|
[
-0.26370224356651306,
0.22359637916088104,
-0.6142175793647766,
0.44246038794517517,
0.010445795021951199,
0.6978747844696045,
0.8857070207595825,
0.10117552429437637,
-0.1930820345878601,
-0.7461201548576355,
-0.1912766993045807,
0.5122653841972351,
0.10287094116210938,
0.034375838935375214,
-0.0873136967420578,
-0.6625785827636719,
0.00996146909892559,
0.01849011704325676,
-0.27522918581962585,
-0.006147542502731085,
-0.507122814655304,
0.26983335614204407,
0.23284217715263367,
0.13424880802631378,
-0.5001558661460876,
-0.3006787896156311,
0.2856466770172119,
0.169181689620018,
-0.05784108117222786,
0.10998417437076569,
0.4930066466331482,
0.38289135694503784,
0.16594824194908142,
-0.15755291283130646,
-0.5499903559684753,
0.05398501828312874,
0.4137200117111206,
-0.15367576479911804,
0.5125922560691833,
-0.11891549080610275,
0.370015025138855,
-0.15686801075935364,
-0.2064066380262375,
-0.5885815024375916,
-0.4522230327129364,
-0.33014243841171265,
-1.358018159866333,
0.14314667880535126,
-0.4907812774181366,
-0.5430927872657776,
-0.1313943862915039,
-0.12746240198612213,
0.4148637652397156,
0.3775830566883087,
-0.4575977027416229,
0.17979677021503448,
-0.9289889931678772,
-0.08020289987325668,
0.033753402531147,
-0.5252367854118347,
0.21503594517707825,
0.6349436044692993,
0.5884546041488647,
0.23009201884269714,
0.09639649838209152,
-0.37166905403137207,
-0.30622512102127075,
0.5731906294822693,
-0.4885469973087311,
-0.410932719707489,
-0.12421233206987381,
-0.006875062361359596,
0.11223647743463516,
-0.03566795960068703,
0.2834776043891907,
-0.5846738219261169,
-0.2968544065952301,
0.485180139541626,
0.26080575585365295,
-0.5264681577682495,
-0.3015313148498535,
-0.371444433927536,
0.613782525062561,
0.07398325204849243,
-0.35970887541770935,
0.6008960604667664,
0.31581979990005493,
0.4709895849227905,
-0.41969025135040283,
-0.15463656187057495,
-0.6103910207748413,
-0.14943447709083557,
0.23366793990135193,
-0.41290438175201416,
-0.22293175756931305,
0.40940073132514954,
-0.07508080452680588,
-0.23850157856941223,
-0.1216331273317337,
0.11155463755130768,
0.1517871916294098,
-0.07031160593032837,
0.29826387763023376,
0.3161735236644745,
-0.2697749435901642,
-0.3363294303417206,
-0.42779460549354553,
-0.07312484085559845,
-0.4020138084888458,
0.28786325454711914,
-0.9372910857200623,
0.45500892400741577,
-0.16354069113731384,
-0.08439700305461884,
-0.14824120700359344,
0.3665908873081207,
0.05315681919455528,
-0.8217604160308838,
-0.471850723028183,
-0.018060728907585144,
-0.56548672914505,
0.09343356639146805,
0.2850499749183655,
-0.09342757612466812,
-0.025570662692189217,
0.3164576590061188,
0.35447508096694946,
0.5301498770713806,
-0.2318403273820877,
0.2606094777584076,
0.7221721410751343,
0.6988728642463684,
-0.02013777568936348,
-0.11856001615524292,
-0.09166160225868225,
-0.7940804958343506,
0.24577149748802185,
0.1760178506374359,
-0.29968681931495667,
0.25949105620384216,
-0.40040114521980286,
0.018399367108941078,
-0.20620755851268768,
0.11348402500152588,
-0.08205423504114151,
-0.33394983410835266,
0.3065652549266815,
0.2572585344314575,
-0.014057897962629795,
0.0024493790697306395,
-0.1396600306034088,
0.1261187195777893,
-0.1499660462141037,
-0.17364667356014252,
0.0036422056145966053,
0.6332479119300842,
0.6118566393852234,
0.29424527287483215,
-0.3320358395576477,
0.40652763843536377,
0.4496154189109802,
0.11590289324522018,
-0.29019033908843994,
0.03810027614235878,
0.428335964679718,
-0.5059289932250977,
0.014574051834642887,
0.12724745273590088,
0.05351908504962921,
0.2153838723897934,
-0.32513412833213806,
-0.5516606569290161,
-0.0034099258482456207,
-1.0197311639785767,
-0.4227505922317505,
0.5829260349273682,
0.4000759720802307,
0.017236972227692604,
0.6815532445907593,
-0.4446123540401459,
-0.6779603362083435,
-0.03684481605887413,
0.43431201577186584,
0.49793344736099243,
0.20739616453647614,
0.13044196367263794,
0.5415706038475037,
0.16972732543945312,
0.1390800029039383,
-0.577712893486023,
-0.40794438123703003,
-0.7662420272827148,
0.09604687243700027,
-0.5483953356742859,
0.8851551413536072,
0.3766292929649353,
-0.29772818088531494,
1.1936956644058228,
0.06325635313987732,
0.5256868600845337,
-0.25600647926330566,
-0.03461342304944992,
0.12006102502346039,
0.4566250443458557,
-0.3998122811317444,
0.9452289342880249,
-0.008771106600761414,
0.22608359158039093,
-0.08471375703811646,
0.5769599676132202,
0.6917973756790161,
-0.3576756417751312,
0.18435132503509521,
0.3555164337158203,
-0.5177552103996277,
0.015059975907206535,
-0.605153501033783,
-0.014197633601725101,
0.8888286352157593,
-0.014280898496508598,
-0.49822190403938293,
-0.24673980474472046,
-0.3725602328777313,
0.7709629535675049,
-0.18667073547840118,
0.07118123024702072,
0.24579009413719177,
0.19254855811595917,
-0.08744483441114426,
-0.6550991535186768,
-0.45979419350624084,
-0.05025126785039902,
0.5980327725410461,
-0.13323290646076202,
0.36964333057403564,
0.01559056993573904,
-0.5400205850601196,
-0.533210039138794,
-0.0001322677853750065,
-0.5172951221466064,
0.3150542676448822,
0.7393764853477478,
0.13003593683242798,
0.19361093640327454,
-0.0567600391805172,
0.2512396574020386,
-0.6235325932502747,
0.22908084094524384,
0.35098397731781006,
-0.08599936217069626,
0.0646059513092041,
0.46995973587036133,
-0.02729889005422592,
0.05078402906656265,
0.12062716484069824,
-0.08799637109041214,
0.533751904964447,
0.13000068068504333,
-0.08271487057209015,
0.20743536949157715,
0.45092588663101196,
-0.2593191862106323,
0.01891457475721836,
0.47982558608055115,
-0.1937030851840973,
-0.3130812644958496,
-0.02385532855987549,
-0.3613021969795227,
-0.0732307955622673,
-0.03585606813430786,
-0.15811416506767273,
-0.05662122741341591,
-0.17696373164653778,
0.044149965047836304,
0.09785398840904236,
-0.4078790247440338,
0.1574462503194809,
1.1215656995773315,
-0.5391014218330383,
-0.3616270124912262,
0.01718907244503498,
0.8477663397789001,
-0.6932169795036316,
0.10638752579689026,
-0.23751431703567505,
-0.3971385061740875,
0.45098787546157837,
-0.6839361190795898,
0.09218801558017731,
0.20515887439250946,
0.050489380955696106,
0.5164821743965149,
-0.5518110990524292,
-0.4773014187812805,
0.005402854643762112,
0.1468319594860077,
-0.735285758972168,
-0.594833493232727,
0.21904416382312775,
0.07993781566619873,
-0.60505610704422,
0.03502415493130684,
0.7656853795051575,
0.5634347796440125,
0.5228193998336792,
0.11345203220844269,
0.08199714869260788,
0.2909577786922455,
-5.52646017074585,
0.19549526274204254,
0.4181755781173706,
0.09548427909612656,
0.02740436978638172,
0.01780201867222786,
0.48339346051216125,
-0.2620697617530823,
-0.04357960447669029,
-0.3221513330936432,
0.3314116895198822,
0.3170531988143921,
-0.027266351506114006,
0.7912909388542175,
0.6230933666229248,
0.3688403069972992,
0.3520846366882324,
-0.6636659502983093,
0.19111378490924835,
0.4221416115760803,
0.5060054063796997,
-0.29814404249191284,
0.015256152488291264,
0.8625168204307556,
0.53323894739151,
-0.15571236610412598,
-0.02041018009185791,
0.5521268844604492,
-1.3671741485595703,
-0.3556612432003021,
0.52802973985672,
0.36807364225387573,
-0.06451919674873352,
0.17244753241539001,
-0.11759768426418304,
-0.24571163952350616,
0.6766583323478699,
0.5749527215957642,
-0.21869951486587524,
0.28962868452072144,
-0.23074871301651,
0.0627012699842453,
-0.45659002661705017,
0.49840235710144043,
-1.005385398864746,
-0.582430362701416,
-0.5838136076927185,
0.7838418483734131,
-0.48981937766075134,
0.7010306119918823,
-0.13705627620220184,
0.1473596692085266,
-0.2422756552696228,
0.24898070096969604,
-0.1131334900856018,
-0.021059280261397362,
0.32973358035087585,
-0.08539438247680664,
-1.0907700061798096,
0.44720619916915894,
0.5065855383872986,
-0.21861101686954498,
0.20588147640228271,
-0.5921059846878052,
0.4840320646762848,
-0.43408599495887756,
-0.4073769152164459,
-0.15623705089092255,
-0.35336920619010925,
0.4708876311779022,
-0.37275826930999756,
0.5263715982437134,
0.42625942826271057,
-1.36441969871521,
-0.19259493052959442,
0.03355760499835014,
-0.6558423638343811,
0.10934284329414368,
-0.16119442880153656,
0.23086832463741302,
0.19656670093536377,
-0.6048133969306946,
0.09883781522512436,
1.0683845281600952,
1.125423550605774,
0.6278663277626038,
-0.2664280831813812,
0.4273235499858856,
0.31811195611953735,
-0.2465268224477768,
0.1511518955230713,
-0.1739223301410675,
0.3413179814815521,
0.14393830299377441,
-0.011077659204602242,
0.4599026143550873,
-0.7505114674568176,
-0.1361130177974701,
-0.021288955584168434,
-0.07030736654996872,
-0.31639885902404785,
0.48817816376686096,
0.32816803455352783,
0.023396048694849014,
0.4812116026878357,
-0.38582226634025574,
0.14174839854240417,
0.32604989409446716,
-0.08493179827928543,
0.4410625994205475,
-0.41477975249290466,
0.5175238847732544,
-0.5638474822044373,
-0.07991254329681396,
-0.09036263823509216,
-0.7825538516044617,
-0.3012281656265259,
0.22420234978199005,
0.6554068922996521,
0.5924630165100098,
-0.2869027256965637,
0.7508246898651123,
-0.14202407002449036,
-0.2953603267669678,
0.21699084341526031,
-0.098930224776268,
-0.0862446054816246,
-0.32715702056884766,
-0.09481140226125717,
-0.14360010623931885,
-0.13943861424922943,
0.4697783887386322,
-0.05695674568414688,
-0.6108058094978333,
0.18092766404151917,
-0.7242075204849243,
-0.23054750263690948,
-0.24761824309825897,
-0.274482399225235,
-0.3187752664089203,
-0.06776868551969528,
-0.19690072536468506,
0.3122166395187378,
0.1762077361345291,
1.3370089530944824,
0.16357114911079407,
0.2974889278411865,
-0.3632035255432129,
-0.25226157903671265,
0.40480107069015503,
0.15733537077903748,
-0.3126806318759918,
0.5743876695632935,
0.190414696931839,
-0.48527976870536804,
0.36381402611732483,
-0.054035063832998276,
0.1858798861503601,
-0.35842788219451904,
-0.10498102754354477,
-0.14779996871948242,
-0.4891814589500427,
-1.292513370513916,
-0.2862899899482727,
0.5848244428634644,
1.0081982612609863,
-0.2763713598251343,
-0.2544727623462677,
-0.7581823468208313,
0.4455296993255615,
0.4310097396373749,
-0.6446066498756409,
-0.7841951847076416,
0.5671617984771729,
0.039293322712183,
-0.5568224787712097,
0.07089869678020477,
0.243404358625412,
-0.3674193322658539,
-0.11235486716032028,
0.18146710097789764,
-0.6655286550521851,
0.08490117639303207,
-0.12713772058486938,
0.36704540252685547,
-0.11903318017721176,
-0.22163909673690796,
-0.2353287786245346,
-0.5855714678764343,
-0.22373874485492706,
0.17638617753982544,
-0.3257552981376648,
0.2272733896970749,
0.7202355265617371,
-0.25254398584365845,
-0.5752091407775879,
-0.36620160937309265,
0.18193954229354858,
0.15702304244041443,
-0.7095019221305847,
-0.2956800162792206,
0.1353219598531723,
0.29935604333877563,
0.1710052192211151,
-0.14933498203754425,
-0.9100739359855652,
-0.05346488952636719,
-0.24895153939723969,
0.3028917610645294,
0.42432165145874023,
-0.4640701413154602,
-0.8240017890930176,
0.3851962685585022,
0.30729103088378906,
-0.35590001940727234,
-0.3908247947692871,
-0.0022399607114493847,
0.1947115957736969,
-0.4679208993911743,
-0.4494684338569641,
-0.358440637588501,
-0.431793212890625,
-0.2279888540506363,
-0.5452327132225037,
-0.423113077878952,
0.039732806384563446,
0.6347908973693848,
0.06468518078327179,
0.9197483062744141,
-0.16096298396587372,
-0.12437239289283752,
0.10389316082000732,
0.044054146856069565,
0.13612857460975647,
-1.053559422492981,
-0.14972999691963196,
0.5597490668296814,
0.4792349338531494,
-0.5583955645561218,
-0.31058457493782043,
0.24864068627357483,
0.935235321521759,
-0.2841222882270813,
-0.4487398862838745,
0.16219617426395416,
0.770668625831604,
0.3367072641849518,
0.07776748389005661,
0.15375752747058868,
0.21522541344165802,
-0.38334688544273376,
0.3116532564163208,
-0.4635425806045532,
-0.5084861516952515,
0.42618653178215027,
-0.17842793464660645,
-0.5473597645759583,
0.3184622526168823,
0.2512061893939972,
0.7089507579803467,
-0.06990975141525269,
0.12337924540042877,
0.1188841313123703,
-0.09002531319856644,
0.08998648077249527,
-0.10498998314142227,
0.47254663705825806,
0.08742157369852066,
0.12495134770870209,
-0.8294990658760071,
0.019861653447151184,
-1.0844435691833496,
-0.8647164702415466,
0.6062913537025452,
-0.40289950370788574,
-0.19501301646232605,
-0.38702577352523804,
0.032062314450740814,
0.686448872089386,
-0.2369464635848999,
-1.0548299551010132,
-0.32860785722732544,
0.09705847501754761,
-0.15754039585590363,
-0.23535287380218506,
-0.6916974782943726,
-0.013217653147876263,
0.6012557148933411,
-0.3463507890701294,
0.19671252369880676,
-1.0495232343673706,
-0.019456209614872932,
-0.062207646667957306,
0.17839302122592926,
-0.31067678332328796,
0.5637770295143127,
-0.7132372260093689,
0.3244081437587738,
-0.1499888151884079,
-0.3259105384349823,
0.20393633842468262,
0.3110847771167755,
0.6924163699150085,
-0.25977325439453125,
0.12404172122478485,
0.31020841002464294,
0.2909381687641144,
-0.17733848094940186,
-0.3172750174999237,
0.20305556058883667,
0.25415873527526855,
0.09128504991531372,
0.30803993344306946,
0.44035929441452026,
-0.3447982668876648,
0.4187364876270294,
0.13105028867721558,
-0.5069667100906372,
-0.26537859439849854,
0.12073371559381485,
-0.024388447403907776,
0.27760371565818787,
0.4180515706539154,
-1.0236490964889526,
0.15910539031028748,
0.6009923815727234,
0.2902682423591614,
-0.2847951352596283,
0.15002702176570892,
0.17853336036205292,
-0.002098425291478634,
0.3425442576408386,
-0.7171028256416321,
0.8883552551269531,
-0.1634141504764557,
-0.014749493449926376,
-0.2556016147136688,
-0.8219226598739624,
0.38548052310943604,
-0.2552244961261749,
0.7805896401405334,
1.07625412940979,
-0.6598371863365173,
0.04682297632098198,
0.17122897505760193,
0.06848032027482986,
-0.24682939052581787,
0.19950270652770996,
0.0044819051399827,
-0.08815151453018188,
0.30517032742500305,
-0.17753438651561737,
-0.09821763634681702,
-0.7460974454879761,
0.312118262052536,
0.04499635845422745,
0.1319519579410553,
0.11837305128574371,
-0.2954373061656952,
-0.028053581714630127,
-0.5403463840484619,
-0.5123189091682434,
1.0545258522033691,
-0.3914436995983124,
-0.08871792256832123,
0.17129886150360107,
0.5237203240394592,
0.007815208286046982,
-0.0629870593547821,
-0.08051494508981705,
-0.15954938530921936,
-0.5920294523239136,
-0.007140294183045626,
0.15953409671783447,
0.3617752194404602,
0.33896878361701965,
0.4743073284626007,
0.040515124797821045,
0.5282881259918213,
0.29433387517929077,
0.337056964635849,
-0.2510717511177063,
-0.18737465143203735,
-0.11382726579904556,
0.24992288649082184,
0.20618921518325806,
0.18558858335018158,
0.21382518112659454,
0.2040552943944931,
-0.018187763169407845,
0.032741665840148926,
-0.458771288394928,
0.38863930106163025,
0.09983234107494354,
-0.8041667938232422,
0.3817225992679596,
-0.5241276025772095,
1.1179800033569336,
0.3727414906024933,
-0.6069735884666443,
0.16496853530406952,
-0.1926686316728592,
-0.3437115550041199,
-0.5757046341896057,
-0.09528034180402756,
0.06546039134263992,
-0.05687025561928749,
0.20825213193893433,
-1.0957942008972168,
0.3988629877567291,
0.11420286446809769,
0.2498113512992859,
-0.19805634021759033,
-0.05064661428332329,
-0.36690497398376465,
-0.042436376214027405,
0.6704493761062622,
-0.015607645735144615,
-0.2550443708896637,
-0.21664799749851227,
0.25346139073371887,
-0.34412264823913574,
0.1430055946111679,
0.14780421555042267,
-0.10108347982168198,
-0.2523033916950226,
-0.19873276352882385,
-0.09701529145240784,
0.04841664060950279,
0.2640892267227173,
-0.13357079029083252,
0.06206458806991577,
0.08677061647176743,
0.21730825304985046,
-0.24966731667518616,
-0.15183255076408386,
0.6368510127067566,
0.585237979888916,
-0.3570998013019562,
-0.34482541680336,
-0.16230528056621552,
-0.1524846851825714,
0.5203272104263306,
0.14305910468101501,
0.0427965372800827,
-0.2020442932844162,
-0.19366762042045593,
0.04004104807972908,
0.4073018729686737,
-0.007781923282891512,
-0.040413130074739456,
0.40172088146209717,
0.39733701944351196,
-0.6102964282035828,
0.259765088558197,
-0.5485985279083252,
0.4332338869571686,
-0.207432359457016,
0.3728317618370056,
0.3786826729774475
] |
200305
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolle%27s%20theorem
|
Rolle's theorem
|
In calculus, Rolle's theorem or Rolle's lemma essentially states that any real-valued differentiable function that attains equal values at two distinct points must have at least one stationary point somewhere between them—that is, a point where the first derivative (the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function) is zero. The theorem is named after Michel Rolle.
Standard version of the theorem
If a real-valued function is continuous on a proper closed interval , differentiable on the open interval , and , then there exists at least one in the open interval such that
.
This version of Rolle's theorem is used to prove the mean value theorem, of which Rolle's theorem is indeed a special case. It is also the basis for the proof of Taylor's theorem.
History
Although the theorem is named after Michel Rolle, Rolle's 1691 proof covered only the case of polynomial functions. His proof did not use the methods of differential calculus, which at that point in his life he considered to be fallacious. The theorem was first proved by Cauchy in 1823 as a corollary of a proof of the mean value theorem. The name "Rolle's theorem" was first used by Moritz Wilhelm Drobisch of Germany in 1834 and by Giusto Bellavitis of Italy in 1846.
Examples
First example
For a radius , consider the function
Its graph is the upper semicircle centered at the origin. This function is continuous on the closed interval and differentiable in the open interval , but not differentiable at the endpoints and . Since , Rolle's theorem applies, and indeed, there is a point where the derivative of is zero. Note that the theorem applies even when the function cannot be differentiated at the endpoints because it only requires the function to be differentiable in the open interval.
Second example
If differentiability fails at an interior point of the interval, the conclusion of Rolle's theorem may not hold. Consider the absolute value function
Then , but there is no between −1 and 1 for which the is zero. This is because that function, although continuous, is not differentiable at . Note that the derivative of changes its sign at , but without attaining the value 0. The theorem cannot be applied to this function because it does not satisfy the condition that the function must be differentiable for every in the open interval. However, when the differentiability requirement is dropped from Rolle's theorem, will still have a critical number in the open interval , but it may not yield a horizontal tangent (as in the case of the absolute value represented in the graph).
Generalization
The second example illustrates the following generalization of Rolle's theorem:
Consider a real-valued, continuous function on a closed interval with . If for every in the open interval the right-hand limit
and the left-hand limit
exist in the extended real line , then there is some number in the open interval such that one of the two limits
is ≥ 0 and the other one is ≤ 0 (in the extended real line). If the right- and left-hand limits agree for every , then they agree in particular for , hence the derivative of exists at and is equal to zero.
Remarks
If is convex or concave, then the right- and left-hand derivatives exist at every inner point, hence the above limits exist and are real numbers.
This generalized version of the theorem is sufficient to prove convexity when the one-sided derivatives are monotonically increasing:
Proof of the generalized version
Since the proof for the standard version of Rolle's theorem and the generalization are very similar, we prove the generalization.
The idea of the proof is to argue that if , then must attain either a maximum or a minimum somewhere between and , say at , and the function must change from increasing to decreasing (or the other way around) at . In particular, if the derivative exists, it must be zero at .
By assumption, is continuous on , and by the extreme value theorem attains both its maximum and its minimum in . If these are both attained at the endpoints of , then is constant on and so the derivative of is zero at every point in .
Suppose then that the maximum is obtained at an interior point of (the argument for the minimum is very similar, just consider ). We shall examine the above right- and left-hand limits separately.
For a real such that is in , the value is smaller or equal to because attains its maximum at . Therefore, for every ,
hence
where the limit exists by assumption, it may be minus infinity.
Similarly, for every , the inequality turns around because the denominator is now negative and we get
hence
where the limit might be plus infinity.
Finally, when the above right- and left-hand limits agree (in particular when is differentiable), then the derivative of at must be zero.
(Alternatively, we can apply Fermat's stationary point theorem directly.)
Generalization to higher derivatives
We can also generalize Rolle's theorem by requiring that has more points with equal values and greater regularity. Specifically, suppose that
the function is times continuously differentiable on the closed interval and the th derivative exists on the open interval , and
there are intervals given by in such that for every from 1 to .
Then there is a number in such that the th derivative of at is zero.
The requirements concerning the th derivative of can be weakened as in the generalization above, giving the corresponding (possibly weaker) assertions for the right- and left-hand limits defined above with in place of .
Particularly, this version of the theorem asserts that if a function differentiable enough times has roots (so they have the same value, that is 0), then there is an internal point where vanishes.
Proof
The proof uses mathematical induction. The case is simply the standard version of Rolle's theorem. For , take as the induction hypothesis that the generalization is true for . We want to prove it for . Assume the function satisfies the hypotheses of the theorem. By the standard version of Rolle's theorem, for every integer from 1 to , there exists a in the open interval such that . Hence, the first derivative satisfies the assumptions on the closed intervals . By the induction hypothesis, there is a such that the st derivative of at is zero.
Generalizations to other fields
Rolle's theorem is a property of differentiable functions over the real numbers, which are an ordered field. As such, it does not generalize to other fields, but the following corollary does: if a real polynomial factors (has all of its roots) over the real numbers, then its derivative does as well. One may call this property of a field Rolle's property. More general fields do not always have differentiable functions, but they do always have polynomials, which can be symbolically differentiated. Similarly, more general fields may not have an order, but one has a notion of a root of a polynomial lying in a field.
Thus Rolle's theorem shows that the real numbers have Rolle's property. Any algebraically closed field such as the complex numbers has Rolle's property. However, the rational numbers do not – for example, factors over the rationals, but its derivative,
does not. The question of which fields satisfy Rolle's property was raised in . For finite fields, the answer is that only and have Rolle's property.
For a complex version, see Voorhoeve index.
See also
Mean value theorem
Intermediate value theorem
Linear interpolation
Gauss–Lucas theorem
References
Further reading
External links
Rolle's and Mean Value Theorems at cut-the-knot.
Mizar system proof: http://mizar.org/version/current/html/rolle.html#T2
Theorems in real analysis
Articles containing proofs
Theorems in calculus
|
[
-0.4126679301261902,
-0.25101321935653687,
0.19656360149383545,
0.01679055765271187,
-0.013830716721713543,
0.3158605992794037,
-0.35444343090057373,
-0.08077181130647659,
0.019684981554746628,
-0.548201322555542,
-0.3848906457424164,
0.5133352875709534,
-0.3056575655937195,
0.3830494284629822,
0.2969162166118622,
0.2253788709640503,
0.1816723346710205,
0.24433186650276184,
-0.04966385290026665,
-0.5725986957550049,
0.30590566992759705,
0.37848013639450073,
-0.03512044996023178,
-0.3078981041908264,
0.06610323488712311,
-0.118639275431633,
0.2005043625831604,
0.10202783346176147,
0.16224047541618347,
0.42326757311820984,
-0.2141829878091812,
0.6425363421440125,
-0.0898599699139595,
-0.13081057369709015,
0.05929179862141609,
-0.020564284175634384,
0.7804276943206787,
0.25575047731399536,
0.3207380771636963,
-0.16918811202049255,
0.4751445949077606,
-0.08378581702709198,
0.1672416627407074,
-0.24625615775585175,
-0.4237768054008484,
-0.620126485824585,
-1.3179142475128174,
-0.1905895620584488,
0.14278508722782135,
-0.7660319805145264,
-0.20435021817684174,
0.6166790723800659,
-0.2527681291103363,
0.8954382538795471,
-0.48828232288360596,
0.5137098431587219,
-0.35377320647239685,
-0.33261629939079285,
0.34074127674102783,
-0.2011057287454605,
0.3171038329601288,
0.2287636399269104,
0.34512415528297424,
0.49685603380203247,
0.0870567262172699,
1.179690957069397,
-0.43685421347618103,
0.1154501661658287,
-0.21699567139148712,
-0.18069028854370117,
-0.14186991751194,
-0.21184061467647552,
-0.3831399977207184,
0.5556337833404541,
-0.8948430418968201,
0.002349581802263856,
-0.39782440662384033,
0.24368888139724731,
0.3431401550769806,
0.358639657497406,
0.2195550501346588,
0.05830550938844681,
0.5174493789672852,
-0.4213121235370636,
0.17789001762866974,
0.14334703981876373,
-0.10914476215839386,
0.39958658814430237,
-0.5944095253944397,
0.3172011375427246,
-0.1632702648639679,
-0.4462292194366455,
-0.19447746872901917,
-0.15937048196792603,
0.020321475341916084,
0.4611898958683014,
1.1086204051971436,
0.03196583315730095,
0.5095980763435364,
0.1450796127319336,
-0.42243054509162903,
-0.12791207432746887,
0.07021019607782364,
-0.15711931884288788,
-0.2208656519651413,
-0.6559572219848633,
-0.28376132249832153,
-0.29929766058921814,
0.08374028652906418,
-0.124628946185112,
-0.9592254161834717,
0.33111846446990967,
0.38193005323410034,
-0.03940541669726372,
-0.8206467032432556,
-0.14214256405830383,
-0.3114352822303772,
-0.021533096209168434,
0.5467662215232849,
0.2950379252433777,
-0.37883514165878296,
0.044752396643161774,
-0.12998735904693604,
0.657321572303772,
0.04462287202477455,
0.17151476442813873,
0.10257665067911148,
0.9784124493598938,
-0.909156084060669,
0.3196611702442169,
0.5599129796028137,
0.5190783739089966,
0.7527018785476685,
0.22299738228321075,
0.08463917672634125,
-0.7733343243598938,
-0.09365851432085037,
-0.4743185341358185,
-0.596092164516449,
0.08945818245410919,
-0.190815731883049,
-0.31464657187461853,
-0.4640422761440277,
0.05376691371202469,
0.2672581672668457,
-0.10941176116466522,
-0.17142103612422943,
-0.3100399971008301,
-0.02943897247314453,
-0.2325057089328766,
0.26418036222457886,
0.6901736259460449,
-0.5791836977005005,
-0.43896007537841797,
-0.4663967192173004,
-0.14580851793289185,
0.09229420125484467,
0.5516291856765747,
-0.2781473696231842,
0.1831323355436325,
-0.24648909270763397,
0.4305885136127472,
-0.05858510360121727,
-0.3142964839935303,
0.510303795337677,
-0.8845643997192383,
0.5476410984992981,
-0.11190299689769745,
-0.3175404369831085,
0.4910229742527008,
-0.55882728099823,
-0.29525601863861084,
0.0382172092795372,
0.009693003259599209,
-0.3147217035293579,
-0.007128451485186815,
0.6435176134109497,
-0.08684858679771423,
0.7486007809638977,
-0.21566034853458405,
-0.6534196734428406,
0.5722471475601196,
0.26384156942367554,
0.0375642292201519,
0.08646587282419205,
0.2119099646806717,
0.3166617453098297,
-0.22427864372730255,
0.401319295167923,
-0.2237430065870285,
-0.5395315289497375,
-0.3456704020500183,
-0.08190356194972992,
-0.8313012719154358,
0.7319333553314209,
-0.26936936378479004,
-0.833430826663971,
0.22384190559387207,
-0.16357088088989258,
0.37075671553611755,
-0.36385074257850647,
-0.2628380060195923,
0.39487776160240173,
0.6185020804405212,
-0.6678723096847534,
0.6506964564323425,
-0.37743639945983887,
0.024929586797952652,
0.09983482956886292,
0.7168207168579102,
0.19265969097614288,
0.2704058885574341,
0.028106724843382835,
0.33596086502075195,
-0.2685643434524536,
-0.0042252917774021626,
-0.8009912371635437,
-0.2331189662218094,
0.031181849539279938,
0.07909183949232101,
0.36264392733573914,
-0.08329758793115616,
0.12934383749961853,
0.36572447419166565,
0.0485677495598793,
0.2411573827266693,
1.0043940544128418,
0.4662807285785675,
0.41741111874580383,
-0.7575263977050781,
-0.590490996837616,
0.427764356136322,
0.2416980266571045,
-0.03679969161748886,
0.25968825817108154,
0.6265001893043518,
0.7307009100914001,
-0.7547589540481567,
0.009535979479551315,
-0.4787636399269104,
-0.25070905685424805,
0.21494761109352112,
0.10818853229284286,
0.12218645215034485,
-0.45478641986846924,
-0.14077940583229065,
-0.4515519142150879,
0.2884353697299957,
-0.5572952032089233,
-0.2525564432144165,
-0.31106889247894287,
0.36221441626548767,
-0.10933193564414978,
-0.027986586093902588,
-0.3060169816017151,
0.029032902792096138,
0.34860992431640625,
0.41871994733810425,
0.42145922780036926,
0.659345269203186,
-0.03688743710517883,
-0.36506155133247375,
0.3049682080745697,
0.043325137346982956,
-0.44466859102249146,
-0.3857371211051941,
-0.7244649529457092,
0.06690149009227753,
0.7861706018447876,
0.5943836569786072,
-0.07717998325824738,
-0.3433178663253784,
-0.49187004566192627,
0.19391746819019318,
-0.6786098480224609,
-0.39506593346595764,
-0.5126344561576843,
0.26043710112571716,
-1.1523160934448242,
-0.10071782022714615,
0.48719075322151184,
0.5855593085289001,
0.022845834493637085,
-0.3322155177593231,
0.10420622676610947,
-0.5407586097717285,
-0.05240379646420479,
-0.18985332548618317,
-0.025327548384666443,
-0.20131012797355652,
-0.7503256797790527,
0.2550618648529053,
-0.21153780817985535,
-0.43867504596710205,
0.19398820400238037,
0.47716856002807617,
0.05386464670300484,
-0.575720489025116,
0.3274593949317932,
-0.4847514033317566,
-0.555397629737854,
-0.22792504727840424,
0.48754212260246277,
-0.19553282856941223,
0.05110866576433182,
-0.30381760001182556,
-0.34715375304222107,
0.19236283004283905,
-5.548871040344238,
0.4737111032009125,
0.03389762341976166,
-0.32344767451286316,
-0.11003042012453079,
0.5390741229057312,
0.5277760028839111,
-0.12580980360507965,
-0.9289137721061707,
-0.2929131090641022,
-0.24150799214839935,
-0.27604183554649353,
-0.591223955154419,
0.6623969078063965,
0.36125242710113525,
0.4381270110607147,
0.522800624370575,
0.035446297377347946,
0.0847504511475563,
0.7619514465332031,
-1.0195485353469849,
-0.589074969291687,
-0.036729827523231506,
-0.1237475648522377,
-0.0009716956992633641,
0.8525223135948181,
-0.10392176359891891,
0.6964775323867798,
-0.47205182909965515,
-0.3281899690628052,
0.03172935172915459,
-0.20318648219108582,
-0.009981770068407059,
-0.14452078938484192,
-0.03322606161236763,
0.14208649098873138,
-0.4221177101135254,
-0.46706485748291016,
0.12098999321460724,
0.12453741580247879,
-0.054171230643987656,
1.0198954343795776,
-0.07975878566503525,
-0.011118822731077671,
0.251132071018219,
-0.3870272934436798,
-0.018823929131031036,
0.6663206815719604,
-0.4416659474372864,
0.5438410043716431,
-0.2285032421350479,
-0.192012220621109,
0.08749894797801971,
-0.20706970989704132,
-0.3073929250240326,
-0.21494607627391815,
0.22316275537014008,
-0.4298602342605591,
-0.841822624206543,
0.6491226553916931,
0.752236545085907,
-1.0359089374542236,
0.07563310861587524,
-0.1782916933298111,
-0.44709110260009766,
-0.43866628408432007,
-1.052070140838623,
-0.12434659153223038,
0.20050545036792755,
0.3021242320537567,
-0.054142631590366364,
-0.001195505610667169,
0.0383329801261425,
-0.3876977562904358,
-0.47343119978904724,
-0.3269992470741272,
0.026088258251547813,
-0.01055450364947319,
0.6068680286407471,
0.5614976286888123,
0.01752518303692341,
-0.19958719611167908,
-0.2789251208305359,
0.2371896505355835,
-0.03666568174958229,
0.057316552847623825,
-0.38459646701812744,
0.45194151997566223,
-0.42862990498542786,
-0.3338630199432373,
0.6671218276023865,
0.04900066554546356,
1.0692143440246582,
0.12366276234388351,
-0.11568306386470795,
0.07642516493797302,
0.27742892503738403,
-0.04872240498661995,
0.09909909963607788,
-0.37719419598579407,
0.533493161201477,
-0.24664409458637238,
0.46487656235694885,
0.1682765632867813,
0.39692962169647217,
0.18668736517429352,
-0.276587575674057,
0.7047908902168274,
0.1179770901799202,
0.12656813859939575,
-0.5052409172058105,
-0.15853631496429443,
-0.24803504347801208,
-0.41887807846069336,
0.444695383310318,
-0.053808003664016724,
-1.0450557470321655,
-0.4032019078731537,
0.5200828313827515,
-0.1851159930229187,
0.08520377427339554,
0.3363064229488373,
-0.17436128854751587,
-0.20858775079250336,
-0.22768525779247284,
0.31097593903541565,
-0.13302703201770782,
0.5835064649581909,
-0.08064685016870499,
0.1302793174982071,
-0.2870728671550751,
1.0667986869812012,
0.2803592383861542,
0.35173752903938293,
0.17241010069847107,
-0.7075130343437195,
0.06684119999408722,
0.059142451733350754,
0.40944403409957886,
-0.1105625107884407,
0.6923379302024841,
0.6205898523330688,
-0.16996686160564423,
-0.4592685103416443,
0.7403056621551514,
0.049904804676771164,
-0.25559788942337036,
-0.36707574129104614,
-0.5377331376075745,
0.636868417263031,
0.1049206331372261,
-0.882258415222168,
0.4352051913738251,
-0.28855085372924805,
0.37230536341667175,
0.43621382117271423,
-0.45573103427886963,
0.4987941384315491,
0.1706785261631012,
-0.39124825596809387,
0.35783007740974426,
-0.05575649067759514,
-0.5973590612411499,
-0.11382035166025162,
-0.2661179006099701,
0.10882753878831863,
-0.22664207220077515,
-0.24366115033626556,
-0.6695442199707031,
0.15682102739810944,
0.3619922995567322,
-0.23587284982204437,
0.12979303300380707,
-0.20518848299980164,
-0.12532398104667664,
-0.06994851678609848,
0.04647628217935562,
0.10202786326408386,
0.3741776645183563,
-0.9857019186019897,
-0.016852913424372673,
-0.8562043905258179,
-0.48851171135902405,
0.3907758593559265,
0.7236796617507935,
-0.45349931716918945,
-0.12225920706987381,
-0.08715416491031647,
-0.26347604393959045,
-0.37725016474723816,
0.6365908980369568,
0.23772388696670532,
-0.39322757720947266,
0.04145099222660065,
0.012885515578091145,
-0.6540737748146057,
0.3514314591884613,
0.17599032819271088,
-0.28932636976242065,
-0.4868437647819519,
-0.6546598076820374,
0.476429283618927,
-0.20287039875984192,
0.8281734585762024,
0.7891201376914978,
-0.6436486840248108,
0.12021768093109131,
-0.10266181081533432,
-0.8703102469444275,
0.3539443016052246,
-0.7996284365653992,
-1.0577325820922852,
-0.45372116565704346,
-0.36622145771980286,
-0.3182927966117859,
0.3763493299484253,
0.7208171486854553,
-0.3625175952911377,
-0.2374095618724823,
-0.12736383080482483,
0.2522414028644562,
-0.5880736708641052,
-0.3042055666446686,
0.014897569082677364,
0.16314741969108582,
0.38804399967193604,
0.05163238197565079,
-0.28259438276290894,
0.9390352368354797,
-0.028277916833758354,
-0.47942090034484863,
-0.11467135697603226,
0.13630490005016327,
-0.22105024755001068,
-0.18257108330726624,
-0.22321943938732147,
-0.6091311573982239,
0.29948750138282776,
-0.7158668637275696,
-0.7168175578117371,
0.21790586411952972,
0.42480823397636414,
0.29209771752357483,
-0.2666631042957306,
0.33832255005836487,
0.5908495783805847,
0.20454636216163635,
-0.42001649737358093,
-0.34998857975006104,
0.5155507922172546,
-0.1623060256242752,
0.16558705270290375,
-0.3501507043838501,
0.08369417488574982,
0.2235785275697708,
0.3901642858982086,
-0.130962535738945,
-0.23506224155426025,
0.696594774723053,
0.5061800479888916,
-0.11662649363279343,
-0.4440368711948395,
-0.1659649759531021,
0.05515696480870247,
-0.22322110831737518,
0.729374349117279,
0.34287580847740173,
0.16375774145126343,
0.24601823091506958,
-0.3724140226840973,
0.3892669677734375,
-0.7509390115737915,
0.17355194687843323,
0.1471070945262909,
0.30779948830604553,
0.42920225858688354,
-0.261472225189209,
0.43319928646087646,
-0.15279386937618256,
-0.4213639199733734,
-0.5123651623725891,
-0.2246667891740799,
-0.22212454676628113,
-0.8824983835220337,
0.5243274569511414,
0.40571650862693787,
0.6474277973175049,
0.5992046594619751,
-0.11645673215389252,
0.573741614818573,
-0.9171580076217651,
-0.04611385241150856,
0.22894679009914398,
-0.00964354444295168,
-0.25849419832229614,
0.6382883191108704,
0.15390518307685852,
0.6015780568122864,
-0.16438192129135132,
-0.19935451447963715,
-0.6649378538131714,
0.0023306142538785934,
-0.09050440788269043,
-0.31851160526275635,
0.20788778364658356,
0.3360227644443512,
0.4674052894115448,
-0.04308883845806122,
-0.04121659696102142,
-0.03469542786478996,
0.4384562075138092,
0.31168144941329956,
-0.2684544622898102,
0.029864588752388954,
-0.1728564202785492,
-0.6410040855407715,
0.6057971715927124,
-0.39120906591415405,
0.4488372206687927,
0.8587804436683655,
-0.7600927352905273,
0.05827741324901581,
0.8351017236709595,
-0.705058753490448,
-0.6856977343559265,
-0.10090916603803635,
-0.4628182351589203,
0.5918981432914734,
-0.18375806510448456,
0.3239646255970001,
0.35530656576156616,
0.1465940624475479,
-0.6028315424919128,
0.3167389929294586,
-0.26713883876800537,
-0.17799736559391022,
0.14502204954624176,
-0.6491621136665344,
0.2512527406215668,
-0.10871707648038864,
0.5821927785873413,
0.893347442150116,
-0.022714653983712196,
0.35125699639320374,
0.11134248971939087,
0.2775965929031372,
-0.13228589296340942,
0.048060156404972076,
-0.634048581123352,
0.30891329050064087,
0.2682335674762726,
-0.1552640050649643,
0.12720084190368652,
-0.2998863160610199,
-0.023876912891864777,
-0.046665407717227936,
0.2862538993358612,
-0.09921430051326752,
-0.07629112899303436,
0.43957728147506714,
-0.3182072341442108,
0.2835422456264496,
0.26618465781211853,
-0.6181818842887878,
-0.2469446212053299,
0.020301152020692825,
0.8456090688705444,
-0.29340922832489014,
-0.10257436335086823,
0.2441030591726303,
-0.1525721549987793,
0.8550821542739868,
0.3575942814350128,
0.34501534700393677,
0.5442063808441162,
-0.5455303192138672,
-0.27684590220451355,
0.453317254781723,
0.036470312625169754,
-0.5537707805633545,
0.4908349812030792,
0.24253198504447937,
0.16288408637046814,
-0.22975638508796692,
-0.13389082252979279,
-0.3659649193286896,
-0.029877472668886185,
-0.08566216379404068,
-0.06738258898258209,
0.0147195253521204,
0.6433995366096497,
-0.26064231991767883,
-0.2481478452682495,
-0.21217958629131317,
0.21163040399551392,
0.5458905100822449,
-0.7374410629272461,
0.9639689922332764,
0.7005513906478882,
-0.4762527644634247,
0.1499674916267395,
-0.06846939027309418,
0.18518361449241638,
0.40835100412368774,
-0.21245507895946503,
0.542773425579071,
0.010164320468902588,
0.5747609734535217,
-0.38146349787712097,
0.22369064390659332,
0.17116901278495789,
-0.052929650992155075,
-0.1361604779958725,
0.5724027752876282,
-0.32531794905662537,
-0.3275321125984192,
0.17150063812732697,
0.2638629078865051,
-0.3116266429424286,
-0.7083886861801147,
-0.3425176739692688,
-0.0719495341181755,
0.011961602605879307,
0.019913995638489723,
0.2866167724132538,
0.019560327753424644,
0.1198045015335083,
0.011014803312718868,
0.2123202234506607,
0.3531017601490021,
-0.14358647167682648,
0.08177205175161362,
-0.306312620639801,
0.24224808812141418,
-0.30844616889953613,
-0.7125251293182373,
0.5130284428596497,
0.1882891207933426,
-0.2589755952358246,
-0.5718792080879211,
-0.2570928931236267,
0.20877312123775482,
-0.46397823095321655,
0.6338469982147217,
0.09648886322975159,
0.5921290516853333,
-0.7218047976493835,
-0.2766886055469513,
-0.6140239238739014,
0.45874330401420593,
0.6694108843803406,
0.28861552476882935,
-0.165615051984787,
-0.20852519571781158,
-0.027417030185461044,
0.11225774139165878,
-0.06497818231582642,
-0.21436455845832825,
-0.38096433877944946,
0.6942614316940308
] |
200307
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel%20Rolle
|
Michel Rolle
|
Michel Rolle (21 April 1652 – 8 November 1719) was a French mathematician. He is best known for Rolle's theorem (1691). He is also the co-inventor in Europe of Gaussian elimination (1690).
Life
Rolle was born in Ambert, Basse-Auvergne. Rolle, the son of a shopkeeper, received only an elementary education. He married early and as a young man struggled to support his family on the meager wages of a transcriber for notaries and attorney. In spite of his financial problems and minimal education, Rolle studied algebra and Diophantine analysis (a branch of number theory) on his own. He moved from Ambert to Paris in 1675.
Rolle's fortune changed dramatically in 1682 when he published an elegant solution of a difficult, unsolved problem in Diophantine analysis. The public recognition of his achievement led to a patronage under minister Louvois, a job as an elementary mathematics teacher, and eventually to a short-termed administrative post in the Ministry of War. In 1685 he joined the Académie des Sciences in a very low-level position for which he received no regular salary until 1699. Rolle was promoted to a salaried position in the Academy, a pensionnaire géometre,. This was a distinguished post because of the 70 members of the Academy, only 20 were paid. He had then already been given a pension by Jean-Baptiste Colbert after he solved one of Jacques Ozanam's problems. He remained there until he died of apoplexy in 1719.
While Rolle's forte was always Diophantine analysis, his most important work was a book on the algebra of equations, called Traité d'algèbre, published in 1690. In that book Rolle firmly established the notation for the nth root of a real number, and proved a polynomial version of the theorem that today bears his name. (Rolle's theorem was named by Giusto Bellavitis in 1846.)
Rolle was one of the most vocal early antagonists of calculus – ironically so, because Rolle's theorem is essential for basic proofs in calculus. He strove intently to demonstrate that it gave erroneous results and was based on unsound reasoning. He quarreled so vehemently on the subject that the Académie des Sciences was forced to intervene on several occasions.
Among his several achievements, Rolle helped advance the currently accepted size order for negative numbers. Descartes, for example, viewed –2 as smaller than –5. Rolle preceded most of his contemporaries by adopting the current convention in 1691.
Rolle died in Paris. No contemporary portrait of him is known.
Work
Rolle was an early critic of infinitesimal calculus, arguing that it was inaccurate, based upon unsound reasoning, and was a collection of ingenious fallacies, but later changed his opinion.
In 1690, Rolle published Traité d'Algebre. It contains the first published description in Europe of the Gaussian elimination algorithm, which Rolle called the method of substitution Some examples of the method had previously appeared in algebra books, and Isaac Newton had previously described the method in his lecture notes, but Newton's lesson was not published until 1707. Rolle's statement of the method seems not to have been noticed insofar as the lesson for Gaussian elimination that was taught in 18th- and 19th-century algebra textbooks owes more to Newton than to Rolle.
Rolle is best known for Rolle's theorem in differential calculus. Rolle had used the result in 1690, and he proved it (by the standards of the time) in 1691. Given his animosity to infinitesimals it is fitting that the result was couched in terms of algebra rather than analysis. Only in the 18th century was the theorem interpreted as a fundamental result in differential calculus. Indeed, it is needed to prove both the mean value theorem and the existence of Taylor series. As the importance of the theorem grew, so did the interest in identifying the origin, and it was finally named Rolle's theorem in the 19th century. Barrow-Green remarks that the theorem might well have been named for someone else had not a few copies of Rolle's 1691 publication survived.
Critique of infinitesimal calculus
In a criticism of infinitesimal calculus that predated George Berkeley's, Rolle presented a series of papers at the French academy, alleging that the use of the methods of infinitesimal calculus leads to errors. Specifically, he presented an explicit algebraic curve, and alleged that some of its local minima are missed when one applies the methods of infinitesimal calculus. Pierre Varignon responded by pointing out that Rolle had misrepresented the curve, and that the alleged local minima are in fact singular points with a vertical tangent.
References
Bibliography
Barrow-Green, June (2009). "From cascades to calculus: Rolle's theorem". In: Eleanor Robson and Jacqueline A. Stedall (eds.), The Oxford handbook of the history of mathematics, Oxford University Press, pp. 737–754.
Blay, Michel (1986). [Two moments in the criticism of infinitesimal calculus: Michel Rolle and George Berkeley]. Revue d'histoire des sciences, v. 39, no. 3, pp. 223–253.
Rolle, Michel (1690). Traité d'Algebre. E. Michallet, Paris.
Rolle, Michel (1691). Démonstration d'une Méthode pour resoudre les Egalitez de tous les degrez.
External links
Michel Rolle Biography
1652 births
1719 deaths
History of calculus
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
17th-century French mathematicians
18th-century French mathematicians
|
[
-0.5020462274551392,
0.5861876010894775,
-0.39675527811050415,
0.2693602740764618,
0.0019802150782197714,
1.1706550121307373,
0.6850804686546326,
-0.09966927021741867,
-0.44183728098869324,
-0.4899706542491913,
-0.10459467768669128,
0.002372059505432844,
-0.024729570373892784,
-0.09649092704057693,
0.022655196487903595,
0.23205289244651794,
0.026241017505526543,
-0.9731462597846985,
0.024044450372457504,
-0.36876538395881653,
-0.04628118872642517,
0.11323431879281998,
0.14842884242534637,
0.23609547317028046,
-0.5776507258415222,
0.21119309961795807,
0.005030964035540819,
0.023634392768144608,
0.5999701023101807,
-0.015403598546981812,
-0.21340374648571014,
0.9569678902626038,
0.09814484417438507,
-0.05225781723856926,
-0.5749380588531494,
0.4052048921585083,
-0.5869592428207397,
0.145585834980011,
0.2528490722179413,
0.065006785094738,
0.203110471367836,
0.3441846966743469,
-0.13152389228343964,
0.1629180908203125,
-0.08895819634199142,
-0.16931135952472687,
-2.25606369972229,
-0.010987129993736744,
-0.3078950345516205,
-0.685549795627594,
0.5427371859550476,
0.11225107312202454,
-0.009251740761101246,
0.8332226872444153,
-0.472695916891098,
0.2500414550304413,
-0.5959678292274475,
-0.18840280175209045,
0.1575368493795395,
-0.005388054996728897,
0.3344860374927521,
0.13997045159339905,
0.2643251121044159,
0.05838184803724289,
0.4492748975753784,
0.02300659380853176,
-0.4257188141345978,
0.13237826526165009,
0.06365611404180527,
0.05717698857188225,
0.3584443926811218,
0.4822099208831787,
0.16549071669578552,
-0.321624219417572,
0.31066441535949707,
-0.46239134669303894,
-0.008738589473068714,
0.7128915786743164,
0.12069474160671234,
0.18831944465637207,
-0.1999254822731018,
-0.32414495944976807,
1.0201771259307861,
0.02071657031774521,
-0.09433240443468094,
0.4396020472049713,
-0.22254358232021332,
0.7989082336425781,
-0.6409209966659546,
-0.4302007257938385,
-0.3644387423992157,
-0.5614895224571228,
0.37646499276161194,
0.07663709670305252,
0.5555552840232849,
0.5389871597290039,
-0.1399238556623459,
0.49891242384910583,
-0.13041117787361145,
-0.1390315443277359,
-0.2704666256904602,
0.18865765631198883,
0.32211586833000183,
-0.21592697501182556,
0.2455662339925766,
-0.2825266718864441,
-0.10247953236103058,
-0.4154494106769562,
-0.33024612069129944,
-0.9525367021560669,
-0.46662044525146484,
0.43727269768714905,
-0.34294798970222473,
0.15789130330085754,
0.02410094439983368,
0.3600786328315735,
0.19457276165485382,
-0.7033960819244385,
-0.43973201513290405,
0.3781777620315552,
-0.2395656257867813,
0.2458285391330719,
-0.13226455450057983,
0.29131627082824707,
-0.7668015956878662,
-0.013786105439066887,
0.14095132052898407,
0.6584047675132751,
-0.13101322948932648,
-0.0896044448018074,
0.387726753950119,
1.3208800554275513,
-0.3301750123500824,
0.313233345746994,
-0.5315013527870178,
0.325328528881073,
-0.0008966290042735636,
0.06990420073270798,
-0.8501302003860474,
0.18746860325336456,
-0.5838363766670227,
-0.3324591815471649,
-1.2164990901947021,
-0.1565801352262497,
-0.308830201625824,
0.073509082198143,
0.07962920516729355,
-0.23232519626617432,
0.32790645956993103,
-0.20231221616268158,
-0.7874011397361755,
0.07550214231014252,
-0.21841856837272644,
-0.24598798155784607,
-0.11784577369689941,
0.3758414685726166,
0.3753640055656433,
0.7552640438079834,
-0.17498983442783356,
0.09056159108877182,
0.1472722589969635,
-0.13238778710365295,
-0.687896728515625,
0.10860542953014374,
0.5319434404373169,
-0.5374581813812256,
0.5639237761497498,
-0.5100257396697998,
-0.2674836814403534,
0.10837248712778091,
-0.5704053640365601,
-0.26212215423583984,
0.14655368030071259,
-0.001979605760425329,
0.06637713313102722,
0.012831874191761017,
-0.12220203131437302,
0.0980343148112297,
0.5637977123260498,
0.034252189099788666,
-0.7783339023590088,
-0.05043433606624603,
-0.004379698075354099,
0.07827692478895187,
0.604074239730835,
0.7733561396598816,
1.0607490539550781,
-0.12047658115625381,
0.44161322712898254,
-0.48270416259765625,
-0.5494357943534851,
-0.4266566038131714,
0.27827179431915283,
-0.1178380474448204,
1.4589890241622925,
0.2184937298297882,
-0.6324032545089722,
0.7398967742919922,
0.154256671667099,
0.7415714859962463,
-1.1463589668273926,
-0.13530117273330688,
0.4708647131919861,
0.4119512438774109,
0.5020024180412292,
1.6095713376998901,
0.06310711055994034,
-0.21843616664409637,
0.21836692094802856,
0.5537258982658386,
0.5151584148406982,
-0.08283931761980057,
0.37760844826698303,
0.34282147884368896,
-0.708488941192627,
-0.38529226183891296,
-0.7374171614646912,
0.007788302376866341,
0.14303180575370789,
0.12313463538885117,
0.5928532481193542,
0.3383347690105438,
0.015795692801475525,
1.3542139530181885,
0.096869096159935,
0.9428043961524963,
0.3013717532157898,
0.686585009098053,
0.3758750557899475,
-1.353317379951477,
-0.6168253421783447,
-0.21850495040416718,
-0.010721433907747269,
-0.34355583786964417,
0.2877938151359558,
0.11194469779729843,
0.14684917032718658,
-0.7762308120727539,
0.13186463713645935,
-0.19041217863559723,
-0.01653972826898098,
0.6009035110473633,
-0.019275743514299393,
0.10676515847444534,
-0.11283412575721741,
0.40887314081192017,
-0.5206873416900635,
0.2189791351556778,
0.06206170469522476,
-0.41429412364959717,
-0.30664005875587463,
0.7857030630111694,
-0.3491929769515991,
0.23932382464408875,
-0.47400766611099243,
-0.27801138162612915,
0.7218019366264343,
0.5830900073051453,
0.46396467089653015,
0.16083115339279175,
0.23835235834121704,
-0.3651895523071289,
-0.0488419383764267,
-0.018344314768910408,
0.15266697108745575,
-0.40305235981941223,
-0.35780563950538635,
-0.3165303170681,
0.6091427206993103,
0.07209512591362,
-0.04009615257382393,
-0.6900783181190491,
-0.13186024129390717,
-1.2996339797973633,
-0.04631614685058594,
-0.6002405285835266,
-0.36693933606147766,
-0.01773655042052269,
-0.46432194113731384,
0.05861607939004898,
-0.21647188067436218,
0.6978343725204468,
-0.7932365536689758,
0.5853559970855713,
0.14757545292377472,
0.4036906361579895,
0.008355318568646908,
-0.433967262506485,
0.7243843674659729,
-0.3561374545097351,
-0.2721332013607025,
0.631836473941803,
-0.34717413783073425,
-0.19564034044742584,
0.10231839120388031,
0.17769968509674072,
-0.7516816258430481,
-1.3960386514663696,
-0.0254819393157959,
-0.21428340673446655,
-0.8436644077301025,
0.18999014794826508,
0.3019433319568634,
0.08817006647586823,
0.33286839723587036,
0.006909877993166447,
0.03176502883434296,
0.34272366762161255,
-4.833035945892334,
0.040064629167318344,
-0.095303475856781,
-0.03356239199638367,
-0.21762990951538086,
0.47515031695365906,
0.6534985899925232,
-0.11144493520259857,
-0.3245750963687897,
-0.20174892246723175,
-0.15470772981643677,
-0.4015885889530182,
-0.30758509039878845,
0.721062421798706,
0.6134591102600098,
0.6066531538963318,
0.7797579765319824,
-0.06720085442066193,
0.41771504282951355,
0.19981366395950317,
-0.09390269219875336,
-0.08745666593313217,
-0.4009811580181122,
0.17207594215869904,
-0.09240727871656418,
0.09502166509628296,
0.364368736743927,
0.3300792872905731,
-0.8311617970466614,
-0.6635307669639587,
-0.3274311125278473,
0.038381561636924744,
0.03189116343855858,
-0.06016257405281067,
0.27556926012039185,
-0.30960434675216675,
0.4797682762145996,
0.942004382610321,
-0.1822829246520996,
0.7255448698997498,
-0.09063329547643661,
0.5084229707717896,
-0.28904756903648376,
0.3768896758556366,
-0.5837030410766602,
-0.23235315084457397,
-0.5226321220397949,
0.6356468796730042,
-0.4967670142650604,
0.23282907903194427,
0.28709742426872253,
-0.10226673632860184,
0.20621901750564575,
0.13086894154548645,
0.1576472967863083,
-0.3529546856880188,
0.1651594340801239,
0.10888726264238358,
-1.0304597616195679,
0.5578138828277588,
0.5070521831512451,
-0.8902907371520996,
0.38277438282966614,
-0.4096221923828125,
-0.20503747463226318,
-0.2581881284713745,
-0.29915639758110046,
-0.14067289233207703,
0.1690949648618698,
-0.377476304769516,
0.13137483596801758,
0.7981429100036621,
-0.14595161378383636,
-1.1651250123977661,
-0.17446450889110565,
-0.040535807609558105,
-0.3711915910243988,
-0.13053087890148163,
-0.4516405463218689,
-0.20932798087596893,
0.7075499892234802,
-0.5176293849945068,
-0.5050932765007019,
0.7486377358436584,
0.5148468613624573,
0.24755631387233734,
-0.35387617349624634,
0.4666016399860382,
-0.8298509120941162,
-0.22940963506698608,
0.41255781054496765,
-0.006931080482900143,
0.3986091613769531,
0.06974101811647415,
0.23149758577346802,
0.10282377153635025,
0.24104970693588257,
-0.5666093230247498,
0.3921811878681183,
0.247808039188385,
-0.44144493341445923,
0.29876911640167236,
0.23609645664691925,
-0.7172677516937256,
0.2657434642314911,
-0.35519710183143616,
-0.15073496103286743,
0.5564063787460327,
0.804794430732727,
0.8481003046035767,
-0.008738700300455093,
0.9437822103500366,
-0.3869093656539917,
-0.0865044817328453,
0.3185982406139374,
-0.4032704830169678,
-0.161660835146904,
-0.15333953499794006,
0.0868176519870758,
-0.2243468314409256,
-0.43455126881599426,
0.11929086595773697,
-0.381119042634964,
-0.3355201780796051,
0.7901712656021118,
0.1432533860206604,
-0.07355071604251862,
-0.0311460942029953,
-0.5079111456871033,
-0.16125626862049103,
-0.04299435764551163,
0.7781730890274048,
-0.04182837903499603,
0.4128209352493286,
0.029368381947278976,
-0.399290531873703,
-0.42247313261032104,
-0.48242849111557007,
0.4042116105556488,
-0.2869710624217987,
0.5031290650367737,
-0.029487140476703644,
0.29179176688194275,
0.30514442920684814,
0.3757737874984741,
0.2581498622894287,
0.3378835916519165,
-0.22457735240459442,
-0.061017703264951706,
0.9926519393920898,
0.030260704457759857,
-0.30418384075164795,
0.6577200293540955,
-0.05190536752343178,
0.24931487441062927,
0.4858834743499756,
-0.2101253867149353,
-0.005828666500747204,
0.4936811327934265,
-0.24943707883358002,
0.3938378095626831,
0.1604606658220291,
-1.1444129943847656,
0.08394385129213333,
-0.046633873134851456,
0.09328600764274597,
-0.5982125997543335,
0.15096624195575714,
-0.4464830160140991,
0.6045622229576111,
0.025510642677545547,
-0.4213164746761322,
-0.2366681843996048,
-0.45906344056129456,
-0.21865788102149963,
-0.11192356795072556,
0.6231261491775513,
0.2394859939813614,
0.30627456307411194,
-0.6537647843360901,
0.22368763387203217,
-0.28518006205558777,
-0.3350883722305298,
0.41770583391189575,
0.5063332915306091,
-0.05343497171998024,
-0.15886268019676208,
-0.41619494557380676,
-0.04742978885769844,
-0.15538620948791504,
-0.05984489992260933,
-0.3671213388442993,
-0.283191978931427,
0.7181679606437683,
0.19362765550613403,
-0.29919615387916565,
0.5705685615539551,
-0.11148583143949509,
-0.2623361647129059,
-0.5472391247749329,
-0.4196181893348694,
0.12881743907928467,
-0.13803555071353912,
-0.05268024653196335,
0.36180752515792847,
-1.299933671951294,
-0.07790753245353699,
-0.021807964891195297,
-0.3667048215866089,
0.3679710924625397,
-0.5676513910293579,
-0.46370822191238403,
-0.08541514724493027,
0.2536664605140686,
-0.7696969509124756,
0.26515835523605347,
0.5393291115760803,
0.2329491823911667,
-1.2793771028518677,
-0.4689500033855438,
-0.6904764175415039,
0.17993196845054626,
-0.5935560464859009,
-0.7186581492424011,
-0.4751814305782318,
-0.1261165589094162,
0.1454823911190033,
0.1669996827840805,
0.8421756625175476,
0.6063268184661865,
-0.2564280331134796,
-0.46844351291656494,
0.06395547837018967,
-0.34051546454429626,
-0.2767312526702881,
-0.5431135296821594,
0.6606740355491638,
0.2445761114358902,
-0.6112546324729919,
-0.44766953587532043,
0.40549236536026,
0.7615801095962524,
0.26241496205329895,
-0.0495782271027565,
-0.16469977796077728,
0.02356555312871933,
0.42699989676475525,
-0.10560016334056854,
0.0692272037267685,
-0.012138497084379196,
-0.19047614932060242,
-0.14576920866966248,
-0.61958247423172,
-0.05293875187635422,
0.7674119472503662,
0.5500907897949219,
-0.14800341427326202,
0.2901858687400818,
0.7197376489639282,
0.15800629556179047,
0.0068079447373747826,
0.22303710877895355,
0.14574803411960602,
-0.541113018989563,
0.08337265998125076,
0.19212311506271362,
0.27102038264274597,
-0.23917491734027863,
0.16540125012397766,
0.04292382672429085,
0.08133412152528763,
-1.0529156923294067,
-1.046332597732544,
0.9532864093780518,
-0.166766956448555,
0.23747768998146057,
0.2648855745792389,
-0.18401820957660675,
0.7765305638313293,
-0.21420332789421082,
-0.253373384475708,
0.22297191619873047,
-0.03789617493748665,
-0.2871089279651642,
-0.3048814833164215,
0.028989076614379883,
-0.16256771981716156,
0.5747461318969727,
-0.2499539703130722,
0.43942534923553467,
-0.9307453632354736,
0.29487669467926025,
-0.27302616834640503,
0.371173232793808,
0.23816467821598053,
0.4708717167377472,
-0.26522737741470337,
0.6526211500167847,
-0.23370331525802612,
-0.2460649162530899,
-0.555403470993042,
0.3968029320240021,
0.7126539349555969,
-0.2940637171268463,
0.45362260937690735,
0.5723750591278076,
-0.12542018294334412,
0.39681577682495117,
-0.2549714744091034,
0.127658873796463,
0.6179872155189514,
-0.19253532588481903,
-0.16642779111862183,
-0.25797414779663086,
-0.3552437424659729,
-0.12789371609687805,
0.41652539372444153,
-0.6600707769393921,
-0.4990219473838806,
0.14843130111694336,
0.21793310344219208,
0.023015417158603668,
0.8636173009872437,
-1.0351814031600952,
-0.16404330730438232,
0.5987625122070312,
0.37190788984298706,
-0.19679808616638184,
-0.2605293095111847,
-0.25873345136642456,
0.17556987702846527,
-0.2526947557926178,
-0.28478288650512695,
0.3930581212043762,
-0.04307745769619942,
-0.07056217640638351,
-0.37788721919059753,
-0.742510974407196,
0.1347423493862152,
-0.4919903576374054,
0.5947414636611938,
1.4076526165008545,
-0.5062058568000793,
0.3034560978412628,
-0.5915101766586304,
0.3423611521720886,
-0.3239799737930298,
0.14345772564411163,
-0.3911776840686798,
0.04276048764586449,
0.1917584389448166,
-0.5364252924919128,
0.2735009491443634,
-0.7408276796340942,
0.21314458549022675,
0.10720714926719666,
0.6606235504150391,
-0.3027727007865906,
0.1308538168668747,
-0.8540352582931519,
-0.05328629910945892,
-0.1866004765033722,
0.9902056455612183,
-0.05503437668085098,
-0.2607024908065796,
0.5208188891410828,
0.05929287523031235,
-0.17018786072731018,
0.35942021012306213,
-0.09846758842468262,
-0.3692675232887268,
-0.6313862204551697,
0.3239796459674835,
0.6010839343070984,
0.4376993477344513,
-0.2304561734199524,
0.07557786256074905,
-0.004418761003762484,
-0.6376226544380188,
-0.2067478448152542,
-0.12022360414266586,
-0.1669704020023346,
-0.14458705484867096,
-0.27237236499786377,
0.08896168321371078,
-0.0845908671617508,
-0.3684140741825104,
-0.16189466416835785,
0.0012615977320820093,
-0.2830141484737396,
0.3412085473537445,
-0.6760936379432678,
0.014560629613697529,
-0.18983803689479828,
-0.8747989535331726,
0.422435462474823,
-0.047084808349609375,
0.8322591781616211,
0.5976129174232483,
-0.7383550405502319,
-0.03188670799136162,
-0.16325849294662476,
0.2857957184314728,
-0.5154359936714172,
-0.06682087481021881,
0.20146444439888,
0.07115601748228073,
0.6132352352142334,
-0.752080500125885,
0.7028312683105469,
0.2704298794269562,
-0.10702904313802719,
-0.5675570368766785,
0.29663851857185364,
-0.2371266633272171,
-0.2951284945011139,
0.5622060298919678,
-0.03567012771964073,
-0.2603701949119568,
0.4749458134174347,
0.128506600856781,
-0.038496099412441254,
-0.026407204568386078,
-0.2674177587032318,
0.21293704211711884,
-0.05878215283155441,
0.11263004690408707,
-0.157011941075325,
0.40917009115219116,
0.16506773233413696,
0.1459975391626358,
0.024083495140075684,
-0.7220315337181091,
0.1807325929403305,
0.17305760085582733,
-0.8986851572990417,
1.0030195713043213,
0.20076976716518402,
0.11524898558855057,
-0.5611321926116943,
0.31530871987342834,
0.6365176439285278,
-0.54127436876297,
0.2656959891319275,
-2.9764089584350586,
0.1447562575340271,
-0.1015845462679863,
-0.4117814898490906,
0.30148568749427795,
0.470439076423645,
-0.018604867160320282,
-0.13019514083862305,
0.7919553518295288,
-0.931612491607666,
0.2798365652561188,
0.09119068086147308,
-0.015667177736759186,
-0.32040873169898987,
0.17877160012722015,
0.5638894438743591
] |
200310
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20nitrate
|
Sodium nitrate
|
Sodium nitrate is the chemical compound with the formula . This alkali metal nitrate salt is also known as Chile saltpeter (large deposits of which were historically mined in Chile) to distinguish it from ordinary saltpeter, potassium nitrate. The mineral form is also known as nitratine, nitratite or soda niter.
Sodium nitrate is a white deliquescent solid very soluble in water. It is a readily available source of the nitrate anion (NO3−), which is useful in several reactions carried out on industrial scales for the production of fertilizers, pyrotechnics, smoke bombs and other explosives, glass and pottery enamels, food preservatives (esp. meats), and solid rocket propellant. It has been mined extensively for these purposes.
History
The first shipment of saltpeter to Europe arrived in England from Peru in 1820 or 1825, right after that country's independence from Spain, but did not find any buyers and was dumped at sea in order to avoid customs toll. With time, however, the mining of South American saltpeter became a profitable business (in 1859, England alone consumed 47,000 metric tons). Chile fought the War of the Pacific (1879–1884) against the allies Peru and Bolivia and took over their richest deposits of saltpeter. In 1919, Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff determined its crystal structure using X-ray crystallography.
Occurrence
The largest accumulations of naturally occurring sodium nitrate are found in Chile and Peru, where nitrate salts are bound within mineral deposits called caliche ore. Nitrates accumulate on land through marine-fog precipitation and sea-spray oxidation/desiccation followed by gravitational settling of airborne NaNO3, KNO3, NaCl, Na2SO4, and I, in the hot-dry desert atmosphere. El Niño/La Niña extreme aridity/torrential rain cycles favor nitrates accumulation through both aridity and water solution/remobilization/transportation onto slopes and into basins; capillary solution movement forms layers of nitrates; pure nitrate forms rare veins. For more than a century, the world supply of the compound was mined almost exclusively from the Atacama desert in northern Chile until, at the turn of the 20th century, German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed a process for producing ammonia from the atmosphere on an industrial scale (see Haber process). With the onset of World War I, Germany began converting ammonia from this process into a synthetic Chilean saltpeter, which was as practical as the natural compound in production of gunpowder and other munitions. By the 1940s, this conversion process resulted in a dramatic decline in demand for sodium nitrate procured from natural sources.
Chile still has the largest reserves of caliche, with active mines in such locations as Pedro de Valdivia, María Elena and Pampa Blanca, and there it used to be called white gold. Sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, sodium sulfate and iodine are all obtained by the processing of caliche. The former Chilean saltpeter mining communities of Humberstone and Santa Laura were declared Unesco World Heritage sites in 2005.
Synthesis
Sodium nitrate is also synthesized industrially by neutralizing nitric acid with sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate:
2 HNO3 + Na2CO3 → 2 NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
HNO3 + NaHCO3 → NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
or also by neutralizing it with sodium hydroxide (however, this reaction is very exothermic):
HNO3 + NaOH → NaNO3 + H2O
or by mixing stoichiometric amounts of ammonium nitrate and sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate:
NH4NO3 + NaOH → NaNO3 + NH4OH
NH4NO3 + NaHCO3 → NaNO3 + NH4HCO3
2NH4NO3 + Na2CO3 → 2NaNO3 + (NH4)2CO3
Uses
Most sodium nitrate is used in fertilizers, where it supplies a water soluble form of nitrogen. Its use, which is mainly outside of the Western World, is attractive since it does not alter the pH of the soil. Another major use is as a complement to ammonium nitrate in explosives. Molten sodium nitrate and its solutions with potassium nitrate have good thermal stability (up to 600 °C) and high heat capacities. These properties are suitable for thermally annealing metals and for storing thermal energy in solar applications.
Food
Sodium nitrate is also a food additive used as a preservative and color fixative in cured meats and poultry; it is listed under its INS number 251 or E number E251. It is approved for use in the EU, US and Australia and New Zealand. Sodium nitrate should not be confused with sodium nitrite, which is also a common food additive and preservative used, for example, in deli meats.
Thermal storage
Sodium nitrate has also been investigated as a phase-change material for thermal energy recovery, owing to its relatively high melting enthalpy of 178 J/g. Examples of the applications of sodium nitrate used for thermal energy storage include solar thermal power technologies and direct steam generating parabolic troughs.
Health concerns
Studies have shown a link between increased levels of nitrates and increased deaths from certain diseases including Alzheimer's disease, diabetes mellitus, stomach cancer, and Parkinson's disease: possibly through the damaging effect of nitrosamines on DNA; however, little has been done to control for other possible causes in the epidemiological results. Nitrosamines, formed in cured meats containing sodium nitrate and nitrite, have been linked to gastric cancer and esophageal cancer. Sodium nitrate and nitrite are associated with a higher risk of colorectal cancer.
Substantial evidence in recent decades, facilitated by an increased understanding of pathological processes and science, exists in support of the theory that processed meat increases the risk of colon cancer and that this is due to the nitrate content. A small amount of the nitrate added to meat as a preservative breaks down into nitrite, in addition to any nitrite that may also be added. The nitrite then reacts with protein-rich foods (such as meat) to produce carcinogenic NOCs (nitroso compounds). NOCs can be formed either when meat is cured or in the body as meat is digested.
However, several things complicate the otherwise straightforward understanding of "nitrates in food raise your risk of cancer": Commonly consumed plants are well known to be rich sources of nitrates. In fact, exposure of nitrates from plants may even be higher than meat for most people. Processed meats have no fiber, vitamins, or phytochemical antioxidants, are high in sodium, may contain high fat, and are often fried or cooked at a temperature sufficient to degrade protein into nitrosamines, and typically not consumed as part of a nutritious, balanced diet with high fiber, vitamins, minerals, and the like. Nitrates are key intermediates and effectors in the primary vasculature signaling which is necessary for all mammals to survive.
See also
Sodium nitrite
References
Further reading
External links
CHORI CO., LTD. ：https://chori-mukifine.com/en/sodium-nitrate/
ATSDR – Case Studies in Environmental Medicine – Nitrate/Nitrite Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (public domain)
FAO/WHO report
Calculators: surface tensions, and densities, molarities and molalities of aqueous sodium nitrate
Deliquescent substances
Nitrate minerals
Nitrates
Oxidizing agents
Preservatives
Pyrotechnic oxidizers
Sodium compounds
Sodium minerals
|
[
-0.4170011878013611,
0.5060625672340393,
-0.503755509853363,
0.004388651344925165,
-0.5412036180496216,
-0.17898863554000854,
0.6895298957824707,
0.05680612847208977,
0.18313314020633698,
0.04019995033740997,
-0.2982003390789032,
-0.03268805518746376,
-0.3696821928024292,
0.7957000732421875,
0.7125175595283508,
0.6020058989524841,
0.573255181312561,
0.7134270071983337,
-0.012400882318615913,
-0.12483762949705124,
-0.2744465470314026,
0.2750324010848999,
-0.2636869251728058,
-0.4984418451786041,
0.04352019727230072,
-0.20585720241069794,
0.05647966265678406,
0.07513860613107681,
0.24438440799713135,
0.12074438482522964,
-0.059028901159763336,
0.5589278936386108,
-0.21869483590126038,
0.3185902237892151,
0.7045294642448425,
0.30540913343429565,
-0.09491360932588577,
0.2048974484205246,
-0.1156342402100563,
0.015123579651117325,
-0.13116277754306793,
-0.05058534815907478,
0.7141952514648438,
0.4123101830482483,
-0.2915365397930145,
0.10740838944911957,
-1.2684518098831177,
0.6510439515113831,
-0.8672806620597839,
-0.23226085305213928,
0.2587634325027466,
0.23632179200649261,
0.590155839920044,
0.292828232049942,
0.08142756670713425,
1.1831183433532715,
-0.8899393081665039,
0.6932257413864136,
-0.03554734215140343,
-0.31033408641815186,
-0.8538071513175964,
-0.2946358025074005,
-0.23478445410728455,
0.4037587344646454,
0.5625979900360107,
1.0285449028015137,
-0.28552982211112976,
0.7142894268035889,
-0.2493300586938858,
0.2582513988018036,
-0.20366270840168,
-0.09567838907241821,
-0.5052030682563782,
0.3764287829399109,
-0.20099131762981415,
-0.23833097517490387,
-0.2868228554725647,
-0.04102231562137604,
-0.8512775301933289,
0.3811202049255371,
-0.46890518069267273,
0.5418610572814941,
0.5536532998085022,
0.12444285303354263,
0.19743712246418,
-0.23575259745121002,
-0.5577707886695862,
0.6500641107559204,
-0.582253098487854,
0.3594300150871277,
-0.5476782321929932,
0.2192075401544571,
0.45733392238616943,
-0.16867321729660034,
0.0923711434006691,
0.0854424387216568,
-0.007443332578986883,
0.2400064766407013,
0.9770016074180603,
0.3577772080898285,
-0.11201783269643784,
-0.3198278844356537,
0.28836846351623535,
0.2924872934818268,
-0.6145372986793518,
-0.380111426115036,
-0.8537172079086304,
-0.6354135870933533,
0.10263466835021973,
-0.6340275406837463,
-0.40060967206954956,
0.33838918805122375,
0.268197238445282,
-0.28886279463768005,
-0.5721388459205627,
-0.08928544074296951,
-0.06381497532129288,
-0.01890740543603897,
-0.23649434745311737,
0.061683740466833115,
-0.06529254466295242,
0.6815329790115356,
-0.37403663992881775,
0.058170344680547714,
-0.4950824975967407,
0.9394021034240723,
0.6265752911567688,
0.48014745116233826,
-0.1671362966299057,
0.380187451839447,
-0.02126188762485981,
0.6512790322303772,
0.13908861577510834,
-0.18756066262722015,
-0.04360976815223694,
-1.0553299188613892,
-0.247014120221138,
0.09435813128948212,
-0.24871370196342468,
0.12494917958974838,
-0.35833972692489624,
0.3202926814556122,
-1.7512296438217163,
0.5416373610496521,
0.7670995593070984,
-0.016053538769483566,
-0.25959935784339905,
0.2812880277633667,
0.6431535482406616,
0.09453997015953064,
0.11682990193367004,
0.02360185794532299,
0.12838655710220337,
0.1254190355539322,
-0.6174497604370117,
-0.10177253186702728,
0.11548147350549698,
0.16417691111564636,
0.735195517539978,
-0.35639649629592896,
-0.19026224315166473,
-0.5353785753250122,
-0.19320201873779297,
-0.25229448080062866,
-0.1110043004155159,
-0.07506974786520004,
0.031220104545354843,
0.5095310807228088,
0.05396613851189613,
0.13263264298439026,
-0.08866143226623535,
-0.6289139986038208,
0.3302929103374481,
0.38366201519966125,
-0.013235500082373619,
-0.8235305547714233,
-0.05861204117536545,
0.26563453674316406,
0.3237665295600891,
-0.6973885297775269,
-0.6944019794464111,
-0.33351853489875793,
-0.0036900187842547894,
0.16071507334709167,
0.013729008845984936,
0.23985596001148224,
0.27607718110084534,
0.3392747938632965,
0.962116003036499,
0.2514182925224304,
-0.6764861345291138,
0.18237000703811646,
-0.41475704312324524,
-0.8626400828361511,
1.4523714780807495,
0.13490331172943115,
-0.37817293405532837,
-0.44649484753608704,
0.5020034313201904,
0.07710899412631989,
-0.5659378170967102,
0.5243403911590576,
0.3538666367530823,
0.21676047146320343,
-0.905612587928772,
2.030369520187378,
0.12183183431625366,
0.34258604049682617,
0.5189535617828369,
0.7219409942626953,
0.30899375677108765,
-0.272304892539978,
0.6615060567855835,
-0.028514401987195015,
-0.14090164005756378,
-0.28713181614875793,
-0.13944053649902344,
0.44022342562675476,
0.45445001125335693,
0.52510005235672,
0.6635085940361023,
-0.16731612384319305,
-0.025312243029475212,
0.9369179606437683,
0.15248306095600128,
0.8075574040412903,
0.4527183473110199,
0.23810601234436035,
-0.19496145844459534,
0.24416309595108032,
0.42465782165527344,
0.22227539122104645,
0.1573897749185562,
-0.060248963534832,
-0.2543262243270874,
-0.3864615857601166,
0.4346995949745178,
-0.3449306786060333,
0.18836410343647003,
-0.10554239153862,
0.4678618013858795,
0.13796281814575195,
-0.06528252363204956,
0.010270641185343266,
-0.07435479760169983,
-0.0694374218583107,
-0.009697324596345425,
-0.25573691725730896,
-0.13649803400039673,
0.07784711569547653,
0.46848854422569275,
0.4151724874973297,
-0.04020436108112335,
-0.747393786907196,
-0.4082772135734558,
-0.2974397838115692,
-0.29864802956581116,
-0.010909106582403183,
0.21024800837039948,
-0.3923335671424866,
-0.1894797831773758,
0.1684601604938507,
0.2666248083114624,
0.10578339546918869,
-0.09784570336341858,
-0.11954901367425919,
-0.1359148919582367,
-0.16177625954151154,
0.08163625001907349,
0.03774150833487511,
0.5033774375915527,
0.1861041635274887,
-0.37523195147514343,
-1.991010069847107,
-0.21189899742603302,
-0.06941951811313629,
-0.3501340448856354,
0.42784371972084045,
-1.2279940843582153,
0.06220085918903351,
0.4344194233417511,
0.2891336679458618,
-0.30600669980049133,
0.11311075091362,
-0.8153263330459595,
-0.21239730715751648,
-0.0036124689504504204,
-0.24310912191867828,
-0.17632637917995453,
-0.4498852789402008,
-0.7669986486434937,
-0.4236341714859009,
-0.5992010235786438,
0.15712161362171173,
0.012118339538574219,
-0.1752815544605255,
-0.37841424345970154,
0.19380277395248413,
0.06221986934542656,
-0.5839906930923462,
0.12943637371063232,
-0.5311038494110107,
-0.5962622761726379,
0.36938363313674927,
-0.08871118724346161,
0.05908149480819702,
-0.02948778122663498,
-0.06097658351063728,
-4.8540940284729,
-0.1494952142238617,
-0.29352089762687683,
0.47808709740638733,
0.5741962194442749,
0.11699924618005753,
0.2279776632785797,
-0.5508125424385071,
-0.15914082527160645,
-0.11840658634901047,
-0.330020934343338,
0.6100367307662964,
-0.07204331457614899,
0.7253997921943665,
0.15075869858264923,
0.0348057746887207,
0.7188706398010254,
-0.007018432952463627,
0.3975239098072052,
0.07764539867639542,
0.1367424577474594,
0.8421249985694885,
-0.049937304109334946,
1.2381186485290527,
-0.47455644607543945,
0.18168459832668304,
0.39880383014678955,
0.3127322793006897,
-0.3440936207771301,
-0.2709140479564667,
-0.4379623234272003,
-0.3587188124656677,
-0.13170605897903442,
-0.7550423741340637,
0.16703572869300842,
-0.062205296009778976,
0.04146348685026169,
-0.005517811048775911,
-0.19954602420330048,
-0.6865804195404053,
-0.32653042674064636,
0.5863481760025024,
0.1207129955291748,
0.4547589123249054,
1.0535962581634521,
-0.17894919216632843,
-0.4722987413406372,
0.19457049667835236,
0.29032057523727417,
0.9597964286804199,
-0.35570719838142395,
0.16233807802200317,
0.5110442042350769,
0.02769210748374462,
-0.3047737777233124,
0.21779988706111908,
-0.11306263506412506,
-0.46279412508010864,
-0.1254945546388626,
-0.12061025947332382,
0.4473727345466614,
0.37051692605018616,
-0.006613604724407196,
0.43466493487358093,
-0.09527331590652466,
-0.3335781395435333,
-0.5904344320297241,
0.1648106426000595,
-0.39064252376556396,
-0.006342670880258083,
-1.1209712028503418,
0.4628208875656128,
0.20563122630119324,
-0.6478959321975708,
0.46549442410469055,
-0.1281176507472992,
-0.38919469714164734,
0.02670474164187908,
-0.1963961273431778,
0.2176343947649002,
-0.6865643858909607,
-0.1457640528678894,
-0.09457054734230042,
0.8229542374610901,
0.3244154155254364,
0.24850578606128693,
-0.5360374450683594,
0.049743540585041046,
0.0406808964908123,
-0.3390553295612335,
0.9426440000534058,
-0.2198105752468109,
0.6769639253616333,
0.23518632352352142,
-0.19865202903747559,
0.7958129048347473,
0.3806312084197998,
-0.27805718779563904,
0.5575740337371826,
0.13530519604682922,
0.5044631958007812,
-0.043987300246953964,
-0.10053034126758575,
-0.5847347378730774,
-0.21089251339435577,
-0.6584230661392212,
-0.26734888553619385,
0.4989149272441864,
0.08402996510267258,
0.057053033262491226,
-0.14222034811973572,
0.17012977600097656,
-0.7294424772262573,
0.15961222350597382,
1.4665019512176514,
-0.05854557827115059,
-0.42053350806236267,
0.43475261330604553,
0.4436895251274109,
0.24607181549072266,
0.5933772921562195,
0.5791181921958923,
-0.1509307324886322,
-0.3210045099258423,
-0.3707454204559326,
-0.2843102514743805,
-0.053016822785139084,
-0.13066524267196655,
0.04546429216861725,
0.20993873476982117,
-0.3496812880039215,
0.8498682379722595,
-0.3884621262550354,
-0.1548040211200714,
0.0060720560140907764,
-0.3823296129703522,
-0.30324482917785645,
0.5662314295768738,
-0.5038133859634399,
-0.6152383089065552,
0.1643209308385849,
0.19418475031852722,
-0.4833407402038574,
0.32997047901153564,
0.2083357721567154,
0.6708126664161682,
0.21162225306034088,
-0.49926576018333435,
-0.5281744599342346,
0.7110632658004761,
0.3083652853965759,
-0.6600093841552734,
0.5552725195884705,
-0.13165980577468872,
-0.08135034143924713,
0.254120796918869,
0.1673637479543686,
0.9050857424736023,
-0.2262977659702301,
0.0030391246546059847,
-0.608858585357666,
-0.09134630113840103,
-1.3140101432800293,
-0.23321838676929474,
-0.3640695810317993,
-0.560763418674469,
-0.0007264093146659434,
0.025196034461259842,
-0.043769314885139465,
0.8333960771560669,
0.02553020790219307,
-0.09942866116762161,
-0.047067590057849884,
-0.1464383751153946,
0.03872831165790558,
0.05617377534508705,
0.17844249308109283,
0.599826991558075,
0.04478111118078232,
-0.4882667660713196,
0.27076494693756104,
-0.49602240324020386,
-0.5434995293617249,
0.263447105884552,
-0.056557897478342056,
-1.0146222114562988,
-0.19866299629211426,
-0.30589455366134644,
0.07756397873163223,
-0.4570048749446869,
0.20903342962265015,
-0.23832713067531586,
0.35167446732521057,
-0.593198299407959,
-0.34647613763809204,
-0.6914646029472351,
0.2066780924797058,
0.5440746545791626,
0.034987859427928925,
-0.5349533557891846,
0.3385370373725891,
0.8299270868301392,
-1.0861376523971558,
0.16631115972995758,
-0.010020384564995766,
-0.6903945803642273,
-0.20509649813175201,
0.8649260997772217,
0.17039979994297028,
0.3734797537326813,
-0.5495315790176392,
-0.6249387860298157,
-0.17736348509788513,
-0.37679779529571533,
-0.17164567112922668,
0.7042249441146851,
0.04783811792731285,
-0.1979093700647354,
-0.14300130307674408,
-0.630908191204071,
0.2902264893054962,
-0.4558948278427124,
0.3434198498725891,
-0.7626503705978394,
0.06313415616750717,
0.1224595308303833,
0.5704512000083923,
-0.11530248820781708,
0.4390760660171509,
-0.5291361212730408,
0.2644753158092499,
-0.11168119311332703,
-0.06493238359689713,
0.005790365394204855,
-0.3680773675441742,
-0.22760678827762604,
-0.30591848492622375,
0.8750578165054321,
-0.1535421758890152,
0.4243663549423218,
0.19640138745307922,
0.6440261006355286,
0.31060105562210083,
0.13134591281414032,
-0.2441353052854538,
-0.03280527889728546,
0.48536667227745056,
0.034056905657052994,
-0.6250879168510437,
0.27963098883628845,
0.47007372975349426,
-0.8893499374389648,
-0.6053704023361206,
-0.9672226905822754,
0.6777024269104004,
-0.8078323006629944,
0.4300769567489624,
0.02838980406522751,
0.12514345347881317,
-0.08609642088413239,
-0.04132268205285072,
0.0952988788485527,
-0.3034840524196625,
0.1951347142457962,
-0.08211088925600052,
0.00676119327545166,
-0.4242832064628601,
-0.2214546650648117,
0.7083227038383484,
-0.5445536375045776,
0.06419885158538818,
-0.7708330750465393,
-0.12744666635990143,
0.39962083101272583,
0.029432089999318123,
0.9251770377159119,
-0.01294743362814188,
-0.02822134643793106,
-0.15086644887924194,
-0.41257160902023315,
0.2598167657852173,
0.11011634021997452,
0.9048535823822021,
0.13557158410549164,
-0.0979144498705864,
-0.6798967123031616,
-0.5449711084365845,
-0.5430713891983032,
-0.9247934818267822,
0.4229229688644409,
-0.6103652715682983,
-0.13957609236240387,
-0.22382254898548126,
-0.280122846364975,
-0.04897875711321831,
0.5730935335159302,
-0.5932164192199707,
0.6360340118408203,
-0.5248750448226929,
-0.11188005656003952,
-0.19557006657123566,
1.065569519996643,
0.24501051008701324,
-0.6228828430175781,
-0.12521030008792877,
-0.14573374390602112,
0.13477501273155212,
-0.1133972704410553,
-0.30186760425567627,
0.14791525900363922,
0.21571289002895355,
0.13232001662254333,
0.06574302166700363,
0.5172158479690552,
0.07163401693105698,
0.6144843101501465,
0.3605470657348633,
-0.2546131908893585,
-0.04924565553665161,
0.17637044191360474,
0.00643549207597971,
-0.41896647214889526,
0.268143892288208,
-0.15537136793136597,
-0.25412580370903015,
0.15973730385303497,
-0.15376344323158264,
-0.10724189877510071,
-0.06561125069856644,
0.015991145744919777,
0.21644605696201324,
-0.1563434600830078,
-0.5065874457359314,
-0.160550057888031,
-0.05051251873373985,
0.0007406188524328172,
0.16862869262695312,
-0.2655249536037445,
-0.8048202395439148,
0.3922710418701172,
1.0782876014709473,
0.5179637670516968,
-0.09367670118808746,
-0.5772411823272705,
0.6435889005661011,
0.2101094275712967,
-0.2656587064266205,
-0.3049146831035614,
0.06968479603528976,
-0.2787299156188965,
0.6508339047431946,
0.3581589162349701,
0.07212745398283005,
-0.23850086331367493,
-0.49631640315055847,
-0.06400199979543686,
0.07936716079711914,
-0.6059355139732361,
0.41803744435310364,
-1.2884972095489502,
-0.4373420774936676,
-0.45033538341522217,
-0.03629833459854126,
0.22768303751945496,
-0.2717839181423187,
-0.0692417323589325,
0.10340730845928192,
-0.7335470914840698,
0.1913815140724182,
0.06391160190105438,
0.1251320093870163,
-0.035393763333559036,
0.1272658258676529,
0.0009224115638062358,
0.28393086791038513,
-0.10897402465343475,
-0.3811638355255127,
0.017576610669493675,
0.2933584749698639,
-0.4255509078502655,
-0.4733858108520508,
0.523150622844696,
-0.721432089805603,
-0.29991963505744934,
0.2765556275844574,
-0.4969833493232727,
-0.08467528969049454,
0.17638671398162842,
-0.671646773815155,
0.2673283517360687,
0.6699802279472351,
0.22730152308940887,
-0.4050987660884857,
-0.1570567488670349,
-0.05620861425995827,
-0.19329054653644562,
0.19109518826007843,
0.5933485627174377,
0.4056536555290222,
-0.3019568622112274,
0.014820368960499763,
0.15479981899261475,
0.40779292583465576,
0.6009832620620728,
-0.12793810665607452,
0.3980312645435333,
-0.5467830896377563,
-0.06397964805364609,
-0.7123101949691772,
0.14344166219234467,
0.32335078716278076,
-0.13585050404071808,
-0.073931984603405,
0.3350762724876404,
-0.0035659470595419407,
0.22014600038528442,
0.44320642948150635,
-0.36369916796684265,
-0.4346212148666382,
0.028292490169405937,
0.13063354790210724,
-0.821040689945221,
0.12925030291080475,
0.3858257532119751,
-0.6605255007743835,
-0.2333170473575592,
0.5121276378631592,
-0.17858128249645233,
0.18385978043079376,
-0.16246628761291504,
-0.04480217769742012,
0.8644160032272339,
-0.1565028876066208,
-0.008213435299694538,
-0.28098592162132263,
0.03174150735139847,
0.1458377093076706,
0.7448278665542603,
-0.10411928594112396,
-0.26763346791267395,
0.3805099129676819,
0.350379079580307,
-0.050145745277404785,
-0.010850513353943825,
-3.1659927368164062,
-0.31201764941215515,
-0.10832894593477249,
-0.8758072257041931,
0.014145849272608757,
0.280695378780365,
-0.061553955078125,
-0.1903952956199646,
0.2824481129646301,
0.5261729955673218,
-0.033801328390836716,
0.39343103766441345,
0.5023902654647827,
-0.553667426109314,
0.31689098477363586,
1.0148693323135376
] |
200311
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southam
|
Southam
|
Southam () is a market town and civil parish in the Stratford-on-Avon district of Warwickshire, England. Southam is situated on the River Stowe (called 'The Brook' by many locals), which flows from Napton-on-the-Hill and joins Warwickshire's River Itchen at Stoneythorpe, just outside the town.
In 2020, the population of Southam was estimated at 7,327.
History
Southam was a Royal manor until AD 998, when Ethelred the Unready granted it to Earl Leofwine. When Coventry Priory was founded in 1043, Leofwine's son Leofric, Earl of Mercia granted Southam to it. The Domesday Book records the manor as "Sucham". The Priory, which in the 12th century became the first Coventry Cathedral, kept Southam until the 16th century when it surrendered all its estates to the Crown in the Dissolution of the Monasteries.
Southam developed at the intersection of several roads: the main road between Coventry and Oxford (now the A423 road), the main road from Warwick to Northampton via Daventry, and the ancient drovers' road known as Welsh Road. In 1227, the monks of Coventry Priory were granted a market charter for their manor at Southam, causing it to develop into a market town. Southam later received charters to hold three yearly fairs: Medieval fairs were special markets, held only a few times a year, which attracted buyers and sellers from longer distances than the normal weekly market.
Southam's Holy Well, in the picturesque Stowe river valley, is Grade II listed and a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and was first recorded in the year 998. The Well was used in medieval times by local monks and for hundreds of years as the town's principal water supply. Water from a natural mineral spring feeds the semi-circular Well and pours through the mouths of carved stone gargoyles into the river. The water from the Well was said to cure eye complaints. The Holy Well and paths were renovated during 2005–2007 using a National Lottery grant.
The current Manor House is Grade II * listed and dates from the early 17th century. The present parish church of St James was built in the 14th century. In the 15th century the spire was added and the chancel was rebuilt. The nave's clerestory and present roof were added in the 16th century, along with the present west door. St James' is a Grade I listed building.
In the 1540s John Leland visited the town and described it as "a modest market town of a single street". William Shakespeare mentions Southam in Henry VI, part 3, Act V, Scene I, Lines 10–16:
WARWICK
Say, Somerville, what says my loving son?
And, by thy guess, how nigh is Clarence now?
SOMERSET
At Southam I did leave him with his forces,
And do expect him here some two hours hence.
WARWICK
Then Clarence is at hand, I hear his drum.
SOMERSET
It is not his, my lord; here Southam lies:
The drum your honour hears marcheth from Warwick.
In the medieval era the town minted its own local currency because local people found regular English currency too high in value for everyday use. In the English Civil War, King Charles I used Southam's mint to make new coins to pay his troops. The grade II listed mint building dates from the early 16th century. It is now the Old Mint public house.
Charles I passed through Southam just before the outbreak of the Civil War and apparently was not made welcome by the townsfolk, who refused to ring the parish church bells. On 23 August 1642, the day after the King formally declared war on Parliament, a skirmish was fought outside the town between Parliamentary forces led by Lord Brooke and Royalist forces commanded by the Earl of Northampton. The Battle of Southam is claimed by locals to have been the first battle of the English Civil Wars. Later that year, Charles stayed at the Manor House in Southam before the Battle of Edgehill on 23 October 1642. In 1645 Oliver Cromwell and 7,000 Parliamentary troops stayed in the town.
In the stagecoach era Southam became an important stop on the coach road between Coventry and Oxford. Many old coaching inns remain in the town. However, few buildings in Southam date from before 1741, when a large fire devastated the town.
RAF Southam, about east of the town, was a World War II airfield. It was opened in 1940 and closed at the end of 1944. It was a training base and a relief landing ground.
Southam's history is commemorated in Southam's Cardall Collection.
Historic population
Geography
Southam is about east-southeast of Leamington Spa, about south-west of Rugby and west of Daventry, south of Coventry and north of Banbury.
Economy
The dominant rock type for the area is Blue Lias limestone. For many years there was a cement factory and associated limestone quarry north of the town. The works was served at one time by both rail and canal transport — the latter being a short arm from the Grand Union Canal. The cement operations at Southam were owned by the Rugby Cement company. In 2000 cement production was relocated to Rugby, and Southam cement works was closed, but quarrying at the site still continues. The former cement works was demolished in 2011.
Southam is part of the area known as Silicon Spa: the area around Leamington Spa which is known for its concentration of companies involved in the video game industry: The computer games company, Codemasters, is based in Southam, and was founded by two locals. It was Europe's largest privately owned computer games company, until its purchase by EA in February 2021.
The railway rolling stock company Vivarail has been based in Southam since 2019.
South of the town is an industrial estate that is a significant source of local employment.
Southam has become a commuter town due to its road links and location. Taxi and minicab firms operate in the area and frequent bus services serve Southam and local villages.
Politics
The principal local authorities administering Southam are Warwickshire County Council and Stratford-on-Avon District Council, each responsible for different aspects of local government. In addition to this, as a civil parish Southam has its own Town Council, which is represented by ten councillors from four wards.
Southam was the seat of the Southam Rural District from 1894 until 1974, when under the Local Government Act 1972 it was made part of Stratford-on-Avon District.
Southam was in the parliamentary constituency of Stratford-on-Avon until the boundary changes approved by Parliament in June 2007 when it became part of the new constituency of Kenilworth and Southam. The constituency was first contested in the 2010 United Kingdom general election.
Facilities
Education
Southam has three primary schools and a secondary school (Southam College) with 1,643 students on roll from Southam and local villages. There is a leisure centre with swimming pool and gym next to the College on Welsh Road West.
Shopping
The main shopping street runs through the centre of town. Each Tuesday there is a small but popular market on Market Hill. There is a range of shops in the town centre, including: a Co-Op supermarket, a post office, an optician, a pharmacy, W Goodwin & Sons hardware store and undertaker, a carpet shop, the Southam Office Supplies stationery and print shop, a dry cleaner and laundry, two florists, one ladies' clothing shop, other small speciality and gift shops, Acorns Hospice and The Myton Hospice's charity shops, and a branch of Lloyds Bank. In spring 2013 a branch of The Original Factory Shop opened on Oxford Street following the closure of Budgens Supermarket. A Tesco supermarket is located on the outskirts of town, on the Kineton Road industrial estate.
Other
The town's pubs include the Black Dog, the Bowling Green, The Crown, the Old Mint and the Millstone Hare, part of the Dallas Burston Polo Club. There is also a CIU-affiliated Sports and Social Club in School Street. Southam town centre also has several cafes, various takeaway food outlets, a public library and information centre, several hairdressers, a beautician, two dental surgeries, a chiropodist, a bookmaker, a saddlery and professional services including solicitors, estate agents, accountants and financial advisers. The main car park in Wood Street is free of charge, and has public lavatories.
Southam also has a Retained Fire Station. The police station is now closed to the general public; for non-emergency police enquiries, people should go to the public library. The main entertainment venue in the town is Grange Hall in Coventry Street, which hosts dramatic and musical performances, meetings and dance/exercise classes. The Graham Adams Centre in St James Road houses the Grange Pre-school, the Youth Club and a community cafe. It is also home to adult education classes and is a meeting place for many of the town's youth and community groups.
Religion
There are four churches in Southam. St James's parish church is behind Market Hill. Both Our Lady and St Wulstan's Catholic church and the Congregational chapel are on Wood Street, and the Community Church is on Coventry Street. There is also a small but active Bahá´í group in the town. The footpath from St James church along the protected Stowe valley to the historic Holy Well and on to Stoneythorpe Hall is a popular route for local people, ornithologists and other naturalists.
Sport and recreation
Southam Rugby Club was formed in 1962. In 1969 the club purchased pitches at Kineton Road and started playing home games. Over three years' money was raised to build the club house which was constructed mainly by the players and was opened in 1972. Today the club plays in the Midland League and has three senior teams and a colts team.
Southam United F.C. is the town's association football club, and Southam also has a bowling club, a cricket club and the six pitch Dallas Burston Polo Club which includes conference and events facilities and the Millstone Hare pub and restaurant.
Southam is home to 2028 (Southam) Squadron Air Training Corps, a Royal Air Force-sponsored youth organisation for 13- to 20-year-olds. The squadron is based in Millar House, Wattons Lane.
Parks
Southam's recreational ground, locally known simply as 'the Rec', is located on Park Lane; the land adjoins St James' churchyard which itself extends to Park Lane, the lower part of Market Hill and the upper part of Warwick Street. The bottom of the park is a bare field used mainly for ball games and the upper part contains various kinds of play equipment, with a separate area for very young children. The second largest park is at Tollgate Road, locally referred to as 'Tollgate'. A small Zoo existed in the town between 1966 and 1985.
Transport
Southam is between Leamington Spa and Daventry on the A425 road and between Coventry and Banbury on the A423 road. The A426 road connects it to Rugby. About south of Southam is the M40 motorway, though the town is surprisingly not indicated.
Stagecoach in Warwickshire run regular bus services connecting Southam with Leamington, Rugby and Daventry, and some of the local villages.
The nearest railway stations are , and .
Southam has never been directly served by its own railway station, although there were two within a few miles of the town: The Great Western Railway opened its line to Birmingham in 1852, and Southam had a station to the south-west, named . The station was closed to goods in 1963 and passengers in 1964 by British Railways (BR). The line is now part of the London Marylebone to Birmingham Chiltern Main Line.
The London and North Western Railway completed its Weedon to Marton Junction Line in 1895 and opened station on it north of Southam. British Railways closed the station to passengers in 1958 and goods in 1965, although the line remained open to goods trains serving the cement works until 1985.
The new High Speed 2 line will pass immediately south of Southam, but will have no stations between London and Birmingham.
Notable people
Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Allfrey, British Army commander, veteran of World War I and World War II.
Steve Beaton, 1996 World Professional Darts Champion.
Seth Bond, a participant in the Charge of the Light Brigade, lived in Southam for many years and is buried in St James' Church Graveyard.
Arthur Cox, who managed Newcastle United and Derby County football clubs between 1980 and 1993, was born at Southam in December 1939.
Richard and David Darling, aka Codemasters, award-winning videogames developer company, founded in 1986 and retains its head office of several hundred employees in Southam.
Flight Lieutenant Jon Egging, former Air Cadet at 2028 Squadron Air Training Corps, Red Arrows display team pilot during 2009 and 2011 seasons.
Trina Gulliver, nine times women's World Professional Darts Champion, who moved to Somerset in 2008.
Henry Lilley Smith (1787/88 – 1859) founded a cottage hospital, Southam Dispensary, in 1823.
Steve Walwyn, guitarist with Dr. Feelgood, was born in Southam in 1956.
Justin Welby, present Archbishop of Canterbury since 2013, was earlier in his clergy career Rector of Southam.
Adam Woodyatt, EastEnders actor, had a home in Southam for many years.
References
Sources
External links
Southam Town Council
Wikisource – The Third Part of King Henry the Sixth – Act V, Scene I – contains mentions of Southam.
Southam archives – Our Warwickshire Southam
History – Southam Heritage Collection
Towns in Warwickshire
Market towns in Warwickshire
Civil parishes in Warwickshire
Holy wells in England
Stratford-on-Avon District
|
[
-0.7070649862289429,
0.18841595947742462,
0.3091110587120056,
-1.1503143310546875,
0.4823649525642395,
0.868181049823761,
0.3797266185283661,
0.05842285975813866,
-0.12272485345602036,
-0.046451348811388016,
-0.349069744348526,
0.08470231294631958,
-0.054448097944259644,
0.3531336486339569,
-0.5204578042030334,
0.29912069439888,
0.11886715143918991,
0.08318265527486801,
0.3887166380882263,
-0.4335266649723053,
0.15766464173793793,
-0.4045410752296448,
-0.10348110646009445,
0.32430070638656616,
0.13719607889652252,
-0.10747496038675308,
0.6175432205200195,
-0.036088977009058,
0.1643969863653183,
-0.42551517486572266,
0.3289863169193268,
-0.016366127878427505,
0.12643121182918549,
-0.36642026901245117,
0.27505019307136536,
0.006196632515639067,
-0.02802419662475586,
-0.23699139058589935,
-0.5176417231559753,
-0.062356136739254,
-0.7538561224937439,
-0.2341260015964508,
-0.12970507144927979,
-0.2544127106666565,
-0.40841084718704224,
-0.626900851726532,
-1.434058666229248,
-0.2162625789642334,
-0.6269647479057312,
0.023258788511157036,
-0.4413449168205261,
0.6087445616722107,
0.2876734733581543,
-0.3658096492290497,
1.0949651002883911,
0.20008081197738647,
-0.3881705701351166,
-0.0957724004983902,
0.7859941720962524,
0.33375561237335205,
0.12685717642307281,
-0.13260863721370697,
-0.16162601113319397,
0.0397200733423233,
-0.33424919843673706,
-0.1439335197210312,
-0.24547387659549713,
0.10856033861637115,
-0.36604636907577515,
-0.721429169178009,
0.2858572006225586,
-0.285858154296875,
-0.4206191897392273,
0.847793698310852,
-0.755190372467041,
0.1886058896780014,
-0.3504347801208496,
0.11671887338161469,
0.14649569988250732,
0.06588203459978104,
-0.22418850660324097,
-0.4239961504936218,
0.9930176734924316,
0.538111686706543,
0.7604007720947266,
0.28654879331588745,
-0.2729748785495758,
0.6011433005332947,
-0.4696246087551117,
0.45814546942710876,
-0.2338615208864212,
0.40028971433639526,
-0.5966615080833435,
-0.03583938255906105,
-0.039856940507888794,
-0.7795907258987427,
-0.34061747789382935,
0.076056107878685,
0.38698798418045044,
0.5700849890708923,
-0.5556086301803589,
0.15142887830734253,
0.3844337463378906,
0.1990741491317749,
0.1869608759880066,
-0.2889364957809448,
-0.42593029141426086,
-0.9236672520637512,
-0.04222623631358147,
-0.3376261293888092,
-0.893577516078949,
0.06286932528018951,
0.004005588125437498,
-0.4115610420703888,
-0.21781982481479645,
0.38485026359558105,
0.0981951355934143,
-0.32044100761413574,
-0.2649623453617096,
0.5436161160469055,
1.0024669170379639,
0.5353310704231262,
0.1515105813741684,
0.09939273446798325,
-0.13722079992294312,
-0.16430899500846863,
0.23513278365135193,
0.6101016402244568,
-0.7170476317405701,
0.5870115160942078,
0.6450137495994568,
0.4910638928413391,
-0.3668540418148041,
0.13961336016654968,
0.012471912428736687,
-0.16300982236862183,
-0.35620197653770447,
0.15171942114830017,
0.7870686054229736,
0.49269601702690125,
-0.43165215849876404,
0.3541947901248932,
-0.41391342878341675,
-0.34310734272003174,
-0.08333324640989304,
-0.3943219780921936,
-0.2758738398551941,
-0.8844589591026306,
-0.4868834316730499,
-0.6807985901832581,
0.14370884001255035,
0.6984807252883911,
-0.2494438886642456,
-0.4410395324230194,
-0.6111956834793091,
-0.3089069724082947,
0.5626517534255981,
0.09875725209712982,
-0.3105728030204773,
0.0112343430519104,
-0.009112340398132801,
-0.009391143918037415,
0.9170768857002258,
-0.6073427200317383,
0.5465900897979736,
-0.01307038776576519,
0.29163017868995667,
-0.7023869156837463,
0.35230132937431335,
0.7093760371208191,
-0.7818607687950134,
-0.2981830835342407,
1.3264387845993042,
-0.30772894620895386,
-0.25587424635887146,
-0.9089828133583069,
0.9604578018188477,
0.5023378729820251,
0.4709228277206421,
-0.06914962083101273,
-0.4443127512931824,
-0.4768986701965332,
0.23959289491176605,
0.35907092690467834,
0.24276868999004364,
0.3262343108654022,
-0.11193030327558517,
0.10475204885005951,
0.2920997738838196,
0.03906510770320892,
0.23331792652606964,
-0.33926746249198914,
0.4716857075691223,
-0.2390248328447342,
0.3584843575954437,
-0.072287917137146,
-0.2279045134782791,
0.28045305609703064,
-0.7811012268066406,
0.3274862468242645,
-0.15267448127269745,
-0.2820543646812439,
0.5421468615531921,
0.17531947791576385,
-0.2747357487678528,
-0.055330850183963776,
0.34618228673934937,
-0.06914834678173065,
0.23765304684638977,
0.49173617362976074,
-0.5379652380943298,
-0.9399014711380005,
-0.27283427119255066,
0.09865745902061462,
0.10818535089492798,
-0.8557696342468262,
-0.659453809261322,
-0.1246005967259407,
0.4757959544658661,
-0.7281230688095093,
0.5822968482971191,
0.07261428236961365,
-0.02915824204683304,
0.01144640427082777,
-0.1320084035396576,
0.8107243180274963,
-0.10178523510694504,
0.022184260189533234,
-0.21987752616405487,
-0.46948274970054626,
0.19787795841693878,
0.9696717858314514,
0.41071170568466187,
-0.3614808917045593,
-0.3487752079963684,
-0.42758709192276,
0.031054271385073662,
-0.22535085678100586,
0.2211262732744217,
-0.621958315372467,
0.007622664328664541,
0.2134835571050644,
-0.799268364906311,
-0.11837709695100784,
0.4231458306312561,
0.6056365370750427,
0.05742618069052696,
-0.006943543907254934,
-0.3398095965385437,
-0.6342470645904541,
-0.005420187022536993,
0.19265879690647125,
1.1677374839782715,
0.28174257278442383,
0.2961556613445282,
-0.4716280698776245,
-0.38292109966278076,
0.9211487174034119,
0.6912906169891357,
0.31855717301368713,
-0.549117922782898,
-0.15666167438030243,
0.405351847410202,
0.20616097748279572,
0.2615901529788971,
-0.09962420165538788,
0.05676198750734329,
-0.6938485503196716,
0.3132939636707306,
0.11195258051156998,
0.6669842600822449,
-0.24776975810527802,
-0.45263323187828064,
-0.5075101256370544,
-0.2430885285139084,
0.05694212764501572,
0.5843709111213684,
-0.23366877436637878,
-0.3667287826538086,
-0.2659267783164978,
0.3366914987564087,
1.0505160093307495,
-0.06038396432995796,
-0.08312281966209412,
0.1794995814561844,
0.04935038462281227,
0.10441290587186813,
0.22134116291999817,
-0.24245867133140564,
-0.13872116804122925,
-0.6663107872009277,
0.20296500623226166,
-0.46696531772613525,
0.8841726779937744,
-0.08708996325731277,
0.13756906986236572,
-0.2581179738044739,
-0.35687127709388733,
0.11414869129657745,
-0.14360933005809784,
-0.29141929745674133,
0.3386584520339966,
-0.04106973856687546,
0.5124308466911316,
-0.08649419248104095,
-0.4122520387172699,
-0.16144169867038727,
-0.3602965176105499,
-4.988925457000732,
0.37093937397003174,
-0.2533665597438812,
0.23778751492500305,
1.0765448808670044,
0.17303046584129333,
0.01569824106991291,
-0.5100847482681274,
-0.4676414728164673,
0.3382013738155365,
0.013850018382072449,
-0.5306392312049866,
0.018296565860509872,
-0.046085603535175323,
0.9833152294158936,
0.2655079960823059,
-0.21143274009227753,
-0.3587473928928375,
0.45351335406303406,
0.009963471442461014,
0.34235113859176636,
-0.08771511167287827,
-0.4960581064224243,
0.6815910339355469,
0.32038912177085876,
0.3915386497974396,
-0.2687656283378601,
-0.25488707423210144,
-1.2128164768218994,
-0.4827257990837097,
0.24316678941249847,
0.42499497532844543,
-0.07838260382413864,
0.10721299052238464,
-0.03513598442077637,
0.5842086672782898,
0.02059265226125717,
0.09646417200565338,
0.7210403680801392,
-0.39138704538345337,
0.7004610300064087,
0.6879133582115173,
-0.4445033371448517,
-0.7383092641830444,
0.3840152323246002,
-0.5854710340499878,
-1.276178002357483,
0.2729606032371521,
-0.3447604477405548,
0.9048379063606262,
-0.3650760054588318,
0.009008520282804966,
0.7525962591171265,
0.20566588640213013,
-0.18860000371932983,
-0.2859008312225342,
0.4112776219844818,
-0.3312586545944214,
0.23054203391075134,
0.8821297883987427,
0.40543779730796814,
-0.45460090041160583,
-0.6202539801597595,
0.16058208048343658,
-0.8468022346496582,
-0.246244877576828,
0.20157678425312042,
0.16230815649032593,
0.44576308131217957,
0.5547769069671631,
-0.3341629207134247,
0.06254075467586517,
0.18081539869308472,
-1.1901639699935913,
-0.11427313834428787,
-0.37642744183540344,
-0.5676701664924622,
0.06270956248044968,
-0.6124023795127869,
0.07654079049825668,
0.9613527059555054,
-0.6534454822540283,
0.7336738109588623,
0.2954671382904053,
0.24520570039749146,
-0.809190034866333,
-0.8975170850753784,
-0.5705224871635437,
-0.48053836822509766,
-0.6534538269042969,
0.666083574295044,
-0.41729462146759033,
-0.0057791974395513535,
-0.4504024088382721,
0.42885103821754456,
0.29488906264305115,
0.17423199117183685,
-0.13161924481391907,
-0.29809096455574036,
-0.08538997173309326,
-0.4040411114692688,
0.1994166523218155,
0.07590943574905396,
-0.23419933021068573,
-0.32145220041275024,
-0.21363908052444458,
-0.025857847183942795,
0.7354121208190918,
0.7406090497970581,
-0.07521656900644302,
0.6723537445068359,
0.08106068521738052,
-1.0136022567749023,
0.10236787796020508,
-0.36383578181266785,
0.07490330189466476,
-1.0067509412765503,
0.4864586889743805,
-0.24364545941352844,
0.25745677947998047,
-0.21585650742053986,
-0.27784085273742676,
-0.8058009147644043,
0.14129884541034698,
0.13098473846912384,
-0.1432468593120575,
0.4316784143447876,
0.9751375317573547,
-0.3407108783721924,
0.6012517809867859,
-0.36154285073280334,
0.25102728605270386,
-0.36107686161994934,
-0.3608497679233551,
-0.6497136354446411,
-0.2133660614490509,
-0.46073010563850403,
-0.25310349464416504,
-0.3547927141189575,
0.3672712743282318,
1.0321600437164307,
-0.0835554301738739,
0.522713303565979,
0.13118310272693634,
0.02985091134905815,
-0.21250560879707336,
0.4821655750274658,
0.14412961900234222,
-0.4903315007686615,
0.1411057412624359,
-0.1550784558057785,
0.07693957537412643,
-0.0390988364815712,
-0.22936125099658966,
0.23706598579883575,
-0.40040725469589233,
0.2650809586048126,
0.11104919016361237,
0.4205218255519867,
0.024478688836097717,
-0.8071959018707275,
0.2242012321949005,
-1.1889714002609253,
0.2785889804363251,
-0.05260651186108589,
-0.07156731933355331,
-0.26050201058387756,
-0.14089758694171906,
0.038598012179136276,
0.27486705780029297,
0.5765466094017029,
-0.33420756459236145,
-0.5119204521179199,
-0.07728122919797897,
-0.024449119344353676,
-0.46564510464668274,
-0.151336669921875,
0.6756730675697327,
-0.24387295544147491,
0.18031875789165497,
0.16401757299900055,
0.016278697177767754,
-0.3758162558078766,
0.0022692144848406315,
0.4943644404411316,
-0.8487986326217651,
-0.47739842534065247,
-0.856123149394989,
0.12096291035413742,
-1.4139790534973145,
0.1519642174243927,
-0.4476914405822754,
0.5040083527565002,
0.2971801459789276,
0.1351974457502365,
-0.6597645878791809,
0.1191897764801979,
-0.19490866363048553,
-0.25103339552879333,
-0.475009024143219,
0.08266553282737732,
0.2297193706035614,
-0.6910945773124695,
0.6006160378456116,
0.6724185943603516,
-1.1285676956176758,
0.21015174686908722,
-0.009301114827394485,
-0.20418162643909454,
0.5033537149429321,
0.03542059659957886,
-0.7287383079528809,
0.6554129719734192,
0.4939190745353699,
-0.7072950601577759,
0.4541963040828705,
-0.18090099096298218,
0.33182352781295776,
-0.48483744263648987,
-0.24690981209278107,
-0.24536705017089844,
-0.29110169410705566,
-0.18274769186973572,
0.05309297516942024,
-0.822444498538971,
0.16130922734737396,
0.4366517663002014,
-0.5317687392234802,
0.293401300907135,
0.1446799337863922,
-0.056458380073308945,
0.08080510795116425,
0.5126384496688843,
0.3349326550960541,
0.17037753760814667,
-0.4828508198261261,
-0.7096394896507263,
-0.5366191864013672,
0.12827295064926147,
0.7320390939712524,
0.3803604543209076,
1.1645268201828003,
0.39293399453163147,
0.027321046218276024,
-0.21489940583705902,
-0.11450915783643723,
0.42019131779670715,
-0.47252264618873596,
-0.8313779830932617,
0.9117832779884338,
0.26472237706184387,
-0.0646199882030487,
0.19125428795814514,
0.22326146066188812,
0.060062225908041,
0.00434175506234169,
-0.41129618883132935,
-0.04080527648329735,
-0.03796219453215599,
0.37056058645248413,
0.6410927176475525,
0.8433579206466675,
-0.10034283995628357,
0.2135629653930664,
0.04813466593623161,
-0.5754758715629578,
0.5198554396629333,
0.3156081438064575,
0.9499969482421875,
-0.9109416007995605,
-0.9247079491615295,
0.018281998112797737,
-0.7040376663208008,
0.5868005752563477,
0.4307052791118622,
-0.12784364819526672,
-0.1530212163925171,
-1.0844066143035889,
0.8445455431938171,
0.24682098627090454,
0.01180744543671608,
-0.3508836328983307,
0.34599509835243225,
-0.3103627562522888,
0.06647159159183502,
-0.46095171570777893,
-0.04883415997028351,
-0.25169694423675537,
-0.4670983552932739,
0.3338330388069153,
-0.6909806132316589,
-0.04458843916654587,
-0.16133540868759155,
0.1329307109117508,
-0.5155698657035828,
0.1773061454296112,
0.09455123543739319,
0.35832035541534424,
-0.09895632416009903,
-0.6200180053710938,
-0.7409306764602661,
0.6384415030479431,
0.08188652992248535,
-0.037710607051849365,
-0.3051707148551941,
0.06826604157686234,
-0.2035854160785675,
-0.29406073689460754,
-0.22112247347831726,
0.41657543182373047,
-0.4868907332420349,
-0.20098444819450378,
0.5960454344749451,
1.1158140897750854,
0.1230846419930458,
0.14421501755714417,
-0.24624577164649963,
-0.5088557004928589,
-0.3370729386806488,
0.4943113327026367,
0.4315372109413147,
0.019219188019633293,
0.6491246819496155,
0.4810160994529724,
0.09388022869825363,
0.721000611782074,
-0.4340599477291107,
-0.5841821432113647,
-0.14693096280097961,
0.36121878027915955,
0.1511882245540619,
-0.41437670588493347,
-0.08455272018909454,
0.6323418021202087,
-0.2977055013179779,
-0.6448878645896912,
0.014892949722707272,
0.012786217965185642,
-0.11487804353237152,
-0.2658892869949341,
0.383805513381958,
0.40219080448150635,
0.5088467001914978,
0.4674786329269409,
0.367642343044281,
-0.3403036594390869,
0.47096872329711914,
-0.21729621291160583,
0.5649370551109314,
-0.23696303367614746,
-0.13275589048862457,
-0.011312824673950672,
0.19075725972652435,
-0.032455217093229294,
0.17467550933361053,
0.5155408978462219,
0.5655031800270081,
0.06079859659075737,
-0.39174631237983704,
0.0515173003077507,
-0.0650240108370781,
0.34443631768226624,
0.11576635390520096,
0.07172060757875443,
-0.2141953408718109,
-0.3652115762233734,
0.15257667005062103,
-0.3920823335647583,
-0.5334326028823853,
0.4733147621154785,
0.38521990180015564,
0.59931480884552,
0.2631431519985199,
-0.549944281578064,
0.3038613498210907,
0.6678162813186646,
-0.18183894455432892,
0.6958929896354675,
-0.36754530668258667,
-0.6500566601753235,
0.3982057571411133,
-0.13726265728473663,
-0.2666817307472229,
-0.12476474791765213,
0.24935799837112427,
-0.6517760157585144,
0.06512291729450226,
-0.294488787651062,
-1.0324779748916626,
-0.6689890623092651,
-0.4302976131439209,
-0.5226926207542419,
-0.129603311419487,
-0.2145315706729889,
-0.6702079772949219,
0.30759957432746887,
0.1710721105337143,
1.1256282329559326,
1.3535451889038086,
0.19137974083423615,
0.42130669951438904,
0.3513900935649872,
-0.29477158188819885,
0.9548808336257935,
-0.018884830176830292,
0.0475652702152729,
-0.14325138926506042,
-0.018996721133589745,
-0.5417086482048035,
0.9738357067108154,
1.1649012565612793,
0.8934429287910461,
-0.010932681150734425,
0.5666162371635437,
-0.14343366026878357,
0.7541981935501099,
0.1693916916847229,
-0.024549882858991623,
0.03567124530673027,
0.0474487841129303,
0.6321917772293091,
0.5356547832489014,
0.19688425958156586,
-0.3111952543258667,
-0.2019623965024948,
-0.5696146488189697,
0.796708881855011,
0.08561737835407257,
-0.11417113989591599,
0.6020111441612244,
-0.11465328931808472,
0.24632205069065094,
0.13025332987308502,
0.8442155718803406,
-0.43046343326568604,
0.4197809398174286,
0.13383635878562927,
0.65340256690979,
-0.008468489162623882,
-0.29170358180999756,
-0.47370263934135437,
0.15410864353179932,
0.2328338325023651,
-0.1887548416852951,
-0.5917690396308899,
-0.39594122767448425,
-0.0755619928240776,
-0.5868896245956421,
-0.7733646631240845,
0.27177196741104126,
0.4380725622177124,
-0.4060492515563965,
0.14379827678203583,
-0.18999475240707397,
0.6759194731712341,
0.08858561515808105,
-0.042375002056360245,
-0.4231506288051605,
-0.3912011981010437,
-0.3480756878852844
] |
200312
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin%20Tudge
|
Colin Tudge
|
Colin Hiram Tudge (born 22 April 1943) is a British science writer and broadcaster. A biologist by training, he is the author of numerous works on food, agriculture, genetics, and species diversity.
Tudge was born and brought up in south London and attended Dulwich College, from where he won a scholarship to Peterhouse, Cambridge, studying zoology and English. In his career, he has worked for World Medicine, Farmers' Weekly and New Scientist, before becoming a freelance writer. In the 1980s he was a regular broadcaster for the BBC, including the BBC Radio 4 science series Spectrum; he wrote and presented The Food Connection; he made one-off documentaries and guest appearances.
He lives in Oxford with his second wife, Ruth West. He was married to Rosemary (née Shewan) and had three children, Amanda, Amy and Robin, the last being an author of political works.
National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C1672/12) with Colin Tudge in 2016 for its Science and Religion collection held by the British Library.
Works
Consider the Birds: How They Live and Why They Matter. London, 2008. Penguin. Explores various aspects of the life of birds from their migrations to their complicated family lives, their differing habitats and survival techniques to the secrets of flight, it discusses how birds live, why they matter, and whether they really are dinosaurs.
Feeding People is Easy. Pari Publishing, Italy. 2007. When agriculture is expressly designed to feed people, all the associated problems seem to solve themselves.
The Secret Life of Trees. Allen Lane, London, 2005, . Penguin Books, London, 2006. Published as The Tree by Crown, New York, 2006.
So Shall We Reap: the Concept of Enlightened Agriculture. Allen Lane, London 2003; Penguin Books, London, 2004. An alternative title is So Shall We Reap: how everyone who is liable to be born in the next ten thousand years could eat very well indeed; and why, in practice, our immediate descendants are likely to be in serious trouble, on the future of agriculture, in which he challenges the current science and technology paradigm and outlines a sustainable way of feeding the population of the world, expected to stabilise at ten billion people by the middle of the 21st Century.
In Mendel's Footnotes: Genes and Genetics from the 19th century to the 22nd. Jonathan Cape, 2000. Paperback: Vintage, 2002. Published as The Impact of the Gene, Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, New York, 2001.
The Variety of Life: A Survey and a Celebration of All the Creatures That Have Ever Lived. Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 2000. Paperback, March 2002. An accessible phylogeny of life, explaining in clear terms the descent and interrelationships of most kinds of organism.
Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1998. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1999. . A small book explaining how agriculture began. The book is one of a series of long essays by respected contemporary Darwinian thinkers, which were published under the collective title Darwinism Today; the series was inspired by a course of 'Darwin Seminars' which took place at the London School of Economics (LSE) in the late 1990s.
The Day Before Yesterday. Jonathan Cape, London, 1995. Pimlico, London, 1996. Published in the US as The Time Before History: 5 Million Years of Human Impact, Scribner, New York 1996. Touchstone, New York, 1997.
The Engineer in the Garden: Genes and Genetics from the Idea of Heredity to the Creation of Life. Jonathan Cape, London, 1993, . Hill & Wang, New York, 1994, . Pimlico (Pbk) 1995
Last Animals at the Zoo. Hutchinson Radius, London, 1991. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992. Island Press, Washington, 1992.
Global Ecology. Natural History Museum, 1991. Oxford University Press, New York 1991.
Food Crops for the Future. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1988.
The Food Connection. British Broadcasting Corporation, London, 1985.
Future Cook. Mitchell Beazley 1980. Published as Future Food, Harmony Books, New York, 1980.
The Famine Business. Faber and Faber, London 1977. St Martin's Press, New York, 1977. Penguin Books (Pelican), Middlesex, 1979.
Co-authorships
The Second Creation: Dolly and the Age of Biological Control. (co-authored with Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell). Headline, London, 2000. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 2000.
Home Farm. (co-authored with Michael Allaby). Macmillan, London, 1977. Sphere Books, London, 1979.
References
External links
Colin Tudge Personal Website
The Campaign for Real Farming founded by Colin and Ruth Tudge in 2008
Colin Tudge Biography
Colin Tudge's video talks at IAI TV
Colin Tudge, Chris Leaver and Tony Trewavas (2003): "Brave new world?", New Scientist, 178, 44-47f
Colin Tudge: "Bad for the Poor, Bad for Science", The Guardian, 20 February 2004
Colin Tudge: lecture to the Soil Association 12 July 2005 “Can Organic Farming feed the world?”
1943 births
Living people
British science writers
People educated at Dulwich College
People from London
|
[
0.45490357279777527,
0.5718302726745605,
-0.47617679834365845,
-0.9304452538490295,
0.2434525042772293,
0.4265502393245697,
-0.03337276726961136,
0.10534054785966873,
-0.17416763305664062,
0.5375124216079712,
-0.676173210144043,
0.641265332698822,
-0.20105984807014465,
0.32069823145866394,
0.03991706669330597,
0.04588276147842407,
-0.31161797046661377,
-0.35992130637168884,
-0.6762633919715881,
0.02048984356224537,
-0.0933314710855484,
-0.051199208945035934,
-0.15981532633304596,
0.3316974639892578,
-0.12666349112987518,
0.5046671032905579,
-0.12794899940490723,
0.014094172976911068,
0.019301986321806908,
-0.38041743636131287,
-0.2130568027496338,
0.4551413655281067,
0.405748575925827,
-0.07561393827199936,
-0.04590759053826332,
0.3849836587905884,
0.11495527625083923,
-0.3336836099624634,
-0.4065350890159607,
0.23542751371860504,
-0.05047987028956413,
0.4539163112640381,
0.1989697515964508,
-0.026030367240309715,
-0.06883059442043304,
-0.21780507266521454,
-1.7576942443847656,
0.3427291810512543,
-0.7998802661895752,
-0.03987271711230278,
0.03235018625855446,
0.3844219744205475,
0.910887598991394,
-0.5033483505249023,
0.7216700315475464,
0.05574360862374306,
-0.1946624517440796,
-0.2824617624282837,
0.04128066077828407,
0.14150740206241608,
0.00950702279806137,
0.01898309588432312,
0.12937714159488678,
-0.22266601026058197,
0.42418891191482544,
-0.25129595398902893,
-0.12616384029388428,
0.529593288898468,
-0.28518372774124146,
0.2546340525150299,
-0.39734166860580444,
0.4771983027458191,
0.0947207659482956,
0.12323346734046936,
0.16587091982364655,
-0.29035627841949463,
0.4354669153690338,
0.20860333740711212,
-0.012784594669938087,
-0.2064778357744217,
0.2980233132839203,
-0.060793519020080566,
0.5029972195625305,
0.5949616432189941,
0.5439673066139221,
-0.36965981125831604,
-0.7118314504623413,
0.5988340377807617,
-0.34297364950180054,
0.15605026483535767,
-0.4335636794567108,
-0.5836530327796936,
-0.017963560298085213,
-0.006048713810741901,
0.04577162489295006,
-0.06937838345766068,
-0.13315556943416595,
0.31976118683815,
-0.16036456823349,
-0.6406668424606323,
-0.05077562481164932,
0.040163859724998474,
0.63714200258255,
-0.5781863331794739,
-0.29691874980926514,
-0.26848018169403076,
-0.30845803022384644,
-1.0406407117843628,
0.116921566426754,
-0.5692921876907349,
-0.801915168762207,
0.049689289182424545,
-0.15300439298152924,
0.4461522400379181,
0.196811705827713,
0.556907057762146,
-0.030496418476104736,
-0.7396692633628845,
-0.7419414520263672,
0.13444174826145172,
-0.1127830371260643,
0.5392199158668518,
-0.47272396087646484,
-0.1319189816713333,
-0.8583844304084778,
-0.25022539496421814,
0.3744136393070221,
-0.03469964116811752,
-0.7753065228462219,
0.4645264446735382,
0.37503570318222046,
0.779427170753479,
-0.6262712478637695,
-0.21368950605392456,
-0.6953849792480469,
0.5048487782478333,
0.5296806693077087,
0.028426431119441986,
-0.07374612241983414,
0.5836904644966125,
-0.0540785938501358,
0.14990919828414917,
-1.358515739440918,
-0.30189403891563416,
-0.25034406781196594,
0.1372613161802292,
-0.8130197525024414,
-0.21103829145431519,
0.050531480461359024,
-0.21034462749958038,
-0.3191991448402405,
-0.05777135491371155,
0.06450332701206207,
-0.3569490909576416,
0.12359189242124557,
0.5627694129943848,
0.5023257732391357,
0.647412121295929,
0.024386461824178696,
0.09763563424348831,
0.5783225297927856,
-0.3566809296607971,
-0.11955706030130386,
0.09516163915395737,
0.3898185193538666,
-0.018250256776809692,
0.376958966255188,
-0.32384389638900757,
0.02332868054509163,
0.32116684317588806,
-0.08664047718048096,
-0.2687098979949951,
0.6102702617645264,
-0.1710851937532425,
0.18608681857585907,
0.1256408840417862,
0.5330109596252441,
0.21534186601638794,
0.5087761282920837,
0.19209767878055573,
-0.42863795161247253,
-0.8686814904212952,
-0.22088485956192017,
0.20604287087917328,
1.057835578918457,
-0.6305468082427979,
0.3539477586746216,
-0.2809429466724396,
1.2536585330963135,
0.21339425444602966,
-0.8434529900550842,
-0.29641595482826233,
0.40773865580558777,
-0.19796575605869293,
0.1838613897562027,
0.16351152956485748,
0.23265910148620605,
0.35500368475914,
0.16174715757369995,
0.6003142595291138,
-0.458953320980072,
0.05609897896647453,
0.17734351754188538,
-0.44718581438064575,
0.36064693331718445,
1.1831622123718262,
0.926256537437439,
-0.23378682136535645,
-0.10458195209503174,
0.5786433815956116,
-0.0017854546895250678,
-0.5813351273536682,
-0.10160833597183228,
0.4689490497112274,
-0.19739986956119537,
-0.7998775243759155,
0.032336559146642685,
-0.3317249119281769,
-0.18234500288963318,
-0.702248215675354,
0.4445720613002777,
0.6044993996620178,
-0.07409611344337463,
0.588433027267456,
-0.27767255902290344,
0.9282552003860474,
0.154909148812294,
0.2095397710800171,
0.25999337434768677,
-0.5308059453964233,
-0.26739048957824707,
0.43364840745925903,
0.22076064348220825,
-0.5120041966438293,
0.03862199932336807,
-0.000021648864276357926,
0.4079008996486664,
-0.15700149536132812,
-0.17479769885540009,
-0.8095961213111877,
0.3044075667858124,
0.17778128385543823,
-0.9666124582290649,
0.5284150242805481,
0.061508484184741974,
0.6325156688690186,
-0.15103676915168762,
0.27851155400276184,
0.0206845011562109,
0.2506639063358307,
0.15490075945854187,
0.6181154251098633,
0.9338651895523071,
0.1401985138654709,
-0.20417802035808563,
0.14891767501831055,
-0.2558354437351227,
-0.06331135332584381,
0.7201922535896301,
0.5021969079971313,
-0.046570632606744766,
-0.022668400779366493,
-0.05752071738243103,
-0.22466468811035156,
-0.3792839050292969,
-0.5878910422325134,
0.2232256382703781,
-0.7468528747558594,
0.1081431433558464,
-0.35733285546302795,
-0.21869544684886932,
-0.28904423117637634,
0.07445050030946732,
-1.0992966890335083,
-0.12803688645362854,
-0.3826003074645996,
0.4474763572216034,
-0.08587053418159485,
-0.30127832293510437,
-0.41040489077568054,
0.25690701603889465,
0.6862010359764099,
-0.10484340041875839,
0.42479047179222107,
0.054088294506073,
0.5323002934455872,
-0.18221375346183777,
0.3098730742931366,
0.07874904572963715,
-0.019831471145153046,
-0.45570558309555054,
0.9986669421195984,
-0.406527042388916,
0.6055918335914612,
-0.32350707054138184,
0.20030151307582855,
-0.14361046254634857,
-0.5616535544395447,
0.012029122561216354,
-0.2513953149318695,
0.12723186612129211,
0.7837561964988708,
-0.17492207884788513,
0.5956732034683228,
0.0733829140663147,
-0.04519214481115341,
-0.5671782493591309,
-0.3593323826789856,
-5.168257236480713,
-0.5017502903938293,
0.46934187412261963,
-0.163011372089386,
0.2992148697376251,
0.8763618469238281,
0.14940695464611053,
-0.12563005089759827,
-0.25488096475601196,
-0.532219409942627,
-0.21581651270389557,
-0.08536279201507568,
-0.41126444935798645,
0.5631667375564575,
1.3712128400802612,
0.4271021783351898,
-0.14041979610919952,
-0.043394457548856735,
0.9390681982040405,
0.647527813911438,
0.26669400930404663,
0.30640968680381775,
-0.4155089557170868,
0.3807745575904846,
-0.4895407557487488,
0.20803958177566528,
-0.790536642074585,
-0.1281837821006775,
-0.5931172966957092,
-0.14909173548221588,
0.6604765057563782,
-0.35563716292381287,
-0.7073638439178467,
-0.14088572561740875,
-0.18795658648014069,
0.01756829395890236,
0.10766702145338058,
0.04470036178827286,
0.5286476612091064,
-0.017659034579992294,
0.09434356540441513,
0.09061422944068909,
-0.42613697052001953,
-0.023301128298044205,
0.23481908440589905,
0.025840163230895996,
-0.4120214879512787,
-0.4070401191711426,
0.037481363862752914,
0.5011112093925476,
-0.17631036043167114,
0.7695890665054321,
0.39502885937690735,
-0.35592731833457947,
-0.4587957561016083,
-0.1127939522266388,
0.29447677731513977,
-0.24309752881526947,
-0.743236243724823,
0.1207001656293869,
0.15915746986865997,
-0.10788539052009583,
0.25080788135528564,
-0.4195430278778076,
-0.07281485944986343,
0.17159582674503326,
0.14570406079292297,
0.3676387369632721,
0.4215414226055145,
-0.9755676984786987,
-0.29319480061531067,
0.6777728199958801,
0.1642090082168579,
-1.37611985206604,
-0.3716982901096344,
-0.657028317451477,
0.15313097834587097,
0.30769577622413635,
-0.3466702997684479,
-0.112453393638134,
-0.03643963485956192,
-0.6020358204841614,
-0.2961781620979309,
0.815923273563385,
0.011273877695202827,
-0.9535452723503113,
-0.6452887058258057,
0.030393462628126144,
-0.15067259967327118,
-0.4796651601791382,
-0.44146278500556946,
-0.2303575724363327,
-0.32996073365211487,
0.0021096135023981333,
0.48228952288627625,
0.3554108440876007,
0.0477583184838295,
0.516455352306366,
0.8644262552261353,
0.049868520349264145,
-0.8065970540046692,
-0.2607443928718567,
-0.05217820405960083,
-0.4265280067920685,
-0.29121699929237366,
-0.15895448625087738,
0.36258774995803833,
0.061943914741277695,
0.504321813583374,
0.10032335668802261,
0.08743835985660553,
0.6643329858779907,
-0.7086301445960999,
0.37004798650741577,
-0.13233262300491333,
0.11857829988002777,
-0.2385684698820114,
0.5041533708572388,
0.3116335868835449,
0.8974246382713318,
-0.14462926983833313,
0.2503308653831482,
-0.240574911236763,
0.1383388191461563,
0.27409452199935913,
0.10369233787059784,
0.21425825357437134,
-0.4779798686504364,
0.19093237817287445,
-0.12427227199077606,
-0.5258298516273499,
0.5947349667549133,
0.345852792263031,
-0.3849264085292816,
-0.2845442593097687,
0.013549892231822014,
-0.911117672920227,
0.17018410563468933,
0.13805361092090607,
0.09275441616773605,
0.015550925396382809,
0.056571297347545624,
0.7034605145454407,
0.28489166498184204,
0.13883590698242188,
-0.33187374472618103,
0.04069530963897705,
0.47473275661468506,
0.19220790266990662,
0.7053719162940979,
0.41362714767456055,
0.149537593126297,
0.3375067710876465,
-1.1210887432098389,
-0.03889017924666405,
0.1788584440946579,
-0.5869336724281311,
0.021622594445943832,
0.1615600287914276,
-0.21780306100845337,
0.23665612936019897,
-0.3715279698371887,
-1.171132206916809,
0.01796281896531582,
0.29270124435424805,
0.05467989668250084,
-0.531744122505188,
-0.053951505571603775,
-0.43235427141189575,
0.03888871148228645,
-0.5591091513633728,
-0.627299427986145,
-0.31340494751930237,
0.0631561428308487,
0.2234809845685959,
-0.10062425583600998,
0.21836961805820465,
-0.2700527608394623,
0.25847065448760986,
0.16831904649734497,
-0.08970582485198975,
0.3853503465652466,
-0.5119596719741821,
0.14074747264385223,
0.5171757936477661,
-0.1890137642621994,
-0.6473991274833679,
-0.616902232170105,
0.17278745770454407,
-0.10872913151979446,
0.17817623913288116,
0.010506130754947662,
0.5926546454429626,
0.6845773458480835,
-0.30447620153427124,
0.05770763382315636,
-0.030245531350374222,
-0.6691164374351501,
-0.21930794417858124,
-0.5080406069755554,
0.252584308385849,
0.21268416941165924,
-0.0724760890007019,
-0.0021227977704256773,
0.231522798538208,
-0.8456248641014099,
-0.5946312546730042,
0.047787465155124664,
-0.3032247722148895,
0.7705469727516174,
-0.09831159561872482,
-0.1795220971107483,
-0.09270938485860825,
0.4988822042942047,
-0.7193530201911926,
0.07148652523756027,
-0.2926742136478424,
0.24564838409423828,
-0.20643310248851776,
-0.38054558634757996,
-0.5991441011428833,
-0.14722268283367157,
-0.08627498894929886,
-0.361789733171463,
-0.26043108105659485,
-0.2774467170238495,
0.2713463306427002,
-0.43813830614089966,
0.7306895852088928,
-0.4262687861919403,
-0.12860240042209625,
-0.314933717250824,
0.4978867471218109,
0.16082197427749634,
-0.24159744381904602,
-0.12452778220176697,
0.09640485048294067,
0.38450688123703003,
-0.1498156636953354,
-0.1292494535446167,
0.9754874110221863,
0.6461023092269897,
0.15756744146347046,
-0.39308464527130127,
-0.1681453138589859,
0.45873579382896423,
0.9772472381591797,
-0.3918263614177704,
-0.427099347114563,
-0.06807655096054077,
0.6957244277000427,
-0.06415076553821564,
-0.8398885726928711,
0.10870819538831711,
0.6931617856025696,
-0.6320482492446899,
-0.3392021954059601,
-0.2922157645225525,
0.2660507559776306,
-0.5339594483375549,
0.7683574557304382,
-0.0030712939333170652,
-0.20811866223812103,
0.24647828936576843,
0.05675629898905754,
0.5259751677513123,
0.32272714376449585,
-0.29178500175476074,
0.21312598884105682,
-0.3156664967536926,
-0.28798386454582214,
-0.4892923831939697,
-0.19095340371131897,
1.1881392002105713,
-0.043225307017564774,
0.1260891556739807,
0.4402392506599426,
-0.48384055495262146,
0.44286268949508667,
0.11863622069358826,
0.5165913701057434,
0.32799065113067627,
0.3627074956893921,
-0.5048081278800964,
0.11710980534553528,
-0.4401254951953888,
0.08961073309183121,
0.25236761569976807,
0.2735467255115509,
-0.07483921945095062,
-0.652553379535675,
-0.13489867746829987,
-0.5933306217193604,
0.06911027431488037,
0.29976022243499756,
-0.24558693170547485,
-0.34471768140792847,
0.4933207333087921,
-0.01958164945244789,
-0.4181637763977051,
-0.4466799199581146,
0.4665021598339081,
0.5850075483322144,
-0.6746285557746887,
0.4602888822555542,
-0.0825028195977211,
-0.28708815574645996,
-0.07337338477373123,
-0.4177466034889221,
0.10169769823551178,
0.6172549724578857,
-0.03622562065720558,
-0.007734228391200304,
0.4242246747016907,
-0.4213098883628845,
-0.29362013936042786,
0.19169795513153076,
-0.8486052751541138,
0.46976542472839355,
0.04981966316699982,
0.24336464703083038,
0.2855338156223297,
0.09542538225650787,
-0.7511900067329407,
-0.4901205003261566,
0.3774704337120056,
-0.256062775850296,
-0.19056515395641327,
0.1525530070066452,
-0.150233194231987,
-0.3695470094680786,
0.21919427812099457,
0.04010118916630745,
0.4577496647834778,
-0.3748857080936432,
-0.6833152174949646,
0.37037572264671326,
-0.20032601058483124,
0.2008676826953888,
0.19100970029830933,
-0.553309977054596,
0.6119624972343445,
0.2067834585905075,
0.2548758387565613,
-0.1552657037973404,
0.03151648864150047,
-0.07409214973449707,
0.8358759880065918,
-0.2706100642681122,
-0.21435610949993134,
0.5041823387145996,
0.1031535342335701,
0.2544209361076355,
-0.7967092990875244,
0.1920759528875351,
-0.3147675693035126,
0.5485455989837646,
-0.47034919261932373,
-0.13917312026023865,
-0.5645425319671631,
-0.010468307882547379,
0.06246952712535858,
0.45606541633605957,
0.8157060146331787,
0.09365338087081909,
0.06777520477771759,
0.18016624450683594,
-1.1774464845657349,
0.4021071791648865,
0.7873013019561768,
0.4679332673549652,
0.0567610040307045,
-0.26031455397605896,
0.7876038551330566,
-0.006721136625856161,
-0.28532126545906067,
0.5337666273117065,
0.170396625995636,
-0.4022041857242584,
0.07973193377256393,
-0.38777780532836914,
0.23263518512248993,
0.435560017824173,
0.3335104286670685,
0.35941946506500244,
-0.09244095534086227,
-0.19798308610916138,
-0.009722437709569931,
-0.2710946500301361,
0.29136714339256287,
0.22315369546413422,
-0.7010095715522766,
-0.5984816551208496,
-0.09721079468727112,
-1.0593100786209106,
0.22177793085575104,
-0.22012020647525787,
0.6590065956115723,
0.19635307788848877,
-0.254366010427475,
-0.17181824147701263,
0.16982364654541016,
-0.06922173500061035,
0.11228498071432114,
-0.29351145029067993,
0.17813438177108765,
0.4115094244480133,
-0.13358864188194275,
-0.9874231219291687,
0.603701114654541,
0.3519327938556671,
0.20838110148906708,
-0.23695001006126404,
0.29022160172462463,
-0.5754085779190063,
0.2094803750514984,
0.11378467082977295,
0.030951611697673798,
0.48847275972366333,
-0.3205396831035614,
0.22038747370243073,
0.5443556904792786,
-0.08620978146791458,
-0.09461015462875366,
-0.2303062379360199,
0.20766229927539825,
-0.035647667944431305,
0.4549191892147064,
-0.3057427704334259,
-0.010053504258394241,
-0.2947121560573578,
0.035388339310884476,
-0.30317044258117676,
-0.38236233592033386,
0.06101125106215477,
-0.5634976029396057,
1.21761953830719,
1.032654881477356,
0.23271016776561737,
-0.1250256597995758,
0.5657291412353516,
0.4409436285495758,
-0.027384581044316292,
-0.1658133864402771,
-2.7496588230133057,
-0.19000081717967987,
0.3497379720211029,
-0.4785769581794739,
-0.22275066375732422,
-0.1495228111743927,
0.16422288119792938,
-0.3684024214744568,
-0.07153650373220444,
-1.0865018367767334,
0.08733541518449783,
0.04156365990638733,
0.2829086184501648,
0.48507949709892273,
0.7714233994483948,
0.5559576749801636
] |
200313
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warwick
|
Warwick
|
Warwick ( ) is a market town and the county town of Warwickshire, England, adjacent to the River Avon. It is south of Coventry, and south-east of Birmingham. It is adjoined with Leamington Spa and Whitnash. It has ancient origins and an array of historic buildings, notably from the Medieval, Stuart and Georgian eras. It was a major fortified settlement from the early Middle Ages, the most notable relic of this period being Warwick Castle, a major tourist attraction. Much was destroyed in the Great Fire of Warwick in 1694 and then rebuilt with fine 18th century buildings, such as the Collegiate Church of St Mary and the Shire Hall.
It is one of England's smaller county towns – the population was estimated at 35,068 in 2020. This is historically because it was hardly touched by the industrial revolution, although its population has more than doubled since the 1960s.
History
Ancient
Human activity on the site dates back to the Neolithic era, when settlement may have begun. Archaeological work on the site of Warwick School in 2017–2018 revealed the footings of a sizeable Roman barn from the 2nd century AD.
Saxon and medieval
From the 6th century onwards, Warwick was continuously inhabited. The town's Old English name, Wæringwīc, is composed of Wæring, which is a clan name or patronymic, and the suffix wīc, meaning a 'settlement characterised by extensive artisanal activity and trade.' Alternatively, it may be derived from wering, meaning a 'fortification' or a 'weir,' the latter implying that the original settlement was located by a natural weir over the River Avon, possibly on the south side of the river, which offered easily cultivable land.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 914 reports that the Anglo-Saxon Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, daughter of king Alfred the Great and sister of king Edward the Elder of Wessex, built a burh or fortified dwelling there on a hilltop site overlooking the earlier riverside settlement, as one of ten to defend Mercia from the Danes (Vikings). Warwick was chosen as a site for the burh because the local outcrop of sandstone alongside the Avon provided an easily defensible position at a strategic site by the river crossing, with a good source of water and building material. In the early 10th century, a shire was founded with Warwick as its county town. During the reign of Æthelstan (924-939) a royal mint was established at Warwick. This was one of two established in Warwickshire at the time, the other being at Tamworth. The Warwick mint continued until the mid-12th century. In 1016 the Danes invaded Mercia and burned down much of Warwick including a nunnery, which stood on the site of today's St Nicholas Church.
William the Conqueror founded Warwick Castle in 1068, while on his way to Yorkshire to deal with rebellion in the north. Building it involved pulling down four houses. The castle stood within the larger Anglo-Saxon burh and a new town wall was created close to the burh ramparts.
The prosperity of medieval Warwick rested on its status as an administrative and military centre, however it was poorly positioned from the point of view of trade, and was consequently never a commercial or industrial centre of more than local significance in medieval times.
Medieval Warwick was controlled by various Earls of Warwick, mostly of the Beauchamp family. It became a walled town. It is unknown quite when the town wall was built, but references to it are found as early as the 12th century. It had mostly been demolished by the early 16th century. Today the only remains are the east and west gatehouses, there was previously also a north gatehouse, but this was demolished. On the south side, the bridge over the Avon was said to fulfil the role of a gatehouse, and likely had a barrier. The west gate was first recorded in 1129, and had a chapel of St James above it, which was reconstructed in the 14th century and extensively restored in 1863–1865. The east gate was rebuilt in the 15th century with the Chapel of St Peter above it. It was rebuilt again in 1788 and was once used as part of The King's High School, but is now a holiday home.
The town's Priory was founded in around 1119 by Henry de Beaumont, the first Earl of Warwick. It was later destroyed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536, it stood on the site of the current Priory Park. Henry de Beaumont also founded the Hospital of St John near the east town gate. It is now the site of the 17th century St John's House. Relatively few medieval buildings survive in Warwick, however one of the most notable examples is the Lord Leycester Hospital on the High Street, whose oldest parts date from 1383.
Warwick was not incorporated as a borough until 1545.
17th century
During the English Civil War the town and castle were garrisoned for Parliament under Sir Edward Peyto. In 1642 the castle underwent a two-week siege by the Royalists commanded by the Earl of Northampton, however, the besiegers lacked any cannons powerful enough to damage the castle. The siege collapsed when, on hearing of the approach of the Earl of Essex to Southam, Lord Northampton marched his force away towards Worcester. Major John Bridges was appointed governor of the castle in 1643, and a garrison was maintained there with artillery and other stores until 1659, which at its height in 1645 consisted of 302 soldiers.
The mid-17th century saw the founding of Castle Hill Baptist Church, one of the oldest Baptist churches in the world.
Great Warwick fire
Much of the medieval town centre was destroyed in the Great Fire of Warwick on 5 September 1694, which, within five hours destroyed 460 buildings and left 250 families homeless. Thus most of the town-centre buildings are of late 17th and early 18th-century origin, although some medieval timber-framed buildings survive, especially around the edges of the town centre.
One of the aims of the rebuilding of Warwick following the fire, was to encourage the gentry and professional men to settle in the town, and so impetus was given to rebuilding the town in the then contemporary style. Many of the buildings in the rebuilt town were designed by the architects Francis Smith, and later William and David Hiorne, who gave Warwick its 18th century appearance. Daniel Defoe gave his opinion that Warwick had been 'rebuilt in so noble and so beautiful a manner that few towns in England make so fine an appearance'.
The fire burnt down much of the medieval church of St Mary. However, the chancel and the Beauchamp Chapel survived, the latter having been built between 1443 and 1464 according to the wishes of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, who had died in Rouen in 1439. A full-size reclining copper-gilt effigy of him lies on his Purbeck marble tomb – a fine piece of medieval metalwork cast in 1459.
18th century to present
In 1788 the Earl of Warwick obtained an Act of Parliament to enable him to build a new bridge over the Avon: Castle Bridge, which consists of a single sandstone arch was opened in 1793. It replaced an older 14th century bridge further downstream, known as Old Castle Bridge, which fell into ruin, although remains of it can still be seen.
The Warwick and Birmingham and Warwick and Napton canals were both opened through Warwick in 1800. They now form parts of the Grand Union Canal.
The Borough of Warwick was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which reconstituted it as a municipal borough with an elected Town Council.
The railway arrived in Warwick in 1852 when the Great Western Railway opened its man line between Birmingham, Oxford and London through the town, along with Warwick railway station. However, the train service proved to be a disappointment to Warwick, as no express trains served the town, stopping at nearby Leamington Spa railway station instead.
Warwick was largely bypassed by the industrial revolution; during the early 19th century, only minor industrial activities developed in the town, such as hat making. By the early 20th century, some engineering industry had been established locally.
The Warwick Pageant was a major festival in the grounds of Warwick Castle in 1906, organised by Louis N. Parker from a house in Jury Street. As Pageant House, this subsequently served as the offices of Warwick Borough Council, until the enlarged Warwick District Council was formed in Leamington Spa in 1974.
The Leamington & Warwick Tramways & Omnibus Company was established in 1881, and operated a tramway service between Warwick and Leamington Spa until 1930.
In 2021 it was announced that Warwick had entered a competition with 38 other contenders to be awarded city status as part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours. The winner will be announced in June 2022.
Population change
Populations before the 1801 census can be based on indirect measures. Historians suggest that Warwick had a population of about 1,500 in 1086. Indicators for ensuing centuries are sparse, but by the mid-16th century it is thought to have been about 2,000, which increased by the late 17th century to over 3,000. At the time of the first national census in 1801, Warwick had 5,592 inhabitants. This population nearly doubled by 1851, when it reached 10,952, but thereafter growth was slower for more than a century, reaching 15,349 in 1951 and 16,051 in 1961. Since then it has almost doubled, to 31,315 in 2011.
Governance
Population growth has led to Warwick adjoining its larger and younger neighbour Leamington Spa and also Whitnash as part of a conurbation of some 95,000 inhabitants. Along with Kenilworth, they are administered as part of the Warwick District, which has its headquarters in Leamington, although each is a separate civil parish and retains its own town (parish) council. Warwickshire County Council is based in Warwick itself.
Warwick is represented in Parliament as part of the Warwick and Leamington constituency. It has been held by the Labour Party since the 2017 general election, when Matt Western was elected as the constituency's Member of Parliament. From the 1945 general election until 1997 the constituency elected a Conservative MP. In 1997 a Labour MP was elected and held the seat until 2010 when Chris White was elected for the Conservatives. White lost his seat when Theresa May called a snap election in 2017.
Geography
The 17th-century antiquarian William Dugdale wrote that Warwick was "standing upon a rocky ascent from every side, and in a dry and fertile soil, having... rich and pleasant meadows on the south part... and... woodland on the north." Two factors have affected Warwick's built environment: the Great Fire of 1694 and the lack of industrialisation. In the 19th century, the widespread industrialisation of England largely passed Warwick by. One reason was that the town did not lie on important roads and the River Avon was not navigable as far as Warwick.
Suburbs
Suburbs of Warwick include Bridge End, Cliff Hill, Emscote, Woodloes Park, Forbes, Myton (connecting Warwick with Leamington Spa), Packmores, The Cape, The Percy, Warwick Gates, Chase Meadow and Myton Green.
Warwick Gates and Chase Meadow
Warwick Gates is a housing estate and business park in Heathcote, south-east Warwick, which was built in the late 1990s. Although separated from Warwick town centre by open fields, Warwick Gates falls within the Warwick South and Bishops Tachbrook parish. It is adjacent to Whitnash, a small town near Leamington Spa, and the village of Bishops Tachbrook. The Tachbrook Park and Heathcote industrial estates are also nearby. The NHS Royal Leamington Spa Rehabilitation Hospital is adjacent to Warwick Gates.
In the early 2010s another new estate, Chase Meadow, was built to the south-west of the town next to Warwick Racecourse. Its amenities include a public house, a Chinese takeaway and a fish and chip shop. Ten year later a new estate south of Myton, named Myton Green was built.
Climate
Warwick experiences the usual English maritime climate, marked by a narrow temperature range, mild winters and cool summers. The nearest official Met Office weather station is at Wellesbourne, about 6 miles (10 km) south of the town centre and at a similar elevation.
The absolute maximum temperature (also the absolute maximum for the county of Warwickshire) stands at recorded in August 1990. During a typical year, the warmest day should reach , and 16.5 days should report a maximum of or higher.
The lowest recorded temperature is , recorded in January 1982. Typically, 53.3 air frosts are recorded in an "average" year.
Rainfall averages out at per year, with over 114 days seeing or more falling. All averages refer to the 1971–2000 period.
Demography
At the 2011 census, there were 31,345 residents in Warwick in 14,226 households, and the median age of Warwick residents was 39.
In terms of ethnicity:
88.1% of Warwick residents were White (Comprising 84.1% White British, 2.9% Other White, and 1.1% Irish).
7.9% were Asian (Comprising 5.4% Indian, 0.8% Chinese, 0.4% Pakistani, 0.1% Bangladeshi and 1.2% from another Asian background)
0.7% were Black (Comprising 0.4% African, 0.3% Caribbean and 0.1% other Black)
2.2% were Mixed.
0.2% were Arab, and 0.9% were from another ethnic group.
In terms of religion, 58.0% of Warwick residents identified as Christian, 26.9% said they had no religion, 7.4% did not state any religion, 4.6% were Sikh, 1.3% were Hindu, 1.0% were Muslim, 0.4% were Buddhists, 0.2% were Jewish and 0.4% were from another religion.
Economy
Due to its proximity to north–south and east–west motorway routes, many companies have a head office in the town. Since November 2004, National Grid UK has had its UK headquarters on the Warwick Technology Park south of the town between the A425 road and A452 road. Phillips 66 and their petrol station group, JET, have an office on the Technology Park. Other businesses with head offices here include lingerie company Bravissimo. IBM, Wolseley UK and Volvo Group UK have bases on the Wedgnock Industrial Estate in the north of the town, near to the A46 trunk road. Other companies with regional headquarters in Warwick include Bridgestone, Calor, Kantar and Delphi Automotive. In recent years several high-profile national and international companies have set up large office complexes in and around Warwick, notably National Grid plc and IBM. There is also an out-of-town retail park called Leamington Shopping Park (formerly The Shires Retail Park).
Culture
Warwick hosts several annual festivals, including: the Spoken Word; Classical and Contemporary Music; a Folk Festival; and a Victorian Evening, held in late November or early December. St. Mary's Church hosts a series of Early Music concerts, and the Bridge House Theatre hosts the Music-in-Round concerts. Warwick Chamber of Trade helps to promote the town for visitors, residents and businesses. The town is also famous for Warwick Castle, whose construction began in 1068. The town centre is also known for its mixture of Tudor and 17th-century buildings.
Warwick is also known for Warwick Racecourse, near the west gate of the medieval town, which hosts several televised horse racing meetings a year. Within the racecourse is a small golf course.
J. R. R. Tolkien seems to have been very influenced by Warwick (where he was married in the Catholic Church of Saint Mary Immaculate) and by its Mercian connections: Lynn Forest-Hill, in an article in the Times Literary Supplement (TLS 8 July 2005 pp 12–13) argues cogently that two important settlements in Tolkien's work were modelled on Warwick – Edoras closely on the early town, and Minas Tirith more remotely on the Norman; and that aspects of the plot of The Lord of the Rings are paralleled in the romance known as Guy of Warwick. Christopher Tolkien, in The Book of Lost Tales, stated that Kortirion, the main city of Tol Eressëa, "would become in after days Warwick."
Warwick and its historic buildings have featured in a number of television series, including the BBC's drama series Dangerfield, the period dramas Pride and Prejudice and Tom Jones and Granada Television's Moll Flanders. Parts of the town substituted for Elizabethan and Jacobean era London in the third-series episode two ("The Shakespeare Code") of Doctor Who which ran 7 April 2007. Filming took place in June 2019 for A Christmas Carol, which was screened on UK television at Christmas 2019.
Museums
The Warwickshire Museum has two sites in Warwick, firstly the historic 17th century Market Hall in the Market Square, which hosts collections which are primarily focused on objects in the fields of archaeology, geology and natural history, and particularly those local to Warwickshire.
Secondly, the 17th century St John's House, which hosts, among other things, a full sized replica of a Victorian kitchen and classroom, and the Royal Warwickshire Regiment of Fusiliers Museum.
Hospitals
Warwick Hospital, Royal Leamington Spa Rehabilitation Hospital and St Michael's Hospital (a psychiatric unit that superseded Central Hospital, Hatton) are in the town.
Sport
Warwick Racecourse is located just west of the town centre. Adjacent to it is Racing Club Warwick F.C., founded in 1919. The city has many long-established sports clubs, including Warwick Hockey Club, founded in 1920.
Education
Schools
Secondary schools in Warwick include Warwick School, an independent day and boarding school for boys. The King's High School For Girls is also independent, but Myton School and Aylesford School are state-run co-educational schools. Campion School and Trinity Catholic School in Leamington include parts of Warwick in their catchment areas. Warwick Preparatory School is an independent day school and nursery for boys aged 3–7 and girls 3–11. It is part of the Warwick Independent Schools Foundation, together with King's High School and Warwick School.
Warwick School
Warwick School is an independent school for boys which claims to be the oldest boys' school in England. The actual foundation date is unknown, although 914 has sometimes been quoted. For some years the school claimed that King Edward the Confessor (c.1004–1066) chartered it, although there is no clear evidence for this and King Henry VIII re-founded it in 1545. Whatever the case, there has undoubtedly been a grammar school in the town of Warwick since before the Norman Conquest. Its present successor has occupied its current site south of the River Avon since 1879.
University of Warwick
The nearest university is the University of Warwick, which is named after the county of Warwickshire, rather than the town, and is in fact situated several miles north of Warwick on the southern outskirts of Coventry. Adding to the location confusion is the fact that Coventry is no longer in the county of Warwickshire, but instead is in the West Midlands, leading to the current situation where the university straddles both counties.
Landmarks and notable buildings
Collegiate Church of St Mary
Gurdwara Sahib Leamington and Warwick
Guy's Cliffe House
Lord Leycester Hospital
Lord Leycester Hotel
Market Hall
Market Square
The Dream Factory
St John's Museum
St Michael's Leper Hospital
St. Nicholas' Park
Saxon Mill
Shire Hall
Warwick Castle
Warwick Hospital
Warwick Racecourse
Warwick School
Hill Close Gardens
Transport
Road
Warwick is on the M40 London-Birmingham motorway, connected to junctions 13, 14 and 15; it is also on the A46 dual-carriageway trunk road positioned between Coventry and Stratford-upon-Avon. Warwick has several council off-street car parks in the town. There are also a few privately run car parks, including those at the railway station and the castle.
Rail
The town has two railway stations, both on the Chiltern Main Line: Located a short distance north of the town centre is Warwick railway station, which has direct rail services to Leamington Spa, London, Birmingham and Stratford-upon-Avon; these services are provided by Chiltern Railways. In addition, a few peak-hour trains to and from Birmingham are operated by West Midlands Trains. The second station is Warwick Parkway, an out-of-town station opened in 2000 on the western outskirts of the town, this provides frequent services to London and Birmingham. Historically, the Leamington & Warwick Tramways & Omnibus Company operated between the towns from 1881 to 1930.
Bus
Bus services to Leamington Spa, Stratford-upon-Avon and Coventry are operated by Stagecoach in Warwickshire from the bus station in the town centre.
Coach
There is also a National Express coach stop in the town's bus station with limited services. The nearby Warwick Parkway railway station also has a coach stop with more frequent services.
Waterways
The Grand Union Canal and the River Avon also pass through the town. The restored Saltisford Canal Arm is close to the town centre – it is a short branch of the Grand Union Canal, the remains of the original terminus of the Warwick and Birmingham Canal, dating back to 1799. The Saltisford Canal Trust has restored most of the surviving canal, which is now the mooring for colourful narrowboats and a waterside park open to the public. Over 800 visiting narrowboats come by water to Warwick each year and moor on the arm.
Air
The nearest international airport to Warwick is Birmingham Airport, about by road from the town centre. There also used to be a Royal Air Force station called RAF Warwick.
Notable people
Twin towns
The town of Warwick has formal twinning arrangements with two European towns: Saumur in France (since 1976) and Verden in Germany (since 1989). Havelberg in Germany has been a friendship town since 1990 when it was adopted by Verden. There is also a friendship link with Bo District in Sierra Leone.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Warwick Town Council
Warwick District Council
Building History entry for Warwick
Warwickshire's Railways – the history of the county's railways from 1838 to 1968
Photos of Warwick and surrounding area on geograph
Warwick Archives - Our Warwickshire
Towns in Warwickshire
914 establishments
Populated places established in the 6th century
10th-century establishments in England
Civil parishes in Warwickshire
Warwick District
|
[
0.03458632528781891,
-0.25773656368255615,
0.48215779662132263,
-0.9433770179748535,
0.05545880272984505,
1.0461199283599854,
0.2160731852054596,
0.4745807945728302,
-0.7383049130439758,
-0.18012504279613495,
-0.28934016823768616,
0.47319793701171875,
-0.22363150119781494,
0.32247355580329895,
0.06061391904950142,
1.0200436115264893,
0.23750349879264832,
0.19828888773918152,
0.42889603972435,
-0.7705584764480591,
0.28036293387413025,
-0.3367097079753876,
0.14085689187049866,
0.6117528676986694,
0.009235789068043232,
-0.2945594787597656,
0.511971652507782,
-0.0008381367661058903,
-0.07202994078397751,
0.002497466281056404,
0.10812710970640182,
0.47904983162879944,
0.48398879170417786,
-0.13020732998847961,
0.15722577273845673,
-0.055969953536987305,
-0.19580326974391937,
-0.4694064259529114,
-0.5453382730484009,
-0.3871280550956726,
-0.30920177698135376,
-0.2784889340400696,
0.17427849769592285,
-0.24537359178066254,
-0.3809317350387573,
-0.36173394322395325,
-0.9440694451332092,
0.18860389292240143,
-0.3881057798862457,
0.16211546957492828,
-0.5043830871582031,
1.1563737392425537,
-0.13527558743953705,
0.31810957193374634,
0.8266127705574036,
0.4497193992137909,
-0.24393507838249207,
-0.16674776375293732,
0.8985605835914612,
0.48561519384384155,
0.24660992622375488,
0.29309433698654175,
-0.04862438514828682,
0.5972592234611511,
-0.4319855868816376,
-0.3995799422264099,
0.2349514216184616,
-0.011157682165503502,
-1.0171464681625366,
-0.5367502570152283,
-0.5488473176956177,
-0.41898632049560547,
-0.2533932328224182,
0.05862274020910263,
-0.6780261993408203,
0.3416556417942047,
-0.1967896968126297,
-0.19174666702747345,
0.24973274767398834,
0.19698145985603333,
0.3836255371570587,
-0.16767533123493195,
0.8442942500114441,
0.10688874125480652,
0.7557918429374695,
0.5838541984558105,
-0.32646915316581726,
0.3174131512641907,
-0.045491814613342285,
0.6156795024871826,
-0.06329090893268585,
0.30707356333732605,
-0.2170690894126892,
-0.027903934940695763,
-0.20826636254787445,
-0.1317732185125351,
-0.1146465614438057,
-0.13374273478984833,
0.015188450925052166,
0.0684836283326149,
0.018097739666700363,
0.610533595085144,
0.46508729457855225,
0.00415797671303153,
-0.8030824661254883,
-0.13595692813396454,
-0.289892315864563,
-0.50545734167099,
0.32787567377090454,
0.1778797060251236,
-0.8889854550361633,
0.1743949055671692,
-0.252780556678772,
-0.3011079430580139,
-0.2095663845539093,
0.019076254218816757,
0.2724710702896118,
0.33522215485572815,
-0.06768883019685745,
0.22645172476768494,
0.3817692995071411,
0.6601948142051697,
0.22868062555789948,
0.9676193594932556,
0.06983548402786255,
-0.7017039060592651,
0.06206395477056503,
0.027486445382237434,
-0.5153339505195618,
-0.10908105969429016,
0.5389675498008728,
0.17016254365444183,
-0.28653332591056824,
0.06696669012308121,
0.2514859735965729,
-0.3600428104400635,
-0.568549633026123,
0.2647517919540405,
0.9431674480438232,
0.14729607105255127,
-1.1315363645553589,
-0.22430765628814697,
-0.023707926273345947,
-0.1650482565164566,
0.1566483974456787,
-0.282837450504303,
-0.4209362268447876,
-0.46353432536125183,
-0.15129239857196808,
-0.21326877176761627,
0.15485472977161407,
0.13857898116111755,
-0.298508882522583,
-0.6537497043609619,
-0.22184044122695923,
-0.21571485698223114,
0.6740044355392456,
0.05949593335390091,
0.2611277997493744,
0.07085635513067245,
-0.1588602513074875,
0.21868862211704254,
0.885319173336029,
0.1441182792186737,
-0.05341840535402298,
0.20683792233467102,
-0.06984113901853561,
-0.6823073029518127,
0.2059021145105362,
0.3197687864303589,
-0.5611725449562073,
0.1897028088569641,
0.7281556129455566,
-0.5264118313789368,
-0.3079805076122284,
-0.5952116847038269,
1.1679648160934448,
0.4576418101787567,
0.6407809853553772,
-0.2670685946941376,
-0.3502753973007202,
0.10986728966236115,
0.20915007591247559,
-0.13427013158798218,
-0.3083743155002594,
0.24539196491241455,
0.4091830551624298,
-0.1375446915626526,
-0.19424018263816833,
0.022261327132582664,
0.3982820510864258,
-0.09187330305576324,
-0.10631146281957626,
-0.6020139455795288,
0.45442256331443787,
0.33219555020332336,
-0.6016453504562378,
0.40726006031036377,
-0.5154772400856018,
0.26005274057388306,
0.1277092546224594,
-0.18556030094623566,
0.382508784532547,
-0.19026850163936615,
-0.5135798454284668,
-0.49622276425361633,
0.2678936719894409,
-0.5216988921165466,
0.06074729189276695,
0.5548328757286072,
-0.03427666053175926,
-0.5679945349693298,
-0.04148566350340843,
-0.23375162482261658,
0.4494855999946594,
-0.01498779933899641,
-0.5692026019096375,
-0.2391781210899353,
0.25419169664382935,
-0.6681579947471619,
0.12172873318195343,
-0.0888553187251091,
-0.017758306115865707,
0.21245622634887695,
0.03402220830321312,
0.4478219151496887,
-0.48819851875305176,
-0.23627443611621857,
-0.20225170254707336,
-0.1918441653251648,
-0.8761774897575378,
0.5406986474990845,
-0.23829595744609833,
0.028450794517993927,
0.11776388436555862,
-0.7029617428779602,
-0.29557618498802185,
0.3214501738548279,
0.30071207880973816,
-0.40464159846305847,
0.11913719028234482,
0.10691152513027191,
-0.8953809142112732,
0.004917599260807037,
0.19057244062423706,
0.5302552580833435,
0.3527976870536804,
0.38756152987480164,
-0.1362871527671814,
-0.7161223888397217,
0.19811120629310608,
0.09448599815368652,
0.7027172446250916,
0.5648248791694641,
0.3519740700721741,
-0.6159845590591431,
-0.29929667711257935,
0.14455686509609222,
0.5470994710922241,
0.25330036878585815,
-0.8373926281929016,
-0.1366986334323883,
0.08256029337644577,
0.1558232605457306,
0.37985408306121826,
-0.21716634929180145,
0.039213284850120544,
-0.37734365463256836,
0.40097492933273315,
-0.11399608850479126,
0.6038740873336792,
-0.3787514269351959,
-0.266854465007782,
-0.15736569464206696,
0.3977404236793518,
0.3077731430530548,
0.27819377183914185,
-0.19257418811321259,
-0.5813437700271606,
-0.25164756178855896,
0.5523585081100464,
0.947138786315918,
0.27894866466522217,
-0.6359766721725464,
0.15985482931137085,
-0.5853681564331055,
0.11907795071601868,
-0.5047134160995483,
-0.11515190452337265,
-0.6012405157089233,
-0.5253056883811951,
-0.10510692000389099,
-0.7210449576377869,
0.22518199682235718,
-0.29332998394966125,
0.19760414958000183,
-0.23534855246543884,
0.5775866508483887,
-0.09824561327695847,
-0.44382548332214355,
-0.2798965275287628,
0.688711404800415,
-0.337341845035553,
0.10673227161169052,
0.589510440826416,
-0.12056884914636612,
-0.09884888678789139,
-0.19419686496257782,
-5.600165843963623,
0.7664750814437866,
-0.219889834523201,
0.21992985904216766,
0.9022162556648254,
-0.1090322881937027,
-0.5279861688613892,
-0.3190311789512634,
-0.2371649593114853,
-0.6600946187973022,
0.03410106152296066,
-0.603969156742096,
-0.4055631458759308,
0.2893090546131134,
0.4912688732147217,
0.5579438209533691,
0.511053204536438,
-0.5686508417129517,
0.9862050414085388,
0.4004078209400177,
0.08235271275043488,
0.32162347435951233,
-0.5582916140556335,
0.08835076540708542,
0.5855796933174133,
0.5538939833641052,
-0.5522988438606262,
-0.5033173561096191,
-0.7416853308677673,
-0.13383938372135162,
-0.6356288194656372,
0.07289645820856094,
-0.3641790449619293,
0.1842368096113205,
0.018244054168462753,
0.1880532056093216,
-0.22441405057907104,
0.15824607014656067,
0.7403876185417175,
-0.3439105451107025,
0.09650105237960815,
0.5557497143745422,
-0.3624524772167206,
-0.5294751524925232,
0.013581217266619205,
-0.4212554097175598,
-1.0593581199645996,
-0.08198145031929016,
-0.04924877732992172,
0.611158549785614,
-0.0898420512676239,
0.01956484094262123,
0.20250892639160156,
-0.4814528226852417,
0.09943591803312302,
0.007039841264486313,
0.6219466328620911,
0.14195188879966736,
0.06156259775161743,
0.6431054472923279,
-0.05292632430791855,
-0.42225873470306396,
-0.23299099504947662,
0.05422035604715347,
-0.4168283939361572,
0.18339598178863525,
0.49101516604423523,
-0.06153372302651405,
0.8241856694221497,
0.3133231997489929,
-0.30515140295028687,
0.2427884191274643,
0.13568314909934998,
-0.7950271964073181,
0.13629063963890076,
-0.13429668545722961,
-0.7201588749885559,
-0.23259475827217102,
-0.20058202743530273,
0.22770166397094727,
-0.300158828496933,
-0.48655346035957336,
0.3856258988380432,
-0.20459438860416412,
-0.13200274109840393,
-0.8658251762390137,
-0.5762189626693726,
0.3866252303123474,
-0.21454164385795593,
-0.17081107199192047,
-0.17703622579574585,
-0.6796027421951294,
0.2424435019493103,
0.06251303851604462,
0.5835784077644348,
0.16323503851890564,
0.49655476212501526,
0.40747565031051636,
-0.034259334206581116,
0.05820075422525406,
0.26568445563316345,
-0.2945548892021179,
-0.1269560307264328,
-0.17740990221500397,
-0.26316940784454346,
0.16178439557552338,
-0.06188639625906944,
0.415671169757843,
0.6358183026313782,
-0.26048922538757324,
0.501094400882721,
-0.22019489109516144,
-0.567007839679718,
-0.14189890027046204,
0.432576447725296,
-0.24030651152133942,
-0.3342478573322296,
1.048362374305725,
0.18558253347873688,
-0.27446550130844116,
0.0832989513874054,
-0.03646637871861458,
-0.5133031010627747,
-0.14128655195236206,
-0.32557132840156555,
-0.11815884709358215,
0.40311211347579956,
0.404905766248703,
-0.25928062200546265,
0.028539543971419334,
-0.3152608871459961,
-0.3751503825187683,
-0.36551520228385925,
-0.21873201429843903,
-0.3761420249938965,
-0.107510507106781,
-0.5213533639907837,
-0.275149941444397,
0.08959756046533585,
0.5863630175590515,
0.686729371547699,
-0.014982631430029869,
0.14965565502643585,
-0.04326086491346359,
0.1171238049864769,
-0.3676050305366516,
0.03920883312821388,
0.5360007286071777,
-0.1586463451385498,
0.1725263148546219,
-0.16693681478500366,
0.3350491523742676,
-0.3404373526573181,
-0.09291868656873703,
-0.07723130285739899,
-0.6199764013290405,
-0.03860999643802643,
-0.045280877500772476,
0.5298100113868713,
-0.4716566801071167,
0.11001339554786682,
-0.19377657771110535,
-0.9254580736160278,
0.4425235092639923,
0.518852174282074,
-0.17598308622837067,
-0.2458103448152542,
-0.025127194821834564,
0.17468753457069397,
0.5475500822067261,
0.28408169746398926,
-0.3622020184993744,
-0.5448750257492065,
0.03928994759917259,
0.2615598142147064,
0.12105459719896317,
-0.027927784249186516,
0.2377661168575287,
0.1614857167005539,
0.6911235451698303,
0.3672904074192047,
-0.01823911815881729,
0.030568178743124008,
-0.06050335615873337,
0.3138117492198944,
-0.477184921503067,
-0.3674483597278595,
0.005361661780625582,
0.1286490261554718,
-0.3550701141357422,
-0.48232710361480713,
-0.34778892993927,
0.42558616399765015,
0.4532647430896759,
-0.3222450315952301,
0.0285699050873518,
-0.09226419031620026,
-0.3569871485233307,
-0.37828686833381653,
-0.08499565720558167,
-0.3569453954696655,
0.17464135587215424,
-0.6224794387817383,
0.08067174255847931,
0.3812313377857208,
-0.23605768382549286,
-0.08273642510175705,
0.10837998986244202,
-0.2251618355512619,
0.7306771278381348,
-0.4410530626773834,
-0.2718079388141632,
0.4494244158267975,
0.6590403318405151,
-0.3092457056045532,
0.06451485306024551,
-0.0022376026026904583,
0.28701236844062805,
0.007433853577822447,
-0.4646085202693939,
-0.25166055560112,
-0.6557711958885193,
0.08309342712163925,
-0.0738585963845253,
-0.34810930490493774,
0.34416496753692627,
0.5750619173049927,
-0.5159700512886047,
0.614122748374939,
-0.29089486598968506,
-0.17333483695983887,
0.16277870535850525,
0.1609075665473938,
1.0385329723358154,
0.42499199509620667,
-0.1369190663099289,
0.2589695155620575,
-0.5656004548072815,
0.2824917137622833,
0.10746601223945618,
0.34555795788764954,
0.9008463025093079,
-0.5210332870483398,
-0.27946653962135315,
-0.05408087745308876,
0.22758279740810394,
0.5725218057632446,
-0.6373646855354309,
-0.9409518241882324,
0.034385353326797485,
-0.0641493946313858,
-0.2644607126712799,
-0.3113462030887604,
0.34627264738082886,
0.48892489075660706,
-0.7150020599365234,
0.13231612741947174,
0.11550595611333847,
-0.4258384704589844,
0.18432553112506866,
0.29463016986846924,
0.2662358582019806,
-0.30352485179901123,
0.39413630962371826,
0.39969632029533386,
-0.602885365486145,
-0.4522663652896881,
0.3395058214664459,
0.1501070111989975,
-0.3902422785758972,
-0.22802133858203888,
0.28808584809303284,
-0.4727431535720825,
1.186676025390625,
1.02952241897583,
-0.2718629240989685,
0.1331031620502472,
-0.7716801762580872,
0.6324058771133423,
0.4158715307712555,
-0.49363553524017334,
0.11533443629741669,
0.4158817231655121,
-0.5545344352722168,
0.0700448527932167,
-0.20761266350746155,
-0.16398851573467255,
0.1394106149673462,
-0.11231732368469238,
0.08805213868618011,
0.16500374674797058,
-0.2193479835987091,
-0.055132992565631866,
-0.892309308052063,
-0.3850703239440918,
0.13447681069374084,
0.24657753109931946,
0.040810614824295044,
0.3734613358974457,
0.03611878678202629,
-0.8626920580863953,
0.7590936422348022,
-0.10087956488132477,
-0.20436039566993713,
0.24124224483966827,
-0.20051813125610352,
-0.42562514543533325,
-0.19077959656715393,
-0.10390515625476837,
-0.18110285699367523,
0.015601028688251972,
-0.2497294545173645,
0.227145254611969,
0.7474226355552673,
-0.20355042815208435,
-0.14731694757938385,
0.09841141104698181,
-0.7526618242263794,
0.012296930886805058,
0.16174131631851196,
-0.011027848348021507,
0.07519694417715073,
0.13363225758075714,
0.31803420186042786,
-0.4140842854976654,
0.31595662236213684,
0.058498773723840714,
-0.20222610235214233,
0.0981605052947998,
0.07149374485015869,
-0.08541073650121689,
-0.004486197605729103,
-0.7725182175636292,
0.705842912197113,
0.19440342485904694,
-0.7013405561447144,
-0.14500056207180023,
-0.32787245512008667,
-0.0791768953204155,
0.459478497505188,
0.7208215594291687,
-0.2301350086927414,
0.33039095997810364,
0.8638878464698792,
0.15006691217422485,
-0.08388286083936691,
0.42898011207580566,
-0.4874560832977295,
0.021293049678206444,
-0.1813763976097107,
0.42313459515571594,
0.16750232875347137,
0.6205223202705383,
0.11022879183292389,
0.22151991724967957,
0.1402996927499771,
0.3466496467590332,
0.11942379176616669,
-0.5891206860542297,
0.26017534732818604,
0.11710250377655029,
0.2642645239830017,
-0.10295821726322174,
0.10096706449985504,
0.0072868699207901955,
-0.011111748404800892,
0.13900431990623474,
-0.03149953857064247,
-0.29195329546928406,
0.20015789568424225,
0.5505618453025818,
0.34396207332611084,
-0.36104321479797363,
-0.33163055777549744,
-0.07274828106164932,
0.982292652130127,
-0.08525752276182175,
0.49731773138046265,
0.09554304927587509,
-0.21034055948257446,
0.03228349611163139,
-0.13050967454910278,
-0.35685834288597107,
0.4015132784843445,
0.10266845673322678,
-0.49317696690559387,
0.07024084776639938,
-0.05633343383669853,
-0.5869312286376953,
-0.23818910121917725,
-0.20785565674304962,
-0.15901941061019897,
-0.27266213297843933,
0.24409699440002441,
-0.6290406584739685,
0.14207084476947784,
-0.21709705889225006,
1.022422432899475,
0.5469480156898499,
0.12582165002822876,
0.4235302805900574,
0.14581593871116638,
-0.7686485052108765,
0.5562940239906311,
-0.15490826964378357,
0.009755249135196209,
-0.06691281497478485,
-0.3531893789768219,
-1.1328659057617188,
0.8210586905479431,
0.5271539092063904,
0.3537828326225281,
-0.27371400594711304,
0.4143047034740448,
0.05984450876712799,
0.5559515357017517,
0.48662641644477844,
0.18607352674007416,
-0.18058937788009644,
-0.11457353830337524,
0.6718690395355225,
0.6151972413063049,
-0.10180395096540451,
-0.12578672170639038,
-0.06389431655406952,
0.005500758532434702,
0.25136876106262207,
-0.2009565234184265,
-0.6899756193161011,
0.06697721034288406,
-0.6398465037345886,
0.2468046247959137,
-0.3629872500896454,
0.09581156820058823,
-0.9097729325294495,
0.14497637748718262,
0.564817488193512,
1.1610077619552612,
-0.06848059594631195,
-0.4206250011920929,
-0.671638011932373,
-0.37049707770347595,
0.053252965211868286,
-0.5064006447792053,
0.014648102223873138,
-1.0799905061721802,
0.04955150932073593,
-0.28672564029693604,
-0.5423315763473511,
0.7408349514007568,
0.4795996844768524,
0.07743915915489197,
0.27298641204833984,
-0.23334051668643951,
0.2559577226638794,
-0.2087314873933792,
0.7140435576438904,
-0.2566712200641632,
-0.08523622155189514,
-0.37237977981567383
] |
200315
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie-Joseph%20Ang%C3%A9lique
|
Marie-Joseph Angélique
|
Marie-Josèphe dite Angélique (died June 21, 1734) was the name given by her last owners to a Portuguese-born black slave in New France (later the province of Quebec in Canada). She was tried and convicted of setting fire to her owner's home, burning much of what is now referred to as Old Montreal. It had been generally accepted that Angélique was guilty, but it has recently been argued that she was innocent of the crime and was convicted more on the basis of her reputation as a rebellious runaway slave than on the basis of factual evidence. A competing theory is that she was guilty of the crime but was acting in rebellion against slavery. No consensus has been reached by historians regarding Angélique's actual guilt or innocence.
Early life
Angélique was born around 1705 in Madeira, a possession of Portugal in the Atlantic. She was later sold to a Flemish man named Nichus Block or Nicolas Bleeker who brought her to the New World. She lived in New England before being sold in 1725 to an important French businessman from Montreal named François Poulin de Francheville, and after his death in 1733 belonged to his wife Thérèse de Couagne. Slavery in New England and New France was primarily a domestic affair, since unlike the southern part of what would become the United States, the economy was not based on large-scale plantation labour. Angélique therefore worked in the Francheville home in Montreal, and occasionally helped on the family's small farm on the island of Montreal, which was primarily used to produce supplies for Francheville's trading expeditions.
Angélique had three children while in Montréal: a boy born in 1731 who lived only one month and twins in 1732, who both died within five months. The father listed in the baptismal records was Jacques César, a black slave from Madagascar who belonged to Ignace Gamelin, a friend of Francheville. It is not known whether Angélique and César were lovers by choice or whether they were forced by their owners to have children (the children of slaves became themselves slaves and the property of the mother's owners).
During the year preceding the fire and the trial, Angélique became involved in a relationship with a white indentured servant, Claude Thibault, who was employed by the Franchevilles. Following the death of Francheville in November 1733, Mme Francheville became occupied with many transactions in the course of operating his businesses and settling his estate. Early in 1734, being occupied with estate affairs in Trois-Rivières, the widow asked her brother-in-law Alexis Monière to keep both her slave and her indentured servant Claude Thibault for her until her return.
On February 22, while the widow Francheville was still away, Angélique and Thibault attempted to escape to New England, fleeing across the frozen St. Lawrence river and stopping to retrieve bread that Thibault had hidden in a barn in Longueuil in preparation for their flight. However, the difficulty of winter travel forced the two to take refuge in Châteauguay, near the Chambly road, until the weather improved. They were captured a couple of weeks later and returned to Montreal by three militia captains, acting in their capacity as local police. Thibault was imprisoned on March 5 and only released on April 8, the day before the fire. Angélique visited him several times while he was in jail and brought him food.
Angélique was simply returned to Madame de Francheville, who did not have her disciplined in any way for her attempted flight, possibly because she was already planning to sell her. As mentioned during the trial, Thérèse de Francheville found herself unable to control Angélique and intended to accept an offer by one of her deceased husband's business associates, François-Étienne Cugnet, to purchase her for 600 pounds of gunpowder. The offer was conditional on the widow covering expenses for sending Angélique to Quebec City, where Cugnet lived. Fear of being sold and possibly ending up in the West Indies may have been a factor in the attempted escape.
Tension was high between the slave and her mistress. The widow Francheville dismissed a free servant, Louise Poirier, because of squabbling and disagreements between slave and servant. Angélique promised her that she could do all the work better than Poirier, possibly hoping that a good performance on her part would make her mistress relent and keep her. The widow gave in, but promised Poirier that she would contact her after Angélique had been shipped to Quebec City.
After Thibault's release, he visited de Couagne to demand his outstanding wages. She paid them but warned Thibault never to set foot in her house again. Angry, she also confirmed to him that Angélique had in fact been sold and would be shipped to Quebec City as soon as the ice cleared. Thibault ignored the order to stay away and visited Angélique several times while de Couagne was not at home. As this was early April, they both would have known that the St. Lawrence River would soon be passable to ships, and that Angélique would not be in Montreal much longer. Angélique told a servant that she intended to run away again, and it is possible that the two discussed setting a fire to cover their escape.
Fire of April 10, 1734
At seven o'clock in the evening on Saturday, April 10, 1734, inhabitants of Montreal were leaving evening prayer when the sentry sounded the alarm, "Fire!" A fire had started on the south side of rue Saint-Paul and was spreading east of rue Saint-Joseph (rue Saint-Sulpice). The fire was so intense that the law enforcement officers could not get close to it. Many people tried to take shelter at the Hôtel-Dieu, but due to a strong wind blowing from the west, the fire spread and destroyed the hospital in less than three hours. Forty-five houses were also destroyed, and due to people taking advantage of the general panic, many items were stolen from homes and from the convent.
The following journal entry of Sister Véronique Cuillerier illustrates the suddenness of the fire, and the difficulty of trying to control it:
The April 10 [1734] while all was most quiet and our thoughts were far from some fatal mishap, at 7 in the evening during our time of leisure, we heard a cry of fire. In the moment, we all rose to catch sight of its whereabouts. It was sighted at a neighbouring house. We rushed to contain the fire, but the Lord did not allow us to succeed. All took refuge in our church, thinking that we would be spared, but the flames rose so ardently towards the church, which was just across the street from the burning houses, that we soon found ourselves engulfed.
Rumours began to circulate accusing Angélique of having set the fire; later in the evening, the convent's gardener, Louis Bellefeuille dit LaRuine, even told her face-to-face about these rumours, although she denied them. The origin of the rumours seems to have been comments made by Marie-Manon, the young panis slave owned by De Couagne's neighbours, the Bérey des Essars, who claimed she had heard Angélique saying that her mistress would not sleep in her house that night. By the time the fire had gone out, popular opinion held that Angélique had set the fire. She was found in the garden of the paupers of the Hôtel-Dieu and taken to the king's gaols to wait for a formal charge to be filed against her. A warrant was also issued later for Thibault, but although he was seen again on the Tuesday morning following the fire (two days later), by the time the bailiffs set out to arrest him he had disappeared and was never seen again in New France.
Trial and execution
Angélique was charged and tried. French law at the time allowed a suspect to be arrested based on "public knowledge", when the community agreed that a suspect was guilty. Over the next six weeks, the prosecution called a large number of witnesses, none of whom testified to have seen Angélique set the fire, but all of whom claimed they were certain that she had done it. They testified at length as to Angélique's character as a badly behaved slave who often spoke back to her owners, but no solid evidence was presented as to her culpability for the fire.
Frustrated by the lack of sufficient evidence to condemn Angélique, the prosecution contemplated asking for permission to apply torture prior to a definitive judgment, a highly unusual procedure which was rarely allowed in New France. However, an eyewitness suddenly appeared: the five-year-old daughter of Alexis Monière, Amable, testified that she had seen Angélique carrying a shovelful of coals up to the attic of the house on the afternoon the fire started. This evidence finally allowed the prosecutor to close his case and the judge and the four commissioners he summoned to participate in the sentence all concurred that Angélique was guilty. Beaugrand-Champagne points out that no one questioned why it took so long for Amable to come forward in a city where the fire and the trial was likely to have been widely discussed; she attributes this willingness to credit the little girl's testimony to the fact that too many people had lost too much and a scapegoat was necessary.
The sentence included the following instructions:
And everything Considered, We have Declared the Said accused, Marie Joseph Angelique Sufficiently guilty And Convicted of Having set fire to the house of dame francheville Causing the Burning of a portion of the city. In Reparation for which we have Condemned her to make honourable amends Disrobed, a Noose around her Neck, and carrying In her hands a flaming torch weighing two pounds before the main door and Entrance of the parish Church of This city where She will be taken And Led, by the executioner of the high Court, in a Tumbrel used for garbage, with an Inscription Front And Back, with the word, Incendiary, And there, bare-headed, And On her Knees, will declare that She maliciously set the fire And Caused the Said Burning, for which She repents And Asks Forgiveness from the Crown And Court, and this done, will have her fist Severed On a stake Erected in front of the Said Church. Following which, she will be led by the said Executioner in the same tumbrel to the Public Place to there Be bound to the Stake with iron shackles And Burned alive, her Body then Reduced To Ashes And Cast to the Wind, her Belongings taken And Remanded to the King, the said accused having previously been subjected to torture in the ordinary And Extraordinary ways in order to have her Reveal her Accomplices
The sentence was automatically appealed to the Superior Council by the prosecutor, as was required by the Ordinance on criminal procedure of 1670. Angélique was thus sent off to Quebec City where, a week later, the appeals court confirmed their belief in Angélique's guilt while reducing somewhat the savagery of the trial court's sentence, so that Angélique was no longer to have her hand cut off or be burnt alive, but rather to be hanged and once dead, her body burned and the ashes scattered. The council also dispensed with the requirement to have her carried through the town on a rubbish cart wearing a sign declaring her an arsonist. However, the sentence still required her to be tortured to identify her accomplices, the Councillors apparently believing, as did the Montreal court, that Angélique had not acted alone, especially as Thibault had disappeared a couple of days after the fire and never been found. This type of torture was called the question préalable (torture prior to execution) and aimed at making the convicted criminal confess or denounce any possible accomplices or both.
A few days later, the prisoner was back in Montréal, and on June 21, the court proceeded to read the revised sentence to her and prepare her for the question. Angélique steadfastly refused to confess or name any accomplices, even faced with the boot, an instrument of torture consisting of an assemblage of wooden planks bound to the prisoner's legs. The judge then instructed the Colony's executioner and "master of torture", a black slave named Mathieu Leveillé, to apply the question ordinaire (four strokes of a hammer driving a wedge between the planks, thus applying increasing pressure which gradually crushes the prisoner's legs). Angélique broke almost immediately and confessed her guilt but still maintained that she had acted alone. The judge ordered the question extraordinaire (four strokes on an additional wedge, inserted at the ankles) and Angélique, while repeating that she and she alone had set the fire, begged the court to end her misery and hang her.
On the afternoon of the same day, Angélique was taken one last time through the streets of Montreal and, after the stop at the church for her amende honorable mounted a scaffold facing the ruins of the buildings destroyed by the fire and there was hanged, then strangled until dead, her body flung into a fire and the ashes scattered in the wind.
Conflicting interpretations
The historiography of Angélique's story is not extensive, as only a few professional historians have looked at her case until quite recently, and most of the older work dealt with her superficially and rapidly, in a paragraph or page or two, as part of larger works on slavery or crime in New France. The older works all agreed with the opinion of the judges—Angélique set the fire to revenge herself on her owner. However, the first full-length non-fictional account of her trial, written by Denyse Beaugrand-Champagne and published in Quebec in French in 2004, was also the first serious study to use all the trial records. The author sets out to present the documents in detail, to question the court proceedings and to present all the possible culprits. She concludes that the fire was most likely accidental, the result of poorly cleaned chimneys and a cook fire in the neighbouring house—a cook fire manned by Marie-Manon, the young panis slave who started the rumours about Angélique, having said that her owner would not sleep in her bed. In this interpretation, Marie-Manon, who could have been severely punished by her owners had she been implicated in accidentally causing the fire, had plenty of motivation for diverting suspicion elsewhere. Beaugrand-Champagne believes that the authorities, under pressure by an enraged population looking for a scapegoat for their troubles, took the easy way out and condemned Angélique more on the basis of her independent and outspoken character than on any genuine evidence.
Two years later, Afua Cooper published a book on Angélique in English, which champions the thesis that Angélique did start the 1734 fire, as a justified rebellion against her owner and as a cover for an escape attempt. Cooper's book criticizes white Canadians for what she sees as trying to downplay or deny the reality of slavery in Canada's past. She claims that the transcript of Angélique's trial can be seen as the first slave narrative in the New World.
A comparative critical review by Evelyn Kolish finds Beaugrand-Champagne's work to be more trustworthy, while pointing out some serious flaws in Cooper's methodology. Kolish characterizes Cooper's book as "un texte qui se situe à mi-chemin entre le roman historique et l'essai journalistique anti-esclavagiste" (English: "a text that is situated halfway between an historical novel and a journalistic anti-slavery essay"). No consensus has been reached by the modern historical community on Angélique's guilt or innocence.
Since the prosecution at her trial did not meet their burden of proof, by today's standards, it is impossible to know for sure whether she was guilty. Fortunately, the exceptional wealth of detail afforded by the trial transcripts, and a great deal of important contextual documentation, including both secondary and primary sources, is now readily available to everyone in English translation, on the pedagogical site. The original French manuscripts are available on the website of Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec.
Regardless of whether Angélique was innocent or guilty, her story provided more insight on the conditions of slavery in Canada. Allan Greer used the records of her trial to gain a fuller sense of the life of a slave in eighteenth-century Montreal. Placing that experience in context, he notes that "there were degrees and varieties of unfreedom" in this society that affected servants, engagés, apprentices and soldiers; of course, slavery was uniquely horrible in the way it denied the humanity of the enslaved. "Complex and even intimate, the relationships of early Canadian slavery were nevertheless founded upon an underlying brutality that comes to the surface in the story of Angélique."
Legacy
Angélique's dramatic story has inspired several novels, plays and poems or songs about her. One, the play Angélique by Lorena Gale, loosely based on an unpublished translation of the trial transcripts by Denyse Beaugrand-Champagne, won the 1995 du Maurier National Playwriting Competition in Canada. Angélique appears almost as a legendary figure, and parts of her story have taken on a life of their own in countries such as Haiti, where, irrespective of documentary evidence, the tale that she was burnt alive with her hand cut off is still told, as if the original sentence had not been reduced. Cooper's book rallies the opinions of other contemporary black authors, such as the poet George Elliott Clarke, who wrote her preface. Such authors see her as an "immortal avatar of liberation" and prefer to see her as an active rebel rather than a victim of a miscarriage of justice. Others, like Beaugrand-Champagne, find her just as inspiring as an exceptional, outspoken, independent-minded woman, who fought for her freedom and her life with courage and wit, against formidable odds, and in spite of a society that expected submission from women, especially if they were also black and slaves.
In 2012, a public square in Montreal, facing City Hall, was named Place Marie-Josèphe-Angélique.
See also
Black Canadian
History of Quebec
Notes
References
Archives des Religieuses Hospitalières de Saint-Joseph de Montréal, Orig. ms, 1A4 / 3 Véronique Cuillerier 1725–1747, Cuillerier, Véronique, "Annals of the Hôtel-Dieu of Montréal", n.d., 336–337. http://www.canadianmysteries.ca/sites/angelique/montrealbrule/10avril1734/2157en.html
Beaugrand-Champagne, Denyse (2004). Le procès de Marie-Josèphe Angélique. Montreal: Libre Expression. .*
Great Unsolved Mysteries: Torture & Truth: Angelique and the Burning of Montreal.
Greer, Allan. The People of New France (Toronto: University of Toronto Press Inc., 1997), 85–89.
Kolish, Evelyn (2007). "L'incendie de Montréal en 1734 et le procès de Marie-Josèphe Angélique: Trois oeuvres, deux interprétations", Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française. Vol. 61, No 1 (Summer 2007), pp. 86–92.
Lachance, André (1978). La Justice criminelle du roi au Canada au XVIIIe siècle Québec. Quebec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval, .
Special exhibit at the Centre d'histoire de Montréal (Centre for Montreal History), 2006–2007.
External links
Torture and Truth – Angélique and the Burning of Montreal – Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History
Canadiana – A Canadian Slavery Story – An episode of Canadiana that tells the story of Angélique.
Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec Portal
People of New France
Canadian slaves
Canadian people of Portuguese descent
People from Madeira
Portuguese emigrants to Canada
Executed Portuguese people
Portuguese slaves
1710 births
1734 deaths
People executed by the Ancien Régime in France
Portuguese people executed abroad
Executed Portuguese women
History of Black people in Canada
18th-century executions by France
People executed by France by hanging
People who wrote slave narratives
Black Canadian women
18th-century Canadian women
18th-century slaves
|
[
-0.723598837852478,
0.24532026052474976,
-0.6282837986946106,
0.30127057433128357,
0.52262282371521,
0.9609604477882385,
1.0109610557556152,
0.13319623470306396,
-0.5565363764762878,
-0.5762197971343994,
0.0065364595502614975,
-0.3777787685394287,
-0.008045937865972519,
0.25775766372680664,
-0.8204607367515564,
0.05761939287185669,
0.4147929847240448,
0.31499069929122925,
-0.42223241925239563,
-0.528757631778717,
-0.18933850526809692,
-0.31012412905693054,
0.10186844319105148,
0.5344224572181702,
0.4640844166278839,
-0.0733710527420044,
-0.08526917546987534,
-0.1553223580121994,
0.3404046893119812,
0.19761815667152405,
0.19864311814308167,
0.22430936992168427,
0.7827709317207336,
-0.21058699488639832,
-0.5284870862960815,
0.37600064277648926,
-0.3423725962638855,
0.1562412530183792,
0.11332118511199951,
0.16649873554706573,
-0.23122596740722656,
0.04091827943921089,
0.40895161032676697,
0.11363077908754349,
0.14134806394577026,
0.30373960733413696,
-1.3085631132125854,
-0.09339544177055359,
-0.049350764602422714,
-0.11242587119340897,
0.37442365288734436,
-0.3087877631187439,
0.6129497289657593,
0.8779072761535645,
-0.27786946296691895,
-0.05101431906223297,
-1.2142698764801025,
0.17724479734897614,
0.10038074105978012,
-0.5274564623832703,
0.8467759490013123,
0.5245730876922607,
0.8431066274642944,
0.041208721697330475,
-0.21275372803211212,
-0.15798430144786835,
0.3255630433559418,
0.3345065712928772,
-0.40296250581741333,
-0.5732911825180054,
0.5967939496040344,
0.13485687971115112,
0.1076110228896141,
-0.21329855918884277,
0.08955468982458115,
-0.64616858959198,
-0.3222770094871521,
-0.010636364109814167,
0.6156010627746582,
0.8360922336578369,
-0.39233431220054626,
0.1469094455242157,
0.6377160549163818,
-0.1480046808719635,
0.03552979975938797,
0.5933189988136292,
-0.1173873171210289,
-0.01678723655641079,
-0.5805573463439941,
-0.11786660552024841,
-0.4941287040710449,
0.208899587392807,
-0.007308002561330795,
0.5794116258621216,
-0.03542519360780716,
0.5146259665489197,
0.37016814947128296,
0.27567705512046814,
-0.015747742727398872,
0.21497145295143127,
-0.03320137783885002,
-0.20666146278381348,
0.3321135938167572,
0.217854842543602,
-0.3413345217704773,
-0.35088518261909485,
0.22952744364738464,
0.3542964458465576,
-0.47604912519454956,
-0.18554168939590454,
-0.08156077563762665,
0.0019673851784318686,
-0.1637689620256424,
-0.04392556473612785,
-0.38556233048439026,
0.013752659782767296,
0.06319945305585861,
-0.644737958908081,
-0.2029532939195633,
-0.34130358695983887,
0.028089387342333794,
0.17130021750926971,
0.24312123656272888,
-0.1428445428609848,
-0.1958436667919159,
0.3181164860725403,
0.31608784198760986,
0.28150755167007446,
0.28640884160995483,
0.34433484077453613,
0.49610981345176697,
0.4648641347885132,
-0.35015979409217834,
-0.16396236419677734,
-0.45775067806243896,
-0.2566661834716797,
0.17031395435333252,
0.6210196018218994,
0.24196413159370422,
-0.11106706410646439,
-1.1248496770858765,
0.01948249712586403,
-0.5409901142120361,
0.24379625916481018,
0.3112238645553589,
-0.07634514570236206,
-0.08784908056259155,
0.30236631631851196,
-0.20985671877861023,
-0.2504800856113434,
-0.32454511523246765,
-0.18544751405715942,
0.14231424033641815,
-0.6526458859443665,
0.06437095999717712,
-0.20169444382190704,
0.10164925456047058,
-0.13368721306324005,
-0.15354114770889282,
0.24027030169963837,
-0.14589376747608185,
0.09069036692380905,
0.1642601191997528,
-0.06805532425642014,
0.24732981622219086,
0.6654366850852966,
0.10175547003746033,
0.05955188348889351,
-0.09099757671356201,
-0.09810572862625122,
-0.28032687306404114,
0.0002767435507848859,
-0.2199522703886032,
-0.4981086850166321,
-0.9997284412384033,
0.6340317130088806,
-0.2893288731575012,
-0.016513055190443993,
-0.07488278299570084,
-0.23905156552791595,
-0.6541824340820312,
0.3611448109149933,
0.36406755447387695,
-0.24291668832302094,
-0.16521313786506653,
0.2358846366405487,
0.1675734519958496,
0.034149304032325745,
0.09373220056295395,
0.3679867088794708,
-0.7539538741111755,
-0.34839674830436707,
0.45873627066612244,
-0.28968337178230286,
0.7377011179924011,
0.10923660546541214,
-0.5230849385261536,
0.9570897221565247,
0.14947128295898438,
-0.0030761524103581905,
-0.4919731914997101,
-0.1727667897939682,
0.31437647342681885,
-0.05973336845636368,
-0.7754785418510437,
0.3924333155155182,
0.18416975438594818,
0.5113138556480408,
0.40601760149002075,
0.6921414732933044,
0.185581237077713,
-0.42365962266921997,
0.12602977454662323,
0.5083902478218079,
-0.2997276484966278,
-0.20936544239521027,
-0.11400481313467026,
-0.45380204916000366,
0.7573259472846985,
-0.35686200857162476,
0.22717031836509705,
-0.5766116976737976,
-0.12959690392017365,
-0.03459807112812996,
-0.24969227612018585,
0.5383307933807373,
-0.5264554619789124,
0.2335989624261856,
0.4180912375450134,
0.22440098226070404,
-0.26385870575904846,
0.41353175044059753,
0.6161109805107117,
0.049435317516326904,
0.11834803968667984,
0.395722895860672,
0.19730788469314575,
-0.5814045071601868,
0.08854519575834274,
0.07284993678331375,
0.4507187306880951,
0.5952840447425842,
-0.1471450924873352,
-0.14929145574569702,
-0.05588293448090553,
0.10044180601835251,
0.02868911251425743,
-0.29377612471580505,
0.1765233874320984,
-0.33103832602500916,
0.42600563168525696,
0.8152817487716675,
-0.29370710253715515,
0.37468981742858887,
0.2722608149051666,
-0.4174670875072479,
-0.09300152957439423,
0.3146701753139496,
0.03363877162337303,
0.24300752580165863,
0.2001190185546875,
-0.22949445247650146,
-0.2909209132194519,
0.630316436290741,
0.568351149559021,
-0.6149928569793701,
-0.0009801441337913275,
0.10780563205480576,
0.9408842325210571,
0.29782599210739136,
0.5034299492835999,
-0.35103923082351685,
-0.15612764656543732,
-0.18377837538719177,
0.32284390926361084,
0.028042584657669067,
-0.6045933365821838,
0.6767512559890747,
0.17325690388679504,
-0.483979195356369,
-0.022498399019241333,
0.32482004165649414,
-0.3553834557533264,
-0.6052711606025696,
0.32637259364128113,
-0.2208942323923111,
0.24104925990104675,
-0.20767700672149658,
-0.377249151468277,
-0.20620028674602509,
-0.02515309676527977,
0.012448371388018131,
-0.2533615827560425,
-0.3056621551513672,
0.287237286567688,
0.34455811977386475,
-0.06978622078895569,
0.5539056062698364,
0.18402807414531708,
0.06900383532047272,
-0.46914252638816833,
-0.41280266642570496,
0.04445111006498337,
0.0025537244509905577,
0.48584774136543274,
-0.07135861366987228,
0.29868587851524353,
0.009218304418027401,
-5.892855167388916,
0.3960775136947632,
-0.06619969010353088,
0.02568000555038452,
-0.4431060254573822,
-0.31419822573661804,
0.7621064782142639,
0.17862577736377716,
0.08076902478933334,
-0.056554969400167465,
0.5660691261291504,
0.2613379955291748,
-0.07744617015123367,
-0.21963299810886383,
-0.06499261409044266,
0.5380390286445618,
0.33179453015327454,
-0.583954393863678,
-0.04187984764575958,
0.08281834423542023,
0.19390074908733368,
0.19751131534576416,
-0.28495481610298157,
0.18451142311096191,
0.17406083643436432,
0.5396067500114441,
0.06941235065460205,
-0.23968930542469025,
-1.152320146560669,
-0.1644706279039383,
-0.12273550033569336,
-0.004491691943258047,
0.18643724918365479,
-0.6721111536026001,
0.0039011151529848576,
-0.37117791175842285,
0.2200859636068344,
0.3050377368927002,
-0.07503771781921387,
-0.5790811777114868,
-0.5153902173042297,
-0.25137460231781006,
-0.4519551396369934,
-0.22842667996883392,
0.011485477909445763,
-0.48810407519340515,
-0.7452588677406311,
0.39602839946746826,
-0.09731882810592651,
0.4862182140350342,
-0.31387078762054443,
-0.5015779733657837,
-0.17084909975528717,
0.3206110894680023,
0.5998359322547913,
-0.37818971276283264,
-0.1797259896993637,
0.27756941318511963,
-0.43098345398902893,
0.0141447763890028,
0.48011839389801025,
-0.3776419162750244,
-0.06537866592407227,
-0.5300586223602295,
0.23387682437896729,
-0.02858107164502144,
0.002317846519872546,
-0.11260760575532913,
0.03266380727291107,
0.2914218008518219,
0.45434707403182983,
0.345470130443573,
0.6694625616073608,
-1.2833691835403442,
0.01810373365879059,
-0.28773462772369385,
-0.3981735408306122,
0.07950643450021744,
-0.5915897488594055,
-0.05766892060637474,
0.4473683536052704,
-0.24906563758850098,
0.6357720494270325,
0.3991535007953644,
0.21018148958683014,
-0.1557777374982834,
-0.6518506407737732,
0.2495342195034027,
-0.6676559448242188,
0.23879076540470123,
-0.19038990139961243,
0.08424362540245056,
-0.07211770117282867,
0.41990578174591064,
0.0215885192155838,
0.05886220186948776,
0.3854618966579437,
0.04500521719455719,
0.26054537296295166,
-0.11712955683469772,
0.06763484328985214,
-0.06474267691373825,
0.411320298910141,
-0.4171675443649292,
0.618900716304779,
-0.08245310187339783,
-0.7012989521026611,
0.050948645919561386,
0.7687424421310425,
-0.06823036074638367,
0.08490962535142899,
-0.0755515918135643,
-0.5519498586654663,
-0.21437779068946838,
0.17975957691669464,
-0.45270171761512756,
0.1687963306903839,
0.2284839153289795,
0.8302721977233887,
0.05741323530673981,
0.02016209438443184,
-0.04381563514471054,
-0.30660301446914673,
-0.22246308624744415,
-0.2917681336402893,
-0.25796520709991455,
0.49960044026374817,
0.18583127856254578,
-0.18332833051681519,
0.4338087737560272,
-0.28699466586112976,
0.09570830315351486,
-0.3153599500656128,
-0.09131083637475967,
-0.0805012658238411,
-0.30786556005477905,
-0.34738755226135254,
-0.8358155488967896,
0.05749055743217468,
-0.3975318670272827,
-0.46645307540893555,
0.17217275500297546,
-0.38913217186927795,
0.21514372527599335,
0.6253108382225037,
0.8174880146980286,
0.11071912199258804,
-0.4735984802246094,
0.03955310210585594,
0.7100987434387207,
-0.2422492355108261,
-0.3004170060157776,
0.4317950904369354,
0.16217456758022308,
-0.40356308221817017,
-0.22193759679794312,
0.5365383625030518,
0.026796117424964905,
-0.47424226999282837,
0.26715096831321716,
-0.06809010356664658,
-0.4476567208766937,
-0.5549704432487488,
0.15170739591121674,
-0.14078816771507263,
0.02636934071779251,
0.11993324756622314,
-0.2750248908996582,
-0.5185297727584839,
0.3839930593967438,
0.05527050793170929,
-0.8430780172348022,
-0.2238384634256363,
0.2944157123565674,
0.5121282935142517,
-0.28541940450668335,
-0.2984555959701538,
0.2836475074291229,
0.09109866619110107,
-0.2824695110321045,
-0.504505455493927,
-0.24767270684242249,
-0.49883151054382324,
-0.04266560077667236,
0.5132073760032654,
0.321077436208725,
0.02572007104754448,
-0.5473963022232056,
-0.18744951486587524,
0.08476572483778,
-0.0614643320441246,
0.3843425214290619,
-0.6454601883888245,
0.9464606642723083,
-0.44538041949272156,
-0.1506941318511963,
-0.010716782882809639,
0.3076595664024353,
0.29490503668785095,
0.1396855264902115,
-0.17039427161216736,
0.31285521388053894,
-0.05701166391372681,
0.42680540680885315,
0.0280147697776556,
-0.9195810556411743,
0.12236123532056808,
0.382997989654541,
-0.4707675874233246,
-0.042848147451877594,
-0.33450451493263245,
-0.4277045428752899,
0.3644132912158966,
0.8787505030632019,
0.3676905333995819,
-0.06288030743598938,
0.017585767433047295,
0.03403288125991821,
-0.006786524783819914,
-0.14945216476917267,
-0.6445955038070679,
-0.3158634603023529,
-0.5000743865966797,
-0.036132778972387314,
0.04761902987957001,
0.9322376847267151,
0.13657288253307343,
0.1280614286661148,
0.6385511159896851,
0.14169418811798096,
-0.3855818808078766,
0.23013935983181,
-0.28217872977256775,
0.015900738537311554,
-0.6731379628181458,
-0.2009802609682083,
0.8375528454780579,
-0.0807948186993599,
0.23736055195331573,
0.12890855967998505,
0.8894696831703186,
0.31849631667137146,
-0.18928803503513336,
-0.6001995205879211,
0.40505242347717285,
0.20069865882396698,
-0.5601001977920532,
-0.47567325830459595,
-0.013284805230796337,
0.029485175386071205,
-0.2690694332122803,
-0.5930001735687256,
-0.2885763347148895,
-0.448392778635025,
1.1502691507339478,
0.025834906846284866,
-0.48515456914901733,
-0.262233704328537,
-0.32052701711654663,
-0.0853562206029892,
0.1769903004169464,
0.41575685143470764,
-0.23841598629951477,
0.19199196994304657,
0.23752041161060333,
0.0691729336977005,
-0.20485757291316986,
0.014233605936169624,
-0.2044079452753067,
-0.49251788854599,
0.10169534385204315,
-0.423478901386261,
0.08563949167728424,
0.22451096773147583,
-0.2770863175392151,
0.16368886828422546,
0.1517515629529953,
-0.049501240253448486,
0.2998816967010498,
-0.3305406868457794,
-0.9446539282798767,
0.05655782297253609,
-0.19547556340694427,
0.429127961397171,
-0.02035980299115181,
-0.1987745612859726,
-0.10183288902044296,
-0.27355900406837463,
-0.2719774544239044,
0.06683354824781418,
-0.035430118441581726,
0.27149397134780884,
0.4457717835903168,
0.2829437255859375,
-0.13377617299556732,
0.48624733090400696,
-0.3338964283466339,
-0.2570079565048218,
0.17594566941261292,
-0.2254469245672226,
-0.6402011513710022,
0.796156108379364,
-0.05376702547073364,
0.08906080573797226,
-0.4074016213417053,
-0.21386221051216125,
0.3686975836753845,
0.18417316675186157,
0.0951840877532959,
0.09970646351575851,
0.5194103121757507,
-0.1273929625749588,
-0.05053385719656944,
-0.3122692108154297,
-0.27237221598625183,
-0.20316001772880554,
0.02385561726987362,
-0.5660848021507263,
-0.5112656950950623,
-0.10756250470876694,
0.2025861144065857,
0.26006096601486206,
0.5743510127067566,
0.4533354341983795,
0.26463109254837036,
0.8669713735580444,
-0.17071287333965302,
-0.25074732303619385,
-0.35716646909713745,
0.5961465835571289,
0.588119626045227,
-0.0660683885216713,
-0.36020174622535706,
0.5022417902946472,
-0.2198006808757782,
-0.052798155695199966,
-0.12116753309965134,
-0.3072958290576935,
-0.0727740153670311,
0.4819490611553192,
0.31063252687454224,
0.52665114402771,
-0.9438756108283997,
-0.3810023367404938,
0.015280168503522873,
0.17471182346343994,
-0.14056997001171112,
0.19428233802318573,
0.29512178897857666,
-0.6019916534423828,
0.032651785761117935,
0.05750158801674843,
-0.04539032280445099,
-0.5722222924232483,
0.15446394681930542,
0.6312652230262756,
0.79779052734375,
-0.42118576169013977,
-0.6424635648727417,
-0.015089552849531174,
-0.4845419228076935,
-0.5270589590072632,
0.7732218503952026,
0.08648458123207092,
-0.22933398187160492,
-0.39555421471595764,
-0.28676512837409973,
-0.4619910418987274,
0.11593033373355865,
-0.40745970606803894,
0.3855559229850769,
-0.5237269997596741,
0.006167291197925806,
0.3145127594470978,
0.31615906953811646,
0.8068935871124268,
0.038235317915678024,
0.11690687388181686,
0.26604798436164856,
-0.1884617656469345,
-0.35235950350761414,
-0.4196240305900574,
0.27632907032966614,
-0.16163726150989532,
0.22741739451885223,
-0.09153927117586136,
-0.014580320566892624,
-0.005545568186789751,
-0.02774888090789318,
0.009950301609933376,
0.6351436376571655,
-0.6956748366355896,
0.5911334156990051,
-0.33229437470436096,
-0.3367658257484436,
0.12406988441944122,
0.08379878103733063,
0.6232315897941589,
0.01765109784901142,
0.2812279462814331,
-0.3146139085292816,
0.3172350823879242,
0.2796010971069336,
-0.06471636891365051,
-0.25906190276145935,
0.5608537197113037,
-0.34213685989379883,
-0.01420262735337019,
-0.34732675552368164,
0.4970332682132721,
0.25182461738586426,
-0.14442606270313263,
-0.2830895781517029,
-0.28632795810699463,
0.15433990955352783,
0.3473227620124817,
0.28981509804725647,
-0.17778243124485016,
-0.4237004518508911,
-0.006746206432580948,
-0.12119527161121368,
-0.2963971197605133,
-0.025131912901997566,
0.20324324071407318,
-0.3783743381500244,
-0.0863426998257637,
-0.5203047394752502,
-0.5767062306404114,
-0.06630697846412659,
0.22878152132034302,
0.8687706589698792,
0.40380409359931946,
-0.02885049767792225,
0.3763909637928009,
-0.3565256893634796,
-0.42008739709854126,
0.34430912137031555,
-0.00703351991251111,
-0.05646867677569389,
-0.5848485827445984,
0.17334133386611938,
0.017334062606096268,
-0.15083163976669312,
0.11129108816385269,
-0.05490151047706604,
0.02399367466568947,
-0.03185558691620827,
-0.37944889068603516,
0.1151651069521904,
0.4614226222038269,
0.04698122665286064,
-0.015169466845691204,
0.052065737545490265,
-0.8918582201004028,
0.250670850276947,
-0.33184224367141724,
0.2637996971607208,
-0.8508030772209167,
0.18475432693958282,
0.449827641248703
] |
200316
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Death
|
Christian Death
|
Christian Death is an American gothic rock band formed in Los Angeles County, California, in 1979 by Rozz Williams. With major line-up changes over the years, Christian Death has retained "a relentlessly confrontational stand against organized religion and conventional morality".
Williams was eventually joined by guitarist Rikk Agnew of the band Adolescents, James McGearty on bass guitar and George Belanger on drums. This line-up was responsible for producing the band's best known work, their 1982 debut album Only Theatre of Pain, which was highly influential in the development of the style of music known as deathrock, as well as on the American gothic scene which also produced bands such as Kommunity FK and 45 Grave.
Following the release of Only Theatre of Pain, Christian Death's line-up had fallen apart, and by the time of the band's second album, Catastrophe Ballet (1984), Rozz was joined by Valor Kand of tour mates Pompeii 99 on vocals and guitar. Following the release of the band's third album, Ashes, in 1985, Williams left the band and was controversially replaced by Valor as frontperson of the band, with no original members of the band remaining, causing a divide in the band's fanbase that has continued to this day.
History
Formation and Rozz Williams years (1979–1985)
Christian Death was founded by a teenage Rozz Williams in Los Angeles, California in October 1979. Williams grew up in the eastern suburb of Pomona in a Christian family. Williams had originally called his band the Upsetters, which included guitarist Jay (a.k.a. John Albert), bassist James McGearty and drummer George Belanger. The band garnered attention after changing their name to Christian Death and adding former Adolescents guitarist Rikk Agnew. In 1981, they made their first vinyl appearance with the song "Dogs" on the L.A. scene compilation album Hell Comes to Your House.
In 1982, Christian Death signed to Frontier Records, and released their debut album, Only Theatre of Pain that March. Only Theatre of Pain was released in Europe by the French label L'Invitation au Suicide, followed by the record's release in Japan.
Christian Death broke up amid band infighting and drug abuse. Williams assembled a new version of the band in 1983 by merging with another L.A. rock band, Pompeii 99. This lineup included guitarist Valor Kand, vocalist and keyboardist Gitane Demone, and drummer David Glass. The new version of the band recorded their next two albums, 1984's Catastrophe Ballet (with bassist Constance Smith) and 1985's Ashes (with bassist Randy Wilde).
Valor Kand era (1985–present)
In mid-1985, Williams left Christian Death, in part due to his increasing interest in experimental music and performance art. Kand took over leadership, serving as lead singer and songwriter. Augmented by bassist Johann Schumann and guitarist and keyboardist Barry Galvin, the band recorded an EP for the Italian label Supporti Fonografici titled The Wind Kissed Pictures, credited to "For Sin And Sacrifice Must We Die A Christian Death". The EP was later reissued in Germany and the U.S., credited to Christian Death.
Their first post-Williams album was 1986's Atrocities, a concept album about the aftereffects of World War II on the European psyche, which was followed by 1987's The Scriptures, recorded by a revamped lineup of Kand, Demone, Glass, guitarist James Beam and bassist Kota. Longtime drummer Glass left the group following the release of The Scriptures and returned to California, where he eventually worked with several Williams side projects.
The band had their biggest successes on the UK Independent Chart with the 1987–89 singles "Sick of Love", "Church of No Return" and "Zero Sex" and the 1988 album Sex and Drugs and Jesus Christ. Following the "Zero Sex" single, Demone opted to leave the band.
Valor recorded the two-part All the Love All the Hate concept album (1989) in collaboration with Nick the Bastard, which spawned the double A-side single "We Fall Like Love"/"I Hate You".
During the late 1980s, while also recording as Shadow Project, Williams resurrected his own version of Christian Death, with his wife Eva O contributing guitar as well as vocals. Billing themselves as the original Christian Death, they were rejoined by first-album guitarist Agnew for a 1989 tour of Canada. The band was signed to Cleopatra Records, and released The Iron Mask album and Skeleton Kiss EP in 1992. Williams' reclamation of the Christian Death name sparked a fierce battle with Kand. However, Kand already had the rights to the name due to Williams' departure from the band and subsequent neglect of the moniker. Williams consequently billed his version of the band as "Christian Death Featuring Rozz Williams". After this, Williams' version released The Path of Sorrows album in 1993 and The Rage of Angels in 1994. A 1993 show featuring Only Theatre of Pain-era members Williams, Agnew and Belanger (along with bassist Casey Chaos) performing live at Los Angeles' Patriot Hall was recorded and later released in 2001 as a DVD by Cleopatra. Williams pursued other projects before committing suicide on April 1, 1998.
Meanwhile, Kand's Christian Death continued performing and recording, issuing the 1990 album Insanus, Ultio, Proditio, Misercordiaque, on which Kand conducted the English Abbey Choir and the Commonwealth Chamber Orchestra. The band added bassist Maitri in 1991. Her first concert with Christian Death took place at the Contemporary Festival, held at the Anfitheatro delle Cascine in Florence, Italy on 12 July 1991. The band released the Sexy Death God album in 1994, the double-live set Amen in 1995, the Nostradamus-themed Prophecies in 1996, and Pornographic Messiah in 1998.
In 2000, Christian Death added drummer Will Sarginson and toured Europe with Britain's Cradle of Filth in support of the Born Again Anti Christian album.
Kand and Maitri also formed another band, black metal/deathrock act Lover of Sin, releasing the album Christian Death Presents Lover of Sin in 2002.
For Christian Death's 2003 tour, they were augmented by Cradle of Filth guitarist Gian Pyres.
Christian Death released American Inquisition in 2007, featuring new drummer Nate Hassan.
In 2014, the band embarked on the 30th Anniversary Catastrophe Ballet tour, beginning in Europe and continuing through the year's end in North, South and Central America.
In January 2015, Christian Death announced the planned release of the PledgeMusic funded album, The Root of All Evilution. The album was digitally released on August 14, 2015, by Knife Fight Media, and on vinyl on October 16, 2015, by Season of Mist. A CD release was announced for December 18, 2015, on The End Records.
Musical style and content
Christian Death's style is considered gothic rock, deathrock and art punk. According to Steve Huey of AllMusic, Christian Death's music "relied on slow, doomy, effects-laden guitar riffs and ambient horror-soundtrack synths". According to Huey, Christian Death's lyrics involve shock value and are often about topics like "blasphemy, morbidity, drug use, and sexual perversity". Necrophilia also is a topic that has been used in Christian Death's lyrics. Liz Ohanesian of L.A. Weekly wrote that Christian Death experiments "with dirgey guitars, tribal drums and overtly spooky imagery". According to author Liisa Ladouceur, along with "spooky guitars and keyboards", elements of genres such as post-punk and spoken word also have been used in Christian Death's music.
Legacy
Artists that have been inspired by Christian Death include Celtic Frost, Danzig, Cradle of Filth, Greg Mackintosh of Paradise Lost, Jonathan Davis of Korn, Type O Negative, Nine Inch Nails, Evanescence, Marilyn Manson and Jane’s Addiction.
Discography
Only Theatre of Pain (1982)
Catastrophe Ballet (1984)
Ashes (1985)
The Wind Kissed Pictures (1985)
Atrocities (1986)
The Scriptures (1987)
Sex and Drugs and Jesus Christ (1988)
All the Love All the Hate (Part One: All the Love) (1989)
All the Love All the Hate (Part Two: All the Hate) (1989)
Insanus, Ultio, Proditio, Misericordiaque (1990)
The Iron Mask (1992) (with Rozz Williams)
The Path of Sorrows (1993) (with Rozz Williams)
The Rage of Angels (1994) (with Rozz Williams)
Sexy Death God (1994)
Prophecies (1996)
Pornographic Messiah (1998)
Born Again Anti Christian (2000)
American Inquisition (2007)
The Root of All Evilution (2015)
References
External links
Official website
American death rock groups
American gothic rock groups
Musical groups established in 1979
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Rock music groups from California
ROIR artists
Punk rock groups from California
Cleopatra Records artists
Frontier Records artists
Season of Mist artists
|
[
0.13446399569511414,
0.420523464679718,
-0.04394325986504555,
-0.1777949333190918,
-0.14819683134555817,
0.6762738823890686,
0.3338682949542999,
0.06546679884195328,
0.11090835928916931,
-0.486569344997406,
0.40275299549102783,
0.3003544509410858,
-0.43424293398857117,
0.5458487868309021,
-0.1825256496667862,
0.3232721984386444,
-0.2530263066291809,
0.010015142150223255,
-0.4145621955394745,
-0.4258557856082916,
-0.00653136195614934,
-0.4840524196624756,
0.6386098265647888,
0.19793422520160675,
-0.11749640852212906,
0.4257880449295044,
-0.24444399774074554,
0.04648304358124733,
-0.04382966086268425,
0.3245387375354767,
0.4215109944343567,
0.23136509954929352,
0.431254118680954,
-0.6591618061065674,
0.049948882311582565,
0.01413048431277275,
-0.019669340923428535,
0.11596135795116425,
-0.3095550239086151,
-0.1367741823196411,
-0.021871205419301987,
-0.2042480707168579,
0.16889356076717377,
0.1670178771018982,
0.1722787767648697,
-0.15752346813678741,
-1.0054035186767578,
0.5666592121124268,
-0.6554585099220276,
0.015137746930122375,
0.08713515847921371,
0.12283456325531006,
-0.341996431350708,
0.55442214012146,
-0.030967747792601585,
-0.13386473059654236,
-0.38794004917144775,
0.11242249608039856,
-0.16045671701431274,
-0.13957427442073822,
0.3311236500740051,
-0.06732501834630966,
0.5211809873580933,
-0.21628861129283905,
-0.336307168006897,
0.32457542419433594,
0.26601940393447876,
0.6892399787902832,
0.08581063151359558,
-0.352728009223938,
-0.12634499371051788,
-0.04653414711356163,
-0.2191678136587143,
0.1563630849123001,
-0.1293739378452301,
-0.5057938098907471,
0.35770297050476074,
-0.45023244619369507,
0.5196382999420166,
0.5781998634338379,
0.4061404764652252,
0.15902820229530334,
1.0785783529281616,
0.6162139773368835,
0.009205376729369164,
0.08233002573251724,
-0.10931868851184845,
0.06613121926784515,
0.044993676245212555,
0.20152515172958374,
-0.35323357582092285,
-0.544729471206665,
0.6111264824867249,
0.427737832069397,
-0.23204359412193298,
-0.11430135369300842,
0.77341228723526,
0.45483410358428955,
-0.3800847828388214,
0.40209245681762695,
-0.16971972584724426,
0.39486223459243774,
-0.310594767332077,
-0.16356894373893738,
0.001413900637999177,
-0.4731849730014801,
-0.2512213885784149,
0.051213447004556656,
0.3011355996131897,
-0.3139299750328064,
-0.19103312492370605,
0.4487200379371643,
0.04404108226299286,
0.2695915400981903,
0.18541590869426727,
0.4688960313796997,
-0.058577217161655426,
-1.0502873659133911,
-0.23213283717632294,
-0.3164333999156952,
0.04947226867079735,
-0.07860131561756134,
-0.03261001408100128,
0.611067533493042,
-0.435067355632782,
0.7295397520065308,
0.45932039618492126,
0.2847975194454193,
-0.8892301917076111,
0.22670693695545197,
0.2711543142795563,
0.6817819476127625,
-0.0715918019413948,
-0.2025471329689026,
0.7715452313423157,
-0.40566080808639526,
0.6836507320404053,
-0.25011467933654785,
-0.21949319541454315,
0.3454698920249939,
-0.6441407799720764,
-1.0930253267288208,
-0.37068045139312744,
-0.4376251995563507,
0.5094878077507019,
-0.13112831115722656,
-0.1765577495098114,
-0.3020176589488983,
-0.2739725112915039,
-0.004640554077923298,
0.4285512864589691,
0.03957900404930115,
-0.7053468823432922,
-0.5799712538719177,
0.24504797160625458,
-0.26296183466911316,
0.8322568535804749,
-0.36888691782951355,
0.27694228291511536,
0.011998227797448635,
-0.21700654923915863,
0.44980332255363464,
0.00954736303538084,
0.053298819810152054,
0.3814450204372406,
-0.3102176785469055,
0.06066514924168587,
-0.30478715896606445,
-0.3596407175064087,
-0.04072883352637291,
-1.0575604438781738,
0.26418471336364746,
-0.15297356247901917,
-0.14867612719535828,
0.1569739133119583,
-0.012455480173230171,
1.2899872064590454,
0.25845441222190857,
-0.09978252649307251,
-0.30338364839553833,
-0.36612194776535034,
0.2825475335121155,
0.10771052539348602,
-0.045394182205200195,
-0.8267086148262024,
-0.12280859053134918,
0.03267010301351547,
-0.02639523521065712,
-0.0334300622344017,
-0.23872558772563934,
-0.6115407347679138,
-0.08783214539289474,
0.6069666147232056,
-0.03576306998729706,
1.1089380979537964,
-0.09742480516433716,
-0.3972763121128082,
0.21458613872528076,
-0.31339114904403687,
0.4593257009983063,
-0.5339299440383911,
-0.14440904557704926,
0.5051712393760681,
-0.46470001339912415,
-0.38527533411979675,
0.09712433069944382,
0.1368160992860794,
-0.5719796419143677,
0.12004203349351883,
0.5155696272850037,
0.22984904050827026,
-0.39928698539733887,
-0.1141657680273056,
0.6496919989585876,
-0.17811188101768494,
-0.3189137279987335,
-0.6600818634033203,
-0.041622452437877655,
0.5514469742774963,
-0.7933794856071472,
-0.06733986735343933,
0.06872217357158661,
-0.28913643956184387,
-0.08036384731531143,
0.044606178998947144,
0.5948629379272461,
-0.27920714020729065,
0.13821537792682648,
0.12830889225006104,
-0.2997455298900604,
0.097952701151371,
0.8488630056381226,
-0.3693801462650299,
0.10076385736465454,
-0.10657685250043869,
0.622340202331543,
-0.20569464564323425,
-0.3871818780899048,
-0.03161713108420372,
-0.31066593527793884,
0.794228732585907,
-0.2601781487464905,
-0.43046292662620544,
0.09897979348897934,
-0.09187044203281403,
-0.11979825049638748,
-0.20595096051692963,
-0.0707048624753952,
-0.6551510095596313,
0.8954328894615173,
-0.2735375165939331,
0.6680278182029724,
0.25186917185783386,
0.53352952003479,
0.18027110397815704,
0.10930223017930984,
0.1988910287618637,
-0.01614818349480629,
-0.31284359097480774,
-0.33274534344673157,
-0.10101691633462906,
-0.3009224534034729,
0.651715099811554,
0.1810510903596878,
0.15634891390800476,
-0.4235934019088745,
-0.1146407350897789,
-0.09906831383705139,
0.7132183909416199,
0.49262481927871704,
0.0445241779088974,
0.3170429766178131,
-0.3626432418823242,
0.6588796377182007,
-0.7196292877197266,
-0.3176163136959076,
-0.5966804623603821,
0.288120836019516,
-0.23572267591953278,
-0.684289813041687,
-0.08973801881074905,
0.581645667552948,
0.518388569355011,
-0.7197446227073669,
-0.39119768142700195,
0.11711625009775162,
0.36380141973495483,
-0.36014091968536377,
-0.013766990043222904,
-0.2843059003353119,
-0.5311968922615051,
-0.08669549226760864,
0.10143576562404633,
0.08381068706512451,
-0.11831441521644592,
-0.38505876064300537,
0.6400615572929382,
-0.24195896089076996,
-0.11474522203207016,
-0.12816625833511353,
-0.4602597951889038,
0.17047634720802307,
-0.1378694623708725,
-0.18086867034435272,
-0.021468274295330048,
0.025070928037166595,
-0.12830160558223724,
0.30879148840904236,
-5.763030529022217,
0.11191871017217636,
0.10873311758041382,
-0.4861568808555603,
0.6231658458709717,
0.3304779827594757,
0.6897405982017517,
-0.40393877029418945,
-0.46515950560569763,
-0.07961367070674896,
0.038787178695201874,
0.5303189754486084,
0.03137682005763054,
0.01155177690088749,
-0.020841117948293686,
-0.03430414944887161,
-0.1928768903017044,
-0.10555455833673477,
0.04819533973932266,
0.22760440409183502,
-0.1285017728805542,
-0.39925605058670044,
0.03151119872927666,
0.7082741856575012,
0.09776396304368973,
1.1605682373046875,
-0.5032958984375,
0.3891977071762085,
-0.19848014414310455,
0.296079158782959,
0.33186379075050354,
-0.24389109015464783,
-0.18078972399234772,
-0.28950995206832886,
-0.22360040247440338,
0.034690972417593,
0.47949156165122986,
0.5323210954666138,
0.2939806878566742,
-0.30072057247161865,
-0.20096437633037567,
-0.08481129258871078,
-0.3615310490131378,
-0.6581858992576599,
0.5429304838180542,
-0.171171635389328,
-0.241868257522583,
0.5462549924850464,
-0.4955141246318817,
0.6079586148262024,
0.22052553296089172,
-0.6803816556930542,
-0.22019754350185394,
0.5191274881362915,
0.3055839538574219,
-0.18946632742881775,
-0.1546618491411209,
-0.040458135306835175,
0.12721768021583557,
0.35656026005744934,
0.6673458814620972,
-0.5341333746910095,
-0.05695544555783272,
-0.09999344497919083,
-0.28276005387306213,
0.12344373017549515,
0.18411806225776672,
-0.01938370242714882,
0.1818503588438034,
0.059967007488012314,
0.6314182281494141,
-0.19246608018875122,
-0.1693844199180603,
-1.038315773010254,
-0.41897016763687134,
-0.24023878574371338,
0.15550562739372253,
-0.28036433458328247,
-0.23796741664409637,
0.20396451652050018,
0.07382728904485703,
-0.031721509993076324,
0.15559494495391846,
0.14553044736385345,
-0.47886601090431213,
0.07151195406913757,
-0.2459564208984375,
0.014454794116318226,
-0.29260075092315674,
-0.3940194547176361,
-0.0010215049842372537,
-0.8580204844474792,
-0.1204880028963089,
-0.2741014361381531,
-0.13768018782138824,
0.22843964397907257,
0.6105139255523682,
0.40505319833755493,
0.45275652408599854,
0.29752618074417114,
0.41431817412376404,
-0.19762499630451202,
0.35242414474487305,
-0.09568046033382416,
0.16162414848804474,
-0.6811308860778809,
0.05691578611731529,
0.3934721350669861,
0.46222734451293945,
-0.37944087386131287,
0.12792310118675232,
0.2513161599636078,
0.08774437755346298,
-0.567926824092865,
0.26305243372917175,
-0.20601634681224823,
-0.36467334628105164,
0.27898749709129333,
0.5302079319953918,
0.0428001843392849,
-0.2806520164012909,
0.1441013067960739,
-0.3444177806377411,
0.11517389118671417,
0.5451211929321289,
0.019237635657191277,
-0.24586781859397888,
0.9565632343292236,
-0.08418355882167816,
0.27719420194625854,
0.025536583736538887,
0.22978536784648895,
-0.023136530071496964,
0.6663782000541687,
-0.33587148785591125,
-0.3523005545139313,
-0.8138393759727478,
-0.6813925504684448,
0.16926084458827972,
0.2157655656337738,
0.3647029399871826,
-0.13925741612911224,
-0.367195725440979,
0.33253636956214905,
0.6335207223892212,
0.6824648380279541,
0.4159192740917206,
-0.0074898614548146725,
-0.012951829470694065,
0.4712452292442322,
0.1682773381471634,
0.11851533502340317,
0.4617515206336975,
-0.48911499977111816,
-0.03668999671936035,
0.44090113043785095,
-0.012645086273550987,
0.021868472918868065,
-0.8849508762359619,
-0.11876073479652405,
0.22799499332904816,
-0.30581286549568176,
-0.5367882251739502,
-0.5707008838653564,
-0.27325698733329773,
0.13702313601970673,
-0.05553482100367546,
-0.7739155292510986,
-0.4829905927181244,
-0.267117977142334,
-0.18643487989902496,
-0.02440076693892479,
0.06873084604740143,
-0.059235695749521255,
0.529090166091919,
0.457845002412796,
-0.48888641595840454,
-0.48384448885917664,
0.24353615939617157,
-0.48119670152664185,
0.036053113639354706,
0.07464901357889175,
-0.45924511551856995,
-0.41017913818359375,
0.2609225809574127,
-0.20544354617595673,
-0.6720426082611084,
-0.8305357098579407,
-0.2617627680301666,
0.04595997557044029,
-0.5205926299095154,
-0.13334673643112183,
0.1840224713087082,
0.01949113979935646,
-0.22777500748634338,
-0.6703960299491882,
0.20559890568256378,
0.0658092275261879,
0.1145489290356636,
-0.1553383469581604,
0.5072324872016907,
0.0867333933711052,
0.09664715081453323,
-0.05538931488990784,
0.8081013560295105,
-0.5254636406898499,
0.4145560562610626,
-0.3612224757671356,
-0.6977039575576782,
0.10489588975906372,
-0.20491594076156616,
-0.2506420612335205,
0.10743455588817596,
0.213952898979187,
-0.2559202313423157,
-0.29676997661590576,
0.36040642857551575,
-0.0771074965596199,
-0.5186957716941833,
-0.3061191737651825,
-0.25823718309402466,
0.7808022499084473,
-0.2944975197315216,
0.2445613294839859,
-0.6727529764175415,
0.20128433406352997,
0.5261079668998718,
-0.3857647478580475,
0.309095174074173,
0.26701298356056213,
-0.11602336913347244,
0.8052756190299988,
0.18986135721206665,
-0.5237094163894653,
0.13761797547340393,
0.3437460958957672,
0.18780502676963806,
-0.03838007152080536,
-0.44832172989845276,
0.25177305936813354,
0.42412859201431274,
1.003511667251587,
0.2756814658641815,
-0.46771809458732605,
0.370112806558609,
-0.002539985114708543,
-0.0725623071193695,
-0.15961673855781555,
-0.14676249027252197,
0.2948601543903351,
0.013529862277209759,
-0.09604883193969727,
-0.06573668122291565,
-0.43370938301086426,
0.3916190564632416,
-0.841682493686676,
-0.06584906578063965,
-0.600043535232544,
0.22019870579242706,
-0.2961723208427429,
0.11619693785905838,
-0.16937001049518585,
0.0018424408044666052,
0.2950616180896759,
0.23203764855861664,
0.30164551734924316,
-0.06309200078248978,
0.03696172684431076,
-0.39053529500961304,
-0.3800835907459259,
0.2305278778076172,
0.35990890860557556,
0.4454260468482971,
0.10469724982976913,
-0.3489017188549042,
-0.11936047673225403,
-0.4617936611175537,
-0.5250429511070251,
-0.14348143339157104,
0.2135428935289383,
-0.2752279043197632,
0.09049860388040543,
-0.26592496037483215,
-0.40800637006759644,
0.1292867362499237,
-1.0721622705459595,
0.5199557542800903,
-0.4771980345249176,
-0.029716912657022476,
-0.08650270104408264,
-0.2891698181629181,
-0.29288944602012634,
0.6302713751792908,
0.7456063032150269,
0.19702549278736115,
0.48020026087760925,
-0.39815664291381836,
0.4581405222415924,
0.44210851192474365,
-0.3272812068462372,
-0.27813708782196045,
0.8496218919754028,
0.10307378321886063,
-0.7246704697608948,
-0.16442622244358063,
-0.43637213110923767,
-0.2646082639694214,
0.15629547834396362,
-0.13769328594207764,
0.813676655292511,
0.17321966588497162,
0.1859246790409088,
-0.5508360266685486,
0.7993307709693909,
-0.499026358127594,
0.16185390949249268,
0.3992210328578949,
-0.4321139454841614,
0.26004230976104736,
-0.017369257286190987,
-0.10399018228054047,
0.7295073866844177,
0.8906727433204651,
0.016551390290260315,
0.07795744389295578,
-0.053109318017959595,
-0.48505428433418274,
0.802584171295166,
0.22999025881290436,
0.14338275790214539,
0.41540127992630005,
-0.5220140218734741,
-0.6404789686203003,
0.5834268927574158,
-0.5546159148216248,
0.06020231172442436,
-0.011101162061095238,
-0.4965166449546814,
-0.8617704510688782,
0.6383959650993347,
0.10013362020254135,
0.18230360746383667,
0.14686332643032074,
0.36142614483833313,
0.07746818661689758,
0.1936527043581009,
0.3230134844779968,
-0.06094123795628548,
0.478598415851593,
0.2586739659309387,
0.20124681293964386,
-0.8344410061836243,
0.09931499511003494,
-0.2506195604801178,
0.13849498331546783,
-0.09842430055141449,
0.4439445436000824,
0.061417534947395325,
-0.5852159857749939,
-0.25641506910324097,
-0.6524086594581604,
-0.6202009916305542,
0.7957209944725037,
0.20448754727840424,
-0.04722655192017555,
0.4526802897453308,
0.0536094531416893,
-0.9569213390350342,
-0.24106185138225555,
-0.059981491416692734,
0.2113267183303833,
0.10943978279829025,
0.10618112236261368,
0.33611300587654114,
0.016991296783089638,
-0.04607370123267174,
0.42338135838508606,
0.8521824479103088,
-0.1242590844631195,
-0.2569335401058197,
-0.580445408821106,
-0.44783613085746765,
0.4102148413658142,
-0.5010349750518799,
0.6020910143852234,
-0.24667662382125854,
0.267527312040329,
0.3301161527633667,
0.0704755187034607,
-0.22565536201000214,
0.4474340081214905,
-0.5987958312034607,
0.41418755054473877,
-0.28820449113845825,
-0.4860260486602783,
-0.013464972376823425,
0.5738764405250549,
0.16780520975589752,
-0.19827282428741455,
0.7423449754714966,
-0.21946430206298828,
0.3099313974380493,
0.2902567684650421,
-0.0505167655646801,
-0.5724049210548401,
0.3815890848636627,
-0.712522566318512,
-0.3287513852119446,
-0.8591547012329102,
0.9532763957977295,
-0.05276617407798767,
-0.2858385145664215,
0.2134159356355667,
0.08951182663440704,
-0.788371205329895,
-0.5374098420143127,
0.3955664038658142,
-0.4388418197631836,
-0.17035360634326935,
-0.39104580879211426,
-0.31473901867866516,
0.29279372096061707,
-0.15074396133422852,
0.8028731942176819,
-0.11795144528150558,
0.0194698516279459,
0.43983539938926697,
0.0420699268579483,
-0.13588446378707886,
0.5916774272918701,
-0.21846137940883636,
0.300300270318985,
-0.38344383239746094,
0.22911398112773895,
0.15219606459140778,
-0.3565120995044708,
0.26009905338287354,
0.34686487913131714,
0.2407996654510498,
-0.6176130175590515,
0.45557478070259094,
-0.13234974443912506,
-0.8576933145523071,
-0.03685060143470764,
0.25737616419792175,
-0.02980155684053898,
-0.2580416798591614,
-0.8247426748275757,
-0.4386634826660156,
0.41276493668556213,
0.5092983841896057,
-0.22875283658504486,
0.273979514837265,
-0.284561425447464,
0.30977901816368103,
0.10174314677715302,
0.014117468148469925,
-0.3032456934452057,
0.38109490275382996,
-0.36409544944763184
] |
200317
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Gottfried%20Jakob%20Hermann
|
Johann Gottfried Jakob Hermann
|
Johann Gottfried Jakob Hermann (28 November 1772 – 31 December 1848) was a German classical scholar and philologist. He published his works under the name Gottfried Hermann or its Latin equivalent .
Biography
He was born in Leipzig. Entering its university at the age of fourteen, Hermann at first studied law, which he soon abandoned for the classics. After a session at Jena in 1793–1794, he became a lecturer on classical literature in Leipzig, in 1798 professor extraordinarius of philosophy in the university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry, 1809). His students included Leopold von Ranke. In 1840 in occasion of his 50th doctoral anniversary he received a medal. He died in Leipzig.
Views
Hermann maintained that an accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was the only road to a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the ancient world, and the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. As the leader of this grammatico-critical school, he came into collision with Philipp August Böckh and Karl Otfried Müller, the representatives of the historico-antiquarian school, which regarded Hermann's view of philology as inadequate and one-sided.
Works
Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres, and published several works on that subject, the most important being Elementa doctrinae metricae (1816), in which he set forth a scientific theory based on the Kantian categories. He also wrote a Handbuch der Metrik (1798). His writings on Greek grammar are also valuable, especially De emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae (1801), and notes and excursus on François Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. The principles of the new method he introduced are not only explicitly developed in De Emendenda Ratione Græcæ Grammaticæ, but are practically illustrated in his numerous editions of the ancient classics.
His editions of the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the Clouds of Aristophanes (1799); Trinummus of Plautus (1800); Poëtica of Aristotle (1802); Orphica (1805); the Homeric Hymns (1806); and the Lexicon of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann finished the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition of Aeschylus was published after his death in 1852. The Opuscula, a collection of his smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes in Leipzig between 1827 and 1839. These show his power of dealing with chronological, topographical, and personal questions, and also contain some poems.
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
This work in turn cites:
Monograph by Otto Jahn (1849)
Monograph by Hermann Köchly (1874)
Conrad Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883)
Sandys, History Class. Schol. iii.
This work in turn cites:
Jahn, Gottfried Hermann, eine Gedächtnisrede (Leipzig, 1849)
Köchly, Gottfried Hermann (Heidelberg, 1874)
Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (Munich, 1883)
1772 births
1848 deaths
People from the Electorate of Saxony
German classical scholars
German philologists
Leipzig University alumni
Leipzig University faculty
University of Jena alumni
18th-century philologists
19th-century philologists
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
|
[
-0.5234984755516052,
0.6543551087379456,
-0.5302717089653015,
0.16849449276924133,
-0.10837751626968384,
1.0756231546401978,
1.3302876949310303,
0.25698256492614746,
0.037223149091005325,
-0.8783119320869446,
-0.3940933644771576,
-0.3315361440181732,
0.2803490161895752,
0.30730798840522766,
0.06329408288002014,
0.3252347707748413,
0.29523178935050964,
-0.3978232443332672,
-0.9429378509521484,
-0.26533329486846924,
-0.320978581905365,
0.04496779292821884,
0.2977224588394165,
-0.04211296886205673,
-0.2288169413805008,
-0.21509289741516113,
0.19101129472255707,
-0.39833372831344604,
0.5912998914718628,
-0.17635276913642883,
0.1316470503807068,
0.7758612632751465,
-0.04526584595441818,
0.17154236137866974,
-0.5034393668174744,
0.22595643997192383,
-0.18941108882427216,
-0.04192224517464638,
0.33781203627586365,
0.20789827406406403,
-0.24579696357250214,
0.30223023891448975,
0.4010753035545349,
-0.025899529457092285,
-0.010655837133526802,
-0.5276509523391724,
-2.1861445903778076,
0.4628356993198395,
-0.7063929438591003,
-0.8073069453239441,
0.051415976136922836,
0.10335986316204071,
0.793260395526886,
0.8183526992797852,
-0.9743766188621521,
0.38338765501976013,
-0.9489738941192627,
-0.697709858417511,
0.19891901314258575,
-0.3136076033115387,
0.6774092316627502,
0.5131659507751465,
-0.003817105432972312,
0.13928940892219543,
0.7169617414474487,
0.035913772881031036,
-0.56678706407547,
0.49172499775886536,
-0.09734732657670975,
-0.8981268405914307,
-0.2424103170633316,
0.3694118857383728,
-0.02654687687754631,
0.14916282892227173,
0.6492973566055298,
-0.5727516412734985,
0.014405153691768646,
0.41447126865386963,
-0.16006158292293549,
-0.47018927335739136,
-0.6117804646492004,
0.09655039012432098,
1.3469618558883667,
0.30625224113464355,
-0.2848414480686188,
0.029452204704284668,
-0.22440312802791595,
0.04454462230205536,
-0.7466354966163635,
-0.4491221606731415,
0.02299479767680168,
-0.3514671325683594,
0.14940010011196136,
0.18353520333766937,
0.24460642039775848,
0.5816516876220703,
-0.07297908514738083,
0.18208828568458557,
-0.46752652525901794,
0.08138840645551682,
-0.6772307753562927,
0.06609251350164413,
0.45844903588294983,
-0.4905989170074463,
-0.13296820223331451,
0.018622126430273056,
0.08253062516450882,
0.2456848919391632,
-0.21655382215976715,
0.4581102430820465,
-0.8423413634300232,
-0.07903341948986053,
-0.17516112327575684,
0.08530017733573914,
-0.1829274445772171,
0.05539068207144737,
0.2896670699119568,
-1.1408902406692505,
-0.8721655011177063,
-0.093778595328331,
0.010275991633534431,
0.4866625964641571,
0.041330497711896896,
0.07684601098299026,
-0.8631440997123718,
-0.3067686855792999,
0.23510552942752838,
0.6544581651687622,
-0.15795372426509857,
0.32065078616142273,
0.4686919152736664,
1.2203325033187866,
0.185319721698761,
-0.20865720510482788,
-0.6288931965827942,
-0.17877516150474548,
0.3341291546821594,
0.11773382127285004,
-0.4446219801902771,
0.35271409153938293,
-0.06997854262590408,
-0.564114511013031,
-0.4471622705459595,
-0.1136690229177475,
-0.16155527532100677,
-0.29723459482192993,
0.2036549299955368,
-0.2233293354511261,
0.29485663771629333,
0.12226317822933197,
-0.23327027261257172,
0.006343435496091843,
-0.0740266740322113,
0.15426741540431976,
-0.2134064882993698,
0.6369309425354004,
0.2628195583820343,
0.5101746916770935,
0.10580553114414215,
0.1575487107038498,
0.586354672908783,
-0.5624006390571594,
-0.6249260902404785,
-0.03287321329116821,
0.758066713809967,
-0.1888771802186966,
0.21402770280838013,
0.36628037691116333,
-0.31693321466445923,
-0.2706564962863922,
-0.2164040505886078,
-0.4090632498264313,
-0.21138803660869598,
0.16594144701957703,
-0.09575673937797546,
0.4973001778125763,
-0.06695783883333206,
0.2692981958389282,
0.2848522365093231,
-0.4046759009361267,
-0.9329672455787659,
-0.0035959321539849043,
-0.21575520932674408,
0.22096292674541473,
0.519891619682312,
0.769237220287323,
0.15425653755664825,
0.3788319528102875,
0.5235157012939453,
-0.9473389983177185,
-1.092216968536377,
-0.9160942435264587,
0.01811309903860092,
0.1306494027376175,
1.2716033458709717,
0.28210240602493286,
-0.42440319061279297,
0.5639486908912659,
-0.41993704438209534,
0.5285989046096802,
-0.21677598357200623,
-0.7345660328865051,
-0.2692177891731262,
0.5513992309570312,
0.4705706238746643,
0.4051569104194641,
-0.22616615891456604,
-0.0018148283706977963,
0.19717098772525787,
0.299092173576355,
0.42232775688171387,
-0.1453634351491928,
0.09797609597444534,
0.8313027620315552,
-0.2885895073413849,
-0.05829233676195145,
-0.48152756690979004,
-0.1593029797077179,
0.21945546567440033,
-0.40588003396987915,
0.8000707030296326,
0.007376416120678186,
0.40018150210380554,
0.8521739840507507,
-0.22365860641002655,
1.127940058708191,
-0.2627573013305664,
0.5642411708831787,
0.010903903283178806,
-0.9549933075904846,
-0.29664355516433716,
-0.3678781986236572,
0.5003889799118042,
-0.5415636897087097,
0.35588082671165466,
-0.16931429505348206,
-0.3875219523906708,
-0.5446603894233704,
0.026554392650723457,
-0.7788752317428589,
0.4615561068058014,
0.304471880197525,
-0.09528694301843643,
0.38529402017593384,
0.1867746114730835,
0.6036900877952576,
-0.3482927083969116,
-0.6231890916824341,
-0.08943591266870499,
0.3218074142932892,
0.06468061357736588,
0.5777266025543213,
-0.27612271904945374,
-0.07812279462814331,
-0.23811687529087067,
0.2459554821252823,
0.9367136359214783,
0.25166013836860657,
0.3743784725666046,
0.24438723921775818,
0.5760892629623413,
-0.06885992735624313,
0.36869022250175476,
-0.15583379566669464,
-0.5076022148132324,
0.022395242005586624,
0.27954772114753723,
-0.34000498056411743,
-0.1865982562303543,
-0.22507621347904205,
0.1466917097568512,
-0.3406091630458832,
-0.35926783084869385,
0.7841772437095642,
-0.250288188457489,
-0.7678338885307312,
-0.3571220338344574,
-0.2334119975566864,
-0.251992404460907,
-0.43906107544898987,
-0.2663132846355438,
0.646917998790741,
-0.4481978416442871,
0.40225401520729065,
-0.5972420573234558,
0.10116292536258698,
0.3191756010055542,
-0.19743263721466064,
0.6666018962860107,
0.22896045446395874,
-0.019281867891550064,
0.6948879361152649,
-0.5458723902702332,
-0.24882984161376953,
-0.0469011627137661,
0.6062607765197754,
-0.2788960039615631,
-0.6975594758987427,
0.20344460010528564,
-0.3890576660633087,
-1.4205150604248047,
-0.1016814336180687,
0.25223323702812195,
0.6128117442131042,
0.2223549783229828,
-0.2521030008792877,
-0.36702072620391846,
0.46835726499557495,
-4.970807075500488,
-0.2316981554031372,
-0.0013911344576627016,
-0.31173399090766907,
0.07541529089212418,
1.1266835927963257,
0.4214552044868469,
-0.5835101008415222,
-0.022031087428331375,
-0.1598525196313858,
1.0003855228424072,
-0.26085731387138367,
-0.5507690906524658,
0.5569663643836975,
0.5244794487953186,
0.4406336843967438,
0.21624676883220673,
0.16450081765651703,
0.03648051247000694,
-0.08578910678625107,
0.12173743546009064,
-0.12029474973678589,
0.24707721173763275,
0.5846230387687683,
0.518746554851532,
-0.1007472574710846,
-0.3446120619773865,
0.2564762830734253,
-0.38377517461776733,
-0.3283241391181946,
0.4275863766670227,
0.05192418769001961,
-0.06322461366653442,
0.6162333488464355,
0.10122355818748474,
-0.1462266445159912,
0.44906896352767944,
1.109687089920044,
0.03622284531593323,
0.6346949338912964,
-0.08123911172151566,
0.13349021971225739,
-0.835289478302002,
-0.15464317798614502,
-0.735797643661499,
-0.2364039421081543,
-0.45414304733276367,
0.32305091619491577,
-0.5203260779380798,
0.8942586779594421,
-0.3137277662754059,
0.042749181389808655,
-0.16201047599315643,
-0.08354479819536209,
0.2536778151988983,
0.2911568880081177,
0.2884255349636078,
0.040913328528404236,
-0.5828427076339722,
0.020637892186641693,
0.3772614896297455,
-0.2934112548828125,
0.22188398241996765,
-0.3984784483909607,
-0.18724475800991058,
0.01030317135155201,
-0.15587066113948822,
0.1643572598695755,
-0.07749518007040024,
-0.6388393044471741,
-0.5931905508041382,
1.1387628316879272,
0.028102796524763107,
-0.9720602035522461,
-0.17064222693443298,
-0.5969116687774658,
-0.416030615568161,
-0.6401326060295105,
-0.7113485336303711,
0.3173556625843048,
0.20191611349582672,
-0.8242018818855286,
-0.16191835701465607,
1.2462633848190308,
1.4760459661483765,
0.8343523740768433,
-0.5220329761505127,
-0.2839471399784088,
-0.32302552461624146,
-1.0103535652160645,
-0.011669307015836239,
-0.7712758779525757,
-0.02035375125706196,
0.19409659504890442,
-0.4325975179672241,
0.9603590369224548,
-0.3178587257862091,
0.11373543739318848,
0.5571620464324951,
0.9363580942153931,
0.3195699155330658,
0.3635503947734833,
0.27517810463905334,
0.2727375328540802,
0.5370774865150452,
-0.2927611470222473,
-0.40749266743659973,
0.2983488142490387,
0.8899925351142883,
0.35923123359680176,
0.03219899907708168,
0.37797555327415466,
-0.06415169686079025,
-0.25191372632980347,
-0.6542519927024841,
-0.694699227809906,
-0.28125,
0.6374181509017944,
0.22480818629264832,
0.17319560050964355,
0.007814162410795689,
-0.3343323767185211,
0.09457197785377502,
-0.48134011030197144,
-0.2756694555282593,
0.026680786162614822,
-0.527989387512207,
-0.38577699661254883,
-0.3499118387699127,
-0.23345623910427094,
0.2761763036251068,
0.5487341284751892,
0.09897676855325699,
0.2782140076160431,
0.3431350588798523,
-0.15579867362976074,
-0.2371983826160431,
-0.7646531462669373,
-0.0028571649454534054,
-0.26239103078842163,
0.0603916272521019,
-0.09206202626228333,
-0.5323835015296936,
0.6356216669082642,
0.49260666966438293,
-0.13509175181388855,
0.22979016602039337,
-0.44044187664985657,
-0.6068549752235413,
0.8420674204826355,
-0.12700554728507996,
-0.02151632495224476,
1.1694353818893433,
0.23070353269577026,
-0.008000249974429607,
0.18689388036727905,
0.07439343631267548,
0.6382179856300354,
-0.030020486563444138,
-0.42340049147605896,
-0.10081164538860321,
-0.3513633906841278,
-0.6831914782524109,
-0.1549190878868103,
0.12937499582767487,
0.22660401463508606,
-0.6949859261512756,
0.33773842453956604,
-0.16894054412841797,
0.6413663029670715,
0.2205095738172531,
-0.5306314826011658,
-0.43865659832954407,
0.3771209716796875,
0.09615138918161392,
0.0635933130979538,
0.23370641469955444,
0.3678494691848755,
-0.08622480928897858,
-0.1185997873544693,
0.23295722901821136,
-0.13026411831378937,
-0.522632360458374,
0.1952112317085266,
0.5479496121406555,
0.12025447934865952,
-0.3004581332206726,
-0.5022180080413818,
-0.5467692017555237,
0.14460109174251556,
0.009834987111389637,
-0.18476299941539764,
-0.07317066937685013,
0.42553073167800903,
0.20724470913410187,
-0.42340612411499023,
0.40706783533096313,
-0.3157300651073456,
-0.11803393065929413,
-0.620932400226593,
0.2467348873615265,
0.14933811128139496,
-0.21227604150772095,
0.02097819745540619,
-0.0604824423789978,
-0.9447323083877563,
-0.020228015258908272,
-0.21340541541576385,
-0.3229314386844635,
0.9350080490112305,
-0.44694605469703674,
-0.6388933062553406,
-0.24437372386455536,
0.6766132712364197,
-0.5285826921463013,
0.09898548573255539,
0.4443417191505432,
-0.49074751138687134,
-0.7739217877388,
-0.4472171366214752,
-0.7300798296928406,
0.19502662122249603,
-0.39233362674713135,
-0.2988400459289551,
-0.1482650190591812,
-0.24437949061393738,
0.3316127359867096,
-0.12079714983701706,
0.5063565373420715,
-0.14970669150352478,
0.13446104526519775,
-0.3729184567928314,
0.05246593803167343,
0.07055572420358658,
-0.3825109899044037,
-0.6921544671058655,
-0.07730235159397125,
0.15368661284446716,
-0.5817499756813049,
-0.1822310835123062,
0.3133589029312134,
0.8046951293945312,
0.14453431963920593,
-0.3551756739616394,
-0.15575554966926575,
-0.09405330568552017,
0.5961498618125916,
-0.016954690217971802,
0.042092740535736084,
0.20423361659049988,
0.041151829063892365,
-0.056389860808849335,
-0.5891745686531067,
-0.85956209897995,
0.6963182687759399,
-0.19799627363681793,
-0.0733191967010498,
0.2752018868923187,
-0.002509180922061205,
0.017033560201525688,
0.5127136707305908,
0.07877873629331589,
0.3068990707397461,
-0.2213047593832016,
-0.22649513185024261,
0.1779610961675644,
0.5445876717567444,
-0.1754167079925537,
-0.18071570992469788,
0.34371286630630493,
-0.22971276938915253,
-0.7119677662849426,
-0.6164928078651428,
0.2873525321483612,
-0.5587469339370728,
0.3397371470928192,
0.19643373787403107,
-0.48461389541625977,
0.35678836703300476,
0.05182899162173271,
-1.33052659034729,
-0.3898557424545288,
-0.21871662139892578,
-0.7016860246658325,
-0.6940978765487671,
-0.6544156670570374,
-0.4408569037914276,
0.3247230648994446,
-0.5439154505729675,
0.5282496213912964,
-0.7539533376693726,
0.36565008759498596,
-0.41309303045272827,
0.2886982858181,
0.20315808057785034,
0.34169676899909973,
-0.37969058752059937,
0.28323107957839966,
-0.43512895703315735,
-0.5584361553192139,
-0.044508568942546844,
0.05901157483458519,
1.0304787158966064,
-0.3170608878135681,
0.8155224919319153,
0.4282797873020172,
-0.5088394284248352,
-0.02264595776796341,
-0.38825276494026184,
-0.25251442193984985,
0.7380345463752747,
-0.01761942356824875,
0.17597076296806335,
0.3357638418674469,
-0.4578854739665985,
0.12979525327682495,
0.6357858777046204,
0.13847288489341736,
0.02720063552260399,
-0.044459693133831024,
0.22793759405612946,
0.014972570352256298,
1.1160022020339966,
-0.5858285427093506,
-0.565281093120575,
0.48243966698646545,
0.4139770567417145,
0.13154904544353485,
-0.48535460233688354,
0.20988477766513824,
-0.07113870978355408,
0.19420607388019562,
-0.40584832429885864,
0.7417614459991455,
0.04554475098848343,
-0.26734694838523865,
-0.0017159436829388142,
-0.5886095762252808,
-0.3007897436618805,
-0.00040830421494320035,
0.09529240429401398,
1.0447523593902588,
-0.15699541568756104,
0.2598627209663391,
-0.3374263048171997,
0.5518010258674622,
-0.6784877181053162,
0.10833115875720978,
-0.09909152239561081,
-0.04515383392572403,
0.516452968120575,
0.52805095911026,
-0.04226085916161537,
-0.39415454864501953,
0.25095224380493164,
0.4703267514705658,
0.4954112768173218,
-0.26118171215057373,
-0.24747715890407562,
-0.009110091254115105,
0.3488577902317047,
-0.2200852632522583,
0.8792709112167358,
-0.5985124707221985,
-0.4437454044818878,
0.10241133719682693,
-0.28814342617988586,
-0.33715298771858215,
-0.24509260058403015,
-0.3289893567562103,
-0.07866641879081726,
-0.6437346339225769,
0.09381712228059769,
0.4815097749233246,
0.9619812369346619,
0.027108345180749893,
0.792590856552124,
0.02849523164331913,
-0.011963427066802979,
0.3954036235809326,
-0.8515191078186035,
-0.0883871465921402,
0.0801234096288681,
0.08050598949193954,
-0.014606215059757233,
0.09238661825656891,
-0.07601995021104813,
-0.309016615152359,
0.20219022035598755,
-0.49221834540367126,
0.40933817625045776,
-0.3187418282032013,
0.3930841088294983,
-0.23875920474529266,
-0.9672671556472778,
0.1566145122051239,
-0.415452778339386,
0.9300084114074707,
-0.0936681479215622,
-0.9295474290847778,
-0.2104056179523468,
-0.32697993516921997,
0.0945722907781601,
-0.1328047662973404,
-0.4130944609642029,
0.19055935740470886,
0.01880571059882641,
0.4631333649158478,
-0.5697706937789917,
0.7127884030342102,
0.13221821188926697,
0.2580443024635315,
-0.40109875798225403,
0.2438693642616272,
-0.19608131051063538,
-0.31582513451576233,
0.6323531866073608,
-0.0536777526140213,
-0.11959757655858994,
0.5155847668647766,
0.5084131360054016,
0.06019501015543938,
0.07426014542579651,
-0.2037893831729889,
-0.3454855680465698,
0.549418032169342,
0.09265975654125214,
0.8040516972541809,
-0.2558566629886627,
0.3779221475124359,
0.13620682060718536,
-0.11919479072093964,
-0.871261715888977,
0.004350104834884405,
0.054927241057157516,
-0.5942673683166504,
0.5492134690284729,
-0.052795711904764175,
0.28653496503829956,
-0.49392029643058777,
0.4841960370540619,
0.22828996181488037,
0.028444964438676834,
0.029618462547659874,
0.3796953856945038,
0.47241535782814026,
-0.2626872956752777,
-0.2050938904285431,
-0.3729385435581207,
0.5839346051216125,
0.22143395245075226,
0.07209619879722595,
0.4657871723175049,
-0.8948178887367249,
0.48090168833732605,
0.37019339203834534,
0.09829620271921158,
-0.7890886068344116,
0.7033401131629944,
0.12068861722946167
] |
200319
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Otfried%20M%C3%BCller
|
Karl Otfried Müller
|
Karl Otfried Müller (; 28 August 1797 – 1 August 1840) was a German scholar and Philodorian, or admirer of ancient Sparta, who introduced the modern study of Greek mythology.
Biography
He was born at Brieg (modern Brzeg) in Silesia, then in the Kingdom of Prussia. His father was a chaplain in the Prussian army, and he was raised in the atmosphere of Protestant Pietism. He attended the gymnasium of his town. His university education was partly in Breslau (now Wrocław) and partly in Berlin. In Berlin, he was spurred towards the study of Greek literature, art and history by the influence of Philipp August Böckh. In 1817, after the publication of his first work, Aegineticorum liber, on the Aeginetans, he received an appointment at the Magdaleneum in Breslau, and in 1819 he was made adjunct professor of ancient literature at the University of Göttingen, his subject being the archaeology and history of ancient art. He deepened his understanding of Greek art by travelling in the summer of 1822 to the Netherlands, England and France.
Turning away from the Enlightenment conception of Greek myth as a reflection of a universal religion in its infancy, Müller placed the study squarely as the outcome of an encounter between the particular character of a people and a specific historical setting, where, in the broadest sense it has remained, though his convictions that the core of each culture is uniquely its own led him to deny the influence of Egyptian art on Greek art, already being recognised at the time.
Müller's position at Göttingen was made difficult by the political troubles which followed the accession of Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover, in 1837, and he applied for permission to travel, leaving Germany in 1839. In April of the following year he reached Greece, having spent the winter in Italy. He investigated the remains of ancient Athens, visited numerous places in Peloponnesus, and finally went to Delphi, where he began excavations. He was attacked by intermittent fever, of which he died at Athens. His grave is on the Colonus hilltop in Athens next to that of Charles Lenormant. In 1841 a medal was struck in his honor.
Works
His aim was to form a vivid conception of Greek life as a whole. Undoubtedly he wished to concentrate the results of his whole life of scholarly activity in his magnum opus, Geschichten hellenischen Stämme und Städte. However, he only managed to complete two volumes: Orchomenos und die Minyer (1820) and Die Dorier (1824). The latter includes the essay Über die Makedonier, on the settlements, origin and early history of the Macedonians. He introduced a new standard of accuracy in the cartography of ancient Greece. In 1828 he published Die Etrusker, a treatise on Etruscan antiquities.
His Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie (1825), in which he avoided the views of G. F. Creuzer and Christian August Lobeck, prepared the way for the scientific investigation of myths. Working without the benefit of modern understanding of psychology, he offered steps towards the "internal idea" of myth and presented techniques for determining the age of a mythus from the mentions of it in literary sources and a notable chapter on how to separate the mythus from the modifications of poets and prose writers, and examined the relations that Homer and Hesiod bore to their traditions, all of this before the supportive contributions of modern archaeology, philological analysis, or the understanding of oral transmission of myth, a remarkable achievement.
The study of ancient art was promoted by his Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst (1830; 3d ed. by Welcker, 1848; English trans. by J. Leitch, London, 1847) and Denkmäler der alten Kunst (1832), which he wrote in association with Carl Oesterley. The latter work was continued and completed by Friedrich Wieseler (1846–56).
In the last years of his life, he undertook to prepare for the English Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, a history of Greek literature, which in 1841 appeared posthumously as Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur bis auf das Zeitalter Alexanders (4th ed., revised and continued by Heitz, 1882–84). It was translated into English from the author's manuscript as History of the Literature of Ancient Greece and published the previous year in London. Chapters i.-xxii. were translated by Sir George Cornewall Lewis; chapters xxiii.-xxxvi. by J. W. Donaldson, who carried the work down to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. It remained one of the best books on the subject for many years.
Müller also published an admirable translation of the Eumenides of Aeschylus with introductory essays (1833). This was the object of a profound controversy in which Gottfried Hermann and his followers attacked him with great bitterness. Müller published new editions of Varro, De Lingua Latina (Leipzig, 1833) and Festus, De Significatione Verborum (Leipzig, 1839).
Quotes
"A democracy likes a large mass and hates all divisions."
Family
His brothers were Julius Müller (1801–1878), a theologian, and Eduard Müller (1804–1875), a philologist.
Notes
References
Calder, W.M., H. Flashar and R. Schlesirt, eds. K.O. Müller Reconsidered, (Urbana) 1995.
This work in turn cites:
Memoir of his life by his brother Eduard, prefixed to the posthumous edition of Müller's Kleine deutsche Schriften (1847), the starting-point of all biographical essays
Gottfried Christian Friedrich Lücke, Erinnerungen an Karl Otfried Müller (Göttingen, 1841)
Karl Ferdinand Ranke, Karl Otfried Müller, ein Lebensbild (Berlin, 1870)
Conrad Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883), ii. 1007-1028
Karl Dilthey, Otfried Müller (Göttingen, 1898)
E. Curtius, Altertum und Gegenwart
J. W. Donaldson, “On the Life and Writings of Karl Otfried Müller” in History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, vol. i.
O. and Else Kern, K. O. Müller, Lebensbild in Briefen an seine Eltern (1908), a biography composed from his letters to his parents
J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), 213–216.
Attribution
External links
1797 births
1840 deaths
People from Brzeg
People from the Province of Silesia
German archaeologists
German classical scholars
Ancient Aegina
Mythographers
|
[
-0.16118678450584412,
0.5651689767837524,
-0.6965762376785278,
0.13039638102054596,
0.22619259357452393,
1.4132564067840576,
0.8255355358123779,
0.1584111601114273,
-0.3285202383995056,
-0.5619301199913025,
-0.5184451341629028,
0.15846633911132812,
0.33130308985710144,
0.0778736025094986,
-0.009609697386622429,
0.004492938052862883,
0.5852831602096558,
-0.35796883702278137,
-0.5738359689712524,
0.053332485258579254,
-0.35516083240509033,
-0.061701465398073196,
0.45569008588790894,
-0.14062535762786865,
-0.5666472315788269,
-0.23173704743385315,
0.36000609397888184,
-0.26036006212234497,
0.11835222691297531,
0.010100387036800385,
-0.27512046694755554,
0.35528555512428284,
-0.5181702971458435,
-0.28885242342948914,
-0.7177928686141968,
0.4096251428127289,
-0.3275522291660309,
0.2348417341709137,
0.29493990540504456,
-0.04233136400580406,
-0.033020373433828354,
0.380087286233902,
0.5161692500114441,
-0.019638311117887497,
-0.4368169903755188,
-0.23478059470653534,
-1.5690562725067139,
0.5182523131370544,
-0.336256206035614,
-0.6745351552963257,
0.0870269238948822,
0.10933193564414978,
0.44025906920433044,
0.6487102508544922,
-0.7790195941925049,
0.696354866027832,
-1.093278169631958,
-0.3352978825569153,
0.35772112011909485,
-0.512507438659668,
0.6340144276618958,
0.8664793968200684,
0.09970954805612564,
0.08599799871444702,
0.6494453549385071,
0.48454540967941284,
-0.5833507776260376,
0.6572098731994629,
-0.12433170527219772,
-0.31651589274406433,
-0.18179498612880707,
0.3360694348812103,
-0.47504723072052,
0.39813026785850525,
0.3304003179073334,
-0.3414476811885834,
0.2060839682817459,
0.11354674398899078,
0.006255045998841524,
-0.3957687318325043,
-0.06352086365222931,
-0.1228640079498291,
1.0331557989120483,
0.44846904277801514,
-0.1648174375295639,
-0.09604848921298981,
-0.06594432890415192,
-0.06723998486995697,
-0.24774616956710815,
-0.7475517988204956,
-0.019360767677426338,
-0.41462284326553345,
0.522791862487793,
-0.050601474940776825,
-0.032213244587183,
0.49676579236984253,
-0.1757805496454239,
0.5404474139213562,
-0.06324482709169388,
-0.1313578486442566,
-0.4625758230686188,
-0.03397712484002113,
0.007516675628721714,
-0.32010021805763245,
-0.10621964186429977,
-0.18917487561702728,
0.05788743123412132,
0.25871434807777405,
-0.2848219871520996,
0.5386776924133301,
-1.0014054775238037,
0.06795775890350342,
0.08228320628404617,
0.11064429581165314,
-0.16641922295093536,
0.24501004815101624,
0.13926661014556885,
-1.2388602495193481,
-1.119773268699646,
-0.13486658036708832,
-0.24543754756450653,
0.4110334515571594,
-0.02007724903523922,
0.09645821899175644,
-0.3909587860107422,
-0.13990673422813416,
0.24674297869205475,
0.6447346806526184,
-0.12144556641578674,
0.08783269673585892,
0.5209959149360657,
0.9869420528411865,
-0.01893213391304016,
-0.36663171648979187,
-0.25348424911499023,
0.003445108188316226,
0.16339686512947083,
0.19236859679222107,
-0.15032798051834106,
0.6833410263061523,
-0.04904412478208542,
-0.9214092493057251,
-0.6743433475494385,
0.08387959003448486,
-0.017818978056311607,
-0.6542300581932068,
0.48686039447784424,
-0.06708883494138718,
0.1682860106229782,
0.17473576962947845,
-0.26212456822395325,
-0.013419197872281075,
-0.19328764081001282,
0.17530392110347748,
-0.10254798084497452,
0.4507720172405243,
0.2524705231189728,
0.3035471439361572,
0.24411356449127197,
0.03388027101755142,
0.4831697940826416,
-0.69429612159729,
-0.5524750351905823,
-0.11238619685173035,
1.126654863357544,
-0.6094490885734558,
0.4265388250350952,
-0.1357261836528778,
-0.0042271120473742485,
-0.09582141786813736,
-0.32254651188850403,
-0.4190605878829956,
0.23368965089321136,
0.46857529878616333,
-0.31852471828460693,
0.3143669366836548,
0.1510867327451706,
0.2980031669139862,
0.28793027997016907,
-0.9409458637237549,
-1.0501824617385864,
-0.30741754174232483,
-0.5404856204986572,
-0.024295568466186523,
0.7285155653953552,
0.34653010964393616,
0.35724204778671265,
0.12107650190591812,
0.6773371696472168,
-0.3856213092803955,
-0.6019114851951599,
-0.807133138179779,
0.3977743685245514,
-0.01256356481462717,
1.4773110151290894,
0.30080148577690125,
-0.6611735224723816,
0.6848272681236267,
-0.4294489324092865,
0.3230970501899719,
0.09867645055055618,
-0.6516050696372986,
-0.6966070532798767,
0.7727594971656799,
0.20593231916427612,
0.17102672159671783,
-0.13667432963848114,
-0.03493089973926544,
0.4725275933742523,
0.12972375750541687,
0.5280211567878723,
-0.45758572220802307,
-0.0033373795449733734,
0.20860742032527924,
-0.5490407943725586,
-0.07366980612277985,
-0.2720751166343689,
0.01829640008509159,
0.08144592493772507,
-0.4129543900489807,
0.4894564747810364,
-0.19271762669086456,
0.23696842789649963,
0.2718149721622467,
0.24543635547161102,
0.8296362161636353,
-0.08397256582975388,
0.3036474585533142,
-0.004942798521369696,
-1.1190060377120972,
-0.22859802842140198,
-0.0031292345374822617,
0.3501737713813782,
-0.2800334393978119,
0.4089045822620392,
-0.6756293773651123,
0.1386181116104126,
-0.6586082577705383,
-0.03581910952925682,
-0.5339675545692444,
0.38778629899024963,
-0.022805163636803627,
-0.27238568663597107,
0.13005267083644867,
0.3761509656906128,
0.6290801167488098,
-0.27813151478767395,
-0.3847506642341614,
-0.2297331839799881,
0.01634320244193077,
-0.3103629946708679,
0.5540733337402344,
-0.1991286277770996,
-0.22911681234836578,
-0.5636501908302307,
-0.3099800646305084,
0.4471110701560974,
0.046938877552747726,
-0.0047256555408239365,
-0.1669975072145462,
0.007926149293780327,
-0.18088197708129883,
0.18125878274440765,
0.02946201153099537,
-0.12263163924217224,
0.24255609512329102,
0.05728842318058014,
-0.5858193635940552,
-0.11887718737125397,
-0.04779987037181854,
0.6250185966491699,
-0.22441786527633667,
-0.3006775677204132,
0.5601087808609009,
0.021225731819868088,
-0.4063534438610077,
-0.41764718294143677,
-0.5131282210350037,
-0.22985172271728516,
-0.6490992903709412,
-0.19477665424346924,
0.9515219926834106,
-0.5027017593383789,
0.18107320368289948,
-0.47642359137535095,
0.07419231534004211,
0.11495844274759293,
-0.5371774435043335,
0.5251345038414001,
0.4721377193927765,
0.30713754892349243,
0.2218027412891388,
-0.640029788017273,
-0.584175169467926,
0.32268989086151123,
0.7252070307731628,
-0.3311878740787506,
-0.4436272978782654,
0.4495217204093933,
-0.3668587803840637,
-1.4263333082199097,
0.18907538056373596,
0.03528478741645813,
0.6339157223701477,
0.5959838628768921,
-0.39341017603874207,
-0.3409068286418915,
0.5270140171051025,
-5.311987400054932,
-0.2604875862598419,
-0.10935939848423004,
-0.2744465470314026,
0.06578407436609268,
1.043392300605774,
-0.03200369328260422,
0.0803799107670784,
0.0993647426366806,
-0.050571925938129425,
0.5294250249862671,
-0.21182017028331757,
-0.23232926428318024,
1.2171320915222168,
0.47989875078201294,
0.33297955989837646,
0.18393418192863464,
0.19589325785636902,
-0.1505991369485855,
0.022259598597884178,
0.14502830803394318,
-0.0049507454968988895,
-0.09184804558753967,
1.033858299255371,
0.14366349577903748,
0.11441422998905182,
-0.19571298360824585,
0.18230390548706055,
-0.7124401926994324,
-0.31500953435897827,
0.2313830703496933,
-0.456511914730072,
0.21613122522830963,
0.5898647904396057,
0.07026650756597519,
0.025016963481903076,
0.040993582457304,
0.43178874254226685,
-0.26319414377212524,
0.15159469842910767,
-0.5543522238731384,
-0.17555934190750122,
-0.9546802639961243,
0.04314882308244705,
-0.30606409907341003,
-0.3355722725391388,
-0.0835164487361908,
-0.03327706828713417,
-0.634480893611908,
0.3552704155445099,
0.07803239673376083,
-0.3049098253250122,
-0.006698564160615206,
0.10735665261745453,
0.17163126170635223,
0.16318745911121368,
0.3505397140979767,
-0.14745426177978516,
-0.38860777020454407,
0.06424014270305634,
0.47769924998283386,
-0.29794079065322876,
-0.1762322634458542,
-0.27713677287101746,
-0.556396484375,
-0.24285398423671722,
-0.015342206694185734,
-0.3545685112476349,
-0.5161045789718628,
-0.06308429688215256,
-0.8935098052024841,
1.1137404441833496,
0.047811321914196014,
-0.9971765279769897,
-0.1483207792043686,
-0.09430388361215591,
-0.4049554765224457,
-0.20862416923046112,
-0.27784788608551025,
0.12436405569314957,
-0.3328394591808319,
-0.6293240189552307,
0.015607929788529873,
1.2231242656707764,
0.9351338148117065,
0.8152649402618408,
-0.36838340759277344,
-0.21275924146175385,
-0.06576838344335556,
-0.3436591327190399,
0.3489643633365631,
-0.37908557057380676,
0.22840555012226105,
0.49291476607322693,
-0.339102566242218,
0.9620472192764282,
-0.7182355523109436,
0.01889035291969776,
1.0439568758010864,
0.7969685196876526,
0.02654382400214672,
0.19709007441997528,
0.09076695889234543,
0.40972232818603516,
0.6782104969024658,
-0.37131163477897644,
-0.07492062449455261,
0.05243512988090515,
0.953946053981781,
-0.04219471663236618,
0.03242440149188042,
0.5712396502494812,
-0.06153317540884018,
-0.1414991319179535,
-0.16918295621871948,
-0.48897963762283325,
0.11238668113946915,
0.5001435875892639,
0.7897928953170776,
0.22955068945884705,
-0.4346887469291687,
0.2680289149284363,
0.17971907556056976,
-0.6051498055458069,
-0.013718828558921814,
-0.5043449401855469,
-0.015979310497641563,
-0.2353399246931076,
-0.4777606427669525,
-0.05672066658735275,
0.1905815452337265,
0.5095261335372925,
0.5397468209266663,
0.40211930871009827,
0.47364023327827454,
-0.18345355987548828,
0.08018102496862411,
-0.901043176651001,
-0.38666242361068726,
-0.05768083408474922,
0.07194451987743378,
-0.18141943216323853,
-0.0966644287109375,
0.7747915983200073,
0.45173051953315735,
-0.3310870826244354,
0.1698211431503296,
-0.012866433709859848,
-0.654043436050415,
0.9191498756408691,
-0.0031139745842665434,
-0.14315520226955414,
1.4052767753601074,
0.2091393917798996,
-0.10171198844909668,
0.004327373579144478,
-0.10775573551654816,
0.5774831771850586,
-0.08912069350481033,
0.40571728348731995,
-0.047870006412267685,
-0.40315794944763184,
-0.5987499356269836,
-0.5093865394592285,
-0.017020944505929947,
0.3462649881839752,
-0.8160057663917542,
-0.4161125421524048,
0.06707360595464706,
0.41808971762657166,
0.19155281782150269,
-0.5389134287834167,
-0.10470104962587357,
0.27623867988586426,
0.28074175119400024,
-0.2335674911737442,
0.003776122350245714,
0.34750786423683167,
-0.26858434081077576,
0.06417916715145111,
0.06868816167116165,
-0.5180627107620239,
-0.636693000793457,
0.16734053194522858,
0.6550219655036926,
0.22084295749664307,
-0.565213680267334,
-0.3827911615371704,
-0.5636065602302551,
0.16735157370567322,
-0.21545375883579254,
-0.18842746317386627,
0.04205057770013809,
0.5528212189674377,
0.17543740570545197,
-0.3032383620738983,
0.3255035877227783,
-0.019646847620606422,
0.013483120128512383,
-0.363143652677536,
0.04426046088337898,
0.27748504281044006,
-0.4091583490371704,
-0.12429670989513397,
0.3363393247127533,
-0.7855737805366516,
0.20775316655635834,
-0.42041921615600586,
0.24415339529514313,
0.7336832880973816,
-0.6061765551567078,
-0.3139941096305847,
-0.22385233640670776,
0.13757529854774475,
-0.44513043761253357,
0.2576914429664612,
0.37292081117630005,
-0.6964617967605591,
-0.3604024052619934,
-0.27876710891723633,
-0.2646039128303528,
0.16266822814941406,
-0.42570361495018005,
-0.32381999492645264,
-0.08344998210668564,
-0.21589741110801697,
0.353512704372406,
-0.2874586582183838,
0.3264378011226654,
-0.18778185546398163,
0.2989463806152344,
-0.4729576110839844,
-0.256354957818985,
-0.08438117802143097,
-0.07160890102386475,
-0.4869486093521118,
0.47430619597435,
0.5914549231529236,
-0.20227183401584625,
-0.081461101770401,
0.28977078199386597,
0.6190492510795593,
0.3863627016544342,
0.09050411731004715,
-0.26726794242858887,
0.06273806095123291,
0.8920684456825256,
0.07066651433706284,
-0.37215596437454224,
0.020655926316976547,
0.38951733708381653,
-0.0688774436712265,
-0.6583766341209412,
-1.257982850074768,
0.6127181053161621,
-0.28196385502815247,
0.05627503991127014,
0.32335010170936584,
0.01194227859377861,
0.014337590895593166,
0.5525261759757996,
0.2034488469362259,
-0.21980415284633636,
-0.4516865313053131,
-0.08465342223644257,
0.22655360400676727,
0.06174047291278839,
-0.06397362053394318,
0.005831753835082054,
-0.43955543637275696,
-0.40303710103034973,
-0.4722641110420227,
-0.1253710240125656,
0.060398802161216736,
-0.08092433959245682,
0.4398058354854584,
0.18833571672439575,
-0.17222225666046143,
0.5999459028244019,
0.07160856574773788,
-0.9300695657730103,
0.3434765338897705,
-0.41900113224983215,
-0.43114233016967773,
-0.04142197221517563,
-0.7829563021659851,
-0.37556442618370056,
0.1596767157316208,
-0.04186543449759483,
0.5116272568702698,
-0.6869264245033264,
0.22679507732391357,
0.039598334580659866,
0.1999613642692566,
0.23781822621822357,
0.41388967633247375,
-0.14022737741470337,
0.09250999242067337,
-0.32146090269088745,
-0.20283108949661255,
-0.12901906669139862,
0.39145681262016296,
0.8705831170082092,
-0.12271018326282501,
0.625156581401825,
0.6382948756217957,
-0.21003982424736023,
-0.3954296410083771,
-0.5413504242897034,
0.37406831979751587,
0.5168156623840332,
0.07623495906591415,
0.20800259709358215,
0.36289751529693604,
-0.09805873781442642,
-0.09003856778144836,
1.00716233253479,
-0.14472663402557373,
-0.13320839405059814,
0.1944081038236618,
-0.03137259930372238,
0.24198400974273682,
0.6371406316757202,
-0.7974019646644592,
-0.23294802010059357,
0.1639298051595688,
0.03529645875096321,
0.29672351479530334,
-0.38865262269973755,
0.364833801984787,
0.2001708298921585,
-0.06941945850849152,
-0.10148254781961441,
0.6212924122810364,
0.00609213812276721,
-0.110801562666893,
0.2955772578716278,
-0.46591833233833313,
-0.3031546473503113,
0.44309139251708984,
0.015514570288360119,
0.37420958280563354,
-0.14800915122032166,
-0.045648857951164246,
-0.19964522123336792,
0.5380570888519287,
-0.485313355922699,
-0.01049328688532114,
-0.26275062561035156,
0.14287348091602325,
0.704770028591156,
0.4106239676475525,
-0.3513525426387787,
-0.6859599351882935,
-0.03709101304411888,
0.1418752819299698,
0.5320694446563721,
-0.31206828355789185,
-0.07700006663799286,
0.5354313850402832,
0.7099149823188782,
0.007725674193352461,
0.7562031745910645,
-0.5612264275550842,
-0.39995551109313965,
0.47449299693107605,
-0.12031847983598709,
-0.5980328917503357,
0.2992430329322815,
-0.33545544743537903,
-0.05131760612130165,
-0.26873326301574707,
-0.4201846420764923,
0.05006992071866989,
0.4197312891483307,
-0.4556916654109955,
1.1724858283996582,
0.2294304519891739,
0.20382070541381836,
0.20463046431541443,
-0.6912753582000732,
-0.27016952633857727,
-0.16670793294906616,
0.1834379881620407,
0.3322613537311554,
-0.06946570426225662,
0.2799375653266907,
0.06063973903656006,
-0.10985926538705826,
-0.21438562870025635,
-0.07701796293258667,
-0.48804646730422974,
0.176529660820961,
0.04842720925807953,
-0.8876062631607056,
-0.1724596917629242,
-0.47148293256759644,
1.0600640773773193,
-0.3723575174808502,
-0.5392218828201294,
0.09863922744989395,
-0.25534459948539734,
0.18498247861862183,
-0.35492613911628723,
-0.2654183804988861,
-0.12521520256996155,
-0.49346545338630676,
0.16130603849887848,
-0.39307665824890137,
0.3310389518737793,
0.1359996497631073,
0.3646366000175476,
-0.4008600115776062,
0.07258126139640808,
-0.05342353507876396,
-0.18655671179294586,
0.41201698780059814,
-0.3380098044872284,
-0.3239712715148926,
-0.32676830887794495,
0.4669507145881653,
-0.22127996385097504,
0.06497866660356522,
0.011213698424398899,
-0.8401734828948975,
0.2211287021636963,
0.15047746896743774,
0.28987666964530945,
-0.24401037395000458,
0.15118493139743805,
0.015372971072793007,
-0.02821045182645321,
-1.0662345886230469,
-0.17299900949001312,
0.05900183692574501,
-0.5857972502708435,
0.4773983657360077,
0.35943838953971863,
0.15491752326488495,
-0.6324771046638489,
0.4073685109615326,
0.19510392844676971,
0.4485933184623718,
0.32094112038612366,
0.3795609772205353,
0.3620808720588684,
-0.7566491365432739,
0.04153899848461151,
0.007816655561327934,
0.2922961115837097,
0.3254724144935608,
0.4081229269504547,
0.28629234433174133,
-0.8483039140701294,
0.17683711647987366,
0.15398362278938293,
0.008876094594597816,
-0.8035657405853271,
1.0602213144302368,
0.0557762086391449
] |
200324
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20William%20Donaldson
|
John William Donaldson
|
John William Donaldson (7 June 1811 – 10 February 1861) was an English academic and writer in Greek classics, a philologist and a biblical critic.
He was born in London, and was educated at University College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he subsequently became a fellow. In 1841 he was elected headmaster of King Edward's School, Bury St Edmunds, but, "spectacularly unsuccessful", in 1855 he resigned his post and returned to Cambridge, where his time was divided between literary work and private tuition.
He is remembered as a pioneer of philology in the UK, though much of his work is now obsolete. The New Cratylus (1839), the book on which his fame mainly rests, was an attempt to apply to Greek the principles of comparative philology. The same year he was ordained deacon and in 1849 was graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge as a Doctor of Divinity. It was founded mainly on the comparative grammar of Franz Bopp, but a large part of it was original, Bopp's grammar not being completed ten years after the first edition of the Cratylus. In Donaldson's Varronianus (1844) the same method was applied to Latin, Umbrian and Oscan. He began a Greek dictionary, which was to have been the great work of his life and which he left unfinished apparently dying of mental stress of overwork, simultaneously being a tutor at Cambridge University and examiner at the University of London. When advised to take six months' rest he replied that this would cost him £1500. He spent his final four weeks moved to London however unable to conduct the students' examinations in his role as examiner.
Personal life and headmastership
Donaldson lost his fellowship in 1840 on his marriage to Eleanor Leathes Mortlock, nicknamed "Laetitia", daughter of Sir John Cheetham Mortlock, banker at Cambridge. With Laetitia, Donaldson had two sons and two daughters. His first wife predeceased him, and he went on to marry Louisa, daughter of John Rawlins; they had three daughters. After taking pupils for a time at Winfrith in Dorset, in 1841 Donaldson was appointed headmaster of King Edward's School, Bury St Edmunds, an appointment unfortunate for the institution and for himself. He was deficient in judgement and administrative power, and the school declined under him, notwithstanding his efforts to obtain reputation by the publication of Latin and Greek grammars, which met with little acceptance beyond the sphere of his personal influence and involved him in controversy. They were probably too scientific for school use, and his conviction of the defects of standard grammars had been expressed with indiscreet candour. He was active in the cultural life of Bury St Edmunds, where he greatly improved the Athenaeum.
Book of Jashar
Donaldson resigned the headmastership in 1855 partly on account of the outcry caused by the publication of Jashar; [subtitled:] fragmenta archetypa carminum Hebraicorum; collegit, ordinavit, restituit J. G. Donaldson at the end of 1854. In this extraordinary work he endeavoured to show that fragments of a book of Jashar are to be found throughout the Old Testament scriptures up to the time of Solomon, that the book was compiled in the reign of that monarch, and that its remains constitute ‘the religious marrow of the scriptures’. The work was heavily criticized and Donaldson's religious orthodoxy was questioned. Although he defended his position in a vigorous pamphlet, he failed to convince his critics.
His Jashar (1854), written in Latin as an appeal to the learned world and especially to German theologians, was an attempt to reconstitute the lost biblical book of Jashar from the remains of old songs and historical records, which, according to the author, are incorporated in the existing text of the Old Testament. His bold views on the nature of inspiration, and his free handling of the sacred text, aroused the anger of the theologians and Donaldson's religious orthodoxy was questioned.
Of his many other works, most important are:
The Theatre of the Greeks; The History of the Literature of Ancient Greece (a translation and completion of Karl Otfried Müller's unfinished work) with P.W. Buckham
The Odes of Pindar (his edition)
Antigone of Sophocles (his edition)
A Hebrew, a Greek and a Latin grammar.
References
1811 births
1861 deaths
Academics from London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
English philologists
|
[
0.22607757151126862,
0.9704380035400391,
-1.2592769861221313,
-0.7689012289047241,
0.17702531814575195,
0.821991503238678,
0.899358868598938,
0.10902249068021774,
0.25014275312423706,
-0.42639556527137756,
-0.7476180791854858,
-0.28656455874443054,
-0.5943371653556824,
0.42777004837989807,
0.3558483421802521,
0.37738165259361267,
0.19242481887340546,
-0.3300212621688843,
-0.45820435881614685,
-0.45655444264411926,
0.12491752952337265,
-0.17606891691684723,
0.46067455410957336,
0.13548770546913147,
-0.22570809721946716,
-0.10831931978464127,
0.27769720554351807,
-0.6002220511436462,
-0.21194618940353394,
-0.042753566056489944,
0.21240606904029846,
0.4902939796447754,
0.25045064091682434,
0.04838980734348297,
-0.5399146676063538,
0.3474694788455963,
-0.03626231104135513,
0.1065962165594101,
0.18743577599525452,
0.03306535258889198,
0.01978333480656147,
-0.2522818148136139,
0.5474298596382141,
0.34444817900657654,
-0.1420074850320816,
-0.1830781102180481,
-1.6871920824050903,
0.31776687502861023,
-0.7780740261077881,
-0.6893963813781738,
0.7258235216140747,
-0.02271023392677307,
0.9499127268791199,
0.12502408027648926,
-0.8600461483001709,
0.7604983448982239,
-0.7744206786155701,
-0.32571735978126526,
0.43047553300857544,
-0.3957740366458893,
0.3104783296585083,
0.41225066781044006,
0.2726956307888031,
-0.11310267448425293,
0.508131742477417,
0.03812508285045624,
-1.1728968620300293,
0.5480166077613831,
-0.8894562721252441,
-0.40287914872169495,
-0.014612201601266861,
0.2100459486246109,
-0.32653990387916565,
0.8602636456489563,
0.4671585261821747,
-0.10696196556091309,
-0.005077010951936245,
0.4705333411693573,
0.15905128419399261,
0.21690204739570618,
-0.17880994081497192,
0.5677260756492615,
0.6906477808952332,
0.6671484112739563,
0.0321180634200573,
0.2843458354473114,
-0.04307171329855919,
0.40274497866630554,
-0.11282452940940857,
-0.19430537521839142,
0.41010913252830505,
-0.2934304177761078,
0.07118753343820572,
-0.1183047741651535,
0.19985829293727875,
0.529617965221405,
-0.14601309597492218,
0.5641441345214844,
-0.6536891460418701,
-0.37067484855651855,
-0.47300732135772705,
0.014973917044699192,
0.42502331733703613,
0.15621121227741241,
-0.4221639633178711,
0.2128751128911972,
-0.38430169224739075,
-0.15084348618984222,
0.1783541589975357,
0.36246150732040405,
-0.7232709527015686,
0.2765292823314667,
-0.07036631554365158,
0.12639513611793518,
-0.09486116468906403,
-0.20286491513252258,
0.29167070984840393,
-0.7574883699417114,
-0.817085862159729,
-0.3313623070716858,
-0.32287099957466125,
0.21786288917064667,
0.008785641752183437,
0.2155393362045288,
-0.9497460722923279,
-0.4853177070617676,
0.2736898958683014,
0.4866429269313812,
-0.28081536293029785,
0.25619837641716003,
0.5747733116149902,
1.453124761581421,
0.17999692261219025,
-0.2096489518880844,
-0.6168422102928162,
-0.3882395029067993,
0.28546929359436035,
-0.27674058079719543,
-0.42731329798698425,
0.2424030900001526,
-0.37664490938186646,
-0.08556964993476868,
-0.4818609058856964,
-0.2472616732120514,
-0.11813629418611526,
-0.08793178200721741,
0.028145285323262215,
-0.09417951852083206,
0.15767328441143036,
0.07802785187959671,
0.1867102086544037,
0.28443068265914917,
-0.08383703231811523,
-0.11896713823080063,
-0.13572263717651367,
0.18433304131031036,
0.6680420637130737,
0.33386099338531494,
-0.421362042427063,
0.10426720976829529,
-0.3879702389240265,
-0.4903689920902252,
0.07531241327524185,
-0.4914058446884155,
0.48456162214279175,
-0.32793599367141724,
0.4334896504878998,
-0.5887171030044556,
-0.40448740124702454,
-0.19763018190860748,
-0.03479095548391342,
-0.31346213817596436,
0.44625580310821533,
0.04656590148806572,
-0.2057972252368927,
0.19623149931430817,
0.43400657176971436,
0.6494321823120117,
0.5818172693252563,
-0.7419427037239075,
-0.9489235281944275,
-0.19426816701889038,
0.03368167579174042,
-0.40010297298431396,
0.8275155425071716,
0.4917784631252289,
0.7492523789405823,
0.03242606669664383,
-0.05281190946698189,
-0.026978546753525734,
-0.8269824385643005,
-1.0654569864273071,
-0.41344839334487915,
-0.2070351541042328,
1.1930574178695679,
0.1488650143146515,
-0.4087757170200348,
0.5409049391746521,
0.40764641761779785,
1.1329059600830078,
-0.2675461769104004,
0.11500023305416107,
-0.2831666171550751,
-0.3738934099674225,
-0.023076212033629417,
0.607103705406189,
0.3903825581073761,
0.16980841755867004,
0.12785062193870544,
0.42677217721939087,
0.3676843047142029,
-0.11955925822257996,
0.09419911354780197,
0.5313127040863037,
-0.7384774684906006,
-0.5992687344551086,
-0.29002079367637634,
-0.38791602849960327,
0.1286509484052658,
-0.30885547399520874,
0.07396312057971954,
0.002001892775297165,
0.25519734621047974,
0.4941827058792114,
-0.43511486053466797,
0.5782329440116882,
-0.1610056459903717,
0.22583460807800293,
-0.30838119983673096,
-0.6561392545700073,
-0.5037482380867004,
0.3289395868778229,
0.19995951652526855,
-0.4279278814792633,
0.17403103411197662,
-0.6373377442359924,
-0.35443487763404846,
-0.3824068307876587,
-0.1761641949415207,
-0.02330617792904377,
0.5195086002349854,
0.13045498728752136,
-0.516034722328186,
0.3451074957847595,
-0.26395416259765625,
0.640879213809967,
-0.27476435899734497,
-0.3010360300540924,
0.2405531257390976,
0.37792783975601196,
0.33811283111572266,
0.3766886591911316,
0.4269827604293823,
0.39281946420669556,
0.053291015326976776,
0.32383641600608826,
0.5533044934272766,
0.20924411714076996,
0.5231844782829285,
-0.04433916136622429,
-0.34895753860473633,
0.14000257849693298,
-0.07987523078918457,
-0.26981791853904724,
-0.30222082138061523,
-0.35499873757362366,
0.41489115357398987,
-0.49385902285575867,
-0.13750214874744415,
-0.30855250358581543,
0.3888035714626312,
-0.07936666905879974,
-0.15100306272506714,
1.135330080986023,
0.10861516743898392,
-0.04744557663798332,
0.31999534368515015,
-0.45204854011535645,
-0.5623758435249329,
-0.5641918182373047,
-0.10350216180086136,
0.8104817867279053,
-0.29105037450790405,
0.13323484361171722,
-0.5816171765327454,
-0.04217670112848282,
0.1501285880804062,
-0.6545044779777527,
0.5896345973014832,
0.006884830072522163,
-0.00587421702221036,
0.49366694688796997,
0.15222400426864624,
-0.6702793836593628,
0.041875578463077545,
0.4629579782485962,
-0.05764961242675781,
-0.8020004630088806,
-0.2698310911655426,
-0.2157115489244461,
-0.9153926372528076,
-0.23843486607074738,
0.2079532891511917,
0.8661828637123108,
0.5511319637298584,
0.2483190894126892,
-0.27475711703300476,
0.49686378240585327,
-5.091739654541016,
-0.12318886071443558,
-0.04537336528301239,
-0.05947814881801605,
0.6507812738418579,
0.43626490235328674,
0.3072006404399872,
-0.6476496458053589,
-0.1820133626461029,
-0.271747350692749,
0.3416125476360321,
-0.14001497626304626,
-0.16658079624176025,
0.4453294575214386,
1.024707317352295,
-0.05491743981838226,
0.4092330038547516,
0.21518990397453308,
0.03373156860470772,
0.822029173374176,
0.597724199295044,
0.23103049397468567,
0.019479386508464813,
0.38738611340522766,
0.20423798263072968,
0.3583115041255951,
-0.09215208888053894,
0.6592934131622314,
-0.5513092875480652,
-0.30240345001220703,
0.2519975006580353,
-0.09749224781990051,
0.18894799053668976,
-0.29427096247673035,
-0.23836734890937805,
0.24394500255584717,
0.10550498962402344,
0.9567396640777588,
0.07659687101840973,
0.38834646344184875,
-0.07031631469726562,
-0.7599554657936096,
-0.5848182439804077,
-0.20338666439056396,
-0.5203685760498047,
-0.7862032651901245,
-0.6662728190422058,
0.001105369534343481,
-0.02377018705010414,
0.2868630290031433,
-0.32387658953666687,
0.3556891977787018,
-0.011940079741179943,
-0.15713590383529663,
-0.4382975101470947,
0.24475041031837463,
0.32076770067214966,
-0.41511619091033936,
-0.6790489554405212,
-0.2888505458831787,
0.7270550727844238,
-0.3833269476890564,
0.13928458094596863,
0.11910620331764221,
-0.11936275660991669,
-0.5494707822799683,
0.21612203121185303,
-0.0005955527885816991,
-0.08685775101184845,
0.038427118211984634,
-0.3463325798511505,
1.2802627086639404,
0.15444044768810272,
-1.0194183588027954,
-0.7349267601966858,
-0.27233004570007324,
-0.1833597868680954,
-0.35696181654930115,
-0.8176583647727966,
0.15168222784996033,
-0.21917571127414703,
-0.6867598295211792,
0.2892421782016754,
1.4886831045150757,
0.4893392324447632,
0.057665735483169556,
-0.700600266456604,
0.14915822446346283,
-0.6077673435211182,
-0.6690690517425537,
-0.3916110098361969,
-0.5623968839645386,
-0.3070009648799896,
0.6458612680435181,
0.26733270287513733,
0.39004334807395935,
-0.18261507153511047,
0.4593952000141144,
0.7328635454177856,
0.43776464462280273,
-0.04937249794602394,
0.06891848891973495,
0.48382288217544556,
0.1776028871536255,
0.2545388340950012,
-0.7042194604873657,
-0.4344853162765503,
0.8556333780288696,
-0.1514652967453003,
0.5562676787376404,
0.2724786698818207,
0.21750269830226898,
-0.009372624568641186,
0.6963520050048828,
-0.6691926121711731,
-0.1879446655511856,
0.3613834083080292,
0.4448322355747223,
0.572481095790863,
0.5441598892211914,
-0.575516939163208,
0.23029349744319916,
-0.5234415531158447,
-0.446967750787735,
-0.6084887385368347,
-0.5004517436027527,
0.16372619569301605,
-0.5786140561103821,
-0.7348974347114563,
-0.2254035770893097,
0.22139357030391693,
0.27549171447753906,
0.7141008973121643,
0.36832404136657715,
0.0796075314283371,
-0.10511525720357895,
-0.5275824069976807,
-0.4604988694190979,
-0.17740924656391144,
0.2277035117149353,
-0.10430614650249481,
-0.11040456593036652,
-0.09228329360485077,
0.1712229996919632,
0.5202556848526001,
-0.07530984282493591,
-0.03598950430750847,
-0.04796074330806732,
-0.29082322120666504,
0.36226126551628113,
-0.09725039452314377,
-0.18568317592144012,
0.8688920736312866,
-0.34765028953552246,
0.3026188313961029,
-0.22634446620941162,
-0.3731304109096527,
0.6908984780311584,
0.014545084908604622,
-0.7084233164787292,
-0.5738418698310852,
-0.12903030216693878,
-0.6161077618598938,
-0.42027053236961365,
0.302708238363266,
0.35340070724487305,
-0.16914506256580353,
-0.27090027928352356,
-0.3701072931289673,
0.7311618328094482,
0.19275635480880737,
-0.27724960446357727,
-0.17523686587810516,
0.049653634428977966,
0.7513587474822998,
-0.11433039605617523,
0.11723609268665314,
-0.10019267350435257,
-0.2591051161289215,
-0.18841755390167236,
-0.19569788873195648,
-0.44160860776901245,
-0.2817472219467163,
0.04682371765375137,
1.1374590396881104,
0.3688475489616394,
-0.8342910408973694,
-0.8836134076118469,
-0.29999250173568726,
-0.26083818078041077,
-0.008419787511229515,
-0.5637224316596985,
0.30904534459114075,
1.0375027656555176,
-0.20902328193187714,
-0.290882408618927,
0.7388880848884583,
-0.4953763484954834,
0.3939262926578522,
-0.6945180296897888,
0.38326379656791687,
0.3641437292098999,
0.14135447144508362,
0.49375349283218384,
0.26513248682022095,
-1.1563466787338257,
-0.21213793754577637,
-0.38468021154403687,
-0.6464524269104004,
1.0769702196121216,
-0.1288338452577591,
-0.23100197315216064,
-0.06817641109228134,
0.5854238271713257,
-0.3839041590690613,
-0.278154194355011,
0.3976191282272339,
0.022161120548844337,
0.06732485443353653,
-0.6488103270530701,
-0.4719100594520569,
0.054950058460235596,
-0.43700551986694336,
-0.1643739491701126,
0.22979143261909485,
0.030473055317997932,
0.3115563690662384,
-0.31437820196151733,
0.7072441577911377,
-0.16321496665477753,
-0.023216940462589264,
-0.0427011214196682,
-0.17082779109477997,
0.5520910620689392,
0.22852636873722076,
-0.514034628868103,
0.4667288661003113,
0.46747130155563354,
-0.6032462120056152,
-0.4426542818546295,
0.17344698309898376,
0.6243241429328918,
0.6072516441345215,
-0.3580092489719391,
-0.10849298536777496,
0.12514916062355042,
0.5954285860061646,
-0.10292129963636398,
-0.28576862812042236,
0.1070505753159523,
0.08726438134908676,
-0.21435591578483582,
-0.6017898917198181,
-0.42996808886528015,
0.21115879714488983,
-0.3847087025642395,
-0.29434436559677124,
-0.2522846460342407,
0.030343929305672646,
0.08072185516357422,
0.7263548970222473,
-0.12455584108829498,
0.0006732601905241609,
0.4244444668292999,
0.12252157181501389,
0.4564317464828491,
0.5853689312934875,
-0.2725524306297302,
0.5583886504173279,
0.31917041540145874,
-0.7622979879379272,
-0.3396204113960266,
-0.41558635234832764,
0.5554253458976746,
0.02148417755961418,
0.3380427658557892,
0.47114336490631104,
-0.4949725568294525,
0.49763593077659607,
-0.056259870529174805,
-0.9871604442596436,
-0.019326359033584595,
0.017682228237390518,
-0.8370590209960938,
-0.1015251874923706,
-0.6984460949897766,
-0.2942340075969696,
0.34544676542282104,
-0.08840326964855194,
-0.19815635681152344,
-0.9059069752693176,
0.26563504338264465,
0.2518194913864136,
-0.4931109547615051,
-0.3026333153247833,
0.17566129565238953,
-0.7995373606681824,
-0.2380511611700058,
-0.041078120470047,
-0.9882232546806335,
-0.6365401148796082,
0.5158464312553406,
0.7535182237625122,
-0.21797887980937958,
0.5472641587257385,
0.16716408729553223,
-0.4952857494354248,
0.18312326073646545,
-0.4227399230003357,
0.13163979351520538,
0.8974454998970032,
-0.0017745005898177624,
0.2799654006958008,
0.4826742112636566,
-0.23281195759773254,
-0.1677425652742386,
0.410288006067276,
-0.4333319067955017,
-0.3140262961387634,
0.2952873408794403,
0.27821245789527893,
0.349930077791214,
0.945442259311676,
-0.5040334463119507,
-0.2905524671077728,
0.3712121248245239,
0.04489298164844513,
0.09522416442632675,
-0.6575660705566406,
0.2949587404727936,
-0.08110415190458298,
0.10626259446144104,
-0.7957414388656616,
0.8244624137878418,
-0.31901490688323975,
-0.24138964712619781,
-0.07264444231987,
-0.664889931678772,
-0.06471727043390274,
0.06632992625236511,
-0.06486936658620834,
0.6207712292671204,
0.06473647058010101,
0.4151492714881897,
-0.49506470561027527,
0.3247264623641968,
-0.4253186285495758,
-0.6579557657241821,
0.006731121800839901,
0.6402024030685425,
0.5348135232925415,
0.7725629210472107,
0.01548165362328291,
-0.4340691864490509,
0.35248446464538574,
0.10803385823965073,
0.7446958422660828,
-0.4262116849422455,
-0.4362926185131073,
0.28571832180023193,
0.16845664381980896,
0.3546033799648285,
0.40435200929641724,
-0.7379881739616394,
-0.23188285529613495,
0.09645933657884598,
0.20984897017478943,
-0.6201366186141968,
-0.5045461654663086,
0.36257994174957275,
0.2408076524734497,
-0.43078041076660156,
-0.2492399960756302,
0.23166482150554657,
0.8170091509819031,
-0.012670437805354595,
1.0276683568954468,
0.5039263367652893,
-0.1834917962551117,
0.13721251487731934,
-0.5248586535453796,
-0.2085467427968979,
-0.07210129499435425,
-0.3154308497905731,
0.31426504254341125,
-0.4371296167373657,
-0.014085421338677406,
0.09616632014513016,
-0.2813929319381714,
-0.6777955293655396,
0.37980157136917114,
-0.3791862726211548,
-0.5036017298698425,
0.015041152946650982,
-0.9793094992637634,
0.11487849056720734,
-0.26633429527282715,
1.2227256298065186,
0.050255801528692245,
-0.7931663990020752,
-0.14557166397571564,
-0.5403967499732971,
0.21901296079158783,
0.26182428002357483,
-0.16095973551273346,
0.05062907189130783,
0.0803290382027626,
0.8129199743270874,
-1.4183136224746704,
0.37696823477745056,
0.17249393463134766,
0.3651643693447113,
-0.5931113958358765,
0.364450603723526,
-0.15954691171646118,
-0.17350459098815918,
0.22455203533172607,
-0.22743244469165802,
-0.07836790382862091,
0.2816387116909027,
0.7291344404220581,
0.22564178705215454,
-0.1324172168970108,
0.07199808955192566,
-0.4266134202480316,
0.19229674339294434,
0.193088099360466,
0.19397619366645813,
-0.495932936668396,
0.4553273320198059,
-0.1003258228302002,
0.08188121765851974,
-0.5031952857971191,
-0.1693609207868576,
0.09421687573194504,
-0.5489636063575745,
0.20754070580005646,
0.2708750367164612,
-0.1401343047618866,
-0.7137073278427124,
0.33983591198921204,
0.1195949837565422,
-0.32753121852874756,
0.18563207983970642,
0.2105991095304489,
-0.03712691739201546,
-0.17077654600143433,
-0.11344970017671585,
0.14223304390907288,
0.7660890221595764,
0.30584198236465454,
0.02224692329764366,
-0.0889347642660141,
-0.5521584153175354,
0.45556673407554626,
-0.1655931919813156,
-0.17314720153808594,
-0.19167539477348328,
1.041793704032898,
0.048727307468652725
] |
200328
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano%20Sonata%20No.%2016%20%28Mozart%29
|
Piano Sonata No. 16 (Mozart)
|
The Piano Sonata No. 16 in C major, K. 545, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was described by Mozart in his own thematic catalogue as "for beginners", and it is sometimes known by the nickname Sonata facile or Sonata semplice.
Mozart added the work to his catalogue on June 26, 1788, the same date as his Symphony No. 39. The exact circumstances of the work's composition are not known. Although the piece is well known today, it was not published in Mozart's lifetime and first appeared in print in 1805. A typical performance takes about 11 minutes.
The music
The work has three movements:
I. Allegro
The first movement is written in sonata form and is in the key of C major. The familiar opening theme is accompanied by an Alberti bass, played in the left hand.
A bridge passage composed of scales follows, arriving at a cadence in G major, the key in which the second theme is then played. A codetta follows to conclude the exposition, then the exposition is repeated. The development starts in G minor and modulates through several keys. The recapitulation begins, unusually, in the subdominant key of F major. The Alberti bass that began as a C major triad at this point becomes an F major triad, followed by a left hand F major scale pattern which emulates the rhythm of the previous right hand A minor scale.
According to Charles Rosen, the practice of beginning a recapitulation in the subdominant was "rare at the time [the sonata] was written", though the practice was later taken up by Franz Schubert.
II. Andante
The second movement is in the key of G major, the dominant key of C major. The music modulates to the dominant key of D major, and then back to G major in which the exposition is heard again. For the development, the music modulates to G minor, then B major, then C minor, then G minor and finally back to G major, at which point the recapitulation occurs followed by a short coda.
III. Rondo: Allegretto
The third movement is in Rondo form and is in the tonic key, C major. The first theme is lively and sets the mood of the piece. The second theme is in G major and contains an Alberti bass in the left hand. The first theme appears again and is followed by a third theme. The third theme is in a minor key and modulates through many different keys before modulating into C major. The first theme appears again followed by a coda and finally ends in C major.
The finale was transposed to F major and combined with a solo piano arrangement of the second movement of the violin sonata in F major to form the posthumously compiled and thus spurious Piano Sonata in F major, K. 547a.
Other arrangements
In 1876–1877, Edvard Grieg arranged this sonata for two pianos, by adding further accompaniment on the second piano part, whilst the first piano part plays the original as Mozart wrote it. "In trying to 'impart to several of Mozart's sonatas a tonal effect appealing to our modern ears', Grieg left a telling little document or two on just what those late nineteenth-century Norwegian ears expected." One notable recording is that of Elisabeth Leonskaja accompanied by Sviatoslav Richter (1996).
The jazz musician Raymond Scott adapted the opening theme of the first movement for his piece "In An Eighteenth Century Drawing Room".
References
External links
(Alte Mozart-Ausgabe version)
Complete score available from the Mutopia Project
Piano Sonata 16
1788 compositions
Compositions in C major
Compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart published posthumously
|
[
-1.0766640901565552,
0.3139409124851227,
0.5970704555511475,
-0.4493315517902374,
-0.25367051362991333,
0.6365658044815063,
0.460392564535141,
-0.07641198486089706,
-0.8064000010490417,
-0.5469484925270081,
-0.20351360738277435,
-0.22130627930164337,
-0.18543630838394165,
0.7623878121376038,
0.3353048264980316,
0.40276989340782166,
0.33456242084503174,
-0.03777771443128586,
-0.19529099762439728,
-1.108038306236267,
0.38697701692581177,
0.07579012215137482,
0.5781176090240479,
-0.12390760332345963,
-0.2472512423992157,
-0.05187218636274338,
-0.09796818345785141,
0.28463634848594666,
0.44085612893104553,
-0.018407249823212624,
-0.43076664209365845,
0.550571858882904,
0.6509115099906921,
0.06877078860998154,
-0.13772787153720856,
0.08877228200435638,
0.23596690595149994,
-0.3018433153629303,
-0.009322033263742924,
-0.6008702516555786,
0.09088792651891708,
0.14039704203605652,
-0.06940526515245438,
0.3548329174518585,
0.34613674879074097,
-0.46141791343688965,
-1.9826407432556152,
0.40346330404281616,
-0.5469064712524414,
-0.3571903705596924,
0.21733404695987701,
0.4889456033706665,
1.2449628114700317,
0.9212663173675537,
-0.13205963373184204,
-0.05237344279885292,
-0.8127385973930359,
-0.22485196590423584,
0.4089256823062897,
-0.1965157687664032,
0.34491586685180664,
1.035161018371582,
0.15803542733192444,
0.09666445851325989,
-0.09940104931592941,
-0.14947940409183502,
-0.5511195063591003,
0.43880587816238403,
-0.01784295029938221,
0.14453887939453125,
-0.3940342664718628,
-0.01809963583946228,
0.4208090007305145,
0.3181646466255188,
0.2262955754995346,
-0.4966898262500763,
0.2679905891418457,
-0.16301481425762177,
0.19010984897613525,
0.4650527536869049,
0.13806498050689697,
0.3891579508781433,
1.012596607208252,
-0.09936460107564926,
0.12903964519500732,
0.18069131672382355,
-0.35335707664489746,
-0.1944027692079544,
-0.16960561275482178,
-0.4532833695411682,
-0.082672618329525,
-0.7271055579185486,
0.13692426681518555,
0.38798266649246216,
0.28898242115974426,
0.8702016472816467,
0.13540084660053253,
0.03959723562002182,
0.010447955690324306,
0.8591356873512268,
0.04639951139688492,
0.8438913226127625,
0.12284853309392929,
0.13167046010494232,
-0.5634932518005371,
-0.26613813638687134,
-0.40783601999282837,
-0.529413640499115,
0.10229060053825378,
-0.7619031667709351,
-0.5913047194480896,
-0.10854136943817139,
-0.0077559310011565685,
-0.3060559928417206,
-0.4047108292579651,
0.2528742849826813,
0.5287500023841858,
0.1902317851781845,
0.27963268756866455,
0.6773176789283752,
0.7535195350646973,
0.6573517918586731,
-0.0871795117855072,
0.37488704919815063,
-0.32239586114883423,
-0.073448546230793,
0.3105051815509796,
0.4771340787410736,
0.09358638525009155,
0.1948941946029663,
0.2527780532836914,
0.7116877436637878,
0.3145531415939331,
-0.08792354166507721,
-0.4224241375923157,
0.042350806295871735,
0.5205182433128357,
0.25710442662239075,
-0.6326645016670227,
-0.021706873551011086,
-0.751251220703125,
-0.9092166423797607,
-1.9691721200942993,
-0.16374731063842773,
0.33055612444877625,
0.24648497998714447,
-0.8808961510658264,
0.2574447989463806,
0.005140599329024553,
0.16566671431064606,
-0.02923162840306759,
-0.009256435558199883,
-0.7176446318626404,
0.25857841968536377,
-0.7472127676010132,
0.10317356139421463,
0.6765868663787842,
-0.12767980992794037,
0.5524181127548218,
0.3486137390136719,
-0.11417166143655777,
0.4168034791946411,
-0.4082425534725189,
-0.05813883617520332,
-0.07536661624908447,
-0.1857767552137375,
0.8632704019546509,
-0.022770917043089867,
-0.1417243331670761,
-0.42259401082992554,
-0.08578986674547195,
0.035540156066417694,
-0.126555934548378,
-0.8922414779663086,
0.00040173993329517543,
-0.4372592270374298,
0.272644966840744,
0.4819612503051758,
0.19068191945552826,
-0.4153353273868561,
-0.4990282356739044,
-0.46461188793182373,
0.31825801730155945,
-0.405641108751297,
0.16163648664951324,
0.9019871950149536,
-0.029329031705856323,
0.39769288897514343,
-0.012270701117813587,
-0.24621978402137756,
0.065790094435215,
-0.5676559805870056,
0.2209809124469757,
0.33392229676246643,
1.6858998537063599,
0.044980984181165695,
-0.7706149816513062,
-0.4348348379135132,
0.024427618831396103,
0.20675340294837952,
-0.02862142026424408,
-0.4078008830547333,
0.007315529976040125,
0.4821833670139313,
0.2758038640022278,
1.267115592956543,
-0.37806928157806396,
-0.01510489173233509,
0.0675879418849945,
0.5742843151092529,
0.8910129070281982,
-0.16576072573661804,
0.00020092596241738647,
-0.08691947162151337,
-0.36210310459136963,
-0.08864965289831161,
-0.04033060744404793,
0.1317281723022461,
-0.4975787401199341,
-0.16850456595420837,
0.8587371110916138,
0.38493043184280396,
0.3736184239387512,
0.7616490721702576,
-0.435955286026001,
0.9995664954185486,
-0.04354952648282051,
0.9674817323684692,
-0.7019897699356079,
0.025696659460663795,
0.1203131154179573,
0.4112771451473236,
-0.2511284053325653,
-0.03614891692996025,
0.109766885638237,
0.08213821053504944,
-0.2946365177631378,
-0.2208602875471115,
0.18678045272827148,
-0.42821669578552246,
0.5352121591567993,
0.12238895148038864,
-0.014114217832684517,
0.4686901867389679,
-0.4733284115791321,
0.00019970201537944376,
0.26802903413772583,
-0.17903532087802887,
-0.23348736763000488,
-0.12189536541700363,
-0.0759376510977745,
0.13795101642608643,
0.36154428124427795,
0.4653669595718384,
-0.026172494515776634,
0.20807164907455444,
-0.018650267273187637,
-0.9048380851745605,
-0.09976755082607269,
0.49281632900238037,
0.7050721645355225,
-0.08372252434492111,
0.521605908870697,
-0.47628650069236755,
-0.2220029979944229,
-0.4651409387588501,
0.07187378406524658,
-0.4209476411342621,
0.7802416086196899,
-0.046297796070575714,
-0.21212682127952576,
-0.18298618495464325,
-0.7740519046783447,
-1.283935308456421,
-0.028407569974660873,
0.4121548533439636,
-0.5940067172050476,
-0.24183343350887299,
-0.16333338618278503,
-0.07068152725696564,
0.08176031708717346,
0.3725651502609253,
0.09085453301668167,
0.23313716053962708,
-0.7584925889968872,
0.5990877151489258,
0.4321293532848358,
-0.04730892926454544,
0.42631271481513977,
-0.15125444531440735,
-0.13319461047649384,
0.39342236518859863,
-0.11975410580635071,
-0.5713150501251221,
0.65608149766922,
0.6387847661972046,
-0.03522511571645737,
-0.27998706698417664,
0.6287490725517273,
-0.3840194046497345,
-0.6715258955955505,
-0.09248357266187668,
-0.30628907680511475,
-0.2880515456199646,
-0.34713202714920044,
-0.5533576011657715,
-0.3211967349052429,
0.23977382481098175,
-5.031253814697266,
-0.497800350189209,
-0.6652905941009521,
0.1562294363975525,
-0.5683636665344238,
0.14495053887367249,
0.3465462028980255,
-0.8209424614906311,
-0.07670667767524719,
-0.08296597003936768,
0.2895973026752472,
-0.2518986463546753,
-0.4443875253200531,
0.8520839810371399,
-0.14059612154960632,
0.4095592796802521,
-0.004036831669509411,
0.3065105080604553,
0.5219707489013672,
0.28165295720100403,
0.40500137209892273,
0.10663654655218124,
-0.32430824637413025,
-0.33179205656051636,
0.5557305812835693,
0.3025311827659607,
-0.12927524745464325,
0.38483715057373047,
-0.5463125109672546,
-0.15001508593559265,
0.014256257563829422,
-0.29823029041290283,
-0.47305357456207275,
-0.2920089066028595,
-0.5028371810913086,
0.27054980397224426,
0.227948859333992,
0.451874315738678,
0.42777860164642334,
0.3211599886417389,
0.049422405660152435,
0.14376875758171082,
0.06685149669647217,
0.25938042998313904,
-0.017247578129172325,
-0.4798133075237274,
-0.8417947292327881,
0.09527197480201721,
-0.06533919274806976,
0.8314600586891174,
0.06313209980726242,
-0.1800839602947235,
0.7087176442146301,
-0.31950876116752625,
0.08511355519294739,
-0.3025020658969879,
0.10166332125663757,
-0.058146994560956955,
-0.008673375472426414,
0.26541951298713684,
0.2265474945306778,
-0.17798404395580292,
-0.08384344726800919,
-0.3382191061973572,
-0.6047913432121277,
-0.6002577543258667,
-0.32624509930610657,
0.09534657746553421,
0.3316933810710907,
0.6155605912208557,
0.13555099070072174,
0.9228470921516418,
-0.27723222970962524,
-0.9611828923225403,
0.04093530401587486,
0.14393405616283417,
-0.5682080984115601,
-0.4533436894416809,
-0.32762566208839417,
0.4753146469593048,
-0.15542587637901306,
0.09862609952688217,
-0.44737353920936584,
0.6492112874984741,
0.4910616874694824,
0.2900775074958801,
-0.18208825588226318,
0.6343666315078735,
-0.5048127174377441,
0.09063530713319778,
0.1570662558078766,
-0.3861316442489624,
-0.5900797843933105,
-0.08179772645235062,
-0.10910450667142868,
0.3558090031147003,
0.4551962912082672,
-0.17285926640033722,
0.17231710255146027,
-0.11492477357387543,
0.49831730127334595,
-0.328256756067276,
-0.2689535915851593,
-0.28073492646217346,
-0.303964763879776,
-0.43410685658454895,
-0.633484423160553,
-0.07887184619903564,
0.9416821599006653,
0.5873712301254272,
0.15048208832740784,
-0.6913177967071533,
-0.015767814591526985,
-0.35021576285362244,
0.5706315040588379,
-0.7474434971809387,
-0.03925582766532898,
0.6246878504753113,
0.010877236723899841,
-0.3946603834629059,
0.235056534409523,
-0.10184240341186523,
0.1970270276069641,
-0.8063797950744629,
-1.1177644729614258,
0.3744785189628601,
-0.07106572389602661,
0.06584691256284714,
-0.8879731893539429,
-0.026190487667918205,
-0.27677133679389954,
0.711552619934082,
-0.46807175874710083,
0.2563653290271759,
0.05265359207987785,
-0.24713122844696045,
-0.2833872139453888,
0.25314056873321533,
0.3665200173854828,
-0.9420925378799438,
0.16435250639915466,
-0.6436496376991272,
-0.8822047114372253,
0.15558843314647675,
-0.02799893729388714,
0.17196431756019592,
0.4914359748363495,
-0.41330233216285706,
-0.8774605393409729,
0.324788898229599,
0.07770348340272903,
-0.8178608417510986,
1.4219094514846802,
0.1343042552471161,
-0.06412540376186371,
0.00791834108531475,
0.16021741926670074,
0.4032469689846039,
0.2899174988269806,
0.12215325981378555,
0.3351396322250366,
-0.13097992539405823,
-0.7100509405136108,
-0.05208773910999298,
0.16703683137893677,
0.344489723443985,
-0.47508594393730164,
-0.3687765598297119,
0.1669786423444748,
0.9304889440536499,
0.27582794427871704,
-0.5386586785316467,
0.053176458925008774,
-0.17078885436058044,
0.5349262952804565,
-0.11006959527730942,
0.3768606185913086,
-0.2547001242637634,
-0.12525835633277893,
-0.23302218317985535,
0.17282895743846893,
-0.5589061975479126,
-0.3806764781475067,
0.5649769902229309,
0.13861031830310822,
0.2081272453069687,
-0.4113237261772156,
-0.19588416814804077,
-0.15792794525623322,
-0.28033962845802307,
-0.5431457757949829,
0.07514770328998566,
0.6458656787872314,
-0.2110532969236374,
-0.3242087662220001,
-0.47993767261505127,
0.42606252431869507,
0.15162837505340576,
-0.2522192895412445,
-0.7554907202720642,
0.525388240814209,
0.2413594126701355,
-0.4226914644241333,
0.24045319855213165,
0.39483603835105896,
-0.6667513251304626,
0.46214255690574646,
-0.20260721445083618,
-0.6271949410438538,
0.7683274745941162,
0.14879019558429718,
-0.9647383689880371,
-0.15005584061145782,
0.14438632130622864,
-0.4800047278404236,
0.2786582410335541,
0.2701404094696045,
0.04958526790142059,
-0.7209841012954712,
0.13903748989105225,
-0.3863324522972107,
-0.24954618513584137,
-0.8129397034645081,
-0.09478709846735,
-0.692997932434082,
-0.03400838002562523,
0.010826868005096912,
-0.1829315423965454,
0.24312619864940643,
-0.40881869196891785,
-0.3248559236526489,
-0.17048248648643494,
0.03625864163041115,
0.28075677156448364,
0.36104899644851685,
-0.274221807718277,
-0.35616812109947205,
0.10082569718360901,
0.1783158928155899,
0.6762919425964355,
0.6074647903442383,
0.3021402359008789,
0.3170698583126068,
-0.24070300161838531,
0.04751591011881828,
-0.113384909927845,
0.4139784276485443,
-0.22371041774749756,
-0.2349105328321457,
0.2631639540195465,
0.17804844677448273,
-0.19836817681789398,
-0.5129929184913635,
-0.7707344889640808,
0.9556187987327576,
-0.04458045959472656,
-0.3931572735309601,
0.055529963225126266,
0.21001507341861725,
0.32872477173805237,
0.3320237994194031,
0.6266685128211975,
-0.18345312774181366,
-0.04250696301460266,
0.23205289244651794,
0.15736548602581024,
0.22184857726097107,
-0.012393530458211899,
-0.08580922335386276,
0.39133527874946594,
-0.6135438680648804,
-0.053995437920093536,
-0.1771283894777298,
0.04506726562976837,
0.04082905128598213,
0.5397395491600037,
-0.45872095227241516,
-0.5097830295562744,
0.33943602442741394,
-0.15205860137939453,
0.5638716220855713,
0.3790035843849182,
0.33373376727104187,
-0.8117728233337402,
0.05840044841170311,
-0.15995562076568604,
-0.9487959742546082,
0.40997597575187683,
-0.10290482640266418,
0.35879936814308167,
-0.022199179977178574,
-0.15679851174354553,
-0.35444968938827515,
-0.06181625649333,
0.5506415367126465,
0.2852309048175812,
-0.02572024054825306,
-0.8180621862411499,
-0.24594497680664062,
-0.15032647550106049,
-0.0804511159658432,
0.7356340885162354,
0.15621820092201233,
-0.1921636462211609,
0.3680740296840668,
0.22519849240779877,
-0.20079000294208527,
-0.18376250565052032,
-0.9196850061416626,
-0.016502151265740395,
0.28646814823150635,
-0.22524848580360413,
0.0711795911192894,
0.32472047209739685,
-0.35535740852355957,
-0.002044730121269822,
0.5900899767875671,
-0.26254451274871826,
-0.6110233068466187,
-0.0465325191617012,
0.2996786832809448,
-0.15311384201049805,
0.7811755537986755,
0.05768619477748871,
-0.4182947874069214,
-0.028124790638685226,
-0.11936179548501968,
-0.524868369102478,
0.09898893535137177,
0.15550442039966583,
0.23767095804214478,
0.2748814523220062,
-0.6567800641059875,
0.95358806848526,
0.16181732714176178,
0.7633754014968872,
0.2683885097503662,
-0.6772605776786804,
-0.28565165400505066,
-0.25354212522506714,
0.5511351227760315,
0.629577100276947,
-0.10414636135101318,
-0.21542249619960785,
-0.21359311044216156,
0.41018301248550415,
-0.5088980793952942,
0.10658369213342667,
-0.015841461718082428,
-0.12437286227941513,
0.41358116269111633,
1.0995553731918335,
0.32655343413352966,
-0.00793399102985859,
-0.707880437374115,
0.38489118218421936,
0.48810437321662903,
-0.42868560552597046,
0.40486466884613037,
-0.8161404728889465,
0.4225437045097351,
0.07578744739294052,
0.6584230661392212,
-0.09316013753414154,
-0.3792922794818878,
0.3462263345718384,
0.2564935088157654,
0.19174720346927643,
-0.4481668174266815,
-0.2549747824668884,
0.22266361117362976,
0.04365607351064682,
0.2977481484413147,
0.47051090002059937,
1.0242748260498047,
-0.4111637771129608,
-0.32583582401275635,
0.31553688645362854,
0.17826415598392487,
0.15352566540241241,
-0.2727978229522705,
-0.11013389378786087,
-0.41466981172561646,
-0.11961532384157181,
-0.08349700272083282,
-0.8877797722816467,
0.0870884507894516,
-0.03713790699839592,
0.24110956490039825,
-0.5927853584289551,
0.07596109807491302,
-0.1273926943540573,
0.09881027787923813,
0.40026265382766724,
-0.6077641844749451,
-0.5580403208732605,
-0.0197184756398201,
0.19004303216934204,
-0.032765209674835205,
-0.7102018594741821,
0.5166707634925842,
0.15041077136993408,
0.12880778312683105,
0.469534695148468,
-0.2418263554573059,
0.34351781010627747,
-0.9469045400619507,
0.6383749842643738,
-0.24394921958446503,
0.10866066813468933,
-0.062394242733716965,
0.43258535861968994,
-0.24319906532764435,
0.014001580886542797,
0.15788203477859497,
0.27650395035743713,
0.3243259787559509,
-0.5627361536026001,
-0.3116001486778259,
-0.26999232172966003,
0.3223867118358612,
-0.14917311072349548,
0.3840433955192566,
-0.13300131261348724,
-0.40146604180336,
-0.14028677344322205,
0.3703596293926239,
-0.6576380133628845,
0.7509563565254211,
0.06851308047771454,
-0.2097446322441101,
0.5212832689285278,
-0.23633985221385956,
0.3796755075454712,
-0.05742886662483215,
0.17745156586170197,
0.9697153568267822,
0.14629079401493073,
0.34638962149620056,
-0.31363561749458313,
-0.41449829936027527,
-0.040158461779356,
-0.029302099719643593,
0.6369203925132751,
-3.076486349105835,
-0.08584583550691605,
-0.4160866141319275,
-0.5280722975730896,
-0.18213459849357605,
0.1820019632577896,
0.417221337556839,
0.03780081868171692,
0.24348047375679016,
-0.5542623996734619,
0.3559395670890808,
-0.33156469464302063,
0.34098348021507263,
-0.5656071901321411,
-0.3276282846927643,
0.44807326793670654
] |
200329
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Webster%20Leadbeater
|
Charles Webster Leadbeater
|
Charles Webster Leadbeater (; 16 February 1854 – 1 March 1934) was a member of the Theosophical Society, Co-Freemasonry, author on occult subjects and co-initiator with J. I. Wedgwood of the Liberal Catholic Church.
Originally a priest of the Church of England, his interest in spiritualism caused him to end his affiliation with Anglicanism in favour of the Theosophical Society, where he became an associate of Annie Besant. He became a high-ranking officer of the Society and remained one of its leading members until his death in 1934, writing over 60 books and pamphlets and maintaining regular speaking engagements.
Early life
Leadbeater was born in Stockport, Cheshire, in 1854. His father, Charles Sr., was born in Lincoln and his mother Emma was born in Liverpool. He was an only child. By 1861 the family had relocated to London, where his father was a railway contractor's clerk.
In 1862, when Leadbeater was eight years old, his father died from tuberculosis. Four years later a bank in which the family's savings were invested became bankrupt. Without finances for college, Leadbeater sought work soon after graduating from high school in order to provide for his mother and himself. He worked at various clerical jobs. During the evenings he became largely self-educated. For example, he studied astronomy and had a 12-inch reflector telescope (which was very expensive at the time) to observe the heavens at night. He also studied French, Latin and Greek.
An uncle, his father's brother-in-law, was the well-known Anglican cleric William Wolfe Capes. By his uncle's influence, Leadbeater was ordained an Anglican priest in 1879 in Farnham by the Bishop of Winchester. By 1881, he was living with his widowed mother at Bramshott in a cottage which his uncle had built, where he is listed as "Curate of Bramshott". He was an active priest and teacher who was remembered later as "a bright and cheerful and kindhearted man". About this time, after reading about the séances of reputed medium Daniel Dunglas Home (1833–1886), Leadbeater developed an active interest in spiritualism.
Theosophical Society
His interest in Theosophy was stimulated by A.P. Sinnett's Occult World, and he joined the Theosophical Society in 1883. The next year he met Helena Petrovna Blavatsky when she came to London; she accepted him as a pupil and he became a vegetarian.
Around this time he wrote a letter to Kuthumi, asking to be accepted as his pupil. Shortly afterward, an encouraging response influenced him to go to India; he arrived at Adyar in 1884. He wrote that while in India, he had received visits and training from some of the "Masters" that according to Blavatsky were the inspiration behind the formation of the Theosophical Society, and were its hidden guides. This was the start of a long career with the Theosophical Society.
Headmaster in Ceylon
During 1885, Leadbeater traveled with Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907), first President of the Theosophical Society, to Burma and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). In Ceylon they founded the English Buddhist Academy, with Leadbeater staying there to serve as its first headmaster under very austere conditions. This school gradually expanded to become Ananda College, which now has more than 6,000 students and has a building named for Leadbeater. After Blavatsky left Adyar in 1886 to return to Europe and finish writing The Secret Doctrine, Leadbeater claimed to have developed clairvoyant abilities.
Return to England
In 1889, Sinnett asked Leadbeater to return to England to tutor his son and George Arundale (1878–1945). He agreed and brought with him one of his pupils, Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa (1875–1953). Although struggling with poverty himself, Leadbeater managed to send both Arundale and Jinarajadasa to Cambridge University. Both would eventually serve as International presidents of the Theosophical Society.
Meeting with Annie Besant
After H. P. Blavatsky's death in 1891, Annie Besant, an English social activist, took over leadership of the Theosophical Society along with Colonel Olcott. Besant met Leadbeater in 1894. The next year she invited him to live at the London Theosophical Headquarters, where H.P. Blavatsky died in 1891.
Writing and speaking career
Leadbeater wrote over 60 books and pamphlets during the period from 1895 to his death in 1934, many of which continued to be published until 1955. Two noteworthy titles, Astral Plane and the Devachanic Plane (or The Heaven World) both of which contained writings on the realms the soul passes through after death.
"For the first time among occultists, a detailed investigation had been made of the Astral Plane as a whole, in a manner similar to that in which a botanist in an Amazonian jungle would set to work in order to classify its trees, plants and shrubs, and so write a botanical history of the jungle. For this reason the little book, The Astral Plane, was definitely a landmark, and the Master as Keeper of the Records desired to place its manuscript in the great Museum."
Highlights of his writing career included addressing topics such as: the existence of a loving God, The Masters of Wisdom, what happens after death, immortality of the human soul, reincarnation, Karma or the Law of Consequence, development of clairvoyant abilities, the nature of thought forms, dreams, vegetarianism, Esoteric Christianity
He also became one of the best known speakers of the Theosophical Society for a number of years and served as Secretary of the London Lodge.
Clairvoyance
Clairvoyance is a book by Leadbeater originally published in 1899 in London. It is a study of a belief in seeing beyond the realms of ordinary sight. The author mainly appeals readers "convinced of the existence of clairvoyance and familiar with theosophical terms." Leadbeater claims that the "power to see what is hidden from ordinary physical sight" is an extension of common reception, and "describes a wide range of phenomena."
Methods of development
Leadbeater writes about the importance of control over thinking and the need for skill "to concentrate thought":
"Let a man choose a certain time every day—a time when he can rely upon being quiet and undisturbed, though preferably in the daytime rather than at night—and set himself at that time to keep his mind for a few minutes entirely free from all earthly thoughts of any kind whatever and, when that is achieved, to direct the whole force of his being towards the highest spiritual ideal that he happens to know. He will find that to gain such perfect control of thought is enormously more difficult than he supposes, but when he attains it, it cannot but be in every way most beneficial to him, and as he grows more and more able to elevate and concentrate his thought, he may gradually find that new worlds are opening before his sight."
Author's personal experience
Professor Robert Ellwood wrote that from 1884 to 1888 Leadbeater undertook a course of meditation practice "which awakened his clairvoyance." One day when the Master Kuthumi visited, he asked whether Leadbeater had ever attempted "a certain kind of meditation connected with the development of the mysterious power called kundalini." The Master recommended him to make a "few efforts along certain lines," and told him that he would himself "watch over those efforts to see that no danger should ensue." Leadbeater accepted the offer of the Master and became "day after day" working on this kind of meditation. He worked on the task assigned to him for forty-two days, and it seemed to him that he was already on the verge of achieving a result when Kuthumi intervened and "performed the final act of breaking through which completed the process," and enabled Leadbeater thereafter to use astral sight while as he was retaining full consciousness in the physical body. It is equivalent to saying that "the astral consciousness and memory became continuous," whether the physical body was awake or asleep.
Possible application
In the chapter "Simple Clairvoyance: Full" the author argues that an occultist-clairvoyant can "see" the smallest particles of matter, for example, a molecule or atom, magnifying them "as though by a microscope." In the chapter "Clairvoyance in Time: The Past" Leadbeater claims that before the historian who is in "full possession of this power" open up wonderful possibilities:
"He has before him a field of historical research of most entrancing interest. Not only can he review at his leisure all history with which we are acquainted, correcting as he examines it the many errors and misconceptions which have crept into the accounts handed down to us; he can also range at will over the whole story of the world from its very beginning."
New editions and translations
The book was reprinted several times and translated into some European languages. Second edition of the book was published in 1903, and third—in 1908.
Resignation from the Theosophical Society
In 1906, critics were angered to learn that Leadbeater had given advice to boys under his care that encouraged masturbation as a way to relieve obsessive sexual thoughts. Leadbeater acknowledged that he had given this advice to a few boys approaching maturity who came to him for help. He commented, "I know that the whole question of sex feelings is the principal difficulty in the path of boys and girls, and very much harm is done by the prevalent habit of ignoring the subject and fearing to speak of it to young people. The first information about it should come from parents or friends, not from servants or bad companions."
The revelations regarding Leadbeater's advice prompted several members of the Theosophical Society to ask for his resignation. The Society held proceedings against him in 1906. Annie Besant, elected president of the Society in 1907, later stated in his defense:
"The so-called trial of Mr Leadbeater was a travesty of justice. He came before Judges, one of whom had declared before hand that 'he ought to be shot'; another, before hearing him, had written passionate denunciations of him, a third and fourth had accepted, on purely psychic testimony, unsupported by any evidence, the view that he was grossly immoral, and a danger to the Society..."
Charges of misconduct that went beyond the advice he admitted giving were never proven. He nevertheless resigned.
Readmission to the Theosophical Society
After Olcott died in 1907, Annie Besant became president of the society following a political struggle. By the end of 1908, the International Sections voted for Leadbeater's readmission. He accepted and came to Adyar on 10 February 1909. At the time, Besant referred to Leadbeater as a martyr who was wronged by her and by the Theosophical Society, saying that "never again would a shadow come between her and her brother Initiate".
Discovery of Krishnamurti
In 1909 Leadbeater encountered fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti at the private beach of the Theosophical Society headquarters at Adyar. Krishnamurti's family lived next to the compound; his father, a long-time Theosophist, was employed by the Society. Leadbeater believed Krishnamurti to be a suitable candidate for the "vehicle" of the World Teacher, a reputed messianic entity whose imminent appearance he and many Theosophists were expecting. The proclaimed savior would then usher in a new age and religion.
Leadbeater assigned the pseudonym Alcyone to Krishnamurti and under the title "Rents in the Veil of Time", he published 30 reputed past lives of Alcyone in a series in The Theosophist magazine beginning in April 1910. "They ranged from 22,662 BC to 624 AD ... Alcyone was a female in eleven of them."
Leadbeater stayed in India until 1915, overseeing the education of Krishnamurti; he then relocated to Australia. During the late 1920s, Krishnamurti disavowed the role that Leadbeater and other Theosophists expected him to fulfil. He disassociated himself from the Theosophical Society and its doctrines and practices, and during the next six decades became known as an influential speaker on philosophical and religious subjects.
Australia and The Science of the Sacraments
Leadbeater moved to Sydney in 1915. He was responsible for the construction of the Star Amphitheatre at Balmoral Beach in 1924. While in Australia he became acquainted with J. I. Wedgwood, a Theosophist and bishop in the Liberal Catholic Church who initiated him into Co-Masonry in 1915 and later consecrated him as a bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church in 1916.
Public interest in Theosophy in Australia and New Zealand increased greatly as a result of Leadbeater's presence there and Sydney became comparable to Adyar as a centre of Theosophical activity.
In 1922, the Theosophical Society began renting a mansion known as The Manor in the Sydney suburb of Mosman. Leadbeater took up residence there as the director of a community of Theosophists. The Manor became a major site and was regarded as "the greatest of occult forcing houses". There he accepted young women students. They included Clara Codd, future President of the Theosophical Society in America, clairvoyant Dora van Gelder, another future President of the Theosophical Society in America who during the 1970s also worked with Delores Krieger to develop the technique of Therapeutic touch, and Mary Lutyens, who would later write an authorized Krishnamurti biography. Lutyens stayed there in 1925, while Krishnamurti and his brother Nitya stayed at another house nearby. The Manor became one of three major Theosophical Society sites, the others being at Adyar and the Netherlands. The Theosophical Society bought The Manor in 1925 and during 1951 created The Manor Foundation Ltd, to own and administer the house, which is still used by the Society.
It was also during his stay in Australia that Leadbeater became the Presiding Bishop of the Liberal Catholic Church and co-wrote the liturgy book for the church which is still in use today. The work represents an adaptation of the Roman Catholic liturgy of his time, for which Leadbeater sought to remove what he regarded as undesirable elements, such as (in his view) the blatant anthropomorphisms and expressions of the fear and wrath of God, which he regarded "as derogatory alike to the idea of a loving Father and to the men He has created in His own image." "If Christians", he wrote, "had been content to take what Christ taught of the Father in heaven, they would never have saddled themselves with the jealous, angry, bloodthirsty Jehovah of Ezra, Nehemiah and the others – a god that needs propitiating and to whose 'mercy' constant appeals must be made."
Thus the Credo of the Liberal Catholic Church liturgy written by Leadbeater reads:
"We believe that God is Love and Power and Truth and Light; that perfect justice rules the world; that all His sons shall one day reach His Feet, however far they stray. We hold the Fatherhood of God, the Brotherhood of man; we know that we do serve Him best when best we serve our brother man. So shall His blessing rest upon us and peace for evermore. Amen."
Previously Leadbeater had written on the energies of the Christian sacraments in The Science of the Sacraments: An Occult and Clairvoyant Study of the Christian Eucharist, one of the most significant works of Christian esotericism. In his prologue to the latest edition of this book, John Kersey refers to the Eucharist proposed by Leadbeater as "a radical reinterpretation of the context of the Eucharist seen within a theological standpoint of esoteric magic and universal salvation; it is Catholicism expressing the love of God to the full without the burdens of needless guilt and fear, and the false totem of the temporal powers of the church."
How Theosophy Came to Me
It is an autobiographical book by Leadbeater; it was first published in 1930.
Spiritualism and Theosophy
Leadbeater tells that he was interested always in a variety of anomal phenomena, and if in any newspaper report it was said about the appearance of ghosts or other curious events in the troubled house, he had been going immediately to this location. In a large number of instances it was a blank — "either there was no evidence worth mentioning, or the ghost declined to appear when he was wanted." Sometimes, however, there were signs of some success, and soon he had collected "an amount of direct evidence" that could easily convince him.
In attitude to spiritualism Leadbeater was initially set up quite skeptical, but still one day decided to conduct an experiment with his mother and a some small boy, who, as they later discovered, "was a powerful physical medium." They had a small round table with a leg in the middle and silk hat, which they put on the table, and then put their "hands upon its brim as prescribed." Surprisingly the hat gave "a gentle but decided half-turn on the polished surface of the table," and then began to spin so vigorously that it was difficult to keep on it their hands.Further, the author describes the events as follows:
"Here was my own familiar silk hat, which I had never before suspected of any occult qualities, suspending itself mysteriously in the air from the tips of our fingers, and, not content with that defiance of the laws of gravity on its own account, attaching a table to its crown and lifting that also! I looked down to the feet of the table; they were about six inches from the carpet, and no human foot was touching them or near them! I passed my own foot underneath, but there was certainly nothing there—nothing physically perceptible, at any rate."
The author says that he was not himself thinking of the phenomenon "in the least as a manifestation from the dead," but only as the disclosure of some unknown new force.
Leadbeater says that the first theosophical book that fell into his hands was Sinnett's The Occult World. Histories contained in this book were for him very interested, but "its real fascination lay in the glimpses which it gave of a wonderful system of philosophy and of a kind of inner science which really seemed to explain life rationally and to account for many phenomena," which Leadbeater has watched. He had written to Sinnett, who invited him to come to London in order to meet. The author tells that when he had claimed of joining the Society, Sinnett "became very grave and opined that that would hardly do," since Leadbeater was a clergyman. He had asked him why the Society discriminates against members according to the cloth. Sinnett replied: "Well, you see, we are in the habit of discussing every subject and every belief from the beginning, without any preconceptions whatever; and I am afraid that at our meetings you would be likely to hear a great deal that would shock you profoundly."
But most members of the Council of the London Lodge approved the joining of Leadbeater. He was joined into the Theosophical Society together with professor Crookes and his wife. On that day at the Lodge meeting "have been some two hundred people present," including such as professor Myers, Stainton Moses and others.
Blavatsky
In a section I Meet Our Founder Leadbeater describes the "triumphant" appearance of Blavatsky at a meeting of the London Lodge of the British Theosophical Society, where he saw her for the first time.
"Suddenly and sharply the door opposite to us opened, and a stout lady in black came quickly in and seated herself at the outer end of our bench. She sat listening to the wrangling on the platform for a few minutes, and then began to exhibit distinct signs of impatience. As there seemed to be no improvement in sight, she then jumped up from her seat, shouted in a tone of military command the one word 'Mohini!' and then walked straight out of the door into the passage. The stately and dignified Mohini came rushing down that long room at his highest speed, and as soon as he reached the passage threw himself incontinently flat on his face on the floor at the feet of the lady in black. Many people arose in confusion, not knowing what was happening; but a moment later Mr. Sinnett himself also came running to the door, went out and exchanged a few words, and then, re-entering the room, he stood up on the end of our bench and spoke in a ringing voice the fateful words: 'Let me introduce to the London Lodge as a whole—Madame Blavatsky!' The scene was indescribable; the members, wildly delighted and yet half-awed at the same time, clustered round our great Founder, some kissing her hand, several kneeling before her, and two or three weeping hysterically."
According to the author, the impression which Blavatsky made "was indescribable." She was looking straight through man, and obviously saw everything that was in one, and not everyone liked it. Sometimes Leadbeater heard from her very unpleasant revelations about those with whom she spoke. He's writing: "Prodigious force was the first impression, and perhaps courage, outspokenness, and straightforwardness were the second."
Leadbeater writes that Blavatsky was the best interlocutor he had ever met: "She had the most wonderful gift for repartee; she had it almost to excess, perhaps." She also had knowledge of all sorts of things that relate to very different directions. She always had something to say, and it was never empty talk. She traveled a lot, and mostly on little-known places, and did not forget anything. She has been remembering even the most insignificant cases that had happened to her. She was a wonderful storyteller, who knew how to give a good story and make the right impression. "Whatever else she may have been, she was never commonplace. She always had something new, striking, interesting, unusual to tell us."
In connection with the accusations of Blavatsky's enemies in her alleged fraud, cheating, forgery, Leadbeater writes: "The very idea of deception of any sort in connection with Madame Blavatsky is unthinkable to anyone who knew her... Her absolute genuineness was one of the most prominent features of her marvellously complex character."
Letters from Kuthumi
The author tells that during the study of spiritualism his greatest confidant was medium Eglinton. On one of the spiritualistic séances Eglinton's spirit guide "Ernest" agreed to take Leadbiter's letter in order to transmit it to the Master Kuthumi. In this letter the author "with all reverence" wrote that ever since he had first heard of theosophy his one desire had been to place himself under Master as a chela (pupil). He also wrote about his current circumstances and has asked, has a pupil need to be in India within seven years of probation.
The response from the Master Kuthumi has arrived a few months. The mahatma said that to be in India for seven years of probation isn't necessary—a chela can pass them anywhere. He offered to work for a few months at Adyar to see, may Leadbeater to be as a servant of the headquarters, and added a significant remark: "He who would shorten the years of probation has to make sacrifices for theosophy."The letter was ended with the following words:
"You ask me — 'what rules I must observe during this time of probation, and how soon I might venture to hope that it could begin'. I answer: you have the making of your own future, in your own hands as shown above, and every day you may be weaving its woof. If I were to demand that you should do one thing or the other, instead of simply advising, I would be responsible for every effect that might flow from the step and you acquire but a secondary merit. Think, and you will see that this is true. So cast the lot yourself into the lap of Justice, never fearing but that its response will be absolutely true.
Chelaship is an educational as well as probationary stage and the chela alone can determine whether it shall end in adeptship or failure. Chelas from a mistaken idea of our system too often watch and wait for orders, wasting precious time which should be taken up with personal effort. Our cause needs missionaries, devotees, agents, even martyrs perhaps. But it cannot demand of any man to make himself either. So now choose and grasp your own destiny, and may our Lord's the Tathâgata's memory aid you to decide for the best."
After reading the letter, Leadbeater hurried back to London, not doubting his decision to devote his life to the service for the Masters. He hoped to send his answer with the help of Blavatsky. At first she refused to read the letter of the mahatma, saying that such cases are purely private, but as a result of Leadbeater's insistence, she finally read and asked him what answer he had decided to give. He said he wanted to quit his priesthood career and go to India, fully dedicating himself to a serving the Masters. Blavatsky assured him that, because of her constant connection with the mahatma, he already knows about Leadbeater's decision, and will give his answer in the near time. She warned that he need to stay close to her until he get an answer. The author tells:
"She (Blavatky) was talking brilliantly to those who were present, and rolling one of her eternal cigarettes, when suddenly her right hand was jerked out towards the fire in a very peculiar fashion, and lay palm upwards. She looked down at it in surprise, as I did myself, for I was standing close to her, leaning with an elbow on the mantel-piece: and several of us saw quite clearly a sort of whitish mist form in the palm of her hand and then condense into a piece of folded paper, which she at once handed to me, saying: 'There is your answer'."
It was a very short note, and read it as follows:
"Since your intuition led you in the right direction and made you understand that it was my desire you should go to Adyar immediately, I may say more. The sooner you go the better. Do not lose one day more than you can help. Sail on the 5th if possible. Join Upasika at Alexandria. Let no one know that you are going, and may the blessing of our Lord and my poor blessing shield you from every evil in your new life. Greeting to you, my new chela.
−K.H."
In section A Message the author tells how Blavatsky received in the going train car from the mahatma Kuthumi a note, which had several words intended for him: "Tell Leadbeater that I am satisfied with his zeal and devotion."
Leadbeater claims that in early days of the Theosophical Society commissions and orders from the mahatmas were common, and members lived at a "level of splendid enthusiasm which those who have joined since Madame Blavatsky’s death can hardly imagine."
Tisarana and pansil
During the few weeks of traveling from Egypt to India, Blavatsky radically transformed the personality of Leadbeater, who was "an ordinary lawn-tennis-playing curate—well-meaning and conscientious... incredibly shy and retiring," making him a worthy disciple of mahatmas.
During a brief stop in Ceylon, Blavatsky who together with Olcott even earlier became a Buddhist invited Leadbeater to follow the example of the founders of the Theosophical Society. The author writes that she believed that since he was a Christian priest, his public demonstration of Buddhism could convince both Hindus and Buddhists of the honesty of his intentions and would allow him to become more useful for the mahatmas.After three times pronouncing of a praise to the Lord Buddha: "I reverence the Blessed One, the Holy One, the Perfect in Wisdom," Leadbeater recitated on the Pali sacred formula of the Tisarana and then the Pancha Sila.
Upon arrival in Madras, Blavatsky has spoke in front of the Hindustanies who filled the room, indignant at the actions of the Christian missionaries.
"When at last she was allowed to speak, she began very well by saying how touched she was by this enthusiastic reception, and how it showed her what she had always known, that the people of India would not accept tamely these vile, cowardly, loathsome and utterly abominable slanders, circulated by these unspeakable—but here she became so vigorously adjectival that the Colonel hurriedly intervened, and somehow persuaded her to resume her seat, while he called upon an Indian member to offer a few remarks."
The author informs that his life at Adyar was ascetic; there were practically no servants, except two gardeners and a boy who has been working in the office. Leadbeater ate every day porridge from wheat flakes, which he brewed himself, also he was being brought milk and bananas. At the headquarters of the Society, Leadbeater had been taking post of the recording secretary, since that allowed him to remain in the center of the Theosophical movement, where, as he knew, in the materialized forms, the Masters were often shown themselves.
One day the author had met with the mahatma Kuthumi on the roof of the headquarters, next to Blavatsky's room. He was near a balustrade which "running along the front of the house at the edge of the roof" when the Master "materialized," stepping over the balustrade, as if before that he had been flying through the air. Leadbeater says:
"Naturally I rushed forward and prostrated myself before Him; He raised me with a kindly smile, saying that though such demonstrations of reverence were the custom among the Indian peoples, He did not expect them from His European devotees, and He thought that perhaps there would be less possibility of any feeling of embarrassment if each nation confined itself to its own methods of salutation."
Occult training
The author claims that when he arrived in India, he did not have any clairvoyant abilities. One day when Kuthumi "honoured" him with a visit, he asked whether Leadbeater had ever attempted "a certain kind of meditation connected with the development of the mysterious power called kundalini." Leadbeater had heard of that power, but thinked it to be certainly out of reach for Western people. Yet Kuthumi recommended him to make a "few efforts along certain lines," and told him that he would himself "watch over those efforts to see that no danger should ensue." He accepted the offer of the Master and became "day after day" working on this kind of meditation. He was told that on average it would take forty days, if he do it constantly and vigorously.
Leadbeater worked on the task assigned to him for forty-two days, and it seemed to him that he was already on the verge of achieving a result when Kuthumi intervened and "performed the final act of breaking through which completed the process," and enabled the author thereafter to use astral sight while as he was retaining full consciousness in the physical body. It is equivalent to saying that "the astral consciousness and memory became continuous," whether the physical body was awake or asleep.
A lot of care and work was spent on occult training of the author by the Master Djwal Khul. Leadbeater tells:
"Over and over again He would make a vivid thought-form, and say to me: 'What do you see?' And when I described it to the best of my ability, would come again and again the comment: 'No, no, you are not seeing true; you are not seeing all; dig deeper into yourself, use your mental vision as well as your astral; press just a little further, a little higher.'"
To participate in the training of Leadbeater, often came to headquarters swami Subba Row, "our great pandit," as the author calls him. And Leadbeater claims that he will forever remain an obligor to these "two great people" — Djwal Khul and Subba Row – for all the help which they gave him "at this critical stage" of his life.
Legacy
Leadbeater remains well-known and influential in New Age circles for his many works based on his clairvoyant investigations of life, including such books as Outline of Theosophy, Astral Plane, Devachanic Plane, The Chakras and Man, Visible and Invisible dealing with, respectively, the basic principles of theosophy, the two higher worlds humanity passes through after "death", the chakra system, and the human aura.
His writings on the sacraments and Christian esotericism remain popular, with a constant stream of new editions and translations of his magnum opus The Science of the Sacraments. His liturgy book is still used by some Liberal and Independent Catholic Churches.
Selected writings
Dreams (What they are and how they are caused) (1893)
Theosophical Manual Nº5: The Astral Plane (Its Scenery, Inhabitants and Phenomena) (1896)
Theosophical Manual Nº6: The Devachanic Plane or The Heaven World Its Characteristics and Inhabitants (1896)
Invisible Helpers (1896)
Reincarnation (1898)
Our Relation to Our Children (1898)
Clairvoyance (1899)
Thought Forms (with Annie Besant) (1901)
An Outline of Theosophy (1902)
Man Visible and Invisible (1902)
Some Glimpses of Occultism, Ancient and Modern (1903)
The Christian Creed (1904)
Occult Chemistry (with Annie Besant) (1908)
The Inner Life (1911)
The Perfume of Egypt and Other Weird Stories (1911)
The Power and Use of Thought (1911)
The Life After Death and How Theosophy Unveils It (1912)
A Textbook of Theosophy (1912)
Man: Whence, How and Whither (with Annie Besant) (1913)
Vegetarianism and Occultism (1913)
The Hidden Side of Things (1913)
Australia & New Zealand: Home of a new sub-race (1916)
The Monad and Other Essays Upon the Higher Consciousness (1920)
The Inner Side of Christian Festivals (1920)
The Science of the Sacraments (1920)
The Lives of Alcyone (with Annie Besant) (1924)
The Liturgy According to the Use of the Liberal Catholic Church (with J.I. Wedgwood) (Second Edition) (1924)
The Masters and the Path (1925)
Talks on the Path of Occultism (1926)
Glimpses of Masonic History (1926) (later pub 1986 as Ancient Mystic Rites)
The Hidden Life in Freemasonry (1926)
The Chakras (1927) (published by the Theosophical Publishing House, Wheaton, Illinois, USA)
Spiritualism and Theosophy Scientifically Examined and Carefully Described (1928)
The Noble Eightfold Path (1955)
Messages from the Unseen (1931)
See also
Chakras
Clairvoyance
Christian mythology
K.H. Letters to C.W. Leadbeater
Reincarnation
Root race
Theosophy and Christianity
Theosophy and visual arts
Notes
References
https://diedrei.org/tl_files/hefte/2015/Heft9_2015/Fundstueck-XVIII_DD_1509.pdf letter of J. Krishnamurti's father to Rudolf Steiner dated 12.3.1912 talking about his efforts to avoid his sons having any future contact to Leadbeater
Sources
Further reading
Caldwell, Daniel. Charles Webster Leadbeater: His Life, Writings & Theosophical Teachings.
Kersey, John. Arnold Harris Matthew and the Old Catholic Movement in England: 1908–52
Kersey, John. The Science of the Sacraments by Charles Webster Leadbeater. New 2007 Edition with a Preface by John Kersey
Michel, Peter. Charles W. Leadbeater:Mit den Augen des Geistes (In German; No English translation available)
Tillett, Gregory. The Elder Brother: A Biography of Charles Webster Leadbeater.
Lutyens, Mary. Krishnamurti: The Years of Awakening; Avon Books (Discus), New York. 1983
Oliveira, Pedro. CWL Speaks: C.W. Leadbeater's Correspondence concerning the 1906 Crisis in the Theosophical Society Foreword by Robert Ellwood
External links
How Theosophy Came to Me
A chronological listing of C.W. Leadbeater's books and pamphlets
C.W. Leadbeater life, writings and theosophical teachings at the Blavatsky Study Center
Articles by and about C.W. Leadbeater
C.W. Leadbeater articles and media
Leadbeater in Sydney: [CC-By-SA]
English Theosophists
Former Anglicans
Australian Theosophists
Australian occultists
English occultists
Bishops of Independent Catholic denominations
People from Stockport
1854 births
1934 deaths
Vegetarianism activists
Principals of Ananda College
English emigrants to Australia
Anglican clergy from London
People from Bramshott
|
[
0.1161329597234726,
0.8294246792793274,
-0.5649939775466919,
-0.45280781388282776,
-0.3413415253162384,
-0.02721920982003212,
1.142467737197876,
-0.1554844230413437,
0.23320290446281433,
0.49601754546165466,
-0.32692304253578186,
-0.129155695438385,
-0.3571544885635376,
0.24373722076416016,
-0.12249506264925003,
0.046922095119953156,
0.08844006061553955,
-0.2228848785161972,
-0.35255807638168335,
-0.2462470829486847,
0.03550180047750473,
0.024797258898615837,
0.10070337355136871,
0.045311033725738525,
-0.6999189853668213,
0.40346163511276245,
0.1132272481918335,
-0.4877414405345917,
-0.14651606976985931,
-0.06158486381173134,
0.2693518102169037,
0.49435415863990784,
0.690701961517334,
-0.49945586919784546,
0.02725464105606079,
0.2898414433002472,
0.0656464546918869,
-0.4891338050365448,
0.08230938017368317,
-0.10010107606649399,
-0.0005242113256826997,
0.2523919939994812,
0.5500584244728088,
0.2093854546546936,
-0.7832854390144348,
-0.437610000371933,
-1.8066905736923218,
0.3727485239505768,
-0.8930642604827881,
-0.03742402419447899,
0.17909421026706696,
0.138197124004364,
0.861412525177002,
0.1920013427734375,
0.12062624096870422,
0.6651851534843445,
-0.7374356985092163,
0.1109098494052887,
0.33895376324653625,
0.14079104363918304,
0.49108409881591797,
0.37352773547172546,
0.41622960567474365,
-0.15070727467536926,
0.1911274790763855,
0.5013796091079712,
-0.005648186430335045,
0.5817746520042419,
-0.5132704377174377,
-0.34834787249565125,
0.5450581312179565,
0.271724671125412,
0.14655716717243195,
0.13109026849269867,
0.008625226095318794,
-0.21249650418758392,
0.138242706656456,
0.17168480157852173,
0.5851304531097412,
-0.09534920752048492,
0.1365305483341217,
-0.2110234498977661,
0.8890276551246643,
0.6479442715644836,
0.06483087688684464,
0.17210491001605988,
-0.5377547740936279,
0.49008306860923767,
0.040407005697488785,
0.22858601808547974,
-0.06281829625368118,
-0.5790961384773254,
0.21251335740089417,
0.537067174911499,
-0.48767945170402527,
0.10145332664251328,
0.6461377143859863,
-0.1150168627500534,
-0.046810999512672424,
-0.7649794816970825,
0.4792969822883606,
0.10048062354326248,
-0.06103796139359474,
-0.4364999830722809,
-0.14797236025333405,
0.45002052187919617,
-0.24572569131851196,
-0.8578932285308838,
-0.06774897128343582,
-0.05523313581943512,
-1.0088444948196411,
0.25383397936820984,
-0.4207930564880371,
-0.041015300899744034,
0.12350109219551086,
0.15962159633636475,
0.10957822948694229,
-0.9187783598899841,
-0.4647543430328369,
-0.07598485797643661,
-0.0008008630247786641,
0.3349049985408783,
-0.06785984337329865,
0.1620778888463974,
-0.4915817081928253,
0.5400603413581848,
0.4426215589046478,
0.8419545292854309,
0.09841518104076385,
0.382189005613327,
0.47412392497062683,
0.7369336485862732,
-0.2721656560897827,
-0.8690376877784729,
-0.14979925751686096,
-0.8949496150016785,
0.40060168504714966,
0.3534926474094391,
-0.07626309245824814,
0.9273355007171631,
-0.15824121236801147,
0.0882425531744957,
-0.35869333148002625,
-0.052157480269670486,
0.5052634477615356,
0.31684061884880066,
-0.21630315482616425,
0.06785070896148682,
-0.6738805174827576,
0.24117541313171387,
-0.11872895061969757,
-0.23766039311885834,
-0.1382216364145279,
-0.39966171979904175,
-0.03127116337418556,
0.21470920741558075,
0.2632172703742981,
0.0417129285633564,
-0.14774803817272186,
-0.028562426567077637,
0.4177549481391907,
-0.19329333305358887,
-0.10134443640708923,
0.25385499000549316,
0.1764080673456192,
0.1377762258052826,
0.4467349946498871,
-0.2939451038837433,
-0.06058456748723984,
0.2941896319389343,
-0.5114720463752747,
0.08060406893491745,
0.42298629879951477,
-0.38723403215408325,
-0.1606104075908661,
0.4853261113166809,
0.29309195280075073,
0.4047236144542694,
0.4635092616081238,
-0.5823484063148499,
-0.7085682153701782,
-0.2998907268047333,
-0.5394521951675415,
-0.30524149537086487,
0.49100127816200256,
0.4649009108543396,
0.36213988065719604,
0.021661579608917236,
0.09015589952468872,
0.03950449451804161,
-0.5635719895362854,
-0.4375203251838684,
-0.04822832718491554,
-0.20729359984397888,
1.0983355045318604,
-0.0778089389204979,
-0.09351982176303864,
0.5778621435165405,
0.32697534561157227,
0.3521205484867096,
-0.3586418926715851,
0.011188004165887833,
-0.2095830887556076,
-0.1633714735507965,
-0.047008365392684937,
0.31151798367500305,
0.5029362440109253,
0.067055344581604,
0.4563947021961212,
0.2096443474292755,
0.6704119443893433,
-0.6674548387527466,
0.08629734814167023,
0.41478633880615234,
-0.6247356534004211,
-0.45934322476387024,
-0.49526554346084595,
-0.10993969440460205,
0.5510780215263367,
-0.06565088778734207,
0.06828386336565018,
0.37762510776519775,
-0.29807281494140625,
0.3708115816116333,
0.5511947274208069,
1.0524542331695557,
-0.23382095992565155,
-0.5282342433929443,
-0.1152578741312027,
-0.41717928647994995,
0.010798257775604725,
0.25704115629196167,
0.7904137969017029,
-0.38259321451187134,
0.21990585327148438,
0.16570313274860382,
0.042738985270261765,
-0.7141890525817871,
0.27830490469932556,
-0.2101375311613083,
0.7143855094909668,
-0.19942161440849304,
-0.7656185030937195,
0.6578523516654968,
-0.27601921558380127,
0.6821704506874084,
-0.7649135589599609,
-0.04124255105853081,
0.21400955319404602,
0.4450985789299011,
0.3146320879459381,
0.6789108514785767,
0.07625749707221985,
0.10932765901088715,
0.7152506113052368,
0.01277750451117754,
-0.36001163721084595,
0.30577611923217773,
0.7894726395606995,
0.5371368527412415,
-0.36969777941703796,
0.30911025404930115,
-0.072773277759552,
0.3624408543109894,
-0.26110443472862244,
-0.37941688299179077,
0.08245294541120529,
-0.3159743547439575,
0.6442795991897583,
-0.18115176260471344,
0.6473396420478821,
-0.18439213931560516,
-0.1837422102689743,
0.7959901094436646,
-0.41386690735816956,
0.03667030483484268,
-0.31568944454193115,
0.5498115420341492,
-0.47628745436668396,
-0.4885973632335663,
0.018775269389152527,
0.8184055089950562,
-0.11341028660535812,
-0.20472931861877441,
-0.1474718451499939,
0.20331856608390808,
0.1459672451019287,
-0.35542574524879456,
0.30049026012420654,
-0.2076873779296875,
-0.28803250193595886,
0.9398068785667419,
-0.5407703518867493,
-0.24859032034873962,
-0.9716411232948303,
0.4490561783313751,
-0.3972707986831665,
0.010403710417449474,
0.16934092342853546,
-0.11494551599025726,
0.06963197886943817,
0.283878356218338,
-0.5260916352272034,
0.4291432499885559,
0.6002017855644226,
-0.13846512138843536,
-0.5574881434440613,
-0.004647216759622097,
-5.4377241134643555,
-0.08342120051383972,
-0.2292468100786209,
-0.3283412456512451,
0.5355418920516968,
0.645330548286438,
0.5790511965751648,
-0.0900120884180069,
-0.2417711615562439,
-0.3915066123008728,
0.1472858488559723,
-0.5139790773391724,
-0.04995560273528099,
0.44268709421157837,
0.4900188446044922,
0.6796379685401917,
0.27624526619911194,
-0.5212609171867371,
0.6526470184326172,
0.4042576253414154,
-0.24852944910526276,
-0.06744396686553955,
-0.22726942598819733,
0.5719712972640991,
0.2600449025630951,
0.2977483570575714,
-0.4623442590236664,
0.3524998724460602,
-0.35532107949256897,
-0.44119811058044434,
0.6234623193740845,
0.4284888505935669,
-0.5033562183380127,
-0.4295813739299774,
-0.0855170339345932,
0.10844530165195465,
0.2500648498535156,
-0.2352047562599182,
-0.13139405846595764,
-0.19518007338047028,
-0.5557445287704468,
0.16221238672733307,
-0.5249517560005188,
0.20105870068073273,
0.8629282116889954,
-0.11885423958301544,
-0.44969961047172546,
0.004752360749989748,
-0.4100581705570221,
-0.0199582502245903,
-0.181487575173378,
-0.0953199490904808,
-0.1624344438314438,
-0.6294507384300232,
-0.16718095541000366,
-0.2321574091911316,
-0.8610374927520752,
-0.24109362065792084,
-0.9569195508956909,
0.31902632117271423,
0.23739592730998993,
-0.2960098683834076,
0.2014334499835968,
0.18081136047840118,
-0.1916244924068451,
0.13525593280792236,
0.11779586225748062,
-0.674721896648407,
0.5080692172050476,
-0.10541564971208572,
-0.31688907742500305,
0.8188795447349548,
-0.24411480128765106,
-1.1874781847000122,
-0.14449071884155273,
0.007659777067601681,
0.3986559808254242,
0.0007407049997709692,
-0.513493537902832,
0.04519955441355705,
0.030224787071347237,
-0.5505785942077637,
-0.6321853399276733,
0.9199294447898865,
0.6037328839302063,
0.034529950469732285,
-0.5550307631492615,
0.06083596125245094,
-1.3895986080169678,
-0.47396889328956604,
-0.5667210817337036,
0.10287166386842728,
-0.3756122887134552,
0.5514885187149048,
0.09012610465288162,
0.37063464522361755,
-0.55616694688797,
0.19588004052639008,
0.3329378068447113,
0.21742621064186096,
-0.23921562731266022,
-0.4861801266670227,
0.3615436851978302,
-0.5087946653366089,
-0.03935465216636658,
-0.3896956145763397,
-0.41112834215164185,
0.37797901034355164,
0.09011594951152802,
-0.1969468891620636,
-0.24714821577072144,
0.2288607507944107,
-0.6871620416641235,
0.40360113978385925,
0.3629429340362549,
-0.44293537735939026,
0.1666099727153778,
0.168411985039711,
0.09242618083953857,
0.4317813813686371,
-0.31045329570770264,
0.8831056356430054,
-0.12426907569169998,
-0.5378876328468323,
-0.39633673429489136,
-0.46741577982902527,
0.39734822511672974,
-0.11442112922668457,
0.036857061088085175,
-0.0679074078798294,
-0.3185855746269226,
0.6980418562889099,
-0.30716472864151,
-0.12487923353910446,
-0.01572297513484955,
-0.30007481575012207,
-1.0850021839141846,
-0.016771411523222923,
-0.5723757147789001,
0.1446664035320282,
0.34371817111968994,
-0.2571500241756439,
0.2179173082113266,
0.3167552947998047,
0.45383885502815247,
-0.3757345378398895,
0.06596087664365768,
-0.30453619360923767,
-0.2256687581539154,
0.4827408790588379,
0.19390735030174255,
-0.12653055787086487,
0.9461110234260559,
-0.6027934551239014,
-0.3176964521408081,
0.28790727257728577,
-0.09292533248662949,
0.3965698778629303,
-0.4708370566368103,
-0.17714883387088776,
-0.6575511693954468,
-0.10480114072561264,
-0.557694137096405,
0.07525291293859482,
0.24589130282402039,
0.21968185901641846,
-0.8583354353904724,
-0.2659705877304077,
-0.6932089328765869,
-0.002596296137198806,
-0.3273366093635559,
-0.6042355298995972,
-0.29443496465682983,
0.1820131242275238,
0.41463905572891235,
0.4171238839626312,
-0.4752301275730133,
-0.12099532037973404,
-0.25302889943122864,
-0.9247488379478455,
0.0324220210313797,
0.42268696427345276,
-0.9306648373603821,
0.04455803334712982,
0.9462898969650269,
-0.4153688848018646,
-0.21620163321495056,
-0.8391892313957214,
0.22949358820915222,
-0.09129896759986877,
0.3200550973415375,
-0.09343083202838898,
0.264249712228775,
0.7299641966819763,
-0.4321306645870209,
-0.4265190064907074,
-0.051364246755838394,
0.27548208832740784,
0.16296625137329102,
-0.3370375335216522,
0.03273429721593857,
-0.17258010804653168,
0.19160079956054688,
-0.1486661434173584,
0.2768620550632477,
-1.3246345520019531,
-0.5867462158203125,
-0.29058265686035156,
-0.41984596848487854,
1.0124980211257935,
0.5446271896362305,
-0.16736622154712677,
-0.04661668837070465,
0.30206602811813354,
-0.3476334810256958,
0.26139169931411743,
0.25497615337371826,
-0.04024767875671387,
-0.2311730533838272,
-0.490541011095047,
-0.005132304038852453,
-0.01175293792039156,
0.10838865488767624,
-0.10437105596065521,
-0.22721996903419495,
-0.44846290349960327,
0.5411475300788879,
0.48989054560661316,
0.6922171115875244,
0.022813107818365097,
-0.3285999000072479,
0.6248226761817932,
-0.07040522992610931,
0.1958639919757843,
-0.23495015501976013,
0.29217928647994995,
0.30972376465797424,
0.22133275866508484,
-0.33655279874801636,
-0.3149092495441437,
0.04342462867498398,
0.5027269124984741,
0.4828101098537445,
-0.4152311682701111,
-0.22369009256362915,
0.37120291590690613,
0.3092747926712036,
-0.351551353931427,
-0.3523600697517395,
0.1611669510602951,
0.25082284212112427,
-0.07737532258033752,
-0.3015541136264801,
-0.5670903921127319,
0.303681880235672,
-0.2712336778640747,
0.27341070771217346,
-0.4412582516670227,
0.26208749413490295,
-0.3176172971725464,
0.2597230076789856,
0.11589238047599792,
-0.011467749252915382,
0.01122612226754427,
-0.5795181393623352,
0.4995197355747223,
-0.07568429410457611,
-0.7191566824913025,
0.508614718914032,
-0.8406937122344971,
0.18214498460292816,
-0.5745669007301331,
-0.2492237091064453,
0.25114351511001587,
-0.42047369480133057,
0.17587611079216003,
0.0394575409591198,
-0.7564713358879089,
-0.3455067276954651,
0.10959476977586746,
-0.25180765986442566,
0.37393683195114136,
0.730758547782898,
-0.04344300180673599,
-0.11993921548128128,
-0.529556930065155,
-0.3822973370552063,
-0.537987232208252,
-0.19015489518642426,
-0.20436672866344452,
-0.7112064957618713,
0.2165239155292511,
0.15423572063446045,
0.00817337166517973,
0.13057102262973785,
0.42694953083992004,
-0.6764580011367798,
0.44606682658195496,
-0.09499294310808182,
-0.446248859167099,
0.057843953371047974,
0.4698718786239624,
0.6403096914291382,
-0.14187338948249817,
-0.1175212487578392,
0.06386378407478333,
-0.11292317509651184,
-0.5832911133766174,
-0.275620698928833,
-0.20939214527606964,
0.9399124383926392,
-0.0075963749550282955,
-0.45120149850845337,
0.4598299562931061,
-0.9160693287849426,
-0.03458043932914734,
0.6912865042686462,
-0.23833978176116943,
-0.24509099125862122,
0.6278677582740784,
0.19596537947654724,
0.7314461469650269,
0.8509634733200073,
-0.43896135687828064,
-0.05659026280045509,
0.5628154277801514,
0.09573311358690262,
0.5358058214187622,
-0.4603619873523712,
-0.19886764883995056,
0.19009819626808167,
-0.03983087092638016,
0.16175556182861328,
0.6945222020149231,
-0.2624867260456085,
-0.13641619682312012,
0.11039962619543076,
-0.4734131395816803,
-0.2708887755870819,
0.3172580301761627,
-0.20558203756809235,
1.0799087285995483,
-0.13036023080348969,
-0.395116925239563,
-0.010537372902035713,
0.07748489826917648,
0.04191609472036362,
0.2036222517490387,
-0.051329147070646286,
0.7183309197425842,
0.626209557056427,
-0.005819937214255333,
-0.0797889307141304,
-0.6418400406837463,
0.7455995678901672,
-0.23934899270534515,
0.37740740180015564,
0.09021683037281036,
-0.5206322073936462,
0.6312828660011292,
-0.16578656435012817,
0.14293497800827026,
0.645649790763855,
0.17022688686847687,
-0.2820512652397156,
0.010409939102828503,
-0.16700419783592224,
-0.5048094987869263,
0.2100418359041214,
0.18722116947174072,
0.3950115144252777,
-0.5118526816368103,
-0.09596669673919678,
0.6893817186355591,
0.1388017237186432,
-0.3406238555908203,
1.2085694074630737,
-0.20127145946025848,
-0.08312058448791504,
0.08044926822185516,
-0.12991464138031006,
-0.08154743909835815,
-0.352836936712265,
-0.6531429290771484,
0.8563752174377441,
-0.2250472605228424,
-0.4424814283847809,
0.23416276276111603,
-0.2164791375398636,
0.01576300524175167,
0.4996374547481537,
-0.33340778946876526,
-0.17430004477500916,
-0.2749011218547821,
-0.6034123301506042,
0.05355960875749588,
0.010747200809419155,
0.7586917281150818,
-0.3125729560852051,
-0.2958519756793976,
-0.5942659974098206,
0.4321041703224182,
0.6798200607299805,
0.08360570669174194,
0.010689853690564632,
0.21750354766845703,
-0.6148535013198853,
0.32898396253585815,
-0.8326424360275269,
0.7797353267669678,
-0.5302639603614807,
-0.015458934009075165,
-0.5311506390571594,
0.6077846884727478,
0.3998398184776306,
-0.11279946565628052,
0.013950709253549576,
0.1956668347120285,
-0.7247755527496338,
0.6424288749694824,
-0.3071881830692291,
0.37781548500061035,
0.2601790726184845,
0.04420879855751991,
-0.39081481099128723,
-0.0034329923801124096,
0.4384221136569977,
-0.4258870780467987,
-0.07178626954555511,
0.010241932235658169,
0.09054765850305557,
-0.35839828848838806,
-0.11194320023059845,
-0.2047998607158661,
-0.09294554591178894,
-0.5928162932395935,
0.4225022792816162,
0.8208847045898438,
0.28662484884262085,
-0.44170746207237244,
0.36102980375289917,
-0.08711772412061691,
0.04933873191475868,
0.10489020496606827,
0.42801162600517273,
-0.07898594439029694,
-0.07358677685260773,
-0.8314914107322693,
0.3237704634666443,
0.44912850856781006,
0.14948134124279022,
-0.1183171197772026,
-0.5074273943901062,
-0.9032145738601685,
0.24119271337985992,
0.19254811108112335,
0.11920333653688431,
-0.5496825575828552,
0.5642045736312866,
-0.3696282207965851
] |
200331
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhrupad
|
Dhrupad
|
Dhrupad is a genre in Hindustani classical music from the Indian subcontinent. It is the oldest known style of major vocal styles associated with Hindustani classical music, Haveli Sangeet of Pushtimarg Sampraday and also related to the South Indian Carnatic tradition. It is a term of Sanskrit origin, derived from dhruva (ध्रुव, immovable, permanent) and pada (पद, verse). The roots of Dhrupad are ancient. It is discussed in the Hindu Sanskrit text Natyashastra (~200 BCE – 200 CE), and other ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts, such as chapter 33 of Book 10 in the Bhagavata Purana (~800–1000 CE), where the theories of music and devotional songs for Krishna are summarized.
The term denotes both the verse form of the poetry and the style in which it is sung. It is spiritual, heroic, thoughtful, virtuous, embedding moral wisdom or solemn form of song-music combination. Thematic matter ranges from the religious and spiritual (mostly in praise of Hindu deities) to royal panegyrics, musicology and romance.
A Dhrupad has at least four stanzas, called Sthayi (or Asthayi), Antara, Sanchari and Abhoga. The Sthayi part is a melody that uses the middle octave's first tetrachord and the lower octave notes. The Antara part uses the middle octave's second tetrachord and the higher octave notes. The Sanchari part is the development phase, which holistically builds using parts of Sthayi and Antara already played, and it uses melodic material built with all the three octave notes. The Abhoga is the concluding section, that brings the listener back to the familiar starting point of Sthayi, albeit with rhythmic variations, with diminished notes like a gentle goodbye, that are ideally mathematical fractions such as (half), (third) or (fourth). Sometimes a fifth stanza called Bhoga is included. Though usually related to philosophical or Bhakti (emotional devotion to a god or goddess) themes, some Dhrupads were composed to praise kings.
The tradition of Dhrupad is recorded back to saints of Braj (Mathura) namely Swami Haridas, Surdas, Govind Swami, Asht Sakha of Haveli Sangeet and followed by Tansen and Baiju Bawara. When Dhrupad composition are based on Bhagwan Shri Vishnu or his incarnations thereof, is called Vishnupad.
History
Dhrupad traces its origin to the ancient text of Samaveda. The Samaveda was chanted with the help of melody and rhythm called Samgana. Gradually this developed into other vocal style called ‘Chhanda’ and ‘Prabandha’ with introduction of verse and meter. The fusion of these two elements led to the emergence of Dhrupad.
Dhrupad probably derives from dhruvapada mentioned in Natyashastra to denote structured songs. It is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from Dhruva which means immovable and permanent. It is spiritual, heroic, thoughtful, virtuous, embedding moral wisdom or solemn form of song-music combination. The Yugala Shataka of Shri Shribhatta in the Nimbarka Sampradaya, written in 1294 CE, contains Dhrupad lyrics.
The earliest source that mentions a musical genre called Dhrupad is Ain-i-Akbari of Abu Fazl (1593). Later works attribute much of the material to musicians in the court of Man Singh Tomar (fl. 1486-1516) of Gwalior. In these accounts from the Mughal court Dhrupad is portrayed as a musical form which is relatively new; and according to Sanyal, most sources agree that Drupad owes its origin to the court of Man Singh Tomar. Ravi Shankar states that the form appeared in the fifteenth century as a development from the prabandha, which it replaced. The 16th century Bhakti saint and poet-musician Swami Haridas (also in the Nimbarka Sampradaya), was a well known dhrupad singer with songs dedicated to Krishna. It became the court music in the Mughal court with Swami Haridas' pupil Tansen famous, among other things, for his Dhrupad compositions.
Dhrupad is ancient, and another genre of music called Khyal(it have only two parts Sthayi and Antara) evolved from it. Dhrupad is solemn music, uplifting and heroic, pure and spiritual. Khyal adds ornamental notes, shorter, moody and celebratory.
The ancient practice of dancing on Dhrupad has been reintroduced into recent times by Dr. Puru Dadheech. Dr Dadheech is India's Kathak dancer to bring'Dhrupad' on the formal Kathak stage and this composition in 28 matra.
Nature and practice
Dhrupad as it is known today is performed by a solo singer or a small number of singers in unison to the beat of the pakhavaj or mridang rather than the tabla. The vocalist is usually accompanied by two tanpuras, the players sitting close behind, with the percussionist at the right of the vocalist. Traditionally the primary instrument used for dhrupad has been the Rudra Veena, but the surbahar and the sursringar have also long been used for this music. Preferably, any instrument used for dhrupad should have a deep bass register and long sustain.
Like all Indian classical music, dhrupad is modal and monophonic, with a single melodic line and no chord progression. Each raga has a modal frame - a wealth of micro-tonal ornamentations (gamak) are typical.
The text is preceded by a wholly improvised section, the alap. The alap in dhrupad is sung using a set of syllables, popularly derived from a Vedic mantras and beejakshars, in a recurrent, set pattern: a re ne na, té te re ne na, ri re re ne na, te ne toom ne (this last group is used in the end of a long phrase). These syllables are also used widely in different permutations and combinations. Dhrupad styles have long elaborate alaps, their slow and deliberate melodic development gradually bringing an accelerating rhythmic pulse. In most styles of dhrupad singing it can easily last an hour, broadly subdivided into the alap proper (unmetered), the jor (with steady rhythm) and the jhala (accelerating strumming) or nomtom, when syllables are sung at a very rapid pace. Then the composition is sung to the rhythmic accompaniment: the four lines, in serial order, are termed sthayi, antara, sanchari and aabhog.
Compositions exist in the metres (tala) (7 beats), sul (10 beats) and chau (12 beats) - a composition set to the 10-beat jhap tala is called a sadra while one set to the 14-beat dhamar is called a dhamar. The latter is seen as a lighter musical form, associated with the Holi spring festival.
Alongside concert performance the practice of singing dhrupad in temples continues, though only a small number of recordings have been made. It bears little resemblance to concert dhrupad: there is very little or no alap; percussion such as bells and finger cymbals, not used in the classical setting, are used here, and the drum used is a smaller, older variant called mrdang, quite similar to the mridangam.
Gharanas and style
There are said to be four broad stylistic variants (vanis or banis) of classical dhrupad – the Gauri (Gauhar), Khandar, Nauhar, and Dagar, tentatively linked to five singing styles () known from the 7th Century: Shuddha, Bhinna, Gauri, Vegswara, and Sadharani.
There are a number of dhrupad Gharanas: "houses", or family styles.
The best-known gharana is the Dagar family who sing in the Dagar vani or Dagar Gharana. The Dagar style puts great emphasis on alap and for several generations their singers have performed in pairs (often pairs of brothers). The Dagars are Muslims but sing Hindu texts of Gods and Goddesses.
The Bishnupur gharana features Manilal Nag, Mita Nag, and Madhuvanti Pal, among others.
From the state of Bihar comes the Darbhanga gharana, Dumraon Gharana (Buxar) and the Bettiah gharana. The Mallicks of the Darbhanga gharana are linked to the Khandar vani and Gauharvani. Ram Chatur Mallick, Vidur Mallick, Abhay Narayan Mallick, Late Pandit Sanjay Kumar Mallick,Laxman Bhatt Tailang and Siyaram Tiwari were well known personalities of Darbhanga gharana in the 20th century. Dhrupad of the Darbhanga gharana has a strong representation in Vrindaban owing to late Pandit Vidur Mallik, who lived and taught in Vrindaban during the 1980s and 1990s. Great female Dhrupad artists include Asgari Bai, Alaka Lahiri, Ashok Nandy, Madhu Bhatt Tailang, the Pakistani singer Aliya Rasheed, and the Italian singer Amelia Cuni.
Dumraon Gharana - Dhrupad traditions of Bihar Dumraon gharana is an ancient tradition of dhrupad music nearly 500 years old. This gharana flourished under the patronage of the kings of Dumraon Raj when it was founded. T'he Drupad style (vanis) of this gharana is Gauhar, Khandar, and Nauharvani. The founder of this gharana was Pt. Manikchand Dubey and Pt. Anup chand Dubey. Both artists were awarded by Mugal Emperor Shahjahan. The father of Bharat Ratna Ustad Bismillah Khan who also belonged to the Dumraon Gharana tradition. He usually played Shahnai in Dhrupad style. Famous living singers of Dumraon Gharana (Buxar) include Pt. Ramjee Mishra, a representative of Dumraon Gharana.Pt. Kamod Mishra- Vrindavan also a representative of Dumraon Gharana.
Many books have been written by this gharana, like Shree Krishn Ramayan, by Pt. Ghana rang Dubey, Surprakash, Bhairav, Prakash, Rashprakash, written by Jay Prakash Dubey and Prakash Kavi. Abishek Sangit Pallav by Dr. Arvind Kumar.
Much work has been done on this gharana and many items of this Dumraon Gharana are subjects of research.
The Mishras practised Gaurhar, Dagur, Nauhar and Khandar styles. This gharana flourished under the patronage of the kings of Bettiah Raj. Pandit Falguni Mitra is an exponent of this Gharana in the present generation.
Some of the illustrious Dhrupad exponents and virtuosos are Pandit Gokulotsavji Maharaj, Uday Bhawalkar, Ritwik Sanyal, Nirmalya Dey, Pt.Kshitipall Mallick, Pt. Ram Chatur Mallick and the Gundecha Brothers.
Seminars
ITC Sangeet Research Academy's Scientific Research Department, in their effort to link tradition to scientific methodologies, has been organizing symposia and workshops from 1987. The objective of these workshops/symposia is to create awareness of research in various fields of music. In 2013 they have conducted Dhrupad Seminar in association with National Centre for the Performing Arts (India) (NCPA, Mumbai) where Dr. Puru Dadheech participated as speaker to discuss the origin and predecessors of Dhrupad.
Prof. Richard Widdess (Head, Department of Music, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, UK) and Dr. Puru Dadheech, (Indore, India) discussed the origin of Dhrupad at length. Dr. Puru Dadheech established that Dhrupads are older than the times of Raja Mansingh Tomar.
Documentaries
The filmmaker Mani Kaul while under tutelage of Ustad Zia Mohiuddin Dagar and Ustad Zia Fariduddin Dagar made one of the first documentaries on Dhrupad music in 1983 called “Dhrupad.” This Hindi language full-length documentary features both his gurus along with the young Bahauddin Dagar - the son of Zia Mohiuddin Dagar. The film produced by the Films Division of India was shot in locations associated with history of Dhrupad in – Fatehpur Sikri and Jaipur's Jantar Mantar articulating the theory and the practice of the musical form.
References
Bibliography
Indian styles of music
Hindustani music genres
Hindustani music terminology
|
[
-0.2506616413593292,
0.11951856315135956,
-0.46633392572402954,
-0.14834906160831451,
-0.5880059003829956,
-0.49506673216819763,
0.28193068504333496,
0.1265668421983719,
0.006313026417046785,
-0.2017080932855606,
-0.4937268793582916,
0.191960409283638,
0.07572028785943985,
0.464798241853714,
-0.15975011885166168,
0.6241844296455383,
1.0475413799285889,
-0.457999050617218,
0.4339364767074585,
-0.5627796053886414,
-0.10800499469041824,
-0.3479315936565399,
-0.004336345940828323,
0.1996612846851349,
-0.18272078037261963,
-0.028400147333741188,
-0.24637849628925323,
0.4396573007106781,
-0.07380851358175278,
-0.491392582654953,
-0.12892425060272217,
0.7971017956733704,
0.054626110941171646,
-0.17768661677837372,
0.13971786201000214,
0.24421724677085876,
0.07315312325954437,
-0.3080221116542816,
-0.21519993245601654,
-0.7246595025062561,
-0.1056971326470375,
-0.5581615567207336,
0.9528568387031555,
0.41704320907592773,
-0.29963618516921997,
-0.2971838712692261,
-1.1550062894821167,
0.3834123909473419,
-0.7368062734603882,
-0.12968772649765015,
0.002711013425141573,
0.5011597275733948,
0.42978036403656006,
-0.07575202733278275,
0.37344667315483093,
0.07426247000694275,
-0.5649499297142029,
0.512177586555481,
-0.12488943338394165,
-0.10772908478975296,
0.7445552945137024,
0.38842451572418213,
0.156332328915596,
-0.6039316654205322,
0.07528131455183029,
-0.015512541867792606,
-0.46418124437332153,
-0.335112988948822,
0.1879034787416458,
0.06354276090860367,
-0.46811652183532715,
0.2015436440706253,
-0.07456754893064499,
0.44901949167251587,
-0.47686004638671875,
0.15526899695396423,
0.15013350546360016,
-0.29691416025161743,
-0.023798003792762756,
-0.07507597655057907,
-0.12427913397550583,
0.6474161744117737,
0.9873383045196533,
0.6432836055755615,
0.48890775442123413,
-0.5411622524261475,
-0.3372637927532196,
0.18354322016239166,
0.014529251493513584,
0.31421247124671936,
-0.3515832722187042,
-0.4880346655845642,
0.6620714664459229,
0.9257878065109253,
-0.16944536566734314,
0.48585280776023865,
0.456775039434433,
-0.5771781206130981,
0.28390398621559143,
0.09865467250347137,
0.2471148669719696,
0.08618533611297607,
-0.07965731620788574,
-0.2327498197555542,
-0.1551591008901596,
0.2928250730037689,
0.0518471822142601,
0.31371811032295227,
-0.3377477526664734,
-0.29543718695640564,
-0.6382753252983093,
0.11558004468679428,
0.03294128552079201,
0.01910962536931038,
0.18035463988780975,
-0.1934300661087036,
-0.47189146280288696,
0.11268435418605804,
-0.7428534626960754,
0.015942638739943504,
0.4473322331905365,
0.35489895939826965,
0.177381694316864,
-0.026131050661206245,
-0.8228899836540222,
0.4619665741920471,
0.7879070043563843,
0.7136960625648499,
-0.20087343454360962,
0.36952322721481323,
0.20116691291332245,
0.5245265364646912,
-0.4702033996582031,
-0.2341625690460205,
-0.409353107213974,
-0.49304163455963135,
0.682656466960907,
-0.14396832883358002,
0.5174264311790466,
0.24039888381958008,
-0.7437015175819397,
-0.13168717920780182,
-1.1563154458999634,
-0.31803545355796814,
0.6141483187675476,
-0.18722474575042725,
-0.10687872767448425,
0.031990449875593185,
-0.1342151015996933,
-0.592056930065155,
0.29104289412498474,
0.5041902661323547,
-0.45777589082717896,
-0.2580558657646179,
-0.42692169547080994,
0.02999028190970421,
0.4876714050769806,
-0.13361530005931854,
0.5762174129486084,
-0.039332255721092224,
-0.06454893946647644,
-0.4692065715789795,
0.29395899176597595,
-0.09815356880426407,
0.43589597940444946,
-0.08118286728858948,
0.40303805470466614,
0.5499147772789001,
-0.20857948064804077,
0.3318314254283905,
-0.6519609689712524,
0.27239274978637695,
-0.3965646028518677,
-0.17184995114803314,
-0.7727356553077698,
-0.43696972727775574,
-0.26635614037513733,
0.34551459550857544,
0.20821513235569,
0.27884945273399353,
-0.7000710368156433,
0.4663061499595642,
0.8510140776634216,
0.14713329076766968,
0.09763169288635254,
0.5466716885566711,
0.23923183977603912,
0.09693968296051025,
0.6812342405319214,
-0.3720221221446991,
0.016229433938860893,
-0.1836128979921341,
0.13613414764404297,
0.40018364787101746,
0.9947534203529358,
0.24847453832626343,
-0.28057190775871277,
0.5347943902015686,
0.603291928768158,
0.19607311487197876,
0.2636851370334625,
0.4517567753791809,
0.2479742020368576,
0.09200262278318405,
-0.03079056367278099,
0.443803608417511,
-0.16016677021980286,
0.25745201110839844,
0.6184481978416443,
0.021206790581345558,
0.1119275912642479,
-0.6654875874519348,
0.2161111831665039,
0.34081074595451355,
0.12139928340911865,
-0.2259913980960846,
-0.5247692465782166,
0.5379223823547363,
0.08627393841743469,
-0.430433452129364,
0.530163586139679,
-0.2838943302631378,
-0.3496704399585724,
0.19803859293460846,
-0.21291808784008026,
1.4715659618377686,
-0.5244683623313904,
0.15004652738571167,
-0.0825742706656456,
0.1155848503112793,
-0.026611708104610443,
-0.031818728893995285,
-0.061081599444150925,
-0.2287539839744568,
-0.5467339754104614,
-0.23717665672302246,
0.20164117217063904,
0.08842836320400238,
0.6103436350822449,
-0.9266157746315002,
0.13577578961849213,
0.13939565420150757,
-0.6839172840118408,
0.11091503500938416,
0.32611897587776184,
-0.28922927379608154,
-0.4065600037574768,
0.40931540727615356,
-0.28557366132736206,
0.43792614340782166,
0.5292744636535645,
0.1402028203010559,
0.03385639190673828,
-0.32045039534568787,
-0.06696613132953644,
0.11786407977342606,
-0.08066864311695099,
-0.14041417837142944,
-0.012760310433804989,
0.15532875061035156,
-0.044371239840984344,
0.24353714287281036,
0.8526824712753296,
-0.39597511291503906,
-0.580903947353363,
-0.7225887179374695,
0.19734640419483185,
-0.11025945842266083,
0.9504351019859314,
-0.367098867893219,
-0.506817638874054,
-0.3442303240299225,
-0.4286581873893738,
-0.2759764492511749,
-0.517231285572052,
-0.5098886489868164,
0.16220638155937195,
-0.47769826650619507,
-0.26255446672439575,
-0.3076915740966797,
0.42851966619491577,
0.41400161385536194,
0.026180535554885864,
-0.39631596207618713,
-0.8795285820960999,
0.0896470695734024,
0.2685290575027466,
-0.48785400390625,
0.494563490152359,
0.35179397463798523,
0.4691154956817627,
0.4151599407196045,
0.010701572522521019,
0.1661113053560257,
-0.013128570280969143,
-0.06738165020942688,
-0.42586448788642883,
0.4674171507358551,
-0.2053087055683136,
-0.7975475788116455,
-0.6739608645439148,
0.29613131284713745,
-0.006278404500335455,
-0.14159972965717316,
-0.29207316040992737,
0.164514422416687,
-0.8044866323471069,
-0.453370600938797,
-5.367660999298096,
-0.19715072214603424,
-0.1138751208782196,
-0.40141236782073975,
0.2885317802429199,
0.8829934000968933,
0.4309726357460022,
-0.7204152941703796,
0.2780230641365051,
-0.24658788740634918,
-0.6014560461044312,
0.22517527639865875,
-0.031131889671087265,
0.39716047048568726,
-0.14846843481063843,
0.3031630516052246,
0.1275017261505127,
0.34619981050491333,
0.07755845785140991,
0.2184743732213974,
0.4560174345970154,
0.3619841933250427,
0.27609261870384216,
0.8021417260169983,
-0.10914483666419983,
0.21936088800430298,
-0.42305830121040344,
-0.20660752058029175,
-0.40639957785606384,
-0.006523184943944216,
0.09903958439826965,
-0.41645070910453796,
-0.003695623017847538,
0.21049152314662933,
-0.129049614071846,
0.4432326853275299,
0.4487157166004181,
0.388243168592453,
0.5974723100662231,
-0.21603386104106903,
-0.28985103964805603,
-0.11926697194576263,
0.5091785192489624,
0.06466855108737946,
0.4077073633670807,
0.22955912351608276,
-0.6041500568389893,
-0.1986565887928009,
0.1928204596042633,
1.0539171695709229,
-0.5173797607421875,
-0.5194501876831055,
0.42449817061424255,
-0.5563855767250061,
-0.02173798903822899,
-0.27119356393814087,
0.6753454208374023,
0.1075417622923851,
0.7033636569976807,
0.43643054366111755,
0.032271698117256165,
-0.4722083508968353,
-0.4064898192882538,
-0.8344564437866211,
0.14195600152015686,
0.14809443056583405,
-0.2974972128868103,
-0.35029688477516174,
0.19792015850543976,
0.5624162554740906,
-0.11250388622283936,
0.250026136636734,
-0.017638016492128372,
-0.323659211397171,
0.3128410577774048,
-1.2290376424789429,
0.34692350029945374,
0.2553926408290863,
-0.278356671333313,
0.6050839424133301,
-0.1510622352361679,
-0.2621764540672302,
-0.051776256412267685,
-0.09040945768356323,
0.34030210971832275,
-0.38651448488235474,
-0.57192063331604,
-0.18199481070041656,
-0.3311827778816223,
0.051048267632722855,
1.1507081985473633,
-0.1769351214170456,
-0.41558921337127686,
0.4320397675037384,
0.5860564708709717,
0.903523325920105,
-0.0346369594335556,
0.30821123719215393,
0.42865630984306335,
-0.6185134053230286,
0.5442721247673035,
-0.3790006637573242,
0.24015487730503082,
0.2907462418079376,
-0.1666337102651596,
-0.45090529322624207,
0.043098725378513336,
0.06725355237722397,
1.1795811653137207,
-0.9278643727302551,
0.08564205467700958,
-0.03261924535036087,
-0.07969515770673752,
-0.026676500216126442,
0.8278095126152039,
-0.20037877559661865,
-0.4596233069896698,
0.4444352984428406,
-0.07933785021305084,
-0.08289317786693573,
0.6560253500938416,
-0.5126556158065796,
-0.05005919560790062,
0.1972254365682602,
-0.18580903112888336,
-0.18797041475772858,
0.14032089710235596,
-0.07902088761329651,
-0.48475825786590576,
0.06597328931093216,
0.4166214168071747,
-0.2989179193973541,
0.029687980189919472,
0.03566257655620575,
-0.28465861082077026,
-0.0911225751042366,
-0.18275690078735352,
0.36423635482788086,
0.026406461372971535,
-0.6195335388183594,
-0.0657084509730339,
-0.5024698376655579,
0.09877566248178482,
0.5972943305969238,
0.8328161239624023,
0.0005434938939288259,
-0.1663351058959961,
-0.7058854103088379,
-0.5388305187225342,
0.15666413307189941,
0.5055068135261536,
-0.025724174454808235,
0.4145863354206085,
-0.8992506861686707,
-0.8240818977355957,
-0.29724228382110596,
0.05120950564742088,
0.3658812344074249,
-0.2658955454826355,
-0.02380894124507904,
0.06920943409204483,
-0.15521754324436188,
-1.2452393770217896,
0.09039843082427979,
-0.1370471715927124,
-0.18803465366363525,
-0.4575851857662201,
-0.3327614963054657,
-0.04020494222640991,
0.21875205636024475,
0.34428274631500244,
-0.548703670501709,
0.11381115019321442,
-0.2982734143733978,
0.4241310656070709,
-0.37862372398376465,
0.2543243169784546,
0.378139853477478,
-0.028890809044241905,
0.03281198441982269,
-0.12806512415409088,
-0.5164393186569214,
-0.6408027410507202,
0.5882678031921387,
0.3622257709503174,
-0.25067055225372314,
-0.4230731427669525,
-0.2538297176361084,
-0.5611302852630615,
0.8146135807037354,
0.06251806765794754,
0.34736931324005127,
0.4808141589164734,
-0.2847925126552582,
-0.054350677877664566,
-0.5727899670600891,
-0.18022559583187103,
0.23372642695903778,
-0.06780262291431427,
-1.0780326128005981,
0.8683343529701233,
0.08292492479085922,
0.1717054545879364,
0.6213199496269226,
0.5074846148490906,
-0.45207372307777405,
0.8356344103813171,
0.14539098739624023,
-0.8939300775527954,
-0.4652399718761444,
-0.04027917608618736,
-0.37347450852394104,
0.4153122007846832,
-0.2773486375808716,
-0.10279402136802673,
-0.026824986562132835,
-0.44018006324768066,
-0.7852919697761536,
-0.11126908659934998,
0.25479578971862793,
-0.15945464372634888,
0.0010239470284432173,
0.056345678865909576,
0.338764488697052,
-0.8280956745147705,
-0.6880632638931274,
-0.06428909301757812,
-0.5393548011779785,
0.02381777949631214,
-0.10902532190084457,
0.029049450531601906,
-0.16309644281864166,
-0.07949549704790115,
-0.2809639275074005,
-0.4678483009338379,
-0.5649611353874207,
-0.4548294246196747,
0.09342276304960251,
0.2857799232006073,
0.6113293170928955,
0.34245333075523376,
0.15028780698776245,
0.2865414619445801,
-0.4527363181114197,
-0.17084373533725739,
-0.03276515379548073,
0.36662328243255615,
-0.4518282115459442,
-0.8222705125808716,
0.5038638710975647,
0.558673620223999,
-0.13954514265060425,
-0.7973080277442932,
-0.37126803398132324,
1.1880701780319214,
-1.029949426651001,
0.23465053737163544,
-0.13599088788032532,
-0.03332623839378357,
0.3012276887893677,
0.021787822246551514,
-0.3831673562526703,
0.13744573295116425,
0.008497022092342377,
-0.22492429614067078,
-0.4663415849208832,
-0.18904149532318115,
-0.21217042207717896,
0.5250802636146545,
-0.1744833141565323,
0.09797045588493347,
-0.2031676024198532,
0.5787109136581421,
-0.1516541689634323,
0.550198495388031,
-0.013327944092452526,
-0.3793801963329315,
-0.6676278114318848,
0.3398151993751526,
0.5400691032409668,
0.5555232763290405,
-0.3110307455062866,
0.1387077271938324,
-0.1565607339143753,
0.15502658486366272,
-0.27255430817604065,
0.20643332600593567,
-0.14383405447006226,
-0.4831797480583191,
-0.4695759415626526,
-0.4425424337387085,
0.07973477244377136,
0.630664050579071,
0.9038901329040527,
-0.25021231174468994,
0.2108384221792221,
0.41090714931488037,
0.21823744475841522,
-0.5591113567352295,
-0.5120232105255127,
-0.04002728685736656,
0.3506607413291931,
-0.0000962055055424571,
-0.07781536877155304,
-0.07077216356992722,
-0.1644739806652069,
0.485377699136734,
-0.7608112096786499,
-0.21008068323135376,
0.40232783555984497,
0.31379032135009766,
0.01761033944785595,
0.46579116582870483,
0.7729364037513733,
-0.333871990442276,
0.21604463458061218,
0.43485233187675476,
0.3198355436325073,
0.34942057728767395,
0.5587679743766785,
0.18992231786251068,
-1.0852360725402832,
0.8247707486152649,
0.29053106904029846,
0.30918028950691223,
0.1548406481742859,
-0.31664377450942993,
-0.8925285339355469,
0.5600941181182861,
0.07275655120611191,
0.7961525917053223,
-0.4611251652240753,
-0.3732509911060333,
-0.015283474698662758,
-0.020692357793450356,
-0.8632953763008118,
-0.015834880992770195,
0.3875431418418884,
-0.5002201199531555,
0.41367480158805847,
0.9238314032554626,
-0.19585958123207092,
0.11969005316495895,
0.5885071158409119,
-0.3559168875217438,
0.20168554782867432,
0.36434197425842285,
0.3734908401966095,
-0.31106531620025635,
-0.7068600058555603,
0.07136283814907074,
0.8309325575828552,
0.46956753730773926,
-0.09415248036384583,
0.892687976360321,
0.02830014005303383,
1.036170482635498,
0.20734691619873047,
0.8336031436920166,
-0.5154412388801575,
0.13022133708000183,
0.12536320090293884,
0.27779388427734375,
0.13718178868293762,
-0.0164791252464056,
0.20944763720035553,
0.1479823887348175,
-0.49699169397354126,
-0.5182850360870361,
-0.08066937327384949,
-0.03367989510297775,
0.056754741817712784,
-0.7522901296615601,
0.525356650352478,
0.481576144695282,
0.03672312572598457,
-0.11624500900506973,
0.18986667692661285,
0.41500866413116455,
0.11488234996795654,
-0.32635000348091125,
-0.26483193039894104,
-0.206817626953125,
-0.5732326507568359,
0.2997242212295532,
-0.2645803391933441,
-0.5395510792732239,
-0.009380062110722065,
-1.04778254032135,
0.31714069843292236,
-0.4349897801876068,
0.28163981437683105,
0.002573906211182475,
0.40431085228919983,
-0.3419082462787628,
-0.14237971603870392,
-0.2610715329647064,
0.45390182733535767,
0.13970299065113068,
-0.0034883739426732063,
0.45865803956985474,
0.3231763541698456,
0.41978272795677185,
-0.06493695080280304,
-0.30194470286369324,
-0.26502400636672974,
-0.5590664148330688,
0.05417024344205856,
-0.2796437740325928,
0.08452488481998444,
-0.13367056846618652,
0.32792332768440247,
-0.21102501451969147,
0.2168700098991394,
-0.06556219607591629,
0.033864617347717285,
0.3369370698928833,
-0.7727581858634949,
-0.19957472383975983,
-0.39829111099243164,
0.07803254574537277,
0.06507362425327301,
-0.11165950447320938,
0.11425936222076416,
-0.7435503602027893,
-0.08960380405187607,
0.19084151089191437,
0.2842532992362976,
-0.8273622989654541,
0.5712147355079651,
0.038305580615997314,
0.2522154748439789,
-0.8943490386009216,
0.03966250270605087,
-0.04227948188781738,
-0.041367556899785995,
0.26822206377983093,
-0.10821610689163208,
0.48477843403816223,
-0.5767479538917542,
0.4360392689704895,
0.14045803248882294,
-0.20454679429531097,
-0.1530490219593048,
-1.9037810564041138,
-0.18634271621704102,
-0.48614776134490967,
0.43687373399734497,
-0.2703056335449219,
0.6727855801582336,
0.23882894217967987,
-0.26491856575012207,
0.8140345215797424,
-0.5629132390022278,
-0.09567936509847641,
-0.3503246307373047,
0.008501863107085228,
-0.19352056086063385,
0.33537185192108154,
-0.21806906163692474
] |
200333
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca-class%20escort%20carrier
|
Casablanca-class escort carrier
|
The Casablanca-class escort carrier were a series of escort carriers constructed for the United States Navy during World War II. They are the most numerous class of aircraft carriers ever built. Fifty were laid down, launched and commissioned within the space of less than two years – 3 November 1942 through to 8 July 1944. These were nearly one third of the 143 aircraft carriers built in the United States during the war. Despite their numbers, and the preservation of more famous and larger carriers as museums, none of these modest ships survive today. Five were lost to enemy action during World War II and the remainder were scrapped. navsource.org, Casablanca Class
Casablanca was the first class to be designed from keel up as an escort carrier. It had a larger and more useful hangar deck than previous conversions. It also had a larger flight deck than the . Unlike larger carriers which had extensive armor, protection was limited to splinter plating. Their small size made them useful for transporting assembled aircraft of various sizes, but fighters were limited to smaller and lighter aircraft such as the Grumman F4F Wildcat. The hull numbers were assigned consecutively, from CVE-55 Casablanca to CVE-104 Munda.
Casablanca-class carriers were built by the Kaiser Shipbuilding Company's Vancouver Yard on the Columbia River in Vancouver, Washington. The Vancouver yard was expressly built in 1942 to construct Liberty ships, but exigencies of war soon saw the yard building LST landing craft and then escort carriers all before the end of the yard's first year in operation. The yard had twelve building ways and a outfitting dock along with a unique additional building slip originally intended to add prefabricated superstructures to Liberty ships. Their relatively small size and mass-production origins led their crews to refer to them as "jeep carriers" or "Kaiser Jeeps" with varying degrees of affection.navsource.org, Casablanca Class Carriers, USS Midway (CVE-63)
Naming
The Casablanca class initially continued the US Navy's policy of naming escort carriers after bays and sounds, in this case the numerous inlets of the Alexander Archipelago that form the southwest coastline of Alaska, though several were subsequently renamed to carry on the US Navy's tradition of naming aircraft carriers after battles. Those ships that appear to be named after islands, seas, straits or cities actually commemorated battles fought at those locations. Several had their original "Bay" names changed to battle names while under construction, and two of them (Midway and Coral Sea) lost their battle names mid-career to new s, becoming USS St. Lo and USS Anzio respectively. Unlike the larger and s, none were named to commemorate historical naval vessels.
Production time and Navy refusal
Although Essex-class aircraft carriers were completed in 20 months or less, 1941 projections on the basis of the 38-month average pre-war construction period estimated no new fleet carriers could be expected until 1944. Kaiser had reduced construction time of cargo ships (Liberty ships) from more than a year to less than 90 days, and proposed building a fleet of 50 small carriers in less than two years. The US naval authorities refused to approve construction of the Kaiser-built ships until Kaiser went directly to the President's advisers. The Allies were in desperate need of carriers to replace early war losses. Kaiser produced the small carriers as rapidly as planned and resistance to their value quickly disappeared as they proved their usefulness defending convoys, providing air support for amphibious operations, and allowing fleet carriers to focus on offensive air-strike missions. Unlike most other large warships since , the Casablanca-class ships were equipped with uniflow reciprocating engines instead of steam turbines. This was done because of bottlenecks in the gear-cutting industry, but greatly limited their usefulness after the war.
Service
Although designated as convoy escort carriers, the Casablanca class was far more frequently used in large fleet amphibious operations, where speed was less important and their small airgroups could combine to provide the effectiveness of a much larger ship.
Their finest hour came in the Battle off Samar, when Taffy 3, a task unit composed of six of these ships and their screen of three destroyers and four destroyer escorts gave battle against the Japanese main force. Their desperate defense not only preserved most of their own ships, but succeeded in turning back the massive force with only aircraft machine guns, torpedoes, depth charges, high-explosive bombs, and their own 5"/38 caliber guns. Tasked with ground support and antisubmarine patrols, they lacked the torpedoes and armor-piercing bombs to tackle a surface fleet alone. Taffy 3 was to be protected by Admiral Halsey's Third Fleet with carriers and battleships. But the Third Fleet had left the scene to pursue a decoy carrier fleet, inadvertently leaving Taffy 3 the only force between the massive Japanese fleet and undefended landing forces at Leyte Gulf. The lightly armed vessels each had only one 5-inch/38 cal gun mounted aft, yet two of their number, St. Lo (ex-Midway) and , became the only US aircraft carriers to ever record a hit on an enemy warship by its own guns. St. Lo hit a Japanese destroyer with a single round and Kalinin Bay damaged a with two hits. Recent evidence suggests that six 5-inch shells fired from struck the cruiser Chōkai. One of these rounds was reported to have impacted amidships on the starboard side, causing a large secondary explosion (probably from one of Chōkais own torpedoes) that proved fatal to the heavy cruiser. The White Plains gun crew claimed to have put all six 5-inch rounds into Chōkai from a range of , near the maximum effective range for the 5-inch/38 gun. However, this claim is not supported by Japanese sources, which report this damage as resulting from an air attack.
Another noteworthy achievement of the Casablanca class was when , under command of Captain Daniel V. Gallery, participated in the first capture-at-sea of a foreign warship by the US Navy since the War of 1812 when a crew of volunteers from boarded after Gallery's Guadalcanal-centered hunter-killer group forced it to the surface with depth charges. Guadalcanal also earned the distinction of being the only aircraft carrier in history to conduct flight operations with a captured enemy vessel in tow.navsource.org, USS Guadalcanal CVE-60
Notable incidents
Of the eleven United States aircraft carriers of all types lost during World War II, six were escort carriers, five of which were of the Kaiser-built Casablanca class:
CVE-56 Liscome Bay
Sunk 24 November 1943. Submarine torpedo launched from IJN I-175 SW off Butaritari (Makin).
CVE-73 Gambier Bay
Sunk 25 October 1944. Concentrated surface gunfire from IJN Center Force during Battle off Samar.
CVE-63 St. Lo (ex-Midway ex-Chapin Bay)Sunk 25 October 1944. Kamikaze aerial attack during Battle of Leyte Gulf.
CVE-79 Ommaney Bay
Sunk 4 January 1945. Kamikaze aerial attack in the Sulu Sea en route to Lingayen Gulf.
CVE-95 Bismarck Sea
Sunk 21 February 1945. Kamikaze aerial attack off Iwo Jima.
CVE-96 Anguilla Bay renamed USS Salamaua
Damaged at Lingayen Gulf on 6 January 1945 after kamikaze with two 551-pound (250 kg) bombs hit her flight deck. She was repaired and put back in service.
Post war
Some ships were retained postwar as aircraft transports, where their lack of speed was not a major drawback. Some units were reactivated as helicopter escort carriers (CVHE and T-CVHE) or utility carriers (CVU and T-CVU) after the war, but most were deactivated and placed in reserve once the war ended, stricken in 1958-9 and scrapped in 1959–61. One ship, , was heavily modified into an amphibious assault ship (LPH-6), but was scrapped in 1966.
Originally, half of their number were to be transferred to the Royal Navy under Lend-Lease, but instead they were retained in the US Navy and the Batch II s were transferred instead as the (the RN's Batch I Bogues were the Attacker class).
Ships of the class
All ships of the Casablanca'' class were built in Vancouver, Washington, by the Kaiser Shipbuilding Company. The following ships of the class were constructed.
See also
List of ship classes of the Second World War
References
pps. 1 & 2 - "Kaiser Company, Inc. - Vancouver", BuShips QQ files, NARA, College Park, MD.- "The Ships We Build", Kaiser Company, Inc., n.d., c. immediate post-war, 1945.
Listing of ships at Hazegray.org
External links
The Battle Off Samar – Taffy III at Leyte Gulf website by Robert Jon Cox
Escort aircraft carrier classes
Casablanca class escort carrier
Casablanca class escort carrier
Vancouver, Washington
S4-S2-BB3 ships
|
[
-0.3466522693634033,
-0.34744375944137573,
-0.5240545272827148,
0.49672284722328186,
-0.19616472721099854,
0.11692884564399719,
0.10839671641588211,
-0.28659653663635254,
-0.17897655069828033,
-0.17454029619693756,
-0.060021448880434036,
0.8049648404121399,
-0.5082800984382629,
-0.004127695690840483,
0.26963552832603455,
0.06484819948673248,
0.5230213403701782,
0.3706318140029907,
0.007081007584929466,
-0.7691147327423096,
-0.0076113007962703705,
-0.1563667505979538,
0.20650973916053772,
-0.17589902877807617,
0.18543317914009094,
0.232612743973732,
0.5003984570503235,
0.6649460792541504,
0.43530985713005066,
0.23252734541893005,
0.2916106581687927,
0.5936164855957031,
-0.165663480758667,
0.02611284889280796,
-0.06269180774688721,
-0.1344892978668213,
-0.020205896347761154,
-0.07657331228256226,
-0.11130789667367935,
-0.47606009244918823,
-0.6628720164299011,
0.08164223283529282,
0.3499756455421448,
0.5811275243759155,
-0.03590956702828407,
0.08414201438426971,
-1.401572346687317,
-0.16712209582328796,
0.21732056140899658,
-0.5518191456794739,
-0.16765280067920685,
0.4992295801639557,
0.5017239451408386,
0.8018144965171814,
0.6393517851829529,
0.51548832654953,
-0.7889041304588318,
0.23808912932872772,
-0.535204291343689,
-0.5460935235023499,
0.5511932969093323,
0.7671422362327576,
0.7633339166641235,
-0.028065219521522522,
0.09808934479951859,
0.038233432918787,
-0.17385855317115784,
0.027606837451457977,
-0.1094924584031105,
-0.16007745265960693,
0.39595505595207214,
-0.3299752473831177,
-0.13658548891544342,
0.2388533502817154,
-0.25877949595451355,
-0.2619834840297699,
0.04674151912331581,
-0.43078938126564026,
-0.003101225709542632,
0.7155138254165649,
0.35724547505378723,
0.0599190779030323,
0.9120379090309143,
-0.07477334886789322,
-0.1474359929561615,
0.25536754727363586,
-0.6630557775497437,
0.3374040424823761,
-0.8344327211380005,
0.5234357118606567,
-0.6973358988761902,
-0.26467928290367126,
0.1948821246623993,
0.7206853032112122,
0.0947175994515419,
0.05568491294980049,
-0.14858505129814148,
0.5244684815406799,
0.32095637917518616,
0.5275356769561768,
-0.04705860838294029,
0.3875173330307007,
0.5638907551765442,
-0.10914010554552078,
-0.9034422636032104,
-0.36225223541259766,
-0.18955685198307037,
-0.11952052265405655,
-0.49376270174980164,
-0.4909076392650604,
-0.3429485261440277,
-0.20695537328720093,
0.1474309116601944,
-0.11042851209640503,
-0.29104751348495483,
-0.04407547414302826,
-0.11047210544347763,
-0.646898090839386,
-0.3350188136100769,
0.07229743897914886,
0.2665373682975769,
1.0606452226638794,
-0.511715829372406,
-0.1247989609837532,
-0.19603551924228668,
0.40814727544784546,
0.7936525344848633,
0.5848960876464844,
-0.8029174208641052,
0.20680567622184753,
0.41362160444259644,
0.832429051399231,
-0.6761464476585388,
0.5238368511199951,
-0.5481308102607727,
-0.30270618200302124,
0.024369070306420326,
0.6025600433349609,
0.714510977268219,
0.3905394971370697,
-1.1189697980880737,
-0.3766205310821533,
-0.998864471912384,
-0.3788464665412903,
0.704135537147522,
-0.22841565310955048,
0.23552875220775604,
-0.3671168386936188,
-0.38659194111824036,
-0.4393313527107239,
-0.10405560582876205,
-0.348704993724823,
-0.001750055467709899,
0.4325487017631531,
-0.5082958340644836,
-0.4561111629009247,
0.45168444514274597,
-0.11220874637365341,
0.5534218549728394,
0.09573602676391602,
-0.7689439654350281,
0.20006749033927917,
-0.2888972759246826,
0.12352508306503296,
0.004927437752485275,
0.3051484525203705,
0.06125218793749809,
0.06988778710365295,
0.6514768600463867,
0.09691965579986572,
-0.2132081389427185,
0.17526428401470184,
0.19602125883102417,
-0.1796594113111496,
-0.6254968047142029,
0.3044229745864868,
0.6273861527442932,
-0.3785029947757721,
0.38482579588890076,
-0.5838229060173035,
-0.4907045066356659,
-0.01515556313097477,
0.4655994474887848,
0.12463481724262238,
0.31522342562675476,
0.3317132890224457,
0.07468938082456589,
0.18322506546974182,
-0.024823326617479324,
-0.0824667289853096,
-0.030947355553507805,
0.08236639946699142,
0.4145318567752838,
0.01398439984768629,
0.9920249581336975,
0.13691534101963043,
-0.4657352566719055,
0.2835544943809509,
0.32102176547050476,
-0.12308299541473389,
0.13327656686306,
-0.32266172766685486,
0.1937800794839859,
0.4166400730609894,
-0.5675224661827087,
0.3810504078865051,
-0.006813112646341324,
0.5444520711898804,
-0.12251157313585281,
0.9195594191551208,
-0.2678127884864807,
-0.7536019086837769,
0.31183382868766785,
0.3007221221923828,
-0.16412314772605896,
-0.27336975932121277,
-0.6577593088150024,
0.19064046442508698,
0.17966070771217346,
-0.5474709868431091,
0.6863966584205627,
-0.0030037490651011467,
-0.6297249794006348,
0.09148911386728287,
-0.17993131279945374,
-0.02365754172205925,
-0.05618916451931,
0.05780575051903725,
0.13010647892951965,
0.010643703863024712,
0.40101876854896545,
0.3524763286113739,
-0.34053051471710205,
-0.514714241027832,
0.0007137885550037026,
0.7621887922286987,
0.07530726492404938,
-0.2295111119747162,
0.34681767225265503,
-0.11675309389829636,
0.010749290697276592,
0.26716142892837524,
-0.7748362421989441,
0.09134043008089066,
0.4080944061279297,
-0.22873084247112274,
0.10501762479543686,
0.030354000627994537,
-0.1391504853963852,
-0.3901907801628113,
0.0439523309469223,
0.3770553767681122,
0.23418311774730682,
-0.9483970403671265,
-0.3402675688266754,
0.3205015957355499,
-0.3037281334400177,
-0.008869060315191746,
0.8307557106018066,
-0.06566236168146133,
-0.10606347024440765,
0.7167576551437378,
0.09776288270950317,
0.427317351102829,
0.5054014325141907,
-0.5227367281913757,
-0.11460720747709274,
-0.001784777152352035,
0.20641475915908813,
-0.02776406705379486,
0.4741676449775696,
0.04262451454997063,
0.3281674385070801,
-1.546184778213501,
-0.1573449820280075,
0.008697936311364174,
-0.554964005947113,
1.0392857789993286,
-0.4302520155906677,
-0.3227440416812897,
0.6358839273452759,
0.9577940702438354,
-0.06013677269220352,
-0.5009958744049072,
-0.30633118748664856,
-0.23564964532852173,
0.1778934746980667,
-0.8646955490112305,
-0.3687225878238678,
-0.2624114155769348,
-0.36643826961517334,
-0.14318756759166718,
-0.7333287596702576,
0.21084482967853546,
-0.6245502829551697,
0.6973414421081543,
-0.3755477964878082,
-0.1928020715713501,
0.060927554965019226,
-0.3770065903663635,
-0.5841436386108398,
0.33716046810150146,
-0.2773968577384949,
-0.16997307538986206,
0.035852085798978806,
0.13142628967761993,
-0.5857268571853638,
0.5817884802818298,
-5.414035797119141,
0.043021317571401596,
-0.006112937815487385,
-0.08690022677183151,
-0.3879307210445404,
0.431231290102005,
0.021335629746317863,
-0.4677668511867523,
-0.0020667656790465117,
-0.36423423886299133,
0.7361611723899841,
0.172676682472229,
-0.11101627349853516,
0.32337433099746704,
0.49194788932800293,
0.5783020853996277,
0.7427592277526855,
-0.7913190126419067,
0.559697151184082,
-0.2924732565879822,
0.3672355115413666,
0.058012668043375015,
-0.02376154437661171,
0.33523064851760864,
0.21326163411140442,
0.18797551095485687,
-0.44001325964927673,
0.16835366189479828,
-0.7741356492042542,
0.047888707369565964,
-0.06364695727825165,
-0.2719285786151886,
-0.03788850083947182,
0.059632834047079086,
-0.15876129269599915,
-0.3599884510040283,
1.035911202430725,
0.5716869831085205,
0.17043709754943848,
-0.40653085708618164,
-0.34386634826660156,
0.49970364570617676,
-0.3382709324359894,
0.13208845257759094,
0.5148605108261108,
-0.34912675619125366,
-0.22399252653121948,
0.01310106460005045,
0.3468102514743805,
1.075960397720337,
0.2629733979701996,
0.09158407151699066,
0.33756396174430847,
0.6193640828132629,
0.69814532995224,
-0.15994182229042053,
-0.31895026564598083,
-0.3715740442276001,
-0.5473728775978088,
0.36335477232933044,
0.154793381690979,
0.06891821324825287,
-0.13241775333881378,
-0.5654079914093018,
0.07652033865451813,
0.39999350905418396,
-0.29870688915252686,
-0.108915314078331,
0.4280117154121399,
-0.10099973529577255,
0.05535909906029701,
1.2042917013168335,
0.08158107101917267,
-0.946746289730072,
0.6542285084724426,
-0.6776159405708313,
0.06781762838363647,
-0.23756638169288635,
-0.14255794882774353,
-0.3619723320007324,
0.3728317320346832,
-0.22863666713237762,
-0.36847665905952454,
0.3352408707141876,
0.4969993829727173,
-0.6530802249908447,
-0.3650009036064148,
0.3540274202823639,
-0.25071123242378235,
0.0242171548306942,
0.4245558977127075,
-0.5901805758476257,
0.8273599743843079,
0.4570547044277191,
0.8896043300628662,
-0.28632885217666626,
-0.33190810680389404,
0.3812488317489624,
0.8418262004852295,
-0.3135618567466736,
0.1273087114095688,
-0.5722202658653259,
0.6324862837791443,
-0.1444011628627777,
-0.2201589196920395,
-0.3752953112125397,
0.2996789216995239,
-0.06729831546545029,
0.5054500102996826,
0.20008628070354462,
-0.3964305818080902,
-0.2288341075181961,
-0.35805463790893555,
-0.36639389395713806,
0.9535431265830994,
-0.1359301209449768,
-0.11740908026695251,
0.4067551791667938,
0.4443245232105255,
0.3098914623260498,
-0.1502029150724411,
0.49152418971061707,
-0.2741679847240448,
-0.24214427173137665,
-0.04853477329015732,
-0.34212973713874817,
0.35103511810302734,
0.11187390983104706,
-0.48141229152679443,
0.5066214203834534,
0.25759562849998474,
0.6161972284317017,
-0.21858154237270355,
-0.21726472675800323,
0.10995285212993622,
-0.8216716051101685,
-0.5220111012458801,
-0.44221749901771545,
0.28618890047073364,
-0.0654749870300293,
-0.9344010353088379,
-0.06080639734864235,
-0.5064713358879089,
0.15405626595020294,
0.6607983112335205,
0.45980769395828247,
0.4078540503978729,
-0.5320919156074524,
0.187349334359169,
0.3222520649433136,
-0.3354097604751587,
-0.4313514828681946,
0.500596821308136,
-0.3485633134841919,
-0.30090007185935974,
0.24181421101093292,
1.1160451173782349,
0.35793834924697876,
-0.04335737228393555,
-0.5705670118331909,
0.44611379504203796,
-0.3461992144584656,
-0.6767656207084656,
-0.07175091654062271,
-0.10568918287754059,
-0.1466633677482605,
-0.45288509130477905,
-0.6676044464111328,
0.03457914665341377,
0.37432339787483215,
0.4212517738342285,
-0.5645830631256104,
-0.6072871685028076,
-0.0350230410695076,
0.2550126016139984,
0.29656827449798584,
-0.7523870468139648,
0.011542766354978085,
-0.6223816275596619,
-0.009456456638872623,
-0.32007771730422974,
-0.08591044694185257,
-0.45358121395111084,
-0.0787438377737999,
0.18362955749034882,
-0.2329152524471283,
-0.613440752029419,
0.09983617812395096,
-0.6293323636054993,
-0.1356818526983261,
0.011506898328661919,
-0.0011442600516602397,
0.4141334593296051,
0.28134116530418396,
-0.9930294156074524,
-0.0902131125330925,
0.06669480353593826,
0.5885317921638489,
0.47072499990463257,
-0.7583522200584412,
0.0032148913014680147,
0.4714703857898712,
-0.846696674823761,
0.495830774307251,
-0.0065782577730715275,
-0.4442523121833801,
0.25378182530403137,
-0.7812507748603821,
0.05528184399008751,
0.5598576068878174,
-0.5655506253242493,
-0.9869603514671326,
0.5673293471336365,
0.5870400667190552,
-0.3262826204299927,
0.21343018114566803,
-0.2796317934989929,
0.27484050393104553,
-0.23587271571159363,
-0.3470088541507721,
-0.28779110312461853,
-0.18914374709129333,
0.06501292437314987,
-0.7416952848434448,
-1.0939311981201172,
0.736960232257843,
-0.043601538985967636,
-0.5925647020339966,
-0.4107031524181366,
0.1410062462091446,
-0.09695356339216232,
0.22902587056159973,
-0.4024304151535034,
-0.4759904146194458,
0.48719900846481323,
-0.48952943086624146,
0.04872636869549751,
-0.07834732532501221,
0.24593037366867065,
0.36152052879333496,
0.5123448967933655,
1.1491422653198242,
0.27493953704833984,
-0.38155996799468994,
0.10338786989450455,
0.4389756917953491,
0.279611200094223,
-0.6143946647644043,
-0.25972506403923035,
-0.18935826420783997,
-0.37066417932510376,
-0.6549047231674194,
-0.8094558119773865,
-0.378871351480484,
1.2010725736618042,
-0.057251449674367905,
-0.022168587893247604,
0.0026156208477914333,
-0.2044997662305832,
0.14074797928333282,
0.11809171736240387,
0.33901703357696533,
-1.068421721458435,
0.15933722257614136,
0.34594109654426575,
0.22852909564971924,
-0.18476197123527527,
0.15594200789928436,
0.30557164549827576,
0.179661825299263,
0.06745043396949768,
0.3478652834892273,
0.32424136996269226,
0.5305638909339905,
0.15039603412151337,
-0.12221764773130417,
-0.07621772587299347,
-0.595679759979248,
0.3932814598083496,
0.3249610364437103,
-0.2659424841403961,
-0.2940119802951813,
-0.2503014802932739,
-0.4444996416568756,
-0.5079348683357239,
-0.6099510788917542,
-0.1649966686964035,
-0.21749421954154968,
0.06307943165302277,
0.02944079227745533,
0.3837537467479706,
-0.027228768914937973,
-0.48976588249206543,
0.06436736136674881,
0.031309742480516434,
0.6579844951629639,
-0.4466237723827362,
0.09101035445928574,
-0.16275545954704285,
0.4677979052066803,
-0.10303359478712082,
0.2615572512149811,
-0.5436670780181885,
-0.048470161855220795,
0.37305063009262085,
-0.34408456087112427,
0.5280813574790955,
0.0970086082816124,
-0.09541551023721695,
0.04038364812731743,
-0.2856193780899048,
-0.7396125793457031,
0.12964937090873718,
0.415008008480072,
-0.42763784527778625,
0.4624384045600891,
0.3728610873222351,
-0.2892933189868927,
0.06804841756820679,
-0.3904126286506653,
0.21123072504997253,
0.25508880615234375,
0.046690281480550766,
0.5931345820426941,
-0.30157923698425293,
0.44598397612571716,
-0.5411667227745056,
-0.2205447405576706,
0.04283217713236809,
0.2213597297668457,
0.2825613021850586,
-0.29845282435417175,
-0.2495608627796173,
0.1651293784379959,
-0.44321903586387634,
0.4275539517402649,
0.25037452578544617,
-0.432553231716156,
-0.3917292058467865,
0.5794147253036499,
0.31189659237861633,
0.18309099972248077,
-0.14362390339374542,
-0.8051038980484009,
-0.06802362203598022,
0.1371072679758072,
-0.18434424698352814,
0.4525830149650574,
0.6564318537712097,
0.31540849804878235,
0.3454458713531494,
0.6253581047058105,
0.4714169502258301,
0.03562559932470322,
0.014199941419064999,
0.4415503740310669,
0.7054941654205322,
-0.48963800072669983,
0.11846207827329636,
-0.8071025013923645,
-0.2708669900894165,
0.3834543228149414,
0.4240638315677643,
0.3880724310874939,
-0.21534205973148346,
0.47673168778419495,
-0.5950588583946228,
-0.11980551481246948,
0.4229103922843933,
0.20214760303497314,
0.15425929427146912,
0.09079626947641373,
-0.34911462664604187,
0.20272687077522278,
0.13753098249435425,
0.44207239151000977,
0.03745322301983833,
-0.033903785049915314,
0.20691563189029694,
0.2600696384906769,
-0.22429364919662476,
0.28158003091812134,
-0.22364431619644165,
-0.8448005318641663,
0.12233162671327591,
0.13280817866325378,
-0.5048221945762634,
-0.15909895300865173,
0.37065035104751587,
0.3133716881275177,
0.2361306995153427,
-0.38998693227767944,
-0.379848450422287,
-0.09810536354780197,
0.01683369092643261,
0.406535267829895,
0.0009704187978059053,
0.19416053593158722,
0.0434686541557312,
-0.1929640769958496,
-0.264259397983551,
0.4045698940753937,
0.035048454999923706,
-0.25610703229904175,
0.08513972163200378,
0.03995104879140854,
-0.5122500061988831,
0.20475448668003082,
-0.699935257434845,
-0.04238203912973404,
0.1470990628004074,
-0.3006505072116852,
-0.11662361025810242,
-0.019073735922574997,
0.26556912064552307,
0.03492628037929535,
0.6689766049385071,
-0.6316065788269043,
-0.5904237627983093,
0.03026231750845909,
0.32298460602760315,
-0.44800180196762085,
-0.43708303570747375,
-0.19462186098098755,
-0.1289675533771515,
-0.2615831792354584,
-0.13472196459770203,
-0.607409656047821,
-0.14794921875,
0.5205374956130981,
0.3211428225040436,
-0.20196068286895752,
-0.445705384016037,
0.3901408612728119,
-0.03068356402218342,
-0.04176369309425354,
0.11914373934268951,
0.3672538697719574,
1.2945455312728882,
0.17458480596542358,
0.49640804529190063,
-0.5091837048530579,
0.0650467500090599,
0.2377976030111313,
-1.0694514513015747,
-0.23187747597694397,
0.15592798590660095,
-0.7392089366912842,
0.2734919488430023,
0.7008420825004578,
-0.00667403731495142,
-0.5819984674453735,
0.41535842418670654,
-0.5380164980888367,
-0.03411224111914635,
0.04272516816854477,
0.4378550052642822,
-0.5720496773719788,
-0.03517916053533554,
-0.28978145122528076
] |
200335
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rondo
|
Rondo
|
Rondo is an instrumental musical form introduced in the Classical period.
Etymology
The English word rondo comes from the Italian form of the French rondeau, which means "a little round".
Despite the common etymological root, rondo and rondeau as musical forms are essentially different. Rondeau is a vocal musical form that was originally developed as monophonic music (in the 13th century) and then as polyphonic music (in the 14th century). Notably, both vocal forms of rondeau nearly disappeared from the repertoire by the beginning of the 16th century. In French, rondeau is used for both forms, while in English rondeau is generally used for the vocal musical form, while rondo is used for the instrumental musical form.
Form
In rondo form, a principal theme (sometimes called the "refrain") alternates with one or more contrasting themes, generally called "episodes", but also occasionally referred to as "digressions" or "couplets". Possible patterns in the Classical period include: ABACA, ABACAB, ABACBA, or ABACABA. The "ABACA" is often referred as "five-part rondo", the "ABACAB" and "ABACBA" are sometimes called "six-part rondo", and the ABACABA is commonly known as "seven-part rondo". The number of themes can vary from piece to piece, and the recurring element is sometimes embellished and/or shortened in order to provide for variation. Perhaps the best-known example of rondo form is Beethoven's "Für Elise", an ABACA rondo.
The pattern of repeats, however, in 18th-century ballet music, that is, in music intended specifically for dancing rather than listening, is often not predictable. An instructive example comes from the pasticcio pantomime ballet (around 1760s), extant in the Ferrère manuscript (F-Po Rés. 68). The final , for example, which was taken from J.-P. Rameau's and which was to be played , has a repeat structure of AA [BBACCA] × 4 (that is, after the initial AA, the sequence BBACCA is repeated four times).
A Baroque predecessor to the rondo was the ritornello. Ritornello form was used in the fast movements of baroque concertos and in many baroque vocal and choral works. The ripieno (tutti) plays the main ritornello theme, while soloists play the intervening episodes. As typical of Baroque continuo playing, in the tutti sections the soloists also play as part of the ensemble; while in the solo sections most of the remaining instruments in the ensemble may stop, in order to provide some transparency to the soloist(s), or may be used sparsely (in either case, the solos are accompanied thoroughly or punctuated by a harpsichord or the like, together with a violoncello da gamba or the like). While Rondo form is similar to ritornello form, it is different in that ritornello brings back the subject or main theme in fragments and in different keys, but the rondo brings back its theme complete and in the same key. Cedric Thorpe Davie is one author, however, who considers the ritornello form the ancestor, not of the rondo form, but of the classical concerto form (which also occurs, as a form, in many a classical-era aria).
A common expansion of rondo form is to combine it with sonata form, to create the sonata rondo form. Here, the second theme acts in a similar way to the second theme group in sonata form by appearing first in a key other than the tonic and later being repeated in the tonic key. Unlike sonata form, thematic development does not need to occur except possibly in the coda. The last movement of Beethoven's Sonata Pathétique is an example of a sonata rondo.
Examples of rondo form
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Horn Concerto No. 4 in E-flat major, last movement
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Piano Sonata No. 11, last movement, nicknamed "Rondo alla turca"
Ludwig van Beethoven: Rage Over a Lost Penny
Ludwig van Beethoven: Rondo for piano and orchestra, WoO, 6
Ludwig van Beethoven: Piano Sonata Op. 53, last movement
Ludwig van Beethoven: Piano Concerto No. 5, last movement
Antonín Dvořák: Cello Concerto in B minor, third movement
Antonín Dvořák: Rondo for Cello and Orchestra
Antonín Dvořák: Symphony No. 6, second movement
Frédéric Chopin: Piano Concerto No. 1, third movement
Aram Khachaturian: Violin Concerto, second movement
Sergei Prokofiev: Symphony No. 5, fourth movement
Character type
Rondo as a character-type (as distinct from the form) refers to music that is fast and vivacious – normally Allegro. Many classical rondos feature music of a popular or folk character. Music that has been designated as "rondo" normally subscribes to both the form and character. On the other hand, there are many examples of slower, reflective works that are rondo in form but not in character; they include Mozart's Rondo in A minor, K. 511 (marked ''Andante).
Other usages
A well-known operatic vocal genre of the late 18th century, referred to at that time by the same name but distinguished today in English and German writing by the differently accented term "rondò" is cast in two parts, slow-fast.
Sources
Sources
External links
Rondo and Ritornello Forms in Tonal Music
Rondo form in traditional marches from Limoux' carnival
, from Nouvelle Chaconne in E minor by Pierre-Montan Berton, , Reinhard Goebel conducting
Musical form
Musical symmetry
|
[
-0.3817985951900482,
-0.09813496470451355,
0.3621634542942047,
-0.08840307593345642,
-0.2723315954208374,
-0.14587652683258057,
0.005857777316123247,
0.32746022939682007,
-0.5636124014854431,
-0.5762522220611572,
0.012929086573421955,
0.20525044202804565,
-0.0007082466036081314,
-0.0013672319473698735,
-0.6020888686180115,
0.3751390874385834,
0.9898719191551208,
-0.5688249468803406,
0.5351293683052063,
-0.6115614175796509,
-0.0758054181933403,
-0.3367152214050293,
0.26786091923713684,
-0.08620551973581314,
0.29598915576934814,
-0.17123910784721375,
-0.3914797008037567,
0.19113241136074066,
0.24212117493152618,
-0.08965200185775757,
-0.01334003172814846,
1.0345314741134644,
0.12452667951583862,
-0.595659613609314,
-0.4770086109638214,
0.026940833777189255,
-0.006359492894262075,
-0.5663403868675232,
-0.4432515799999237,
-0.7190728187561035,
0.012720094993710518,
0.07574990391731262,
0.6859337687492371,
0.44338884949684143,
0.2191445231437683,
0.11936140805482864,
-1.1868706941604614,
0.8487988114356995,
-0.24568690359592438,
-0.22569875419139862,
-0.7011228799819946,
0.5821492671966553,
0.2087569236755371,
0.43815743923187256,
-0.6667101383209229,
0.2927538752555847,
-0.753541886806488,
-0.04531417042016983,
-0.34344109892845154,
-0.5490031242370605,
0.07957866042852402,
0.5522365570068359,
0.24652332067489624,
-0.4274529218673706,
-0.1552564650774002,
-0.11432144045829773,
-0.17394088208675385,
0.4829077422618866,
-0.020137043669819832,
-0.23539522290229797,
-0.035470183938741684,
0.4067830443382263,
-0.24628904461860657,
0.09591567516326904,
-0.4837433397769928,
-0.4331760108470917,
0.31064099073410034,
-0.13813620805740356,
0.2807667851448059,
0.45135095715522766,
0.27313315868377686,
-0.12578225135803223,
0.6947036385536194,
0.1593179553747177,
0.44446009397506714,
0.27347174286842346,
-0.4901982545852661,
-0.04916612431406975,
-0.5356833934783936,
-0.3913993239402771,
-0.1391236037015915,
-0.6007109880447388,
0.20360030233860016,
0.35980454087257385,
-0.23064161837100983,
0.3033202290534973,
0.3944263458251953,
-0.18512654304504395,
0.2122783660888672,
0.04075009748339653,
-0.0902235358953476,
0.05804752930998802,
0.2580699324607849,
-0.11674680560827255,
-0.25679782032966614,
0.020241258665919304,
-0.16972169280052185,
-0.06997576355934143,
-0.3234676420688629,
-0.01835426688194275,
-0.37113305926322937,
-0.45911771059036255,
-0.0005648529622703791,
0.1823902577161789,
0.3049812316894531,
-0.3160818815231323,
-0.02229246124625206,
0.1849082112312317,
-0.4529677927494049,
0.07483959197998047,
0.7728407979011536,
0.5048267245292664,
-0.16022394597530365,
0.31007063388824463,
-0.5336264371871948,
0.15355414152145386,
0.40837785601615906,
0.25202375650405884,
-0.3502351939678192,
-0.13112005591392517,
0.3915477395057678,
0.4781072735786438,
0.07008235156536102,
0.0893830880522728,
0.07110084593296051,
-0.38080745935440063,
0.7886050939559937,
-0.14872775971889496,
0.17300809919834137,
0.46584761142730713,
-0.7013033628463745,
-0.31275129318237305,
-0.607463002204895,
-0.40120017528533936,
0.5355913043022156,
-0.3930213451385498,
0.14771337807178497,
-0.28079041838645935,
0.12968319654464722,
-0.37316182255744934,
0.18879441916942596,
0.33759376406669617,
-0.47853267192840576,
0.28363969922065735,
-0.2993021011352539,
0.13554780185222626,
-0.13194863498210907,
-0.33851873874664307,
0.7514790892601013,
0.04715275019407272,
0.33882492780685425,
-0.14505484700202942,
0.15939784049987793,
-0.4492953419685364,
0.5708744525909424,
-0.5675739049911499,
0.07676076143980026,
0.676874577999115,
-0.0898035317659378,
0.08320745080709457,
-0.6666537523269653,
0.10905605554580688,
0.17100024223327637,
-0.08175569027662277,
-0.46366143226623535,
-0.26212751865386963,
0.015308715403079987,
0.013641796074807644,
0.6516191363334656,
0.2485371083021164,
-0.7624403238296509,
0.33825093507766724,
0.6954416632652283,
-0.4269421100616455,
0.3111158311367035,
0.3994354009628296,
0.5395383238792419,
0.3506861627101898,
0.5014755129814148,
-0.11266268044710159,
-0.3490290343761444,
-0.3648439943790436,
-0.05618426948785782,
-0.21530258655548096,
0.9402415752410889,
-0.12817850708961487,
-0.5504675507545471,
0.3310633599758148,
0.1810469925403595,
0.42989951372146606,
-0.1654399186372757,
0.310459703207016,
0.6177375912666321,
0.4049825668334961,
0.25447696447372437,
-0.15812349319458008,
0.26541048288345337,
-0.12692883610725403,
0.7552114129066467,
0.005625241901725531,
-0.23399050533771515,
-0.06024615839123726,
0.3302747309207916,
0.22053512930870056,
-0.005844657775014639,
0.007057518232613802,
-0.4219909906387329,
0.2333769053220749,
-0.16117219626903534,
-0.6527795195579529,
0.41856276988983154,
-0.3136531114578247,
-0.6657529473304749,
0.4506910443305969,
-0.4354111850261688,
1.2165802717208862,
-0.13147138059139252,
0.14409878849983215,
-0.19339300692081451,
0.20524325966835022,
-0.2832946479320526,
-0.07830947637557983,
-0.020601047202944756,
-0.3004397451877594,
0.10251454263925552,
0.5254617929458618,
0.3040006458759308,
-0.12457674741744995,
0.2667139768600464,
-0.4166509807109833,
0.3936372399330139,
-0.06526541709899902,
-0.4188142716884613,
-0.027252668514847755,
0.415780246257782,
-0.07680409401655197,
-0.14289908111095428,
0.32420212030410767,
0.16773739457130432,
0.12583671510219574,
-0.27334555983543396,
0.1780017763376236,
0.4138469099998474,
0.09030811488628387,
-0.5084984302520752,
-0.15385890007019043,
0.6066954135894775,
0.019643085077404976,
0.008568421006202698,
0.0017818500055000186,
-0.3338462710380554,
0.06861875206232071,
0.6706483364105225,
-0.775245726108551,
0.08370152860879898,
-0.8121463656425476,
-0.21350659430027008,
-0.23873791098594666,
0.7004338502883911,
-0.08466021716594696,
-0.2931499183177948,
-0.10120654851198196,
-0.44544029235839844,
0.0859246775507927,
-0.22487400472164154,
-0.28309839963912964,
-0.3597794473171234,
-0.40952447056770325,
-0.13007573783397675,
-0.5705772638320923,
-0.27718907594680786,
0.22397258877754211,
0.23872624337673187,
-0.8656202554702759,
-1.1189204454421997,
-0.1865280568599701,
0.11403009295463562,
-0.38790735602378845,
0.2847319543361664,
0.10182883590459824,
0.37897351384162903,
0.14283299446105957,
-0.7292413711547852,
0.13997481763362885,
0.2568671703338623,
0.09495942294597626,
-0.06379704177379608,
0.29672399163246155,
-0.11055197566747665,
-0.5989219546318054,
-0.4530569016933441,
-0.10168226808309555,
0.32062828540802,
-0.09840750694274902,
0.24152441322803497,
-0.10396029055118561,
-0.30998894572257996,
0.301046758890152,
-5.8809428215026855,
-0.5984120965003967,
-0.43256404995918274,
-0.3054034411907196,
-0.5618021488189697,
0.8224313259124756,
0.12514860928058624,
-0.522617757320404,
0.5719555616378784,
-0.2229010909795761,
-0.5793491005897522,
0.08624643087387085,
-0.3903914988040924,
0.6358641982078552,
-0.16077008843421936,
0.14581099152565002,
-0.37861698865890503,
0.301105797290802,
-0.2310512661933899,
0.4673691987991333,
0.7613073587417603,
-0.4569029211997986,
0.06029251962900162,
0.7148948311805725,
0.007204591762274504,
-0.027226081117987633,
-0.45491689443588257,
-0.21672087907791138,
-0.4439903795719147,
0.3661899268627167,
0.26517730951309204,
0.19529904425144196,
0.31541937589645386,
-0.4080987572669983,
0.18681088089942932,
0.4054616093635559,
0.49323225021362305,
-0.17456331849098206,
0.4844573438167572,
0.15428531169891357,
-0.45224329829216003,
-0.136642187833786,
0.44637051224708557,
0.2307734191417694,
-0.12232685089111328,
0.13980382680892944,
0.050553251057863235,
0.01913497783243656,
-0.38459956645965576,
0.9554570317268372,
0.080157570540905,
-0.47732841968536377,
0.24978025257587433,
-0.6854749917984009,
0.06681176275014877,
0.05783545598387718,
0.41943851113319397,
-0.38834404945373535,
0.37326404452323914,
0.2912874221801758,
0.6994933485984802,
-0.5889285206794739,
-0.15383005142211914,
-0.5168493986129761,
0.20221497118473053,
-0.08214548230171204,
-0.2088899463415146,
0.26146334409713745,
0.46119779348373413,
0.9673548936843872,
0.19812563061714172,
0.5227810144424438,
-0.003643142292276025,
-0.38721153140068054,
0.11599905043840408,
-0.17331236600875854,
0.08318943530321121,
-0.2204952836036682,
0.4068525731563568,
0.5163458585739136,
0.0510709285736084,
-0.07003899663686752,
-0.1820734441280365,
0.12217391282320023,
-0.0074494751170277596,
-0.14562149345874786,
-0.18971560895442963,
0.0508214607834816,
-0.34784117341041565,
-0.04241986572742462,
1.464990496635437,
-0.4758245348930359,
0.2418626844882965,
0.2528238594532013,
0.4167477488517761,
1.2619155645370483,
0.0955963209271431,
-0.40035000443458557,
0.6410909295082092,
-0.40940845012664795,
0.048813071101903915,
-0.2274327278137207,
0.0702521800994873,
0.48084327578544617,
0.42720916867256165,
-0.6581027507781982,
-0.4779559373855591,
0.19303487241268158,
0.5745569467544556,
0.21395243704319,
-0.0015453880187124014,
-0.10705386847257614,
-0.19420309364795685,
-0.3148741126060486,
0.03445015847682953,
-0.3502938151359558,
0.3264164924621582,
-0.12051192671060562,
0.1870262771844864,
0.0835864394903183,
0.4248906075954437,
-0.1342124193906784,
-0.08246918767690659,
0.4521878659725189,
-0.30567336082458496,
-0.22586117684841156,
-0.013924099504947662,
-0.037859026342630386,
-0.31375887989997864,
-0.024047162383794785,
0.6177372932434082,
-0.002178341383114457,
0.18729464709758759,
0.037249013781547546,
0.14500653743743896,
0.0943635106086731,
-0.25242742896080017,
0.003933866508305073,
0.13481833040714264,
-0.774280846118927,
0.1522703468799591,
-0.7035091519355774,
-0.3878464698791504,
-0.27160683274269104,
0.18922166526317596,
0.42078661918640137,
-0.24259255826473236,
-0.766808032989502,
-0.30427059531211853,
0.6976877450942993,
0.7195849418640137,
0.20399761199951172,
0.33480265736579895,
-0.16376502811908722,
-0.3117799460887909,
-0.6987462043762207,
-0.0038141331169754267,
-0.14395779371261597,
-0.05899011343717575,
0.04296599328517914,
-0.19083081185817719,
0.002653647679835558,
-0.9616473317146301,
-0.06349979341030121,
-0.05485602468252182,
0.13877153396606445,
-0.2985382080078125,
-0.6950815320014954,
0.3401630222797394,
0.4421193599700928,
-0.0013594890478998423,
-0.7469338178634644,
0.3942488431930542,
-0.5853354334831238,
0.5461404323577881,
-0.5326370000839233,
0.11988334357738495,
-0.19792695343494415,
-0.37750449776649475,
-0.05254572629928589,
0.31548863649368286,
-0.22233927249908447,
-0.32052162289619446,
0.6430167555809021,
0.428799033164978,
-0.48633119463920593,
-0.7461711764335632,
0.04727865383028984,
-0.3371628522872925,
0.10380876809358597,
-0.37622499465942383,
0.01820869743824005,
0.2719932794570923,
-0.060785986483097076,
-0.16904723644256592,
-0.3292131721973419,
-0.4223330616950989,
0.46655380725860596,
-0.04432350769639015,
-0.5258069634437561,
0.030360635370016098,
0.013470654375851154,
-0.15201596915721893,
-0.020275404676795006,
0.5358355641365051,
-0.2115548998117447,
0.6854978203773499,
-0.3274824619293213,
-1.0674235820770264,
0.12220345437526703,
-0.0476546548306942,
-0.7297892570495605,
0.053628407418727875,
-0.1410897821187973,
-0.26894521713256836,
0.33163851499557495,
-0.01683530956506729,
-0.6155321598052979,
-0.5977374911308289,
0.17968393862247467,
0.3003913462162018,
0.13644976913928986,
-0.7888426184654236,
0.1927170753479004,
-0.24798285961151123,
-0.050102751702070236,
0.02706841006875038,
-0.4123261868953705,
0.403079628944397,
-0.5593248605728149,
0.3986288011074066,
-0.20377275347709656,
-0.25209665298461914,
-0.30743879079818726,
-0.46583008766174316,
-0.0516790896654129,
-0.16060051321983337,
0.1640012413263321,
0.426350474357605,
0.45474767684936523,
0.545425534248352,
0.44928157329559326,
-0.010161529295146465,
0.6113157272338867,
-0.21902962028980255,
-0.24038605391979218,
0.2667984664440155,
-0.21465300023555756,
0.18712809681892395,
0.36683914065361023,
0.14103251695632935,
-0.10797613114118576,
0.05899621173739433,
-0.7805927991867065,
0.4915679097175598,
-0.5182902216911316,
0.41167786717414856,
0.016129454597830772,
0.4083620011806488,
0.5886200666427612,
0.7097194790840149,
0.09069646149873734,
0.27316001057624817,
-0.30528759956359863,
-0.15329931676387787,
-0.0018415867816656828,
-0.05044666305184364,
-0.20544034242630005,
0.5590097308158875,
0.07963556051254272,
0.06997815519571304,
0.24721142649650574,
0.30188608169555664,
0.37302911281585693,
0.43672600388526917,
-0.24460121989250183,
-0.37770774960517883,
-0.6220034956932068,
0.5368380546569824,
0.6016307473182678,
-0.06316390633583069,
-0.07554120570421219,
-0.17467059195041656,
-0.46748873591423035,
-0.20114904642105103,
0.1365823596715927,
-0.20107527077198029,
0.06023426726460457,
0.13894511759281158,
-0.1766771525144577,
0.018191730603575706,
-0.05059674382209778,
0.7391947507858276,
0.33893251419067383,
-0.11411318182945251,
0.24081899225711823,
-0.1317795366048813,
0.2895091772079468,
-0.12118840962648392,
-0.044304415583610535,
-0.13611726462841034,
0.52618408203125,
-0.10699616372585297,
-0.5093977451324463,
0.47303861379623413,
0.03409039229154587,
0.5882391929626465,
-0.27758854627609253,
-0.4575733244419098,
0.298244446516037,
-0.11444175988435745,
-0.13021361827850342,
-0.01557918544858694,
0.8125377893447876,
-0.2148938775062561,
0.17034012079238892,
0.005430446472018957,
-0.3168792724609375,
0.4326205849647522,
0.3256922662258148,
0.247396782040596,
-0.6355763673782349,
0.6599606275558472,
0.13522589206695557,
0.38694074749946594,
-0.25586947798728943,
-0.2868439257144928,
-0.6964793801307678,
-0.035887427628040314,
0.15336111187934875,
0.4944456219673157,
0.7448415160179138,
-0.2631117105484009,
-0.20895662903785706,
-0.559724748134613,
-0.49403929710388184,
0.44153547286987305,
-0.312346875667572,
-0.07285577803850174,
0.45170682668685913,
0.7030339241027832,
-0.5689001679420471,
0.19989126920700073,
0.3947630822658539,
-0.345271497964859,
0.33176642656326294,
-0.028987569734454155,
-0.1658017337322235,
-0.23791831731796265,
-0.31417229771614075,
0.23452086746692657,
0.659234344959259,
0.7672408223152161,
-0.021893884986639023,
0.38174140453338623,
-0.25276845693588257,
0.3901616036891937,
-0.024363884702324867,
0.6129344701766968,
-0.19919858872890472,
0.13886138796806335,
0.36282676458358765,
1.0428690910339355,
-0.37409648299217224,
-0.6408354640007019,
0.8390668630599976,
0.1215611919760704,
-0.28109660744667053,
-0.2530771493911743,
0.22294792532920837,
-0.24964410066604614,
-0.07478136569261551,
-0.39573150873184204,
0.482506662607193,
0.46735167503356934,
-0.48192813992500305,
0.06595730781555176,
0.525283694267273,
-0.0959353968501091,
-0.03679674491286278,
-0.48855626583099365,
-0.2877782881259918,
-0.657953143119812,
-0.26343926787376404,
-0.3591212034225464,
-0.43839341402053833,
-0.10725102573633194,
-0.26614290475845337,
-0.2764669954776764,
-0.01983090117573738,
-0.11886686831712723,
-0.3615978956222534,
0.5898193717002869,
-0.17061281204223633,
-0.053791604936122894,
-0.41241025924682617,
-0.27806273102760315,
0.9318257570266724,
0.18418926000595093,
0.011347614228725433,
0.624125599861145,
0.3437696099281311,
-0.06280502676963806,
-0.4167632758617401,
-0.29872286319732666,
0.21011458337306976,
-0.25142702460289,
-0.13321472704410553,
-0.14995361864566803,
0.012121478095650673,
0.24899618327617645,
-0.08208580315113068,
-0.13913831114768982,
0.18139396607875824,
-0.2327738106250763,
-0.4512326717376709,
0.18803036212921143,
-0.2275879830121994,
0.11984510719776154,
-0.6327351927757263,
-0.09032128006219864,
0.46907365322113037,
-0.08239530771970749,
0.044848132878541946,
-0.5287081599235535,
0.06963220983743668,
0.1159440129995346,
-0.31138065457344055,
-0.09598875045776367,
0.7348735928535461,
-0.15283335745334625,
0.19322815537452698,
-0.8349609971046448,
-0.17079399526119232,
-0.12695688009262085,
-0.26900380849838257,
0.5029823184013367,
-0.25515273213386536,
0.09637250751256943,
-0.22174835205078125,
0.32947608828544617,
0.3311067819595337,
-0.1245848760008812,
-0.0012778922682628036,
-0.39404329657554626,
-0.2819247841835022,
0.1299881786108017,
0.20519503951072693,
-0.5491731762886047,
0.2868134677410126,
0.399969220161438,
0.07995077967643738,
0.5353595018386841,
-0.16248732805252075,
-0.2542484998703003,
-0.8725423216819763,
0.2540345788002014,
-0.32372406125068665,
-0.16616873443126678,
0.1775679588317871
] |
200339
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raga
|
Raga
|
A raga or raag (; also raaga or ragam; literally 'coloring', 'tingeing', 'dyeing') is a melodic framework for improvisation akin to a melodic mode in Indian classical music. The rāga is a unique and central feature of the classical Indian music tradition, and as a result has no direct translation to concepts in classical European music. Each rāga is an array of melodic structures with musical motifs, considered in the Indian tradition to have the ability to "colour the mind" and affect the emotions of the audience.
Each rāga provides the musician with a musical framework within which to improvise. Improvisation by the musician involves creating sequences of notes allowed by the rāga in keeping with rules specific to the rāga. Rāgas range from small rāgas like Bahar and Shahana that are not much more than songs to big rāgas like Malkauns, Darbari and Yaman, which have great scope for improvisation and for which performances can last over an hour. Rāgas may change over time, with an example being Marwa, the primary development of which has been going down into the lower octave, in contrast with the traditional middle octave. Each rāga traditionally has an emotional significance and symbolic associations such as with season, time and mood. The rāga is considered a means in the Indian musical tradition to evoking specific feelings in an audience. Hundreds of rāga are recognized in the classical tradition, of which about 30 are common, and each rāga has its "own unique melodic personality".
There are two main classical music traditions, Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian), and the concept of rāga is shared by both. Rāga are also found in Sikh traditions such as in Guru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture of Sikhism. Similarly, it is a part of the qawwali tradition in Sufi Islamic communities of South Asia. Some popular Indian film songs and ghazals use rāgas in their composition.
Every raga has a swara (a note or named pitch) called shadja, or adhara sadja, whose pitch may be chosen arbitrarily by the performer. This is taken to mark the beginning and end of the saptak (loosely, octave). The raga also contains an adhista, which is either the swara Ma or the swara Pa. The adhista divides the octave into two parts or anga – the purvanga, which contains lower notes, and the uttaranga, which contains higher notes. Every raga has a vadi and a samvadi. The vadi is the most prominent swara, which means that an improvising musician emphasizes or pays more attention to the vadi than to other notes. The samvadi is consonant with the vadi (always from the anga that does not contain the vadi) and is the second most prominent swara in the raga.
Terminology
The Sanskrit word rāga (Sanskrit: राग) has Indian roots, as *reg- which connotes "to dye". Cognates are found in Greek, Persian, Khwarezmian and other languages, such as "raxt", "rang", "rakt" and others. The words "red" and "rado" are also related. According to Monier Monier-Williams, the term comes from a Sanskrit word for "the act of colouring or dyeing", or simply a "colour, hue, tint, dye". The term also connotes an emotional state referring to a "feeling, affection, desire, interest, joy or delight", particularly related to passion, love, or sympathy for a subject or something. In the context of ancient Indian music, the term refers to a harmonious note, melody, formula, building block of music available to a musician to construct a state of experience in the audience.
The word appears in the ancient Principal Upanishads of Hinduism, as well as the Bhagavad Gita. For example, verse 3.5 of the Maitri Upanishad and verse 2.2.9 of the Mundaka Upanishad contain the word rāga. The Mundaka Upanishad uses it in its discussion of soul (Atman-Brahman) and matter (Prakriti), with the sense that the soul does not "color, dye, stain, tint" the matter. The Maitri Upanishad uses the term in the sense of "passion, inner quality, psychological state". The term rāga is also found in ancient texts of Buddhism where it connotes "passion, sensuality, lust, desire" for pleasurable experiences as one of three impurities of a character. Alternatively, rāga is used in Buddhist texts in the sense of "color, dye, hue".
The term rāga in the modern connotation of a melodic format occurs in the Brihaddeshi by Mataṅga Muni dated ca. 8th century, or possibly 9th century. The Brihaddeshi describes rāga as "a combination of tones which, with beautiful illuminating graces, pleases the people in general".
According to Emmie te Nijenhuis, a professor in Indian musicology, the Dattilam section of Brihaddeshi has survived into the modern times, but the details of ancient music scholars mentioned in the extant text suggest a more established tradition by the time this text was composed. The same essential idea and prototypical framework is found in ancient Hindu texts, such as the Naradiyasiksa and the classic Sanskrit work Natya Shastra by Bharata Muni, whose chronology has been estimated to sometime between 500 BCE and 500 CE, probably between 200 BCE and 200 CE.
Bharata describes a series of empirical experiments he did with the Veena, then compared what he heard, noting the relationship of fifth intervals as a function of intentionally induced change to the instrument's tuning. Bharata states that certain combination of notes are pleasant, certain not so. His methods of experimenting with the instrument triggered further work by ancient Indian scholars, leading to the development of successive permutations, as well as theories of musical note inter-relationships, interlocking scales and how this makes the listener feel. Bharata discusses Bhairava, Kaushika, Hindola, Dipaka, SrI-rāga, and Megha. Bharata states that these have the ability to trigger a certain affection and the ability to "color the emotional state" in the audience. His encyclopedic Natya Shastra links his studies on music to the performance arts, and it has been influential in Indian performance arts tradition.
The other ancient text, Naradiyasiksa dated to be from the 1st century BCE, discusses secular and religious music, compares the respective musical notes. This is earliest known text that reverentially names each musical note to be a deity, describing it in terms of varna (colors) and other motifs such as parts of fingers, an approach that is conceptually similar to the 12th century Guidonian hand in European music. The study that mathematically arranges rhythms and modes (rāga) has been called prastāra (matrix).
In the ancient texts of Hinduism, the term for the technical mode part of rāga was Jati. Later, Jati evolved to mean quantitative class of scales, while rāga evolved to become a more sophisticated concept that included the experience of the audience. A figurative sense of the word as 'passion, love, desire, delight' is also found in the Mahabharata. The specialized sense of 'loveliness, beauty,' especially of voice or song, emerges in classical Sanskrit, used by Kalidasa and in the Panchatantra.
History and significance
Classical music has ancient roots, and it primarily developed due to the reverence for arts, for both spiritual (moksha) and entertainment (kama) purposes in Hinduism.
Rāga, along with performance arts such as dance and music, has been historically integral to Hinduism, with some Hindus believing that music is itself a spiritual pursuit and a means to moksha (liberation). Rāgas, in the Hindu tradition, are believed to have a natural existence. Artists don't invent them, they only discover them. Music appeals to human beings, according to Hinduism, because they are hidden harmonies of the ultimate creation. Some of its ancient texts such as the Sama Veda (~1000 BCE) are structured entirely to melodic themes, it is sections of Rigveda set to music. The rāgas were envisioned by the Hindus as manifestation of the divine, a musical note treated as god or goddess with complex personality.
During the Bhakti movement of Hinduism, dated to about the middle of 1st millennium CE, rāga became an integral part of a musical pursuit of spirituality. Bhajan and Kirtan were composed and performed by the early South India pioneers. A Bhajan has a free form devotional composition based on melodic rāgas. A Kirtan is a more structured team performance, typically with a call and response musical structure, similar to an intimate conversation. It includes two or more musical instruments, and incorporates various rāgas such as those associated with Hindu gods Shiva (Bhairava) or Krishna (Hindola).
The early 13th century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara, by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in Maharashtra, mentions and discusses 253 rāgas. This is one of the most complete historic treatises on the structure, technique and reasoning behind rāgas that has survived.
The tradition of incorporating rāga into spiritual music is also found in Jainism, and in Sikhism, an Indian religion founded by Guru Nanak in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent. In the Sikh scripture, the texts are attached to a rāga and are sung according to the rules of that rāga. According to Pashaura Singh – a professor of Sikh and Punjabi studies, the rāga and tala of ancient Indian traditions were carefully selected and integrated by the Sikh Gurus into their hymns. They also picked from the "standard instruments used in Hindu musical traditions" for singing kirtans in Sikhism.
During the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in and after the 15th century, the mystical Islamic tradition of Sufism developed devotional songs and music called qawwali. It incorporated elements of rāga and tāla.
The Buddha discouraged music aimed at entertainment, but encouraged chanting of sacred hymns. The various canonical Tripitaka texts of Buddhism, for example, state Dasha-shila or ten precepts for those following the Buddhist spiritual path. Among these is the precept recommending "abstain from dancing, singing, music and worldly spectacles". Buddhism does not forbid music or dance to a Buddhist layperson, but its emphasis has been on chants, not on musical rāga.
Description
A rāga is sometimes explained as a melodic rule set that a musician works with, but according to Dorottya Fabian and others, this is now generally accepted among music scholars to be an explanation that is too simplistic. According to them, a rāga of the ancient Indian tradition can be compared to the concept of non-constructible set in language for human communication, in a manner described by Frederik Kortlandt and George van Driem; audiences familiar with raga recognize and evaluate performances of them intuitively.
The attempt to appreciate, understand and explain rāga among European scholars started in the early colonial period. In 1784, Jones translated it as "mode" of European music tradition, but Willard corrected him in 1834 with the statement that a rāga is both mode and tune. In 1933, states José Luiz Martinez – a professor of music, Stern refined this explanation to "the rāga is more fixed than mode, less fixed than the melody, beyond the mode and short of melody, and richer both than a given mode or a given melody; it is mode with added multiple specialities".
A rāga is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression, yet the concept has no direct Western translation. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of rāga cannot be offered in one or two sentences. rāga is a fusion of technical and ideational ideas found in music, and may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression. In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The rāga allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood.
A rāga has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs. A musician playing a rāga, states Bruno Nettl, may traditionally use just these notes, but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale. The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each rāga, in order for the performance to create a rasa (mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling) that is unique to each rāga. A rāga can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of rāga are possible given 5 or more notes, but in practical use, the classical tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred. For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty rāgas. Rāga in Indian classic music is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats).
A rāga is not a tune, because the same rāga can yield an infinite number of tunes. A rāga is not a scale, because many rāgas can be based on the same scale. A rāga, according to Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to a mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a "unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener". The goal of a rāga and its artist is to create rasa (essence, feeling, atmosphere) with music, as classical Indian dance does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various rāgas.
Joep Bor of the Rotterdam Conservatory of Music defined rāga as a "tonal framework for composition and improvisation." Nazir Jairazbhoy, chairman of UCLA's department of ethnomusicology, characterized rāgas as separated by scale, line of ascent and descent, transilience, emphasized notes and register, and intonation and ornaments.
Rāga-Rāgini system
Q Vasanta raga-ragini (Krishna).}}
Rāginī (Devanagari: रागिनी) is a term for the "feminine" counterpart of a "masculine" rāga. These are envisioned to parallel the god-goddess themes in Hinduism, and described variously by different medieval Indian music scholars. For example, the Sangita-darpana text of 15th-century Damodara Misra proposes six rāgas with thirty ragini, creating a system of thirty six, a system that became popular in Rajasthan. In the north Himalayan regions such as Himachal Pradesh, the music scholars such as 16th century Mesakarna expanded this system to include eight descendants to each rāga, thereby creating a system of eighty four. After the 16th-century, the system expanded still further.
In Sangita-darpana, the Bhairava rāga is associated with the following raginis: Bhairavi, Punyaki, Bilawali, Aslekhi, Bangli. In the Meskarna system, the masculine and feminine musical notes are combined to produce putra rāgas called Harakh, Pancham, Disakh, Bangal, Madhu, Madhava, Lalit, Bilawal.
This system is no longer in use today because the 'related' rāgas had very little or no similarity and the rāga-rāginī classification did not agree with various other schemes.
Rāgas and their symbolism
The North Indian rāga system is also called Hindustani, while the South Indian system is commonly referred to as Carnatic. The North Indian system suggests a particular time of a day or a season, in the belief that the human state of psyche and mind are affected by the seasons and by daily biological cycles and nature's rhythms. The South Indian system is closer to the text, and places less emphasis on time or season.
The symbolic role of classical music through rāga has been both aesthetic indulgence and the spiritual purifying of one's mind (yoga). The former is encouraged in Kama literature (such as Kamasutra), while the latter appears in Yoga literature with concepts such as "Nada-Brahman" (metaphysical Brahman of sound). Hindola rāga, for example, is considered a manifestation of Kama (god of love), typically through Krishna. Hindola is also linked to the festival of dola, which is more commonly known as "spring festival of colors" or Holi. This idea of aesthetic symbolism has also been expressed in Hindu temple reliefs and carvings, as well as painting collections such as the ragamala.
In ancient and medieval Indian literature, the rāga are described as manifestation and symbolism for gods and goddesses. Music is discussed as equivalent to the ritual yajna sacrifice, with pentatonic and hexatonic notes such as "ni-dha-pa-ma-ga-ri" as Agnistoma, "ri-ni-dha-pa-ma-ga as Asvamedha, and so on.
In the Middle Ages, music scholars of India began associating each rāga with seasons. The 11th century Nanyadeva, for example, recommends that Hindola rāga is best in spring, Pancama in summer, Sadjagrama and Takka during the monsoons, Bhinnasadja is best in early winter, and Kaisika in late winter. In the 13th century, Sarngadeva went further and associated rāga with rhythms of each day and night. He associated pure and simple rāgas to early morning, mixed and more complex rāgas to late morning, skillful rāgas to noon, love-themed and passionate rāgas to evening, and universal rāgas to night.
Rāga and mathematics
According to Cris Forster, mathematical studies on systematizing and analyzing South Indian rāga began in the 16th century. Computational studies of rāgas is an active area of musicology.
Notations
Although notes are an important part of rāga practice, they alone do not make the rāga. A rāga is more than a scale, and many rāgas share the same scale. The underlying scale may have four, five, six or seven tones, called swaras (sometimes spelled as svara). The svara concept is found in the ancient Natya Shastra in Chapter 28. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Śruti, with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows,
These seven degrees are shared by both major rāga system, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic). The solfege (sargam) is learnt in abbreviated form: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Of these, the first that is "sa", and the fifth that is "pa", are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems.
The music theory in the Natyashastra, states Maurice Winternitz, centers around three themes – sound, rhythm and prosody applied to musical texts. The text asserts that the octave has 22 srutis or microintervals of musical tones or 1200 cents. Ancient Greek system is also very close to it, states Emmie te Nijenhuis, with the difference that each sruti computes to 54.5 cents, while the Greek enharmonic quartertone system computes to 55 cents. The text discusses gramas (scales) and murchanas (modes), mentioning three scales of seven modes (21 total), some Greek modes are also like them . However, the Gandhara-grama is just mentioned in Natyashastra, while its discussion largely focuses on two scales, fourteen modes and eight four tanas (notes). The text also discusses which scales are best for different forms of performance arts.
These musical elements are organized into scales (mela), and the South Indian system of rāga works with 72 scales, as first discussed by Caturdandi prakashika. They are divided into two groups, purvanga and uttaranga, depending on the nature of the lower tetrachord. The anga itself has six cycles (cakra), where the purvanga or lower tetrachord is anchored, while there are six permutations of uttaranga suggested to the artist. After this system was developed, the Indian classical music scholars have developed additional rāgas for all the scales. The North Indian style is closer to the Western diatonic modes, and built upon the foundation developed by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande using ten Thaat: kalyan, bilaval, khamaj, kafi, asavari, bhairavi, bhairav, purvi, marva and todi. Some rāgas are common to both systems and have same names, such as kalyan performed by either is recognizably the same. Some rāgas are common to both systems but have different names, such as malkos of Hindustani system is recognizably the same as hindolam of Carnatic system. However, some rāgas are named the same in the two systems, but they are different, such as todi.
Recently, a 32 thaat system was presented in a book Nai Vaigyanik Paddhati to correct the classification of ragas in North Indian style.
Rāgas that have four swaras are called (सुरतर) rāgas; those with five swaras are called audava (औडव) rāgas; those with six, shaadava (षाडव); and with seven, sampurna (संपूर्ण, Sanskrit for 'complete'). The number of swaras may differ in the ascending and descending like rāga Bhimpalasi which has five notes in the ascending and seven notes in descending or Khamaj with six notes in the ascending and seven in the descending. Rāgas differ in their ascending or descending movements. Those that do not follow the strict ascending or descending order of swaras are called vakra (वक्र) ('crooked') rāgas.
Carnatic rāga
In Carnatic music, the principal rāgas are called Melakarthas, which literally means "lord of the scale". It is also called Asraya rāga meaning "shelter giving rāga", or Janaka rāga meaning "father rāga".
A Thaata in the South Indian tradition are groups of derivative rāgas, which are called Janya rāgas meaning "begotten rāgas" or Asrita rāgas meaning "sheltered rāgas". However, these terms are approximate and interim phrases during learning, as the relationships between the two layers are neither fixed nor has unique parent–child relationship.
Janaka rāgas are grouped together using a scheme called Katapayadi sutra and are organised as Melakarta rāgas. A Melakarta rāga is one which has all seven notes in both the ārōhanam (ascending scale) and avarōhanam (descending scale). Some Melakarta rāgas are Harikambhoji, Kalyani, Kharaharapriya, Mayamalavagowla, Sankarabharanam and Hanumatodi. Janya rāgas are derived from the Janaka rāgas using a combination of the swarams (usually a subset of swarams) from the parent rāga. Some janya rāgas are Abheri, Abhogi, Bhairavi, Hindolam, Mohanam and Kambhoji.
In this 21st century few composers have discovered new ragas. Dr. M. Balamuralikrishna who has created raga in three notes Ragas such as Mahathi, Lavangi, Sidhdhi, Sumukham that he created have only four notes,
List of Janaka Ragas are Kanakangi, Ratnangi, Ganamurthi, Vanaspathi, Manavathi, Thanarupi, Senavathi, Hanumatodi, Dhenuka, Natakapriya, Kokilapriya, Rupavati, Gayakapriya, Vakulabharanam, Mayamalavagowla, Chakravakam, Suryakantam, Hatakambari, Jhankaradhvani, Natabhairavi, Keeravani, Kharaharapriya, Gourimanohari, Varunapriya, Mararanjani, Charukesi, Sarasangi, Harikambhoji, Sankarabharanam, Naganandini, Yagapriya, Ragavardhini, Gangeyabhushani, Vagadheeswari, Shulini, Chalanata, Salagam, Jalarnavam, Jhalavarali, Navaneetam, Pavani.
Training
Classical music has been transmitted through music schools or through Guru–Shishya parampara (teacher–student tradition) through an oral tradition and practice. Some are known as gharana (houses), and their performances are staged through sabhas (music organizations). Each gharana has freely improvised over time, and differences in the rendering of each rāga is discernible. In the Indian musical schooling tradition, the small group of students lived near or with the teacher, the teacher treated them as family members providing food and boarding, and a student learnt various aspects of music thereby continuing the musical knowledge of their guru. The tradition survives in parts of India, and many musicians can trace their guru lineage.
Persian rāk
The music concept of rāk in Persian is probably a pronunciation of rāga. According to Hormoz Farhat, it is unclear how this term came to Persia, it has no meaning in modern Persian language, and the concept of rāga is unknown in Persia.
See also
List of rāgas in Indian classical music
Carnatic raga
List of Janya ragas
List of Melakarta ragas
Prahar
Samay
Rasa (aesthetics)
Rāga, a documentary about the life and music of Ravi Shankar
Raga rock
Arabic maqam
Persian dastgah
References
Bibliography
<
Indian Music: Ancient Beginnings – Natyashastra
, Table of Contents
External links
A step-by-step introduction to the concept of rāga for beginners
Rajan Parrikar Music Archive – detailed analyses of rāgas backed by rare audio recordings
Comprehensive reference on rāgas
Hindustani Raga Sangeet Online A rare collection of more than 800 audio & video archives from 1902. Radio programs dedicated to famous ragas.
Online quick reference of rāgams in Carnatic music.
Hindustani ragas
Hindustani music terminology
Musical terminology
Modes (music)
|
[
0.31298792362213135,
-0.24329745769500732,
-0.4287685453891754,
-0.14269350469112396,
0.10708194971084595,
0.1759389340877533,
0.21008187532424927,
-0.4003690481185913,
-0.28391411900520325,
-0.5043259263038635,
-0.2831643521785736,
0.43260300159454346,
-0.24735602736473083,
0.4159722924232483,
-0.25000232458114624,
1.0445005893707275,
0.8953227996826172,
-0.39935338497161865,
0.46965768933296204,
-0.32105061411857605,
-0.512248158454895,
0.108441561460495,
0.25875672698020935,
0.10280570387840271,
0.4333049952983856,
-0.07674714177846909,
0.059703998267650604,
0.4716268479824066,
-0.4248017966747284,
-0.09596674889326096,
0.12238849699497223,
0.5305131077766418,
0.16393519937992096,
-0.3534117043018341,
0.4227123260498047,
0.04947871342301369,
-0.5189103484153748,
-0.01891019381582737,
-0.13175080716609955,
-0.9473766088485718,
-0.1325131207704544,
0.11752768605947495,
0.5369554162025452,
0.6319065093994141,
-0.4594300091266632,
0.01600460149347782,
-1.040405511856079,
0.5867918133735657,
-0.4798104166984558,
-0.010853320360183716,
-0.1578567922115326,
0.9400902390480042,
0.5261339545249939,
-0.27051132917404175,
-0.010362842120230198,
0.2827766239643097,
-0.5377527475357056,
0.228107750415802,
-0.05127909407019615,
-0.4119192659854889,
0.374000608921051,
-0.06921670585870743,
-0.06876256316900253,
0.0035049717407673597,
-0.10360205173492432,
0.45354020595550537,
-0.4568081200122833,
-0.7381992936134338,
-0.4360707402229309,
-0.0007598906522616744,
0.022214485332369804,
0.4516952633857727,
-0.6911324858665466,
0.023829739540815353,
-0.541385293006897,
-0.007884569466114044,
0.2259746491909027,
-0.5109527707099915,
-0.07367832958698273,
0.21137017011642456,
-0.13253016769886017,
0.394755095243454,
0.4647029936313629,
0.2934704124927521,
0.3564945161342621,
-0.1711263358592987,
-0.8261314630508423,
0.16090236604213715,
-0.4441830515861511,
0.24560746550559998,
0.2538650333881378,
-0.5906110405921936,
0.24778218567371368,
0.6836251020431519,
-0.32059547305107117,
0.0736817866563797,
0.19437508285045624,
-0.34525009989738464,
-0.009754497557878494,
0.29034584760665894,
0.36391204595565796,
-0.03417680412530899,
0.42869076132774353,
0.0034974284935742617,
-0.4544285237789154,
0.44984787702560425,
-0.12271323800086975,
0.15892870724201202,
-0.5039356350898743,
0.1942213922739029,
-0.2827392518520355,
0.11035960912704468,
0.3499993681907654,
0.11648235470056534,
0.14459531009197235,
-0.4015093147754669,
-0.4285874366760254,
0.270133376121521,
-0.7839236855506897,
0.37763896584510803,
0.6464313268661499,
0.5109320282936096,
0.4232354462146759,
0.37370869517326355,
-0.3658313453197479,
0.2642064094543457,
0.4076717793941498,
0.40911781787872314,
-0.6254018545150757,
0.012441816739737988,
0.40138500928878784,
0.7546262741088867,
-0.0659763440489769,
-0.13227762281894684,
-0.3007276952266693,
-0.02249520644545555,
0.6094162464141846,
-0.0018700340297073126,
0.4390997886657715,
0.41182321310043335,
-0.764199435710907,
-0.028418827801942825,
-0.6514692902565002,
-0.45291027426719666,
-0.12677215039730072,
-0.9103962182998657,
0.2679063379764557,
-0.3178531229496002,
-0.37743306159973145,
-0.058583274483680725,
0.46245139837265015,
0.3541260361671448,
-0.5453312397003174,
0.06283342838287354,
-0.57298344373703,
-0.020626399666070938,
-0.22376389801502228,
-0.15330667793750763,
0.0861009806394577,
-0.07311329245567322,
-0.37345725297927856,
0.018760481849312782,
-0.05239009112119675,
-0.2636774182319641,
0.2519652247428894,
-0.030472634360194206,
0.2717845141887665,
0.6978144645690918,
-0.28456228971481323,
0.00040455133421346545,
-0.1630939096212387,
-0.18889251351356506,
-0.08083079010248184,
-0.1857999563217163,
-0.7695326805114746,
-0.07824845612049103,
0.08193344622850418,
-0.15357492864131927,
0.2603541910648346,
0.034397318959236145,
-0.776854395866394,
0.4217432141304016,
0.7190139889717102,
-0.10675633698701859,
-0.18228812515735626,
-0.02108684554696083,
0.2715190649032593,
-0.20221754908561707,
0.30960771441459656,
-0.2937906086444855,
-0.3929253816604614,
-0.12478645145893097,
0.5161189436912537,
-0.12366343289613724,
0.8939462304115295,
-0.19692212343215942,
-0.436604768037796,
0.6910290718078613,
-0.024855198338627815,
0.3254205286502838,
0.2850942015647888,
0.2756911516189575,
0.3158634305000305,
-0.03678082674741745,
0.2813301980495453,
0.03399497643113136,
-0.09420094639062881,
0.22858574986457825,
0.4383127987384796,
-0.6278418898582458,
0.05959385633468628,
-0.4312528371810913,
0.16244390606880188,
-0.15295462310314178,
0.34465762972831726,
-0.40804094076156616,
-0.5308262705802917,
0.30738478899002075,
-0.1655905544757843,
-0.35126248002052307,
0.5807579755783081,
-0.5814815163612366,
-0.6471095085144043,
0.2721143960952759,
-0.11713171005249023,
0.8748599290847778,
-0.3907720744609833,
0.23730769753456116,
0.47068947553634644,
-0.3021676242351532,
-0.06410758942365646,
-0.47095149755477905,
-0.007436034735292196,
-0.4056987464427948,
-0.2449721097946167,
0.15476027131080627,
0.10384590923786163,
0.058328136801719666,
0.3651290535926819,
-0.677516520023346,
0.10127169638872147,
-0.17035377025604248,
-0.6912140250205994,
-0.15802733600139618,
0.5818334817886353,
-0.6182264685630798,
-0.3220139145851135,
0.02826695889234543,
-0.31028783321380615,
0.5147613883018494,
-0.10751745104789734,
0.24148371815681458,
0.4256044626235962,
0.06362871080636978,
-0.6978973150253296,
-0.10649668425321579,
-0.08946990221738815,
-0.41112542152404785,
0.019522666931152344,
0.16034969687461853,
-0.4845782518386841,
0.04507015272974968,
0.5746402144432068,
-0.41329240798950195,
-0.517905056476593,
-0.37261053919792175,
0.031333912163972855,
0.03511399030685425,
0.6536219120025635,
0.10827721655368805,
-0.2721998691558838,
0.16621710360050201,
-0.37947165966033936,
0.33702659606933594,
-0.280409038066864,
-0.7953410148620605,
0.8093767166137695,
-0.7209309935569763,
-0.3406098783016205,
-0.30048444867134094,
0.3581753075122833,
0.10572393983602524,
0.38272374868392944,
-0.924058735370636,
-0.7259196639060974,
0.053328294306993484,
0.4701882302761078,
-0.010295466519892216,
0.4035138487815857,
0.11798705160617828,
-0.30946922302246094,
0.6040162444114685,
-0.643882691860199,
-0.13584886491298676,
0.43380650877952576,
-0.00798963662236929,
0.08335839211940765,
-0.046544965356588364,
-0.05119701847434044,
-0.5835625529289246,
-0.286678671836853,
0.11519531160593033,
0.05297766253352165,
-0.1618788242340088,
0.016509385779500008,
0.28470587730407715,
-0.5684149861335754,
0.016881177201867104,
-5.72097635269165,
0.25542113184928894,
-0.3671463429927826,
-0.4004250168800354,
-0.013267486356198788,
0.887035071849823,
0.293425977230072,
0.125204935669899,
0.44327089190483093,
-0.7574687004089355,
-1.0392674207687378,
-0.08513543754816055,
0.017022548243403435,
0.46602287888526917,
0.27439624071121216,
-0.12276656925678253,
-0.11856772005558014,
0.41231995820999146,
-0.2824110984802246,
0.6341034770011902,
0.3486262261867523,
-0.019683150574564934,
-0.0034184425603598356,
0.660374104976654,
-0.12441370636224747,
0.15858681499958038,
-0.6599390506744385,
-0.45414113998413086,
-0.17239661514759064,
-0.23861737549304962,
-0.17129752039909363,
0.02164573036134243,
0.3345071077346802,
-0.5978908538818359,
0.3008662462234497,
0.24734847247600555,
0.0008891060133464634,
0.28369149565696716,
0.264864057302475,
-0.303315669298172,
-0.28319862484931946,
0.36711010336875916,
0.24572373926639557,
0.020137809216976166,
-0.07755281031131744,
0.33475440740585327,
-0.24639037251472473,
-0.38679975271224976,
-0.5799384713172913,
0.843000054359436,
-0.35093507170677185,
-0.4634648263454437,
0.2781050503253937,
-0.4460967481136322,
0.22455435991287231,
-0.018911579623818398,
0.2657953202724457,
-0.22160322964191437,
0.28647154569625854,
0.11044108867645264,
0.20670945942401886,
-0.5785691738128662,
-0.1840834766626358,
-0.7326653599739075,
0.017732935026288033,
0.1445711851119995,
-0.8423932194709778,
-0.6884927749633789,
0.7843095660209656,
0.7468559145927429,
-0.0731000229716301,
-0.19902996718883514,
0.0862201675772667,
-0.4196420907974243,
0.4341619610786438,
-0.28476467728614807,
0.01433606818318367,
-0.43766462802886963,
0.7476857304573059,
0.4266984164714813,
-0.08691024035215378,
-0.21191656589508057,
0.18291951715946198,
-0.0798543393611908,
0.15200598537921906,
-0.19805151224136353,
-0.32881078124046326,
0.02500268816947937,
-0.4846894443035126,
0.4073878526687622,
0.8717735409736633,
0.013867130503058434,
-0.11982453614473343,
0.3099837601184845,
0.7663021683692932,
0.2688196003437042,
0.42726027965545654,
-0.2177695631980896,
0.7805626392364502,
-0.5577686429023743,
0.7793711423873901,
-0.48786449432373047,
0.34566473960876465,
0.24234184622764587,
0.3728708028793335,
0.14004217088222504,
-0.7857276797294617,
0.04181244969367981,
0.8713129758834839,
-0.1133275032043457,
0.15143410861492157,
-0.1544019877910614,
0.09431517869234085,
-0.1615784466266632,
0.3912181258201599,
-0.5853899717330933,
0.038654375821352005,
0.18536408245563507,
-0.03924594819545746,
-0.3855850100517273,
0.48593735694885254,
-0.3539426028728485,
0.21338315308094025,
-0.059811048209667206,
-0.13671451807022095,
-0.30541661381721497,
0.39263463020324707,
0.14995411038398743,
-0.10478588938713074,
0.016606394201517105,
0.6678566932678223,
-0.33553946018218994,
-0.02041846141219139,
-0.1313067376613617,
0.029927467927336693,
-0.022074157372117043,
-0.4080159664154053,
0.31677326560020447,
-0.12360117584466934,
-0.8650355339050293,
0.10188581049442291,
-0.6442356109619141,
0.31475114822387695,
0.0016868584789335728,
0.9818667769432068,
0.08861744403839111,
-0.052105214446783066,
-0.3011089563369751,
0.04957064986228943,
0.19320328533649445,
0.49782952666282654,
0.5490890741348267,
0.1925608515739441,
-0.550748348236084,
-0.367915540933609,
-0.21704243123531342,
0.28812214732170105,
-0.2675860822200775,
0.387344092130661,
-0.3826996386051178,
0.20800383388996124,
0.20321042835712433,
-1.3081587553024292,
-0.0825691893696785,
-0.4513450264930725,
-0.36695170402526855,
-0.9002341628074646,
-0.1326671987771988,
0.641459047794342,
0.09684449434280396,
-0.3583206534385681,
-0.2871941328048706,
0.104031503200531,
-0.47715845704078674,
-0.00044979562517255545,
-0.16401375830173492,
0.07497278600931168,
0.38450464606285095,
-0.14513379335403442,
0.387647807598114,
-0.08902547508478165,
-0.5547893047332764,
-0.37978172302246094,
0.8325586915016174,
0.37656018137931824,
-0.2348097562789917,
-0.07249060273170471,
0.10761754959821701,
-0.5426753163337708,
0.2355068475008011,
0.522095799446106,
-0.14202925562858582,
0.48756086826324463,
-0.3438684344291687,
-0.08995731174945831,
-0.15720979869365692,
-0.1257290244102478,
1.3911502361297607,
0.24535256624221802,
-0.6415116786956787,
0.25845736265182495,
0.4161742925643921,
-0.6256678700447083,
0.40451598167419434,
0.6633462309837341,
-0.21575401723384857,
0.5390435457229614,
-0.4007883667945862,
-0.6798931956291199,
0.02463752031326294,
-0.2506430745124817,
-0.5568675994873047,
-0.012454837560653687,
-0.12921373546123505,
-0.31567561626434326,
0.2461281716823578,
0.009111694060266018,
-0.6139336228370667,
0.11731798201799393,
-0.19521018862724304,
0.49249395728111267,
-0.030255550518631935,
-0.06462308019399643,
0.3809676170349121,
-0.135252445936203,
-0.3076745569705963,
-0.036251697689294815,
-0.4383624494075775,
-0.06320547312498093,
0.01657167263329029,
0.21085594594478607,
-0.1433597207069397,
0.042008135467767715,
-0.2835083603858948,
-0.771274983882904,
-0.6557988524436951,
-0.7995766401290894,
0.21121364831924438,
0.6904169321060181,
0.23804794251918793,
0.6267282366752625,
0.7199884653091431,
-0.04577663913369179,
0.053839605301618576,
0.027003157883882523,
0.1582355946302414,
0.149632528424263,
-0.12102703005075455,
-0.2427671253681183,
0.3416775166988373,
0.5529741048812866,
0.06497031450271606,
-0.3909464180469513,
-0.5206314325332642,
0.7438884377479553,
0.1100553423166275,
0.031630441546440125,
0.0444716140627861,
0.16409559547901154,
0.7498122453689575,
0.12669885158538818,
-0.4618472456932068,
0.3355206251144409,
-0.4320591688156128,
0.11810791492462158,
-0.2722814083099365,
-0.406660795211792,
-0.3655998706817627,
0.6774075031280518,
-0.5581308007240295,
0.4072875380516052,
-0.03736811503767967,
0.8116706013679504,
0.07547778636217117,
0.6674684286117554,
-0.11661244183778763,
-0.2613237798213959,
-0.5514410138130188,
0.3971351683139801,
0.728020191192627,
-0.14566464722156525,
-0.15074975788593292,
0.04186119884252548,
-0.1625603586435318,
-0.02746627666056156,
-0.22400762140750885,
0.007542835548520088,
0.30761659145355225,
-0.2637806236743927,
-0.8571694493293762,
-0.3751014173030853,
0.11083738505840302,
0.8217489719390869,
0.5320973992347717,
-0.6837583780288696,
0.28175926208496094,
0.8094183206558228,
0.49535682797431946,
0.25225841999053955,
0.06989135593175888,
-0.09370211511850357,
0.22112062573432922,
0.04860082268714905,
-0.2964763641357422,
0.5123389363288879,
-0.4500294625759125,
0.49079629778862,
-0.3751641511917114,
-0.4523148238658905,
-0.09788307547569275,
-0.23269601166248322,
0.07563937455415726,
0.3068627417087555,
0.6408414244651794,
-0.4357326924800873,
0.07453685998916626,
0.17352749407291412,
-0.28926023840904236,
1.0491304397583008,
0.43884849548339844,
0.5268155932426453,
-0.7490292191505432,
0.5969499349594116,
0.07425644993782043,
0.39586764574050903,
0.2888759672641754,
-0.11320976912975311,
-0.20771698653697968,
0.13701839745044708,
0.1849004328250885,
0.6735095977783203,
0.17578628659248352,
-0.02343645691871643,
-0.00408967724069953,
-0.24487493932247162,
-0.3218417167663574,
0.3765084445476532,
0.0660025030374527,
-0.8280220627784729,
0.4930870234966278,
0.7584285140037537,
-0.30655479431152344,
0.24031835794448853,
0.5480747222900391,
-0.06867274641990662,
-0.32510411739349365,
0.4108576476573944,
0.3819565176963806,
-0.8650015592575073,
-0.21787768602371216,
0.1013169065117836,
0.5976418256759644,
0.8127605319023132,
-0.20922769606113434,
0.8381911516189575,
-0.3777092695236206,
0.811180055141449,
-0.2077268362045288,
0.4661560356616974,
0.2986100912094116,
-0.03953801095485687,
0.6903650760650635,
0.3961058557033539,
0.25751885771751404,
-0.5287186503410339,
0.1967667192220688,
0.10138416290283203,
-0.337004691362381,
-0.15212278068065643,
-0.31636932492256165,
0.15666352212429047,
0.25530505180358887,
-0.8742943406105042,
0.6578876376152039,
-0.07097932696342468,
-0.6839935183525085,
0.272053062915802,
0.20574045181274414,
0.11803848296403885,
0.043050266802310944,
-0.3732151389122009,
0.03172242268919945,
-0.3266463577747345,
-0.7784740924835205,
0.3330633342266083,
-0.2632056474685669,
-0.19490520656108856,
-0.2127498835325241,
-0.3404005467891693,
0.46205422282218933,
-0.07892218232154846,
-0.13190868496894836,
0.14086182415485382,
-0.1509711593389511,
-0.39567163586616516,
0.3157268464565277,
-0.6178378462791443,
0.8473727703094482,
0.43838998675346375,
0.058510202914476395,
-0.16389989852905273,
0.4479845464229584,
0.17295029759407043,
-0.29442349076271057,
-0.5457159876823425,
-0.17550019919872284,
-0.18401607871055603,
0.16558539867401123,
-0.5844948887825012,
0.5560574531555176,
0.04731455072760582,
0.2585977613925934,
-0.08691774308681488,
0.38114309310913086,
0.07577450573444366,
0.04532114416360855,
0.6383346915245056,
-0.6674660444259644,
0.12845821678638458,
-0.4961240887641907,
0.442528635263443,
0.26851361989974976,
-0.34551355242729187,
0.051977574825286865,
0.18427154421806335,
-0.18260939419269562,
0.06898476183414459,
0.14724743366241455,
-0.770498514175415,
0.08167150616645813,
-0.08772848546504974,
-0.03152007609605789,
-0.45707470178604126,
0.3526593744754791,
-0.7030413746833801,
-0.161887526512146,
-0.21893776953220367,
-0.3999335467815399,
-0.1341932713985443,
-0.3840859830379486,
0.2877260148525238,
-0.2367551475763321,
-0.2910007834434509,
-0.21854183077812195,
-0.004199710208922625,
0.17006230354309082,
-0.35974010825157166,
0.24091406166553497,
-0.5510430932044983,
0.43642178177833557,
0.2318708300590515,
-0.7653849124908447,
0.1880439668893814,
0.156046524643898,
-0.12668797373771667,
-0.43771985173225403,
-0.08563760668039322,
-0.14709995687007904,
-0.22790898382663727,
-0.038385357707738876
] |
200340
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial%20philosophy
|
Perennial philosophy
|
The perennial philosophy (), also referred to as perennialism and perennial wisdom, is a perspective in philosophy and spirituality that views all of the world's religious traditions as sharing a single, metaphysical truth or origin from which all esoteric and exoteric knowledge and doctrine has grown.
Perennialism has its roots in the Renaissance interest in neo-Platonism and its idea of the One, from which all existence emanates. Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) sought to integrate Hermeticism with Greek and Jewish-Christian thought, discerning a prisca theologia which could be found in all ages. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–94) suggested that truth could be found in many, rather than just two, traditions. He proposed a harmony between the thought of Plato and Aristotle, and saw aspects of the prisca theologia in Averroes (Ibn Rushd), the Quran, the Kabbalah and other sources. Agostino Steuco (1497–1548) coined the term philosophia perennis.
A more popular interpretation argues for universalism, the idea that all religions, underneath seeming differences, point to the same Truth. In the early 19th century the Transcendentalists propagated the idea of a metaphysical Truth and universalism, which inspired the Unitarians, who proselytized among Indian elites. Towards the end of the 19th century, the Theosophical Society further popularized universalism, not only in the western world, but also in western colonies. In the 20th century, universalism was further popularized through the Advaita Vedanta inspired Traditionalist School, which argued for a metaphysical, single origin of the orthodox religions, and by Aldous Huxley and his book The Perennial Philosophy, which was inspired by neo-Vedanta and the Traditionalist School.
Definition
Renaissance
The idea of a perennial philosophy originated with a number of Renaissance theologians who took inspiration from neo-Platonism and from the theory of Forms. Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) argued that there is an underlying unity to the world, the soul or love, which has a counterpart in the realm of ideas. According to Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), a student of Ficino, truth could be found in many, rather than just two, traditions. According to Agostino Steuco (1497–1548) there is "one principle of all things, of which there has always been one and the same knowledge among all peoples."
Traditionalist School
The contemporary, scholarly oriented Traditionalist School continues this metaphysical orientation. According to the Traditionalist School, the perennial philosophy is "absolute Truth and infinite Presence". Absolute Truth is "the perennial wisdom (sophia perennis) that stands as the transcendent source of all the intrinsically orthodox religions of humankind." Infinite Presence is "the perennial religion (religio perennis) that lives within the heart of all intrinsically orthodox religions." The Traditionalist School discerns a transcendent and an immanent dimension, namely the discernment of the Real or Absolute, c.q. that which is permanent; and the intentional "mystical concentration on the Real".
According to Soares de Azevedo, the perennialist philosophy states that the universal truth is the same within each of the world's orthodox religious traditions, and is the foundation of their religious knowledge and doctrine. Each world religion is an interpretation of this universal truth, adapted to cater for the psychological, intellectual, and social needs of a given culture of a given period of history. This perennial truth has been rediscovered in each epoch by mystics of all kinds who have revived already existing religions, when they had fallen into empty platitudes and hollow ceremonialism.
Shipley further notes that the Traditionalist School is oriented on orthodox traditions, and rejects modern syncretism and universalism, which together create new religions from older religions and compromise the standing traditions.
Aldous Huxley and mystical universalism
One such universalist was Aldous Huxley, who propagated a universalist interpretation of the world religions, inspired by Vivekananda's neo-Vedanta and his own use of psychedelic drugs. According to Huxley, who popularized the idea of a perennial philosophy with a larger audience,
In Huxley's 1944 essay in Vedanta and the West, he describes "The Minimum Working Hypothesis", the basic outline of the perennial philosophy found in all the mystic branches of the religions of the world:
Origins
The perennial philosophy originates from a blending of neo-Platonism and Christianity. Neo-Platonism itself has diverse origins in the syncretic culture of the Hellenistic period, and was an influential philosophy throughout the Middle Ages.
Classical world
Hellenistic period: religious syncretism
During the Hellenistic period, Alexander the Great's campaigns brought about exchange of cultural ideas on its path throughout most of the known world of his era. The Greek Eleusinian Mysteries and Dionysian Mysteries mixed with such influences as the Cult of Isis, Mithraism and Hinduism, along with some Persian influences. Such cross-cultural exchange was not new to the Greeks; the Egyptian god Osiris and the Greek god Dionysus had been equated as Osiris-Dionysus by the historian Herodotus as early as the 5th century BC (see Interpretatio graeca).
Roman world: Philo of Alexandria
Philo of Alexandria (c.25 BCE – c.50 CE) attempted to reconcile Greek Rationalism with the Torah, which helped pave the way for Christianity with neoplatonism, and the adoption of the Old Testament with Christianity, as opposed to Gnostic roots of Christianity. Philo translated Judaism into terms of Stoic, Platonic and neopythagorean elements, and held that God is "supra rational" and can be reached only through "ecstasy." He also held that the oracles of God supply the material of moral and religious knowledge.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonism arose in the 3rd century CE and persisted until shortly after the closing of the Platonic Academy in Athens in AD 529 by Justinian I. Neoplatonists were heavily influenced by Plato, but also by the Platonic tradition that thrived during the six centuries which separated the first of the neoplatonists from Plato. The work of neoplatonic philosophy involved describing the derivation of the whole of reality from a single principle, "the One." It was founded by Plotinus, and has been very influential throughout history. In the Middle Ages, neoplatonic ideas were integrated into the philosophical and theological works of many of the most important medieval Islamic, Christian, and Jewish thinkers.
Renaissance
Ficino and Pico della Mirandola
Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) believed that Hermes Trismegistos, the supposed author of the Corpus Hermeticum, was a contemporary of Mozes and the teacher of Pythagoras, and the source of both Greek and Jewish-Christian thought. He argued that there is an underlying unity to the world, the soul or love, which has a counterpart in the realm of ideas. Platonic Philosophy and Christian theology both embody this truth. Ficino was influenced by a variety of philosophers including Aristotelian Scholasticism and various pseudonymous and mystical writings. Ficino saw his thought as part of a long development of philosophical truth, of ancient pre-Platonic philosophers (including Zoroaster, Hermes Trismegistus, Orpheus, Aglaophemus and Pythagoras) who reached their peak in Plato. The Prisca theologia, or venerable and ancient theology, which embodied the truth and could be found in all ages, was a vitally important idea for Ficino.
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–94), a student of Ficino, went further than his teacher by suggesting that truth could be found in many, rather than just two, traditions. This proposed a harmony between the thought of Plato and Aristotle, and saw aspects of the Prisca theologia in Averroes, the Koran, the Cabala among other sources. After the deaths of Pico and Ficino this line of thought expanded, and included Symphorien Champier, and Francesco Giorgio.
Steuco
De perenni philosophia libri X
The term perenni philosophia was first used by Agostino Steuco (1497–1548) who used it to title a treatise, De perenni philosophia libri X, published in 1540. De perenni philosophia was the most sustained attempt at philosophical synthesis and harmony. Steuco represents the renaissance humanist side of 16th-century Biblical scholarship and theology, although he rejected Luther and Calvin. De perenni philosophia, is a complex work which only contains the term philosophia perennis twice. It states that there is "one principle of all things, of which there has always been one and the same knowledge among all peoples." This single knowledge (or sapientia) is the key element in his philosophy. In that he emphasises continuity over progress, Steuco's idea of philosophy is not one conventionally associated with the Renaissance. Indeed, he tends to believe that the truth is lost over time and is only preserved in the prisci theologica. Steuco preferred Plato to Aristotle and saw greater congruence between the former and Christianity than the latter philosopher. He held that philosophy works in harmony with religion and should lead to knowledge of God, and that truth flows from a single source, more ancient than the Greeks. Steuco was strongly influenced by Iamblichus's statement that knowledge of God is innate in all, and also gave great importance to Hermes Trismegistus.
Influence
Steuco's perennial philosophy was highly regarded by some scholars for the two centuries after its publication, then largely forgotten until it was rediscovered by Otto Willmann in the late part of the 19th century. Overall, De perenni philosophia wasn't particularly influential, and largely confined to those with a similar orientation to himself. The work was not put on the Index of works banned by the Roman Catholic Church, although his Cosmopoeia which expressed similar ideas was. Religious criticisms tended to the conservative view that held Christian teachings should be understood as unique, rather than seeing them as perfect expressions of truths that are found everywhere. More generally, this philosophical syncretism was set out at the expense of some of the doctrines included within it, and it is possible that Steuco's critical faculties were not up to the task he had set himself. Further, placing so much confidence in the prisca theologia, turned out to be a shortcoming as many of the texts used in this school of thought later turned out to be bogus. In the following two centuries the most favourable responses were largely Protestant and often in England.
Gottfried Leibniz later picked up on Steuco's term. The German philosopher stands in the tradition of this concordistic philosophy; his philosophy of harmony especially had affinity with Steuco's ideas. Leibniz knew about Steuco's work by 1687, but thought that De la vérité de la religion chrétienne by Huguenot philosopher Phillippe du Plessis-Mornay expressed the same truth better. Steuco's influence can be found throughout Leibniz's works, but the German was the first philosopher to refer to the perennial philosophy without mentioning the Italian.
Popularisation
Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field. He was one of the major figures in Transcendentalism, which was rooted in English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism of Hume. The Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individual's intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth. In the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. They also endorsed universalist and Unitarian ideas, leading in the 20th Century to Unitarian Universalism. Universalism holds the idea that there must be truth in other religions as well, since a loving God would redeem all living beings, not just Christians.
Theosophical Society
By the end of the 19th century, the idea of a perennial philosophy was popularized by leaders of the Theosophical Society such as H. P. Blavatsky and Annie Besant, under the name of "Wisdom-Religion" or "Ancient Wisdom". The Theosophical Society took an active interest in Asian religions, subsequently not only bringing those religions under the attention of a western audience but also influencing Hinduism and Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Japan.
Neo-Vedanta
Many perennialist thinkers (including Armstrong, Huston Smith and Joseph Campbell) are influenced by Hindu reformer Ram Mohan Roy and Hindu mystics Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda, who themselves have taken over western notions of universalism. They regarded Hinduism to be a token of this perennial philosophy. This notion has influenced thinkers who have proposed versions of the perennial philosophy in the 20th century.
The unity of all religions was a central impulse among Hindu reformers in the 19th century, who in turn influenced many 20th-century perennial philosophy-type thinkers. Key figures in this reforming movement included two Bengali Brahmins. Ram Mohan Roy, a philosopher and the founder of the modernising Brahmo Samaj religious organisation, reasoned that the divine was beyond description and thus that no religion could claim a monopoly in their understanding of it.
The mystic Ramakrishna's spiritual ecstasies included experiencing the sameness of Christ, Mohammed and his own Hindu deity. Ramakrishna's most famous disciple, Swami Vivekananda, travelled to the United States in the 1890s where he formed the Vedanta Society.
Roy, Ramakrishna and Vivekananda were all influenced by the Hindu school of Advaita Vedanta, which they saw as the exemplification of a Universalist Hindu religiosity.
Traditionalist School
The Traditionalist School is a group of 20th and 21st century thinkers concerned with what they consider to be the demise of traditional forms of knowledge, both aesthetic and spiritual, within Western society. The principal thinkers in this tradition are René Guénon, Ananda Coomaraswamy and Frithjof Schuon. Other important thinkers in this tradition include Titus Burckhardt, Martin Lings, Jean-Louis Michon, Marco Pallis, Huston Smith, Hossein Nasr, Jean Borella, Elémire Zolla and Julius Evola. According to the Traditionalist School, orthodox religions are based on a singular metaphysical origin. According to the Traditionalist School, the "philosophia perennis" designates a worldview that is opposed to the scientism of modern secular societies and which promotes the rediscovery of the wisdom traditions of the pre-secular developed world. This view is exemplified by Rene Guenon in The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times, one of the founding works of the traditionalist school.
According to Frithjof Schuon:
Aldous Huxley
The term was popularized in the mid-twentieth century by Aldous Huxley, who was profoundly influenced by Vivekananda's Neo-Vedanta and Universalism. In his 1945 book The Perennial Philosophy he defined the perennial philosophy as:
In contrast to the Traditionalist school, Huxley emphasized mystical experience over metaphysics:
According to Aldous Huxley, in order to apprehend the divine reality, one must choose to fulfill certain conditions: "making themselves loving, pure in heart and poor in spirit." Huxley argues that very few people can achieve this state. Those who have fulfilled these conditions, grasped the universal truth and interpreted it have generally been given the name of saint, prophet, sage or enlightened one. Huxley argues that those who have, "modified their merely human mode of being," and have thus been able to comprehend "more than merely human kind and amount of knowledge" have also achieved this enlightened state.
New Age
The idea of a perennial philosophy is central to the New Age Movement. The New Age movement is a Western spiritual movement that developed in the second half of the 20th century. Its central precepts have been described as "drawing on both Eastern and Western spiritual and metaphysical traditions and infusing them with influences from self-help and motivational psychology, holistic health, parapsychology, consciousness research and quantum physics". The term New Age refers to the coming astrological Age of Aquarius.
The New Age aims to create "a spirituality without borders or confining dogmas" that is inclusive and pluralistic. It holds to "a holistic worldview", emphasising that the Mind, Body and Spirit are interrelated and that there is a form of monism and unity throughout the universe. It attempts to create "a worldview that includes both science and spirituality" and embraces a number of forms of mainstream science as well as other forms of science that are considered fringe.
Academic discussions
Mystical experience
The idea of a perennial philosophy, sometimes called perennialism, is a key area of debate in the academic discussion of mystical experience. Huston Smith notes that the Traditionalist School's vision of a perennial philosophy is not based on mystical experiences, but on metaphysical intuitions. The discussion of mystical experience has shifted the emphasis in the perennial philosophy from these metaphysical intuitions to religious experience and the notion of nonduality or altered state of consciousness.
William James popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his The Varieties of Religious Experience. It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies knowledge. Writers such as W.T. Stace, Huston Smith, and Robert Forman argue that there are core similarities to mystical experience across religions, cultures and eras. For Stace the universality of this core experience is a necessary, although not sufficient, condition for one to be able to trust the cognitive content of any religious experience.
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of "religious experience" was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential.
Critics point out that the emphasis on "experience" favours the atomic individual, instead of the community. It also fails to distinguish between episodic experience, and mysticism as a process, embedded in a total religious matrix of liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals and practices. Richard King also points to disjunction between "mystical experience" and social justice:
Religious pluralism
Religious pluralism holds that various world religions are limited by their distinctive historical and cultural contexts and thus there is no single, true religion. There are only many equally valid religions. Each religion is a direct result of humanity's attempt to grasp and understand the incomprehensible divine reality. Therefore, each religion has an authentic but ultimately inadequate perception of divine reality, producing a partial understanding of the universal truth, which requires syncretism to achieve a complete understanding as well as a path towards salvation or spiritual enlightenment.
Although perennial philosophy also holds that there is no single true religion, it differs when discussing divine reality. Perennial philosophy states that a divine reality can be understood and that its existence is what allows the universal truth to be understood. Each religion provides its own interpretation of the universal truth, based on its historical and cultural context, potentially providing everything required to observe the divine reality and achieve a state in which one will be able to confirm the universal truth and achieve salvation or spiritual enlightenment.
Evidence for perennial philosophy
Cognitive archeology such as analysis of cave paintings and other pre-historic art and customs suggests that a form of perennial philosophy or Shamanic metaphysics may stretch back to the birth of behavioral modernity, all around the world. Similar beliefs are found in present-day "stone age" cultures such as Aboriginal Australians. Perennial philosophy postulates the existence of a spirit or concept world alongside the day-to-day world, and interactions between these worlds during dreaming and ritual, or on special days or at special places. It has been argued that perennial philosophy formed the basis for Platonism, with Plato articulating, rather than creating, much older widespread beliefs.
See also
Ivan Aguéli
Archetypes
Alice A. Bailey
H. P. Blavatsky
Titus Burckhardt
Suheil Bushrui
Olavo de Carvalho
Henry Corbin
Benjamin Creme
Julius Evola
Evolutionism
J.N. Findlay
The Four Noble Truths
Gautama Buddha
René Guénon
Angus Macnab
Maitreya
Meaning of life
Jean-Louis Michon
Michel de Montaigne
Hossein Nasr
Rudolf Otto
Whitall Perry
Kathleen Raine
Religious experience
Religious pluralism
Helena Roerich
Frithjof Schuon
Huston Smith
Mateus Soares de Azevedo
Edith Stein
William Stoddart
Syncretism
The Teachings of the Mystics
Traditionalist School
Transcendentalism
Transpersonal psychology
Wilbur Marshall Urban
Wisdom tradition
R. C. Zaehner
Elémire Zolla
Educational perennialism
Urreligion
Notes
References
Sources
Printed sources
James S. Cutsinger, The Fullness of God: Frithjof Schuon on Christianity, Bloomington, Indiana: World Wisdom, 2004
Ranjit Fernando (ed.) (1991), The Unanimous Tradition, Essays on the essential unity of all religions. Sri Lanka Institute of Traditional Studies, 1991
John Holman (2008), The Return of the Perennial Philosophy: The Supreme Vision of Western Esotericism. Watkins Publishing,
Perennial Philosophy, Brenda Jackson, Ronald L McDonald, Penguin Group (USA)
The other perennial philosophy: a metaphysical dialectic, Author Alan M. Laibelman, University Press of America, (2000),
"The Mystery of the Two Natures", in Barry McDonald (ed.), Every Branch in Me: Essays on the Meaning of Man, Bloomington, Indiana: World Wisdom, 2002
Frithjof Schuon and the Perennial Philosophy, Authors Harry Oldmeadow and William Stoddart, Contributor William Stoddart, Publisher World Wisdom, Inc, (2010)
Whitall N. Perry, A Treasury of Traditional Wisdom, Louisville, Kentucky: Fons Vitae, 2001
Web-sources
Further reading
Traditionalist School
Martin Lings, The Underlying Religion: An Introduction to the Perennial Philosophy,
William W. Quinn, junior. The Only Tradition, in S.U.N.Y. Series in Western Esoteric Traditions. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1997. xix, 384 p. pbk
Samuel Bendeck Sotillos, Psychology and the Perennial Philosophy: Studies in Comparative Religion (Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2013).
Aldous Huxley
External links
Kabbalah and the Perennial Philosophy
Slideshow on the Perennial Philosophy
The End of Philosophy by Swami Tripurari
Religious Pluralism and the Question of Religious Truth in Wilfred C. Smith
James S. Cutsinger Perennial Philosophy and Christianity
OSHO discourses on Philosophia Perennis
Perennial philosophy Essay by Jules Evans, aeon.co
Neoplatonism
Neo-Vedanta
Nondualism
Philosophy of religion
Religious pluralism
Traditionalist School
|
[
0.17549113929271698,
0.046382736414670944,
-0.08469472080469131,
0.17618048191070557,
-0.20782466232776642,
0.4473230838775635,
0.7229635119438171,
0.3557569980621338,
0.12568405270576477,
-0.1862889528274536,
-0.5259044766426086,
0.6018701195716858,
-0.07344412803649902,
0.4885163903236389,
0.17336280643939972,
-0.023624958470463753,
0.7601559162139893,
-0.122067391872406,
0.1142677590250969,
0.22871147096157074,
-0.6442369818687439,
0.40207698941230774,
0.2578426003456116,
-0.5689186453819275,
0.03610174357891083,
-0.10942122340202332,
0.2107132077217102,
0.05231868103146553,
-0.45891377329826355,
0.13034039735794067,
0.011307375505566597,
0.4438166320323944,
-0.11954211443662643,
-0.4764019846916199,
0.04030100256204605,
-0.1715000420808792,
0.2593829929828644,
0.3205980062484741,
-0.3301639258861542,
-0.3295876979827881,
0.13204257190227509,
-0.0010827158112078905,
0.3003902733325958,
-0.050821028649806976,
-0.7061170339584351,
-0.2333638072013855,
-1.2561287879943848,
0.11159241944551468,
-0.6825788617134094,
0.03055339865386486,
-0.4376670718193054,
-0.13387560844421387,
0.35245293378829956,
0.13699179887771606,
-0.06338634341955185,
0.7220326662063599,
-0.7749963402748108,
-0.144649475812912,
-0.01424618624150753,
-0.29507189989089966,
-0.33040449023246765,
-0.013888809829950333,
0.33406832814216614,
0.36497947573661804,
0.0202786885201931,
0.25109997391700745,
-0.46642881631851196,
-0.3452101945877075,
-0.5223326683044434,
-0.42394018173217773,
-0.028952959924936295,
-0.2489980161190033,
-0.6256978511810303,
0.7761268019676208,
-0.35585927963256836,
-0.21308176219463348,
0.03128156438469887,
0.07841307669878006,
0.14880061149597168,
-0.2907789945602417,
-0.6324332356452942,
0.40810373425483704,
0.23413178324699402,
-0.1142968088388443,
0.0831858366727829,
0.1361376941204071,
0.6200926899909973,
0.5359907746315002,
0.21244920790195465,
0.28814178705215454,
0.24249666929244995,
-0.38964012265205383,
0.5711180567741394,
-0.1751055270433426,
0.06458448618650436,
-0.871901273727417,
1.022905945777893,
-0.31889721751213074,
-0.48290562629699707,
-0.17202796041965485,
-0.0028790340293198824,
0.41617241501808167,
0.1972046196460724,
-0.347423255443573,
-0.274324506521225,
-0.27534791827201843,
0.10601463168859482,
-1.0748037099838257,
-0.04707280918955803,
0.42443472146987915,
-1.2557282447814941,
0.415073424577713,
0.21258632838726044,
0.3277776837348938,
-0.309428334236145,
0.49525466561317444,
-0.21520809829235077,
-0.7197176218032837,
-0.334593266248703,
0.352826327085495,
0.7712171673774719,
-0.0022702794522047043,
0.3190016746520996,
-0.3018821179866791,
0.32979294657707214,
-0.21897582709789276,
0.31019166111946106,
0.41471555829048157,
-1.025895118713379,
0.10751194506883621,
0.05687975138425827,
0.6653014421463013,
-0.044879376888275146,
-0.5393204689025879,
-0.18980728089809418,
-0.13136976957321167,
0.9220404028892517,
-0.33668071031570435,
0.26987677812576294,
0.8559759855270386,
-0.6723812222480774,
-0.4599500596523285,
-0.6011805534362793,
-0.8552232980728149,
0.4305984377861023,
-0.3314894139766693,
0.33896389603614807,
-0.5839099287986755,
-0.26302435994148254,
-0.6154147386550903,
-0.5329263210296631,
0.13878463208675385,
0.15501876175403595,
-0.2899984121322632,
0.181886687874794,
0.061361849308013916,
0.29844406247138977,
0.7808117270469666,
0.11091262847185135,
-0.37388408184051514,
-0.3541783094406128,
-0.18618956208229065,
0.1897391974925995,
0.008100125007331371,
-0.14293396472930908,
-0.24724896252155304,
0.08483771979808807,
0.40935689210891724,
-0.012639089487493038,
0.11642170697450638,
-0.1331651359796524,
-0.128460094332695,
0.19406649470329285,
0.19103288650512695,
0.4854320287704468,
-0.19464011490345,
0.8980937600135803,
0.24490199983119965,
0.5829793214797974,
-0.23665829002857208,
-0.46722298860549927,
0.3250119984149933,
-0.09630507975816727,
-0.09551243484020233,
0.16533099114894867,
-0.5987764596939087,
-0.09937159717082977,
0.2788749635219574,
0.4458341896533966,
0.17519094049930573,
-0.9958927631378174,
0.09815626591444016,
0.10606255382299423,
-0.4321218729019165,
0.8545464277267456,
-0.4431030750274658,
-0.24280142784118652,
1.1225934028625488,
-0.47536981105804443,
0.2139129638671875,
0.18116258084774017,
-0.5087076425552368,
-0.49464982748031616,
0.4410155415534973,
-0.3992142677307129,
0.3495446741580963,
-0.1079210713505745,
0.07726665586233139,
0.7693086266517639,
-0.07537926733493805,
0.001760004903189838,
-0.20139653980731964,
-0.2753382921218872,
-0.1198553591966629,
-0.19387206435203552,
0.10220528393983841,
-0.7785795331001282,
0.11128664016723633,
-0.32821598649024963,
-0.10376016795635223,
0.6866202354431152,
-0.48962393403053284,
0.040149424225091934,
0.2352272868156433,
-0.1599046140909195,
-0.10535133630037308,
0.3394094407558441,
0.11838909238576889,
0.30233898758888245,
-0.5194972157478333,
0.41279569268226624,
-0.0008781327633187175,
0.6389646530151367,
-0.08231395483016968,
-0.3127601742744446,
0.38084104657173157,
0.16295365989208221,
-0.32367390394210815,
0.28922897577285767,
-0.8806688785552979,
0.033351317048072815,
-0.27307990193367004,
-0.587510347366333,
0.6028701663017273,
-0.23783037066459656,
0.18244479596614838,
-0.7481504082679749,
0.40207695960998535,
-0.9131832122802734,
0.2085268199443817,
-0.18982943892478943,
0.5465507507324219,
0.28570297360420227,
0.4425826966762543,
-0.15678878128528595,
-0.15844565629959106,
-0.4319286048412323,
0.7021904587745667,
0.7767690420150757,
0.49512141942977905,
-0.25433409214019775,
0.1700761765241623,
0.31871625781059265,
-0.07102343440055847,
-0.23632560670375824,
0.013932445086538792,
-0.14655517041683197,
-0.10349056869745255,
0.011446312069892883,
0.5711904168128967,
0.23601409792900085,
0.04869654402136803,
-0.7873464822769165,
0.6606274247169495,
-0.33042073249816895,
-1.070273995399475,
0.40379804372787476,
-0.1828325241804123,
-0.4362567961215973,
-0.08585312217473984,
-0.3178630471229553,
0.33010560274124146,
0.3755631148815155,
-0.4615304470062256,
-0.31659260392189026,
-0.4259549081325531,
0.2400044947862625,
-0.17745621502399445,
0.6141771078109741,
0.5365389585494995,
-0.11239807307720184,
0.08665147423744202,
0.010466218926012516,
-0.5458382368087769,
0.022536424919962883,
-0.0038740811869502068,
0.4694606065750122,
-0.2677496075630188,
-0.007431086618453264,
0.22559866309165955,
-0.2919527590274811,
-0.05147216096520424,
0.05719379708170891,
0.6102280616760254,
0.18735371530056,
0.06327716261148453,
-0.45508047938346863,
0.4328831136226654,
-5.61346960067749,
-0.31117522716522217,
-0.17791667580604553,
-0.46734845638275146,
0.10687529295682907,
0.4219406843185425,
0.5445579886436462,
0.06319937109947205,
-0.08488462120294571,
-0.3654859960079193,
-0.18618345260620117,
-0.1349508911371231,
0.1134360209107399,
0.5770645141601562,
0.4924963116645813,
0.12137828022241592,
-0.054352980107069016,
0.21177318692207336,
-0.2408076375722885,
0.48933592438697815,
-0.010456839576363564,
0.1295139044523239,
0.18007665872573853,
0.9471285343170166,
-0.0034071265254169703,
0.1978815793991089,
-0.43040165305137634,
0.1909657120704651,
0.05767277255654335,
0.5495892763137817,
0.13069665431976318,
-0.2649933397769928,
-0.10188256204128265,
-0.10309799760580063,
0.3630440831184387,
0.4782158434391022,
0.3922431468963623,
-0.16580864787101746,
0.7650485634803772,
0.1009894534945488,
0.1715071201324463,
0.2332146167755127,
0.21389633417129517,
-0.05307760462164879,
-0.2701711058616638,
0.1001591682434082,
-0.4746684432029724,
0.26630347967147827,
-0.7560182809829712,
0.6164159178733826,
-0.4788673222064972,
-0.19874083995819092,
0.5907367467880249,
-0.6062917113304138,
0.1696489155292511,
-0.02863731049001217,
0.5177614688873291,
-0.6374894380569458,
-0.6158071756362915,
-0.05795643851161003,
0.3918904662132263,
-0.3181486129760742,
-0.02825082093477249,
-0.20781005918979645,
-0.2975582480430603,
0.011914907023310661,
-0.9456564784049988,
-0.006920297630131245,
0.6472119688987732,
-0.04646166041493416,
-0.6596710085868835,
0.09889519214630127,
-0.20828130841255188,
-0.8411852121353149,
0.0555729866027832,
-0.20183105766773224,
-0.5490522384643555,
-0.1268671602010727,
0.2569309175014496,
-0.07216000556945801,
0.02100866287946701,
-0.008202072232961655,
-0.2057197093963623,
0.05766844376921654,
0.47720158100128174,
-0.09393753111362457,
-0.24530833959579468,
-0.5094053745269775,
-0.7483021020889282,
0.23437145352363586,
0.6012328863143921,
-0.12950807809829712,
0.4591304063796997,
0.16838599741458893,
0.7624728679656982,
1.0986316204071045,
0.10065674781799316,
0.15568111836910248,
0.4909118115901947,
-0.1770974099636078,
0.7221836447715759,
0.13306929171085358,
0.5719945430755615,
0.003995444625616074,
-0.3495842516422272,
0.07341829687356949,
-0.46289536356925964,
0.4952566623687744,
0.7174356579780579,
-0.571566104888916,
0.011442470364272594,
0.254820853471756,
0.2362729161977768,
-0.5699787735939026,
-0.04183655232191086,
0.5012621879577637,
-0.8313711285591125,
0.6370373368263245,
0.35130181908607483,
0.49674659967422485,
0.16965734958648682,
-0.08718410134315491,
-0.35604697465896606,
-0.3238951861858368,
-0.07713621854782104,
0.19555224478244781,
-0.4264976978302002,
-0.16832846403121948,
0.0518861748278141,
0.27299752831459045,
0.8928400874137878,
-0.3468082845211029,
0.1058960109949112,
-0.5964940190315247,
0.059140004217624664,
0.06454760581254959,
0.14502617716789246,
-0.5033295750617981,
-0.7795335054397583,
-0.2964078187942505,
-0.012415308505296707,
-0.005047412123531103,
0.47719916701316833,
0.692280113697052,
0.4453243613243103,
-0.3685673773288727,
-0.043156757950782776,
-0.31014013290405273,
0.1429770290851593,
0.9750609993934631,
0.652626097202301,
0.02090093120932579,
0.8817742466926575,
-0.18228089809417725,
-0.3310512900352478,
0.08371326327323914,
-0.36854079365730286,
0.36104515194892883,
-0.011157155968248844,
-0.23416155576705933,
-0.3313787877559662,
-0.557575523853302,
-0.7794585824012756,
-0.3750346302986145,
-0.03718317300081253,
0.19660337269306183,
-0.6585503816604614,
-0.40188920497894287,
-0.20979484915733337,
0.1960790902376175,
0.5213998556137085,
-0.15686951577663422,
-0.20020020008087158,
-0.22531664371490479,
0.29567185044288635,
0.17468564212322235,
-0.0696554183959961,
0.14908401668071747,
-0.06076391041278839,
-0.3407670557498932,
-0.10402588546276093,
-0.8435007333755493,
-0.29154953360557556,
-0.017895465716719627,
0.7613093256950378,
-0.7034421563148499,
0.297607958316803,
-0.4445045292377472,
-0.5623800158500671,
0.27870750427246094,
0.2963756322860718,
0.4463076889514923,
0.31592991948127747,
-0.026749782264232635,
-0.4581632912158966,
-0.5567451119422913,
-0.12148305028676987,
0.3610140085220337,
0.0006407115724869072,
-0.053641803562641144,
0.3784477114677429,
0.2653856873512268,
-0.8663700222969055,
0.05563882738351822,
0.9876142144203186,
-0.6953140497207642,
0.5528623461723328,
-0.9954102635383606,
0.12182619422674179,
0.5929844379425049,
-0.048452556133270264,
0.20070487260818481,
-0.2521878480911255,
-0.16041742265224457,
-0.018782053142786026,
0.14650587737560272,
-0.14923328161239624,
-0.8948049545288086,
-0.34190934896469116,
-0.17132994532585144,
0.5919690132141113,
0.011760152876377106,
-0.40187588334083557,
0.014535357244312763,
0.040944334119558334,
-0.20305904746055603,
0.30465561151504517,
-0.21458664536476135,
-0.5406956076622009,
-0.030201762914657593,
-0.1873895227909088,
-0.4030546247959137,
-0.28540682792663574,
-0.6769211292266846,
-0.1695767343044281,
-0.08952557295560837,
0.05143975839018822,
0.24356448650360107,
0.023479580879211426,
-0.2667147219181061,
-0.34303557872772217,
0.2775411903858185,
0.009083597920835018,
-0.6352806687355042,
-0.0806141048669815,
0.33768826723098755,
0.5043860673904419,
-0.8722743988037109,
-0.5796380043029785,
0.30265310406684875,
0.5456715822219849,
-0.3439439833164215,
-0.03829384595155716,
-0.5583987236022949,
0.4148991107940674,
-0.017257727682590485,
-0.5932561755180359,
-0.5832679867744446,
0.21522510051727295,
0.00018227958935312927,
0.4335876703262329,
-0.5093256831169128,
-0.3967716693878174,
-0.4444865584373474,
0.27584943175315857,
-0.3945409953594208,
0.06673569977283478,
-0.21132029592990875,
0.08553658425807953,
-0.9190111756324768,
0.21385836601257324,
-0.2507990598678589,
0.17655572295188904,
0.0293537899851799,
0.2674218416213989,
0.12619270384311676,
-0.6583574414253235,
-0.4485112428665161,
-0.3481065034866333,
-0.12445907294750214,
-0.29983359575271606,
-0.1608414202928543,
-0.5206605195999146,
0.14501354098320007,
0.401260644197464,
-0.6839572191238403,
0.5102460980415344,
-0.19783422350883484,
-0.06773967295885086,
0.19071274995803833,
-0.8752235174179077,
-0.12270289659500122,
0.6714873313903809,
0.40322059392929077,
-0.2137177735567093,
0.4302549362182617,
0.12048032134771347,
0.07615691423416138,
-0.34174466133117676,
-0.21040493249893188,
0.12407346069812775,
-0.09547311067581177,
0.7611041069030762,
-0.48053643107414246,
0.5256478786468506,
0.16451460123062134,
-0.08586150407791138,
-0.3288356065750122,
-0.06654657423496246,
-0.23709352314472198,
0.5797545909881592,
0.8102016448974609,
0.054164860397577286,
0.36845195293426514,
-0.0922151654958725,
0.08047803491353989,
0.2497342824935913,
-0.31367865204811096,
0.6384931802749634,
0.9237640500068665,
0.7386473417282104,
0.29967400431632996,
0.463281512260437,
-0.6585618853569031,
0.04253996163606644,
0.08190154284238815,
-0.548587441444397,
0.11799299716949463,
0.32939833402633667,
-0.15696831047534943,
0.593157172203064,
0.03952964022755623,
-0.13246823847293854,
0.3416912853717804,
-0.41772380471229553,
-0.5565268993377686,
0.25918084383010864,
-0.5014967918395996,
-0.6927663087844849,
0.623096227645874,
1.124436378479004,
0.3424527943134308,
0.13366103172302246,
0.19899389147758484,
-0.3392535448074341,
0.4159626364707947,
0.5465644598007202,
0.5542740821838379,
-0.09644061326980591,
0.37421029806137085,
0.21439185738563538,
-0.1468745470046997,
0.6843312382698059,
-0.2149466574192047,
0.26795902848243713,
-0.800136387348175,
0.4115366041660309,
-0.23082798719406128,
0.17523281276226044,
-0.061060741543769836,
-0.3308444023132324,
0.5208824872970581,
0.006544290576130152,
-0.3242207169532776,
0.6669055223464966,
0.38040563464164734,
0.06789988279342651,
-0.8354721069335938,
0.18270304799079895,
0.1593899130821228,
0.04237204045057297,
0.5984955430030823,
-0.3367813229560852,
0.4370173215866089,
-0.16531683504581451,
-0.09995894134044647,
1.0276789665222168,
0.4988692104816437,
0.05723780766129494,
0.03423294425010681,
-0.015122482553124428,
-0.3574926257133484,
0.09435062110424042,
-0.0905861184000969,
0.2825736999511719,
0.1708693653345108,
0.4396563172340393,
-0.06132350489497185,
-0.7568339705467224,
0.2990299463272095,
0.11953527480363846,
-0.031464915722608566,
-0.0025508226826786995,
0.11181779205799103,
0.06852405518293381,
0.3599986135959625,
0.28999844193458557,
0.8226909041404724,
-0.3575269877910614,
-0.20069082081317902,
-0.44267719984054565,
0.03513394296169281,
0.41453248262405396,
0.4608834385871887,
-0.6718459725379944,
-0.21849149465560913,
-0.07933057844638824,
-0.014482714235782623,
-1.1288847923278809,
0.541819155216217,
0.004300510976463556,
-0.027250900864601135,
0.100285604596138,
0.07426184415817261,
-0.319083034992218,
-0.20768402516841888,
0.5041887760162354,
-0.17348220944404602,
0.17641884088516235,
-0.6548812389373779,
0.18534639477729797,
-0.16083908081054688,
-0.31780508160591125,
0.4204663038253784,
-0.5324349999427795,
-0.5187564492225647,
0.016784247010946274,
0.5832877159118652,
-0.7628397345542908,
0.2282564789056778,
-0.09169350564479828,
-0.46087825298309326,
-0.3513778746128082,
0.4270135462284088,
-0.15596193075180054,
-0.448081910610199,
0.3759355843067169,
0.29060351848602295,
-0.12087488174438477,
-0.8997805714607239,
-0.006529510021209717,
-0.003983881790190935,
-0.2588256299495697,
0.3498609662055969,
-0.12852109968662262,
0.35255420207977295,
0.0734802633523941,
-0.15715858340263367,
-0.653827965259552,
0.15957698225975037,
0.18542319536209106,
-0.29974672198295593,
0.17418625950813293,
-0.6477768421173096,
0.20766723155975342,
0.07028626650571823,
0.6907134056091309,
-0.08822949975728989,
0.38116034865379333,
0.7364557981491089
] |
200341
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megapode
|
Megapode
|
The megapodes, also known as incubator birds or mound-builders, are stocky, medium-large, chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet in the family Megapodiidae. Their name literally means "large foot" and is a reference to the heavy legs and feet typical of these terrestrial birds. All are browsers, and all but the malleefowl occupy wooded habitats. Most are brown or black in color. Megapodes are superprecocial, hatching from their eggs in the most mature condition of any bird. They hatch with open eyes, bodily coordination and strength, full wing feathers, and downy body feathers, and are able to run, pursue prey, and in some species, fly on the same day they hatch.
Description
Megapodes are medium-sized to large terrestrial birds with large legs and feet with sharp claws. The largest members of the clade are the species of Alectura and Talegalla. The smallest are the Micronesian scrubfowl (Megapodius laperouse) and the Moluccan scrubfowl (Eulipoa wallacei). They have small heads, short beaks, and rounded and large wings. Their flying abilities vary within the clade. They present the hallux at the same level of the other toes just like the species of the clade Cracidae. The other Galliformes have their halluces raised above the level of the front toes.
Distribution and habitat
Megapodes are found in the broader Australasian region, including islands in the western Pacific, Australia, New Guinea, and the islands of Indonesia east of the Wallace Line, but also the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The distribution of the family has contracted in the Pacific with the arrival of humans, and a number of island groups such as Fiji, Tonga, and New Caledonia have lost many or all of their species. Raoul Island, a New Zealand territory and the main island of the Kermadec Islands, may also have once had a species of megapode, based on settler accounts.
Behaviour and ecology
Megapodes are mainly solitary birds that do not incubate their eggs with their body heat as other birds do, but bury them. Their eggs are unusual in having a large yolk, making up 50–70% of the egg weight. The birds are best known for building massive nest mounds of decaying vegetation, which the male attends, adding or removing litter to regulate the internal heat while the eggs develop. However, some bury their eggs in other ways; there are burrow-nesters which use geothermal heat, and others which simply rely on the heat of the sun warming sand. Some species vary their incubation strategy depending on the local environment. Although the Australian brushturkey was thought to exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, this was later proven false; temperature does, however, affect embryo mortality and resulting offspring sex ratios. The nonsocial nature of their incubation raises questions as to how the hatchlings come to recognise other members of their species, which is due to imprinting in other members of the order Galliformes. Research suggests an instinctive visual recognition of specific movement patterns is made by the individual species of megapode.
Megapode chicks do not have an egg tooth; they use their powerful claws to break out of the egg, and then tunnel their way up to the surface of the mound, lying on their backs and scratching at the sand and vegetable matter. Similar to other superprecocial birds, they hatch fully feathered and active, already able to fly and live independently from their parents. In megapodes superprecociality apparently evolved secondarily from brooding and at least loose parental care as more typical in Galliformes.
Eggs previously assigned to Genyornis have been reassigned to giant megapode species. Some dietary and chronological data previously assigned to dromornithids may instead be assigned to the giant megapodes.
Megapodes share some similarities to the extinct enantiornithes in terms of their superprecocial life cycle, though also several differences.
Species
The more than 20 living species are placed in seven genera. Although the evolutionary relationships between the Megapodiidae are especially uncertain, the morphological groups are clear:
Phylogeny
Taxonomy
Genus †Mwalau Worthy et al. 2015
†Mwalau walterlinii Worthy et al. 2015 (Vanuatu)
Genus †Ngawupodius Boles & Ivison 1999
†Ngawupodius minya Boles & Ivison 1999
Scrubfowl group
Genus: Macrocephalon
Maleo, Macrocephalon maleo
Genus: Eulipoa (sometimes included in Megapodius)
Moluccan megapode, Eulipoa wallacei.
Genus: Megapodius
Tongan megapode, Megapodius pritchardii
Micronesian megapode, Megapodius laperouse
Marianas Island megapode, Megapodius laperouse laperouse
Palau Island megapode, Megapodius laperouse senex
Nicobar megapode, Megapodius nicobariensis
Philippine megapode, Megapodius cumingii
Sula megapode, Megapodius bernsteinii
Tanimbar megapode, Megapodius tenimberensis
Dusky megapode, Megapodius freycinet
Forsten's megapode, Megapodius (freycinet) forstenii
Biak scrubfowl, Megapodius geelvinkianus
Melanesian megapode, Megapodius eremita
Vanuatu megapode, Megapodius layardi
New Guinea scrubfowl, Megapodius affinis
Orange-footed scrubfowl, Megapodius reinwardt
†Pile-builder scrubfowl, Megapodius molistructor Balouet & Olson 1989
†Viti Levu scrubfowl, Megapodius amissus Worthy 2000
†Consumed scrubfowl, Megapodius alimentum Steatman 1989a
†M. andamanensis Walter 1980 nomen dubium [oospecies]
†M. burnabyi Gray 1861 nomen dubium [oospecies]
†Raoul Island scrubfowl, M. sp.
†'Eua scrubfowl (small-footed megapode), M. sp.
†Lifuka scrubfowl, M. sp.
†Stout Tongan megapode, M. sp.
†Large Vanuatu megapode, M. sp.
†Large Solomon Islands, M. sp.
†New Caledonia megapode, M. sp.
†Loyalty megapode, M. sp.
†New Ireland scrubfowl (large Bismarck's megapode), M. sp.
Malleefowl, group
Genus: Leipoa
Malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata
Brushturkey group
Genus: Alectura
Australian brushturkey, Alectura lathami
Genus: Aepypodius
Wattled brushturkey, Aepypodius arfakianus
Waigeo brushturkey, Aepypodius bruijnii
Genus: Talegalla
Red-billed brushturkey, Talegalla cuvieri
Black-billed brushturkey, Talegalla fuscirostris
Collared brushturkey, Talegalla jobiensis
Genus: †Progura
Progura gallinacea – Queensland, Pleistocene
Progura campestris – South Australia, Pleistocene
Genus: †Latagallina
Latagallina naracoortensis formerly Progura naracoortensis – New South Wales, South Australia, Pleistocene
Latagallina olsoni – South Australia, Pleistocene
Incertae sedis
Genus: †Garrdimalga
Garrdimalga mcnamarai – South Australia, Pleistocene
See also
List of recently extinct birds
Late Quaternary prehistoric birds
List of fossil bird genera
References
External links
Mound-builders videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Photograph of a nest mound of M. tenimberensis from the Oriental Bird Club
Taxa named by René Lesson
|
[
0.3425288796424866,
0.1818956881761551,
-1.1870595216751099,
0.025340689346194267,
0.0375991053879261,
0.8646875023841858,
0.09721486270427704,
0.5670217871665955,
-0.5026983022689819,
-0.08860756456851959,
-0.013824094086885452,
-0.09480416029691696,
-0.692171037197113,
-0.268196702003479,
-0.5348093509674072,
0.4903929531574249,
0.5810009837150574,
-0.0018861244898289442,
-0.05942011624574661,
-0.442178875207901,
-0.29769691824913025,
-0.471148282289505,
0.4600784480571747,
-0.5257343649864197,
0.20444728434085846,
-0.0005116867832839489,
0.18245826661586761,
0.2280874103307724,
0.7075785994529724,
-0.08850087225437164,
-0.38095977902412415,
0.6605668067932129,
0.5897350311279297,
-0.12397217750549316,
-0.1586524397134781,
-0.2144169807434082,
-0.3685387074947357,
-0.15536338090896606,
0.16388024389743805,
-0.8459746241569519,
0.3460235893726349,
-0.5507166385650635,
0.40798211097717285,
0.278813898563385,
-1.1761530637741089,
-0.043131209909915924,
-1.3003238439559937,
0.6322687268257141,
-0.4989585876464844,
0.27973878383636475,
-0.06265459954738617,
0.611775815486908,
0.06556171923875809,
0.7588585615158081,
-0.02708393521606922,
0.6311423778533936,
-0.4918856918811798,
-0.13283851742744446,
0.1853058636188507,
-0.4209422171115875,
-0.5250710248947144,
0.19331783056259155,
-0.1670927107334137,
-0.15577200055122375,
0.41407978534698486,
0.27089494466781616,
0.4153289496898651,
0.42326050996780396,
-0.11450375616550446,
0.3992396593093872,
-0.6582457423210144,
-0.8013995289802551,
-0.15965469181537628,
0.4702705144882202,
-0.7025872468948364,
-0.3778776228427887,
0.01436051819473505,
0.06057305634021759,
1.0023226737976074,
-0.1931246966123581,
0.24008381366729736,
0.49090439081192017,
0.23542407155036926,
-0.22103609144687653,
-0.04660544544458389,
-0.007934964261949062,
-0.549436092376709,
0.2050522267818451,
-0.716735303401947,
0.21403880417346954,
0.1097407117486,
-0.41930919885635376,
0.5905436277389526,
0.39151477813720703,
-0.48880109190940857,
-0.00931517593562603,
-0.08152501285076141,
0.04787382110953331,
0.302162230014801,
-0.05719944089651108,
-0.4078383445739746,
0.19890767335891724,
0.21721585094928741,
0.12785238027572632,
-0.3054890036582947,
-0.390918105840683,
-0.10850081592798233,
-0.4195120930671692,
-0.2638855278491974,
0.31173965334892273,
-0.9253993630409241,
-0.028219450265169144,
-0.15132039785385132,
0.29484713077545166,
0.15712156891822815,
0.2997541129589081,
0.12058936059474945,
-0.21840064227581024,
-0.44097357988357544,
-0.3801945149898529,
-0.0696413442492485,
0.6497422456741333,
-0.11881257593631744,
-0.32733869552612305,
-0.6341515779495239,
0.24913044273853302,
0.29063358902931213,
0.29374048113822937,
-0.19131048023700714,
0.27393126487731934,
0.3306402862071991,
0.6689982414245605,
-0.33642178773880005,
0.07239526510238647,
0.5076804757118225,
-0.12657508254051208,
-0.2842828035354614,
-0.07816176116466522,
0.7790646553039551,
0.766245424747467,
-0.7141570448875427,
-0.10113608837127686,
-0.46255621314048767,
0.552564263343811,
0.06439352035522461,
0.015451164916157722,
-0.042392484843730927,
-0.021882053464651108,
-0.4937589466571808,
-0.02263413555920124,
0.018667498603463173,
-0.24083325266838074,
0.14309947192668915,
0.12938807904720306,
-0.4061632454395294,
-0.58205246925354,
0.18078847229480743,
-0.7675078511238098,
0.3826501667499542,
0.269976407289505,
-0.036193206906318665,
-0.23641452193260193,
-0.47038233280181885,
-0.3604480028152466,
0.013796207495033741,
-0.13705898821353912,
0.638251543045044,
0.2619839310646057,
-0.3120535910129547,
0.7214208245277405,
-0.09619706869125366,
-0.20179854333400726,
0.398797869682312,
0.25798213481903076,
-0.3945644497871399,
-0.8158882260322571,
0.5779851675033569,
0.05216202884912491,
0.7139042019844055,
0.2972865700721741,
-0.614556074142456,
-0.3015553653240204,
0.29770052433013916,
-0.38409584760665894,
0.6340765953063965,
-0.31524279713630676,
0.06690072268247604,
0.1427147090435028,
-0.1205344945192337,
-0.7043870687484741,
-0.5218731164932251,
-0.22161713242530823,
0.006123027298599482,
0.32787007093429565,
0.9860587120056152,
-0.310337096452713,
-0.2520004212856293,
0.08390534669160843,
0.688403308391571,
-0.20453248918056488,
-0.09638586640357971,
0.16893665492534637,
0.11035655438899994,
-0.18008583784103394,
-0.438551664352417,
0.4267060160636902,
0.01576082967221737,
0.22762925922870636,
0.19533991813659668,
-0.014561432413756847,
-0.4197060167789459,
-0.037693627178668976,
0.45497286319732666,
-0.3772306442260742,
0.16256435215473175,
-0.127964586019516,
-0.6546339988708496,
0.37235501408576965,
-0.4012242555618286,
-0.3728741705417633,
1.0720272064208984,
-0.430332750082016,
-0.13727526366710663,
-0.04057115316390991,
0.27118146419525146,
0.4969315230846405,
0.7307263612747192,
-0.6098527312278748,
0.4457632601261139,
-0.08899228274822235,
-0.07071085274219513,
0.20624692738056183,
0.31112074851989746,
-0.3706955015659332,
0.13481184840202332,
0.0875479206442833,
-0.05458274111151695,
-0.8361103534698486,
0.08891808241605759,
-0.1150970607995987,
-0.13880173861980438,
-0.22494807839393616,
-0.8569666147232056,
-0.14484260976314545,
0.08157383650541306,
-0.38463714718818665,
-0.06420199573040009,
0.1933177411556244,
-0.8121495842933655,
0.07093634456396103,
-0.07402001321315765,
0.45905616879463196,
0.9890236854553223,
-0.46439260244369507,
0.2701786458492279,
0.1082320287823677,
0.024932418018579483,
0.1531456708908081,
0.43998342752456665,
-0.2733314335346222,
-0.723537266254425,
0.1929468810558319,
0.36855030059814453,
-0.11200189590454102,
-0.24616791307926178,
-0.9458233714103699,
0.3291766941547394,
0.016084730625152588,
0.5794475078582764,
0.27841728925704956,
0.9837032556533813,
-0.05972757190465927,
-0.7044925093650818,
0.33608388900756836,
-0.040645111352205276,
-0.16541878879070282,
-0.39704468846321106,
-0.39009755849838257,
-0.6072267293930054,
-0.5206904411315918,
-0.0029805421363562346,
0.6833679676055908,
-0.23446916043758392,
-0.5046875476837158,
0.7811567783355713,
-0.1252669394016266,
0.5632739067077637,
-0.5628107786178589,
0.10928894579410553,
-1.0736902952194214,
-0.29145023226737976,
0.11721457540988922,
-0.21978795528411865,
-0.16075745224952698,
-0.06341167539358139,
0.4295034110546112,
-0.24129663407802582,
0.40155157446861267,
-0.07818451523780823,
-0.12115039676427841,
-0.5173311233520508,
0.3924460709095001,
-0.12426822632551193,
0.051471516489982605,
0.4661303162574768,
-0.03083573281764984,
0.7415117025375366,
0.6185299158096313,
-5.6015448570251465,
0.19036073982715607,
0.1974291205406189,
0.0014218977885320783,
0.003916069399565458,
0.7922874689102173,
0.1409689038991928,
-0.10147706419229507,
0.1885683536529541,
0.15648750960826874,
-0.12409716844558716,
-0.17879168689250946,
-0.3067381680011749,
0.70466548204422,
0.5180443525314331,
0.28965774178504944,
-0.7487865686416626,
0.15541815757751465,
0.00028831444797106087,
-0.11002937704324722,
0.1384621113538742,
-0.1028238907456398,
0.06840788573026657,
0.5198640823364258,
-0.043342962861061096,
-0.37182876467704773,
-0.20768678188323975,
0.014401321299374104,
-0.15159335732460022,
0.13502547144889832,
-0.02829926647245884,
-0.6079838275909424,
0.0861840695142746,
-0.28156059980392456,
-0.06743475794792175,
0.1825910210609436,
0.4080200791358948,
0.26982271671295166,
-0.11676844209432602,
-0.5888035297393799,
-0.8072880506515503,
0.054081302136182785,
-0.4337133467197418,
-0.440167635679245,
0.460556298494339,
-0.11990911513566971,
0.002580346306785941,
-0.24653342366218567,
-0.11953729391098022,
0.6397988796234131,
0.40391403436660767,
0.1975311040878296,
0.5039590001106262,
-0.06387211382389069,
0.42966601252555847,
-0.1085977554321289,
0.4111839234828949,
0.2795923352241516,
0.26724210381507874,
-0.050477828830480576,
0.8713212609291077,
-0.09359165281057358,
-0.5514839887619019,
-0.3368425965309143,
0.21584069728851318,
-0.10879351943731308,
-0.6638646125793457,
0.8291670680046082,
0.5905792713165283,
-0.18043290078639984,
-0.08669193834066391,
0.02623359113931656,
-0.1328251212835312,
-0.8430413007736206,
0.5404494404792786,
-0.11408095061779022,
0.030909832566976547,
-0.28530359268188477,
-0.20388482511043549,
0.30590298771858215,
-0.09577309340238571,
-0.5285935401916504,
-0.07499489933252335,
0.0594322644174099,
0.06199955195188522,
-0.9104115962982178,
-0.8015660643577576,
0.10972794145345688,
-0.26590707898139954,
-0.13063958287239075,
0.5265960693359375,
-0.28378239274024963,
-0.025754064321517944,
0.5789364576339722,
1.2638896703720093,
0.9011592268943787,
0.08222790062427521,
-0.09243114292621613,
0.9414656758308411,
0.3099936842918396,
0.42826715111732483,
0.3025464117527008,
-0.13451603055000305,
0.13076277077198029,
0.011005460284650326,
-0.9137142896652222,
-0.2539275586605072,
0.6844378709793091,
0.3370893895626068,
0.13995368778705597,
0.6148616075515747,
-0.1710977405309677,
-0.28279659152030945,
-0.6528048515319824,
0.28441956639289856,
0.1005154550075531,
0.37781062722206116,
0.43619996309280396,
0.7234829664230347,
-0.07004339247941971,
-0.4862414598464966,
0.0014154306845739484,
-0.5004042983055115,
0.017822036519646645,
-0.7527468800544739,
-0.05729669705033302,
0.1836758404970169,
0.11627254635095596,
-0.32855719327926636,
-0.953835666179657,
-0.04923241212964058,
0.2396470159292221,
-0.09997306019067764,
-0.06903629750013351,
0.026709754019975662,
0.10369166731834412,
-0.0292892437428236,
-0.03121546469628811,
0.016443932428956032,
-0.387151837348938,
-0.4024469256401062,
-0.40202611684799194,
-0.2703656256198883,
-0.17208285629749298,
0.22810395061969757,
0.31575772166252136,
-0.5398282408714294,
-0.04158051311969757,
0.18307429552078247,
0.5718360543251038,
-0.028773874044418335,
-0.1020951047539711,
0.31865251064300537,
-0.22518837451934814,
-0.0013017134042456746,
-0.27358806133270264,
0.46332818269729614,
-0.1348252147436142,
0.07342509925365448,
-0.5475260615348816,
-0.35146281123161316,
-0.4615764021873474,
-0.8465353846549988,
-0.3318578898906708,
0.10131663084030151,
0.3908980190753937,
-0.535111129283905,
-0.4913809597492218,
0.20572423934936523,
-0.05213559791445732,
0.19331520795822144,
-0.11407137662172318,
-0.11281070858240128,
-0.17868545651435852,
-0.010969330556690693,
-0.8473208546638489,
-0.0747092217206955,
0.2200934737920761,
-0.5440619587898254,
-0.11197640001773834,
-0.4190068244934082,
-0.20516064763069153,
0.24691428244113922,
-0.44279444217681885,
0.4601480960845947,
-0.31782495975494385,
0.4148048758506775,
-0.2659561336040497,
-0.554679274559021,
-0.1952580362558365,
-0.22184953093528748,
0.1947830617427826,
0.7976424694061279,
0.5019257664680481,
-0.012787404470145702,
0.15577459335327148,
0.1332080215215683,
-0.02470438927412033,
-0.34586119651794434,
-0.7936801910400391,
-0.5778302550315857,
-0.4551488757133484,
-0.42497748136520386,
0.1306590735912323,
0.5027989745140076,
-0.02848762460052967,
0.5419313311576843,
-0.7046833634376526,
0.3184627592563629,
0.31297022104263306,
-0.46677157282829285,
-0.04201847314834595,
-0.1031511127948761,
0.8541541695594788,
-0.2578428089618683,
0.23539870977401733,
-0.2561783790588379,
0.028373824432492256,
0.09211013466119766,
-0.09045922756195068,
0.12194962799549103,
0.18845127522945404,
-0.14213185012340546,
-0.29164204001426697,
-0.004187727812677622,
0.48016613721847534,
-0.2929483950138092,
-0.15841859579086304,
0.08918976038694382,
-0.6213143467903137,
-0.1884661763906479,
-0.056689128279685974,
0.1281721293926239,
-0.3308408260345459,
-0.7714633941650391,
-0.5298064947128296,
0.4970225393772125,
-0.14925338327884674,
-0.06543680280447006,
0.35809433460235596,
0.2801453471183777,
0.5387160778045654,
0.41115081310272217,
0.28524211049079895,
-0.5209845304489136,
0.15155962109565735,
0.3105429410934448,
-0.05985435098409653,
-0.960923433303833,
-0.4087868630886078,
0.510753333568573,
0.025160279124975204,
-0.610816240310669,
-0.0028318099211901426,
0.07601666450500488,
-0.0721287876367569,
-0.28266510367393494,
-0.3328244984149933,
0.02197357267141342,
0.16158977150917053,
0.6753045320510864,
-0.08709682524204254,
-0.727776288986206,
-0.016037458553910255,
-0.27119478583335876,
-0.04180319234728813,
-0.305389404296875,
0.6039958000183105,
0.538398027420044,
-0.44446808099746704,
0.44623279571533203,
0.6968823671340942,
0.07110545784235,
0.20924396812915802,
0.7148972153663635,
0.20696735382080078,
0.39936405420303345,
-0.6254637241363525,
0.15789148211479187,
0.4569339454174042,
0.004033115226775408,
0.3922090232372284,
0.13493050634860992,
-0.24644075334072113,
0.21709828078746796,
-0.7597084045410156,
-0.5559942722320557,
-0.2797492742538452,
0.22999049723148346,
-0.34048929810523987,
0.028912639245390892,
-0.06851108372211456,
-0.2567296028137207,
-0.014818333089351654,
0.23670664429664612,
0.10142026096582413,
0.2525823414325714,
-0.27549728751182556,
0.38937297463417053,
0.29654499888420105,
-1.5027652978897095,
0.564889132976532,
0.10563341528177261,
-0.42299216985702515,
0.5121326446533203,
0.010083489120006561,
-0.38831159472465515,
0.08016210049390793,
-0.6203638315200806,
0.19917649030685425,
0.11554364114999771,
-0.6876338720321655,
0.1642548143863678,
0.521586000919342,
-0.28576424717903137,
0.07966826856136322,
-0.2983456254005432,
-0.8345136046409607,
0.4901526868343353,
0.8899475932121277,
0.1736798882484436,
-0.12501290440559387,
-0.0066827586852014065,
0.22358031570911407,
0.03388943150639534,
-0.6240275502204895,
-0.4225558340549469,
0.37617266178131104,
0.2922397553920746,
0.3257739245891571,
1.1363651752471924,
0.348854660987854,
-0.10869137942790985,
0.03500134125351906,
-0.3044339120388031,
-0.2156444638967514,
-0.1349308341741562,
-0.5123423933982849,
0.020904287695884705,
1.184543251991272,
0.8122440576553345,
-0.24214482307434082,
0.47560080885887146,
0.15546876192092896,
-0.04878176003694534,
0.2798231244087219,
-0.24334557354450226,
0.20096445083618164,
0.10246691852807999,
0.04522312805056572,
-0.047326527535915375,
0.2752394676208496,
0.44319629669189453,
-0.3128482699394226,
0.1453697234392166,
-0.041289929300546646,
0.4222909212112427,
0.0328582227230072,
0.017711374908685684,
0.5450745224952698,
0.2844817638397217,
0.46548599004745483,
-0.07700952142477036,
0.25658324360847473,
-0.39776402711868286,
0.06880026310682297,
-0.5225355625152588,
-0.6099032163619995,
0.270114541053772,
0.2964056432247162,
0.7166857719421387,
0.13858182728290558,
-0.2694087326526642,
0.3032369613647461,
-0.10554192960262299,
0.5628411769866943,
0.16449016332626343,
0.527856171131134,
0.006832597777247429,
-0.7241107225418091,
-0.14268794655799866,
-0.7824922204017639,
-0.1269315779209137,
-0.3284998834133148,
0.012139393016695976,
0.05150860175490379,
0.2998984456062317,
0.21444229781627655,
0.5137370228767395,
0.03625820204615593,
-0.17758648097515106,
-0.9150256514549255,
0.16593395173549652,
0.020607857033610344,
0.1353403925895691,
-0.2548186779022217,
0.40420806407928467,
0.855500340461731,
0.06555436551570892,
0.3264363706111908,
0.025124361738562584,
-0.14102141559123993,
-0.3749741017818451,
-0.24289628863334656,
0.17357699573040009,
0.5714101195335388,
-0.02857123129069805,
-0.3780796229839325,
-0.7136759757995605,
0.3582676351070404,
1.0857384204864502,
0.5116646885871887,
-0.1289300173521042,
0.6678282618522644,
0.46313920617103577,
0.39814069867134094,
0.3510058522224426,
-0.5466099977493286,
0.16511090099811554,
-0.30037322640419006,
0.25299689173698425,
-0.0300575140863657,
0.1321457475423813,
0.1854928433895111,
-0.08611910045146942,
-0.047266386449337006,
0.42243099212646484,
-0.8469846844673157,
-0.6710452437400818,
0.45401695370674133,
-0.29058361053466797,
0.7585928440093994,
-0.16174376010894775,
-0.5515300035476685,
-0.604343056678772,
-0.7642713785171509,
0.5547665953636169,
0.5161173939704895,
0.07213428616523743,
-0.2816588580608368,
0.17741824686527252,
-0.03241117298603058,
0.3228842616081238,
-0.02094382233917713,
0.08385321497917175,
0.41756030917167664,
-0.056362587958574295,
-0.6262431740760803,
-0.8362634181976318,
-0.14199362695217133,
0.16303256154060364,
-0.10058195888996124,
0.04867120087146759,
0.08498958498239517,
-0.5679920315742493,
0.06442978233098984,
0.3311433494091034,
-0.11059711128473282,
0.3016914129257202,
0.23744302988052368
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.