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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khama%20III
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Khama III
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Khama III (1837?–1923), referred to by missionaries as Khama the Good also called Khama the Great, was the Kgosi (meaning king) of the Bangwato people.
Ancestry and Youth
During the 18th century, Malope, chief of the Bakwena, led his people from the Transvaal region of South Africa into the southeast territory of Botswana. Malope had three sons – Kwena, Ngwato, and Ngwaketse – each of whom would eventually break away from their father (as well as from each other) and form new communities in neighboring territories. This type of familial break between father and sons (and then between sons) was historically how ethnic communities proliferated throughout the southern African region.
In this particular instance, the break between Malope and sons was precipitated by a series of events – the death of Malope, Kwena's subsequent assumption of the Bakwena chieftainship, and ultimately a dispute between Kwena and Ngwato over a lost cow. Shortly after the lost-cow incident, Ngwato and his followers secretly left Kwena's village under the cover of darkness and established a new village to the north. Ngwaketse similarly moved south.
Kwena warriors attacked Ngwato's village three times, each time pushing Ngwato and his followers (now known as the Bamangwato) further northward. Somehow (this episode is not explained by Bessie), they held on, and by the time of Chief Khama III's reign (between the years 1875–1923), the Bamangwato had grown (both through natural population increase and the influx of refugees from South Africa and Rhodesia) to become the region's largest ethnic community.
Baptism and conflict with Sekgoma
Following the opening up of the Kalahari by David Livingstone in 1849, a large hunting-trading boom arose that lasted into the late 1870s. This trade was controlled by the Bakwena, Bangwato, Bangwaketse, and Batawana, who were all part of a loose alliance. All four of these Tswana-speaking groups organized private and regimental hunting groups using horses and guns, in addition to using the unfree labor or desert-dwellers who they subjugated or otherwise forced to pay annual tribute in the form of hunting products. The young Khama was at the forefront of this transition to global commerce, and as a young man owned considerable numbers of horses, guns, and ox-wagons. He was well-travelled and spoke fluent Dutch, the lingua franca of the period. By all accounts he was popular with visiting hunters (who came from South Africa and across the globe), who needed permission to travel and hunt on Ngwato territory. Although he was often portrayed by his missionary patrons as being primarily motivated by religious concerns, Khama was at the center of not only reshaping the Ngwato economy, but also of extending its power over a host of subject peoples.
Despite his considerable influence as an economic actor, Khama is best known as the founder of a Christian state. In his early twenties, Khama was baptized into the Lutheran church in 1860 by the German missionary Heinrich Christoph Schulenberg along with five of his younger brothers. The brothers were some of the first members of the tribe to take this step; a step that would soon be joined by a fairly large percentage of Khama's followers. It was no small step for Khama. By this time in his life he had already gone through bogwera (the tribe's traditional initiation ceremony into manhood) with members of his mephato (age regiment). Historically, bogwera entailed rigorous endurance tests, which included circumcision.
Initially, Khama's father, Chief Sekgoma I, grudgingly accepted his son's affiliation with the church, although he did not embrace church doctrine himself, seeing it as an inherently colonial religion that stood against the values, beliefs, and practices of the Bangwato. Eventually their divergent beliefs and values brought Sekgoma and Khama into open conflict. At the time, the tribe was based in the village of Shoshong, which is located near present-day Mahalapye.
The conflict included its share of intrigue – an attempted assassination (of Khama by Sekgoma), Khama's marriage in 1862 to a Christian woman named Mma Bessie and his subsequent refusal to take a second wife according to the custom of polygamy, Khama's withstanding of Sekgoma's sorcery, Khama's forced exile with the tribe's Christian followers into the hills surrounding the village of Shoshong, and finally Khama's return to Shoshong after Sekgoma's second botched assassination attempt and the concomitant installing of Sekgoma's brother, Macheng, as the new chief of the beleaguered tribe (Sekgoma headed into exile).
It was not long before Macheng and Khama clashed as well, leading Macheng to attempt his own assassination of Khama, which likewise failed miserably. Khama then ousted Macheng and, in what was either a selfless gesture of goodwill or simply a dogged adherence to tribal custom, re-installed his father, Sekgoma, as Chief of the Bamangwato. Unfortunately, the truce between father and son would again falter after a few short months.
This time Khama and his followers, who now represented the majority of the tribe in Shoshong, relocated northward to the tiny village of Serowe and prepared for war with Sekgoma. The war lasted one month, culminating in Sekgoma's defeat and Khama's ascension of the chieftainship. Khama was now free to leave his mark on the history of the tribe.
Chieftainship
Khama is probably best remembered for having made three crucial decisions during his tenure as chief. First, although he abolished the bogwera ceremony itself, Khama retained the mephato regiments as a source of free labor for a variety of economic and religious purposes. The scope of a mephato's work responsibilities would later expand considerably under the rule of Khama's son Tshekedi into the building of primary schools, grain silos, water reticulation systems, and even a college named Moeng located on the outskirts of Serowe, which under Khama's reign had become the Bamangwato capital. In concert with the mephato, Khama introduced a host of European technological improvements in Bamangwato territory, including the mogoma, or oxen-drawn moldboard plow (in place of the hand hoe) and wagons for transport (in place of sledges).
In today's world the mephato might be considered an exploitative form of community self-help. Bangwato men and women were required to participate in assigned work projects when their regiments were called to service. And called they were, in the literal sense of the word. An appointed person from the village would climb to the top of Serowe Hill and literally yell out the name of the mephato that was scheduled to begin work. All members of the mephato would drop whatever they were doing and begin their six-month tour of duty, without any material support from the village (in particular without any organized contribution of food). The mephato was generally expected to fend for itself during its work assignment.
After Khama became king in 1875, after overthrowing his father Sekgoma and elbowing away his brother Kgamane his ascension came at a time of great dangers and opportunities. Ndebele incursions from the north (from what is now Zimbabwe), Boer and "mixed" trekkers from the south, and German forces from the West, all hoping to the seize his territory and its hinterlands. He answered these challenges by aligning his state with the administrative aims of the British, which provided him with cover and support, and, relatedly, by energetically expanding his own control over a much wider area than any "kgosi" before him. Khama converted to Christianity, which moved him to criminalize sectarianism and to deprecate the institutions favored by traditionalists. At Khama's request stringent laws were passed against the importation of alcohol. To enforce the alcohol ban whites were banished from his kingdom.
The British government itself was of two minds as to what to do with the territory. One faction, supported by a local missionary named John Mackenzie, advocated the establishment of a protectorate, while another faction, headed by Cecil Rhodes, adopted a more assertive stance and demanded that the country be opened up to European settlement and economic exploitation. The resolution came in 1885, when the territory south of the Molopo River became the colony of British Bechuanaland, while the territory north of the river became the Bechuanaland Protectorate. The colony was eventually incorporated into Britain's Cape Colony and is now part of South Africa.
Rhodes continued his campaign to pressure his government to annex what remained of Khama's territory. In 1895, with two other chiefs from neighboring tribes, Bathoen I and Sebele I, Khama traveled to Britain to lobby the Queen for protection from the dual pressures of Cecil Rhodes' British South Africa Company – located in what was later to become Rhodesia to the north – and the Afrikaner settlers creeping up from the south. Because the trip was missionary-organized, Khama's Christianity was made the centerpiece of the campaign. The Chiefs traveled widely across Britain speaking to large evangelical audiences. Not only was Khama's biography written at this time, but he received large amounts of other press that cemented his legend as an African Christian. The journey to Britain by the three Tswana kings eventually proved successful following the ill-fated Jameson Raid of 1896, when Rhodes' reputation was ruined. Had Khama and his compatriots been unable to convince the British authorities of the need to protect the Bamangwato prior to the Jameson Raid fiasco, it is very likely that much of what is today Botswana would have been absorbed into Rhodesia and South Africa.
Khama III was steadfast in imposing his Christianized will on the tribe. He promoted schools and gave preference to hiring educated Christians. He banned alcohol from tribal lands (with varying success), put moratoriums on the sale of cattle outside the Bamangwato territory and tribal land as concessions to foreign mining and cattle interests, and abolished polygamy. The abolishment of polygamy was perhaps his most controversial move. Some argue that as Christianity later spread among the other tribes of the protectorate and polygamy was universally abolished, the societal 'glue' that kept families together (extended as they were through polygamy) dried up.
Legacy
Khama's eldest son from his marriage with Mma Bessie was named Sekgoma II, who became chief of the Bamangwato upon Khama's death in 1923. Sekgoma II's eldest son was named Seretse. Throughout his life Khama took several wives (each after the death of the former one). One of his wives, Semane, birthed a son named Tshekedi.
Sekgoma II's reign lasted only a year or so, leaving his son Seretse, who at the time was an infant, as the rightful heir to the chieftainship (Tshekedi was not in line to be chief since he did not descend from Khama's oldest son Sekgoma II). So in keeping with tradition, Tshekedi acted as regent of the tribe until Seretse was old enough to assume the chieftainship. The transfer of responsibility from Tshekedi to Seretse was planned to occur after Seretse had returned from his law studies overseas in Britain.
Tshekedi Khama's regency as acting chief of the Bamangwato is best remembered for his expansion of the mephato regiments for the building of primary schools, grain silos, and water reticulation systems; for his frequent interest in the administration of justice in Ngwato country; and for his efforts to deal with a major split in the tribe after Seretse married a white woman, Ruth Williams, while studying law in Britain.
Tshekedi opposed the marriage on the grounds that under Tswana custom a chief could not marry simply as he pleased. He was a servant of the people; the chieftaincy itself was at stake. Seretse would not budge in his desire to marry Ruth (which he did while exiled in Britain in 1948), and tribal opinion about the marriage basically split evenly along demographic lines – older people went with Tshekedi, the younger with Seretse. In the end, the decision was made by the colonial authorities to exile both men (Tshekedi from the Bamangwato territory, Seretse from the Protectorate altogether). Rioting broke out afterwards.
Eventually, once emotions had had enough time to subside, Seretse and Ruth were allowed to return to the Protectorate and Seretse and Tshekedi were able to patch things up a bit between themselves. By now though, Seretse saw his destiny not as chief of the Bamangwato tribe, but rather as leader of the Botswana Democratic Party and as President of the soon-to-be independent nation of Botswana in 1966. He would remain Botswana's President until his death from pancreatic cancer in 1980.
The Three Dikgosi Monument features Khama III along with two other kgosi for their work in establishing Botswana's independence.
Current descendants
The Bechuanaland Protectorate maintained its semi-independent status until 1966, when it gained full independence as the Republic of Botswana. The first president, Sir Seretse Khama, was the grandson and heir of Khama III and his first son from Ruth Khama, Seretse Khama Ian Khama, would succeed Seretse Khama as the paramount chief of the Bamangwato and go on to become the commander of the Botswana Defence Force, as a lieutenant general. On April 1, 2008, Seretse Khama Ian Khama, son of Sir Seretse Khama, and former Vice-President of Botswana, was sworn in as the fourth President of Botswana. Tshekedi Khama II, the brother of Seretse Khama Ian Khama, had also entered the political fray by taking over the parliamentary seat of his brother in Serowe. Ndelu Seretse, a cousin of President Seretse Khama Ian Khama, is a former Minister of Justice, Defense and Security in the Government of Botswana. Sheila Khama, a distant relative of Seretse Khama Ian Khama, is the former CEO of De Beers Botswana, the largest mining company in Botswana, and part of the largest mineral mining company in the world. President Seretse Khama Ian Khama was elected for a full term as President of Botswana on October 16, 2009 and stepped down in 2018. Hence, the "House of Khama" is still prominent in Botswana society. In the neighboring country of South Africa, Queen Semane Khama Molotlegi, Queen Mother of the Royal Bafokeng Nation, is the granddaughter of Khama III. The 36th kgosi of the Royal Bafokeng Nation, Kgosi (King) Leruo Molotlegi, is the eldest living son of Queen Mother Semane Molotlegi and is therefore a great-grandson of Khama III.
References
Further reading
Chirenje, J. Mutero. Chief Kgama and His Times c. 1835–1923: The Story of a Southern African Ruler (R. Collings, 1978).
Chirenje, J. Mutero. "Church, State, and Education in Bechuanaland in the Nineteenth Century". International Journal of African Historical Studies 9.3 (1976): 401–418.
Parsons, N. King Khama, Emperor Joe, and the Great White Queen: Victorian Britain Through African Eyes (University of Chicago Press, 1998)
Trivia
1830s births
1923 deaths
Botswana chiefs
Chieftainships
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200352
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine-L%C3%A9onard%20de%20Ch%C3%A9zy
|
Antoine-Léonard de Chézy
|
Antoine-Léonard de Chézy (15 January 177331 August 1832) was a French orientalist and one of the first European scholars of Sanskrit.
Biography
He was born at Neuilly. His father, Antoine de Chézy (1718–1798), was an engineer who finally became director of the École des Ponts et Chaussées. The son was intended for his father's profession; but in 1799 he obtained a post in the oriental manuscripts department of the national library. In about 1803, he began studying Sanskrit, and although he possessed no grammar or dictionary, he succeeded in acquiring sufficient knowledge of the language to be able to compose poetry in it.
In Paris sometime between 1800 and 1805, Friedrich Schlegel's wife Dorothea introduced him to the Wilhelmine Christiane von Klencke, called Hermina or Hermine, who, extremely unusually for the time, was a very young divorcée who had come to Paris to be a correspondent for German newspapers. In 1805 they married and Helmina subsequently gave birth to two sons: the author Wilhelm Theodor von Chézy (1806–1865) and Max von Chézy (1808–1846), who became a painter. However, the marriage was ultimately not a success, and the couple parted, although did not divorce, in 1810. De Chézy continued to make annual payments for her support until his death.
He was the first professor of Sanskrit appointed in the Collège de France (1815), where his pupils included Alexandre Langlois, Auguste-Louis-Armand Loiseleur-Deslongchamps and especially Eugène Burnouf, who would become his successor at the Collège on his death in 1832.
He was a chevalier of the Légion d'honneur, and a member of the Académie des Inscriptions. Among his works were:
Medjnoun et Leïla (1807), from the Persian.
Yadjnadatta-badha ou la mort d'Yadjnadatta (1814).
La Reconnaissance de Sacountala (1830), from the Sanskrit.
Anthologie érotique d'Amarou (1831), published under the pseudonym A. L. Apudy.
See also
Chézy (disambiguation)
Louis-Mathieu Langlès
References
People from Neuilly-sur-Seine
1773 births
1832 deaths
Deaths from cholera
Linguists from France
Collège de France faculty
Translators from Persian
French translators
Translators from Sanskrit
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Members of the Société Asiatique
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khyal
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Khyal
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Khyal or Khayal (ख़याल) is a major form of Hindustani classical music in the Indian subcontinent. Its name comes from a Persian/Arabic word meaning "imagination". Khyal is associated with romantic poetry, and allows the performer greater freedom of expression than dhrupad. In khyal, ragas are extensively ornamented, and the style calls for more technical virtuosity than intellectual rigour.
Etymology
(ख़याल) is a Hindi word of Arabic origin which means "imagination, thought, ideation, meditation, reflection". Hence khyal connotes the idea of a song that is imaginative and creative in either its nature or execution. The word entered India through the medium of the Persian language. Just as the word reflects ideas of imagination and imaginative composition, the musical form is imaginative in conception, artistic and decorative in execution and romantic in appeal.
Characteristics
There are three main characteristics of khyal: various musical materials that can be employed, the selection of different types of improvisation, and the placement of various materials in order to produce a balanced and aesthetically pleasing performance.
Musical Materials
Raga
is a melodic framework for improvisation based on the idea that certain characteristic patterns of notes () evoke a heightened state of emotion. These patterns of notes are a fusion of scalar and melodic elements, and each raga can be described in terms of its ascending lines () and descending lines (), as well in terms of its characteristic melodic figures in which certain intervals are emphasised and attention is focused on particular notes.
Khyal can be played in hundreds of ragas and there are few conceptual limitations when it comes to selection. Instead such decisions are made on the basis of artistic preference, vocal quality, the nature of the composition and time of the day of the performance. Some khyal singers maintain a large anthology of ragas while others prefer to focus their attention on a smaller selection. Those with high pitched voices often prefer ragas in the upper register while those with heavy vocal quality can choose ragas that are deep and ponderous in nature. Similarly artists that are adept in intonation can cultivate ragas which has melodic skips and those who enjoy intellectual and musical challenges might choose ragas of a complex nature.
Tala
The term , which is perhaps best translated as 'time measure', covers the whole subject of musical meter in Indian classical music. A tala is a metrical framework, or structure of beats (), within which musical compositions are composed and performed. They can be performed in different tempi - slow (), medium () and fast ().
Khyal is usually performed in seven talas, which are , , , , , Tintāl and Aḍacautāl. Tilwada, Jhumra and Rupak are generally used for vilambit performance although composers who use tilwada are relatively few. Ektal was traditionally used for vilambit and madhya performances, but it is also used for drut performances. Jhaptal is used for madhya performances. Adacautal is used for both slow and fast performances, but rarely encountered. Tintal was conventionally associated with drut performances, especially those that emphasize rhythmic play. It is now used for playing performances in all three tempi.
Bandish
Khyal bases itself on a repertoire of short songs (two to eight lines); a khyal song is called a . Every singer generally renders the same bandish differently, with only the text and the raga remaining the same. Khyal bandishes are typically composed in a variant of Hindi-Urdu or occasionally the Dari variant of the Persian language, Bhojpuri, Punjabi, Rajasthani, or Marathi. These compositions cover diverse topics, such as romantic or divine love, praise of kings or gods, the seasons, dawn and dusk, and the pranks of Krishna, and they can have symbolism and imagery.
A bandish is divided into two parts, the and the (if there are three sections, the third will be considered as an additional antara verse). These sections can be characterised in terms of three pitch registers, low middle and high. The sthayi section is composed in the low register and bottom of the middle half register, while the antara section is composed in the upper middle register and high registers. The sthayi section is considered more important because it shows the pitch selection and melodic contours of the raga, while antara section is more textually dense.
Types of Improvisation
Alap
is a form of improvisation that is used to the characteristics of a raga in a gradual and systematic fashion. It can be sung to vocables in free form, in which case it is known as . It can also be sung to the text of the bandish in metrical form, in which case it is called or ( is a Sanskrit word which means 'composition'). The degree of rhythm that is introduced to the alap by the bandish also varies from singer to singer. There are various styles of presenting a raga, such as (combination of various pitches manner) and (pitch-by-pitch manner). The pacing and divisions of alap can also vary, some artists spend more time in a certain pitch register than others.
Tans
are fast melodic figures of a virtuosic nature, sung to a vowel - usually 'ā' (which is called ). They can vary in shape, range, presence of ornamentation, speed, etc. The concept of tans is elusive and difficult to define. Some singers are well known for singing tans, especially tans of shape such as ‘roller-coaster’ and ‘plateau’, while others use only a few in their performances. Tans can be sung in different sections, or they can be ornamented to the point that the different pitches are indistinguishable.
When tans are sung to syllables of the bandish text they are known as boltans. They provide a textual element to improvisation in khyal. The bols in bolton are supposed to be spaced in a scattering of tans so that the meaning of the text can be properly understood. They can be described as being melismatic and contrasted with the long and stretched form of akars. They can be used to create rhythmic interest or they can be indistinguishable to akars.
Bolbant
refers to the use of the bandish text (bols) for the purpose of rhythmic play. It is used by musicians who excel in the control of tala. Some artists create passages of bolbans with rhythmic placement of the straight lines of the bandish text while others recombine the text words and phrases for variety. Many artists use simple syncopation patterns while others use more audacious patterns such as layakari. The rhythmic variety in bolbant is essentially unlimited.
Sargam
passages are those enunciating the syllables for the pitches (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni) as they are sung. Most artists use them for speed, in the manner of tans, but with manifestation of mathematically proportioned rhythmic densities relative to the speed of the tala counts (double speed, quadruple speed, etc) than a 'flowing' tan is likely to give. Another option is to use sargam in bolbant-like improvisation, and a few khyal singers bring the text syllables into play.
Nom-tom
features rhythmic pulsations, achieved by pitch repetition, particular ornamentation, and enunciation of text syllables, vocables, or vowels. It is only used by a limited number of artists since it is associated more often with dhrupad than with khyal. In dhrupad, it is sung as part of the unmetered ragalap which is presented before the composition is performed, and it is sung to vocables. In khyal, it is sung before or after the composition is presented, and it can be sung to either vocables or syllables of the bandish text. Its features complement the rippling effects of tans and the lyrical element of alap while avoiding the rhythmic complexity of boltans.
Placement of various materials
A typical khyal performance uses two bandish compositions — the (great khyal) constitutes most of the performance, while the (small khyal) is used as a finale and is usually in the same raga but a different tala. The bada khyal covers a wide range of possibilities, ideally giving attention to all musical elements - melody, rhythm and speed. In the chota khyal, melody is accomplished through the bandish while rhythm and speed is emphasised through improvisation. Another difference is one of speed, the bada khyal begins at a slow speed (vilambit laya) or medium speed (madhya laya), while the chota khyal begins at a fast speed (drut laya). In each of these two songs, the rate of the tala counts gradually increases during the course of their performance.
The main portion of the khyal performance is often preceded by some kind of melodic improvisation which widely varies due to artistic preference. Some artists begin their performance by singing to a small number of vocables, such as 'de', 'ne', or 'na', or to vowels (usually 'a'), or to the words of the bandish text. For some, this section acts as a kind of vocal warm-up, taking up only a few seconds. Others use it in order to set the mood, singing for a minute or two, with the effect of beginning a ragalap, or singing a kind of 'mini-ragalap', or possibly foreshadowing the bandish that comes next. Meanwhile, some singers make it a major structural portion of their bada khyal and surround it ragalap before and rupakalapti after.
The first phrase () of the sthayi is the most important component of the bandish because it provides material for most candences in the performance. Some artists present the antara gradually by creating a candence or two in the process while the first phrase of the antara (antara mukhda) provides material for the candence. The mukhda can be performed as an element of rhythm, or it can be blended into the alap-oriented structure of the slow bada khyal. The melody of the mukhda generally undergoes a great deal of change during improvisation. The bandish is usually sung with its sections (sthayi and antara) separated in some way. In the bada khyal, especially at a slow speed, artists usually sing the sthayi only at the beginning, after which the sthayi text (or the vocables or the vowels) are augmented with new melody. Most artists begin singing the antara some point when the high pitch register is reached. Meanwhile, other artists prefer to skip the antara section, thereby reducing the textual density of the bada khyal, and instead sing the sthayi text in an antara-like melody. Some artists sing both the sthayi and the antara are the beginning of the bada khyal, this is particularly common in medium speed bada khyal performances. They often use some kind of improvisation to separate the sthayi from the antara, or they might use a different arrangement.
Ensemble
The basic ensemble of a khyal performance consists of the featured soloist(s), an accompanist (or two) on a melody-producing instrument, a tabla player, and one or two accompanists on the tanpura, the drone-producing instrument. A possible addition to the basic ensemble is a supporting singer (or two). This is a traditional part of training for young aspiring artists whose task is to begin improvising when the soloist wishes to rest, or when the soloist asks the supporting singer to repeat a passage after him (for example, a tan repeated in sargam). The supporting singer can also be assigned to play the tanpura.
Khyal is usually sung as a solo, but in some cases there are two soloists who perform together by dividing the improvisation between them so that there is still only one vocal part, this is known as jugalbandi. The jugalbandi form of khyal is cooperative, as opposed to competitive, and it requires a considerable amount of skill and intimacy to create a performance in which both soloists contribute equally.
The melody producing instrument in a khyal performance can either be a sarangi (a bowed string instrument) or a harmonium (a portable organ). The role of the artist is to complement the vocal line of the soloist, by playing in heterophony a split second behind as the soloist improvises, by repeating ends of phrases for continuity when the soloist takes a short break, or by repeating earlier phrases during longer breaks. In some cases, the soloist and the sarangi player can form a partnership, in which case the sarangi player can be asked to improvise rather than just repeat during vocal breaks, or they can asked to perform a challenging feat such repeating a phrase such as a tan. The other major instrument used in a khyal performance is the tabla, which is a percussion instrument. The tabla player is essentially the time keeper for the performance, and it is their task to play the various drum patterns associated with a particular tala.
History
Development of Khyal
Music in the Indian subcontinent was traditionally divided into two categories, and . Gandharva was an ancient form of music which was traditionally handed down from master to pupil while Prabhanda, also known as or , consisted of regional songs or tunes. Prabhanda was a systematic and organised form of music that consisted of four sections, (later known as ), , and , and numerous musical elements such as , , , , and . There were several musical compositions such as , , , , and . Sadharani was an eclectic style of composition that incorporated elements of other styles, particularly bhinna, and incorporated sweet idioms and delicate nuances of emotion. Rupakalapti was a creative and imaginative style of composition which consisted of (musical improvisation), raga and tala, incorporated inside of a prabhanda.
The Ghaznavid conquest of northern India resulted in the introduction of the Persian language and culture into the Indian subcontinent. The Ghaznavids were Turks based in Ghazni (in present day Afghanistan) and they were the political heirs of the Persian Samanid dynasty based in Bukhara (in present day Uzbekistan). When Delhi became the capitol of the new rulers, it inherited many of the cultural institutions and literary practices of the Ghaznavids, causing a new literary florescence. The Mongol invasions caused many poets to seek refuge and find patronage at the royal court of Delhi. The first generation of Persian poets, such as Abu al-Faraj Runi and Mas‘ud Sa‘d Salman, continued the literary traditions of the Samanids. Amir Khusrau (1253 - 1325) was a poet and composer who lived during this period. He was born in North India but raised in a Turco-Iranian environment. He served in the courts of various sultans and princes belonging to the Mamluk, Khalji and Tughlaq dynasties, and remained attached to the Chisti suffis of Delhi. It has often been speculated that khyal was created by Amir Khusrau, but the evidence for this is insufficient. Most scholars agree that khyal was the outcome of a gradual process of evolution that occurred in the Delhi Sultanate. It developed upon the ancient structure of sadharani composition and its creative and imaginative style was based on the rupakalapti form of composition. The Sharqui rulers of Jaunpur were great patrons of fine art such as architecture, painting and music. They patronised khyal to a great extent in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Medieval India also witnessed the emergence of different schools of classical music known as gharanas. The term gharana carries multiple and diverse connotations, but the concept can be said to include a lineage of hereditary musicians, their disciples and the different musical style they represent. In the case of khyal, a gharana may consist of a single lineage or several lineages of hereditary musicians. In the case of the Gwalior gharana, the oldest of the khyal gharanas, the lineage of hereditary musicians who were the founding family of the khyal style is extinct; a different family of hereditary musicians who were trained into the tradition by the founding family carries on the tradition.
Mughal Period
During the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar, khyal was nurtured by eminent musicians, and many master musicians, such as Suraj Khan, Chand Khan, Baz Bahadur and Rupamati, were interested in the culture of khyal, though it did not enjoy royal patronage like dhrupad. As a result, it remained outside the pale of royal courts and aristocratic societies of the time. A list of musicians at the court of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan included in Raga Darpan, a book written by Faqir Ullah, one-time governor of Kashmir, mention two khyal performers.
Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah was another great patron of music, poetry and painting, which he continued even after the invasion of India by Persian emperor Nadir Shah. One of his musicians, Niyamat Khan, who was adept in both dhrupad and veena, won the title Sadarang from the emperor for his talents and theoretical and practical knowledge in classical music. He created the elegant classical form of khyal in a majestic and colourful slow tempo (vilambita laya) like dhrupad. Sadarang heightened the classical form of khyal such that it was appreciated by the top-ranking musicians and royal sovereigns of the time. As a result, khyal attained a similar high position to that enjoyed by dhrupad, and gradually came to be developed with many modifications and changes in forms and styles and decorative elements.
Colonial period
The decline of the Mughal empire and the British colonisation of the Indian subcontinent had a detrimental effect on the quality and quantity of khyal music as it did not get any special patronage from the British colonial government in India. As a result, its patronage was more or less confined to the courts of certain maharajas, rajas and nawabs who provided employment for numerous artists. Meanwhile, others preferred (or could only afford) to maintian a few artists or to invite artists to visit on a temporary basis. Some patrons, such as the Gaekwads of Baroda, employed khyal players from more than one gharana; as a result, Baroda is associated with many different styles of performance. Others, such as the rulers of Gwalior and Rampur, preferred to patronize consistently and primarily musicians of one gharana, so that those courts are associated with a single style of performance. In the nineteenth century, a large number of wealthy urban citizens became patrons of Indian classical music. By the early twentieth century, some khyal players were leading efforts to introduce classical music to the general public, which helped in broadening the patronage base.
During this period, particularly the early twentieth, two major ideas emerged about the study and transmission of Indian classical music. The first had to do with the growing demand for institutional teaching, which led to a rising number of music schools being established though patronage by native princes and urban elites. The other was concerned with systematisation and generalisation of the Indian classical music. The Indian musicologist Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande played a major part in systematising the tradition while also opening it up for the general audience. He wrote the first modern treatise on Hindustani classical music, introduced the Thaat system for classifying ragas, published a series of textbooks, and initiated a number of conferences to provide a common platform for discussion between Hindustani and Carnatic classical musicians.
Post-Independence period
In 1947, British rule in the Indian subcontinent came to an end, and two new nations came into existence, India and Pakistan. The princely states that had been part of the British Raj were incorporated into the two new nation states. This led to a radical change as patronage shifted from the hundred of princely courts to the Government of India. As part of the post-independence project of nation building, the cultural domain was developed by the establishment of bodies such as Sangeet Natak Akademi (inaugurated in 1953), the state-owned All India Radio and, later, the national television broadcaster, Doordarshan. Such agencies have continued to support khayal music prominently, making it accessible to the public of the nation through concerts, recordings, music education, grants and fellowships, etc.
The second half of the twentieth century was also a period when khayal entered the global stage on several levels. On the one hand, beginning in the 1960s, instrumental artists such as Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan introduced Hindustani classical music genres to mainstream audiences in Europe and North America through concerts, collaborations with popular musicians and training of non-Indian disciples. On the other hand, the growing Indian diaspora implied transnational audiences, patrons and students for the classical form.
See also
List of 20th-century Khyal singers
References
Bibliography
External links
Some words about Khyal Retrieved 2007-06-10
Khyal - Fantasy in Music Retrieved 2007-06-10
Indian classical music
Indian styles of music
Hindustani music
Hindustani music terminology
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200354
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn%20Arabi
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Ibn Arabi
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Ibn ʿArabi () (1165 – 1240), full name: Muhyī al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn al-ʿArabī al-Ḥātimī al-Ṭāʾī al-Andalusī al-Mursī al-Dimashqī (), nicknamed al-Qushayri and Sultan al-ʿArifin, was an Arab Andalusian Muslim scholar, mystic, poet, and philosopher, extremely influential within Islamic thought. Out of the 850 works attributed to him, some 700 are authentic while over 400 are still extant. His cosmological teachings became the dominant worldview in many parts of the Muslim world.
He is renowned among practitioners of Sufism by the names al-Shaykh al-Akbar ("the Greatest Shaykh"; from here the Akbariyya or Akbarian school derives its name), Muḥyiddin ibn Arabi, and was considered a saint. He is also known as Shaikh-e-Akbar Mohi-ud-Din Ibn-e-Arabi throughout the Middle East. In medieval Europe, he was known as Dr. Maximus.
He participated enormously in Sufi metaphysics. One of his major ideas is Waḥdat al-Wujūd (unity of existence).
Biography
'Abū 'Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn 'Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn `Arabī al-Ḥātimī aṭ-Ṭāʾī () was a Sufi mystic, poet, and Arab philosopher from the Tayy tribe born in Murcia, Al-Andalus on the 17th of Ramaḍān 560 AH (28 July 1165 AD).
Ibn Arabi was Sunni, although his writings on the Twelve Imams were also popularly received among Shia. It is debated whether or not he ascribed to the Zahiri madhab which was later merged with the Hanbali school.
After his death, Ibn Arabi's teachings quickly spread throughout the Islamic world. His writings were not limited to the Muslim elites, but made their way into other ranks of society through the widespread reach of the Sufi orders. Arabi's work also popularly spread through works in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu. Many popular poets were trained in the Sufi orders and were inspired by Arabi's concepts.
Others scholars in his time like al-Munawi, Ibn 'Imad al-Hanbali and al-Fayruzabadi all praised Ibn Arabi as ''A righteous friend of Allah and faithful scholar of knowledge'', ''the absolute mujtahid without doubt'' and ''the imam of the people of shari'a both in knowledge and in legacy, the educator of the people of the way in practice and in knowledge, and the shaykh of the shaykhs of the people of truth though spiritual experience (dhawq) and understanding''.
Family
Ibn Arabi's paternal ancestry was from the South Arabian tribe of Tayy, and his maternal ancestry was North African Berber. Al-Arabi writes of a deceased maternal uncle, Yahya ibn Yughan al-Sanhaji, a prince of Tlemcen, who abandoned wealth for an ascetic life after encountering a Sufi mystic. His father, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad, served in the Army of Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Saʿd ibn Mardanīsh, the ruler of Murcia. When Ibn Mardanīš died in 1172 AD, his father shifted allegiance to the Almohad Sultan, Abū Ya’qūb Yūsuf I, and returned to government service. His family then relocated from Murcia to Seville. Ibn Arabi grew up at the ruling court and received military training.
As a young man Ibn Arabi became secretary to the governor of Seville. He married Maryam, a woman from an influential family.
Education
Ibn Arabi writes that as a child he preferred playing with his friends to spending time on religious education. He had his first vision of God in his teens and later wrote of the experience as "the differentiation of the universal reality comprised by that look". Later he had several more visions of Jesus and called him his "first guide to the path of God". His father, on noticing a change in him, had mentioned this to philosopher and judge, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who asked to meet Ibn Arabi. Ibn Arabi said that from this first meeting, he had learned to perceive a distinction between formal knowledge of rational thought and the unveiling insights into the nature of things. He then adopted Sufism and dedicated his life to the spiritual path. When he later moved to Fez, in Morocco, where Mohammed ibn Qasim al-Tamimi became his spiritual mentor. In 1200 he took final leave from his master Yūsuf al-Kūmī, then living in the town of Salé.
Pilgrimage to Mecca
Ibn Arabi left Andalusia for the first time at age 36 and arrived at Tunis in 1193. After a year in Tunisia, he returned to Andalusia in 1194. His father died soon after Ibn Arabi arrived at Seville. When his mother died some months later he left Andalusia for the second time and travelled with his two sisters to Fez, Morocco in 1195. He returned to Córdoba, Andalusia in 1198, and left Andalusia crossing from Gibraltar for the last time in 1200. While there, he received a vision instructing him to journey east. After visiting some places in the Maghreb, he left Tunisia in 1201 and arrived for the Hajj in 1202. He lived in Mecca for three years, and there began writing his work Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya ()'The Meccan Illuminations'.
Journeys north
After spending time in Mecca, he traveled throughout Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Anatolia.
In 1204, Ibn Arabi met Shaykh Majduddīn Isḥāq ibn Yūsuf (شيخ مجد الدين إسحاق بن يوسف), a native of Malatya and a man of great standing at the Seljuk court. This time Ibn Arabi was travelling north; first they visited Medina and in 1205 they entered Baghdad. This visit offered him a chance to meet the direct disciples of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qādir Jīlānī. Ibn Arabi stayed there only for 12 days because he wanted to visit Mosul to see his friend ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdallāh ibn Jāmi’, a disciple of the mystic Qaḍīb al-Bān (471-573 AH/1079-1177 AD; قضيب البان). There he spent the month of Ramaḍan and composed Tanazzulāt al-Mawṣiliyya (تنزلات الموصلية), Kitāb al-Jalāl wa’l-Jamāl (كتاب الجلال والجمال, "The Book of Majesty and Beauty") and Kunh mā lā Budda lil-MurīdMinhu.
Return south
In the year 1206 Ibn Arabi visited Jerusalem, Mecca and Egypt. It was his first time that he passed through Syria, visiting Aleppo and Damascus.
Later in 1207 he returned to Mecca where he continued to study and write, spending his time with his friend Abū Shujā bin Rustem and family, including Niẓām.
The next four to five years of Ibn Arabi's life were spent in these lands and he also kept travelling and holding the reading sessions of his works in his own presence.
Death
On 22 Rabī‘ al-Thānī 638 AH (8 November 1240) at the age of seventy-five, Ibn Arabi died in Damascus.
Islamic law
Although Ibn Arabi stated on more than one occasion that he did not blindly follow any one of the schools of Islamic jurisprudence, he was responsible for copying and preserving books of the Zahirite or literalist school, to which there is fierce debate whether or not Ibn Arabi followed that school. Ignaz Goldziher held that Ibn Arabi did in fact belong to the Zahirite or Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence. Hamza Dudgeon claims that Addas, Chodkiewizc, Gril, Winkel and Al-Gorab mistakenly attribute to Ibn ʿArabī non-madhhabism.
On an extant manuscript of Ibn Ḥazm, as transmitted by Ibn ʿArabī, Ibn ʿArabī gives an introduction to the work where he describes a vision he had:
Goldziher says, “The period between the sixth (hijri) and the seventh century seems also to have been the prime of the Ẓāhirite school in Andalusia.”
Ibn Arabi did delve into specific details at times, and was known for his view that religiously binding consensus could only serve as a source of sacred law if it was the consensus of the first generation of Muslims who had witnessed revelation directly.
Ibn Arabi also expounded on Sufi Allegories of the Sharia building upon previous work by Al-Ghazali and al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi.
Al-Insān al-kāmil
The doctrine of perfect man (Al-Insān al-Kāmil) is popularly considered an honorific title attributed to Muhammad having its origins in Islamic mysticism, although the concept's origin is controversial and disputed. Arabi may have first coined this term in referring to Adam as found in his work Fusus al-hikam, explained as an individual who binds himself with the Divine and creation.
Taking an idea already common within Sufi culture, Ibn Arabi applied deep analysis and reflection on the concept of a perfect human and one's pursuit in fulfilling this goal. In developing his explanation of the perfect being, Ibn Arabi first discusses the issue of oneness through the metaphor of the mirror.
In this philosophical metaphor, Ibn Arabi compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and his creatures. God's essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and human beings the mirrors. Meaning two things; that since humans are mere reflections of God there can be no distinction or separation between the two and, without God the creatures would be non-existent. When an individual understands that there is no separation between human and God they begin on the path of ultimate oneness. The one who decides to walk in this oneness pursues the true reality and responds to God's longing to be known. The search within for this reality of oneness causes one to be reunited with God, as well as, improve self-consciousness.
The perfect human, through this developed self-consciousness and self-realization, prompts divine self-manifestation. This causes the perfect human to be of both divine and earthly origin. Ibn Arabi metaphorically calls him an Isthmus. Being an Isthmus between heaven and Earth, the perfect human fulfills God's desire to be known. God's presence can be realized through him by others. Ibn Arabi expressed that through self manifestation one acquires divine knowledge, which he called the primordial spirit of Muhammad and all its perfection. Ibn Arabi details that the perfect human is of the cosmos to the divine and conveys the divine spirit to the cosmos.
Ibn Arabi further explained the perfect man concept using at least twenty-two different descriptions and various aspects when considering the Logos. He contemplated the Logos, or "Universal Man", as a mediation between the individual human and the divine essence.
Ibn Arabi believed Muhammad to be the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. Ibn Arabi regarded the first entity brought into existence was the reality or essence of Muhammad (al-ḥaqīqa al-Muhammadiyya), master of all creatures, and a primary role-model for human beings to emulate. Ibn Arabi believed that God's attributes and names are manifested in this world, with the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names seen in Muhammad. Ibn Arabi believed that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad. He maintained that Muhammad was the best proof of God and, by knowing Muhammad, one knows God.
Ibn Arabi also described Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all other prophets and various Anbiya' Allah (Muslim messengers) as perfect men, but never tires of attributing lordship, inspirational source, and highest rank to Muhammad. Ibn Arabi compares his own status as a perfect man as being but a single dimension to the comprehensive nature of Muhammad. Ibn 'Arabi makes extraordinary assertions regarding his own spiritual rank, but qualifying this rather audacious correlation by asserting his "inherited" perfection is only a single dimension of the comprehensive perfection of Muhammad.
Reaction
The reaction of Ibn 'Abd as-Salam, a Muslim scholar respected by both Ibn Arabi's supporters and detractors, has been of note due to disputes over whether he himself was a supporter or detractor. All parties have claimed to have transmitted Ibn 'Abd as-Salam's comments from his student Ibn Sayyid al-Nas, yet the two sides have transmitted very different accounts. Ibn Taymiyyah, Al-Dhahabi and Ibn Kathir all transmitted Ibn 'Abd as-Salam's comments as a criticism, while Fairuzabadi, Al-Suyuti, Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari and Yusuf an-Nabhani have all transmitted the comments as praise.
Creed
His best-known book, entitled 'al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya' (The Meccan Victories or Illuminations) which begins with a statement of doctrine (belief) about which al-Safadi (d. 764/1363) said: "I saw (read) that (al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya) from beginning to end. It consists of the doctrine of Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari without any difference (deviation) whatsoever."
Works
Some 800 works are attributed to Ibn Arabi, although only some have been authenticated. Recent research suggests that over 100 of his works have survived in manuscript form, although most printed versions have not yet been critically edited and include many errors. A specialist of Ibn 'Arabi, William Chittick, referring to Osman Yahya's definitive bibliography of the Andalusian's works, says that, out of the 850 works attributed to him, some 700 are authentic while over 400 are still extant.
The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya), his largest work in 37 volumes originally and published in 4 or 8 volumes in modern times, discussing a wide range of topics from mystical philosophy to Sufi practices and records of his dreams/visions. It totals 560 chapters. In modern editions it amounts to some 15 000 pages.
The Ringstones of Wisdom (also translated as The Bezels of Wisdom), or Fusus al-Hikam. Composed during the later period of Ibn 'Arabi's life, the work is sometimes considered his most important and can be characterized as a summary of his teachings and mystical beliefs. It deals with the role played by various prophets in divine revelation. The attribution of this work (Fusus al-Hikam) to Ibn Arabi is debated and in at least one source is described as a forgery and false attribution to him reasoning that there are 74 books in total attributed to Sheikh Ibn Arabi of which 56 have been mentioned in "Al Futuhat al-Makkiyya" and the rest mentioned in the other books cited therein. However many other scholars accept the work as genuine.
The Dīwān, his collection of poetry spanning five volumes, mostly unedited. The printed versions available are based on only one volume of the original work.
The Holy Spirit in the Counselling of the Soul (Rūḥ al-quds), a treatise on the soul which includes a summary of his experience from different spiritual masters in the Maghrib. Part of this has been translated as Sufis of Andalusia, reminiscences and spiritual anecdotes about many interesting people whom he met in al-Andalus.
Contemplation of the Holy Mysteries (Mashāhid al-Asrār), probably his first major work, consisting of fourteen visions and dialogues with God.
Divine Sayings (Mishkāt al-Anwār), an important collection made by Ibn 'Arabī of 101 hadīth qudsī
The Book of Annihilation in Contemplation (K. al-Fanā' fi'l-Mushāhada), a short treatise on the meaning of mystical annihilation (fana).
Devotional Prayers (Awrād), a widely read collection of fourteen prayers for each day and night of the week.
Journey to the Lord of Power (Risālat al-Anwār), a detailed technical manual and roadmap for the "journey without distance".
The Book of God's Days (Ayyām al-Sha'n), a work on the nature of time and the different kinds of days experienced by gnostics
The Fabulous Gryphon of the West ('Unqā' Mughrib), a book on the meaning of sainthood and its culmination in Jesus and the Mahdī
The Universal Tree and the Four Birds (al-Ittihād al-Kawnī), a poetic book on the Complete Human and the four principles of existence
Prayer for Spiritual Elevation and Protection ('al-Dawr al-A'lā), a short prayer which is still widely used in the Muslim world
The Interpreter of Desires (Tarjumān al-Ashwāq), a collection of nasībs which, in response to critics, Ibn Arabi republished with a commentary explaining the meaning of the poetic symbols.
Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbidrat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah).
The Four Pillars of Spiritual Transformation (Hilyat al-abdāl) a short work on the essentials of the spiritual Path
The Meccan Illuminations (Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya)
According to Claude Addas, Ibn Arabi began writing Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya after he arrived in Mecca in 1202. After almost thirty years, the first draft of Futūḥāt was completed in December 1231 (629 AH), and Ibn Arabi bequeathed it to his son. Two years before his death, Ibn ‘Arabī embarked on a second draft of the Futūḥāt in 1238 (636 AH), of which included a number of additions and deletions as compared with the previous draft, that contains 560 chapters. The second draft, which the most widely circulated and used, was bequeathed to his disciple, Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi. There are many scholars attempt to translate this book from Arabic into other languages, but there is no complete translation of Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya to this day.
The Bezels of Wisdom (Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam)
There have been many commentaries on Ibn 'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam: Osman Yahya named more than 100 while Michel Chodkiewicz precises that "this list is far from exhaustive." The first one was Kitab al-Fukūk written by Ṣadr al-Dīn al-Qunawī who had studied the book with Ibn 'Arabī; the second by Qunawī's student, Mu'ayyad al-Dīn al-Jandi, which was the first line-by-line commentary; the third by Jandī's student, Dawūd al-Qaysarī, which became very influential in the Persian-speaking world. A recent English translation of Ibn 'Arabī's own summary of the Fuṣūṣ, Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ (The Imprint or Pattern of the Fusus) as well a commentary on this work by 'Abd al-Raḥmān Jāmī, Naqd al-Nuṣūṣ fī Sharḥ Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ (1459), by William Chittick was published in Volume 1 of the Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society (1982).
Critical editions and translations of Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam
The Fuṣūṣ was first critically edited in Arabic by 'Afīfī (1946) that become the standard in scholarly works. Later in 2015, Ibn al-Arabi Foundation in Pakistan published the Urdu translation, including the new critical of Arabic edition.
The first English translation was done in partial form by Angela Culme-Seymour from the French translation of Titus Burckhardt as Wisdom of the Prophets (1975), and the first full translation was by Ralph Austin as Bezels of Wisdom (1980). There is also a complete French translation by Charles-Andre Gilis, entitled Le livre des chatons des sagesses (1997). The only major commentary to have been translated into English so far is entitled Ismail Hakki Bursevi's translation and commentary on Fusus al-hikam by Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi, translated from Ottoman Turkish by Bulent Rauf in 4 volumes (1985–1991).
In Urdu, the most widespread and authentic translation was made by Shams Ul Mufasireen Bahr-ul-uloom Hazrat (Muhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi Qadri -Hasrat), the former Dean and Professor of Theology of the Osmania University, Hyderabad. It is due to this reason that his translation is in the curriculum of Punjab University. Maulvi Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui has made an interpretive translation and explained the terms and grammar while clarifying the Shaikh's opinions. A new edition of the translation was published in 2014 with brief annotations throughout the book for the benefit of contemporary Urdu reader.
In fiction
In the Turkish television series Diriliş: Ertuğrul, Ibn Arabi was portrayed by Ozman Sirgood. In 2017, Saudi Arabian novelist Mohammed Hasan Alwan won the International Prize for Arabic Fiction for his novel A Small Death, a fictionalized account of Ibn Arabi's life.
See also
Mujaddid
Akbariyya
Ivan Aguéli
Hossein Nasr
Mahmud Shabistari
Miguel Asín Palacios
Ain al-Kheil Mosque
Ibn al-Arif
Ibn Masarra
Ibn Barrajan
Abu-l-Qasim Ahmad ibn al-Husayn ibn Qasi
References
Sources
Citations
Bibliography
Books by Ibn Arabi
This is a small selection of his many books.
In Arabic
Ibn ‘Arabī. Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, Vols. 1–4. Beirut: n.p.; photographic reprint of the old edition of Bulaq 1329/1911 which comprises four volumes each about 700 pages of 35 lines; the page size is 20 by 27cm. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī, Ibrāhīm Madkūr, and ʻUthmān Yaḥyá. Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, Vols. 1–14,. al-Qāhirah: al-Hayʼah al-Miṣrīyah al-ʻĀmmah lil-Kitāb, 1972. Print. this is the critical edition by Osman Yahya. This version was not completed, and the 14 volumes correspond to only volume I of the standard Bulaq/Beirut edition.
Ibn ‘Arabī, Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabī. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī. Sharḥ Risālat Rūḥ Al-quds fī Muḥāsabat Al-nafs. Comp. Mahmud Ghurab. 2nd ed. Damascus: Naḍar, 1994. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī. Inshā’ al-Dawā’ir, Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-‘Ilmiyya. 2004. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī. Rasā’il Ibn ‘Arabī (Ijāza li Malik al-Muẓaffar). Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-‘Ilmiyya, 2001. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī. Rasā'il Ibn al-'Arabî (Kitāb al-Jalāla). Hyberadad-Deccan: Dā’irat al-Ma‘ārif al-‘Uthmāniyya, 1948. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī. Kitāb al Bā’. Cairo: Maktabat al-Qāhira, 1954. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī, Risālat ila Imām al-Rāzī. Hyberadad-Deccan: Dā’irat al-Ma‘ārif al-‘Uthmāniyya, 1948. Print.
In English
Ibn ‘Arabī. Nasab al-Khirqa. Trans. Gerald Elmore. Vol. XXVI. Oxford: Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society, 1999. Print.
Ibn ‘Arabī. Divine Sayings The Mishkāt Al-Anwār of Ibn 'Arabi. Oxford: Anqa, 2005. Print.
Ibn 'Arabi. The Meccan Revelations. Pir Press, 2010
Books about Ibn 'Arabi
Addas, Claude, Quest for the Red Sulphur, Islamic Texts Society, Cambridge, 1993. .
Addas, Claude, Ibn Arabi: The Voyage of No Return, Cambridge, 2019 (second edition), Islamic Texts Society. .
Akkach, Samer, Ibn 'Arabî's Cosmogony and the Sufi Concept of Time, in: Constructions of Time in the Late Middle Ages, ed. Carol Poster and Richard Utz. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997. Pp. 115-42.
Titus Burckhardt & Bulent Rauf (translator), Mystical Astrology According to Ibn 'Arabi (The Fons Vitae Titus Burckhardt Series)
Henry Corbin, Alone with the Alone; Creative Imagination in the Sūfism of IbnʿArabī, Bollingen, Princeton 1969, (reissued in 1997 with a new preface by Harold Bloom).
Elmore, Gerald T. Ibn Al-'Arabī’s Testament on the Mantle of Initiation (al-Khirqah). Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society XXVI (1999): 1-33. Print.
Elmore, Gerald T. Islamic Sainthood in the Fullness of Time: Ibn Al-‘Arabī's Book of the Fabulous Gryphon. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Print.
Hirtenstein, Stephen, and Jane Clark. Ibn 'Arabi Digital Archive Project Report for 2009 Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi 1165AD - 1240AD and the Ibn 'Arabi Society. Dec. 2009. Web. 20 Aug. 2010.
Knysh, Alexander. Ibn 'Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The making of a polemical image in medieval Islam. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1999.
Torbjörn Säfve, "Var inte rädd" ('Do not be afraid'),
Yahia, Osman. Mu'allafāt Ibn ʻarabī: Tārīkhuhā Wa-Taṣnīfuhā. Cairo: Dār al-Ṣābūnī, 1992. Print.
Yousef, Mohamed Haj. Ibn 'Arabi - Time and Cosmology (London, Routledge, 2007) (Culture and Civilization in the Middle East).
Yūsuf, Muhammad Haj. Shams Al-Maghrib. Allepo: Dār al-Fuṣṣilat, 2006. Print.
External links
Ibn Arabi Society page about Ibn Al 'Arabi
Ibn Arabi & Mystical Journey:The Journey to the Lord of Power (John G. Sullivan, Department of Philosophy at Elon College)
Le concept d'amour chez Ibn 'Arabi
Ibnarabi.net - Download Books
حكم من يدعي إجماع أهل السنة على تكفير الإمام محيي الدين بن العربي—Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah
Ibn ‘Arabi and Wahdat al-Wujud
Ibn 'Arabi's poem Tarjuman Al Ashwaq (The Interpreter of Desires), translated by Yasmine Seale and Robin Moger
Articles with imported Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 text
1165 births
1240 deaths
12th-century Arabic poets
13th-century Arabic poets
Ibn Arabi
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Medieval Arab philosophers
Moorish writers
Moorish Sufis
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] |
200357
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Maitland%20Wilson
|
Henry Maitland Wilson
|
Field Marshal Henry Maitland Wilson, 1st Baron Wilson, (5 September 1881 – 31 December 1964), also known as Jumbo Wilson, was a senior British Army officer of the 20th century. He saw active service in the Second Boer War and then during the First World War on the Somme and at Passchendaele. During the Second World War he served as General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) British Troops in Egypt, in which role he launched Operation Compass, attacking Italian forces with considerable success, in December 1940. He went on to be Military Governor of Cyrenaica in February 1941, commanding a Commonwealth expeditionary force to Greece in April 1941 and General Officer Commanding (GOC) British Forces in Palestine and Trans-Jordan in May 1941.
Wilson became GOC Ninth Army in Syria and Palestine in October 1941, GOC Persia and Iraq Command in August 1942 and GOC Middle East Command in February 1943. In the closing stages of the war he was Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, from January 1944, and then Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington D. C. from January 1945.
Early life and military service
Born in London, England, the son of Captain Arthur Maitland Wilson and his wife Harriet Wilson (née Kingscote), Wilson was educated at Eton College and Sandhurst. He was commissioned into the Rifle Brigade as a 2nd lieutenant on 10 March 1900. He served with the 2nd Battalion in South Africa in the Second Boer War, and having taken part in operations there in August 1900, was promoted to lieutenant on 18 March 1901. He served in South Africa throughout the war. Following the end of hostilities, he left Port Natal on the SS Malta in late September 1902, together with other officers and men of the 2nd battalion Rifle Brigade who were transferred to Egypt. He was posted with his battalion to Egypt and then in 1907 to India. Promoted to captain on 2 April 1908 he served with the 3rd Battalion at Bordon in Hampshire and then in Tipperary in Ireland, and in 1911 became Adjutant of the Oxford OTC.
Wilson served in the First World War, being appointed brigade major of the 48th Brigade on 15 October 1914; having been promoted to the rank of acting major in December 1914 and then to the substantive rank of major on 15 September 1915, he was sent to France to serve on the Western Front in December 1915. His capabilities as a staff officer led to him being moved to become General Staff Officer (GSO) 2 of the 41st Division on the Somme and of the XIX Corps at Passchendaele. In October 1917 he was appointed GSO 1 of the New Zealand Division with promotion to temporary lieutenant colonel on 28 October 1917. For his war service he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1917 and was thrice mentioned in despatches.
After being promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1919 and being hand-picked for the first post-war staff course at Camberley, Wilson was given command of a company of cadets at Sandhurst. He then became second-in-command of the 2nd Battalion, the Rifle Brigade at Aldershot in August 1923. Next he took command of his regiment's 1st Battalion on the North-West Frontier in January 1927, receiving promotion to the substantive rank of lieutenant colonel on 15 June 1927.
Returning to be an instructor at Camberley in June 1930, Wilson spent 9 months on half pay in 1933. Promoted to temporary brigadier, he became Commander of 6th Infantry Brigade in 1934 and having been promoted to major-general on 30 April 1935, he became General Officer Commanding 2nd Division in August 1937.
Second World War
Egypt (1939–1941)
On 15 June 1939, Wilson was appointed General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the British Troops in Egypt, with the rank of lieutenant-general, in which role he was also responsible for giving military advice for a range of countries from Abyssinia to the Persian Gulf. He made his HQ in Cairo and undertook successful negotiations with the Egyptian government at their summer quarters in Alexandria. The Treaty of 1936 called for the Egyptian army to fight under British command in the event of war and to supplement the limited force then at his disposal – an armoured division then being formed (later to be the 7th Armoured Division) and eight British battalions. He concentrated his defensive forces at Mersa Matruh some 100 miles from the border with Libya.
Early in August, Sir Archibald Wavell was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command, and he sent reinforcements which had been sought by Wilson, initially the 4th Indian Infantry Division and advanced elements of 6th Australian Division and, as the buildup at Mersa Matruh continued, Richard O'Connor and his staff at 7th Infantry Division in Palestine were moved to Egypt to reinforce Wilson's command structure there. O'Connor's HQ, initially designated British 6th Infantry Division, was activated in November and became responsible for the troops at Mersa Matruh. It was redesignated Western Desert Force in June 1940.
On 10 June 1940, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini declared war. Immediately Wilson's forces invaded Libya. However, their advance was reversed when on 17 June France sought an armistice and the Italians were able to move their forces from the Tunisian border in the West and reinforce with 4 divisions those that opposed Wilson in the East. The Italian forces invaded Egypt in September 1940, and advanced some to occupy Sidi Barrani. Wilson was facing very superior forces. He had 31,000 troops to the Italians' 80,000, 120 tanks against 275, and 120 artillery pieces against 250. He realised that the situation was one where the traditional text books would not provide a solution. As with other 1940s commanders he had been well-schooled in strategy, and in thorough secrecy; he planned to disrupt the advance of the superior forces by attacking their extended lines at the right spots. After a conference with Anthony Eden and Wavell in October and rejecting Wavell's suggestion for a two-pronged attack, Wilson launched Operation Compass on 7 December 1940. The strategy was outstandingly successful and very quickly the Italian forces were cut in half.
While Operation Compass continued successfully in 1941 and resulted in the complete defeat of the Italian Army in North Africa, Wilson, who was already highly regarded by his First World War regimental colleague and now Secretary of State for War, Anthony Eden, had also won the confidence of Churchill himself. In a broadcast Churchill said, "General Wilson, who actually commands the Army of the Nile, was reputed to be one of our finest tacticians, and few will now deny him that quality."
Wilson was recalled to Cairo in February 1941 where he was offered and accepted the position of Military Governor of Cyrenaica.
Greece (April 1941)
Wilson was appointed to lead a Commonwealth expeditionary force ("W Force") of two infantry divisions and an armoured brigade to help Greece resist Italy and the subsequent German invasion in April 1941. Although the Allied forces were hopelessly inadequate Churchill's War Cabinet had thought it important to provide support for the only country outside the Commonwealth which was resisting the Axis advance. Wilson completed the evacuation of British troops from Greece on 29 April 1941. He was appointed a GBE on 4 March 1941 and promoted to full general on 31 May 1941.
Syria, Iraq and Palestine (1941–1943)
In May 1941, on his return from Greece, Wilson was appointed GOC British Forces in Palestine and Trans-Jordan and oversaw the successful Syria-Lebanon campaign, in which predominantly Australian, British, Indian, and Free French forces overcame Vichy French forces in fierce fighting. In July 1941 Churchill recommended Wilson to take command of the Western Desert Force to lead it in its upcoming offensive operation against the Afrika Korps, what would become Operation Crusader of November 1941, but General Sir Claude Auchinleck preferred instead Lieutenant-General Sir Alan Cunningham. In October 1941 Wilson took command of the Ninth Army in Syria and Palestine and was appointed to the honorary title of Aide-de-Camp General to the King.
Wilson enjoyed the confidence of Winston Churchill and he was Churchill's choice to succeed Auchinleck as commander of the Eighth Army in August 1942; however at the urging of the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Sir Alan Brooke, General Sir Bernard Montgomery was appointed to the post. Instead, Wilson was appointed to command the newly created independent Persia and Iraq Command on 21 August 1942. This command, which had been part of Middle East Command, was created when it appeared that Germany, following successes in southern Russia, might invade Persia (Iran).
C-in-C Middle East (1943)
In February 1943, after Montgomery's success at Alamein and the expulsion of Axis forces from North Africa, Wilson was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East. The Middle East was by this time comparatively removed from the main centres of fighting. However, on orders from London to create a diversion during the fighting in Italy, in September 1943 he organised an unsuccessful attempt to occupy the small Greek islands of Kos, Leros and Samos. The British forces suffered large losses to German air attacks and subsequent landings.
Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean (1944)
Wilson succeeded Dwight D. "Ike" Eisenhower at Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ) as the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean on 8 January 1944 based at Algiers. As such he exercised strategic control over the campaign in Italy. He strongly advocated the invasion of Germany via the Danube plain, but this did not take place when the armies in Italy were weakened to support other theatres of war. Jumbo Wilson was keen to follow through with the deception plan Undercut, when unexpectedly the Germans decided to withdraw from Greece altogether. Although advised by Dudley Clarke that it might backfire and was unnecessary, Wilson was aware of the strategic complexities of the political situation. Every plan the General Staff had a shadow, integrated by 1944 with the American allies at all strategy levels; even to employ an actor imitating Monty arrive at Jumbo's HQ in Algiers.
Washington Mission (1945–1947)
In December 1944, following the death of Field Marshal Sir John Dill, Wilson was relieved as Supreme Commander, promoted to field marshal on 29 December 1944, and sent to Washington to be Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission, a post he took up in January 1945. One of Wilson's most secret duties was as the British military representative on the Combined Policy Committee which dealt with the development, production and testing of the atom bomb. Wilson continued to serve as head of the British Joint Staff Mission until 1947, to the satisfaction of Britain and the United States. President Truman awarded him the Distinguished Service Medal in November 1945.
Post-war
In January 1946 he was appointed aide-de-camp to George VI of the United Kingdom and was then created Baron Wilson, of Libya and of Stowlangtoft in the County of Suffolk. From 1955 to 1960 he was Constable of the Tower of London. Wilson had married Hester Wykeham (1890–1979) in 1914 and had one son and a daughter. The son, Lieutenant-Colonel Patrick Maitland Wilson, accompanied his father in the Middle East during the Second World War as an intelligence officer. The son's memoirs, Where the Nazis Came, provide anecdotes and descriptions of important events in his father's war service. Never a rich man, when Field Marshal Lord Wilson died on 31 December 1964 in Chilton, Buckinghamshire, his estate was proved at only £2,952 (roughly £100,000 in 2013). His only son Patrick succeeded him in the barony.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
published in
External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945
Generals of World War II
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1881 births
1964 deaths
Military personnel from London
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
British Army personnel of World War I
British field marshals of World War II
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Commanders of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the War Cross (Greece)
Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari
Foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States)
People educated at Eton College
Rifle Brigade officers
Constables of the Tower of London
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
British military attachés
Peers created by George VI
Academics of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Academics of the Staff College, Camberley
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200360
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field%20marshal
|
Field marshal
|
Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, ordinarily senior to the general officer ranks. Usually it is the highest rank in an army and as such few persons are appointed to it. It is considered as a five-star rank (OF-10) in modern-day armed forces in many countries. Promotion to the rank of field marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general (a wartime victory). However, the rank has also been used as a divisional command rank and also as a brigade command rank. Examples of the different uses of the rank include Austria-Hungary, Pakistan, Prussia/Germany, India and Sri Lanka for an extraordinary achievement; Spain and Mexico for a divisional command (); and France, Portugal and Brazil for a brigade command (, ).
Origins
The origin of the term dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses (from Old German Marh-scalc = "horse-servant"), from the time of the early Frankish kings; words originally meaning "servant" were sometimes used to mean "subordinate official" or similar. The exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies: examples include "marshal" and "field marshal general". The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force (not to be confused with air marshal). Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as "fleet admiral," "grand admiral" or "admiral of the fleet" for the equivalent rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton. The baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton (Such is the case in Russia post-1991 and the former Soviet Union, which use a jewelled star referred to as a Marshal's star).
Field marshal ranks by country
Afghanistan
Sardar Shah Wali Khan (d. 1977) of the Musahiban and uncle of King Mohammad Zahir Shah and President Mohammed Daoud Khan, was a field marshal. Mohammed Fahim became an honorary marshal in 2004.
Abdul Rashid Dostum became an honorary marshal in 2020 (this position is now defunct).
Australia
The first appointment to the rank was Sir William Birdwood, who received the honour in March 1925. Sir Thomas Blamey was the second appointment to the rank, and was the first and so far only Australian-born and Australian Army substantive (not honorary) field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of Sir Robert Menzies, the Prime Minister of Australia, in June 1950. His field marshal's baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The third appointment was Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who was promoted to the rank on 1 April 1954.
Brazil
When Brazil became independent from Portugal in 1822, the Portuguese system of ranks was maintained by the Brazilian Army, including the rank of marechal de campo. In the second half of the 19th century, the rank of marechal de campo was replaced, both in Portugal and Brazil, by the rank of general de brigada (brigade general). This last rank still exists today in the Brazilian Army, but corresponds to the present rank of major-general (major-general) in the Portuguese Army.
Today, the Rank of Marechal is the maximum rank available but only awarded during wartime. The Brazilian Air Force has the similar rank of Air Marshal.
Chad
On the 11 August 2020, Chadian president Idris Déby was promoted to the rank of Marshal for his efforts against Islamic terrorism in West Africa. He would die the following year.
China
During Imperial rule in China, different dynasties gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is "司馬" (sima) in the Eastern Han dynasty, which literally means "master of horse", and later became a two-character surname too. "司馬" is one of the Three Excellencies in Eastern Han, who is in charge of the country's military affairs. Later, a more common title for a field marshal or a commandant was (元帥 Yuan Shuai) or grand field marshal (大元帥 da yuan shuai). One of the most famous of these generals was Yue Fei from the Song Dynasty. Since the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, it has promoted 10 military commanders to the rank of marshal, all in 1955 and abolished in 1965. Since then, the rank has remained defunct.
Ethiopia
On 8 January 2022, Chief of General staff Birhanu Jula was promoted to the rank of Field marshal (or Field marshal general, depending on source). The rank was introduced to the Ethiopian National Defense Force with this promotion. The rank of Field marshal was last used in Ethiopia during the early 20th century by Emperor Haile Selassie as head of the Imperial Ethiopian Army.
Finland
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was promoted to Field Marshal in 1933. In 1942 he was promoted to Marshal of Finland, which really is not a distinctive military rank but an honour.
France
In the French army of the Ancien Régime, the normal brigade command rank was field marshal (maréchal de camp). In 1793, during the French Revolution, the rank of field marshal was replaced by the rank of brigade general. The rank insignia of field marshal was two stars (one-star being used for a senior colonel rank). The French field marshal rank was below lieutenant-general, which in 1793 became divisional-general. In the title maréchal de camp and the English "field marshal", there is an etymological confusion in the French camp between the English words "camp" and "field". The French rank of field marshal should not be confused with the rank of Marshal of France, which has been the highest rank of the French Army since the higher dignity of Marshal General of France was abolished in 1848 (although in theory it is not an actual rank but a "state dignity").
German-speaking lands
Generalfeldmarschall (general field marshal, field marshal general, or field marshal / , abbreviated to Feldmarschall) was the most senior general officer rank in the armies of several German states, including Saxony, Brandenburg-Prussia, Prussia, the German Empire, and lastly, Germany (from 1918). In the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, the rank Feldmarschall was used. The rank was also given to generals in southern German States and Austria by the Holy Roman Emperor during the existence of the Holy Roman Empire up to 1806.
Greece
Stratarches (), meaning Ruler of the Army in Greek, is a title for senior military commanders dating back to classical antiquity, in the sense of "commander-in-chief". In modern Greek usage, it has been used to translate the rank of Field Marshal. In this sense, the rank was borne by the Kings of Greece since 1939, and has been awarded only once in modern Greek history to a professional officer: Alexandros Papagos in 1949 for his leadership in the Greek victory against Fascist Italy in World War II and against the Communist forces in the Greek Civil War. The rank is not retained by the current (since 1974) Third Hellenic Republic.
India
Field marshal is the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. It is a ceremonial / war time rank. There have been two Indian field marshals to date: Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, the 1st Indian Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army in 1986 (much after his retirement), and Sam Manekshaw in 1973.
Libya
Khalifa Haftar was the first to receive this rank in Libya from the House of Representatives (Libya) in 2016 after the liberation of oil ports in the Operation Swift Lightning.
Malaysia
Field Marshal of Malaysia is equivalent to general of the army of the United States which is the highest rank in the Malaysian army and are reserved for His Majesty the King of Malaysia although Mohamed Hamzah (a non-royal) was promoted to this rank.
Pakistan
Ayub Khan (1907-1974) was the only field marshal in the history of Pakistan. He was the second president of Pakistan and the first native commander in chief of the army.
Philippines
US Army General Douglas MacArthur was the first and only field marshal in the history of the Philippine Army, a position he held while also acting as the Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines with a rank of major general. President Quezon conferred the rank of field marshal on 24 August 1936 and MacArthur's duty included the supervision of the creation of the Philippines nation-state.
Portugal
In the Portuguese Army, the rank of marechal de campo was created in 1762, as the most junior general officer rank. Hierarchically, it was between the rank of tenente-general (lieutenant-general) and the rank of brigadeiro (brigadier), this last one not being considered a general rank, but a kind of senior colonel.
In Portugal, the ranks of marechal-general (marshal-general) and marechal do Exército (marechal of the Army) or simply marechal also existed. Distinctively from the rank of marechal de campo, the ranks of marechal-general and marechal were the highest in the Portuguese Army, usually being reserved for the commanders-in-chief of the Army. Latter, the rank of marechal-general became reserved for the Monarch, as a mere honorary dignity.
Romania
Mareșal is the highest rank in the Romanian Armed Forces. The rank of mareșal can only be bestowed to a General or Admiral (), in time of war for exceptional military merits, by the President of Romania and confirmed by the Supreme Council of National Defense.
Russia/Soviet Union
Imperial Russia had for a long time maintained the rank of Field Marshal. It was active all the way until the Russian Revolutions of 1917. When the Bolsheviks took over, they briefly abandoned military ranks until 1935. When it was restored, an equivalent rank Marshal of the Soviet Union was introduced in place of the Imperial Russian Army Field Marshal. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the rank was replaced by the Marshal of the Russian Federation. However, as of , There has only been one Marshal of the Russian Federation.
Serbia and Yugoslavia
In Serbian, field marshal can be translated as , and in Serbia and r it was similar to rank Vojvoda (Serbia and Yugoslavia) that has some similarities compared to Generalfeldmarschall, Marshal of France and Field marshal (United Kingdom) but also differs in way of promotion, duration and style. It was the highest rank in the army of the Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Yugoslavia until the Second World War. It was first created with the passing of the law on the Organization of the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia in 1901. The law was passed on the suggestion of Lieutenant Colonel (later Divisional General) Miloš Vasić who was minister of defense at the time. The rank was awarded only during the war for particular military contributions of top generals and as honorable title. Yugoslav People's Army had rank of Marshal used only by Josip Broz Tito as supreme commander, for more details see Marshal of Yugoslavia.
South Korea
From 2010s, Korean government tried to promote Paik Sun-yup a field marshal but, it failed because of his service in Manchukuo Imperial Army.
Sri Lanka
Field Marshal is the highest rank in the Sri Lanka Army. It is a ceremonial rank. Sarath Fonseka is the first and only Sri Lankan officer to hold the rank. He was promoted to the position on 22 March 2015.
Thailand
In the Royal Thai Army the rank of Chom Phon () was created in 1888, together with all other military ranks along western lines, by King Chulalongkorn. Until the first appointment in 1910, the rank was reserved solely for the reigning monarch. Currently the rank is in abeyance.
Turkey
In the Turkish Armed Forces, the corresponding rank is mareşal. Its origins can be traced to the Ottoman Empire and to the military of Persia, where it was called "müşir" and bestowed upon senior commanders upon order of the ruling sultan. The rank of mareşal can only be bestowed by the National Assembly, and only given to a general who leads an army, navy or air force successfully in three battles or at various front lines at the same time, gaining a victory over the enemy. Only two persons have been bestowed the rank: Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, and his Chief of Staff Fevzi Çakmak, both for their successes in the Turkish War of Independence.
Uganda
Field Marshal Idi Amin was the military dictator and third president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. Amin joined the British colonial regiment, the King's African Rifles in 1946, serving in Somalia and Kenya. Eventually, Amin held the rank of major general in the post-colonial Ugandan Army and became its commander before seizing power in the military coup of January 1971, deposing Milton Obote. He later promoted himself to field marshal while he was the head of state.
United Kingdom
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, held the rank of a field marshal, or equivalent rank, in eight armies. Nine of his field marshal batons are on display in Apsley House (see Batons of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington).
United States
No branch of the United States Armed Forces has ever used the rank of field marshal. On 14 December 1944, Congress created the rank of "general of the army", a five-star rank equivalent to that of field marshal in other countries. Two days later, George Marshall was promoted to this rank, becoming the first five-star general in American history. It has been suggested that the international denomination of "Marshal" for a five-star officer was not adopted because, otherwise, Marshall would be addressed as "Marshal Marshall", which was considered undignified. Thus, this leaves Douglas MacArthur as the only US officer ever to have receive the rank of Marshal given to him by the government of the Philippines.
Zaire
On the 17 June 1983, Mobutu Sese Seko promoted himself to the rank of field marshal. The order was signed by General Likulia Bolongo.
Insignia
Variants
Feldmarschall (Austro-Hungarian monarchy)
Stožerni general (Croatia)
Marshal of the Empire (First French Empire)
Stratarches (Greece)
Marshal of Italy
Wonsu (North & South Korea)
Mushir (Ottoman Empire, Middle East & North Africa)
Marshal of Peru
Marshal of Poland
General field marshal (Imperial Russia)
Marshal of the Russian Federation
Marshal of the Soviet Union
Fältmarskalk (Sweden)
Chom phon (Thailand)
See also
Admiralissimo
Generalissimo
Marshal
Grand Marshal
Grand Admiral
List of Field Marshals
List of German Field Marshals
General of the Army
Admiral of the Navy
General of the Air Force
References
External links
Military ranks
|
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] |
200361
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Eastwick
|
Edward Eastwick
|
Edward Backhouse Eastwick CB (181416 July 1883, Ventnor, Isle of Wight) was an English orientalist, diplomat and Conservative Member of Parliament. He wrote and edited a number of books on South Asian countries. These included a Sindhi vocabulary and a grammar of the Hindustani language.
Life and works
Born a member of an Anglo-Indian family, he was educated at Charterhouse and at Merton College, Oxford. He joined the Bombay infantry in 1836, but, owing to his talent for languages, was soon given a political post. In 1843 he translated the Persian Kessahi Sanjan, or History of the Arrival of the Parsees in India; and he wrote a Life of Zoroaster, a Sindhi vocabulary, and various papers in the transactions of the Bombay Asiatic Society. Compelled by ill-health to return to Europe, he went to Frankfurt, where he learned German and translated Schiller's Revolt of the Netherlands and Bopp's Comparative Grammar.
In 1845 he was appointed professor of Hindustani at Haileybury College. Two years later he published a Hindustani grammar, and in subsequent years a new edition of Saadi's Gulistán, with a translation in prose and verse, also an edition with vocabulary of the Hindi translation of Chatur Chuj Misr's Prem Sagar, and translations of the Bagh-o-Bahar, and of the Anwar-i Suhaili of Bidpai. In 1851 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
In 1857–1858 he edited The Autobiography of Latfullah, A Mohamedan Gentleman. He also edited for the Bible Society the Book of Genesis in the Dakhani language. From 4 May 1860 to 1863 he was in Persia as secretary to the British Legation, publishing on his return The Journal of a Diplomate's Three Years' Residence in Persia. In 1866 he became private secretary to the secretary of state for India, Lord Cranborne (afterwards marquess of Salisbury), and in 1867 went, as in 1864, on a government mission to Venezuela. He had meanwhile resigned his commission as a major in the London Rifle Volunteer Brigade in June 1861.
On his return Eastwick wrote, at the request of Charles Dickens, for All the Year Round, "Sketches of Life in a South American Republic". From 1868 to 1874 he was Member of Parliament (MP) for Penryn and Falmouth. In 1875, he received the degree of MA with the franchise from the University of Oxford, "as a slight recognition of distinguished services". At various times he wrote several of Murray's Indian handbooks. His last work was the Kaisarnamah-i-Hind ("The Lay of the Empress"), in two volumes (1878–1882).
Eastwick died at Ventnor, Isle of Wight, on 16 July 1883, and was survived by his wife, Rosina Jane, daughter of James Hunter of Hapton House, Argyll, whom he had married in 1847 and by whom he had at least one child, Robert William Egerton Eastwick.
References
Sources
External links
Eastwick, Edward Backhouse (Encyclopedia Iranica).
Catalogue of Hindi books of the British Museum - contains descriptions of books by Eastwick
Catalogue of Persian books of the British Museum - contains descriptions of books by Eastwick
Article on Eastwick in the Nordisk familjebok (Swedish)
Dictionary of Indian Biography - Entry on Eastwick
People educated at Charterhouse School
British orientalists
Administrators in British India
English translators
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Penryn and Falmouth
Translators from German
Translators from Hindi
Translators to English
UK MPs 1868–1874
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Fellows of the Royal Society
Companions of the Order of the Bath
1814 births
1883 deaths
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
19th-century British diplomats
19th-century English writers
19th-century British translators
London Rifle Brigade officers
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] |
200363
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Line
|
Barbara Line
|
During the Italian Campaign of World War II, the Barbara Line was a series of German military fortifications in Italy, some south of the Gustav Line, from Colli al Volturno to the Adriatic Coast in San Salvo and a similar distance north of the Volturno Line. Near the eastern coast, it ran along the line of the Trigno river. The line mostly consisted of fortified hilltop positions. The line was broken by the allied army in November 1943 following which the Axis forces withdrew to the defensible positions of the Winter Line.
Western breakthrough (U.S. Fifth Army front)
Generalfeldmarschall (Field marshall) Albert Kesselring—German commander-in-chief Italy- ordered his forces to retreat to the Barbara Line on 12 October 1943 after the U.S. Fifth Army crossed the Volturno River, breaching the Volturno defensive line.
By early November the Barbara Line on the Tyrrhenian Sea side of the Apennine Mountains had been breached by the U.S. Fifth Army, and the German Forces fell back to the Bernhardt Line.
Eastern breakthrough (British Eighth Army front)
The Allied Armies in Italy under General Sir Harold Alexander were fighting their way northward in Italy against determined German opposition skillfully directed by Albert Kesselring whose forces had prepared a succession of defensive lines. On the Adriatic front east of the Apennine Mountain spine was the British Eighth Army under General Bernard Montgomery. In October Eighth Army had crossed the Biferno river and the British Eighth Army had broken the Viktor/Volturno Line defences on 6 October. However, they had had to pause at the Trigno to re-group and reorganise their logistics along the poor roads stretching back to Bari and Taranto and respectively to the rear of the front. Delayed by these logistical problems, the Allies were not able to attack the next line of defences (the Barbara Line) behind the Trigno river immediately. It therefore was not until the early hours of 2 November that the V Corps on the right of the front on the coast and XIII Corps on their left attacked across the Trigno river.
On the V Corps front, British 78th Infantry Division attacked along the coastal road while 8th Indian Infantry Division attacked some inland. Fighting was fierce, but on 3 November, British 78th Division reached San Salvo, some three miles beyond the Trigno, at which point Generalmajor Rudolf Sieckenius—commanding 16th Panzer Division—decided to make a fighting withdrawal to the Sangro river and the formidable Gustav defensive positions overlooking the river from the ridge tops on the far side. Forward elements of Eighth Army moved to make contact with the forward defenses of the German Winter Line on the high ground north of the Sangro River. The Allies were able to move forward without opposition and the Allied advance reached the Sangro on 9 November.
See also
Allied invasion of Italy
Italian Campaign
British Eighth Army
U.S. Fifth Army
Volturno Line
Bernhardt Line
Battle of San Pietro Infine
Gustav Line
Gothic Line
Notes
References
German World War II defensive lines
World War II sites in Italy
Italian campaign (World War II)
World War II operations and battles of the Italian Campaign
|
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200365
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garigliano
|
Garigliano
|
The Garigliano () is a river in central Italy.
It forms at the confluence of the rivers Gari (also known as the Rapido) and Liri. Garigliano is actually a deformation of "Gari-Lirano" (which in Italian means something like "Gari from the Liri"). In ancient times the whole course of the Liri and Garigliano was known as the Liris.
For the most part of its length, the Garigliano River marks the border between the Italian regions of Lazio and Campania. In medieval times, the river (then known as the Verde) marked the southern border of the Papal States.
Historical significance
Western Roman Emperor Majorian engaged a Vandal raiding party in Battle at Garigliano in 457
In the 9th and early 10th centuries, a band of Saracens established themselves on the banks of the Garigliano, from where they launched frequent raids on Campania and central Italy. In 915 a coalition of the pope, the Byzantines, Franks, Lombards, and Naples defeated the Garigliano Arabs in the Battle of Garigliano.
In 1503 Spanish and French forces fought another battle of Garigliano, in which Piero II de' Medici was drowned, thus control of the Medici family passed to Giovanni de' Medici, later Pope Leo X. The bigger French Army was practically destroyed at little cost to the Spanish, with the remnants later surrendering at Gaeta.
During the Italian Campaign of World War II, the Liri-Gari-Garigliano rivers stood at the centre of a system of German defensive lines (the most famous of which is the Gustav Line) around which the battle of Monte Cassino took place in 1943–1944. Rumours tell that the waters of the river ran red in the Cassino area during the famous battle, because of the blood of the many corpses of soldiers.
Nuclear power plant
From 1959 until 1982 there was a BWR nuclear power plant named Garigliano near the town Sessa Aurunca.
See also
Gustav Line
Pont du Garigliano
French Expeditionary Corps in Italy
Battle of Garigliano
Rivers of the Province of Latina
Rivers of the Province of Frosinone
Rivers of the Province of Caserta
Rivers of Italy
Drainage basins of the Tyrrhenian Sea
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apennine%20Mountains
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Apennine Mountains
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The Apennines or Apennine Mountains (; or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; or – a singular with plural meaning; ) are a mountain range consisting of parallel smaller chains extending along the length of peninsular Italy. In the northwest they join with the Ligurian Alps at Altare. In the southwest they end at Reggio di Calabria, the coastal city at the tip of the peninsula. Since 2000 the Environment Ministry of Italy, following the recommendations of the Apennines Park of Europe Project, has been defining the Apennines System to include the mountains of north Sicily, for a total distance of . The system forms an arc enclosing the east side of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas.
The Apennines conserve some intact ecosystems that have survived human intervention. In these are some of the best preserved forests and montane grasslands in Europe, now protected by national parks and, within them, a high diversity of flora and fauna. These mountains are one of the last refuges of the big European predators such as the Italian wolf and the Marsican brown bear, now extinct in the rest of Central Europe.
The mountains lend their name to the Apennine peninsula that forms the major part of Italy. They are mostly verdant, although one side of the highest peak, Corno Grande, is partially covered by Calderone glacier, the only glacier in the Apennines. The eastern slopes down to the Adriatic Sea are steep, while the western slopes form foothills on which most of peninsular Italy's cities are located. The mountains tend to be named from the province or provinces in which they are located; for example, the Ligurian Apennines are in Liguria. As the provincial borders have not always been stable, this practice has resulted in some confusion about exactly where the montane borders are.
Etymology
The etymology most frequently repeated, because of its semantic appropriateness, is that it derives from the Celtic penn, "mountain, summit": which could have been assigned during the Celtic domination of north Italy in the 4th century BC or before. The name originally applied to the north Apennines. However, historical linguists have never found a derivation with which they all agree. Wilhelm Deecke said: is doubtful but some derive it from the Ligurian-Celtish Pen or Ben, which means mountain peak."
A large number of place names seem to reflect pen: Penarrig, Penbrynn, Pencoid, Penmon, Pentir, etc. or ben: Beanach, Benmore, Benabuird, Benan, Bencruachan, etc. In one derivation Pen/Ben is cognate with Old Irish cenn "head", but an original *kwen- would be required, which is typologically not found in languages that feature labio-velars. Windisch and Brugmann reconstructed Indo-European *kwi-, deriving also the Greek Pindus Mountains from the same root, but *kwen- < *kwi- is not explained by any rule. By some, English pin, as well as pen and Latin pinna or penna "feather" (in the sense of the horn of the quill) have been connected to the name. This view has the word originating in Latium inconsistently with the theory of the northern origin. None of these derivations are unquestionably accepted.
History
Geography
The Apennines are divided into three sectors: northern (), central (), and
A number of long hiking trails wind through the Apennines. Of note is European walking route E1 coming from northern Europe and traversing the lengths of the northern and central Apennines. The Grand Italian Trail begins in Trieste and after winding through the Alpine arc traverses the entire Apennine system, Sicily and Sardinia.
Northern Apennines
The northern Apennines consist of three s: the Ligurian (), Tuscan-Emilian (), and Umbrian Apennines ().
Ligurian Apennines
The Ligurian Apennines border the Ligurian Sea in the Gulf of Genoa, from about Savona below the upper Bormida River valley to about La Spezia (La Cisa pass) below the upper Magra River valley. The range follows the Gulf of Genoa separating it from the upper Po Valley. The northwestern border follows the line of the Bormida River to Acqui Terme. There the river continues northeast to Alessandria in the Po Valley, but the mountains bend away to the southeast.
The upper Bormida can be reached by a number of roads proceeding inland at a right angle to the coast southwest of Savona, the chief one being the Autostrada Torino-Savona. They ascend to the Bocchetta di Altare, sometimes called Colle di Cadibona, , the border between the Ligurian Alps along the coast to the west and the Ligurian Apennines. A bronze plaque fixed to a stone marks the top of the pass. In the vicinity are fragments of the old road and three ruins of former fortifications.
At Carcare, the main roads connect with the upper Bormida valley (Bormida di Mallare) before turning west. The Scrivia, the Trebbia and the Taro, tributaries of the Po River, drain the northeast slopes. The range contains dozens of peaks. Toward the southern end the Aveto Natural Regional Park includes Monte Penna. Nearby is the highest point of Ligurian Apennines, Monte Maggiorasca at .
The main and only feasible overland route connecting the coastal plain of Liguria to the north Italian plain runs through Bocchetta di Altare. It has always been of strategic importance. Defenders of north Italy have had to control it since ancient times, as the various fortifications placed there testify. Trenitalia, the state railway system, highly developed on the coastal plain, now traverses the mountains routinely through a number of railway tunnels, such as the one at Giovi Pass.
The southeastern border of the Ligurian Apennines is the Fiume Magra, which projects into the Tyrrhenian Sea south of La Spezia, and the Fiume Taro, which runs in the opposite direction to join the Po. The divide between the two upper river valleys is the Cisa Pass. Under it (in two tunnels) runs the Autostrada della Cisa between Spezia and Parma.
Tuscan–Emilian Apennines
Starting at Cisa Pass, the mountain chain turns further to the southeast, to cross the peninsula along the border between the Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany regions. They are named the Tuscan–Emilian Apennines west of the Futa Pass and the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines east of it, or just the Tuscan Apennines. They extend to the upper Tiber River. The highest point is Monte Cimone at .
A separate branch, the Apuan Alps, goes southwest, bordering the coast south of La Spezia. Whether they are to be considered part of the Apennines is a matter of opinion; certainly, they are part of the Apennine System. Topographically only the valley of the River Serchio, which running parallel to the coast turns and exits into the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Pisa, separates the Apuan Alps from the Apennines; geologically the rock is of a slightly different composition, marble. The Roman marble industry was centered at Luna, and is now active in Carrara.
As the Tuscan Apennines divide the peninsula between the Po Valley and the plains and hills of Tuscany and Lazio, transportation over them has been used to achieve political and economic unity. Historically the Romans used the Via Flaminia between Rome and Rimini. The montane distance between Florence in Tuscany and Bologna in Emilia-Romagna is shorter, but exploitation of it required the conquest of more rugged terrain, which was not feasible for the ancients. Railway lines were constructed over the mountains in the early 19th century but they were of low capacity and unimprovable.
Since 1856, a series of tunnels have been constructed to conduct "the Bologna-Florence rail line", which is neither a single line nor a single tunnel. The Porrettana Line went into service in 1864, the Direttissima in 1934 and the High Speed in 1996. A few dozen tunnels support the three of them, the longest on the High-Speed Line being the Voglia Tunnel at . The longest is on the Direttissima, the Great Apennine Tunnel, which at is the longest entirely within Italy, although the Simplon Tunnel, which connects Italy and Switzerland, is longer. Automobile traffic is carried by the Autostrada del Sole, Route A1, which goes through numerous shorter tunnels, bypassing an old road, originally Roman, through Futa Pass. In December 2015, a new Route A1 called Variante di Valico was opened after many years of construction consisting of major tunnels (the longest being the new 'Tunel Base') and new overpasses, shortening the traveling time between Florence and Bologna by road. The Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park is in the southern part of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines. The southern limit of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines is the Bocca Serriola Pass in northern Umbria, which links Fano and Città di Castello.
The Tiber River at Rome flows from Monte Fumaiolo in the Tuscan-Romagnol Apennine from northeast to southwest, projecting into the Tyrrhenian Sea at right angles to the shore. The upper Tiber, however, flows from northwest to southeast, gradually turning through one right angle clockwise. The northern Tiber valley is deep and separates the Apennines on the left bank from a lesser range, the Tuscan Anti-Apennines (Sub-Apennines) on its right.
Central Apennines
The Apennine System forms an irregular arc with centers of curvature located in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The northern and southern segments comprise parallel chains that can be viewed as single overall mountain ridges, such as the Ligurian Mountains. The center, being thicker and more complex, is geologically divided into an inner and an outer arc with regard to the centers of curvature. The geologic definition, however, is not the same as the geographic.
Based on rock type and orogenic incidents, the northern segment of the arc is divided into the Outer Northern Apennines (ONA) and the Inner Northern Apennines (INA). The Central Apennines are divided into the Umbrian–Marchean () or Roman Apennines in the north and the Abruzzi Apennines () in the south. It extends from Bocca Serriola pass in the north to Forlì pass in the south.
Umbria-Marche Apennines
The west border of the Umbria-Marche Apennines (or )) runs through Cagli. They extend south to the Tronto River, the south border of the ONA.
The highest peak, Monte Vettore, at , is part of the Monti Sibillini, incorporated into Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini. Further north is the , in which are the Gola della Rossa ("Red Gorge") and Frasassi Caves. Still further north is Parco Sasso Simone e Simoncello. The Italian Park Service calls it the "green heart" of Italy. The region is heavily forested, such as the Riserva Naturale Statale Gola del Furlo, where Furlo Pass on the Via Flaminia is located. Both the Etruscans and the Romans constructed tunnels here.
Abruzzi Apennines
The Abruzzi Apennines, located in Abruzzo, Molise and southeastern Lazio, contain the highest peaks and most rugged terrain of the Apennines. They are known in history as the territory of the Italic peoples first defeated by the city of Rome. Coincidentally they exist in three parallel folds or chains surviving from the orogeny. These extend in a northwest–southeast direction from the River Tronto to the River Sangro, which drain into the Adriatic. The coastal hills of the east extend between San Benedetto del Tronto in the north and Torino di Sangro in the south.
The eastern chain consists mainly of the southern part of the Monti Sibillini, the Monti della Laga, the Gran Sasso d'Italia Massif and the Majella Massif. Among them are two national parks: Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park and Majella National Park; and the Regional Park of the Monti Simbruini. Gran Sasso contains Corno Grande, the highest peak of the Apennines (2912 m).
Other features between the western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti, the valley of the Salto, and the Lago Fucino; while between the central and eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona. The chief rivers on the west are the Nera, with its tributaries the Velino and Salto, and the Aniene, both of which fall into the Tiber. On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow into the Adriatic, from which the highest points of the chain are some 20 km distant, such as the Tronto, Tordino, Vomano and others. The Pescara, which receives the Aterno from the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and so is the Sangro.
The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome to Pescara via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte to Terni (and thence to Foligno) follows the Nera valley; while from Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the central chain to Aquila, whence it follows the valley of the Aterno to Sulmona. In ancient times the Via Salaria, Via Caecilia and Via Valeria-Claudia all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast. The volcanic mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini, part of the Volscian chain, by the valleys of the Sacco and Liri.
Southern Apennines
The southern Apennines can be divided into four major regions: (1) Samnite Apennines, (2) Campanian Apennines, (3) Lucan Apennines and (4) Calabrian Apennines (including the Sicilian Apennines). They extend from Forlì pass towards south.
Samnite and Campanian Apennines
In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley, the three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may be named the Matese, the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto . The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or Garigliano with its tributary the Sacco, the Volturno, Sebeto, Sarno, on the north the Trigno, Biferno and Fortore.
Daunian mountains, in Apulia, are connected with the Apennine range, and so are Cilento hills on the west. On the converse the promontory of Mount Gargano, on the east, is completely isolated, and so are the Campanian volcanic arc near Naples. The district is traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to Benevento and on to Avellino, and from south-west to northeast by the railways from Caianello via Isernia to Campobasso and Termoli, from Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera Inferiore and Avellino to Rocchetta Sant'Antonio, the junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta, Bari, and Taranto) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as the railways: the Via Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi, while the Via Traiana ran nearly to Troia (near Foggia) and thence to Bari.
Lucan Apennines
The valley of the Ofanto, which runs into the Adriatic close to Barletta, marks the northern termination of the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata), which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basento (on the east)—which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via Potenza to Metaponto—the second range begins to run due north and south as far as the plain of Sibari. The highest point is the Monte Pollino . The chief rivers are the Sele—joined by the Negro and Calore—on the west, and the Bradano, Basento, Agri, Sinni on the east, which flow into the gulf of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some .
Calabrian and Sicilian Apennines
The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending the valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia, which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia, a branch of the Via Traiana, ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum. At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile and Crati flow to the sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the granite mountains of Calabria begin.
The first group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulfs of South Eufemia and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is (the Botte Donato). The forests which covered it in ancient times supplied the Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding. The railway from South Eufemia to Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian Peninsula, culminating in the Aspromonte () to the east of Reggio di Calabria. In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant. Finally, the Calabrian southern Apennine Mountains extend along the northern coast of Sicily (the Sicilian Apennines, Italian Appennino siculo)—Pizzo Carbonara () being the highest peak.
Ecology
Vegetative zones
Ecoregions
north and central: Apennine deciduous montane forests (temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome)
north through south: Italian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests (Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome)
south: South Apennine mixed montane forests (also a Mediterranean biome)
The number of vascular plant species in the Apennines has been estimated at 5,599. Of these, 728 (23.6%) are in the treeline ecotone. Hemicryptophytes predominate in the entire Apennine chain.
Alpine zone
The tree line ecotone is mainly grasslands of the Montane grasslands and shrublands biome; with Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, and Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub below it. The tree line in the Apennines can be found in the range to . About 5% of the map area covered by the Apennines is at or above the tree line—or in the treeline ecotone. The snow line is at about , leaving the Apennines below it, except for the one remaining glacier. Snow may fall from October to May. Rainfall increases with latitude. The range's climates, depending on elevation and latitude, are the Oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate.
Geology
The Apennines were created in the Apennine orogeny beginning in the early Neogene (about 20 mya, the middle Miocene) and continuing today. Geographically they are partially (or appear to be) continuous with the Alpine system. Prior to the explosion of data on the topic from about the year 2000, many authors took the approach that the Apennines had the same origin as the Alps. Even today, some authors use the term Alpine-Apennine system. They are not, however, the same system and did not have the same origin. The Alps were millions of years old before the Apennines rose from the sea.
Both the Alps and the Apennines contain primarily sedimentary rock resulting from sedimentation of the ancient Tethys Sea in the Mesozoic. The northward movement of the African Plate and its collision with the European Plate then caused the Alpine Orogeny, beginning in the late Mesozoic. The band of mountains created extends from Spain to Turkey in a roughly east–west direction and includes the Alps. The Apennines are much younger, extend from northwest to southeast, and are not a displacement of the Alpine chain.
The key evidence of the difference is the geologic behavior of the Po Valley in northern Italy. Compressional forces have been acting from north to south in the Alps and from south to north in the Apennines, but instead of being squeezed into mountains the valley has been subsiding at 1 to per year since about 25 mya, before the Apennines It is now known to be not an erosional feature but is a filled portion of the Adriatic Trench, called the Adriatic foredeep after its function as a subduction zone was discovered. The Alps and the Apennines were always separated by this trench and were never part of the same system.
Apennine orogeny
The Apennine orogeny is a type of mountain-building in which two simpler types are combined in an apparently paradoxical configuration. Sometimes this is referred to as "syn-orogenic extension", but the term implies that the two processes occur simultaneously during time.
Some scientists imagine that this is relatively rare but not unique in mountain building, whereas others imagine that this is fairly common in all mountain belts.
The RETREAT Project have this specific feature as one of their focus points
In essence the east side of Italy features a fold and thrust belt raised by compressional forces acting under the Adriatic Sea. This side has been called the "Apennine-Adriatic Compressional Zone" or the "Apennines Convergence Zone." On the west side of Italy fault-block mountains prevail, created by a spreading or extension of the crust under the Tyrrhenian Sea. This side is called the "Tyrrhenian Extensional Zone." The mountains of Italy are of paradoxical provenience, having to derive from both compression and extension:
"The paradox of how contraction and extension can occur simultaneously in convergent mountain belts remains a fundamental and largely unresolved problem in continental dynamics."Both the folded and the fault-block systems include parallel mountain chains. In the folded system anticlines erode into the highest and longest massifs of the Apennines.
According to the older theories (originating from the 1930s to 1970s) of Dutch geologists, including Van Bemmelen, compression and extension can and should occur simultaneously at different depths in a mountain belt. In these theories, these different levels are called Stockwerke. More recent work in geotectonics and geodynamics of the same school of geoscientists (Utrecht and Amsterdam University) by Vlaar, Wortel, and Cloetingh, and their disciples, extended these concepts even further into a temporal realm. They demonstrated that internal and external forces acting upon the mountain belt (e.g., slab pull and intra-plate stress field modulations due to large scale reorganisations of the tectonic plates) result in both longer episodes and shorter phases of general extension and compression acting both upon and inside mountain belts and tectonic arches (See e.g. for extensive reviews, bibliography and discussions on the literature:
Van Dijk (1992),
Van Dijk and Okkes (1991),
Van Dijk & Scheepers (1995),
and Van Dijk et al. (2000a)).
Compressional zone
The gradual subsidence of the Po Valley (including that of Venice) and the folding of the mountains of eastern Italy have been investigated using seismic wave analysis of the "Apennine Subduction System." Along the Adriatic side of Italy the floor of the Adriatic Sea, referred to as the "Adriatic lithosphere" or the "Adriatic plate," terms whose precise meaning is the subject of ongoing research, is dipping under the slab on which the Apennines have been folded by compressional forces.
Subduction occurs along a fault, along which a hanging wall, or overriding slab is thrust over an overridden slab, also called the subducting slab. The fault that acts as the subduction interface is at the bottom of the Apennine wedge, characterized by a deep groove in the surface, typically filled with sediment, as sedimentation here occurs at a much faster rate than subduction. In north Italy the dip of this interface is 30° to 40° at a depth of 80–90 km.
The strike of the Apennine subduction zone forms a long, irregular arc with centers of curvature in the Tyrrhenian Sea following the hanging wall over which the mountains have been raised; i.e., the eastern wall of the mountains. It runs from near the base of the Ligurian Apennines in the Po Valley along the margin of the mountains to the Adriatic, along the coastal deeps of the Adriatic shore, strikes inland at Monte Gargano cutting off Apulia, out to sea again through the Gulf of Taranto, widely around the rest of Italy and Sicily and across inland north Africa. The upper mantle above deep is broken into the "Northern Apennines Arc" and the "Calabrian Arc", with compressional forces acting in different directions radially toward the arcs' centers of curvature. The overall plate tectonics of these events has been modeled in different ways but decisive data is still missing. The tectonics, however, are not the same as those which created the Alps.
Extensional zone
The west side of Italy is given to a fault-block system, where the crust – extended by the lengthening mantle below – thinned, broke along roughly parallel fault lines, and the blocks alternatively sank into grabens or were raised by isostasy into horsts. This system prevails from Corsica eastward to the valley of the Tiber River, the last rift valley in that direction. It runs approximately across the direction of extension. In the fault-block system, the ridges are lower and are more steep-sided, since the walls are formed by faults. Geographically they are not considered part of the Apennines proper but are termed Sub-Apennines () or Anti-Apennines () or Pre-Apennines (). These mountains are found mainly in Tuscany, Lazio and Campania.
Stability of terrain
The terrain of the Apennines (as well as that of the Alps) is to a large degree unstable due to various types of landslides, including falls and slides of rocks and debris, flows of earth and mud, and sink holes. The Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (), a government agency founded in 2008 by combining three older agencies, published in that year a special report, Landslides in Italy, summarizing the results of the IFFI Project (), the Italian Landslide Inventory (), an extensive survey of historical landslides in Italy undertaken by the government starting in 1997. On December 31, 2007, it had studied and mapped 482,272 landslides over . Its major statistics are the Landslide Index (LI here), the ratio of the landslide area to the total area of a region, the Landslide Index in Mountainous-Hilly Areas (here LIMH) and the Density of Landslides, which is the number per .
Italy as a whole has a LI of 6.8, a LIMH of 9.1 and a density of 160. Lombardia (LI of 13.9), Emilia-Romagna (11.4), Marches (19.4), Molise (14.0), Valle d'Aosta (16.0) and Piemonte (9.1) are significantly higher. The most unstable terrain in the Apennines when the landslide sites are plotted on the map are in order from most unstable the eastern flanks of the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines, the Central Apennines and the eastern flank of the southern Apennines. Instability there is comparable to the Alps bordering the Po Valley. The most stable terrain is on the western side: Liguria, Tuscany, Umbria and Lazio. The Apennines are slumping away to the northeast into the Po Valley and the Adriatic foredeep; that is, the zone where the Adriatic floor is being subducted under Italy. Slides with large translational or rotational surface movements are most common; e.g., a whole slope slumps into its valley, placing the population there at risk.
Glacial ice
Glaciers no longer exist in the Apennines outside the Gran Sasso d'Italia massif. However, post-Pliocene moraines have been observed in Basilicata.
Major peaks
The Apennines include about 21 peaks over , the approximate tree line (counting only the top peak in each massif). Most of these peaks are located in the Central Apennines.
See also
Monti Simbruini – Apennines plants and animals list
Geography of Italy
List of national parks of Italy
List of longest tunnels
List of highest paved roads in Europe
List of mountain passes
TaskForceMajella
Notes
References
Bibliography
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.
.
Attribution
External links
Mountain ranges of Italy
Mountains of San Marino
Physiographic provinces
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200367
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apennine
|
Apennine
|
Apennine may refer to:
The Apennine Mountains
Other places on Earth
The Apennine or Italian Peninsula
Apennins, a department of the First French Empire
Astronomical names
The lunar Montes Apenninus
10959 Appennino, an asteroid
Plants and animals
Appenninica, or Apennine, a modern breed of domestic sheep
Apennine shrew, an insectivore endemic to Italy
Apennine yellow-bellied toad, an amphibian endemic to Italy
Apennine deciduous montane forests, an ecoregion of Italy
Apennine brown bear, another name for the Marsican brown bear
Apennine wolf, a subspecies of the Eurasian wolf
Apennine hare, another name for the Corsican hare
South Apennine mixed montane forests, an ecoregion
Cultural objects
Apennine Base Tunnel, a railway tunnel of Italy
The archaeological Apennine culture
Giro dell'Appennino, a bicycle tour
|
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] |
200369
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigno
|
Trigno
|
The Trigno (Latin Trinius) is an Italian river. It originates in the Apennine Mountains, in the province of Isernia and flows into the Adriatic Sea near Vasto. It also forms the border between the regions Abruzzo and Molise.
See also
Barbara Line
Rivers of the Province of Campobasso
Rivers of the Province of Chieti
Rivers of the Province of Isernia
Rivers of Italy
Adriatic Italian coast basins
|
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200370
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhardt%20Line
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Bernhardt Line
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The Bernhardt Line (or Reinhard Line) was a German defensive line in Italy during the Italian Campaign of World War II. Having reached the Bernhardt Line at the start of December 1943, it took until mid-January 1944 for the U.S. Fifth Army to fight their way to the next line of defences, the Gustav Line. The line was defended by XIV Panzer Corps (XIV Panzerkorps), part of the German Tenth Army (10. Armee).
Unlike most of the other defensive lines it did not run all the way across Italy but was merely a bulge in front of the main Gustav Line, running over the massif of Monte Cassino, enclosing the peaks of Monte Cassino (Monastery Hill), Monte la Difensa, Monte la Remetanea and Monte Maggiore, in the territory of Rocca d'Evandro, and Monte Sambucaro (or Sammucro), which stands at the border of the three regions (Lazio, Molise and Campania). However, the defences of the Gustav Line on the Adriatic are sometimes referred to as the Bernhardt Line and the battles for this part of the line are included in this entry.
The Bernhardt line was not as strong as the Gustav Line and was intended only to delay the Allies' arrival at the Gustav Line. Together with the Gustav Line and the Hitler Line, it made up the German Winter Line defences.
Background
Following the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943, the Italian government had surrendered, but the German Army continued to fight. The Allied 15th Army Group, commanded by General Sir Harold Alexander, in conquering the southern part of Italy but by early October had come up against the Volturno Line, the first of two lines (the next being the Barbara Line) used to delay the Allied advance to buy time to prepare the most formidable defensive positions which formed the Winter Line. Alexander had three possible alternatives to reach the Italian capital of Rome. On the Adriatic front he could advance to Pescara and then use Route 5 (the old Roman Via Valeria) which traversed the country to Rome on the other coast. Alternatively, on the other side of the Apennines, highway 7 (the old Roman Appian Way) followed along the west coast but south of Rome ran into the Pontine Marshes which the Germans had flooded. Finally, highway 6 ran in the same direction, but further inland, through the Liri valley.
Order of battle
The German forces in Italy were commanded by Field Marshal (Generalfeldmarschall) Albert Kesselring. The defence of the Winter Line was the task of the German 10th Army (10. Armee) under the temporary command of Lieutenant-General (General der Panzertruppe) Joachim Lemelsen (in the absence of General (Generaloberst) Heinrich von Vietinghoff, who was in Germany on sick leave). The German 10th Army had Traugott Herr's LXXVI Panzer Corps (LXXVI Panzerkorps) deployed on the eastern side of Italy, from the Apennine Mountains to the Adriatic, and Frido von Senger und Etterlin's XIV Panzer Corps (XIV Panzerkorps) on the western side, from the mountains to the Tyrrhenian sea.
The new Supreme Allied Commander of the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO) was General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson, replacing General Dwight D. Eisenhower who had moved to command of the Allied forces preparing for Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy. The Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), formerly designated the 15th Army Group, were commanded by General Alexander. Under his command were two field armies: to the left, on the western side of Italy, was the U.S. Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, and to the right, on the eastern side, was the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Fifth Army consisted of American, British and French units. The Eighth Army, with British, Indian, New Zealand, Canadian and Polish units, was from early January 1944 commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese after General Montgomery was, along with General Eisenhower, also recalled to England to prepare for Operation Overlord.
Eighth Army on the Adriatic Winter Line defences
Prelude
On 3 October, a battalion of the British Eighth Army's 78th Infantry Division had crossed the Biferno river to confront the German Volturno-Viktor Line defences. Two Commando battalions landed from the sea north of the river at Termoli, and a fiercely contested battle ensued which had hung in the balance when a ford became unusable after heavy rains and prevented Allied armour from moving forward. However, the British infantry — reinforced from the sea by two brigades — had held out long enough against the tanks of 16th Panzer Division (16. Panzerdivision) for a Bailey bridge to be laid across the river, and the crisis passed with the arrival of elements of 1st Canadian Armoured Brigades. By 6 October, the Germans were withdrawing to new defensive positions behind the Trigno river, the "Barbara Line".
At the Trigno, Eighth Army were obliged to pause because it had outrun its supply chain which stretched back over poor roads to the main ports of Bari and Taranto, and to its rear. Port and transport capacity had also been affected by the logistic requirements of the Allied air force, which was establishing strategic bomber bases around Foggia.
The Eighth Army attacked across the Trigno on 2 November. By the next day, the German position had been turned and the Germans commenced a fighting withdrawal to the forward Winter-Line positions they were preparing on the ridges behind the Sangro River.
Advance across the Sangro
The Eighth Army's forward units had reached the Sangro on 9 November. Alexander had planned for Montgomery to strike across the river on its coastal plain on 20 November with the V Corps (Indian 8th Infantry and 78th Infantry Divisions). In secrecy, Montgomery shifted the Indian division to the right to narrow the V Corps front and concentrate its power, bringing the newly arrived 2nd New Zealand Division into the gap. Eighth Army also devised a deception scheme involving false troop movements and ammunition dumps to give the impression that the main attack would be through the British XIII Corps front. The deception was to be maintained by an earlier diversionary attack some inland by XIII Corps and a secondary attack at the same time as V Corps some inland by the New Zealanders.
However, Kesselring divined the Allies' intentions; on 18 November, Lemelsen had signaled Kesselring to the effect that the Allied concentrations on the coast led him to expect the main attack on his left wing. Then heavy rain raised the river levels forcing the postponement of the offensive to the night of 27 November and giving the Germans time to switch two divisions across the Apennines to the defending LXXVI Panzer Corps. This made three divisions on the coastal plain opposing V Corps: 65th Infantry Division (65. Infantriedivision), 90th Panzergrenadier Division (90. Panzergrenadierdivision) and 26th Panzer Division (26. Panzerdivision). 16th Panzer Division opposed the New Zealanders and the German 1st Parachute Division (1. Fallschirmjägerdivision) faced XIII Corps (1st Canadian Division and British 5th Infantry Division).
In the early hours of 28 November, the Eighth Army attack went in supported by heavy artillery concentrations. The New Zealanders advanced steadily; although the German defences had been well prepared most of the New Zealanders' objectives were manned by 65th Division which was poorly equipped and untried in battle. The German Division was also hampered by the fact that their commander—Brigadier-General (Generalmajor) G.H. von Ziehlberg—was severely wounded on the afternoon of 28 November. The 8th Indian Division, however, like the New Zealanders facing their first major combat action since arriving in Italy, experienced tougher opposition. Elements of 65th Infantry Division supported by an armoured battle group held tenaciously on to Mezzagrogna and the town was eventually taken on 29 November after tough, often hand to hand, fighting. On the morning of 29 November, 78th Infantry Division had joined the attack on the right of the Indian Division and had forced their way to Santa Maria by the evening, creating a base for their main attack the following day towards Fossacesia. By late on 30 November, 78th Division—supported by 4th Armoured Brigade—had taken Fossacesia, and the whole ridge on the far bank of the Sangro—carrying the main Bernhardt defences—was under Eighth Army control.
As the Eighth Army pushed forward over the next few days, 65th Infantry Division crumbled (to the extent that German 10th Army were later to order a court-martial into its conduct). However, Herr was able to introduce 90th Panzergrenadier Division into the line from his reserve and transferred reinforcements from the quieter sector inland in the form of elements of 1st Parachute Division. The complications of these manoeuvres introduced considerable confusion within the German alignment but they were nevertheless able to manage a fighting withdrawal to the ridge on the far side of the Moro river. Unaware of the disorganisation in the German ranks, the New Zealanders failed on 2 December to exploit an opportunity to capture Orsogna, a key position near the headwaters of the Moro, which on that day was still only lightly held. It was only on the morning of 3 December that the New Zealand Division disputed possession of Orsogna, but 26th Panzer had had just enough breathing space to organise and were able to repel them. The 26th Panzer then proceeded to create a formidable defensive complex around the town and along the ridge towards Ortona on the coast and Orsogna was not occupied by the Allies—despite a further two determined attempts during December—until the Germans withdrew after the Allied breakthrough at Cassino in May 1944.
Moro offensive
Montgomery now rested the tired 78th Division (which had been leading the V Corps advance since the Volturno Line offensive), swapping with the 1st Canadian Infantry Division from the relatively quiet XIII Corps sector. The Canadians, with the 8th Indian Infantry Division on their left, led the main thrust across the Moro on 8 December aiming for Ortona. By 20 December, after a stubborn resistance, first from elements of the German 90th Panzergrenadier Division and then elements of the 1st Parachute Division (which had relieved the panzergrenadiers), they had patrols on the outerskirts of the town. But the battle for Ortona took another week of fierce house to house fighting as the German 3rd Parachute Regiment tenaciously held on before withdrawing to the other side of the Riccio river on 28 December.
Meanwhile, inland V Corps, Orsogna had suffered three successive assaults but XIII Corps spearheaded by the 2nd New Zealand Division could not get past the defending 26th Panzer Division. After advancing a total of only 18 miles (29 km) and sustaining 6,500 casualties, blizzards, drifting snow and zero visibility at the end of December in jagged terrain caused Eighth Army's offensive on the Adriatic front to grind to a halt. As the New Year approached, it became clear that with no prospect of better weather until the spring, the Eighth Army did not have the strength to force its way to Pescara. Alexander called a halt to the offensive, instructing Montgomery to maintain sufficient activity to pin LXXVI Panzer Corps and prevent troops from being sent across to reinforce XIV Corps facing the Fifth Army.
The rest of the winter on the Adriatic front was spent in bitterly uncomfortable conditions with the opposing sides often in close proximity and engaged in night-time patrolling and vicious skirmishing.
Fifth Army Bernhardt Line offensive
It had taken Lieutenant General Mark Clark's Fifth Army, in deteriorating weather as the torrential autumn rains broke, from the middle of October to early November to fight their way across difficult terrain and through skillful and determined rearguard defences from the Volturno Line positions to the Bernhardt Line.
In the centre of the Fifth Army front lay the Mignano Gap, which, because of the marshy conditions on the coastal plain, represented the only realistic path to the mouth of the Liri valley, the route to Rome.
Flanking and overlooking Route 6 through the Mignano Gap and its villages (San Pietro Infine, San Vittore Del Lazio and Cervaro) are, successively Monte Camino, Monte Lungo, Monte Porchia and Monte Trocchio on the left and Monte San Croce, Monte Corno, Monte Sambúcaro and Monte Maio on the right. Monte Sambúcaro normally appears as Monte Sammucro on Allied maps of the time. On reaching the Bernhardt positions, an immediate attack was launched by the 201st Guards Brigade, which was attached to the 56th (London) Infantry Division, part of Lieutenant-General Sir Richard McCreery's British X Corps on Monte Camino on 6 November, which was beaten back by the 15th Panzergrenadier Division (15. Panzergrenadierdivision), with some 600 losses to the 201st Guards Brigade. By mid-November, it was clear that, after having sustained 10,000 combat casualties, since the Volturno Line offensive, the Fifth Army needed to pause, reorganise and re-gather its strength.
The Fifth Army resumed its attack on 1 December. The first attack—Operation Raincoat—was delivered, after an intensive artillery and air bombardment, by the British X Corps on the left (comprising the 46th and 56th Infantry Divisions) and elements of the U.S. II Corps, commanded by Major General Geoffrey Keyes, including the 1st Special Service Force, under Lieutenant Colonel Robert T. Frederick, on the right against the formidable Camino hill mass. The dominating peak on Monte Camino, Hill 963, is crowned by a monastery. Two slightly lower peaks, Monte la Defensa, Monte la Difensa (Hill 960) as it appeared on the military maps during the war, and Monte la Remetanea (Hill 907), lie less than north of Camino. At the upper end of the Camino feature are the numerous peaks of Monte Maggiore. The entire hill mass is about long and four miles (6.5 km) wide. On the east and northeast the slopes rise steeply to the heights, then fall away gradually to the west toward the Garigliano river. It took until 9 December before the Camino mass was secured from the 15th Panzergrenadier Division.
Meanwhile, on the Fifth Army's right flank, the U.S. VI Corps, commanded by Major General John P. Lucas and composed of the 34th and 45th Infantry Divisions, had attacked into the mountains but made little progress until reinforced by the mountain troops of the French Expeditionary Corps (CEF), recently arrived in Italy; they attacked again on 15 December.
On 8 December the U.S. 3rd and 36th Infantry Divisions and 1st Special Service Force of II Corps launched the attack on Monte Sambúcaro and into the Mignano Gap. By the night of 10 December, the peaks were taken, threatening the German positions in the gap. However, the German positions at San Pietro in the valley held firm until 16 December, when an attack launched from the Camino mass took Monte Lungo. The Germans could no longer expect to hold San Pietro when the dominating ground on both flanks, Monte Lungo and the Sambúcaro peaks, was in II Corps' possession. Under the cover of a counterattack German forces withdrew to positions about to their rear, in front of San Vittore. Several attacks were made in the next few days, and Morello Hill—overlooking the San Vittore positions from the north—was captured on 26 December.
On the U.S. VI Corps front, progress was made but proved very difficult over the mountainous terrain as the weather deteriorated further with the onset of winter. During the month of December, the Fifth Army suffered 5,020 wounded but total admissions to hospital totaled 22,816 with jaundice, fevers and trench foot prevalent.
At the end of December, the Fifth Army had to pause once again to reorganise, replace its losses and gather itself for a final push to reach the Gustav Line defences. The U.S. VI Corps was taken into reserve to train and prepare for the Anzio landings (codenamed Operation Shingle) with the French troops, by this time at corps strength, taking over their front.
The II Corps returned to the attack on 4 January 1944, with attacks parallel to Route 6 north and south of it. The northern attack took San Vittore, and by 7 January the overlooking height of La Chiaia. On the south side, the attack was made from Monte Lungo and captured Monte Porchia. Meanwhile, on their left, the British X Corps had attacked from positions on the Camino mass to take on 8 January the Cedro hill which with Monte Chiaia and Monte Porchia had formed a strong defensive line in front of Monte Trocchio.
The last offensive to clear the enemy in front of the Gustav defences started on 10 January. Cervaro was taken on 12 January and the overlooking hills to the north on 13 January. This opened up the northern flank of Monte Trocchio, and a heavy assault was planned for 15 January. However, the German XIV Panzer Corps considered the position to be untenable and withdrew across the Rapido. When the II Corps moved forward on 15 January, they encountered no resistance.
Aftermath
It had taken the U.S. Fifth Army six weeks of intense combat and 16,000 casualties to advance the 7 miles (11 km) through the Bernhardt Line defences, including the action at San Pietro Infine, to take Monte Trocchio and to reach the positions facing the main Gustav defences on 15 January.
See also
Allied invasion of Italy
Battle of San Pietro Infine
Gustav Line
U.S. Fifth Army
Barbara Line
U.S. 36th Infantry Division
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
External links
Map of the German defensive lines
Conflicts in 1943
Conflicts in 1944
1943 in Italy
1944 in Italy
Battles of World War II involving Canada
Battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Italian campaign (World War II)
German World War II defensive lines
World War II sites in Italy
World War II operations and battles of the Italian Campaign
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] |
200371
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mignano%20Gap
|
Mignano Gap
|
The Mignano Gap is a geographic feature in Italy, in the vicinity of Mignano Monte Lungo. During World War II, this was the location of the German Bernhardt Line.
References
Fifth Army At The Winter Line
Mountain passes of Italy
|
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200373
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter%20Line
|
Winter Line
|
The Winter Line was a series of German and Italian military fortifications in Italy, constructed during World War II by Organisation Todt and commanded by Albert Kesselring. The series of three lines was designed to defend a western section of Italy, focused around the town of Monte Cassino, through which ran the important Highway 6 which led uninterrupted to Rome. The primary Gustav Line ran across Italy from just north of where the Garigliano River flows into the Tyrrhenian Sea in the west, through the Apennine Mountains to the mouth of the Sangro River on the Adriatic coast in the east. The two subsidiary lines, the Bernhardt Line and the Hitler Line ran much shorter distances from the Tyrrehnian sea to just North East of Cassino where they would merge into the Gustav Line. Relative to the Gustav Line, the Hitler Line stood to the North-West and the Bernhardt Line to the South-East of the primary defenses.
Before being ultimately broken, the Gustav Line effectively slowed the Allied advance for months between December 1943 and June 1944. Major battles in the assault on the Winter Line at Monte Cassino and Anzio alone resulted in 98,000 Allied casualties and 60,000 Axis casualties.
Gustav Line
The Gustav Line stretched across the Italian peninsula and barred the way to Rome for the two Allied armies in Italy: the U.S. 5th Army in the west and the British 8th Army in the east. The Allies' grand strategy in the autumn of 1943 was for the 8th Army to advance through the Sangro River defences, then hook south at Avezzano and enter Rome from the rear while the 5th Army approached from the south.
The center of the Gustav line crossed the main route north to Rome at strategically crucial Highway 6. It followed the Liri Valley and was anchored around the mountains behind the town of Cassino. Above it stood the ancient Benedictine sanctuary of Monte Cassino, which dominated the valley entrance, and Monte Cassino, which gave the defenders clear observation of potential attackers advancing towards the valley mouth. The U.S. 5th Army was held up in front of these positions through the winter of 1943-44. They attempted to flank the position by the landings at Anzio but bogged down quickly there. A bloody and protracted battle was waged over the monastery, known as the Battle of Monte Cassino.
The eastern end of the line was held by the coastal town of Ortona, captured by Canadian forces in the fierce Battle of Ortona in December 1943 which became known as "the little Stalingrad." Failure by the 8th Army to capture Orsogna however put an end to the Allied plans of a strong drive up the eastern coast. Rain, flooded rivers, and high casualties, as well as the departure of General Montgomery, all put a halt to Allied plans until the spring of 1944. The Gustav Line thus fulfilled the wishes of Field Marshal Kesselring of keeping the Allies south of the so-called Winter Line.
Bernhardt and Hitler Lines
On the western side of the Apennines were two subsidiary lines, the Bernhardt Line in front of the main Gustav positions, and the Hitler Line some 8 kilometres (5 mi) to the rear. The Winter Line was fortified with gun pits, concrete bunkers, turreted machine-gun emplacements, barbed wire and minefields. It was the strongest of the German defensive lines south of Rome. About 15 German divisions were employed in the defence. It took the Allies from mid-November 1943 to June 1944 to fight through all the various elements of the Winter Line, including the well-known battles at Monte Cassino and Anzio.
The offensive on the Bernhardt line was launched on December 1, 1943, as part of Operation Raincoat. British and American troops took the terrain around Monte Camino and the Mingano Gap within a week and a half of launching the assault but German operations persisted in the area for months.
Some authorities define the Bernhardt Line as crossing Italy from coast to coast following not just the western defensive positions described above but incorporating also the eastern defences of the Gustav Line. Other authorities use the Winter Line name interchangeably with the Gustav Line as defined above.
See also
Brazilian Expeditionary Force
European Theatre of World War II
Italian Campaign (World War II)
Battle of Ortona
French Expeditionary Corps in Italy
Garigliano Battle
References
Bibliography
Rainaldi Mario (2019). Le Aquile sul Sangro. Edizioni del Faro, Trento 2019.
External links
Winter Line Stories Original stories from the front lines of the Italian Campaign by US Army Liaison Officer Major Ralph R. Hotchkiss
Map of German defensive lines THIS LINK APPEARS TO BE DEAD
The Liri Valley: Canada’s Breakthrough to Rome
Commonwealth War Graves Commission information on Moro River Cemetery
Multimedia
CBC Archives CBC Radio reports from the Winter Line on May 14, 1944.
German World War II defensive lines
Italian campaign (World War II)
1943 in Italy
1944 in Italy
20th century in Abruzzo
|
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200374
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Thomas%20Colebrooke
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Henry Thomas Colebrooke
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Henry Thomas Colebrooke FRS FRSE (15 June 1765 – 10 March 1837) was an English orientalist and mathematician. He has been described as "the first great Sanskrit scholar in Europe".
Biography
Henry Thomas Colebrooke was born on 15 June 1765. His parents were Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd Baronet, MP for Arundel and Chairman of the East India Company from 1769, and Mary Gaynor, daughter and heir of Patrick Gaynor of Antigua. He was educated at home.
In 1782 Colebrooke was appointed through his father's influence to a writership with the East India Company in Calcutta. In 1786 and three years later he was appointed assistant collector in the revenue department at Tirhut. He wrote Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce of Bengal, which was privately published in 1795, by which time he had transferred to Purnia. This opposed the East India Company's monopoly on Indian trade, advocating instead for free trade between Britain and India, which caused offence to the East India Company's governors.
He was appointed to the magistracy of Mirzapur in 1795 and was sent to Nagpur in 1799 to negotiate an allowance with the Raja of Berar. He was unsuccessful in this, due to events elsewhere, and returned in 1801.
On his return was made a judge of the new court of appeal in Calcutta, of which he became president of the bench in 1805. Also in 1805, Lord Wellesley appointed him honorary professor of Hindu law and Sanskrit at the college of Fort William. In 1807 he became a member of council, serving for five years, and was elected President of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta. Colebrooke married Elizabeth Wilkinson in 1810. The marriage was short-lived and she died in 1814. He returned to England in 1815.
In 1816 he was elected to the fellowship of both the Royal Society and the Royal Society of Edinburgh In 1820 he was a founder of the Royal Astronomical Society. He often chaired the society's meetings in the absence of the first president, William Herschel, and was elected as its second president on Herschel's death, serving 1823–1825. In 1823 he was also a founder of the Royal Asiatic Society, chairing its first meeting although he declined to become its president.
Works
After eleven years' residence in India, Colebrooke began the study of the Sanskrit language; and to him was entrusted the translation of the major Digest of Hindu Laws, a monumental study of Hindu law which had been left unfinished by Sir William Jones. He translated the two treatises, the Mitacshara of Vijnaneshwara and the Dayabhaga of Jimutavahana, under the title Law of Inheritance. During his residence at Calcutta he wrote his Sanskrit Grammar (1805), some papers on the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and his Essay on the Vedas (1805), for a long time the standard work in English on the subject. A posthumous essay on his father's life was published by Sir T. E. Colebrooke in 1873 as part of a reprinting of Miscellaneous Essays.
Indological
(by Amara Singh; with an English interpretation and annotations by H.T. Colebrooke)
Botanical
(with William Jack)
References
Further reading
Buckland, C. E., ed. (1906). "Colebrooke, Henry Thomas" in Dictionary of Indian Biography. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Company. Pp. 87–88. Also available online at: "Colebrooke, Henry Thomas", archive.org.
Colebrooke, Thomas E. (1873). "Life of Colebrooke" in Frederick Max Müller's Chips from a German Workshop, (1875). Vol. IV, pp. 377–317. London: Longmans, Green & Company. Also available here in reprint edition (1881): "Life of Colebrooke", archive.org.
Higgenbothom, J. J. (1874). "Colebrooke, Henry Thomas" in Men Whom India Has Known: Biographies of Eminent Indian Characters. Madras: Higgenbothom & Company. Pp. 75–79. Also available online: "Colebrooke, Henry Thomas", archive.org.
Rocher, Rosane and Ludo (2011). The Making of Western Indology: Henry Thomas Colebrooke and the East India Company. London: Routledge for the Royal Asiatic Society.
1765 births
1837 deaths
British Indologists
Hindu law
Historians of mathematics
Sanskrit–English translators
Younger sons of baronets
Fellows of the Royal Society
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Translators of the Bible into Persian
Presidents of the Royal Astronomical Society
Presidents of The Asiatic Society
Henry
|
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] |
200380
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangro
|
Sangro
|
The Sangro is a river in eastern central Italy, known in ancient times as Sagrus from the Greek Sagros or Isagros, Ισαγρος.
It rises in the middle of Abruzzo National Park near Pescasseroli in the Apennine Mountains. It flows southeast past Pescasseroli, Opi and Villetta Barrea and flows into the artificial lake Lago di Barrea. It then flows northeast through Alfedena, Castel di Sangro, Ateleta, Quadri, and Villa Santa Maria, before flowing into the Lago di Bomba. From there it flows northeast , it is joined by the Aventino, and thence it flows into the Adriatic Sea south of Punta Cavelluccio.
During World War II, the mouth of the Sangro was part of the series of German military fortifications known as the Gustav Line. The Eighth Army crossed the Sangro on 23 November 1943. This crossing was the beginning of the Allied offensive on the Winter Line defenses east of the Apennines, which petered out in mid-December having failed to secure vital cities such as Orsogna.
See also
Winter Line
Rivers of Abruzzo
Rivers of the Apennines
Adriatic Italian coast basins
Rivers of the Province of L'Aquila
Rivers of the Province of Chieti
Rivers of the Province of Isernia
Rivers of Italy
|
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] |
200381
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Clark
|
Mark Clark
|
Mark Clark may refer to:
Mark A. Clark (politician) (born 1967), Arizona state legislator
Mark A. Clark (general), U.S. Marine Corps general in charge of their Special Operations Command
Mark W. Clark (1896–1984), U.S. Army general during World War II and Korean War
Mark Clark (baseball) (born 1968), Major League Baseball player
Mark Clark (activist) (1947–1969), killed with Fred Hampton in an infamous Chicago police raid in 1969
See also
Mark Clarke (born 1950), English musician
Mark Clarke (politician) (born 1977), English politician
|
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200382
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alban%20Hills
|
Alban Hills
|
The Alban Hills () are the caldera remains of a quiescent volcanic complex in Italy, located southeast of Rome and about north of Anzio. The high Monte Cavo forms a highly visible peak the centre of the caldera, but the highest point is Maschio delle Faete approximately to the east of Cavo and taller. There are subsidiary calderas along the rim of the Alban Hills that contain the lakes Albano and Nemi. The hills are composed of peperino (lapis albanus), a variety of tuff that is useful for construction and provides a mineral-rich substrate for nearby vineyards.
History
The hills, especially around the shores of the lakes, have been popular since prehistoric times. From the 9th to 7th century BC, there were numerous villages (see the legendary Alba Longa and Tusculum). The area was inhabited by the Latini during the 5th to 3rd centuries BC.
The ancient Romans called the hill Albanus Mons. On the summit was the sanctuary of Jupiter Latiaris, in which the consuls celebrated the Feriae Latinae, and several generals celebrated victories here during times when they were not accorded regular triumphs in Rome. The foundations and some of the architectural fragments of the temple were still in existence until 1777, when they were used to build the Passionist monastery by Cardinal York, but the Via Triumphalis leading up to it can still be seen.
In Roman times, the area was often used by the rich as a way to escape the heat and crowds of Rome, as it is today as shown by the many villas and country houses present.
Towns and cities
The towns and villages in the Alban Hills are known as the Castelli Romani.
Volcanic activity
Examination of deposits have dated the four most recent eruptions to two temporal peaks, around 36,000 and 39,000 years ago. The area exhibits small localised earthquake swarms, bradyseism, and release of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere. The uplift and earthquake swarms have been interpreted as caused by a slowly growing spherical magma chamber 5-6 kilometres below the surface; some think that it may erupt again; if so, there is risk to Rome, which is only 25 to 30 km away.
There is documentary evidence which may describe an eruption in 114 BC, but the absence of Holocene geological deposits has largely discredited it as a volcanic event and instead the account is considered to be a description of a forest fire.
The volcano emits large amounts of carbon dioxide which can potentially reach lethal concentrations if it accumulates in depressions in the ground in the absence of wind. The asphyxiation of 29 cows in September 1999 prompted a detailed survey, which found that concentration of the gas at 1.5 m above the ground in a residential area on the northwestern flank sometimes exceeded the occupational health threshold of 0.5%. Eight sheep were killed in a similar incident in October 2001.
People
Writers and artists who have produced work about this area include:
Thomas Ashby, archaeologist, wrote The Roman Campagna in Classic Time
William Brockedon painter and illustrator of guide-books
George Gordon Byron in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage
Charles Coleman painter
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Italian Journey
Louis Gurlitt, German painter
Jacob Philipp Hackert, German painter
Gavin Hamilton, artist and antiquarian, painter and archaeologist, in Genzano and Lanuvio (18th century)
James Duffield Harding in Tourist in Italy
John Henry Henshall watercolor painter
Richard Colt Hoare in A classical tour through Italy and Sicily
Ellis Cornelia Knight, writer and painter in Description of Latium or La Campagna di Roma
Edward Lear painter and lithographer
William Leighton Leitch watercolor painter in Lanuvio
Charles H. Poingdestre painter
John Singer Sargent, painter in Villa Torlonia - Frascati
Stendhal, writer, in Albano Laziale, Chroniques italiennes (1836–1839): L'Abbesse de Castro
J. M. W. Turner, RA, British painter
Georgina E. Troutbeck, Rambles in Rome - London - ed. Mills & Boon - 1914
Richard Voss, German dramatist and novelist
Clara Louisa Wells in The Alban Hills ed. 1878
Panorama
See also
List of volcanoes in Italy
References
External links
Ancient Roman temples
Geographical, historical and cultural regions of Italy
Castelli Romani
Mountains of Lazio
Volcanoes of Italy
VEI-7 volcanoes
Alba Longa
Latial culture
|
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200383
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anzio
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Anzio
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Anzio (, also , ) is a town and comune on the coast of the Lazio region of Italy, about south of Rome.
Well known for its seaside harbour setting, it is a fishing port and a departure point for ferries and hydroplanes to the Pontine Islands of Ponza, Palmarola, and Ventotene. The town bears great historical significance as the site of Operation Shingle, a crucial landing by the Allies during the Italian Campaign of World War II.
History
Legacy of Antium
The symbol of Anzio is the goddess Fortuna, in reference to her veneration in the ancient Antium, whose territory Anzio occupies a very important part; so that it retains the heritage of the ancient town in archaeological terms: the settlement of Antium, over the centuries, was certainly present in the area of modern Anzio (the Capo d'Anzio).
In Roman era the territory of Antium almost entirely corresponded to modern Anzio and nearby Nettuno.
In the Middle Ages Antium was deserted in favour of Nettuno, which maintained the legacy of the ancient settlement.
Modern Era
At the end of the 17th century Innocent XII and Clement XI restored the harbour, not on the old site of the Roman one of Nero, but to the east of it, with the opening to the east, a mistake which leads to its being frequently silted up; it has a depth of about . The sea is encroaching slightly at Anzio, but some kilometres farther north-west the old Roman coast-line now lies slightly inland (see Tiber).
In 1857 Pope Pius IX founded the modern municipality (comune) of Anzio, with the boundaries of Nettuno being redrawn to accommodate the new town; however, the official name of the new muncipality was Porto d'Anzio until 1885.
Anzio known a remarkable development as a seaside resort at the end of the 19th century.
World War II
From 1940 to 1945 Anzio was united with Nettuno in a single municipality (comune): Nettunia.
Anzio and Nettuno are also notable as sites of an Allied forces landing and the ensuing Battle of Anzio during World War II. The Commonwealth Anzio War Cemetery and Beach Head War Cemetery are located here.
In February 1944 American soldiers (the U.S. Fifth Army) were surrounded by Germans in the caves of Pozzoli for a week, suffering heavy casualties. A film based on the events called Anzio (1968, directed by Edward Dmytryk) was made, starring Robert Mitchum and based on a book by Wynford Vaughan-Thomas.
On 18 February 1944, the British light cruiser was struck by two torpedoes off the coast of Anzio and sunk with a loss of 417 crew.
In the same region Lieutenant Eric Fletcher Waters of the British Army lost his life in battle while serving as a member of the 8th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment), part of the 167th (London) Infantry Brigade of the 56th (London) Infantry Division which fought at Anzio for nearly six weeks. His son, Roger Waters, became the bassist and main lyricist of progressive rock band, Pink Floyd. In his honour and remembrance Roger Waters recorded the song "The Fletcher Memorial Home", which is the maiden name of Eric Waters' mother. (Also see "When the Tigers Broke Free".)
Main sights
Along the coast are numerous remains of Roman villas. One, the Domus Neroniana, has been identified as a residence of Nero; him and Caligula were born in Antium and, according to Giuseppe Lugli, right there ("one or more villas of the Julia gens"). There are also the ruins of the villa of Cicero.
In Anzio can be found the Anzio War Cemetery, located close to the Communal Cemetery and Beachhead Museum. The Beach Head War Cemetery is located 5-kilometre north on the No207 Road.
The Sicily-Rome American Cemetery and Memorial is in nearby Nettuno.
About north of the town there is a WWF park with sulphur springs and a medieval tower, Tor Caldara.
Near the ruins of the Villa of Nero, in scenic position near the beach, lies the military sanatorium of the Italian Army, one of the most important works of Florestano Di Fausto, built in 1930–33.
All along the coast a large number of beaches and sea resorts can be found, including hotels and the famous fish restaurants of the port of Anzio. The town once hosted a Casino called Paradiso sul mare, that is no longer active and now hosts cultural events. In the southern part of Anzio, close to the border with Nettuno, are many Italian art nouveau style houses.
Transportation
The town is connected to Rome by the Via Nettunense (SS207), the Via Ardeatina (SS601) and by the Roma-Nettuno railway that connects Anzio with Roma Termini in around 1 hour. The railway line also stops in the stations of Padiglione, Lido di Lavinio, Villa Claudia, Marechiaro, Anzio Colonia to the north of Anzio.
Ferries and hydrofoils connect Anzio to Ponza.
Notable people
These are some notable Anzio residents.
Roberta Mancino, skydiver
Caligula, Roman emperor, born in Antium
Nero, Roman emperor, born in Antium
Twin towns – sister cities
Anzio is twinned with:
Bad Pyrmont, Germany
Paphos, Cyprus
Brooklyn, United States
Caen, France
Notes
Further reading
A.Nibby, Dintorni di Roma, i. 181; Notizie degli scavi, passim.
F. Lombardi, Anzio antico e moderno: opera postuma (1865).
G.Lugli, Saggio sulla topografia dell'antica Antium (1940).
P. Brandizzi Vittucci, Antium: Anzio e Nettuno in epoca romana (2000).
External links
Official website .
Memorials and cemetery from the World War Two battles at Anzio at the Sites of Memory webpage.
Illustrated article on the Battle of Anzio at Battlefields Europe.
Anzio in the history.
Coastal towns in Lazio
Mediterranean port cities and towns in Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Kesselring
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Albert Kesselring
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Albert Kesselring (30 November 1885 – 16 July 1960) was a German Generalfeldmarschall of the Luftwaffe during World War II who was subsequently convicted of war crimes. In a military career that spanned both world wars, Kesselring became one of Nazi Germany's most highly decorated commanders, being one of only 27 soldiers awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds.
Kesselring joined the Bavarian Army as an officer cadet in 1904 and served in the artillery branch. He completed training as a balloon observer in 1912. During World War I he served on both the Western and Eastern fronts and was posted to the General Staff, despite not having attended the War Academy. Kesselring remained in the army after the war, but was discharged in 1933 to become head of the Department of Administration at the Reich Commissariat for Aviation, where he became involved in the re-establishment of the German aviation industry and the laying of the foundations for the Luftwaffe, serving as its chief of staff from 1936 to 1938.
During World War II he commanded air forces in the invasions of Poland and France, the Battle of Britain and Operation Barbarossa. As Wehrmacht Commander-in-Chief South, he was the overall German commander in the Mediterranean theatre, which included the operations in North Africa. Kesselring conducted a defensive campaign against the Allied forces in Italy until he was injured in an accident in October 1944. In his final campaign of the war, he commanded German forces on the Western Front. He won the respect of his Allied opponents for his military accomplishments, but his record also included massacres committed on his orders in Italy.
After the war, Kesselring was convicted of war crimes and sentenced to death for ordering the murder of 335 Italian civilians in the Ardeatine massacre, and for inciting and ordering his troops to kill civilians in reprisals against the Italian resistance movement. The sentence was subsequently commuted to life imprisonment. A political and media campaign resulted in his release in 1952, ostensibly on health grounds. He published his memoirs, Soldat bis zum letzten Tag ("A Soldier to the Last Day") in 1953. Kesselring accepted the honorary presidency of three veterans' organisations: the Luftwaffenring, consisting of Luftwaffe veterans; the Verband Deutsches Afrikakorps, the veterans' association of the Afrika Korps; and, more controversially, the right-wing Der Stahlhelm.
Early life
Albert Kesselring was born in Marktsteft, Bavaria, on 30 November 1885, the son of Carl Adolf Kesselring, a schoolmaster and town councillor, and his wife Rosina, Carl's second cousin. Albert's early years were spent in Marktsteft, where relatives had operated a brewery since 1688.
Graduating from the Christian Ernestinum Secondary School in Bayreuth in 1904, Kesselring joined the German Army as a Fahnenjunker (officer cadet) in the 2nd Bavarian Foot Artillery Regiment. The regiment was based at Metz and was responsible for maintaining its forts. He remained with the regiment until 1915, except for periods at the Military Academy from 1905 to 1906, after which he received his commission as a Leutnant (lieutenant), and at the School of Artillery and Engineering in Munich from 1909 to 1910.
In 1910, Kesselring married Luise Anna Pauline (Liny) Keyssler, the daughter of an apothecary from Bayreuth. Their marriage was childless, but in 1913 they adopted Rainer, the son of Albert's second cousin Kurt Kesselring. In 1912, Kesselring completed training as a balloon observer in a dirigible section – an early sign of an interest in aviation. Kesselring's superiors considered posting him to the School of Artillery and Engineering as an instructor because of his expertise in "the interplay between tactics and technology".
World War I
During World War I, Kesselring served with his regiment in Lorraine until the end of 1914, when he was transferred to the 1st Bavarian Foot Artillery, which formed part of the Sixth Army. On 19 May 1916, he was promoted to Hauptmann (captain). In 1916 he was transferred again, to the 3rd Bavarian Foot Artillery. He distinguished himself in the Battle of Arras in 1917, "by his tireless and assiduous work, and by the preparation of clear and carefully constructed orders", despite being on duty for over twenty hours, and succeeded in halting the British advance. For his services on the Western Front, he was decorated with the Iron Cross 2nd Class and 1st Class.
In 1917, he was posted to the General Staff, despite not having attended the Bavarian War Academy. He served on the Eastern Front on the staff of the 2nd Bavarian Landwehr Division. His experience here shaped his subsequent anti-communist political outlook. In January 1918, he returned to the Western Front as a staff officer with the II and III Royal Bavarian Corps.
Between the wars
Reichswehr
After the war, Kesselring was involved in the demobilisation of III Royal Bavarian Corps in the Nuremberg area, as mandated by the Treaty of Versailles. A dispute with the leader of the local right-wing paramilitary Freikorps led to the issuance of an arrest warrant for his alleged involvement in a putsch against the command of III Bavarian Corps, and Kesselring was thrown into prison. He was soon released, but his superior, Major Hans Seyler, censured him for having "failed to display the requisite discretion".
From 1919 to 1922, Kesselring served as a battery commander with the 24th Artillery Regiment. He joined the Reichswehr on 1 October 1922 and was posted to the Military Training Department at the Ministry of the Reichswehr in Berlin. He remained at this post until 1929 when he returned to Bavaria as commander of Wehrkreis VII in Munich. In his time with the Reichswehr Ministry, Kesselring was involved in the organisation of the army, trimming staff overheads to produce the best possible army with the limited resources available. He helped re-organise the Ordnance Department, laying the groundwork for the research and development efforts that would produce new weapons. He was involved in secret military manoeuvres held in the Soviet Union in 1924 and the so-called Great Plan for a 102-division army, which was prepared in 1923 and 1924. Following the recommendation of a commission headed by Kesselring in 1929, aviation officers and agencies were consolidated into an inspectorate of aviation. After another brief stint at the Ministry of the Reichswehr, Kesselring was promoted to Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) in 1930 and spent two years in Dresden with the 4th Artillery Regiment.
Luftwaffe
Kesselring was discharged from the Reichswehr in 1933 against his wishes, and appointed head of the Department of Administration at the Reich Commissariat for Aviation (Reichskommissariat für die Luftfahrt), the forerunner of the Reich Air Ministry (Reichsluftfahrtministerium) (RLM), with the rank of Oberst (colonel) in 1934. Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany from establishing an air force, this was nominally a civilian agency. The Luftwaffe was not formally established until 26 February 1935. He was involved in the re-establishment of the aviation industry and the construction of secret factories, forging alliances with industrialists and aviation engineers.
Promotion in the Luftwaffe was rapid; Kesselring was promoted to Generalmajor on 1 October 1934, and Generalleutnant on 1 April 1936. Like other generals of Nazi Germany, he received personal monthly payments from Adolf Hitler, in Kesselring's case RM 6,000, a considerable sum at the time.
At the age of 48, Kesselring learned to fly, following the old military doctrine that officers should not ask their men to do anything they would not do themselves. He later stated that first-hand knowledge of all aspects of aviation was essential to being able to command airmen, although he was well aware that latecomers like himself did not impress the old pioneers or the young aviators. He qualified in various single- and multi-engine aircraft and continued flying three or four days per week until March 1945.
Following the death of Generalleutnant Walther Wever in an air crash, Kesselring became Chief of Staff of the Luftwaffe on 3 June 1936. In that post, Kesselring oversaw the expansion of the Luftwaffe, the acquisition of new aircraft types such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter and Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive-bomber, and the development of paratroops.
Kesselring's main operational task during this time was the support of the Condor Legion in the Spanish Civil War. His tenure was marred by personal and professional conflicts with his superior, General der Flieger Erhard Milch, and Kesselring asked to be retired. Kesselring's conflict with Milch was in contrast to his predecessor, Wever. Overall it has been surmised that Kesselring was not an effective chief of staff, primarily because he lacked Wever's strategic insight. Kesselring requested a transfer to a field command, and the head of the Luftwaffe, Hermann Göring, gave him command of Luftgau III (Air District III) in Dresden. Kesselring was promoted to General der Flieger in 1937, and became commander of Luftflotte 1 in 1938, until January 1940.
Impact on Luftwaffe doctrine
In the area of aerial doctrine, Kesselring has been described by James Corum as a "worthy successor" to Wever. Like many ex-Army officers, Kesselring saw the importance of airpower in the tactical role, providing support to land operations. In the historiography of the Luftwaffe, Kesselring and Hans-Jürgen Stumpff are usually blamed for neglecting strategic bombing while over-focusing on close air support for the army. However, the two most prominent enthusiasts for the focus on ground-support operations (either close air support or air interdiction) were Hugo Sperrle and Hans Jeschonnek. These men were long-time professional airmen involved in German air services since their early careers.
Kesselring strongly supported the program to produce a long-range heavy bomber. As chief of staff he supported new technologies and training for bomb aimers and navigators to carry out effective long-range bombing missions and at high altitude. In March 1939 Kesselring expressed his doubt this could be done accurately at night or in bad weather. German scientists succeeded in proving otherwise, and developed a successful radio navigation system.
The Luftwaffe was not pressured into ground support operations due to demands from the army, or because it was led by ex-army personnel. Interdiction and close air support were operations that suited the Luftwaffe's existing approach to warfare: a culture of joint inter-service operations rather than independent strategic air campaigns. Moreover, many officers in the Luftwaffe command believed medium bombers to be sufficient in power for use in strategic bombing operations against Germany's most likely enemies; Britain and France. The cancellation of Wever's long-range Ural bomber project in April 1937 was opposed by Kesselring. On 2 June the RLM relented and ordered a better performing design, which became the Heinkel He 177. The project took shape as Kesselring left office.
World War II
Poland
In the Polish campaign that began World War II, Kesselring's Luftflotte 1 operated in support of Army Group North, commanded by Generaloberst Fedor von Bock. Kesselring had 1,105 aircraft in comparison to Alexander Löhr's 729 with Luftflotte 4 in support of Generaloberst Gerd von Rundstedt's Army Group South. Kesselring gave a high priority to attacks on airfields. Strategic targets like aircraft and aircraft-related armament factories were attacked during the air superiority mission and formed part of it. Once the air battle was won, only then did the Luftwaffe direct its attention to close air support and air interdiction.
The tactical and operational focus of the Luftwaffe in the first days of the campaign was not a repudiation of strategic bombardment. The planned strategic bombing of Warsaw (Operation Wasserkante), scheduled to commence from 1 September, was postponed only due to bad weather. By the time the weather cleared, the army support operations were going so well there was a reluctance to shift emphasis.
The Luftwaffe had difficulty locating the dispersed Polish airfields, and only 24 Polish aircraft were destroyed on the ground. The counter-air campaign was not as successful as it may have been due to faulty fuzes on bombs–a lesson soon rectified. Air superiority was accomplished through destroying communications, which increased the pace of the army advance and enabled ground forces to overrun Polish airstrips and early warning sites. Sporadic Polish aerial resistance continued until 14 September. The Polish Air Force earned Kesselring's respect and he considered that Polish pilots and aircraft were not inferior. Kesselring himself was shot down during the campaign, the first of the five times he was shot down during World War II.
Although not under Bock's command, Kesselring's purpose was to support Army Group North in closing the Polish Corridor from the third day, with emphasis thereafter on supporting the 3rd Army as it advanced along the Vistula to isolate Warsaw from the east. From 8 September Kesselring began interdiction operations against bridges as German forces advanced on Warsaw. When a powerful Polish counter-attack created a crisis, he contributed Fliegerdivision 1 to the Battle of the Bzura. The division contained 70 per cent of his dive-bombers and was assigned to Löhr on 6 September. The air attacks assisted in the destruction of two Polish armies.
On 16/17 September the air fleets were notified of the Soviet invasion of Poland. Luftflotte 1 support operations against troop concentrations ceased in central and southern Poland to avoid friendly-fire incidents. Kesselring attempted to crush Polish resistance by making a series of air attacks against Warsaw in the final week of September. With the military campaign virtually over, Polish resistance was confined to the Hel Peninsula, Warsaw, and Modlin. Kesselring's air fleet was assigned to the north of the city. In the ensuing attacks, approximately 10 per cent of the city's buildings were destroyed and 40 per cent damaged. The bombing killed between 20,000 and 25,000 civilians. Kesselring insisted that only military targets were attacked, but the lack of precision munitions made the bombing indiscriminate and militarily ineffective.
For his part in the Polish campaign, Kesselring was personally awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross by Hitler.
France and Low Countries
Kesselring's Luftflotte 1 was not involved in the preparations for the campaigns in the west. Instead, it remained in the east on garrison duty, establishing new airbases and an air-raid precautions network in occupied Poland. However, after the Mechelen Incident, in which an aircraft made a forced landing in Belgium with copies of the German invasion plan, Göring relieved the commander of Luftflotte 2, General der Flieger Hellmuth Felmy, of his command and appointed Kesselring in his place on 15 January 1940. Arriving in the west, Kesselring found Luftflotte 2 assigned to support Bock's Army Group B.
Kesselring was more heavily committed in the Low Countries, with elements of his air command underpinning the attack on the Netherlands—Battle of the Netherlands—and Battle of Belgium. This included an airborne operation around Rotterdam and The Hague to seize airfields and bridges in the "Fortress Holland" area. The paratroopers were from General der Flieger Kurt Student's airborne forces. Air and ground operations were to commence simultaneously, on Hitler's orders. Bock showed little interest in the Hague operation and viewed the capture of the Dutch government as nothing more than a bonus. He preferred the seizure of the Moerdijk bridges to breach Fortress Holland. Kesselring promised his air fleet would prevent the French Army advancing from Antwerp and intervening.
The Battle of the Netherlands commenced on 10 May 1940. Kesselring's air operation was successful against the small Belgian Aviation Militaire, which was rendered ineffective, and Royal Netherlands Air Force, though the Dutch harassed the Luftwaffe until their surrender. The paratroopers, while initially successful, ran into fierce opposition in the Battle for The Hague, and the Battle of Rotterdam. The Luftwaffe lost 54 per cent of the transport aircraft committed; 125 destroyed, 53 bogged down, and 47 severely damaged. Some 4,000 paratroops (1,200 prisoners) became casualties.
On 14 May 1940, responding to a call for assistance from Student and demands for the bombing of the city by Georg von Küchler, commanding the 18th Army, Kesselring ordered the bombing of Rotterdam city centre. Fires raged out of control, destroying much of the city. An estimated 800 civilians were killed and 78,000 made homeless.
Wartime Allied newspapers predicted that Kesselring "will go down in history as the man who directed the bombing of the helpless Dutch city of Rotterdam, and slaughtered thousands of civilians." Under the Hague Convention of 1907, bombardment itself was not forbidden since Rotterdam was not an undefended city, but other aspects of the bombardment may have violated the laws of war. Historians are divided as to whether the bombing was an act of terror or served a tactical purpose.
After the surrender of the Netherlands on 14 May 1940, Luftflotte 2 attempted to move forward to new airfields in Belgium while still providing support for the fast-moving ground troops. The Battle of France was going well, with General der Panzertruppe Heinz Guderian forcing a crossing of the River Meuse at Sedan on 13 May 1940. To support the breakthrough, Generalleutnant Wolfram von Richthofen's Fliegerkorps VIII was transferred to Luftflotte 3. By 24 May, the Allied forces had been cut in two, and the German Army was only from Dunkirk, the last port on the English Channel available to the cut-off Allied forces. However, that day Rundstedt ordered a halt.
Göring promised the encircled enemy could be destroyed by aerial bombardment. Kesselring and Richthofen protested. They argued their commands had suffered heavy losses in two weeks of incessant fighting and the fighter and dive-bombers would be forced to operate at their maximum range. Neither man was confident of gaining air superiority. The protests were disregarded. It left the burden of preventing the Allied evacuation of Dunkirk to Kesselring's air fleet. Hampered by poor flying weather and staunch opposition from the Royal Air Force (RAF), the German operation failed.
Kesselring and his air commanders turned their attention to the final phase of the battle for France; Case Red. On 3 June, in a prelude to Red, the Luftwaffe conducted Operation Paula, a strategic air offensive against factories and airfields in and around Paris. Though German losses were minimal, the results were disappointing. The Luftwaffe high command (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe) (OKL) wrongly perceived the operation a success. The campaign proceeded rapidly; the Luftwaffe gained air superiority and held it. Kesselring's air fleet spent June attempting to prevent a second evacuation. Kesselring's bombers ranged further afield and contributed to Fliegerdivision 9's (Flying Division 9) minelaying operations in the English Channel and Bay of Biscay—one of his bomber wings attacked shipping an hour after the armistice came into effect.
For his role in the campaign in the west, Kesselring was promoted to Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony.
Battle of Britain
Following the campaign in France, Kesselring's Luftflotte 2 was committed to the Battle of Britain. Luftflotte 2's headquarters was located in Brussels. Kesselring's air fleet was numerically the strongest in the Luftwaffe in mid–1940. He controlled formations in the Netherlands, Belgium, and France north of the Seine. Kesselring was initially responsible for the bombing of southeastern England and the London area, but as the battle progressed, command responsibility shifted, with Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle's Luftflotte 3 assuming responsibility for the night-time "blitz" attacks while Luftflotte 2 conducted the main daylight operations.
Kesselring was sceptical about attacking Britain. He advocated capturing Gibraltar (Operation Felix), encouraging the British Government to negotiate, then turning against London if necessary. Sperrle favoured attacking ports and shipping. Göring overruled them because he was sure the RAF Fighter Command was weak and could be defeated quickly. The Luftwaffe air fleet commanders did not collaborate with each other to devise an air superiority plan, much less conduct inter-service conferences with the army and navy to develop a joint strategy. Kesselring, in particular, did not understand how the RAF fighter defences worked, and even after the war held the naïve assumption Fighter Command could simply have been destroyed in dogfights.
The first phase of the battle—the Kanalkampf (Channel Battles) was marginally successful. Operation Eagle and the 18 August battles failed to break British air defences. The German attacks on RAF airfields reached a peak in the first week of September 1940. On the third day, Göring met with Sperrle and Kesselring. Göring was convinced Fighter Command was exhausted and favoured attacking London to draw out the last of the British fighter reserves. Kesselring enthusiastically agreed; Sperrle did not. Kesselring urged Göring to carry out an all-out attack, based on the unproven assertion that Fighter Command had been virtually destroyed. Sperrle dismissed Kesselring's optimism and put British strength at the more accurate figure of 1,000 fighters. Nevertheless, Kesselring's perception prevailed. The disagreement between the two air fleet commanders was not uncommon, and although they rarely quarrelled, their commands were separate and they did not coordinate their efforts. Instead, they fought separate campaigns.
The focus of air operations changed to destroying the docks and factories in the centre of London. The change in strategy has been described as militarily controversial. The decision certainly relieved the pressure on Fighter Command, but wartime records and post-war analysis has shown that Fighter Command was not on the verge of collapse as assumed by German intelligence.
On 7 September Kesselring's air fleet was still the largest in the Luftwaffe. At his command were 1,311 aircraft from an operational German total of 1,895. Eight days later his air fleet alone carried out a daylight air attack on London which is considered the climax of the battle. In staging a two-pronged, predictable set-piece attack, he played into Fighter Command's hands. As one analyst wrote, Kesselring was "back where he started" before the battle. The consequences for Luftwaffe airmen were severe on 15 September 1940. German aviators met a prepared enemy and lost 5.5 per cent of the committed force. In the afternoon loss rates of German bomber crews reached 18 per cent of the force sent out. German crew losses were seven times that of the British. Furthermore, Fighter Command did not commit its reserve during the main attacks as the German command predicted.
Luftflotte 2 continued The Blitz on British cities until May 1941. The Zone of operations extended on a line from Selsey Bill, to Oxford, Birmingham–Manchester and Carlisle. Everything west of that line was Sperrle's responsibility. On 20 October the OKL ordered Sperrle to take on most of the burden of night operations. Kesselring was instructed to concentrate on ports in Eastern England and carry out at least 50 airstrikes in London per night. The air fleet deployed single-engine aircraft, including dive-bombers, nicknamed "Leichte Kesselringe" (light Kesselrings) in hit-and-run raids. These tactics became a feature of the later phases of the Blitz.
The air fleet played a large role in the Birmingham and Coventry Blitz, with support from Luftflotte 3, which provided 304 of the 448 bombers in the attack. Surviving German records suggest that the aim of the Coventry raid was to disrupt production and reconstruction critical to the automotive industry, but also to dehouse workers. In the area of operations of Luftflotte 2 were two other armament hubs—both the port of Hull and industrial city of Sheffield were heavily bombed by units under the air fleet's command. Many of the fleet's units were involved in the attack known as the Second Great Fire of London, on the 29/30 December 1940.
Invasion of the Soviet Union
Although earmarked for operations against the Soviet Union, Luftflotte 2 remained in the west until May 1941. The maintenance of pressure on British cities was a deception measure to mask the eastward deployment of the Luftwaffe. German airfield construction had also fallen behind schedule and they could not host combat units until May, although they were ready for the commencement of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941. Kesselring arranged with Göring for Luftflotte 2 to be allocated additional transport to allow it to keep up with fast-moving armoured columns. The failure of German logistics left only 15 per cent of the Luftwaffe's 100,000 vehicles operational by the end of 1941.
Luftflotte 2 operated in support of Army Group Centre, commanded by Bock, continuing the close working relationship between the two. Kesselring's mission was to gain air superiority, and if possible air supremacy, as soon as possible while still supporting ground operations. For this he had a fleet of 1,223 aircraft, which made up half of the Luftwaffe's commitment. Kesselring later remarked he "instructed my air force and flak generals to consider the wishes of the Army as my orders."
The German attack caught large numbers of Soviet Air Force aircraft on the ground. Faulty tactics – sending unescorted bombers against the Germans at regular intervals in tactically unsound formations – accounted for many more. Kesselring reported that in the first week of operations Luftflotte 2 had accounted for 2,500 Soviet aircraft in the air and on the ground. Even Göring found these figures hard to believe and ordered them to be re-checked. As the ground troops advanced, the figures could be directly confirmed and were found to be too low. Kesselring wrote that within days, he was able to fly over the front in his Focke-Wulf Fw 189 reconnaissance aircraft to observe the terrain and advance.
With air supremacy attained, Luftflotte 2 concentrated on ground operations, particularly guarding the flanks of the armoured spearheads, without which the rapid advance was not possible. When enemy counterattacks threatened, Kesselring threw the full weight of his force against them. Now that the Army was convinced of the value of air support, units were all too inclined to call for it. Kesselring now had to convince the Army that air support should be concentrated at critical points. He strove to improve army–air cooperation with new tactics and the appointment of Oberst Martin Fiebig as a special close air support commander.
By 26 July, Kesselring had reported the destruction of 165 tanks, 2,136 vehicles and 194 artillery pieces. His fleet also claimed 915 aircraft destroyed (823 on the ground) and 60 locomotives in 1,574 sorties. Kesselring's air fleet provided support in the battle of Białystok–Minsk and Smolensk. Minsk was devastated by German air raids. A sudden transfer of his air power north to Luftflotte 1, bad weather, and the resurgence of the Red Air Force in his sector, led to the a defeat at Yelna in September. The cost of the successful encirclement battles was severe. In a thirteen-day period during the battle for Smolensk, from 6–19 July, Kesselring's air fleet lost 447 aircraft.
In late 1941, Luftflotte 2 supported the final German offensive against Moscow, Operation Typhoon. Raids on Moscow proved hazardous. Kesselring rated the opposition from both fighters and anti-aircraft guns. Kesselring began bombing raids on the capital on 21 July with four bomber wings numbering 195 aircraft—the largest during the period. Strategic bombing operations were intensive in October 1941, but diverted from the army support sphere, and dissipated the air effort. Militarily they had no effect and were considered prestige operations. Kesselring was uncharacteristically pessimistic about the results of the raids.
In the initial stages Kesselring's air fleet carried out effective support operations. On 3 October, it claimed 679 vehicles destroyed in 984 sorties, and 450 vehicles and 22 tanks the following day. The bad weather that hampered ground operations in Operation Typhoon from October on impeded air operations even more, but Luftflotte 2 continued to fly critical reconnaissance, interdiction, close-air support and aerial resupply missions. The intensity of attacks was evident in the number of combat operations flown: 690 on 7 October, and 537 on 10 October, and approximately 900 on 12 and 13 October. The 10 October missions resulted in claims of 450 vehicles an 150 artillery pieces destroyed. Over-confidence in victory caused the withdrawal of Kesselring's air fleet to the Mediterranean. The air corps belonging to Luftflotte 2 were sent to Germany or other sectors.
Between 22 June and 5 December 1941, the Luftwaffe lost 2,093 aircraft. Soviet sources give Red Air Force total aircraft losses as 21,200, of which at least 10,000 were destroyed in air combat. Despite the impressive statistics, on 5 December, the Red Army began a large-scale counter offensive which ended the threat to Moscow and Barbarossa. The decision to remove Kesselring's air fleet in November irretrievably weakened German air power in the Soviet Union. The air supremacy Germany enjoyed in June and July 1941 dissipated due to the strain of maintaining a presence along a front. Increased commitments in other theatres prevented the Luftwaffe from fielding adequate reserves to sustain prolonged periods of close air support along the Eastern Front. The Red Air Force remained a viable threat which only heightened as the war continued.
Mediterranean and North Africa
In November 1941, Kesselring was appointed Wehrmacht Commander-in-Chief South and was transferred to Italy along with his Luftflotte 2 staff, which for the time being also functioned as his Commander-in-Chief South staff. Only in January 1943 did he form his headquarters into a true theatre staff and create a separate staff to control Luftflotte 2. As a theatre commander, he was answerable directly to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) and commanded ground, naval and air forces, but this was of little importance at first as most German units in the theatre were under Italian operational control.
In 1941 it was clear whoever controlled Malta held an advantage. The island sat in the middle of the Mediterranean in the path of maritime trading routes—and Maltese–based British forces had taken a heavy toll of Axis shipping. which provided a base from which British aircraft and submarines could interdict Axis convoys headed for North Africa. Without the vital supplies they carried, particularly fuel, the Axis forces in North Africa could not conduct operations. In October 1941, 63 per cent of Axis supply ships had been sunk, and in November it was 77 per cent. Periodically, Kesselring established local air superiority and neutralised Malta. Kesselring ordered attacks on the island's airfields, ports and infrastructure, along with Malta Convoys, which provided food and war materials to the island.
Kesselring's Luftflotte 2 made an immediate impact. The offensive formally opened on 20 March 1942. One third of the bombing effort was directed against airfields. Conflicting Axis priorities, insufficient forces, and concentration of force, coupled with British determination to reinforce and supply Malta, defeated Kesselring. After May 1942 the British air defences were not seriously threatened, and by August, the air battle over the island had subsided. Kesselring's air fleet flew 11,000 sorties against the island from early April to 10 May, placing the garrison and population in dire straits. Approximately 30,000 buildings were destroyed or damaged and 1,300 civilians were killed. The Allied losses in airmen, fighter aircraft, warships and transport ships were high. The effectiveness of the attacks brought the population to the brink of starvation. Axis shipping losses fell to 20–30 per cent.
Through suppressing Maltese–based forces, Kesselring managed to deliver an increased flow of supplies to Generaloberst Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps in Libya. The Axis lost only three per cent of their seaborne supplies and the central Mediterranean was closed, once again, to Allied shipping. With his forces thus strengthened, Rommel prepared an attack on the British positions around Gazala, while Kesselring planned Operation Herkules, an airborne and seaborne attack on Malta with the Italian 185 Airborne Division Folgore and the German Ramcke Parachute Brigade. Kesselring hoped to thereby secure the Axis line of communication with North Africa.
For the Battle of Gazala, Rommel divided his command in two, taking personal command of the mobile units of the Afrika Korps and Italian XX Motorised Corps, which he led around the southern flank of Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie's British Eighth Army. Rommel left the infantry of the Italian X and XXI Corps under General der Panzertruppe Ludwig Crüwell to hold the rest of the Eighth Army in place. This command arrangement went awry on 29 May 1942 when Crüwell was shot down and he was taken prisoner. Lacking an available commander of sufficient seniority, Kesselring assumed personal command of Gruppe Crüwell, placing himself under Rommel's command even though he was the senior officer. It was the first time Kesselring had held a senior ground command, albeit a temporary one. He was able to relieve Rommel's logistical problems by pushing a supply convoy through the British minefields.
Kesselring was critical of Rommel's performance in the Battle of Bir Hakeim, a vital position held by the 1st Free French Brigade that formed the southern pivot of the British Gazala Line. Rommel called for, and Kesselring provided, air support, but the infantry assaults failed to capture the position. Kesselring attributed this to faulty coordination between the ground and air attacks. The Luftwaffe lost 14 aircraft on 3 and 4 June, and Kesselring was concerned that the Army planned to have the Luftwaffe starve the position out. After a ground assault led by Rommel in person, and air strikes by 124 Stukas and 76 Junkers Ju 88s escorted by 170 Me 109s, Bir Hakeim was evacuated by the Free French on 10 June. For Rommel's capture of Tobruk on 21 June, Kesselring brought in additional aircraft from Greece and Crete. In June over 260 German aircraft were in North Africa, and 7,035 sorties were flown. Over 33,000 prisoners were taken when Tobruk fell. For his part in the campaign, Kesselring was awarded the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords, but he lost his one-rank advantage over his subordinates; Rommel was promoted to Generalfeldmarschall on 22 June, and Ugo Cavallero became a Marshal of Italy on 1 July, followed by Ettore Bastico on 12 August.
In the wake of the victory at Tobruk, Rommel persuaded Hitler to authorise an attack on Egypt instead of Malta, over Italian and Kesselring's objections. Cavallero's diary and Generalmajor Friedrich von Mellenthin's account in Panzer Battles support this version of events, but on 24 June 1942 Bastico and Kesselring approved Rommel's request to pursue the British Eighth Army into Egypt. The Malta operation never had wholehearted support of OKW, and historians remain doubtful that it would have been successful. The parachute troops assembled for Operation Herkules were sent to Rommel. The failure to eliminate Malta was a crucial blow to Axis ambitions in North Africa. Kesselring claimed he had recognised and pressed for the elimination of Malta by invasion, and blamed Rommel, the OKW and the Italians for the failure to act.
Things went well at first, with Rommel winning the Battle of Mersa Matruh. But as Kesselring and Italian commanders argued, the logistical difficulties mounted and the result was the disastrous fighting of the First Battle of El Alamein and Battle of Alam el Halfa. When Rommel arrived at Alamein he had only 6,500 men and 85 tanks–only 1,500 of the infantry and 55 of the tanks were German.
Kesselring supported Rommel's decision to withdraw. He considered Rommel to be a great general leading fast-moving troops at the corps level of command, but felt that he was too moody and changeable for higher command. For Kesselring, Rommel's nervous breakdown and hospitalisation for depression at the end of the North African campaign only confirmed this.
Kesselring was briefly considered as a possible successor to Generalfeldmarshall Wilhelm Keitel as Chief of Staff of the OKW in September 1942, with General der Panzertruppe Friedrich Paulus replacing Generaloberst Alfred Jodl as Chief of the Operations Staff at OKW. That Kesselring was considered for this appointment demonstrated the high regard in which Kesselring was held by Hitler. Nevertheless, Hitler decided that neither Kesselring nor Paulus could be spared from their current posts. In October 1942, Kesselring was given direct command of all German armed forces in the theatre except Rommel's German-Italian Panzer Army in North Africa, including General der Infantrie Enno von Rintelen, the German liaison officer at the Italian Comando Supremo. Kesselring's command also included the troops in Greece and the Balkans until the end of the year, when Hitler created an army group headquarters under Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm List, naming him Wehrmacht Commander-in-Chief South East.
Tunisia
Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa, precipitated a crisis in Kesselring's command. He ordered Generalleutnant Walther Nehring, the former commander of the Afrika Korps who was returning to action after recovering from wounds received at the Battle of Alam el Halfa, to proceed to Tunisia to take command of a new corps (XC Corps). Kesselring ordered Nehring to establish a bridgehead in Tunisia and then to press west as far as possible so as to gain freedom to manoeuvre. By December, the Allied commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, was forced to concede that Kesselring had won the race; the final phase of Torch had failed and the Axis could only be ejected from Tunisia after a prolonged struggle.
With the initiative back with the Germans and Italians, Kesselring hoped to launch an offensive that would drive the Allies out of North Africa. At the Battle of the Kasserine Pass his forces gave the Allies a beating, but in the end strong Allied resistance and a string of Axis errors stopped the advance. Kesselring now concentrated on shoring up his forces by moving the required tonnages of supplies from Italy but his efforts were frustrated by Allied aircraft and submarines. An Allied offensive in April finally broke through, leading to a collapse of the Axis position in Tunisia. Some 275,000 German and Italian troops were taken prisoner. In return, Kesselring had, however, held up the Allies in Tunisia for six months. The delay ended any prospect of an Allied invasion of Northern France in 1943, although it was not the only reason for its postponement to the middle of 1944.
The question of Tunisian Jews and their treatment by German forces has also been raised. According to one source, German forces exploited Tunisian Jews for slave labour, though no evidence has surfaced to suggest they were murdered in Africa.
By this time, Kesselring was derisively nicknamed "Smiling Albert" by the Allies, but was known as "Uncle Albert" by his troops. He was one of the most popular generals of World War II with the German rank and file. His popularity was enhanced by frequent, often unannounced, visits to the front line. Hans von Luck wrote that Kesselring was respected because he was the only senior commander to visit the front in North Africa.
Italian campaign
Sicily
Kesselring expected that the Allies would next invade Sicily, as a landing could be made there under fighter cover from Tunisia and Malta. He reinforced the six coastal and four mobile Italian divisions there with two mobile German divisions, the 15th Panzergrenadier Division and the Hermann Göring Panzer Division, both rebuilt after being destroyed in Tunisia. In his memoirs, Kesselring wrote that he was well aware that while this force was large enough to stop the Allies from simply marching in, it could not withstand a large scale invasion. He therefore pinned his hopes on an immediate counterattack, which he ordered Oberst Paul Conrath of the Hermann Göring Panzer Division to carry out the moment the objective of the Allied invasion fleet was known, with or without orders from the island commander, Generale d'Armata Alfredo Guzzoni.
The Allied invasion of Sicily on 10 July 1943 was stubbornly opposed. Kesselring hoped that the Allied invasion fleet would provide good targets for U-boats, but they met with few successes. Pressure from the Allied air forces forced Luftflotte 2, commanded since June by Richthofen, to withdraw most of its aircraft to the mainland. Unaware that Guzzoni had already ordered a major counterattack on 11 July, Kesselring bypassed the chain of command to order the Hermann Göring Panzer Division to attack that day in the hope that a vigorous attack could succeed before the Americans could bring the bulk of their artillery and armoured support ashore. Although his troops gave the Americans "quite a battering", they failed to capture the Allied position.
According to Kesselring, he flew to Sicily himself on 12 July to survey the situation and decided that no more than a delaying action was possible and that the island would eventually have to be abandoned. Nonetheless, he intended to fight on, and he reinforced Sicily with the 1st Parachute Division and the 29th Panzergrenadier Division. Kesselring returned to Sicily on 16 July to confere with Guzzoni and the senior German commander, General der Panzertruppe Hans-Valentin Hube. Kesselring and Guzzoni still did not believe all was lost, and agreed not to evacuate Sicily, despite the danger of it being cut off by another Allied amphibious operation. Unable to provide much more in the way of air support, Kesselring gave Hube command of the heavy flak units on the island, although this was contrary to Luftwaffe doctrine. Generalmajor Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin late wrote that he thought that Kesselring was pursuing an "eye-catching defensive success" after the disaster in Tunisia.
Kesselring managed to delay the Allies in Sicily for another month; the Allied conquest of Sicily was not complete until 17 August. His evacuation of Sicily, which began a week earlier on 10 August, was perhaps the most brilliant action of the campaign. In spite of the Allies' superiority on land, at sea, and in the air, Kesselring was able to evacuate not only 40,000 men, but also 9,605 vehicles, 94 guns, 47 tanks, 1,100 tons of ammunition, 970 tons of fuel, and 15,000 tons of stores. He was able to achieve near-perfect coordination among the three services under his command while his opponent, Eisenhower, could not.
Allied invasion of Italy
With the fall of Sicily, OKW feared that Italy would withdraw from the war, but Kesselring remained confident that the Italians would continue to fight. OKW regarded Kesselring and Rintelen as too pro-Italian, and began to bypass them, sending Rommel to northern Italy, and Student to Rome, where his I Parachute Corps was under OKW orders to occupy the capital in case of Italian defection. Benito Mussolini was removed from power on 25 July 1943, and Rommel and OKW began to plan for the occupation of Italy and the disarmament of the Italian Army. Kesselring was not informed of these plans for the time being. Kesselring claimed in his memoirs that Hitler's assessment was that "Kesselring is too honest for those born traitors down there".
On the advice of Rommel and Jodl, Hitler decided that the Italian Peninsula could not be held without the assistance of the Italian Army. The plan was not to give up the whole of Italy and retreat to the Alps, but to hold the Po Valley. Kesselring was ordered to withdraw from southern Italy and consolidate his forces with Rommel's Army Group B in Northern Italy, where Rommel would assume overall command. Kesselring was slated to be posted to Norway.
For his part, Kesselring was convinced that all was well, that the Italians would continue to fight, and that there was no threat to his troops or his communications. He was appalled at the prospect of abandoning Italy, which he felt was completely unnecessary, as he was certain that Italy south of the northern Apennine Mountains could be held for six to nine months. This assessment was based on his belief that the Allies would not conduct operations outside the range of their air cover, which could only reach as far as Salerno. Kesselring submitted his resignation on 14 August 1943, but SS-Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff, the Supreme SS and Police Leader in Italy, intervened on Kesselring's behalf with Hitler. Wolff painted Rommel as "politically unreliable", and argued that Kesselring's presence in southern Italy was vital to prevent an early Italian defection. On Wolff's advice, Hitler refused to accept Kesselring's resignation.
Italy withdrew from the war on 8 September, and the Germans executed Operation Achse, in which they disarmed Italian units. How Operation Achse played out depended on the location and the ratio of German to Italian forces, and the attitude of Italian division commanders. Kesselring immediately moved to secure Rome. He ordered the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division and 2nd Parachute Division to close on the city, while a detachment made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the Italian Army staff at Monterotondo in a coup de main operation. Kesselring's two divisions were faced by five Italian divisions, including the Ariete and Centauro armoured divisions, but using bluff, negotiation, appeals to brothers in arms from the fighting in North Africa, and occasionally brute force, he managed to overcome the opposition, disperse the Italian forces and secure the city in two days.
Mussolini was rescued by the Germans in Unternehmen Eiche, a raid planned by Student and carried out by SS-Obersturmbannführer Otto Skorzeny on 12 September, the details of which were deliberately, though unsuccessfully, kept from Kesselring, according to his memoirs. Rommel deported Italian soldiers, except for those willing to serve in German units, to Germany for forced labour, whereas Italian units in Kesselring's area were initially disbanded and their men permitted to go home. A massacre outside his command would nonetheless have consequences for Kesselring. Foreign ministers from the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were meeting in Moscow when they received the news that 100 Italian officers had been killed in the aftermath of the Battle of Kos. Appalled, they then issued the Moscow Declaration on 31 October 1943, which laid out the criteria for the punishment of crimes committed by Germany and its allies.
Italy now effectively became an occupied country, as the Germans poured in troops, although neither side accorded it that status. The Allies accorded Italy a status of "co-belligerent" rather than that of an ally, which meant that Italians could still be tried for war crimes. According to his memoirs, Kesselring blamed the Allies for the tragedy that unfolded in Italy. He felt that Hitler would have been willing to allow Italy to withdraw from the war had the Allies agreed to respect its neutrality and not use it as a base for operations against Germany.
Salerno
Kesselring claimed in his memoirs that his command was already "written off", but he intended to fight. Eisenhower had excellent intelligence through Ultra, the decryption of German Enigma machine signals and Japanese Purple diplomatic messages, and from the Italians themselves, and was aware of the German plans to withdraw from southern Italy. He therefore adopted a risky strategy of making a series of landings in Italy rather than concentrating his forces. Kesselring inadvertently misled him better than the best deception plan could have.
At the Battle of Salerno in September 1943, Kesselring launched a full-scale counterattack against the US Fifth Army landings there with Generaloberst Heinrich von Vietinghoff's Tenth Army. The counterattack inflicted heavy casualties on the Allies, forced them back in several areas, and, for a time, made Allied commanders contemplate evacuation. The short distance from German airfields allowed Luftflotte 2 to put 120 aircraft over the Salerno area on 11 September 1943. The German offensive ultimately failed to throw the Allies back into the sea because of the intervention of Allied naval gunfire which decimated the advancing German units, stubborn Allied resistance and the advance of the British Eighth Army. On 17 September 1943, Kesselring gave Vietinghoff permission to break off the attack and withdraw.
Kesselring had been defeated but gained precious time. Already, in defiance of his orders, he was preparing a series of successive fallback positions on the Volturno Line, the Barbara Line and the Bernhardt Line. The port of Naples was therefore denied to the Allies until October. The Apennine Mountains run along the centre of the Italian Peninsula, and therefore the rivers and gorges radiate down to the sea on both coasts. The mountains gave the Germans good observation, and allowed them to conduct a classic reverse slope defence, with the forward slopes thinly manned, but covered by machine guns with interlocking fields of fire, minefields, and in some cases deliberately flooded valleys. Allied artillery was reduced in effectiveness due to the poor observation of well-concealed German positions, and the need to fire at high angles to clear the mountain tops. The onset of wet autumn weather and inadequate road network also favoured the defence. Low cloud cover hampered observation from the air, and muddy roads slowed the delivery of ammunition and supplies to forward areas.
Only in November 1943, after a month of hard fighting, did the Allies reach Kesselring's main position, the Gustav Line. This was the narrowest part of the peninsula. Kesselring estimated that it could be held with just eleven divisions, with a couple of mobile divisions in reserve to guard against an Allied amphibious landing, whereas the position in the Northern Apennines would require up to twenty divisions. Kesselring accepted the risk of being outflanked by an amphibious landing, which he believed would be Eisenhower's best move. He was not aware that the necessary amphibious lift had been sent to the Indian Ocean for Operation Buccaneer, a landing in southern Burma, which was eventually cancelled. According to his memoirs, Kesselring felt that even more could have been accomplished if he had been given access to the troops held "uselessly" under Rommel's command.
In November 1943, Kesselring met with Hitler. Kesselring gave an optimistic assessment of the situation in Italy and gave reassurances that he could hold the Allies south of Rome on the Gustav Line. Kesselring further promised that he could prevent the Allies reaching the Northern Apennines for at least six months. As a result, on 6 November 1943, Hitler ordered Rommel and his Army Group B headquarters to move to France to take charge of the Atlantic Wall and prepare for the Allied attack that was expected there in the spring of 1944. On 21 November 1943, Kesselring resumed command of all German forces in Italy, combining Commander-in-Chief South, a joint command, with that of Army Group C, a ground command. "I had always blamed Kesselring", Hitler told a conference in August 1944, "for looking at things too optimistically ... events have proved Rommel wrong, and I have been justified in my decision to leave Field Marshal Kesselring there, whom I have seen as an incredible political idealist, but also as a military optimist, and it is my opinion that military leadership without optimism is not possible."
The Luftwaffe scored a notable success on the night of 2 December 1943 when 105 Junkers Ju 88s struck the port of Bari. Skilfully using chaff to confuse the Allied radar operators, they found the port packed with brightly lit Allied shipping. The result was the most destructive air raid on Allied shipping since the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Hits were scored on two ammunition ships and a tanker. Burning oil and exploding ammunition spread over the harbour. Some 16 ships were sunk and eight damaged, and the port was put out of action for three weeks. Moreover, one of the ships sunk, , had been carrying mustard gas, which enveloped the port in a cloud of poisonous vapours.
Cassino and Anzio
The first Allied attempt to break through the Gustav Line in the Battle of Monte Cassino in January 1944 met with early success, with the British X Corps breaking through the line held by the 94th Infantry Division and imperilling the entire Tenth Army. Kesselring rushed his reserves, the 29th and 90th Panzergrenadier Divisions, to the Cassino front. They were able to stabilise the German position there but left Rome poorly guarded.
Kesselring wrote in his memoirs that he felt that he had been out-generalled when the Allies landed at Anzio. A few days before, he had told Jodl that he did not consider a mid-winter Allied amphibious operation likely. Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, the chief of the Abwehr, the German military intelligence service, advised that it was out of the question for four to six weeks. Although taken by surprise, Kesselring moved rapidly to regain control of the situation, summoning Generaloberst Eberhard von Mackensen's Fourteenth Army headquarters and the 65th and 362nd Divisions from northern Italy, the 29th and 90th Panzergrenadier Divisions from the Cassino front, and the 26th Panzer Division from Tenth Army. OKW contributed some troops from other theatres, and by February Kesselring was able to take the offensive at Anzio. His forces were unable to crush the Allied beachhead, and in his memoirs Kesselring blamed himself, OKW and Mackensen for avoidable errors.
Meanwhile, costly fighting at Monte Cassino in February 1944, brought the Allies close to a breakthrough into the Liri Valley. To hold the bastion of Monte Cassino, Kesselring brought in the 1st Parachute Division, an "exceptionally well trained and conditioned" formation, on 26 February. Despite heavy casualties and the expenditure of enormous quantities of ammunition, an Allied offensive in March 1944 failed to break the Gustav Line position.
One disadvantage of the geography of the Italian peninsula that otherwise favoured the defence was that it constricted the German line of communication. The Allies took advantage of this with Operation Strangle, an intensive air interdiction campaign. Through Ultra they knew precisely how much tonnage was needed to support the Tenth Army at Cassino and the Fourteenth Army at Anzio. Between 15 March and 10 May 1944, US Lieutenant General Ira Eaker's Mediterranean Allied Air Forces flew 21,688 interdiction sorties, during which it dropped of bombs. This left Army Group C critically short of fuel and ammunition.
On 11 May 1944 General Sir Harold Alexander, commanding the Allied Armies in Italy, launched Operation Diadem, which finally broke through the Gustav Line and forced the Tenth Army to withdraw. Due to fuel and transportation shortages, units had to be moved piecemeal. Kesselring appealed to the Kriegsmarine to move more supplies by sea, and urged his corps and division commanders to conserve ammunition. In the process, a gap opened up between the Tenth and Fourteenth Armies, threatening both with encirclement. For this failure, Kesselring relieved Mackensen of his command, replacing him with General der Panzertruppe Joachim Lemelsen.
Fortunately for the Germans, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the U.S. Fifth Army, obsessed with the capture of Rome, failed to take advantage of the situation. Kesselring diverted troops to oppose Clark's attack, and the result was three days of bloody and fruitless American assaults, while the gap between the Tenth and Fourteenth Armies was poorly defended. In the end, it was an advance in this sector that opened the gate to Rome, and Tenth Army was able to link up with the Fourteenth Army, and conduct a fighting withdrawal to the next line of defence, the Trasimene Line. Whether Clark would have been able to trap Kesselring had he tried still remains an open question. Robert Citino noted that: "Slithering out of a trap by the skin of their teeth was just another day at the office for German commanders by 1944. In Italy, facing two Allied armies coming on from opposite directions, the Wehrmacht did it again, surviving yet another near death experience and living to fight another day."
For his part in the campaign, Kesselring was awarded the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds by Hitler at the Wolfsschanze near Rastenburg, East Prussia on 19 July 1944. The next day, Hitler was the target of the 20 July plot. Informed of this event that evening by Göring, Kesselring, like many other senior commanders, sent a telegram to Hitler reaffirming his loyalty.
Actions affecting population and cultural objects
Kesselring, during the campaign, as far as he was able, attempted to avoid the destruction of many artistically important Italian cities, including Rome, Florence, Siena and Orvieto. In some cases, historic bridges – such as the Ponte Vecchio – were booby trapped rather than blown up. However, other historic Florentine bridges were destroyed on his orders and, in addition to booby trapping the old bridge, he ordered the demolition of the ancient historical central borough at its two ends, in order to delay the Allied advance across the River Arno.
Kesselring supported the Italian declaration of Rome as an open city on 14 August 1943, after Rome was bombed for the first time on 19 July with over 700 civilian deaths. The unilateral declaration was never accepted by the Allies as the city remained centres of government and industry, and while the Americans supported accepting the open city status of Rome, the British remained implacably opposed. The replacement of the American Eisenhower with the British General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson as theatre commander loosened restrictions at that level. As a result, Rome was bombed by the Allies many times.
For Kesselring, the open city status held many advantages, as it promised a means of quelling unrest in Rome and scored a propaganda triumph. Moreover, as Operation Strangle took its toll, trains ceased to move through Rome and German vehicle convoys routinely bypassed the city. Kesselring later wrote that when the fighting drew close to Rome in May 1944, there were considerable tactical advantages to be had from defending the Tiber bridges, but the German ambassador to the Vatican, Ernst von Weizsäcker, urged Kesselring not to do so, and Kesselring withdrew from Rome without mounting a defence there, saving the city. After the Allies occupied Rome, the open city declaration was disregarded, and they made full use of Rome for military purposes.
Kesselring tried to preserve the monastery of Monte Cassino by avoiding its military occupation even though it offered superb observation over the battlefield. Ultimately this was unsuccessful, as the Allies believed the monastery would be used to direct the German artillery against their lines. On the morning of 15 February 1944, 142 B-17 Flying Fortress, 47 B-25 Mitchell and 40 B-26 Marauder medium bombers deliberately dropped 1,150 tons of high explosives and incendiary bombs on the abbey, reducing the historic monastery to a smoking mass of rubble. Kesselring was aware that some artworks taken from Monte Cassino for safekeeping wound up in the possession of Hermann Göring. Kesselring had some German soldiers shot for looting. German authorities avoided giving the Italians control over artworks because they feared that "entire collections would be sold to Switzerland". A 1945 Allied investigation reported that Italian cultural treasures had suffered relatively little war damage. Kesselring received regular updates on efforts to preserve cultural treasures and his personal interest in the matter contributed to the high proportion of art treasures that were saved.
War crimes
By 24 September 1943, Herbert Kappler, the German police attaché who represented the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) in Rome, had learned that Heinrich Himmler wanted him to round up and deport the Jews of Rome. Kappler was concerned about a rise of anti-German sentiment among the Italian population. The German consul in Rome and then senior embassy diplomat, Eitel Friedrich Möllhausen, also learned of the order. According to writer Robert Katz, who interviewed Möllhausen in 1968, Kappler suggested that they go to Kesselring to recommend that the Jews should be used for forced labour on fortifications in Rome (as he had done with those in Tunisia). If Kesselring would agree to that solution, Kappler would consider his orders to be countermanded. In his memoirs of 1948 Möllhausen recounts that he and Kappler met with Kesselring within an hour. Upon hearing how many men Kappler would need for the roundup, Kesselring declared that he could not spare a single man, and approved of the idea of using Jewish labour.
On 9 October Möllhausen was advised that the Roman Jews were to be deported and that he had not to interfere in any way. On 16 October 1,259 Jews were rounded up in Rome, and 1,007 of them were sent to Auschwitz. Upon arrival all but 196 were immediately gassed. Only 15 survived the war. Some 6,806 Jews were arrested and deported during the German occupation of Italy, of whom 5,969 died in Nazi concentration camps. Historian Andrew Sangster argues that while Kesselring never played an active role in The Holocaust, he must have known of these crimes and his guilt lies "in his unquestioning support of Hitler who had made the Holocaust a priority."
On 22–23 March 1944, a 15-man American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) Operational Group landed in inflatable boats from US Navy PT boats on the Ligurian coast as part of Operation Ginny II, a mission to blow up the entrances of two vital railway tunnels. Their boats were discovered and they were captured by a smaller group of Italian and German soldiers. On 26 March, they were executed under Hitler's "Commando Order", issued after German soldiers had been bound and shot by commandos during the Dieppe Raid and the Raid on Sark. Kesselring was in Liguria in 23 and 24 March, where he inspected the harbour defences.
In Rome on 23 March 1944, 33 policemen of the Police Regiment Bozen from the German-speaking population of the Italian province of South Tyrol and three Italian civilians were killed by a bomb blast and the subsequent shooting. In response, Hitler approved the recommendation of Mackensen, who was responsible for the sector including Rome, that ten Italians should be shot for each policeman killed. The task fell to SS Obersturmbannführer Herbert Kappler who, finding there were not enough condemned prisoners available, made up the numbers using Jewish prisoners and civilians taken from the streets. The result was the Ardeatine massacre.
The fall of Rome on 4 June 1944 placed Kesselring in a dangerous situation as his forces attempted to withdraw from Rome to the formidable Gothic Line north of Florence. That the Germans were especially vulnerable to Italian partisans was not lost on Alexander, who appealed in a radio broadcast for Italians to kill Germans "wherever you encounter them". Kesselring responded by authorising the "massive employment of artillery, grenade and mortars, armoured cars, flamethrowers and other technical combat equipment" against the partisans.
On 17 June, Kesselring issued a directive, "New Measures for Combating Partisans" (Bandenbekämpfung), in which he authorised measures of "utmost severity", while extolling his troops to act irrespective of "mistaken" actions they may be responsible for. The order promised indemnity to soldiers who "exceed our normal restraint in the choice of severity of the methods against the partisans". He also authorised construction of transit camps to hold suspected partisans and civilians. Three days later, Kesselring issued an order authorising reprisals against the civilian population and public executions of captured partisan leaders.
Subsequently, massacres were carried out by the Hermann Göring Panzer Division at Stia in April, Civitella in Val di Chiana in June and Bucine in July 1944, by the 26th Panzer Division at Padule di Fucecchio on 23 August 1944, and by the 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsführer-SS at Sant'Anna di Stazzema in August 1944 and Marzabotto in September and October 1944.
In August 1944 Kesselring was informed by Rudolf Rahn, the German ambassador to the rump Italian Social Republic (RSI), that Mussolini had filed protests about the killing of Italian citizens. In response, Kesselring rescinded his order and issued another edict to his troops on 21 August, acknowledging incidents that had "damaged the German Wehrmachts reputation and discipline and which no longer have anything to do with reprisal operations", and launched investigations into specific cases that Mussolini cited. Between 21 July and 25 September 1944, 624 Germans were killed, 993 wounded and 872 missing in partisan operations, while some 9,520 partisans were killed. During the occupation of Italy, the Germans and their fascist allies are believed to have killed some 22,000 Italian civilians.
Throughout July and August 1944, Kesselring conducted a stubborn delaying action, gradually retreating to the Gothic Line. There, he was able to halt the Allied advance. Holding the Allies south of the Arno River for so long was another defensive success. Some partisan bands declared the area they occupied to be independent republics, including Domodossola in northern Italy on 26 September. Four days later Kesselring instructed Wolff to conduct an "anti-partisan week". By the end of October, 1,539 partisans were dead, another 1,248 were captured, 1,973 suspects had been arrested, and 2,012 had been handed over to Organisation Todt. A further blow to the partisans came from Alexander. In a radio broadcast on 13 November, he conceded that the Germans would not be driven from their positions until spring, and asked the partisans to lay down their arms until then.
Casualties of the Gothic Line battles in September and October 1944 included Kesselring himself. On 23 October 1944, his car, travelling at night under blackout conditions, collided with a towed artillery piece coming out of a side road. Kesselring suffered serious head and facial injuries. He was taken to hospital in Ferrara, and did not return to his command until January 1945.
Central Europe
As he later wrote, after he recovered from the car accident, Kesselring was summoned by Hitler to relieve now Generalfeldmarschall Rundstedt as Commander-in-Chief West on 10 March 1945, following the disastrous loss of the intact Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine during the Battle of Remagen. On arrival, he told his new staff, "Well, gentlemen, I am the new V-3", referring to the Vergeltungswaffe ("vengeance" weapons). Given the desperate situation of the Western Front, this was another sign of Kesselring's proverbial optimism. Kesselring still described Hitler's analysis of the situation as "lucid", according to which the Germans were about to inflict a historical defeat upon the Soviets, after which the victorious German armies would be brought west to crush the Allies and sweep them from the continent. Therefore, Kesselring was determined to hold in the west and await a victory in the east. Kesselring endorsed Hitler's order that deserters should be hanged from the nearest tree. When a staff officer sought to make him aware of the hopelessness of the situation, Kesselring told him that he had driven through the entire army rear area and not seen a single hanged man.
The Western Front at this time generally followed the Rhine with two important exceptions: the American bridgehead over the Rhine at Remagen, and a large German salient west of the Rhine, the Saar–Palatinate triangle. In his memoirs, Kesselring stated that he gave consideration to evacuating the triangle, but OKW ordered it held. When Kesselring paid his first visit to the German First and Seventh Army headquarters there on 13 March 1945, the army group commander, SS-Oberst-Gruppenführer and Generaloberst of the Waffen-SS Paul Hausser, and the two army commanders all affirmed the defence of the triangle could only result in heavy losses or complete annihilation of their commands. General der Infanterie Hans Felber of the Seventh Army considered the latter the most likely outcome. Nonetheless, Kesselring insisted that the positions had to be held.
The triangle was already under attack from two sides by Lieutenant General George Patton's US Third Army and Lieutenant General Alexander Patch's US Seventh Army. The German position soon crumbled and Kesselring later wrote that Hitler reluctantly sanctioned a withdrawal. The First and Seventh Armies suffered heavy losses: around 113,000 German casualties at the cost of 17,000 on the Allied side. Nonetheless, they had avoided encirclement and managed to conduct a skilful delaying action, evacuating the last troops to the east bank of the Rhine on 25 March 1945.
As Germany was cut in two, Kesselring's command was enlarged to include Army Groups Centre, South and South-East on the Eastern Front, along with Army Group C in Italy, and his own Army Group G and Army Group Upper Rhine. On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in Berlin. The next day, Großadmiral Karl Dönitz was designated German President (Reichspräsident) and the Flensburg government was created. One of the new president's first acts was the appointment of Kesselring as Commander-in-Chief Southern Germany, with plenipotentiary powers.
Chaotic surrender
Meanwhile, in Italy, Wolff and Vietinghoff, now commander of Army Group C, had almost concluded a preliminary surrender agreement with the OSS chief in Switzerland, Allen Dulles. Known as Operation Sunrise, these secret negotiations had been in progress since early March 1945. Kesselring was aware of them, having previously consented to them, although he had not informed his own staff. According to his memoirs, Kesselring did later inform Hitler. At the last minute, Kesselring had a change of heart and decided not to accept the agreement, as he felt it might imperil Army Group G. On 30 April, he relieved both Vietinghoff and his chief of staff, General der Panzertruppe Hans Röttiger, putting them at the disposition of the OKW for a possible court martial. They were replaced by General der Infanterie Friedrich Schulz and Generalmajor Friedrich Wenzel respectively.
The next morning, 1 May, Röttiger reacted by placing both Schulz and Wenzel under arrest, and summoning Lemelsen to take Schulz's place. Lemelsen initially refused, as he was in possession of a written order from Kesselring which prohibited any talks with the enemy without his explicit authorisation. By this time, Vietinghoff and Wolff had concluded an armistice with Alexander, who was now a field marshal and the Allied Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Theatre. The armistice became effective at 14:00 on 2 May. Lemelsen reached Bolzano, and Schulz and Wenzel regained control, this time agreeing with the officers pushing for a quick surrender. The German armies in Italy were now utterly defeated by the Allies, who were rapidly advancing from Garmisch toward Innsbruck. Kesselring remained opposed to the surrender, but was finally won over by Wolff on the late morning of 2 May after a two-hour phone call to Kesselring at his headquarters in Pullach.
North of the Alps, Army Group G followed suit on 6 May. According to his memoirs, Kesselring now decided to surrender his own headquarters. He ordered Hausser to supervise the SS troops to ensure that the surrender was carried out in accordance with his instructions. Kesselring then surrendered to an American major at Saalfelden, near Salzburg, in Austria on 9 May 1945. He was taken to see Major General Maxwell D. Taylor, the commander of the US 101st Airborne Division, who treated him courteously, allowing him to keep his weapons and field marshal's baton, and to visit the Eastern Front headquarters of Army Groups Centre and South at Zeltweg and Graz unescorted. Taylor arranged for Kesselring and his staff to move into a hotel at Berchtesgaden. Photographs of Taylor and Kesselring drinking tea together created a stir in the United States.
In his post-war memoirs, Kesselring claimed he envisaged making a start on the rehabilitation of Germany following the end of the war. Instead, he was arrested. On 15 May 1945, Kesselring was taken to Mondorf-les-Bains where his baton and decorations were taken from him and he was incarcerated. He was held in American POW camps before being transferred to British custody in 1946. He testified at the Nuremberg trial of Göring, but his offers to testify against Soviet, American, and British commanders were declined.
Post-war
Trial
By the end of the war, for many Italians, the name of Kesselring, whose signature appeared on posters and printed orders announcing draconian measures adopted by the German occupation, had become synonymous with the oppression and terror that had characterised the German occupation. Kesselring's name headed the list of German officers blamed for a long series of atrocities perpetrated by the German forces.
The Moscow Declaration of October 1943 promised that "those German officers and men and members of the Nazi party who have been responsible for or have taken a consenting part in the above atrocities, massacres and executions will be sent back to the countries in which their abominable deeds were done in order that they may be judged and punished according to the laws of these liberated countries and of free governments which will be erected therein." However, the British, who were the driving force in moulding the war crimes trial policy that culminated in the Nuremberg Trials, explicitly excluded high-ranking German officers in their custody.
The British held two major trials against the top German war criminals who had perpetrated crimes during the Italian campaign. For political reasons it was decided to hold the trials in Italy, but a request by Italy to allow an Italian judge to participate was denied on the grounds that Italy was not an Allied country. The trials were held under a royal warrant dated 18 June 1945, thus under British military law. This decision put the trials on a shaky legal basis, as foreign nationals were being tried for crimes against foreigners in a foreign country. The first trial, held in Rome, was of Mackensen and Generalleutnant Kurt Mälzer, the military commandant of Rome, for their part in the Ardeatine massacre. Both were sentenced to death on 30 November 1946.
Kesselring's own trial began in Venice on 17 February 1947. The British military court was presided over by Major General Sir Edmund Hakewill-Smith, assisted by four lieutenant colonels. Colonel Richard C. Halse—who had already obtained the death penalty for Mackensen and Mälzer—was the prosecutor. Kesselring's legal team was headed by Hans Laternser, a skilful German lawyer who specialised in Anglo-Saxon law, had represented several defendants at the Nuremberg Trials, and later represented Generalfeldmarschall Erich von Manstein. Kesselring's ability to pay his legal team was hampered because his assets had been frozen by the Allies, but his legal costs were eventually met by friends in South America and relatives in Franconia.
Kesselring was arraigned on two charges: the shooting of 335 Italians in the Ardeatine massacre, and incitement to kill Italian civilians. He did not invoke the "Nuremberg defence" (although Laternser did in his closing arguments). Rather, Kesselring maintained that the order to kill ten Italian civilians for each German soldier killed by partisans was "just and lawful". On 6 May 1947, the court found him guilty of both charges and sentenced him to death by firing squad, which was considered more honourable than hanging. Although the court accepted the legality of the taking of hostages, it left open the question of the legality of killing innocent persons in reprisals; the distinction between the two was later clarified in the High Command Trial.
The planned major trial for the campaign of reprisals never took place, but a series of smaller trials was held instead in Padua between April and June 1947 for SS-Brigadeführer Willy Tensfeld, Navy Kapitänleutnant Waldemar Krumhaar, the 26th Panzer Division's Generalleutnant Eduard Crasemann, and SS-Gruppenführer Max Simon of the 16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsführer-SS. Tensfeld was acquitted; Crasemann was sentenced to 10 years; and Simon was sentenced to death, but his sentence was commuted. Simon's trial was the last held in Italy by the British. By 1949, British military tribunals had sentenced 230 Germans to death and another 447 to custodial sentences. None of the death sentences imposed between the end of 1946 and 1948 were carried out.
The only trial of a German general held by a US military tribunal in Italy was that of General der Infanterie Anton Dostler, the commander of the LXXV Army Corps, who stood trial in October 1945 for the execution of the 15 members of the US 2677th Special Reconnaissance Battalion during Operation Ginny. He was found guilty and shot on 1 December 1945. Several officers, all below the rank of general, including Kappler, were transferred to the Italian courts for trial. These applied very different legal standards from the British – ones which were often more favourable to the defendants. Ironically, in view of the repeated attempts by senior Wehrmacht commanders to shift blame for atrocities onto the SS, the most senior SS commanders in Italy, Wolff and Heinrich Himmler's personal representative in Italy, SS-Standartenführer Eugen Dollmann, escaped prosecution. In 1964, after Dulles had retired as head of the US Central Intelligence Agency, Wolff was convicted of genocide by a German court. He was released in 1969.
Commutation and release from prison
The death verdict against Kesselring generated outrage in the United Kingdom, where Kesselring was viewed sympathetically by his former foes, including the former Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and Alexander, who sent a telegram to Prime Minister Clement Attlee in which he expressed his hope that Kesselring's sentence would be commuted. "As his old opponent on the battlefield", he stated, "I have no complaints against him. Kesselring and his soldiers fought against us hard but clean." Alexander had expressed his admiration for Kesselring as a military commander as early as 1943. In his 1961 memoirs, Alexander paid tribute to Kesselring as a commander who "showed great skill in extricating himself from the desperate situations into which his faulty intelligence had led him". Alexander's sentiments were echoed by Lieutenant General Sir Oliver Leese, who had commanded the British Eighth Army in the Italian Campaign. In a May 1947 interview, Leese said he was "very sad" to hear of what he considered "British victor's justice" being imposed on Kesselring, an "extremely gallant soldier who had fought his battles fairly and squarely". Lord de L'Isle, who had been awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry at Anzio, raised the issue in the House of Lords.
The Italian government refused to carry out death sentences, as the death penalty had been abolished in Italy in 1944 and was regarded as a relic of Mussolini's Fascist regime. The Italian decision was very disappointing to the British government because the trials had partly been intended to meet the expectations of the Italian public. The War Office notified Lieutenant General Sir John Harding, who had succeeded Alexander as commander of British forces in the Mediterranean in 1946, that there should be no more death sentences and those already imposed should be commuted. Accordingly, Harding commuted the death sentences imposed on Mackensen, Mälzer and Kesselring to life imprisonment on 4 July 1947. Mälzer died while still in prison in February 1952, while Mackensen, after having his sentence reduced to 21 years, was set free in October 1952.
Kesselring was moved from Mestre prison near Venice to Wolfsberg, Carinthia, in May 1947. While in Wolfsberg he was approached by a former SS major who had an escape plan prepared. According to Kesselring, he declined the offer on the grounds that it would be seen as a confession of guilt. Other senior Nazi figures did manage to escape from Wolfsberg to South America or Syria. In October 1947 he was transferred for the last time, to Werl Prison, in Westphalia.
Kesselring resumed his work on a history of the war that he was writing for the US Army Historical Division. This effort, working under the direction of Generaloberst Franz Halder in 1946, brought together a number of German generals for the purpose of producing historical studies of the war, including Gotthard Heinrici, Guderian, Lothar Rendulic, Hasso von Manteuffel and Küchler. Kesselring contributed studies of the war in Italy and North Africa and the problems faced by the German high command. Kesselring also worked secretly on his memoirs. The manuscript was smuggled out by Irmgard Horn-Kesselring, Rainer's mother, who typed it at her home.
An influential group assembled in Britain to lobby for his release from prison. Headed by Lord Hankey, the group included politicians Lord de L'Isle and Richard Stokes, Alexander and Admiral of the Fleet The Earl of Cork and Orrery, and military historians Basil Liddell Hart and J. F. C. Fuller. Upon regaining the prime ministership in 1951, Winston Churchill, who was closely associated with the group, gave priority to the quick release of the war criminals remaining in British custody.
Meanwhile, in Germany, the release of military prisoners had become a political issue. With the establishment of West Germany in 1949, and the advent of the Cold War between the former Allies and the Soviet Union, it became inevitable that the German armed forces would be revived in some form, and there were calls for amnesty for military prisoners as a condition for German military participation in the Western Alliance. A media campaign gradually gathered steam in Germany. Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung published an interview with Liny Kesselring and Stern ran a series about Kesselring and Manstein entitled "Justice, Not Clemency". The pressure on the British government was increased in 1952 when the German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer made it clear that West German ratification of the European Defence Community Treaty was dependent on the release of German military figures.
In July 1952, Kesselring was diagnosed with a cancerous growth in his throat. During World War I, he had frequently smoked up to twenty cigars per day but had quit smoking in 1925. Although the British were suspicious of the diagnosis, they were concerned that he might die in prison-like Mälzer, which would be a public relations disaster. Kesselring was transferred to a hospital, under guard. In October 1952, Kesselring was released from his prison sentence on the grounds of ill-health. His release unleashed a storm of protest in Italy.
Later life
In 1952, while still in the hospital, Kesselring accepted the honorary presidency of three veterans' organisations. The first was the Luftwaffenring, consisting of Luftwaffe veterans. The Verband deutsches Afrikakorps, the veterans' association of the Afrika Korps, soon followed. More controversial was the presidency of the right-wing veterans' association, Der Stahlhelm. The leadership of this organisation tarnished his reputation. He attempted to reform the organisation, proposing that the new German flag be flown instead of the old Imperial Flag; that the old Stahlhelm greeting Front heil! be abolished; and that members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany be allowed to join. The response from the organisation was unenthusiastic.
Kesselring's release caused outcry and indignation in the Italian Parliament. Kesselring reacted provocatively, claiming that he had saved the lives of millions of Italians by not following certain orders and that they ought to build him a monument. In response, on 4 December 1952, Piero Calamandrei, an Italian jurist, soldier, university professor, and politician, who had been a leader of the Italian resistance movement, penned an anti-fascist poem, Lapide ad ignominia ("A Monument to Ignominy"). In the poem, Calamandrei stated that if Kesselring returned he would indeed find a monument, but one stronger than stone, composed of Italian resistance fighters who "willingly took up arms, to preserve dignity, not to promote hate, and who decided to fight back against the shame and terror of the world". Calamandrei's poem appears on monuments in the towns of Cuneo, Montepulciano and Sant'Anna di Stazzema.
Kesselring's memoirs were published in 1953, as Soldat bis zum letzten Tag (A Soldier to the Last Day). The English edition was published a year later as A Soldier's Record. Kesselring's contentions that the Luftwaffe was not defeated in the air in the Battle of Britain and that Operation Sea Lion—the invasion of Britain—was thought about, but never seriously planned, were controversial. During the 1950s, in the absence of other sources, military historians often used memoirs as sources. An important flaw in his memoirs was a reluctance to criticise others, to the extent of representing decisions with which he strongly disagreed at the time as being the product of consensus.
The book sold well, but critics were cautious. While recognising his talents as a general, Die Zeit noted that Kesselring "clearly never posed himself the question: 'Where does blind obedience end and a sense of responsibility start to take effect, if not at the highest levels of command?'" Reviewing the English edition, Lieutenant General Lucian K. Truscott, Jr., who had commanded the US 3rd Infantry Division, VI Corps and Fifth Army in Italy, reviewed the book for The New York Times. He noted the esteem in which Kesselring was held by his enemies, but also the "thread of self-justification for the indifference of himself and fellow officers to Nazi excesses." In 1955, Kesselring published a second book, Gedanken zum Zweiten Weltkrieg (Thoughts on the Second World War).
Kesselring protested what he regarded as the "unjustly smirched reputation of the German soldier". In November 1953, testifying at a war crimes trial, he warned that "there won't be any volunteers for the new German army if the German government continues to try German soldiers for acts committed in World War II". He enthusiastically supported the European Defence Community, and suggested that the "war opponents of yesterday must become the peace comrades and friends of tomorrow". On the other hand, he also declared that he found "astonishing" those who believe "that we must revise our ideas in accordance with democratic principles ... That is more than I can take."
In March 1954, Kesselring and Liny toured Austria, ostensibly as private citizens. He met with former comrades-in-arms and prison-mates, some of them former SS members, causing embarrassment to the Austrian government, which ordered his deportation. He ignored the order and completed his tour, before leaving a week later, as he had intended. His only official government service was on the Medals Commission, which was established by President Theodor Heuss. Ultimately, the commission unanimously recommended that medals should be permitted to be worn—but without the swastika. He was an expert witness for the "Generals' Trials". The Generals' Trials were trials of German citizens before German courts for crimes committed in Germany, the most prominent of which was that of Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner.
Kesselring died in a sanatorium at Bad Nauheim in West Germany, on 16 July 1960 at the age of 74, following a heart attack. He was given a quasi-military Stahlhelm funeral and buried in Bergfriedhof Cemetery in Bad Wiessee. Members of Stahlhelm acted as his pallbearers and fired a rifle volley over his grave. His former chief of staff, General der Kavallerie Siegfried Westphal, spoke for the veterans of North Africa and Italy, describing Kesselring as "a man of admirable strength of character whose care was for soldiers of all ranks". Inspekteur der Luftwaffe Josef Kammhuber spoke on behalf of the Luftwaffe and Bundeswehr, expressing the hope that Kesselring would be remembered for his earlier accomplishments rather than for his later activities. Also present were the former SS-Oberst-Gruppenführer Sepp Dietrich, the ex-Chancellor Franz von Papen, Schörner, Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, Otto Remer, SS-Standartenführer Joachim Peiper, and Rahn.
In 2000, a memorial event was held in Bad Wiessee marking the fortieth anniversary of Kesselring's death. No representatives of the Bundeswehr attended, on the grounds that Kesselring was "not worthy of being part of our tradition". Instead, the task of remembering Kesselring fell to two veterans groups, the Deutsche Montecassino Vereinigung (German Monte Cassino Association) and the Bund Deutscher Fallschirmjäger (Association of German Paratroopers). To his ageing troops, Kesselring remained a commander to be commemorated.
Baton
Kesselring's Generalfeldmarschalls baton was seized by a private serving as a scout with the US 2nd Armored Division, the first US division to enter Berlin, in July 1945. He was ordered to search castles that had been used by high-ranking German officers and found the baton. It remained in his possession until his death in 1977, when it passed to his widow, and then to his son, who put it up for auction by Alex Cooper auctioneers in 2010. Expected to fetch between US$10,000 and $15,000, it was sold to a private bidder for $731,600.
Footnotes
Notes
References
External links
1885 births
1960 deaths
Air raid on Bari
German memoirists
German military personnel of World War I
Germans convicted of war crimes committed in Italy during World War II
Luftwaffe personnel convicted of war crimes
Luftwaffe World War II field marshals
Military personnel of Bavaria
People from Marktsteft
People from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Recipients of the clasp to the Iron Cross, 1st class
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds
20th-century memoirists
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200386
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%20pounds%20%28British%20coin%29
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Two pounds (British coin)
|
The British two pound (£2) coin of the pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s introduction. Three different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the current design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The reverse design features Britannia.
The coin was introduced on 15 June 1998 (coins minted 1997) after a review of the United Kingdom's coinage decided that a general-circulation £2 coin was needed. The new bi-metallic coin design replaced a series of commemorative, uni-metallic coins which were issued between 1986 and 1996 to celebrate special occasions. Although legal tender, those earlier coins had never been common in everyday circulation.
As of March 2014 there were an estimated 417 million £2 coins in circulation with an estimated face value of £834 million.
Beyond the usual commemorative versions, no standard two pound coins have been minted for general circulation since 2016, although examples have been issued in uncirculated sets at a premium. This was because the concurrent introduction of the new version of the one pound coin had put enough two pound (and 20 pence) coins back into circulation, as people emptied coin jars primarily for the older one pound coin that was due to be withdrawn.
£2 coins are legal tender to any amount when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.
Design
The original reverse of the coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, is an abstract design symbolising the history of technological achievement, accompanied by the words TWO POUNDS above, and the year of minting below.
This was the first bi-metallic coin to be produced for circulation in Britain since the tin farthing with a copper plug produced in 1692, and is the highest denomination coin in common circulation in the UK. The coin consists of an outer yellow metal nickel-brass ring made from 76% copper, 20% zinc, and 4% nickel, and an inner steel-coloured cupro-nickel disc made from 75% copper, 25% nickel. The coin weighs and is in diameter.
The design itself was first tried out in 1994 when the Royal Mint produced a short run of demonstration pieces to the new bi-metal standard. These pieces were not for circulation and were simply intended to test the manufacturing process. The coin was technically similar to the version which eventually entered circulation with the Maklouf effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse and the image of a sailing ship similar to that previously used on the reverse of the pre-decimal halfpenny piece. The inscription on the reverse read ROYAL MINT TRIAL 1994 with an edge inscription based on the one pound coin which read DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI XLVI, meaning "An ornament and a safeguard – [in the] 46th year of [her] reign". The 1994 pieces were never legal tender but were eventually released for sale as part of a presentation set in 1998. At the same time in 1994 the Royal Mint produced a mono-metallic trial two-pound coin, with the same ship reverse and inscription, but otherwise similar to the earlier commemorative coins. These were never issued in presentation sets, and so are much scarcer than the bi-metallic version.
Because of technical difficulties, the 1997-dated coins, which bear the effigy of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf, were not released to circulation until June 1998 (the same time as the 1998-dated coins). 1998 and later dated coins bear the effigy of the Queen by Ian Rank-Broadley. The Maklouf-effigy coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D on the obverse; the Rank-Broadley coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF.
The reverse of the regular-issue coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, bears a concentric design symbolically representing technological development from the Iron Age, through the Industrial Revolution and the Electronic Age to the Internet, with the inscription TWO POUNDS above the design and the date below. An oddity of the design is that it depicts nineteen interlocking gears. Because there is an odd number of them, the mechanism could not actually turn. The coin has the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS, a quote taken from a letter by Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, in which he describes how his work was built on the knowledge of those that had gone before him. "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." Newton was Warden and later Master of the Royal Mint.
In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced a new design featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort replacing the previous design. The new coins feature the edge inscription QUATUOR MARIA VINDICO, meaning "I claim the four seas", an inscription previously featured on coins bearing the image of Britannia.
The comparative rarity of the Maklouf-effigy coins has led to an urban myth that they are much more valuable than the other coins, but this is not true – there were over 13 million 1997-dated £2 coins issued. Another urban myth about the coin is that putting it in the freezer overnight causes the cupro-nickel centre to pop out, a claim which had been true of some early mintings of the similarly bimetallic Canadian 2 dollar coin.
Variants
In addition to the standard designs there have been several variant reverse designs used on the £2 coin to commemorate important events. These are summarised in the table below.
"Inverted effigy" coins
In 2015, a small number of £2 Coins entered circulation that featured the Queen’s head rotated clockwise by approximately 150 degrees. The Royal Mint stated that the misalignment of the Queen’s effigy was "almost certainly the result of one of the dies working loose and rotating during the striking process". Change Checker, a coin dealing website, suggest that the Inverted Effigy may have affected as few as around just 3,250 coins.
Status as legal tender
Current £2 coins are legal tender to any amount. However, "legal tender" has a very specific and narrow meaning which relates only to the repayment of debt to a creditor, not to everyday shopping or other transactions. Specifically, coins of particular denominations are said to be "legal tender" when a creditor must by law accept them in redemption of a debt. The term does not mean - as is often thought - that a shopkeeper has to accept a particular type of currency in payment. A shopkeeper is under no obligation to accept any specific type of payment, whether legal tender or not; conversely they have the discretion to accept any payment type they wish.
Mintages
See also
Coins of the pound sterling
Double sovereign
Banknotes of the pound sterling
Notes
References
External links
Royal Mint – £2 coin
Coins of the UK – Decimal £2 Coins
The Pemember 'error' on the £2 Gunpowder Plot commemorative
Two Pounds, Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club
Coins of the United Kingdom
Bi-metallic coins
Two-base-unit coins
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg%20Friedrich%20Creuzer
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Georg Friedrich Creuzer
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Georg Friedrich Creuzer (; 10 March 1771 – 6 February 1858) was a German philologist and archaeologist.
Life
He was born at Marburg, the son of a bookbinder. After studying at Marburg and at the University of Jena, he went to Leipzig as a private tutor; but in 1802 he was appointed professor at Marburg, and two years later professor of philology and ancient history at Heidelberg. He held the latter position for nearly forty-five years, with the exception of a short time spent at the University of Leiden, where his health was affected by the Dutch climate. He was one of the principal founders of the Philological Seminary established at Heidelberg in 1807. The Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris, appointed him one of its members, and from the Grand Duke of Baden he received the dignity of privy councillor.
In 1844 he received a medal for his 40th anniversary of employment at the University of Heidelberg. This medal was made by the engraver Ludwig Kachel.
Works
Creuzer's first and most famous work was his Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, besonders der Griechen (1810–12, 2nd ed. 1819, 3rd ed. 1837), in which he maintained that the mythology of Homer and Hesiod came from an Eastern source through the Pelasgians, and reflected the symbolism of an ancient revelation; as a reconciliation with Judeo-Christian religion, it was, Walter Burkert has said, "the last large-scale and thoroughly unavailing endeavor of this kind." This work ran counter to the ideology of romantic nationalism, which held literature and culture to be intimately connected with a Volk, epitomized by Karl Otfried Müller's concept of a Greek Stammeskultur, a Greek "tribal culture". For this and the next generations, "origins and organic development rather than reciprocal cultural influences became the key to understanding." Creuzer's work was vigorously attacked by Johann Gottfried Jakob Hermann in his Briefen über Homer und Hesiod, and in his letter, addressed to Creuzer, Über das Wesen und die Behandlung der Mythologie; by Johann Heinrich Voss in his Antisymbolik; and by Christian Lobeck in his Aglaophamus. It was briefly praised, however, by Hegel in his Philosophy of Right.
Creuzer's other works include:
an edition of Plotinus
a partial edition of Cicero, in preparing which he was assisted by Moser
Epochen der griechischen Literaturgeschichte (1802)
Die historische Kunst der Griechen (1803)
Abriss der römischen Antiquitaten (1824)
Zur Geschichte altrömischer Cultur am Oberrhein und Neckar (1833)
Zur Gemmenkunde (1834)
Das Mithreum von Neuenheim (1838)
Zur Galerie der alten Dramatiker (1839)
Zur Geschichte der classischen Philologie (1854).
See the autobiographical Aus dem Leben eines alten Professors (Leipzig and Darmstadt, 1848), to which was added in the year of his death Paralipomena der Lebenskunde eines alten Professors (Frankfurt, 1858); also Starck, Friederich Kreuzer, sein Bildungsgang und seine bleibende Bedeutung (Heidelberg, 1875).
Notes
References
1771 births
1858 deaths
People from Marburg
German philologists
Archaeologists from Hesse
People from the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
|
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200390
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS-N-22
|
SS-N-22
|
SS-N-22 Sunburn is the NATO reporting name for two unrelated Soviet anti-ship missiles. Although the missiles were very different, distinguishing between them is difficult because their ship-mounted launching containers were identical. Confusion was exacerbated by the Soviet practice of mixing missile types within a class of ships. It was therefore not confirmed that the "SS-N-22" actually referenced two different missiles until after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Chelomei rocket
One of the SS-N-22s was the P-80 Zubr, designed by a team led by Vladimir Chelomei. The Zubr was rocket-propelled and armed with a 250 kilogram warhead. It was carried by early-model Sovremenny-class destroyers and Tarantul-class corvettes. The submarine-launched version of this missile was also designated as an SS-N-22 Sunburn by NATO but was known to the Soviets as the P-100 Oniks.
MKB Raduga model
The other, unrelated SS-N-22 was the Raduga P-270 Moskit. It was ramjet-propelled (though launched by a small solid-fuel rocket), and was carried by later-model Sovremenny class destroyers, Tarantul class corvettes, and several smaller warships. This weapon has a top speed of Mach 3. The high speed of the missile means a typical response time for the target of only 25 to 30 seconds, giving a target little time to react. Moskit can be armed with a warhead of 320 kg.
Another version of this weapon is called the ASM-MMS or Kh-41; it is intended to be launched by a Su-33.
The People's Republic of China acquired SS-N-22 launchers and missiles (specifically, the for-export 3M-80E Moskit variant) with a 1999–2000 purchase of two Sovremenny destroyers from Russia.According to Russia, the PRC funded the development of the SS-N-22 version for the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN). It has the designation 3M-80MBE, and this version differs from earlier versions mainly in having increased range (now beyond 220 km; 240 km has been quoted). These new missiles will be first installed on board the second pair of Sovremenny class destroyers. A total of 500 SS-N-22 AShM were ordered by the PRC for the four Russian-built Sovremenny class destroyers. With the exception of the first 20, these are the 3M-80MBE variant. The PRC has stockpiled roughly 15 SS-N-22 missiles per launch tube (each destroyer having a total of 8 launchers in two quadruple configurations). It is speculated that the PLAN intends to use the missiles against carrier battle groups deployed by the United States Navy in the event of a confrontation with the Republic of China (Taiwan).
Six SS-N-22 launchers were also present on the Soviet ekranoplan Lun.
Operators
See also
Goalkeeper close-in weapon system (CIWS), a countermeasure to anti-ship missiles
References
External links
Moskit/SS-N-22 Sunburn on GlobalSecurity.org
Moskit/SS-N-22 Sunburn Photoalbum on Bora-Class.info
Project 671 Victor class Attack Submarine (Nuclear Powered) on GlobalSecurity.org
Project 945 Sierra class Attack Submarine (Nuclear Powered) on GlobalSecurity.org
3M55 Oniks / P-800 Yakhont / P-800 Bolid / SSN-X-26 on GlobalSecurity.org
CHINA'S "TSUSHIMA" ANTICARRIER STRATEGY on jamestown.org
Cold War anti-ship missiles of the Soviet Union
Anti-ship missiles of Russia
Anti-ship missiles of the Soviet Union
ko:P-270 모스킷
|
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200391
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto%20for%20Orchestra%20%28Bart%C3%B3k%29
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Concerto for Orchestra (Bartók)
|
The Concerto for Orchestra in F minor, Sz. 116, BB 123, is a five-movement orchestral work composed by Béla Bartók in 1943. It is one of his best-known, most popular, and most accessible works.
The score is inscribed "15 August – 8 October 1943". It was premiered on December 1, 1944, in Symphony Hall, Boston, by the Boston Symphony Orchestra conducted by Serge Koussevitzky. It was a great success and has been regularly performed since.
It is perhaps the best-known of a number of pieces that have the apparently contradictory title Concerto for Orchestra. This is in contrast to the conventional concerto form, which features a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniment. Bartók said that he called the piece a concerto rather than a symphony because of the way each section of instruments is treated in a soloistic and virtuosic way.
Composition
The work was written in response to a commission from the Koussevitzky Foundation (run by the conductor Serge Koussevitzky) following Bartók's move to the United States from his native Hungary, which he had fled because of World War II. It has been speculated that Bartók's previous work, the String Quartet No. 6 (1939), could well have been his last were it not for this commission, which sparked a small number of other compositions, including his Sonata for Solo Violin and Piano Concerto No. 3.
Bartók revised the piece in February 1945, the biggest change coming in the last movement, where he wrote a longer ending. Both versions of the ending were published, but the revised ending is almost universally performed.
Instrumentation
The piece is scored for the following instrumentation.
Woodwinds
3 flutes (one doubling piccolo)
3 oboes (one doubling cor anglais)
3 clarinets (one doubling bass clarinet)
3 bassoons (one doubling contrabassoon)
Brass
4 horns
3 trumpets
3 trombones
1 tuba
Percussion
Timpani
Side drum
Bass drum
Cymbals
Triangle
Tam-tam
Strings
Violins I, II
Violas
Cellos
Double basses
2 harps
Musical analysis
The piece is in five movements:
Bartók makes extensive use of classical elements in the work; for instance, the first and fifth movements are in sonata-allegro form.
The work combines elements of Western art music and eastern European folk music, especially that of Hungary, and it departs from traditional tonality, often using non-traditional modes and artificial scales. Bartók researched folk melodies, and their influence is felt throughout the work. For example, the second main theme of the first movement, as played by the first oboe, resembles a folk melody, with its narrow range and almost haphazard rhythm. The drone in the horns and strings also indicates folk influence (see example).
I. Introduzione
The first movement, Introduzione, is a slow introduction of Night music type that gives way to an allegro with numerous fugato passages. This movement is in sonata-allegro form.
II. Presentando le coppie
The second movement, called "Game of Pairs" (but see note below), is in five sections, each thematically distinct from the others, with a different pair of instruments playing together in each section. In each passage, a different interval separates the pair—bassoons are a minor sixth apart, oboes are in minor thirds, clarinets in minor sevenths, flutes in fifths, and muted trumpets in major seconds. The movement prominently features a side drum that taps out a rhythm at the beginning and end of the movement.
While the printed score titles the second movement "Giuoco delle coppie" or "Game of the couples", Bartók's manuscript had no title at all for this movement at the time the engraving-copy blueprint was made for the publisher. At some later date, Bartók added the words "Presentando le coppie" or "Presentation of the couples" to the manuscript and the addition of this title was included in the list of corrections to be made to the score. However, in Bartók's file blueprint the final title is found, and because it is believed to have been the composer's later thought, it is retained in the revised edition of the score.
The original 1946 printed score also had an incorrect metronome marking for this movement. This was brought to light by Sir Georg Solti as he was preparing to record the piece with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra in 1980:
Despite Solti's assertion that thousands of earlier performances had been played at the wrong speed, both of Fritz Reiner's recordings – his 1946 recording with the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra (the first recording of the work), as well as his 1955 recording with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (the same orchestra whose side drum player called the matter to Solti's attention) – had been played at the speed (crotchet equals 94) that Solti later recommended. Reiner had known Bartok since 1905, when they were fellow students at the Budapest Academy. And years later, in 1943, it was Reiner, along with Joseph Szigeti, who persuaded Serge Koussevitsky to commission Bartok to write the Concerto for Orchestra.<ref>Morgan, Kenneth (2005). Fritz Reiner, Maestro and Martinet, p. 120. University of Illinois Press, Champaign. .</ref>
III. Elegia
The third movement, "Elegia", is another slow movement, typical of Bartók's so-called "Night music". The movement revolves around three themes which derive primarily from the first movement.
IV. Intermezzo interrotto
The fourth movement, "Intermezzo interrotto" (literally "interrupted intermezzo"), consists of a flowing melody with changing time signatures, intermixed with a theme that quotes the song "Da geh' ich zu Maxim" from Franz Lehár's operetta The Merry Widow, which had recently also been referenced in the 'invasion' theme of Dmitri Shostakovich's Symphony No. 7 "Leningrad". Whether Bartók was parodying Lehár, Shostakovich, or both has been hotly disputed, without any clinching evidence either way. The theme is itself interrupted by glissandi on the trombones and woodwinds.
In this movement, the timpani are featured when the second theme is introduced, requiring 10 different pitches of the timpani over the course of 20 seconds. The general structure is "ABA–interruption–BA."
V. Finale
The fifth movement, marked presto, consists of a whirling perpetuum mobile main theme competing with fugato fireworks and folk melodies. This is also in sonata-allegro form.
Recordings
The following are only a small selection of the numerous available recordings.
Recorded on 4–5 February 1946, with Fritz Reiner conducting the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra. Columbia Masterworks M-793 (78 rpm). Columbia Records later released a 12-inch LP recording. Columbia ML 4102 (monaural). New York: Columbia.
In 1953, Columbia Records released a recording with Herbert von Karajan conducting the Philharmonia Orchestra. 12-inch LP recording. Columbia 33CX 1054 (monaural). London: Columbia Records.
In 1954, Columbia Records released a recording with Eugene Ormandy conducting the Philadelphia Orchestra. 12-inch LP recording. Columbia ML 4973 (monaural). New York: Columbia.
In 1958, RCA Victor issued a recording with Fritz Reiner conducting the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. 12-inch LP recording. RCA Victor LSC-1934
In 1956, Decca Records released a recording with Ernest Ansermet conducting the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, also including Frank Martin's Concerto for seven winds, percussion, and string orchestra. Decca LXT 5305; London CS-6086; Decca Eclipse (stereo). London: Decca.
In 1959, EMI Records released a recording with Rafael Kubelik conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, also including Bartók's Two Portraits, Op. 5. 12-inch LP recording. HMV ASD 312 (stereo). UK: His Master's Voice.
In 1960, Columbia Records released a recording with Leonard Bernstein conducting the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, recorded at St. George Hotel, Brooklyn, New York, November 30, 1959. 12-inch LP recording. Columbia MS 6140 (stereo). New York: Columbia Records.
In 1962, RCA Victor released a recording with Erich Leinsdorf conducting the Boston Symphony Orchestra, made in Symphony Hall, Boston. 12-inch LP recording. RCA Victor LSC-2643. New York: RCA Victor.
1963, Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, Karel Ančerl. Dvorak Hall, Prague. Supraphon.
In 1965, Columbia Records released a recording with George Szell conducting the Cleveland Orchestra, also including Leoš Janáček's Sinfonietta. 12-inch LP recording. Columbia ML 6215 (stereo). New York: Columbia.
In 1965, Decca Records released a recording with Georg Solti conducting the London Symphony Orchestra. 12-inch LP recording. Decca SXL 6212 (stereo).
In 1979, RCA Red Seal released the first digital recording of the work with Eugene Ormandy conducting the Philadelphia Orchestra. RCA Red Seal ARC1-3421
Recorded in Orchestra Hall, Chicago in January 1981, Sir Georg Solti conducting the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. Digital recording, coupled with Mussorgsky, Pictures at an Exhibition, orchestrated by Ravel, Decca 417 754-2.
In 2012, Naxos Records released a recording with Marin Alsop conducting the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra in addition to Bartók's Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta''. Digital recording. Naxos 8.572486.
Piano reduction
In 1985, Peter Bartók, son of the composer, discovered a manuscript of a piano, two-hands reduction of the score, in the large body of material which had been left to him upon his father's death. This version had been prepared for rehearsals of a ballet interpretation of the Concerto, to be performed by the Ballet Theatre in New York. This performance never took place, and the piano score was shelved. Soon after the discovery of this manuscript, Peter Bartók asked the Hungarian pianist György Sándor to prepare the manuscript for publication and performance. The world premiere recording of this edited reduction was made by György Sándor in 1987, on CBS Masterworks: the CD also includes piano versions of the Dance Suite, Sz. 77 and Petite Suite, Sz. 105, which was adapted from some of the 44 Violin Duos.
References
Further reading
Fosler-Lussier, Danielle (2000). "Bartók's Concerto for Orchestra in Postwar Hungary: A Road Not Taken." International Journal of Musicology, vol. 9, pp. 363-383.
French, Gilbert G. (1967). "Continuity and Discontinuity in Bartók's Concerto for Orchestra." The Music Review, vol. 28, pp. 122-134.
Móricz, Klára (1993-1994). "New Aspects of the Genesis of Béla Bartók's 'Concerto for Orchestra': Concepts of 'Finality' and 'Intention.'" Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, T. 35, Fasc. 1/3, pp. 181-219.
Parker, Beverly Lewis (1989). "Parallels between Bartók's 'Concerto for Orchestra' and Kübler-Ross's Theory about the Dying." The Musical Quarterly, vol. 73, no. 4, pp. 532-556.
Suchoff, Benjamin (2000). "Background and Sources of Bartók's Concerto for Orchestra." International Journal of Musicology, vol. 9, pp. 339-361.
External links
Modernist compositions
Music commissioned by Serge Koussevitzky or the Koussevitzky Music Foundation
Concertos by Béla Bartók
Bartok, Concerto for orchestra
1943 compositions
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0.5024380683898926
] |
200394
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMAS%20Melbourne
|
HMAS Melbourne
|
Three ships of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) have been named HMAS Melbourne, after Melbourne, the capital city of Victoria.
, a light cruiser launched in 1912
, a Majestic-class light aircraft carrier acquired by the RAN in 1947.
, an guided missile frigate launched in 1989
Battle honours
Rabaul, 1914
North Sea, 1916–18
Malaysia, 1965–66
East Timor, 2000
Persian Gulf, 2002
Royal Australian Navy ship names
|
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200395
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleefowl
|
Malleefowl
|
The malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata) is a stocky ground-dwelling Australian bird about the size of a domestic chicken (to which it is distantly related). It is notable for the large nesting mounds constructed by the males and lack of parental care after the chicks hatch. It is the only living representative of the genus Leipoa, though the extinct giant malleefowl was a close relative.
Behaviour
Malleefowl are shy, wary, solitary birds that usually fly only to escape danger or reach a tree to roost in. Although very active, they are seldom seen as they freeze if disturbed, relying on their intricately patterned plumage to render them invisible, or else fade silently and rapidly into the undergrowth (flying away only if surprised or chased). They have many tactics to run away from predators.
Breeding
Pairs occupy a territory, but usually roost and feed apart; their social behavior is sufficient to allow regular mating during the season and little else.
In winter, the male selects an area of ground, usually a small, open space between the stunted trees of the mallee, and scrapes a depression about across and just under deep in the sandy soil by raking backwards with his feet. In late winter and early spring, he begins to collect organic material to fill it with, scraping sticks, leaves, and bark into windrows for up to around the hole, and building it into a nest mound, which usually rises to about above ground level. The amount of litter in the mound varies; it may be almost entirely organic material, mostly sand, or any ratio in between.
After rain, he turns and mixes the material to encourage decay, and if conditions allow, digs an egg chamber in August (the last month of the southern winter). The female sometimes assists with the excavation of the egg chamber, and the timing varies with temperature and rainfall. The female usually lays between September and February, provided enough rain has fallen to start organic decay of the litter. The male continues to maintain the nest mound, gradually adding more soil to the mix as the summer approaches (presumably to regulate the temperature).
Males usually build their first mound (or take over an existing one) in their fourth year, but tend not to achieve as impressive a structure as older birds. They are thought to mate for life, and although the males stay nearby to defend the nests for nine months of the year, they can wander at other times, not always returning to the same territory afterwards.
The female lays a clutch of two or three to over 30 large, thin-shelled eggs, mostly about 15; usually about a week apart. Each egg weighs about 10% of the female's body weight, and over a season, she commonly lays 250% of her own weight. Clutch size varies greatly between birds and with rainfall. Incubation time depends on temperature and can be between about 50 and almost 100 days.
Hatchlings use their strong feet to break out of the egg, then lie on their backs and scratch their way to the surface, struggling hard for 5–10 minutes to gain at a time, and then resting for an hour or so before starting again. Reaching the surface takes between 2 and 15 hours. Chicks pop out of the nesting material with little or no warning, with eyes and beaks tightly closed, then immediately take a deep breath and open their eyes, before freezing motionless for as long as 20 minutes.
The chick then quickly emerges from the hole and rolls or staggers to the base of the mound, disappearing into the scrub within moments. Within an hour, it will be able to run reasonably well; it can flutter for a short distance and run very fast within two hours, and despite not having yet grown tail feathers, it can fly strongly within a day.
Chicks have no contact with adults or other chicks; they tend to hatch one at a time, and birds of any age ignore one another except for mating or territorial disputes.
Distribution and habitat
It occupies semiarid mallee scrub on the fringes of the relatively fertile areas of southern Australia, where it is now reduced to three separate populations: the Murray-Murrumbidgee basin, west of Spencer Gulf along the fringes of the Simpson Desert, and the semiarid fringe of Western Australia's fertile southwest corner.
Important bird areas
Several important bird areas across southern mainland Australia have been identified by BirdLife International as being significant for malleefowl conservation:
New South Wales
Central NSW Mallee
Goonoo
Southern NSW Mallee
South Australia
Gawler Ranges
Gum Lagoon
Peebinga
Riverland Mallee
Southern Yorke Peninsula
Victoria
Little Desert
Murray-Sunset, Hattah and Annuello
Wandown
Wyperfeld, Big Desert and Ngarkat
Western Australia
Dragon Rocks
Dunn Rock and Lake King
Fitzgerald River
Holleton
Karara and Lochada
Karroun Hill
Lake Magenta
Mount Gibson and Charles Darwin
Yeelirrie Station
Conservation status
Across its range, the malleefowl is considered to be threatened. Predation from the introduced red fox is a factor, but the critical issues are changed fire regimens and the ongoing destruction and habitat fragmentation. Like the southern hairy-nose wombat, it is particularly vulnerable to the increasing frequency and severity of drought that has resulted from climate change. Before the arrival of Europeans, the malleefowl was found over huge swaths of Australia.
International
The malleefowl is classified as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List.
Australia
Malleefowl are listed as vulnerable on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Its conservation status has varied over time, and also varies from state to state within Australia. For example:
The malleefowl is listed as threatened on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988). Under this Act, an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared.
On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the malleefowl is listed as endangered.
The malleefowl is listed as vulnerable on schedule 8 of the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972.
Malleefowl are listed as endangered on the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995.
Yongergnow Australian Malleefowl Centre
The Yongergnow Australian Malleefowl Centre is located at Ongerup, Western Australia, on the road between Albany and Esperance. The centre opened in February 2007 and is intended to provide a focal point for education about the malleefowl and the conservation of the species. It has a permanent exhibition and a large aviary containing a pair of malleefowl. The centre collects reported sightings of the malleefowl.
References
HANZAB list as of 2003-03-24
Further reading
Frith, H. J. (1962). The Mallee-Fowl: The Bird That Builds an Incubator. Angus & Robertson: Sydney.
External links
BirdLife Species Factsheet.
Malleefowl Preservation Group
Victorian Malleefowl Recovery Group
Gould's The Birds of Australia plate
National recovery plan for Malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata)
The Mallee Fowl (1957)
Birds described in 1840
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of South Australia
Birds of Western Australia
Leipoa
Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands
Vulnerable fauna of Australia
|
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200396
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto%20for%20Orchestra
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Concerto for Orchestra
|
Although a concerto is usually a piece of music for one or more solo instruments accompanied by a full orchestra, several composers have written works with the apparently contradictory title Concerto for Orchestra. This title is usually chosen to emphasise soloistic and virtuosic treatment of various individual instruments or sections in the orchestra, with emphasis on instruments changing during the piece. It differs from sinfonia concertante in that it has no soloist or group of soloists that remains the same throughout the composition.
A well known concerto for orchestra is Béla Bartók's Concerto for Orchestra (1943), although the title had been used several times before. Goffredo Petrassi made the concerto for orchestra something of a speciality, writing eight of them since 1933. He finished the last one in 1972.
For symphony orchestra
This list is chronological.
Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 38, by Paul Hindemith (1925)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Lucijan Marija Škerjanc (1926)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Vagn Holmboe (1929)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Tadeusz Szeligowski (1930)
Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 43, by Adolf Busch (published 1931)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Gian Francesco Malipiero (1931)
Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 24, by Knudåge Riisager (1931)
Philharmonic Concerto, by Paul Hindemith (1932)
Concerto per orchestra in Do maggiore, by Mario Pilati (1933)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Walter Piston (1933), which is based in part on Hindemith's work
Concerto for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1934)
Concerto per orchestra, Op. 61, by Alfredo Casella (1937)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Zoltán Kodály (1939–40)
Concerto for Orchestra (Based on Red Army Themes), by Richard Mohaupt (1942–43)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Béla Bartók (1943)
Concerto No. 1 for Orchestra 'Arevakal', Op. 88, by Alan Hovhaness (1951)
Concerto No. 2 for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1951)
Concerto No. 4 for Orchestra, Op. 98, No. 2, by Alan Hovhaness (1952)
Concerto No. 7 for Orchestra, Op. 116, by Alan Hovhaness (1953)
Concerto No. 3 for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1953)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Tadeusz Baird (1953)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Witold Lutosławski (1950–54), which won him the UNESCO 1st prize in 1963.
Concerto for Orchestra, "À Darius Milhaud" by Alexandre Tansman (1954)
Concerto No. 4 for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1954)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Anatol Vieru (1954-55)
Concerto No. 5 for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1955)
Concerto No. 8 for Orchestra, Op. 117, by Alan Hovhaness (1957)
Concerto No. 6 for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1957)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Giya Kancheli (1961)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Grażyna Bacewicz (1962)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Michael Tippett (1962–63)
Concerto No. 7 for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1963–64)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 1, Naughty Limericks, by Rodion Shchedrin (1963)
Métaboles, by Henri Dutilleux (1964)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Havergal Brian (1964)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Robert Gerhard (1965)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 1, Gala Music, by Gunther Schuller (1966)
Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 8, by Robin Holloway (1967)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Thea Musgrave (1967)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 2, The Chimes, by Rodion Shchedrin (1968)
Concerto for Orchestra by Oliver Knussen (1969)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Elliott Carter (1969)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Dimitar Tapkoff (1969)
Concerto for Orchestra by Aleksandra Pakhmutova (1971)
Concerto No. 8 for Orchestra, by Goffredo Petrassi (1970–72)
Concerto for orchestra, by Anthony Payne (1974)
Philharmonic Concerto, Op. 120, by Malcolm Arnold (1976)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 2, by Gunther Schuller (1976)
Second Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 40, by Robin Holloway (1978)
Concerto Festivo, for orchestra without conductor, by Andrzej Panufnik (1979)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Roger Sessions (1979–81), which won him the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1982.
Concerto for Orchestra (Suite), by Alexandre Tansman (1981)
Concerto for Orchestra, by John McCabe (1982)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Stephen Paulus (1983)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Edward Gregson (1983) (revised versions 1989 and 2001)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Robert Saxton (1984)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 3, Farbenspiel, by Gunther Schuller (1985)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Alun Hoddinott (1986)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Karel Husa (1986)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 1, by Steven Stucky (1986–87)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Leonard Bernstein (1986–89), which is also known as "Jubilee Games" for orchestra and baritone.
Third Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 80, by Robin Holloway (1981–94)
Concerto for Orchestra (Variations without a theme), by Denys Bouliane (1985–95)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 3, Old Russian Circus Music, by Rodion Shchedrin (1989)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 4, Round Dances (Khorovody), by Rodion Shchedrin (1989)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Joan Tower (1991)
Concerto for Orchestra – Zoroastrian Riddles, by Richard Danielpour (1996)
Strathclyde Concerto No. 10: Concerto for Orchestra, by Peter Maxwell Davies (1996)
Concerto for Orchestra No. 5, Four Russian Songs, by Rodion Shchedrin (1998)
Concerto for Orchestra (reseated), by Augusta Read Thomas (1998)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Stanisław Skrowaczewski (1999)
Boston Concerto, by Elliott Carter (2002)
Concerto for Orchestra by Jennifer Higdon (2002)
Yi°: Concerto for Orchestra, by Tan Dun (2002)
Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 81 by Lowell Liebermann (2002)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Magnus Lindberg (2003)
Second Concerto for Orchestra, by Steven Stucky (2003), which won him the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 2005
Concerto for Orchestra, by David Horne (2003–04)
Concerti for Orchestra, by Milton Babbitt (2004)
Concierto para orquestra, by Agustí Charles (2004)
Fourth Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 101 by Robin Holloway (2004–06)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Christopher Rouse (2007–2008)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Rolf Martinsson (2008)
Symphony No. 5 (Concerto for Orchestra), by Ellen Taaffe Zwilich (2008)
Fifth Concerto for Orchestra, Op. 107, by Robin Holloway (2009–10)
Morning in Long Island, Concert No. 1 for orchestra, by Pascal Dusapin (2011)
Concerto for Orchestra, by Marc Neikrug (2012)
Morpheus, by Søren Nils Eichberg (2012)
Godai; The five elements, Concerto for orchestra (2012–13) by Benjamin Staern
, by Thierry Escaich (2014)
Concerto for Orchestra, by André Previn (2016)
SPIRA, by Unsuk Chin (2019)
For string orchestra
Concerto for Strings in G major, RV 151, Concerto alla rustica, by Antonio Vivaldi (between the mid-1720s and 1730)
Concerto for Double String Orchestra (1938–39), by Michael Tippett
Concerto in D (1946), by Igor Stravinsky
Concerto for String Orchestra (1948), by Grażyna Bacewicz
Concerto for String Orchestra (1949), by Alan Rawsthorne
Concerto per corde (1966), by Alberto Ginastera
For chamber orchestra
Chamber Concerto for Piano and Violin with 13 Wind Instruments (1923–25), by Alban Berg
Concerto for Chamber Orchestra (1932), by George Antheil
Chamber Concerto, for 13 instrumentalists (1969–70), by György Ligeti
Kammerkonzert (1973) by Manfred Trojahn
Concerto for Orchestra (1999), by John Woolrich
Asko Concerto (2000), by Elliott Carter
For wind orchestra
Concerto for Wind Orchestra, by Colin McPhee (1959)
Concerto for Wind Orchestra, Op. 41, by Nikolai Lopatnikoff (1963)
Concierto para banda: 1.Allegro, 2.Lento, 3.Allegro, by Amando Blanquer Ponsoda (1970-71)
References
Lists of musical works
|
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200397
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Heinrich%20Voss
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Johann Heinrich Voss
|
Johann Heinrich Voss (, ; 20 February 1751 – 29 March 1826) was a German classicist and poet, known mostly for his translation of Homer's Odyssey (1781) and Iliad (1793) into German.
Life
Voss was born at Sommersdorf in Mecklenburg-Strelitz as the son of a farmer. After attending the Gymnasium at Neubrandenburg from 1766–1769, he was obliged to accept a private tutorship in order to earn money to enable him to study at a university.
At the invitation of Heinrich Christian Boie, whose attention he had attracted by poems contributed to the Göttinger Musenalmanach, he went to the University of Göttingen in 1772. Here he studied philology, his studies encompassing both classical and modern languages, and became one of the leading spirits in the famous Hain or Dichterbund. In 1775 Boie made over to him the editorship of the Musenalmanach, which he continued to issue for several years. He married Boie's sister Ernestine in 1777.
In 1778 Voss was appointed rector of the school at Otterndorf. In 1781, after the publication of several treatises, he produced a German-language text for Homer's Odyssey. This work made the poem national with the Germans (new ed. by Bernays, 1881).
In 1782, Voss accepted the rectorship of the gymnasium at Eutin. There, in 1789, he published translations of Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics. In 1793, his translation of Homer's Iliad appeared, along with the Odyssey in a new form. He also produced two volumes of controversial letters addressed to Christian Gottlob Heine (Mythologische Briefe, 1794).
He retired from Eutin in 1802 with a pension of 600 thalers, and settled at Jena. In 1805, although Johann Wolfgang von Goethe used his utmost endeavours to persuade him to stay, Voss accepted a call to a professorship of classical literature at the University of Heidelberg. Here, in the enjoyment of a considerable salary, he devoted himself entirely to his literary labours, translations and antiquarian research until his death.
Work
Poetry and essays
Voss was a man of a remarkably independent and vigorous character. From 1785 to 1795 he published in two volumes a collection of original poems, to which he afterwards made many additions. An edition of his poems in four volumes was issued in 1825. Of these original works, the idyllic poem Luise, is uniformly singled out as his most successful. It was first printed in 1783, and reissued with changes in 1795. In this work, he sought to apply the style and methods of classical poetry to the expression of modern German thought and sentiment. The later works Wie ward Fritz Stolberg ein Unfreier (1819) and Antisymbolik (2 vols., 1824–1826), the latter written in opposition to Georg Friedrich Creuzer, have been characterized as painstaking and dignified, but dreary.
His poems were often set by contemporary composers such as C.P.E. Bach, Johann Friedrich Reichardt, and Johann Abraham Peter Schulz, and also later composers such as Felix Mendelssohn, Carl Maria von Weber, and Johannes Brahms. Many of his poems and settings of them were published in the Musenalmanach. Based on his correspondence with Schulz, he favored a folklike style of Lied composition.
Voss's Mythologische Briefe, his Antisymbolik, and other writings made important contributions to the study of mythology. He was also prominent as an advocate of the right of free judgment in religion, and at the time when some members of the Romantic school were being converted to the Roman Catholic Church, he produced a strong impression by a powerful article, in Sophronizon, on his friend Friedrich von Stolberg's repudiation of Protestantism (1819).
Reception and criticism
According to the Metzler Lexikon, the heroines of the Voss's ballad Der Freier and a German traditional song share not only the black colour of hair (eyes), but also some primitive — or even erotic — ″sensuality".
Translations
It is, however, as a translator that Voss chiefly owes his place in German literature. His translations indicate not only sound scholarship but a thorough mastery of the laws of German diction and rhythm. The most famous of his translations are those of Homer. The translation of the Odyssey, as originally issued in 1781, is singled out as the most successful. He also translated Hesiod (1806), Theocritus, Bion and Moschus (1808), the whole of Virgil (1799, rev. ed. 1821), Horace (1806), Tibullus (1810), Propertius (1830) and selections from Ovid (1798). He prepared a critical edition of Tibullus. From 1818 to 1829, a translation of William Shakespeare's plays in 9 volumes was published. This work Voss completed with the help of his sons Heinrich and Abraham, both of whom were scholars and writers of considerable ability, though the result has been characterized as less successful than Schlegel's work.
Voss's Sämtliche poetische Werke were published by his son Abraham in 1835; new ed. 1850. A selection is in A. Sauer, Der Göttinger Dichterbund, vol. i. (Joseph Kürschner's Deutsche National-literatur, vol. 49, 1887). His Letters were published by his son in 3 or 4 volumes (Halberstadt, 1829–1833). Voss left a short autobiography, Abriß meines Lebens (1818). See also Wilhelm Herbst, Johann Heinrich Voß (3 volumes, Leipzig, 1872–1876); Friedrich Heussner, Johann Heinrich Voß als Schulmann in Eutin. Festschrift zum hundertjährigen Gedenktage seiner Ankunft daselbst (1882); and another life by Paulus (Heidelberg, 1826); also Prutz, Der Göttinger Dichterbund (Leipzig, 1841).
According to Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, Voss is the most likely source for the phrase Wein, Weib und Gesang, or, in English, wine, women and song. Voss's full phrase is Wer nicht liebt Wein, Weib und Gesang / Der bleibt ein Narr sein Lebelang ("He who loves not wine, woman and song / Remains a fool his whole life long").
Notes
References
External links
1751 births
1826 deaths
German classical scholars
18th-century German poets
19th-century German poets
German translators
People from Mecklenburg-Strelitz
University of Göttingen alumni
Heidelberg University faculty
Translators of William Shakespeare
German male poets
German male dramatists and playwrights
18th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German male writers
Translators of Homer
Translators of Virgil
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] |
200399
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGC
|
IGC
|
IGC may stand for:
Companies
Intelligent Graphics Corporation, marketer of the VM/386 multitasking operating system or 'control program'
Istituto Geografico Centrale, an Italian private mapping company
Politics
Intergovernmental Conference, the formal procedure for negotiating amendments to the founding treaties of the European Union
International Grains Council, an intergovernmental organisation concerned with grains trade
Iraqi Governing Council, the provisional government of Iraq from July 13, 2003 to June 1, 2004
Science
Inverse gas chromatography, an analytical technique in the analysis of the surfaces of solids
Interchromatin granule cluster, a nanostructure inside the cell nucleus
Organizations
Intergovernmental Commission, which regulates the Channel Tunnel
International Gender Champions, an organizationworking for gender equality
International Geological Congress, a convention held by the International Union of Geological Sciences
International Grains Council, an intergovernmental organization
International Growth Centre, a research institute associated with the London School of Economics, England
Institute for Global Communications or IGC Internet, an institution that provides Internet presence for groups deemed "progressive"
Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, a biological research-oriented institute belonging to the Gulbenkian Foundation, Oeiras, Portugal
International Gliding Commission or FAI Gliding Commission, the international governing body for the sport of gliding which standardized .igc file format.
International Gospel Centre, the headquarters of Word of Life Bible Church, Warri, Nigeria
Other uses
IAPMO Guide Criteria, IAPMO Standards for the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials
IGC Centre, a lava dome in Mount Edziza Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada
Independent Garden Center Show or IGC Show, Chicago, Illinois, US
Instant Game Collection, a feature of PS Plus on Sony's PlayStation Network (PSN/SEN)
Intergranular corrosion or intergranular attack, a form of corrosion
|
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200400
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Christian%20Boie
|
Heinrich Christian Boie
|
Heinrich Christian Boie (19 July 1744 – 3 March 1806) was a German author.
He was born at Meldorf in Holstein (at the time a part of the Danish monarchy). After studying law at Jena, he went in 1769 to Göttingen, where he became one of the leading spirits in the Göttingen "Dichterbund" or "Hain." Boie's poetic talent was mediocre, but his thorough knowledge of literature, his taste and judgment, made him an inspiration to others.
Together with FW Gotter he founded in 1770 the Göttingen Musenalmanach, which he directed and edited until 1775, when, in conjunction with CW von Dohm (1751–1820), he brought out Das deutsche Museum, which became one of the best literary periodicals of the day. In 1776 Boie became secretary to the commander-in-chief at Hanover, and in 1781 was appointed administrator of the province of Süderditmarschen in Holstein. He died at Meldorf.
References
Further reading
Karl Weinhold, Heinrich Christian Boie (Halle, 1868).
1744 births
1806 deaths
People from Meldorf
People from the Duchy of Holstein
German male journalists
German journalists
German poets
Writers from Schleswig-Holstein
German male poets
University of Jena alumni
University of Göttingen alumni
|
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] |
200401
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89liphas%20L%C3%A9vi
|
Éliphas Lévi
|
Éliphas Lévi Zahed, born Alphonse Louis Constant (8 February 1810 – 31 May 1875), was a French esotericist, poet, and author of more than twenty books about magic, Kabbalah, alchemical studies, and occultism. He pursued an ecclesiastical career in the Catholic Church until, after great personal struggle, at the age of 26, he abandoned the Roman Catholic priesthood. At the age of 40 he started to profess a knowledge of the occult, also becoming a reputed ceremonial magician.
The pen name "Éliphas Lévi", was a transliteration of his given names "Alphonse Louis" into the Hebrew. Levi gained renown as an original thinker and writer. His works attracted the attention of the heterogeneous ambiences of the era in Paris and London; from esotericists to artists of romantic or symbolist inspiration. He also expressed his independence by leaving the Masonic lodge of the "Great Orient", believing that it was a form of modern secularization, where knowledge of the original meanings of symbols and rituals was lost. "I ceased being a freemason, at once, because the Freemasons, excommunicated by the Pope, did not believe in tolerating Catholicism."
Many authors influenced Constant's political, occultic and literary development, such as the French monarchist Joseph de Maistre, whom he quotes in many parts of his Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, Paracelsus, Robert Fludd, Swedenborg, Fabre d'Olivet, the Rosicrucianists, Plato, Raymond Lull, and other esoterics.
Life
Early period
Constant was the son of a shoemaker in Paris. In 1832 he entered the seminary of Saint Sulpice to study to enter the Roman Catholic priesthood, as a sub-deacon he was responsible for catechism, later he was ordained a deacon, remaining a cleric to the rest of his life. One week before being ordained to the priesthood, he decided to leave the priestly path, however the spirit of charity and the life he had in the seminary stayed with him through the rest of his life, later he wrote that he had acquired an understanding of faith and science without conflicts.
In 1836, on leaving the priestly path, he provoked his superiors' anger. He had committed to permanent vows of chastity and obedience as a sub-deacon and deacon, returning to civil life was particularly painful for him; he continued to wear the clerical clothes, the cassocks, until 1844.
The possible reasons that saw Levi's departure from the Saint-Sulpice seminary, in 1836, are expressed in the following quote, by A. E. Waite: "He [Levi] seems, however, to have conceived strange views on doctrinal subjects, though no particulars are forthcoming, and, being deficient in gifts of silence, the displeasure of authority was marked by various checks, ending finally in his expulsion from the Seminary. Such is one story at least, but an alternative says more simply that he relinquished the sacerdotal career in consequence of doubts and scruples."
He had to obviate extreme poverty by working as a tutor in Paris. Around 1838, he met and was influenced by the views of the mystic Simon Ganneau, and it may have been through Ganneau's meetings that he also met Flora Tristan. In 1839 he entered the monastic life in the Abbey of Solesmes, he could not maintain the discipline so he quit the monastery.
Upon returning to Paris, he wrote, La Bible de la liberté (The Bible of Liberty), which resulted in his imprisonment in August 1841.
The Eliphas Levi Circle ("(Association law 1901) was set up on April 1 1975") gives the following summary of Levi's marriage and paternity: "At the age of 32 he met two young girls who were friends, Eugénie C and Noémie Cadiot. Despite his preference for Eugenie he also fell under the spell of Noémie whom he was obliged to marry in 1846 in order to avoid a confrontation with the girl’s father. Seven years later Noémie ran away from the marital home to join the marquis of Montferriet and in 1865 the marriage was annulled. Several children issued from this marriage, in particular twins who died shortly after birth. None of these children reached adult age, little Marie for example, who died when she was seven. Lévi had an illegitimate son with Eugénie C, born 29 September 1846, but the child never bore Lévi’s name. However he did know his father, who saw that he was educated. We know from reliable sources that the descendants of this son are living among us in France today."
Writing at the beginning of the 20th-century, A. E. Waite depicts Levi's marriage, perished offspring, and (possible) violation of the Saint Sulpice seminary rule, as follows:
Unexpectedly, in 1850, at the age of forty, Levi succumbed to a period of heightened financial and spiritual crisis - Leading him, more profoundly, to find refuge in the mileiu of mid-19th-century esotericism and the occult.
Later period
In December 1851, Napoleon III organized a coup that would end the Second Republic and give rise to the Second Empire. Constant saw the emperor as the defender of the people and the restorer of public order. In the Moniteur parisien of 1852, Constant praised the new government's actions, but he soon became disillusioned with the rigid dictatorship and was eventually imprisoned in 1855 for publishing a polemical chanson against the Emperor. What had changed, however, was Constant's attitude towards "the people." As early as in La Fête-Dieu and Le livre des larmes from 1845, he had been skeptical of the uneducated people's ability to emancipate themselves. Similar to the Saint-Simonians, he had adopted the theocratic ideas of Joseph de Maistre in order to call for the establishment of a "spiritual authority" led by an élite class of priests. After the disaster of 1849, he was completely convinced that the "masses" were not able to establish a harmonious order and needed instruction.
Constant's activities reflect the struggle to come to terms, both with the failure of 1848 and the tough repressions by the new government. He participated on the Revue philosophique et religieuse, founded by his old friend Fauvety, wherein he propagated his "Kabbalistic" ideas, for the first time in public, in 1855-1856 (notably using his civil name).
Lévi began to write Histoire de la magie in 1860. The following year, in 1861, he published a sequel to Dogme et rituel, La clef des grands mystères ("The Key to the Great Mysteries"). In 1861 Lévi revisited London. Further magical works by Lévi include Fables et symboles ("Stories and Images"), 1862, Le sorcier de Meudon ("The Wizard of Meudon", an extended edition of two novels originally published in 1847) 1861, and La science des esprits ("The Science of Spirits"), 1865. In 1868, he wrote Le grand arcane, ou l'occultisme Dévoilé ("The Great Secret, or Occultism Unveiled"); this, however, was only published posthumously in 1898.
The thesis of magic propagated by Éliphas Lévi was of significant renown, especially after his death. That Spiritualism was popular on both sides of the Atlantic from the 1850s contributed to this success. However, Lévi diverged from spiritualism and criticized it, because he believed only mental images and "astral forces" persisted after an individual died, which could be freely manipulated by skilled magicians, unlike the autonomous spirits that Spiritualism posited.
In regard to the purported supernatural occurrences reported by the practitioners of spiritualism, Levi was obviously credulous. He explained: "The phenomena which quite recently have perturbed America and Europe, those of table-turning and fluidic manifestations, are simply magnetic currents at the beginning of their formation, appeals on the part of Nature inviting us, for the good of humanity, to reconstitute great sympathetic and religious chains."
His magical teachings were free from obvious fanaticisms, even if they remained rather murky; and he had nothing to sell (notwithstanding his publications). He did profess himself to be: "A poor and obscure scholar [who] has found the lever of Archimedes, and he offers it to you for the good of humanity alone, asking nothing whatsoever in exchange." He did not pretend to be the initiate of some ancient or fictitious secret society. He incorporated the Tarot cards into his magical system, and as a result the Tarot has been an important part of the paraphernalia of Western magicians.
He had a deep impact on the magic of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and later on the ex–Golden Dawn member Aleister Crowley. He was also the first to declare that a pentagram or five-pointed star with one point down and two points up represents evil, while a pentagram with one point up and two points down represents good. Lévi's ideas also influenced Helena Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society.
As a ceremonial magus
Of his initial experience with British esoterists, in 1854, Levi wrote: "I had undertaken a journey to London, that I might escape from internal disquietude and devote myself, without interruption, to science. [...] They asked me forthwith to work wonders, as if I were a charlatan, and I was somewhat discouraged, for, to speak frankly, far from being inclined to initiate others into the mysteries of Ceremonial Magic, I had shrunk all along from its illusions and weariness. Moreover, such ceremonies necessitated an equipment which would be expensive and hard to collect. I buried myself therefore in the study of the transcendent Kabalah, and troubled no further about English adepts."
It did not take long after his arrival in England, however, before his skills as a reputed magus were earnestly courted; and Levi obliged: An elderly British woman, who, on the agreement to strictest secrecy, "rigorous amongst adepts," provided him with "a complete magical cabinet" containing the necessary paraphernalia to apply his theories to the practice of magic in England.
Theory of magic
In the preface to The History of Magic (translator, A. E. Waite), enumerates (what he believed to be) the nine key tenets of magic as codified in Levi's earlier work, Doctrine and Ritual of Transcendental Magic.
They are:
The three chief components of Levi's magical thesis were: Astral Light, the Will and the Imagination. Levi did not originate any of these as occult concepts.
Concerning the "Astral Light", Waite noted: "the Astral Light, which is neither more nor less than the odylic force of Baron Carl Reichenbach, as the French writer [Levi] himself admits substantially, [...]" and: "This force he [Levi] usually terms the Astral Light, a name which is borrowed from Saint-Martin and the French mystics of the eighteenth century."
Louis Claude de Saint-Martin, had used the term "astral" to mean "psychic force"
"Astral Light" was also indebted to the ideas of 18th-century proto-hypnotist, Franz Mesmer: "[Mesmer] evolved the theory of “ animal magnetism.” This he held to be a fluid which pervades the universe, but is most active in the human nervous organization, and enables one man, charged with the fluid, to exert a powerful influence over another."
Astral is an adjective meaning: "Connected to, consisting of, stars." Levi used the term "Astral", not only as a synonym for "psychic force", but because he believed in the ancient and medieval superstition of astrology. As Levi wrote himself: "Nothing is indifferent in Nature, a pebble more or less upon a road may crush or profoundly alter the fortunes of the greatest men and even of the greatest empires, much more then the position of a particular star can not be indifferent to the destinies of the child who is being, and who enters by the fact of his birth into the universal harmony of the sidereal [astrological] world."
"Will" and "Imagination", as magical agents, were asserted three centuries before Levi, by Paracelsus:
Eliphas Levi cautioned: "The operations of [magic] science are not devoid of danger. Their result may be madness for those who are not established on the base of the supreme, absolute, and infallible reason. They may over-excite the nervous system, producing terrible and incurable diseases." "Let those, therefore, who seek in magic the means to satisfy their passions, pause in that deadly path, where they will find nothing but death or madness. This is the significance of the vulgar tradition that the devil finished sooner or later by strangling the sorcerers."
Alleged Socialist background
It was long believed that the socialist Constant disappeared with the demise of the Second Republic and gave way to the occultist Éliphas Lévi. It has been argued recently, however, that this narrative was constructed at the end of the 19th-century in occultist circles and was uncritically adopted by later scholarship. According to this argument, Constant not only developed his "occultism" as a direct consequence of his socialist and post-clergical ideas, but he continued to propagate the realization of "true socialism" throughout his entire life.
According to the narrative developed by the occultist Papus (Gérard Encausse) and cemented by the occultist biographer Paul Chacornac, Constant's turn to occultism was the result of an "initiation" by the eccentric Polish expatriate Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński. However, it has been argued that Wronski's influence had been brief, between 1852 and 1853, and superficial.
However, this narrative had been developed before Papus and his companions had any access to reliable information about Constant's life. This becomes most obvious in the light of the fact that Papus had tried to contact Constant by mail on 11 January 1886 – almost eleven years after his death. The two did know each other, as evidenced in Constant's 6 January 1853 letter to Hoene-Wroński, thanking him for including one of Constant's articles in Hoené-Wroński's 1852 work, Historiosophie ou science de l’histoire. In the letter Constant expresses his admiration for Hoené-Wroński's "still underappreciated genius" and calls himself his "sincere admirer and devoted disciple."
Later on, the construction of a specifically French esoteric tradition, in which Constant was to form a crucial link, perpetuated this idea of a clear rupture between the socialist Constant and the occultist Lévi. Julian Strube in 2016 wrote that a different narrative was developed independently by Arthur Edward Waite, who was a near contemporary of Levi. Strube opined that A. E. Waite knew insufficient details of Constant's life.
Levi contemplated "magic" as a new order - an ideology (potentially a politically useful superstition (?)) by which a new hierarchy would be articulated, as he states: "Hereunto therefore we have made it plain, as we believe, that our Magic is opposed to the goetic and necromantic kinds. It is at once an absolute science and religion, which should not indeed destroy and absorb all opinions and all forms of worship, but should regenerate and direct them by reconstituting the circle of initiates, and thus providing the blind masses with wise and clear-seeing leaders."
A journey to London, that Levi made in May 1854, did not cause his preoccupation with magic, wrote Strube - Even though Levi professed involvement in magical ritual. Instead, Strube believes, it was the aforementioned socialist-magnetistic dialectic that compassed Levi's interest in magic.
Selected writings
Includes material on alchemy
See also
Victor Hennequin
Notes
References
Further reading
Bowman, Frank Paul (1969). Eliphas Lévi, visionnaire romantique. Presses Universitaires de France.
Chacornac, Paul (1926). Eliphas Lévi: Rénovateur de l'Occultisme en France. Chacornac frères.
Mercier, Alain (1974). Eliphas Lévi et la pensée magique au XIXe siècle Alain Mercier. Seghers.
Strube, Julian (2016). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France". Religion. .
External links
Online books by Lévi at About.com via the Wayback Machine
1810 births
1875 deaths
19th-century French male writers
19th-century French writers
19th-century occultists
Ceremonial magicians
Fourierists
French male non-fiction writers
French occult writers
French occultists
Tarot readers
Tarotologists
Writers from Paris
Burials at Ivry Cemetery
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200403
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Wilhelm%20Gotter
|
Friedrich Wilhelm Gotter
|
Friedrich Wilhelm Gotter (3 September 1746 – 18 March 1797) was a German poet and dramatist.
Biography
He was born at Gotha. He started out studying law, but early on was influenced to write for the theatre. After the completion of his university course at Göttingen, he was appointed second director of the Gotha Archive. He subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial law courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha legation. In 1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, and here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous Göttinger Musenalmanach. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where he belonged to Goethe's circle. Four years later he returned to live permanently in Gotha, where he worked until his death.
Work
Gotter was the chief representative of French taste in the German literary life of his time. His poetry is elegant and polished, and largely free from the trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of the earlier generation of imitators of French literature; but he lacked imaginative depth.
His plays, of which Merope (1774), an adaptation in blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and Medea (1775), a melodrama, are best known, were mostly based on French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting the formlessness and irregularity of the Sturm und Drang drama.
Medea served as a libretto for an opera by Jiří Antonín Benda (1778).
Gotter's collected Gedichte appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; a third volume (1802) contains his Literarischer Nachlass. See B. Litzmann, Schröder und Gotter (1887), and R. Schlösser, F. W. Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke (1894).
His best known work is the lyrics to the well known lullaby Schlafe, mein Prinzchen, Schlaf ein.
Notes
References
1746 births
1797 deaths
German poets
People from Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg
People from Gotha (town)
University of Göttingen alumni
German male poets
German male dramatists and playwrights
18th-century German dramatists and playwrights
German-language poets
18th-century German male writers
|
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] |
200405
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic%20system
|
Limbic system
|
The limbic system, also known as the paleomammalian cortex, is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the medial temporal lobe of the cerebrum primarily in the forebrain.
It supports a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, long-term memory, and olfaction. Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic system, and it critically aids the formation of memories.
With a primordial structure, the limbic system is involved in lower order emotional processing of input from sensory systems and consists of the amygdaloid nuclear complex (amygdala), mammillary bodies, stria medullaris, central gray and dorsal and ventral nuclei of Gudden. This processed information is often relayed to a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and mesencephalon, including the prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, limbic thalamus, hippocampus including the parahippocampal gyrus and subiculum, nucleus accumbens (limbic striatum), anterior hypothalamus, ventral tegmental area, midbrain raphe nuclei, habenular commissure, entorhinal cortex, and olfactory bulbs.
Structure
The limbic system was originally defined by Paul D. MacLean as a series of cortical structures surrounding the boundary between the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem. The name "limbic" comes from the Latin word for the border, limbus, and these structures were known together as the limbic lobe. Further studies began to associate these areas with emotional and motivational processes and linked them to subcortical components that were then grouped into the limbic system.
Currently, it is not considered an isolated entity responsible for the neurological regulation of emotion, but rather one of the many parts of the brain that regulate visceral autonomic processes. Therefore, the set of anatomical structures considered part of the limbic system is controversial. The following structures are, or have been considered, part of the limbic system:
Cortical areas:
Limbic lobe
Orbitofrontal cortex: a region in the frontal lobe involved in the process of decision-making
Piriform cortex: part of the olfactory system
Entorhinal cortex: related to memory and associative components
Fornix: a white matter structure connecting the hippocampus with other brain structures, particularly the mammillary bodies and septal nuclei
Subcortical areas:
Septal nuclei: a set of structures that lie in front of the lamina terminalis, considered a pleasure zone
Hippocampus and associated structures: play a central role in the consolidation of new memories
Amygdala: located deep within the temporal lobes and related with a number of emotional processes
Nucleus accumbens: involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction
Diencephalic structures:
Hypothalamus: a center for the limbic system, connected with the frontal lobes, septal nuclei, and the brain stem reticular formation via the medial forebrain bundle, with the hippocampus via the fornix, and with the thalamus via the mammillothalamic fasciculus; regulates many autonomic processes
Mammillary bodies: part of the hypothalamus that receives signals from the hippocampus via the fornix and projects them to the thalamus
Anterior nuclei of thalamus: receive input from the mammillary bodies and involved in memory processing
Function
The structures and interacting areas of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex. The limbic system operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system. It is highly interconnected with the nucleus accumbens, which plays a role in sexual arousal and the "high" derived from certain recreational drugs. These responses are heavily modulated by dopaminergic projections from the limbic system. In 1954, Olds and Milner found that rats with metal electrodes implanted into their nucleus accumbens, as well as their septal nuclei, repeatedly pressed a lever activating this region.
The limbic system also interacts with the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are a set of subcortical structures that direct intentional movements. The basal ganglia are located near the thalamus and hypothalamus. They receive input from the cerebral cortex, which sends outputs to the motor centers in the brain stem. A part of the basal ganglia called the striatum controls posture and movement. Recent studies indicate that if there is an inadequate supply of dopamine in the striatum, this can lead to the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
The limbic system is also tightly connected to the prefrontal cortex. Some scientists contend that this connection is related to the pleasure obtained from solving problems. To cure severe emotional disorders, this connection was sometimes surgically severed, a procedure of psychosurgery, called a prefrontal lobotomy (this is actually a misnomer). Patients having undergone this procedure often became passive and lacked all motivation.
The limbic system is often incorrectly classified as a cerebral structure, but simply interacts heavily with the cerebral cortex. These interactions are closely linked to olfaction, emotions, drives, autonomic regulation, memory, and pathologically to encephalopathy, epilepsy, psychotic symptoms, cognitive defects. The functional relevance of the limbic system has proven to serve many different functions such as affects/emotions, memory, sensory processing, time perception, attention, consciousness, instincts, autonomic/vegetative control, and actions/motor behavior. Some of the disorders associated with the limbic system and its interacting components are epilepsy and schizophrenia.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is involved with various processes relating to cognition and is one of the most well understood and heavily involved limbic interacting structure.
Spatial memory
The first and most widely researched area concerns memory, particularly spatial memory. Spatial memory was found to have many sub-regions in the hippocampus, such as the dentate gyrus (DG) in the dorsal hippocampus, the left hippocampus, and the parahippocampal region. The dorsal hippocampus was found to be an important component for the generation of new neurons, called adult-born granules (GC), in adolescence and adulthood. These new neurons contribute to pattern separation in spatial memory, increasing the firing in cell networks, and overall causing stronger memory formations. This is thought to integrate spatial and episodic memories with the limbic system via a feedback loop that provides emotional context of a particular sensory input.
While the dorsal hippocampus is involved in spatial memory formation, the left hippocampus is a participant in the recall of these spatial memories. Eichenbaum and his team found, when studying the hippocampal lesions in rats, that the left hippocampus is "critical for effectively combining the 'what', 'when', and 'where' qualities of each experience to compose the retrieved memory". This makes the left hippocampus a key component in the retrieval of spatial memory. However, Spreng found that the left hippocampus is a general concentrated region for binding together bits and pieces of memory composed not only by the hippocampus, but also by other areas of the brain to be recalled at a later time. Eichenbaum's research in 2007 also demonstrates that the parahippocampal area of the hippocampus is another specialized region for the retrieval of memories just like the left hippocampus.
Learning
The hippocampus, over the decades, has also been found to have a huge impact in learning. Curlik and Shors examined the effects of neurogenesis in the hippocampus and its effects on learning. This researcher and his team employed many different types of mental and physical training on their subjects, and found that the hippocampus is highly responsive to these latter tasks. Thus, they discovered an upsurge of new neurons and neural circuits in the hippocampus as a result of the training, causing an overall improvement in the learning of the task. This neurogenesis contributes to the creation of adult-born granules cells (GC), cells also described by Eichenbaum in his own research on neurogenesis and its contributions to learning. The creation of these cells exhibited "enhanced excitability" in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the dorsal hippocampus, impacting the hippocampus and its contribution to the learning process.
Hippocampus damage
Damage related to the hippocampal region of the brain has reported vast effects on overall cognitive functioning, particularly memory such as spatial memory. As previously mentioned, spatial memory is a cognitive function greatly intertwined with the hippocampus. While damage to the hippocampus may be a result of a brain injury or other injuries of that sort, researchers particularly investigated the effects that high emotional arousal and certain types of drugs had on the recall ability in this specific memory type. In particular, in a study performed by Parkard, rats were given the task of correctly making their way through a maze. In the first condition, rats were stressed by shock or restraint which caused a high emotional arousal. When completing the maze task, these rats had an impaired effect on their hippocampal-dependent memory when compared to the control group. Then, in a second condition, a group of rats were injected with anxiogenic drugs. Like the former these results reported similar outcomes, in that hippocampal-memory was also impaired. Studies such as these reinforce the impact that the hippocampus has on memory processing, in particular the recall function of spatial memory. Furthermore, impairment to the hippocampus can occur from prolonged exposure to stress hormones such as glucocorticoids (GCs), which target the hippocampus and cause disruption in explicit memory.
In an attempt to curtail life-threatening epileptic seizures, 27-year-old Henry Gustav Molaison underwent bilateral removal of almost all of his hippocampus in 1953. Over the course of fifty years he participated in thousands of tests and research projects that provided specific information on exactly what he had lost. Semantic and episodic events faded within minutes, having never reached his long term memory, yet emotions, unconnected from the details of causation, were often retained. Dr. Suzanne Corkin, who worked with him for 46 years until his death, described the contribution of this tragic "experiment" in her 2013 book.
Amygdala
Episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) networks
Another integrative part of the limbic system, the amygdala, which is the deepest part of the limbic system, is involved in many cognitive processes and is largely considered the most primordial and vital part of the limbic system. Like the hippocampus, processes in the amygdala seem to impact memory; however, it is not spatial memory as in the hippocampus but the semantic division of episodic-autobiographical memory (EAM) networks. Markowitsch's amygdala research shows it encodes, stores, and retrieves EAM memories. To delve deeper into these types of processes by the amygdala, Markowitsch and his team provided extensive evidence through investigations that the "amygdala's main function is to charge cues so that mnemonic events of a specific emotional significance can be successfully searched within the appropriate neural nets and re-activated." These cues for emotional events created by the amygdala encompass the EAM networks previously mentioned.
Attentional and emotional processes
Besides memory, the amygdala also seems to be an important brain region involved in attentional and emotional processes. First, to define attention in cognitive terms, attention is the ability to focus on some stimuli while ignoring others. Thus, the amygdala seems to be an important structure in this ability.
Foremost, however, this structure was historically thought to be linked to fear, allowing the individual to take action in response to that fear. However, as time has gone by, researchers such as Pessoa, generalized this concept with help from evidence of EEG recordings, and concluded that the amygdala helps an organism to define a stimulus and therefore respond accordingly. However, when the amygdala was initially thought to be linked to fear, this gave way for research in the amygdala for emotional processes. Kheirbek demonstrated research that the amygdala is involved in emotional processes, in particular the ventral hippocampus. He described the ventral hippocampus as having a role in neurogenesis and the creation of adult-born granule cells (GC). These cells not only were a crucial part of neurogenesis and the strengthening of spatial memory and learning in the hippocampus but also appear to be an essential component to the function of the amygdala. A deficit of these cells, as Pessoa (2009) predicted in his studies, would result in low emotional functioning, leading to high retention rate of mental diseases, such as anxiety disorders.
Social processing
Social processing, specifically the evaluation of faces in social processing, is an area of cognition specific to the amygdala. In a study done by Todorov, fMRI tasks were performed with participants to evaluate whether the amygdala was involved in the general evaluation of faces. After the study, Todorov concluded from his fMRI results that the amygdala did indeed play a key role in the general evaluation of faces. However, in a study performed by researchers Koscik and his team, the trait of trustworthiness was particularly examined in the evaluation of faces. Koscik and his team demonstrated that the amygdala was involved in evaluating the trustworthiness of an individual. They investigated how brain damage to the amygdala played a role in trustworthiness, and found that individuals that suffered damage tended to confuse trust and betrayal, and thus placed trust in those having done them wrong. Furthermore, Rule, along with his colleagues, expanded on the idea of the amygdala in its critique of trustworthiness in others by performing a study in 2009 in which he examined the amygdala's role in evaluating general first impressions and relating them to real-world outcomes. Their study involved first impressions of CEOs. Rule demonstrated that while the amygdala did play a role in the evaluation of trustworthiness, as observed by Koscik in his own research two years later in 2011, the amygdala also played a generalized role in the overall evaluation of first impression of faces. This latter conclusion, along with Todorov's study on the amygdala's role in general evaluations of faces and Koscik's research on trustworthiness and the amygdala, further solidified evidence that the amygdala plays a role in overall social processing.
Klüver–Bucy syndrome
Based on experiments done on monkeys, the destruction of the temporal cortex almost always led to damage of the amygdala. This damage done to the amygdala led the physiologists Kluver and Bucy to pinpoint major changes in the behavior of the monkeys. The monkeys demonstrated the following changes:
The monkeys were not afraid of anything.
The monkeys had extreme curiosity about everything.
The monkeys forgot rapidly.
The monkeys had a tendency to place everything in its mouth.
The monkeys often had a sexual drive so strong that they attempted to copulate with immature animals, animals of the same sex, or even animals of a different species.
This set of behavioral change came to be known as the Klüver–Bucy syndrome.
Evolution
Paul D. MacLean, as part of his triune brain theory, hypothesized that the limbic system is older than other parts of the forebrain, and that it developed to manage circuitry attributed to the fight or flight first identified by Hans Selye in his report of the General Adaptation Syndrome in 1936. It may be considered a part of survival adaptation in reptiles as well as mammals (including humans). MacLean postulated that the human brain has evolved three components, that evolved successively, with more recent components developing at the top/front. These components are, respectively:
The archipallium or primitive ("reptilian") brain, comprising the structures of the brain stem – medulla, pons, cerebellum, mesencephalon, the oldest basal nuclei – the globus pallidus and the olfactory bulbs.
The paleopallium or intermediate ("old mammalian") brain, comprising the structures of the limbic system.
The neopallium, also known as the superior or rational ("new mammalian") brain, comprises almost the whole of the hemispheres (made up of a more recent type of cortex, called neocortex) and some subcortical neuronal groups. It corresponds to the brain of the superior mammals, thus including the primates and, as a consequence, the human species. Similar development of the neocortex in mammalian species unrelated to humans and primates has also occurred, for example in cetaceans and elephants; thus the designation of "superior mammals" is not an evolutionary one, as it has occurred independently in different species. The evolution of higher degrees of intelligence is an example of convergent evolution, and is also seen in non-mammals such as birds.
According to Maclean, each of the components, although connected with the others, retained "their peculiar types of intelligence, subjectivity, sense of time and space, memory, mobility and other less specific functions".
However, while the categorization into structures is reasonable, the recent studies of the limbic system of tetrapods, both living and extinct, have challenged several aspects of this hypothesis, notably the accuracy of the terms "reptilian" and "old mammalian". The common ancestors of reptiles and mammals had a well-developed limbic system in which the basic subdivisions and connections of the amygdalar nuclei were established. Further, birds, which evolved from the dinosaurs, which in turn evolved separately but around the same time as the mammals, have a well-developed limbic system. While the anatomic structures of the limbic system are different in birds and mammals, there are functional equivalents.
History
Etymology and history
The term limbic comes from the Latin limbus, for "border" or "edge", or, particularly in medical terminology, a border of an anatomical component. Paul Broca coined the term based on its physical location in the brain, sandwiched between two functionally different components.
The limbic system is a term that was introduced in 1949 by the American physician and neuroscientist, Paul D. MacLean. The French physician Paul Broca first called this part of the brain in 1878. He examined the differentiation between deeply recessed cortical tissue and underlying, subcortical nuclei. However, most of its putative role in emotion was developed only in 1937 when the American physician James Papez described his anatomical model of emotion, the Papez circuit.
The first evidence that the limbic system was responsible for the cortical representation of emotions was discovered in 1939, by Heinrich Kluver and Paul Bucy. Kluver and Bucy, after much research, demonstrated that the bilateral removal of the temporal lobes in monkeys created an extreme behavioral syndrome. After performing a temporal lobectomy, the monkeys showed a decrease in aggression. The animals revealed a reduced threshold to visual stimuli, and were thus unable to recognize objects that were once familiar. MacLean expanded these ideas to include additional structures in a more dispersed "limbic system", more on the lines of the system described above. MacLean developed the intriguing theory of the "triune brain" to explain its evolution and to try to reconcile rational human behavior with its more primal and violent side. He became interested in the brain's control of emotion and behavior. After initial studies of brain activity in epileptic patients, he turned to cats, monkeys, and other models, using electrodes to stimulate different parts of the brain in conscious animals recording their responses.
In the 1950s, he began to trace individual behaviors like aggression and sexual arousal to their physiological sources. He analyzed the brain's center of emotions, the limbic system, and described an area that includes structures called the hippocampus and amygdala. Developing observations made by Papez, he determined that the limbic system had evolved in early mammals to control fight-or-flight responses and react to both emotionally pleasurable and painful sensations. The concept is now broadly accepted in neuroscience. Additionally, MacLean said that the idea of the limbic system leads to a recognition that its presence "represents the history of the evolution of mammals and their distinctive family way of life."
In the 1960s, Dr. MacLean enlarged his theory to address the human brain's overall structure and divided its evolution into three parts, an idea that he termed the triune brain. In addition to identifying the limbic system, he pointed to a more primitive brain called the R-complex, related to reptiles, which controls basic functions like muscle movement and breathing. The third part, the neocortex, controls speech and reasoning and is the most recent evolutionary arrival. The concept of the limbic system has since been further expanded and developed by Walle Nauta, Lennart Heimer, and others.
Academic dispute
There is controversy over the use of the term limbic system, with scientists such as Joseph E. LeDoux and Edmund Rolls arguing that the term be considered obsolete and abandoned. Originally, the limbic system was believed to be the emotional center of the brain, with cognition being the business of the neocortex. However, cognition depends on acquisition and retention of memories, in which the hippocampus, a primary limbic interacting structure, is involved: hippocampus damage causes severe cognitive (memory) deficits. More important, the "boundaries" of the limbic system have been repeatedly redefined because of advances in neuroscience. Therefore, while it is true that limbic interacting structures are more closely related to emotion, the limbic system itself is best thought of as a component of a larger emotional processing plant. It is essentially responsible for sifting through and organizing lower order processing, and relaying sensory information to other brain areas for higher order emotional processing.
See also
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (LHPA axis)
Emotional memory
Fundamentals of Neuroscience at Wikiversity
Paralimbic cortex
Triune brain
References
External links
http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/a/aa042205a.htm
https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system
Mood disorders
Neuroscience of memory
Motivation
History of neuroscience
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200406
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco%20Scipione%2C%20marchese%20di%20Maffei
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Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei
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Francesco Scipione Maffei (; 1 June 1675 – 11 February 1755) was a Venetian writer and art critic, author of many articles and plays. An antiquarian with a humanist education whose publications on Etruscan antiquities stand as incunables of Etruscology, he engaged in running skirmishes in print with his rival in the field of antiquities, Antonio Francesco Gori.
Early career
Maffei was of the illustrious family that originated in Bologna; his brother was General Alessandro Maffei, whose memoirs he edited and published. He studied for five years in Parma, at the Jesuit College, and afterwards, from 1698, at Rome, where he became a member of the Accademia degli Arcadi; on his return to Verona he established a local Arcadia.
In 1703, he volunteered to fight for Bavaria in the War of Spanish Succession, and saw action in 1704 at the Battle of Schellenberg, near Donauwörth. His brother, Alessandro, was second in command at the battle.
In 1709, he went to Padua, where he briefly collaborated with Apostolo Zeno and Antonio Valisnieri in editing the ambitious literary periodical the Giornale de' Letterati d'Italia, which had but a short career.
Theatre projects
Subsequently, an acquaintance with the actor Riccoboni led him to exert himself for the improvement of dramatic art in Italy and a revitalized Italian theatre. His masterpiece, the tragedy Merope, 1714, brought him popularity in Europe; it was famed for its rapid action and the elimination of the prologue and chorus. Other works for the theatre include Teatro Italiano, a small collection of works for presentation on the stage, in 1723–1725; and Le Ceremonie, an original comedy, in 1728. A complete edition of his works appeared at Venice (28 vols. 8vo in 1790).
His collections and antiquarian publications
In 1710, he spent some time studying the manuscripts in the Royal Library at Turin; while there he arranged the collection of objects of art which the late Carlo Emanuele, Duke of Savoy had brought from Rome. From 1718 he became especially interested in the archaeology of his native town, and his investigations resulted in the valuable Verona illustrata (1731–1732).
Maffei devoted the years 1732–1736 to travel in France, England, the Netherlands and Germany. In 1732 he went to the south of France for purposes of archaeological research and from there he went to Paris, where he remained four years and was received as member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. On a visit to London in 1736, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and received at Oxford University, where he was honoured with a doctoral degree; he returned through Holland and Germany to Verona. He was a friend of Francesco Algarotti, who wrote him many letters.
On his return to Verona, he built a museum, which he bequeathed, together with his valuable archaeological and artistic collection, to his native city. He bequeathed his collection of manuscripts to the canons of the cathedral of Verona. In later life he became interested in astronomy and physics, and built an observatory to study the stars.
Philosophical Treatises
Upon returning from his journey in 1736, Maffei wrote the Consiglio politico addressed to the Venetian government. In the treatise, Maffei questioned the structure of Venice's aristocratic government, and suggested the opening of public offices to the elites of the Venetian mainland domains. Ultimately, the Consiglio politico advocated introducing into the government of the Republic of Venice elements of political representation, which Maffei had identified in his antiquarian studies of the Roman constitution, and later observed in foreign lands during his European travels.
Maffei did not actually present his Consiglio politico to the Venetian government. The treatise was only published posthumously, shortly before the fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797. It circulated during the Risorgimento, and might have influenced Carlo Cattaneo's federalist ideas.
The Jesuits requested Maffei to write in defence of the orthodox system of grace against the doctrine of the Jansenists, which resulted in his Istoria teologica delle doctrine e delle opinione corse ne cinque primo secoli della chiesa in proposito della divina grazia, del libero arbitrio e della predestinazione, published at Trent, 1742.
He also published a letter and a book arguing against the existence of supernatural magic and witches, that mixes both enlightenment thinking and theologic arguments based on scripture.
This letter on magic was subsequently printed in Augustin Calmet's dissertation on magic and vampires titled Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.(1751).
Posthumous reputation
The secondary school 'Liceo Maffei' in Verona is named in his honour.
He is also known for having written a description of Bartolomeo Cristofori's invention of a hammer mechanism for the harpsichord, work widely considered to comprise the invention of the piano. Maffei published the article in the Giornale de' Letterati d’Italia in 1711. Maffei was one of the editors of the Giornale. Maffei reprinted the article in his Rime e Prose, a collection of some of his writings, published in Venice in 1719.
The Italian poet and translator Ippolito Pindemonte published a biographical elegy on his friend.
Selected publications
Per la nascita del principe di Piemonte genteliaco (Rome, 1699); *Conclusioni di amore (Verona, 1702);
La prima radunanza della colonia arcadica Veronese (Cervia, 1705);
La scienza cavalleresca (Rome, 1710), a treatise against duelling;
De fabula equestris ordinis Constantiniani (Zurich, 1712; Paris, 1714), written to prove that the orders of knighthood all date only from the Crusades and affording valuable information concerning the aristocracy of the early Middle Ages;
Dell' antica condizione di Verona (Venice, 1719);
Istoria diplomatica (Mantua, 1727), publishing original documents;
Teatro del Marchese Maffei (Venice, 1730), his collected works for the theater, including La Merope, La Ceremonie, La Fida Ninfa ;
Consiglio politico finora inedito presentato al governo veneto nell'anno 1736 (1736; published in Venice, 1797);
Graecorum siglae lapidariae collectae atque explicatae (Verona, 1746);
Della formazione dei fulmini (Verona, 1747);
Il Raguet (Verona, 1787), a comedy;
Supplemento al Tesoro delle Inscrizioni di Muratori (Lucca, 1765); this was published by Donati according to notes collected by Maffei for a complete work on inscriptions
Besides these original works Maffei also collaborated in editions of the works of St. Hilary (Verona, 1730), St. Jerome (1734), and St. Zeno (1739).
See also
Mérope - a tragedy by Voltaire based on an adaptation of Maffei's drama
Notes
References
Falkner, James. Blenheim 1704: Marlborough's Greatest Victory. Pen & Sword.
1675 births
1755 deaths
Writers from Verona
Italian soldiers
17th-century Italian writers
18th-century Italian writers
18th-century Italian male writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Italian antiquarians
Etruscan scholars
|
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200407
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Leopold%20zu%20Stolberg-Stolberg
|
Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg
|
Friedrich Leopold Graf zu Stolberg-Stolberg (7 November 1750 – 5 December 1819), was a German lawyer, and translator born at Bramstedt in Holstein (then a part of Denmark). He was also a poet of the Sturm und Drang' (Storm and Stress) and early Romantic periods.
Life
Friedrich Leopold belonged to a cadet branch of the Stolberg family. He was born the son of a Danish magistrate and owner of a manorial estate, Count Christian zu Stolberg. A few years after his birth the family moved to Copenhagen and soon formed friendships with distinguished literary men, especially Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. Together with his elder brother Christian, Friedrich Leopold went to the University of Halle in 1770, in order to study German Law. His other studies embraced the Classics and various historical courses. The two brothers then studied in Göttingen and were a prominent members of the Göttinger Hainbund, a literary society of young men who had high aspirations for the unity of the country, and who cultivated German poetry. After leaving the university, in 1775 the brothers made a journey to Switzerland in company with the famed poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
In 1777 Friedrich Leopold was appointed envoy of the prince bishop of Lübeck at the Court of Copenhagen, but often stayed at Eutin to spend time with his college friend and member of the Dichterbund, Johann Heinrich Voss. In 1781, he was chief administrator at Eutin.
In 1782 Stolberg married Agnes von Witzleben, whom he celebrated in his poems. After six years of happy married life, leaving two sons and two daughters (one of them, Marie Agnes, married Ferdinand, son of Christian Frederick of Stolberg-Wernigerode), Agnes died an early death in 1788.
Friedrich Leopold then became Danish envoy to the Court of Prussia, and contracted a second marriage with the Countess Sophie von Redern in 1789. After their wedding he and his wife took a grand tour through Germany, Switzerland, and Italy; he documented this trip in a series of letters, Travels through Germany, Switzerland, Italy and Sicily.This tour was of great importance for his religious development, as he then made the acquaintance of the devout Catholic Freiherr von Droste-Vischering, as well as of Droste-Vischering's resident tutor, the distinguished theologian Katerkamp. In 1791 he was appointed president of the Lübeck episcopal court at Eutin. In June, 1800, he joined the Catholic Church in the private chapel of the Princess Gallitzin at Osnabrück, and on 22 August he resigned his various positions, retiring to Münster in Westphalia. He was active in a group of Westphalian Catholics working to develop Romanticism.
By his second marriage Stolberg had a large family, of which all, with the exception of the oldest daughter, followed their father's example and joined the Catholic Church in 1801. The oldest daughter, Agnes, was betrothed to the Lutheran Count Ferdinand of Stolberg-Wernigerode. Four sons and two sons-in-law took part in the campaign against France in 1814; one of these sons was killed at the Battle of Ligny (1815).
For his conversion to Catholicism, Friedrich Leopold was severely attacked by his former friend Voss (Wie ward Fritz Stolberg zum Unfreien?, 1819). After living for a while (from 1812) in the neighbourhood of Bielefeld, he removed to his estate of Schloss Sondermühlen (now part of Melle) near Osnabrück, where he remained until his death in 1819.
Works
In his student days, Stolberg was a member of the Göttinger Hainbund, part of the Sturm und Drang movement. "Friedrich’s verse also has a pastoral, idyllic quality that ties his work to the Romantics."
Friedrich Leopold wrote many odes, ballads, satires and dramas; among them the tragedy Timoleon (1784). He produced translations of the Iliad (1778), of Plato (1796-1797), Aeschylus (1802), and Ossian (1806); he published in 1815 a Leben Alfreds des Grossen, and a voluminous Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi (17 vols., 1806–1818). Other works include poetry, as Ballads (1779) and Iambics (1784), and other works, such as Plays (1787) and Travels (1791); and novels, such as The Island (1788). He also wrote a history of Alfred the Great (1816); a life of St. Vincent de Paul; translated passages from the works of St. Augustine, and also wrote meditations on the Holy Scriptures, which, however, together with the Büchlein der Liebe, and the polemical pamphlet Kurze Abfertigung des langen Schmähschrifts des Hofrats Voss, did not appear until after his death.
Several of his poems were set to music by the Austrian composer Franz Schubert.
Bibliography
The Collected Works of Christian and Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg were published in twenty volumes in 1820–1825; 2nd ed. 1827. Friedrich's correspondence with FH Jacobi will be found in Jacobi's Briefwechsel (1825-1827); that with Voss has been edited by O Hellinghaus (1891).
Selections from the poetry of the two brothers will be found in August Sauer's Der Göttinger Dichterbund, iii. (Kürschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 50, 1896). See also:
Theodor Menge, Der Graf F. L. Stolberg and seine Zeitgenossen (2 vols, 1862)
JH Hennes, Aus F. L. von Stolbergs Jugendjahren (1876)
the same, Stolberg in den zwei letzten Jahrzehnten seines Lebens (1875)
Johannes Janssen, F. L. Graf zu Stolberg (2 vols, 1877), 2nd ed. 1882
Wilhelm Keiper, F. L. Stolbergs Jugendpoesie'' (1893).
Notes
References
Further reading
v.2 + Index
External links
Zeno.org Biography and Works Online (In German)
1750 births
1819 deaths
People from Bad Bramstedt
People from the Duchy of Holstein
German Catholic poets
Translators to German
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism
Danish nobility
University of Göttingen alumni
Friedrich Leopold
German male poets
18th-century German poets
19th-century German poets
18th-century German male writers
19th-century German male writers
Friedrich Leopold
German male non-fiction writers
18th-century German translators
19th-century German translators
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] |
200410
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Resources%20Group
|
International Resources Group
|
The International Resources Group (IRG) is an international professional services firm that is a contractor to governments and international organizations focusing on Energy, Learning and Institutional Strengthening, Climate, Natural Resources and Biodiversity, Water, and Agriculture. Since its inception in 1978, IRG has completed over 600 contracts in more than 120 countries.
IRG was one of the first firms given contracts for the reconstruction of Iraq, winning a $7 million contract from the U.S. government through USAID. IRG has also provided development assistance in Liberia. Other contracts have been in places such as Aceh and Afghanistan. IRG was the implementation partner for USAID Power Distribution Program (PDP) in Pakistan from 2010 to 2015.
In 2013, International Resources Group was purchased by Engility Corporation, a spin-off of L-3 Communications. It was announced in 2017 that IRG was acquired by RTI International from Engility Corporation.
References
Consulting firms established in 1978
Consulting firms of the United States
American companies established in 1978
|
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] |
200414
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston%20Pops%20Orchestra
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Boston Pops Orchestra
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The Boston Pops Orchestra is an American orchestra based in Boston, Massachusetts, specializing in light classical and popular music. The orchestra's music director is Keith Lockhart.
Founded in 1885 as an offshoot of the Boston Symphony Orchestra (BSO), the Boston Pops primarily consists of musicians from the BSO, although generally not all of the first-chair players. The orchestra performs a spring season of popular music and a holiday program in December. For the Pops, the seating on the floor of Symphony Hall is reconfigured from auditorium seating to banquet and cafe seating. The Pops also plays an annual concert at the Hatch Memorial Shell on the Esplanade every Fourth of July. Their performance of "The Stars and Stripes Forever" is famous for the unfurling of the American flag that occurs as the song enters its final moments. Identified with its long-time director Arthur Fiedler, the orchestra has recorded extensively, made frequent tours, and appeared often on television.
History
In 1881, Henry Lee Higginson, the founder of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, wrote of his wish to present in Boston "concerts of a lighter kind of music". The Boston Pops Orchestra was founded to present this kind of music to the public, with the first concert performed on July 11, 1885, under the leadership of Adolf Neuendorff. Called the "Promenade Concerts" until 1900, these performances combined light classical music, tunes from the current hits of the musical theater, and an occasional novelty number. Allowing for some changes of taste over the course of a century, the early programs were remarkably similar to the Boston Pops programs of today.
The Boston Pops Orchestra had seventeen conductors before 1930, when Arthur Fiedler began a fifty-year tenure as the first American-born conductor to lead the orchestra. Under Fiedler's direction, the orchestra's popularity spread far beyond Boston through recordings, radio and television. Unhappy with the reputation of classical music as being solely for affluent concertgoers, Fiedler made efforts to bring classical music to a wider audience. He instituted a series of free concerts at the Hatch Shell on the Esplanade, a public park beside the Charles River. Fiedler insisted that the Pops Orchestra play popular music as well as well-known classical pieces, opening up a new niche of popular symphonic music. Of the many musical pieces created for the orchestra, the Pops' most identifiable works were the colorful novelty numbers composed by Fiedler's close friend Leroy Anderson, including "Sleigh Ride", "The Typewriter", "The Syncopated Clock" and several others. Fiedler also initiated the annual Holiday Pops concerts in December.
Under Fiedler's direction, the Boston Pops has sold more commercial recordings than any other orchestra in the world, with total sales of albums, singles, tapes, and cassettes exceeding $50 million. The orchestra's first recordings were made in July 1935 for RCA Victor, including the first complete recording of George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue. The Pops made their first high-fidelity recording on June 20, 1947, of Gaîté Parisienne (based on the music of Jacques Offenbach), and recorded the same music seven years later in stereophonic sound, their first venture in multitrack recording.
Fiedler is also credited with having begun the annual tradition of the Fourth of July Pops concert and fireworks display on the Esplanade, one of the best-attended Independence Day celebrations in the country with estimated crowds of 200,000–500,000 people. Also during Fiedler's tenure, the Pops and local public television station WGBH developed a series of weekly televised broadcasts, Evening at Pops, recorded during the Pops' regular season in Symphony Hall.
Some shows have holiday–oriented themes, such as Christmas shows featuring performers such as Jonathan Meath, who appeared as Santa with the Boston Pops for ten shows during 2008–2009.
After Fiedler's death in 1979, he was succeeded as conductor of the Boston Pops by the noted film composer John Williams. Williams continued the Pops' tradition of bringing classical music to a wide audience, initiating the annual "Pops-on-the-Heights" concerts at Boston College and adding his own library of well-known film scores (including Star Wars and Indiana Jones) to the orchestra's repertoire. During his time with the Pops, Williams performed with Sammy Davis, Jr. as one of the artists for one of the Evening at Pops specials that aired in 1988. In 1991, the orchestra played Bill Monroe's Uncle Pen and other bluegrass classics with Ricky Skaggs and the Kentucky Thunder.
And in 1992 Williams conducted a memorable performance of the Pops featuring Broadway Icon John Raitt and his daughter Grammy winner Bonnie Raitt along with members of her Band.
Keith Lockhart assumed the post of principal Pops conductor in 1995. Lockhart continues to conduct the Boston Pops today. Williams remains the Laureate Conductor of the Pops and conducts a week of Pops concerts every year, two nights at Symphony Hall each spring and two nights in the Ozawa Hall at Tanglewood each summer.
Guest artists
Lockhart has brought in numerous pop-music acts and icons in addition to Broadway greats (the likes of Idina Menzel, Kristin Chenoweth and Sutton Foster performed with the orchestra throughout Lockhart's first 25 years there) to play with the orchestra since being named conductor, including Ben Folds, Rockapella, Guster, My Morning Jacket, Aimee Mann, Kelly Clarkson, and Elvis Costello.
Spring season
2012
Glee star Matthew Morrison performed with the orchestra.
2014: "The Very Best of The Boston Pops" (May 7 – June 14, 2014)
The 2014 Spring Season was announced towards the end of February 2014, with the title "The Very Best of the Boston Pops".
Opening Night was Wednesday, May 7 at 8pm, and the orchestra opened with "The Very Best of the Boston Pops with Jason Alexander," conducted by Keith Lockhart.
"The Very Best of the Boston Pops" was conducted by Lockhart and performed on select nights throughout the season, giving audiences both a chance to see what the orchestra was capable of performing (given the various selections from their vast library of compositions) as well as the opportunity to select which dates worked best for them. These performances were given on Thursday, May 8, Friday, May 9, Tuesday, May 27th (Arthur Fiedler Night 2014), and Friday, June 13.
2015 (May 6 – June 13, 2015)
During the 2015 Pops Spring Season, the orchestra worked with Bernadette Peters (who opened the spring season that year), The Midtown Men, and Audra McDonald. In 2015, the film that was chosen for the "Film with Orchestra" series was Singin' In The Rain. The orchestra also had tributes throughout the season: two nights of the orchestra playing the music of The Beatles; the ever-popular "John Williams Film Night"; a Celtic sojourn hosted by Brian O'Donnovan with Carlos Núñez and Karan Casey as the special guests; the ever-popular "Gospel Night at Pops" conducted by Charles Floyd featuring The Blind Boys of Alabama; the return of "Cirque de la Symphonie" featuring Cirque du Soleil performers; and ending with Simply Sondheim, featuring Marin Mazzie, Jason Danieley and the Tanglewood Music Center Fellows as special guests.
2017: "Lights, Camera…Music: Celebrating Six Decades of John Williams"
During the 2017 Pops Spring Season, the orchestra had its first season-long tribute to a composer, that composer being John Williams. They recorded a new CD, Lights, Camera, Music: Six Decades of John Williams, which was released during the season. The orchestra had two pre-season events which marked the first time the orchestra had ever used Symphony Hall before May: "Celebrating John Williams!" and "E.T. in Concert". The Pops opened the season with Queen Latifah, and went on to host such events as "Mamma Mia! Mother's Day with the Music of ABBA", working with Ben Folds, "Gospel Night" in its 25th anniversary with Floyd and the Boston Pops Gospel Choir; Leslie Odom, Jr. in his orchestral debut after starring in Hamilton: An American Musical; performing a tribute to The Beatles with Larry "Cha-Chi" Loprete as the host; "Parting with The B-52s", and giving the world-premiere of Sondheim on Sondheim with Philip Boykin, Carmen Cusak, Gabriel Ebert, and Lisa Howard as the vocalists.
2018: "Celebrating Leonard Bernstein's Centennial" (May 9 – June 16, 2018)
The 2018 Spring Season was announced on Monday, February 26, 2018, and featured a season-long celebration and tribute to Leonard Bernstein's centennial.
During the 2018 Pops Spring season, the orchestra worked with both Leslie Odom, Jr. and Andy Grammer (who was the Opening Night headliner) for the second time after successful Fourth of July performances, as well as Sutton Foster again, who performed "A Broadway Celebration" with the orchestra. Some highlights of the season were the return of Laureate Conductor and legendary film composer John Williams for his annual "Film Night" appearances, in addition to an Opening Night salute to Leonard Bernstein for the occasion of Bernstein's centennial later that year. In addition to celebrating Bernstein's centennial, the orchestra presented concert versions of both On The Town and "West Side Story In Concert". They "Danced to the Movies", and were joined by tenor Alfie Boe who "Rocked the Pops" with them. The Pops were joined by Ashley Brown, Josh Strickland, Alton Fitzgerald White and Merle Dandridge to perform beloved songs from 9 Tony Award-winning and Academy Award-winning scores to "Disney's Broadway Hits". The orchestra also performed "The Best of the Boston Pops" Concerts, a series that hadn't been featured since 2013. The Pops performed their annual "Gospel Night" with the Boston Pops Gospel Choir and guest star Melinda Doolittle under the direction of Charles Floyd. The orchestra also welcomed back Leslie Odom, Jr. with special guests Renée Elise Goldsberry and Phillipa Soo for "An Evening with Leslie Odom, Jr".
2019: "Boston Pops: It's A Party!" (May 8 – June 15, 2019)
The 2019 Spring Season was announced on Monday, February 25, 2019, with the title "Boston Pops: It's A Party!"
Bernadette Peters was the Opening Night headliner, with the Pops performing a tribute to the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon Landing, the world premiere of "From The Earth to the Moon and Beyond", a piece by composer James Beckel. May 9 was the annual Presidents At Pops fundraising gala held every year.
The orchestra performed the score to Star Wars: A New Hope in its entirety, live to picture on May 10 and 11 (both the 3om matinee and the 8pm concert), and 14.
2020: "Keith Lockhart's 25th Anniversary" (May 6 – June 13, 2020)
The 2020 Spring Season was announced on Wednesday, February 26, 2020, with a special acknowledgement towards Lockhart's 25th anniversary as conductor. On April 8, the Boston Symphony Orchestra announced that their spring season would be postponed due to the global COVID-19 pandemic of early 2020. Keith Lockhart reassured patrons that the 2020 Spring Season would be performed the following year, thus ironically marking his 26th anniversary as conductor.
2021: "Keith Lockhart's 25th Anniversary" (May 5 – June 12, 2021)
The 2021 Spring Season was announced on Wednesday, February 26, 2020, with a special acknowledgement towards Lockhart's 25th anniversary as conductor. On April 8, 2020, the Boston Symphony Orchestra announced that their spring season would be cancelled due to the global COVID-19 pandemic of 2020–21. Opening Night was Wednesday, May 5 at 8pm and featured "An Evening with Penn & Teller", to be repeated on Thursday, May 6 at 8pm.
The Boston-based group Guster joined the orchestra on Friday, May 7 and Saturday, May 8 at 8pm to continue their orchestral performances.
Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back was shown Wednesday, May 12 at 8pm, Thursday, May 13 at 8pm, Saturday, May 15 at 3pm and Saturday, May 22nd at 3pm.
"Songs of America with Jon Meacham" was the program for Tuesday, May 18 at 8pm (also Arthur Fiedler Night 2021) and Wednesday, May 19 at 8pm. The Pops were joined by Meacham and the Tanglewood Festival Chorus, under the direction of James Burton for the first two of their four appearances that spring.
"Ragtime In Concert" was the next performance, for Thursday, May 20 at 8pm, and Friday, May 21st at 8pm.
"The Wonderful World of Alan Menken's Music" was the program for Wednesday, May 26 at 8pm, Thursday May 27 at 8pm, and Saturday, May 29 at 2pm. The Pops were joined by Broadway actors Sierra Boggess, Telly Leung and Alton Fitzgerald White for these performances.
"Celebrating 25 with Keith!" was presented as special performances on Tuesday, June 1, Wednesday, June 2 and Thursday, June 3 all at 8pm. The Pops special guests for the event were Megan Hilty and Jason Danieley.
"Danny Elfman's Music from the Films of Tim Burton" was performed on Friday, June 4 and Saturday, June 5, both at 8pm. The Pops were conducted by Ted Sperling and were supposed to be joined by the Tanglewood Festival Chorus under the direction of James Burton, for the last two of their four appearances that spring.
"Star Wars: The Story in Music" was performed on Wednesday, June 9 at 8pm.
"An Evening with Amanda Palmer, Neil Gaiman & The Boston Pops" was Thursday, June 10 and Friday, June 11, both at 8pm. The Pops were joined by Palmer and Gaiman as special guests.
"Gospel Night" was Saturday, June 12 at 8pm. The Pops were conducted by Charles Floyd, and Smokie Norful was the special guest.
Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular
For the 2002 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra performed with Maureen McGovern, who paid tribute to the centennial of legendary and iconic Broadway composer Richard Rodgers by performing "My Favorite Things" (from The Sound of Music), and Barry Manilow, who paid tribute to and acknowledged the September 11 attacks when performing his 1976 hit "Weekend in New England".
For the 2005 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra performed with Big and Rich (who performed their hit "Love Train"), Gretchen Wilson, and Cowboy Troy (who performed with Big and Rich for a new rendition of the Declaration of Independence), and highlighted their newest CD America by performing "The Star-Spangled Banner", "Armed Forces Salute", "This Is My Country", "The Gettysburg Address" (narrated by then-WBZ-TV news anchor Jack Williams), "Doodletown Fifers" (performed with the Middlesex County Volunteers Fifes & Drums), "God Bless America", "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy", the "Main Title" (from Star Wars), Tchaikovsky's famous "1812 Overture", and John Philip Sousa's classic march, "The Stars and Stripes Forever".
For the 2006 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra performed with Aerosmith, who performed "Dream On" and "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing".
For the 2008 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra performed with Rascal Flatts, who performed "Life Is A Highway" and "Every Day".
For the 2009 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra performed with Neil Diamond, who performed "Sweet Caroline", "Forever in Blue Jeans", "Cracklin' Rosie", and "America".
During the 2010 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra celebrated its 125th season and the Hatch Shell celebrated its 100th anniversary. The orchestra performed with Toby Keith, who performed "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue" and "American Soldier". They also performed with the Tanglewood Festival Chorus, Renese King (who sang "We the People" (the theme song for Visions of America), and they performed "The Dream Lives On: A Portrait of the Kennedy Brothers", with Lisa Hughes, Jack Williams, Jeremiah Kissel and Will LeBow. The Pops specifically commissioned the piece by Peter Boyer and Lynn Ahrens to be used during their 125th season.
For the 2014 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra performed with Julia Udine and Ben Jacoby from the 2014 U.S. touring production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical The Phantom of the Opera, and The Beach Boys, who performed "Fun, Fun, Fun", "Good Vibrations", and "Surfin' USA".
For the 2015 Fireworks Spectacular, Lockhart and the Pops performed with Michael Cavanaugh who sang some of Billy Joel's classic songs, the Boston-based band Sons of Serendip, and members of the United States Show Troupe.
For the 2016 Fireworks Spectacular, Lockhart and the Pops performed with pop stars Demi Lovato, Nick Jonas (both performing on their joint world tour the FutureNow Tour), and Grammy- and CMA-winning country music stars Little Big Town. The 2016 Fireworks Spectacular also marked David Mugar's final Fireworks Spectacular show, which he produced for over 40 years.
In October 2016, the Boston Pops agreed to take over the management of the annual July Fourth fireworks concert on the Esplanade and to take on the responsibility for finding a corporate sponsor for the $2 million cost. On March 7, 2017, it was announced that Eaton Vance and Bloomberg L.P. had been signed on as sponsors of the concert under a three-year deal, and that the telecast of the event would move from WBZ-TV/CBS to Bloomberg Television.
For the 2017 Fireworks Spectacular, Lockhart and the Pops performed with actor Leslie Odom Jr. (of Hamilton: An American Musical fame), 1990s pop singer Melissa Etheridge, and pop singer Andy Grammer, in addition to the United States Army Soldier's Chorus.
For the 2018 Fireworks Spectacular, the orchestra worked with Rachel Platten, Rhiannon Giddens, the Indigo Girls, actresses Rita Moreno and Natalie Cortez (who was about to open in the ensemble in the world premiere of Moulin Rouge!, which debuted in Boston in October 2018 and later debuted on Broadway in 2019), and the Tanglewood Festival Chorus under the direction of James Burton. In addition to Bloomberg nationwide, the show was carried by independent station WHDH (channel 7) locally over-the-air, and online at Boston.com, BostonGlobe.com, bso.org (the Boston Symphony Orchestra's website), and on the Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular app.
For the 2019 Fireworks Spectacular, Lockhart and the Pops paid tribute to the 50th anniversary of Woodstock by performing both a medley of the Theme and "Pinball Wizard" from The Who's The Who's Tommy! and a medley of "Aquarius" and "The Flesh Failures (Let The Sunshine In)" from Hair. Lockhart and the Pops also performed with Queen Latifah, folk legend Arlo Guthrie (who paid tribute to his father Woody Guthrie by performing "This Land Is Your Land"), poet Amanda Gorman, two acts from America's Got Talent, The Texas Tenors and Amanda Mena, and the United States Navy Sea Chanters Chorus.
The 2020 Fireworks Spectacular was canceled on May 8, 2020, due to the ongoing global COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. In its place, the Pops decided to present "A Boston Pops Salute to Our Heroes" on July 4th, with the only option for broadcasting it being on television, radio and digital media.
The 2021 Fireworks Spectacular was announced on June 11, 2021. Due to the fact it typically takes 10 weeks to plan, it was decided to split the show into two portions. The musical portion will take place at Tanglewood and broadcast live on air and internet stream while the fireworks will take place on the Boston Common.
Holiday Pops
Beginning in December 1973, Arthur Fiedler and the Pops started an occasional tradition at Symphony Hall, which after a few years, became a yearly staple of the winter season in Boston—their Christmas concerts, which became known regionally and locally as Holiday Pops.
Once Fiedler died in 1979, John Williams continued the tradition as conductor from 1980 until 1993. After two years of guest conductors while the BSO were interviewing their next permanent conductor, Keith Lockhart led his first Holiday Pops concert in December 1995. In addition to performing approximately between 40 and 42 each December, the Pops also began performing on New Year's Eve during Lockhart's tenure.
The Holiday Pops 2014 season ran from Wednesday, December 3, 2014 through Wednesday, December 24, 2014, with a movie shown Friday and Saturday, December 26–27, 2014, and the New Year's Eve concert happening on Wednesday, December 31, 2014.
2014 was the year that the Pops began showing popular Christmas movies after their 40- or 42-concert season was over. The first movie chosen was Home Alone. The score, written by the laureate conductor Williams, was performed live by the orchestra, accompanying the film. The New Year's Eve concert was performed by the Boston Pops Swing Orchestra, led by bandleader Bo Winiker.
2015 was a significant year, because John Oliver, longtime conductor of the Tanglewood Festival Chorus had retired at the end of the Tanglewood season that summer.
The Holiday Pops 2016 season ran from Wednesday, November 30, 2016 through Saturday, December 24, 2016, with a movie shown Friday and Saturday, December 30–31, 2016, and the New Year's Eve concert happening on Saturday, December 31, 2016.
The second movie chosen was Back To The Future. The score, written by Alan Silverstri, was once again performed live by the orchestra, in sync with the film. The New Year's Eve concert was performed by the Boston Pops Swing Orchestra, once again led by bandleader Bo Winiker.
2016 was a significant year, because it was the first time in the history of the series of "Holiday Pops" concerts that the Tanglewood Festival Chorus performed without a conductor.
2017 was a significant year, because the BSO had chosen to replace John Oliver as the conductor of the Tanglewood Festival Chorus, and he would begin conducting the chorus that year.
The Holiday Pops 2017 season ran from Tuesday, December 5, 2017 through Sunday, December 24, 2017, with the New Year's Eve concert happening on Sunday, December 31, 2017. There was no movie chosen for that year.
The New Year's Eve concert was performed by the Boston Pops Swing Orchestra.
The Holiday Pops 2018 season ran from Thursday, December 6, 2018 through Monday, December 24, 2018, with a movie shown Saturday and Sunday, December 29–30, 2018, and the New Year's Eve concert happening on Monday, December 31, 2018.
The third movie chosen was Home Alone once again. Billed as Home Alone In Concert, the score, written by Williams, was once more performed live by the orchestra, accompanying the film. The New Year's Eve concert was performed by the Boston Pops Swing Orchestra and special guest Seth MacFarlane.
The Holiday Pops 2019 season ran from Wednesday, December 4, 2019 through Tuesday, December 24, 2019, with a movie shown Saturday and Sunday, December 28–29, 2019, and the New Year's Eve concert happening on Tuesday, December 31, 2019.
The fourth movie chosen was Bugs Bunny At The Symphony. The score, written by Carl Stalling, was performed live by the orchestra, accompanying the film. The New Year's Eve concert was performed by the Boston Pops Swing Orchestra and special guest The Hot Sardines.
The Pops introduced a sensory-friendly concert for the first time on Saturday, December 7, 2019. The concert was designed and aimed at all families with children or adults diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder or sensory sensitivities.
"A Visit from St. Nicholas" celebrity narrators
Over the course of Lockhart's quarter-century tenure, there have been numerous celebrity narrators who have joined the orchestra to recite Clement C. Moore's classic poem, arranged by Joseph Reisman. These narrators have included the likes of comedian Jimmy Tingle (2005); singer Amanda Palmer (2009); New Jersey governor Chris Christie (during the Pops' tour of Newark on December 5, 2010); Greg Kretschmar (December 18, 2011); Boston Bruins forward Shawn Thorton (2012); Casey Affleck (2014); newswoman Janet Wu (December 16, 2014 and December 12, 2018); then senator-elect Elizabeth Warren (2015); former baseball player and then-manager of the Boston Red Sox Alex Cora (who made history by reading the poem in Spanish for the first time in 2018); Massachusetts governor Charlie Baker (December 7, 2016, who announced that Lockhart would be a recipient of the 2017 Massachusetts Commonwealth Award); Matt Seigel (host of the Kiss 108 morning radio program "Matty In The Morning"; December 15, 2018); WBZ news anchor Lisa Hughes (December 11, 2017 & December 10, 2019); and WCVB Channel 5 news anchors Ed Harding and Maria Stephanos (December 10, 2016 & December 8, 2019).
"Sleigh Ride" celebrity guest conductors
Over the course of Lockhart's quarter-century tenure, there have been numerous celebrity conductors who have joined the orchestra to lead them in Leroy Anderson's famous song. These conductors have included the likes of retired Boston Red Sox second baseman and NESN sportscaster Jerry Remy (20), Shaquille O'Neal (20), then governor-elect Charlie Baker (2014), Boston Celtics center Tacko Fall (2019), who became the tallest person to ever stand on the Symphony Hall podium.
POPSearch
POPSearch is the Boston Pops' nationwide talent competition that offers amateur singers the chance to perform with the orchestra at Boston's Fourth of July Extravaganza, as well as on the orchestra's national tour. The winner also receives a cash prize. The American Idol–style competition has expanded into a nationwide contest through video submissions on YouTube and voting through BostonPops.org.
Tracy Silva, a mother of two from Taunton, Massachusetts, and van driver for special needs children, won the inaugural POPSearch contest in 2004.
Frances Botelho-Hoeg, an elementary school principal from Kingston, Massachusetts, was knocked out in the second round of the inaugural POPSearch, but returned in 2005 to sweep the competition.
The POPSearch 2007 grand champion Maria Perry won $5,000 and performed with the Boston Pops on July 3 and 4 in the annual July 4 Extravaganza seen by a live audience of almost a half-million people on the Charles River Esplanade and several million more on WBZ-TV.
High School Sing-Off
In the early spring of 2008, Keith Lockhart announced the "Boston Pops High School Sing-Off—A Best of Broadway Challenge", the first Boston Pops musical theater competition for Massachusetts high school students. Students from high schools throughout Massachusetts were encouraged to submit audition videos of musical theater vocal works for solo, duet, trio, quartet, or quintet to the Boston Pops before May 9, 2008. The winner was featured in the Fourth of July concert on the Esplanade.
Music directors and conductors
1885; 1887–1889: Adolf Neuendorff
1886: John C. Mullaly
1887: Wilhelm Rietzel
1888: Franz Kneisel
1891: Eugen Gurenberg
1891–1894; 1903–1907: Timothee Adamowski
1895: Antonio de Novellis
1896–1902; 1906–1907: Max Zach
1897: Leo Schulz
1908–1909: Arthur Kautzenbach
1909–1917: André Maquarre
1913–1916: Clement Lenom
1913–1916: Otto Urach
1915–1916: Ernst Schmidt
1916: Josef Pasternack
1917–1926: Agide Jacchia
1927–1929: Alfredo Casella
1930–1979: Arthur Fiedler
1955–1999: Harry Ellis Dickson (Associate Conductor)
1980–1993: John Williams (Laureate Conductor, 1994–present)
1995–present: Keith Lockhart
2002–2006: Bruce Hangen (Principal Guest Conductor)
See also
Pops orchestra
References
External links
Boston Pops Orchestra recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1885 establishments in Massachusetts
Culture of Boston
Musical groups established in 1885
Musical groups from Boston
Orchestras based in Massachusetts
Philips Records artists
Polydor Records artists
Pops orchestras
RCA Victor artists
Sony Classical Records artists
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200418
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Evans%20%28general%29
|
Frank Evans (general)
|
Frank Edgar Evans (19 November 1876 – 25 November 1941) served as an infantryman in the Spanish–American War, and was commissioned in the United States Marine Corps on 15 February 1900.
Biography
He was born in Franklin, Pennsylvania on 19 November 1876. He served in the Philippines and in the United States prior to World War I, during which he won the Navy Cross and other awards for the distinction of his service in the Marine Brigade of the American Expeditionary Force in France. His postwar service included duty in Haiti, where from 1927 to 1930 he commanded the Constabulary Detachment and was Chief of the Gendarmerle d'Haiti. Brigadier General Evans also was District Marine Officer of several Naval Districts. Retired 1 December 1940, he made his home in Honolulu, Hawaii, where he died 25 November 1941.
Legacy
The destroyer USS Frank E. Evans (DD-754) was named in his honor.
References
1876 births
1941 deaths
People from Franklin, Pennsylvania
American people of Welsh descent
United States Marine Corps generals
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
20th-century American male actors
Military personnel from Pennsylvania
|
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] |
200421
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20owl
|
Little owl
|
The little owl (Athene noctua), also known as the owl of Athena or owl of Minerva, is a bird that inhabits much of the temperate and warmer parts of Europe, the Palearctic east to Korea, and North Africa. It was introduced into Britain at the end of the 19th century and into the South Island of New Zealand in the early 20th century.
This owl is a member of the typical or true owl family Strigidae, which contains most species of owl, the other grouping being the barn owls, Tytonidae. It is a small, cryptically coloured, mainly nocturnal species and is found in a range of habitats including farmland, woodland fringes, steppes and semi-deserts. It feeds on insects, earthworms, other invertebrates and small vertebrates. Males hold territories which they defend against intruders. This owl is a cavity nester and a clutch of about four eggs is laid in spring. The female does the incubation and the male brings food to the nest, first for the female and later for the newly hatched young. As the chicks grow, both parents hunt and bring them food, and the chicks leave the nest at about seven weeks of age.
Being a common species with a wide range and large total population, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as "least concern".
Taxonomy
The little owl was formally described in 1769 by the Austrian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli under the binomial name Strix noctua. The little owl is now placed in the genus Athene that was introduced by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1822. The owl was designated as the type species of the genus by the George Robert Gray in 1841. The genus name, Athene, commemorates the goddess, whose original role as a goddess of the night might explain the link to an owl. The species name noctua has, in effect, the same meaning, being the Latin name of an owl sacred to Minerva, Athena's Roman counterpart.
Thirteen subspecies are recognised:
A. n. vidalii Brehm, AE, 1857 – west Europe
A. n. noctua (Scopoli, 1769) – central, south, southeast Europe to northwest Russia
A. n. indigena Brehm, CL, 1855 – Romania to Greece through Ukraine and Turkey east to south Russia
A. n. lilith Hartert, E, 1913 – Cyprus, south Turkey to Iraq and the Sinai (Egypt)
A. n. bactriana Blyth, 1847 – Iraq and Azerbaijan to Pakistan and northwest India
A. n. orientalis Severtsov, 1873 – northeast Kazakhstan and northwest China
A. n. ludlowi Baker, ECS, 1926 – Himalayas
A. n. impasta Bangs & Peters, JL, 1928 – west-central China
A. n. plumipes Swinhoe, 1870 – Mongolia, south-central Siberia and northeast China
A. n. glaux (Savigny, 1809) – coastal north Africa to southwest Israel
A. n. saharae (Kleinschmidt, 1909) – Morocco to west Egypt and central Arabia
A. n. spilogastra Heuglin, 1863 – east Sudan, Eritrea and northeast Ethiopia
A. n. somaliensis Reichenow, 1905 – east Ethiopia and Somalia
Description
The little owl is a small owl with a flat-topped head, a plump, compact body and a short tail. The facial disc is flattened above the eyes giving the bird a frowning expression. The plumage is greyish-brown, spotted, streaked and barred with white. The underparts are pale and streaked with darker colour. It is usually in length with a wingspan of for both sexes, and weighs about .
The adult little owl of the most widespread form, the nominate A. n. noctua, is white-speckled brown above, and brown-streaked white below. It has a large head, long legs, and yellow eyes, and its white “eyebrows” give it a stern expression. Juveniles are duller, and lack the adult's white crown spots. This species has a bounding flight like a woodpecker. Moult begins in July and continues to November, with male starting before female.
The call is a querulous kiew, kiew. Less frequently, various whistling or trilling calls are uttered. In the breeding season, other more modulated calls are made, and a pair may call in duet. Various yelping, chattering or barking sounds are made in the vicinity of the nest.
Distribution and habitat
The distribution is widespread across Europe, Asia and North Africa. Its range in Eurasia extends from the Iberian Peninsula and Denmark eastwards to China and southwards to the Himalayas. In Africa it is present from Mauritania to Egypt, the Red Sea and Arabia. The bird has been introduced to New Zealand, and to the United Kingdom, where it has spread across much of England and the whole of Wales.
This is a sedentary species which is found in open countryside in a great range of habitats. These include agricultural land with hedgerows and trees, orchards, woodland verges, parks and gardens, as well as steppes and stony semi-deserts. It is also present in treeless areas such as dunes, and in the vicinity of ruins, quarries and rocky outcrops. It sometimes ventures into villages and suburbs. In the United Kingdom it is chiefly a bird of the lowlands, and usually occurs below . In continental Europe and Asia it may be found at much higher elevations; one individual was recorded from in Tibet.
Behaviour and ecology
This owl usually perches in an elevated position ready to swoop down on any small creature it notices. It feeds on prey such as insects and earthworms, as well as small vertebrates including amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. It may pursue prey on the ground and it caches surplus food in holes or other hiding places. A study of the pellets of indigestible material that the birds regurgitate found mammals formed 20 to 50% of the diet and insects 24 to 49%. Mammals taken included mice, rats, voles, shrews, moles and rabbits. The birds were mostly taken during the breeding season and were often fledglings, and including the chicks of game birds. The insects included Diptera, Dermaptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera. Some vegetable matter (up to 5%) was included in the diet and may have been ingested incidentally.
The little owl is territorial, the male normally remaining in one territory for life. However the boundaries may expand and contract, being largest in the courtship season in spring. The home range, in which the bird actually hunts for food, varies with the type of habitat and time of year. Little owls with home-ranges that incorporate a high diversity of habitats are much smaller (< 2 ha) than those which breed in monotonous farmland (with home-ranges over 12 ha). Larger home ranges results in increased flight activity, longer foraging trips and fewer nest visits. If a male intrudes into the territory of another, the occupier approaches and emits its territorial calls. If the intruder persists, the occupier flies at him aggressively. If this is unsuccessful, the occupier repeats the attack, this time trying to make contact with his claws. In retreat, an owl often drops to the ground and makes a low-level escape. The territory is more actively defended against a strange male as compared to a known male from a neighbouring territory; it has been shown that the little owl can recognise familiar birds by voice.
The little owl is partly diurnal and often perches boldly and prominently during the day. If living in an area with a large amount of human activity, little owls may grow used to humans and will remain on their perch, often in full view, while people are around. The little owl has a life expectancy of about 16 years. However, many birds do not reach maturity; severe winters can take their toll and some birds are killed by road vehicles at night, so the average lifespan may be on the order of 3 years.
Breeding
This owl becomes more vocal at night as the breeding season approaches in late spring. The nesting location varies with habitat, nests being found in holes in trees, in cliffs, quarries, walls, old buildings, river banks and rabbit burrows. A clutch of three to five eggs is laid (occasionally two to eight). The eggs are broadly elliptical, white and without gloss; they measure about . They are incubated by the female who sometimes starts sitting after the first egg is laid. While she is incubating the eggs, the male brings food for her. The eggs hatch after twenty-eight or twenty-nine days. At first the chicks are brooded by the female and the male brings in food which she distributes to them. Later, both parents are involved in hunting and feeding them. The young leave the nest at about seven weeks, and can fly a week or two later. Usually there is a single brood but when food is abundant, there may be two. The energy reserves that little owl chicks are able to build up when in the nest influences their post-fledgling survival, with birds in good physical condition having a much higher chance of survival than those in poor condition. When the young disperse, they seldom travel more than about . Pairs of birds often remain together all year round and the bond may last until one partner dies.
Status
A. noctua has an extremely large range. It has been estimated that there are between 560 thousand and 1.3 million breeding pairs in Europe, and as Europe equates to 25 to 49% of the global range, the world population may be between 5 million and 15 million birds. The population is believed to be stable, and for these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the bird's conservation status as being of "least concern".
In human culture
Owls have often been depicted from the Upper Palaeolithic onwards, in forms from statuettes and drawings to pottery and wooden posts, but in the main they are generic rather than identifiable to species. The little owl is, however, closely associated with the Greek goddess Athena and the Roman goddess Minerva, and hence represents wisdom and knowledge. A little owl with an olive branch appears on a Greek tetradrachm coin from 500 BC (a copy of which appears on the modern Greek one-euro coin) and in a 5th-century B.C. bronze statue of Athena holding the bird in her hand. The call of a little owl was thought to have heralded the murder of Julius Caesar.
In Bulgarian and Romanian folklore, the little owl is said to be a harbinger of death. In 1992, the little owl appeared as a watermark on Jaap Drupsteen’s 100 guilder banknote for the Netherlands.
In 1843 several little owls that had been brought from Italy were released by the English naturalist Charles Waterton on his estate at Walton Hall in Yorkshire but these failed to establish themselves. Later successful introductions were made by Lord Lilford on his Lilford Hall estate near Oundle in Northamptonshire and by Edmund Meade-Waldo at Stonewall Park near Edenbridge, Kent. From these areas the birds spread and had become abundant by 1900. The owls acquired a bad reputation and were believed to predate game bird chicks. They therefore became a concern to game breeders who tried to elliminate them. In 1935 the British Trust for Ornithology initiated a study into the little owl's diet led by the naturalist Alice Hibbert-Ware. The report showed that the owls feed almost entirely on insects, other invertebrates and small mammals and thus posed little threat to game birds.
There is evidence that from the 19th century little owls were occasionally kept as ornamental birds. In Italy, tamed and docked little owls were kept to hunt rodents and insects in the house and garden.
More common was keeping little owls to use them in so-called cottage hunting. This took advantage of the fact that many bird species react to owls with aggressive behaviour when they discover them during the day (mobbing). Such huntings, particularly with tawny owls, were practiced in Italy from 350 B.C. until the 20th century and in Germany from the 17th to the 20th century. In Italy, mainly skylarks were caught in this way. The main place of trade was Crespina, a small town near Pisa. Here, little owls were traditionally sold on 29 September, which had been taken from their nests and raised in human care. Only since the 1990s has this trade been officially banned; however, because of the long cultural tradition for hunting with little owls, exemptions are still granted. Thus, there is still a breeding center for little owls near Crespina, which is maintained by hunters.
References
External links
Little Owl videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Little Owl nestcams in The Netherlands
Little Owl in New Zealand
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.5 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
little owl
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of North Africa
Birds of prey of Africa
little owl
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] |
200422
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20places%20in%20Iraq
|
List of places in Iraq
|
This is a list of places in Iraq. Governorates of Iraq lists the governorates, and Districts of Iraq lists the subdivisions of those governorates.
Modern cities and towns
Afak (عفك)
Al `Awja (العوجا)
Baghdad (ܒܓܕܐܕ) (بغداد)
Kadhimiya(الكاظمية)
Sadr City (مدينة الصدر)
Green Zone (المنطقة الخضراء)
List of neighborhoods and districts in Baghdad
Baghdadi
Bayji (بيجي)
Balad (بلد)
Ba`qubah (بعقوبه)
Al Basrah (Basra) (البصرة)
Ad Dawr (الداور)
Dihok (دهوك / ܢܘܗܕܪܐ)
Ad Diwaniyah (الديوانية)
Erbil or Hewlêr (ܐܪܒܝܠ) (أربيل)
Al Fallujah (الفلّوجة)
Hadithah (حديثة)
Haqlaniyah
Halabjah (حلبجة)
Al Hillah (الحلة)
Hit(هيت)
Al Iskandariyah (إسكندرية)
Karbala (كربلاء)
Karma
Khanaqin (خانقين)
Kirkuk (ܟܪܟܘܟ) (كركوك)
Al Kut (الكوت)
Al Miqdadiyah (المقدادية)
Mosul (الموصل) (Ninawa ܢܝܢܘܐ)
An Najaf (النجف)
An Nasiriyah (الناصرية)
Al-Qa'im (القائم)
As Samawah (السماوه)
Samarra (سامراء)
Al-Shamia (الشامية)
Ar Ramadi (الرمادي)
Ar Rutbah (الرطبة)
As Sulaymaniyah (السليمانية)
At Taji (Tadji)(التاجي)
Tall `Afar (تل عفر)
Tall Kayf (تل كيف) (ܬܠ ܟܦܐ)
Tikrit (تكريت)
Umm Qasr (أم قصر)
Zakho (زاخو) (ܙܵܟ̣ܘ̇)
Al-Qurnah (القرنة)
Az Zubair (الز
Al-Faw (الفاو)
Al Zab
Ancient cities and important ruins
Babylon (ܒܒܝܠ) (بابل)
Ctesiphon (Al-Mada'in, المدائن)
Eridu (إريدو)
Hatra (حضر)
Kish (كيش)
Lagash (لجش)
Nineveh (ܢܝܢܘܐ) (نينوى)
Nippur (نيبور)
Nuzi (Nuzu)
Samarra
Shenna (Sinn Barimma)
Sumer (سومر)
Tell Ubaid (تل عبيد)
Ur (أور)
Uruk (أوروك)
Holy sites
Karbala is reputed to be the city where Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet Mohammed, was martyred. Karbala is also the site of two important Shiite mosques, Al Abbass Mosque and Imam Hussain Mosque. Shiites observe a 40-day mourning period for this Imam every spring followed by a pilgrimage to this site.
Najaf is the site of Ali ibn Abi Talib's tomb known to Shiites as "the wondrous place of martyrdom" and site of one of the world's largest and most important Muslim cemeteries. Najaf is also the site of Imam Ali Mosque one of the holiest Shi'ite mosques.
Samarra is the site of Shiite Al Askari Mosque.In this Mosque tenth Shia Imam Ali al-Hadi and eleventh Shia Imam Hasan al-Askari are buried.
Kadhimiya (north of Baghdad) is regarded as a holy city in Shia Islam. Musa al-Kazim and his grandson, the ninth Shia Imam, Muhammad at-Taqi are both buried there, and their tombs are contained in the Al Kadhimiya Mosque. Shia go on an annual pilgrimage to this shrine in rajab
Great Mosque of Kufa in Kufa, Iraq - contains the tombs of Muslim ibn Aqeel, Khadijah bint Ali, Hani ibn Urwa, and Al-Mukhtar. The mosque also contains many important sites relating to the prophets and Ali, including the place where he was fatally struck on the head while in Sujud.
Christian
Assyrian Christians constitute one of the most indigenous communities in the country. Iraq houses some of the most ancient early Christian material culture, including various churches and monasteries in Tikrit, Nineveh, Dohuk, and the Barwari Bala region. These sites include St. Hermiz and St. Matthew monasteries in the town of Alqosh, the churches of Mar Qayoma and St. George in the Assyrian village Dure in Barwar, St. Bnai Shmuni in Aradan, Sapna region, as well as St. Odisho in the village Dere, also in the Sapna region in Northern Iraq.
Baháʼí Faith
Baghdad – The House of Bahá'u'lláh in Baghdad, is a place of Baháʼí pilgrimage. Its significance is that it is where Bahá'u'lláh lived in from 1853 to 1863 (except for two years). It is designated in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas as a place of pilgrimage and is considered a holy place by Baháʼís. During the 1920s the house was confiscated by Shiah authorities, who were hostile to the Baháʼí Faith. The Council of the League of Nations upheld the Baháʼí's claim to the house, but it has not yet been returned to the Baháʼí community.
Other geographic features
Al-Faw Peninsula (شبه جزيرة الفاو)
Diyala River (نهر ديالى)
Euphrates (ܦܪܬ ܢܗܪܐ) (نهر الفرات)
Shatt Al Arab (شط العرب)
Tigris River (ܕܩܠܬ ܢܗܪܐ) (نهر دجلة)
Great & Little Zab Rivers
See also
Districts of Iraq
Iraq in the Qur’an
List of cities in Iraq
List of postal codes in Iraq
List of Assyrian settlements
References
External links
Iraq City Maps from globalsecurity.org
Places
Iraq
Populated places in Iraq
ar:قائمة بأسماء مدن و بلدات العراق
de:Liste der Städte im Irak
eo:Listo de urboj de Irako
fr:Villes d'Irak
pt:Lista de cidades no Iraque
ru:Города Ирака
|
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200423
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine%20Isaac%20Silvestre%20de%20Sacy
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Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy
|
Antoine Isaac, Baron Silvestre de Sacy (; 21 September 175821 February 1838), was a French nobleman, linguist and orientalist. His son, Ustazade Silvestre de Sacy, became a journalist.
Life and works
Early life
Silvestre de Sacy was born in Paris to a notary named Jacques Abraham Silvestre, a Jansenist. He was born into an ardently Catholic bourgeois family. The surname extension of "de Sacy" was added by the younger son after the name of Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy, a famous Jansenist cleric who lived in the 17th century. Sacy's father died when he was seven years old, and he was educated on his own by his mother.
Philological studies
In 1781 he was appointed councillor in the cour des monnaies, and was promoted in 1791 to be a commissary-general in the same department. Having successively studied Semitic languages, he began to make a name as an orientalist, and between 1787 and 1791 deciphered the Pahlavi inscriptions of the Sassanid kings. In 1792 he retired from public service, and lived in close seclusion in a cottage near Paris till in 1795 he became the first and only professor of Arabic in the newly founded school of living Eastern languages (École speciale des langues orientales vivantes).
During this interval Sacy studied the religion of the Druze, the subject of his last and unfinished work, the Exposé de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838). He published the following Arabic textbooks:
Grammaire arabe (2 vols., 1st ed. 1810)
Chrestomathie arabe (3 vols., 1806)
Anthologie grammaticale (1829)
In 1806 he added the duties of Persian professor to his old chair, and from this time onwards his life was one of increasing honour and success, broken only by a brief period of retreat during the Hundred Days.
Public offices and memberships
He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions from 1832 onwards; in 1808 he had entered the corps législatif; he was created a baron of the French Empire by Napoleon in 1813; and in 1832, when quite an old man, he became a peer of France and regularly spoke in the Chamber of Peers (). In 1815 he became rector of the University of Paris, and after the Second Restoration he was active on the commission of public instruction. With Abel Rémusat, he was joint founder of the Société asiatique, and was inspector of oriental typefaces at the Imprimerie nationale. In 1821 he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society
Egyptian hieroglyphics research
Silvestre de Sacy was the first Frenchman to attempt to read the Rosetta stone. He made some progress in identifying proper names in the demotic inscription.
From 1807 to 1809, Sacy was also a teacher of Jean-François Champollion, whom he encouraged in his research.
But later on, the relationship between the master and student became chilly. In no small measure, Champollion's Napoleonic sympathies were problematic for Sacy, who was decidedly Royalist in his political sympathies.
In 1811, Étienne Marc Quatremère, also a student of Sacy, published his Mémoires géographiques et historiques sur l'Égypte… sur quelques contrées voisines.
There was some rivalry between Champollion and Quatremère. Champollion published a paper in 1814 that covered some of the same territory. The allegations then arose that Champollion had plagiarized the work of Quatremère. Silvestre de Sacy seemed to take the side of Quatremère, according to Champollion.
There was also considerable rivalry between Champollion and Thomas Young, an English Egyptology researcher active in hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they cooperated in their work, but later, from around 1815, a chill arose between them. Again, Sacy took the side of Young.
Young started to correspond with Sacy, who advised Young not to share his work with Champollion and described Champollion as a charlatan. Consequently, Young avoided all direct contact with Champollion.
When Champollion submitted his Coptic grammar and dictionary for publication in 1815, de Sacy also opposed this.
Another student of Sacy was Johan David Åkerblad. He was a Swedish scholar who also contributed significantly to the investigation of the Rosetta Stone. Early on, in 1802, Åkerblad published his version of the Demotic alphabet; sixteen of these letters later proved to be correct and were used by Champollion, as well as by Young. Sacy felt that Akerblad was not getting enough credit for the good work that he was doing.
Thus, the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics was being hampered by political and personal considerations. There were also big political rivalries between England and France at that time that also stood in the way of co-operation.
Nevertheless, when, in spite of all adversity, Champollion had made big progress in decipherment by 1822resulting in his Lettre à M. DacierSacy cast all politics aside and warmly welcomed the good work of his student.
Other scholarly works
Among his other works are his edition of Hariri (1822), with a selected Arabic commentary, and of the Alfiya (1833), and his Calila et Dimna (1816), the Arabic version of the Panchatantra which has been in various forms one of the most popular books of the world. Other works include a version of Abd-el-Latif, Relation arabe sur l'Egypte, essays on the history of the law of property in Egypt since the Arab conquest (1805–1818), and The Book of Wandering Stars, a translation of a history of the Ottoman Empire and its rule of Egypt, particularly its recounting of the various actions of and events under the Ottoman governors of Egypt. To biblical criticism he contributed a memoir on the Samaritan Arabic Pentateuch (Mém. Acad. des Inscr. vol. xlix), and editions of the Arabic and Syriac New Testaments for the British and Foreign Bible Society. His students include Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer.
Critical studies
Edward Said and other modern scholars have given critical attention to the theoretical foundations of "orientalism" in works like Chrestomathie arabe.
Notable students
In Edward Said's Orientalism, Sacy is described as "the teacher of nearly every major Orientalist in Europe, where his students dominated the field for about three-quarters of a century." Said also notes that several of Sacy's students were "politically useful" as part of French presence in Egypt following Napoleon's invasion.
Jean-François Champollion, orientalist, translator of the Rosetta stone
Étienne Marc Quatremère, a French orientalist who contributed to the research in Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Johan David Åkerblad, a Swedish diplomat and orientalist; he contributed to the investigation of the Rosetta Stone.
John Martin Augustine Scholz, Professor in Bonn
Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer, Professor in Leipzig
Johann Gottfried Ludwig Kosegarten, Professor in Jena and in Greifswald
August Ferdinand Mehren, Professor in Copenhagen
Justus Olshausen, Professor in Kiel
Johann Gustav Stickel (1805–1896), Professor in Jena
(1807–77), Professor in Uppsala
Louis-Mathieu Langlès, Curator, Bibliothèque Nationale
Adam Franz Lennig, German Catholic theologian, and one of the most influential German priests of his day.
Samuel Gobat, Anglican-Lutheran Bishop of Jerusalem
Silvestre de Sacy assisted the young composer Fromental Halévy in his early career, giving him a testimonial during his application for the Prix de Rome.
Sacy died in his native city of Paris, aged 79.
Selected works
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy, OCLC/WorldCat encompasses roughly 1,000+ works in 1,000+ publications in 16 languages and 3,000+ library holdings.
Mémoires sur diverses antiquités de la Perse: et sur les médailles des rois de la dynastie des Sassanides; suivis de l'histoire de cette dynastie (1793)
Principes de grammaire générale : mis à la portée des enfans, et propres à servir d'introduction à l'étude de toutes les langues (1799)
Mémoire sur divers événements de l'histoire des Arabes avant Mahomet (1803)
Chrestomathie arabe, ou, Extraits de divers écrivains arabes, tant en prose qu'en vers, avec une traduction française et des notes, à l'usage des élèves de l'École royale et spéciale des langues orientales vivantes (1806)
Specimen historiae arabum by Bar Hebraeus (1806)
Mémoire sur la dynastie des Assassins et sur l'origine de leur nom (1809)
Grammaire arabe à l'usage des élèves de l'École spéciale des langues orientales vivantes (1810)
Les séances de Hariri, publiées en arabe avec un commentaire choisi by Ḥarīrī (1822)
Anthologie grammaticale arabe: ou, Morceaux choisis de divers grammairiens et scholiastes arabes, avec une traduction française et des notes ; pouvant faire suite a la Chrestomathie arabe (1829)
Grammaire arabe à l'usage des élèves de l'Ecole spéciale des langues orientales vivantes (1831)
Exposé de la religion des druzes, tiré des livres religieux de cette secte, et précédé d'une introduction et de la Vie du khalife Hakem-biamr-Allah (1838)
Les mille et une nuits; contes arabes (1839)
Bibliothèque de M. le baron Silvestre de Sacy (1846)
Mélanges de littérature orientale (1861)
References
External links
Writers from Paris
1758 births
1838 deaths
18th-century French writers
18th-century French male writers
18th-century historians
19th-century French writers
19th-century historians
French Arabists
Arabic–French translators
French orientalists
Barons of the First French Empire
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy
Linguists from France
Members of the Société Asiatique
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
19th-century French translators
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200424
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solonian%20Constitution
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Solonian Constitution
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The Solonian Constitution was created by Solon in the early 6th century BC. At the time of Solon the Athenian State was almost falling to pieces in consequence of dissensions between the parties into which the population was divided. Solon wanted to revise or abolish the older laws of Draco. He promulgated a code of laws embracing the whole of public and private life, the salutary effects of which lasted long after the end of his constitution.
Under Solon's reforms, all debts were abolished and all debt-slaves were freed. The status of the hectemoroi (the "one-sixth workers"), who farmed in an early form of serfdom, was also abolished. These reforms were known as the Seisachtheia. Solon's constitution reduced the power of the old aristocracy by making wealth rather than birth a criterion for holding political positions, a system called timokratia (timocracy). Citizens were also divided based on their land production: pentacosiomedimnoi, hippeis, zeugitae, and thetes. The lower assembly was given the right to hear appeals, and Solon also created the higher assembly. Both of these were meant to decrease the power of the Areopagus, the aristocratic council. The only parts of Draconian constitution that Solon kept were the laws regarding homicide. The constitution was written as poetry, and as soon as it was introduced, Solon went into self-imposed exile for ten years so he would not be tempted to take power as a tyrant.
Classes
Pentacosiomedimnoi
The pentacosiomedimni or pentakosiomedimnoi () were the top class of citizens: those whose property or estate could produce 500 medimnoi of wet or dry goods (or their equivalent), per year. They were eligible for all top positions of government in Athens. These were:
9 archons and treasurers
Council of Areopagus (as ex-archons)
Council of 400
Ecclesia
The pentacosiomedimnoi could also serve as generals (strategoi) in the Athenian army.
Hippeis
The hippeus was the second highest of the four social classes. It was composed of men who had at least 300 medimnoi or their equivalent as yearly income.
Zeugitae
The zeugitae () or zeugitai were those whose property or estate could produce 200 medimnoi of wet or dry goods (or their equivalent), per year. The term appears to have come from the Greek word for "yoke", which has led modern scholars to conclude that zeugitae were either men who could afford a yoke of oxen or men who were "yoked together" in the phalanx—that is, men who could afford their own hoplite armor.
The zeugitae could serve as hoplites in the Athenian army. The idea was that one could serve as a hoplite if he had enough money to equip himself in that manner, i.e. he could produce 200 medimnoi or more per year.
At the time of Solon's reforms, zeugitae were granted the right to hold certain minor political offices. Their status rose through the years; in 457/6 BC they were granted the right to hold the archonship, and in the late 5th century moderate oligarchs advocated for the creation of an oligarchy in which all men of hoplite status or higher would be enfranchised, and such a regime was indeed established for a time during the Athenian coup of 411 BC.
They were eligible for a few positions of government in Athens such as:
Council of 400
Lower offices of state
Ecclesia
In 457/6 BC, the archonship was opened to zeugitae
Thetes
The thetes (, thêtes, sing. θής, thēs, "serf") were the lowest social class of citizens. The thetes were those who were workers for wages, or had less than 200 medimnoi (or their equivalent) as yearly income. This distinction spanned from some time earlier than 594/593 BC until 322 BC. The thetes were defined as citizens who did not qualify as zeugitae, although the thetes may have predated the Solonian reforms. They could participate in the Ecclesia (the Athenian assembly), and could be jurors serving in the law court of the Heliaia, but were not allowed to serve in the Boule or serve as magistrates.
In the reforms of Ephialtes and Pericles around 460450 BC, the thetes were empowered to hold public office.
12,000 thetes were disenfranchised and expelled from the city after the Athenian defeat in the Lamian War. There is debate among scholars whether this represented the entire number of thetes, or simply those who left Athens, the remainder staying behind.
Unlike the popular concept of galley slaves, ancient navies generally preferred to rely on free men to row their galleys. In the 4th and 5th century Athens generally followed a naval policy of enrolling citizens from the lower classes (the thetes), metics and hired foreigners. However, under some conditions, for example during the Mytilenean revolt, higher classes were enrolled as rowers also. This made them crucial in the Athenian Navy and therefore gave them a role in Athens' affairs (see Constitution of the Athenians).
Details
Of the population dissatisfied, the inhabitants of the northern mountainous region of Attica, and the poorest and most oppressed section of the population, the diacrii, demanded that the privileges of the nobility, which had till then been obtained, should be utterly set aside. Another party, prepared to be contented by moderate concessions, was composed of the parali, the inhabitants of the stretch of coast called Paralia. The third was formed by the nobles, called pedici or pediaci, because their property lay for the most part in the pedion, the level and most fruitful part of the country. Solon, who enjoyed the confidence of all parties on account of his tried insight and sound judgment, was chosen archon by a compromise, with full power to put an end to the difficulties, and to restore peace by means of legislation. One of the primary measures of Solon was the Seisachtheia ("dis-burdening ordinance"). This gave an immediate relief by cancelling all debts, public and private. At the same time he made it illegal for the future to secure debts upon the person of the debtor.
Solon also altered the standard of coinage [and of weights and measures], by introducing the Euboic standard in place of the Pheidonian or Aeginetan standard. 100 new drachmae were thus made to contain the same amount of silver as 73 old drachmae.
Timocracy
Solon further instituted a timocracy, and those who did not belong to the nobility received a share in the rights of citizens, according to a scale determined by their property and their corresponding services to the Athenian State. For this purpose he divided the population into four classes, founded on the possession of land:
pentacosiomedimni (or pentacosiomedimnoi) – who had at least 500 medimni of produce as yearly income
hippeis – knights, with at least 300 medimni
zeugitae – possessors of a yoke of oxen, with at least 150 medimni
thetes – workers for wages, with less than 150 medimni of yearly income
Solon's legislation only granted to the first three of these four classes a vote in the election of responsible officers, and only to the first class the power of election to the highest offices; as, for instance, that of archon. The first three classes were bound to serve as hoplites; the cavalry was raised out of the first two, while the fourth class was only employed as light-armed troops or on the fleet, and apparently for pay. The others served without pay. The holders of office in the State were also unpaid.
Each division had different rights; for example, the pentacosiomedimnoi could be archons, while thetes could only attend the Athenian assembly. The fourth class was excluded from all official positions, but possessed the right of voting in the general public assemblies (the Heliaia) which chose officials and passed laws. They had also the right of taking part in the trials by jury which Solon had instituted.
Council of the Four Hundred
Solon established a constitutional order with a single chief consultative body, and a single administrative body. Solon established as the chief consultative body the Council of the Four Hundred, in which only the first three classes took part, and as chief administrative body the Areopagus, which was to be filled up by those who had been archons.
See also
History of democracy
Reforms of Cleisthenes
The Other Greeks
References and citations
Further reading
Greenidge, Abel Hendy Jones (1896): A Handbook of Greek Constitutional History, Macmillan and Company, "§ 3 Epochs Of Constitutional Reform At Athens".
Linforth, Ivan Mortimer (1919): Solon the Athenian, vol. 6, University of California Press.
Fine, John V.A. (1983): The Ancient Greeks: A critical history, Harvard University Press. .
Kagan, Donald (2003): The Peloponnesian War, Penguin Books. .
Renshaw, James (2008): In Search of the Greeks, A&C Black.
Whitehead, David (1981): "The Ancient Athenian ΖΕΥΓΙΤΑΙ", The Classical Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 282–286.
External links
The Athenian Constitution, Aristotle (~350 BC). Commentary on the Solonian Constitution.
The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, Plutarch (~75 AD). Article on Solon.
The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, Frederick Engels. Chapter V. The Rise of the Athenian State, discusses the significance and effects of Solonian Constitution.
Defunct constitutions
Government of ancient Athens
Ancient Greek law
Archaic Athens
Ancient Greek constitutions
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] |
200425
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Frank%20E.%20Evans
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USS Frank E. Evans
|
USS Frank E. Evans (DD-754), was an in service with the United States Navy. She was named in honor of United States Marine Corps Brigadier General Frank Evans, a leader of the American Expeditionary Force in France during World War I. She served late in World War II and during the Korean War and Vietnam War before she was cut in half in a collision with the Royal Australian Navy aircraft carrier in 1969.
Construction
Frank E. Evans′s keel was laid at the Bethlehem Steel Company shipyard in Staten Island, New York. She was launched on 3 October 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Frank E. Evans, widow of Brigadier General Evans, and commissioned on 3 February 1945.
Service history
World War II
Frank E. Evans arrived at Pearl Harbor. Territory of Hawaii, on 18 May 1945 for her final training, then crossed the Pacific Ocean to Eniwetok, Guam, Ulithi, and Okinawa on escort duty. Reaching action waters on 24 June 1945, she was assigned to radar picket and local escort duty, often firing on Japanese aircraft. After the close of hostilities in World War II on 15 August 1945, she patrolled the Yellow Sea and the Gulf of Chihli, embarked released Americans from prisoner-of-war camps near Dairenn, Manchuria, and covered occupation landings at Jinsen, Korea.
1946-1949
Frank E. Evans continued to operate in East Asia until 6 March 1946, when she departed Tsingtao, China, bound for San Francisco, California. Immobilized there on 31 March 1946, she was decommissioned and placed in reserve on 14 December 1949.
Korean War
Recommissioned on 15 September 1950 for service in the Korean War, Frank E. Evans sailed from San Diego, California, on 2 January 1951 for duty with the United States Seventh Fleet. On 26 February 1951, she began to play her part in the lengthy siege of Wonsan, during which she engaged North Korean shore batteries 11 times. On 18 June 1951, she was struck by 30 shrapnel hits, which caused minor wounds to four crewmembers, before she silenced the North Korean artillery battery that was firing at her. During this time, Frank E. Evans received the nicknames "Lucky Evans" and the "Gray Ghost". During her tour of duty off Korea, she also bombarded targets in the Songjin-Chongjin area, rescued downed aviators, and coordinated and controlled day and night bombing missions by United Nations aircraft. She returned to San Diego on 4 September 1951.
Frank E. Evans departed on 22 March 1952 for her second Korean War tour, serving on patrol and bombardment duty along the coast of Korea and on the Taiwan Patrol before returning to her new home port, Long Beach, California, on 6 November 1952, where she remained for three months. Her third Korean War tour from 13 June to 20 December 1953 coincided with the Korean armistice that brought the war to a close on 27 July 1953, and was devoted primarily to patrol duty.
1954–1964
While riding out Typhoon Pamela in the Taiwan Strait in early November 1954, Frank E. Evans responded to an SOS by the Military Sea Transportation Service cargo ship , which had lost steering control near the center of the storm. Frank E. Evans had escaped to the edge of the typhoon, but turned back into the storm, racing for five hours toward Muskingum to render assistance and taking damage in the process. In the end, Muskingum was able to regain control before Frank E. Evans arrived, but the incident was widely publicized in newspaper syndication because Pulitzer Prize-winning correspondent Homer Bigart was reporting from aboard Frank E. Evans at the time.
From 1954 to 1960, Evans completed five tours of duty in the East Asia and conducted extensive training operations along the United States West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands, occasionally with Royal Canadian Navy ships.
From 1962 to 1963, Frank E. Evans portrayed the fictitious destroyer USS Appleby in the NBC situation comedy Ensign O'Toole, starring Dean Jones in the title role.
Vietnam War
During the Vietnam War, Frank E. Evans served in the waters off Vietnam for 12 days from July to September 1965. She again operated in the vicinity of Vietnam for 61 days from August to November 1966. and for 66 days from October 1967 to 20 February 1968. During the Tet Offensive, Frank E. Evans provided naval gunfire support to the United States Army's 101st Airborne Division against the Viet Cong 840th Battalion near Phan Thiết, South Vietnam, on 3 February 1968. She spent an additional 14 days in the Vietnam war zone in 1969.
Collision with HMAS Melbourne
At around 0300 on 3 June 1969, Frank E. Evans was operating in darkness in the South China Sea between Vietnam and Spratly Island in a formation with ships of the Royal Navy, Royal Australian Navy, and Royal New Zealand Navy. All ships in the formation were running without lights. The Royal Australian Navy aircraft carrier Melbourne was in the process of going to flying stations and radioed Frank E. Evans, then to port of her, to take up station as the rescue destroyer. This required Frank E. Evans to reduce speed and take up station on Melbourne′s port quarter. The commanding officer of Frank E. Evans was asleep in his quarters, having left instructions to be awakened if there were to be any changes in the formation. Neither the officer of the deck nor the junior officer of the deck notified him when the station change was ordered. The bridge crew also did not contact the combat information center to request clarification of the positions and movements of the surrounding ships.
The conning officer on Frank E. Evans misunderstood the formation's base course and believed Frank E. Evans was to starboard of Melbourne. Frank E. Evans therefore turned to starboard, cutting across Melbourne′s bow twice in the process. Melbourne struck Frank E. Evans at a point about from her bow on her port side and cut her in two at . After the collision, Frank E. Evans′s bow drifted off to the port side of Melbourne and sank in less than five minutes, taking 73 of her crew with it. One body was recovered from the water, making a total of 74 dead. Her stern scraped along the starboard side of Melbourne, and Melbourne′s crew attached lines to it. It remained afloat. Around 60 to 100 men were rescued from the water.
Decommissioning and disposal
Frank E. Evans was decommissioned at Subic Bay and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 July 1969. The stern section was sunk as a target in Subic Bay on 10 October 1969.
Awards
Frank E. Evans received one battle star for World War II service, and five for Korean War service. According to the US Navy unit award website, Frank E. Evans had the following awards:
Captain Edward F. Ney Memorial Award for 1963.
Vietnam Service Medal for two separate time periods totaling 12 days from 29 July 1965 to 26 September 1965.
Vietnam Service Medal for three separate time periods totaling 61 days from 11 August 1966 to 24 November 1966.
Vietnam Service Medal for four separate time periods totaling 66 days from 22 October 1967 to 20 February 1968.
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Vietnam Gallantry Cross Medal Color with Palm) for 7 January 1968 to 12 January 1968.
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for 23 January 1968 to 22 March 1968 coded "J" for Korea, though it appears that the ship was in the vicinity of Vietnam during this time frame.
Vietnam Service Medal for two separate time periods: 5 May 1969 to 20 May 1969 and 2 January 1969.
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Vietnam Gallantry Cross Medal Color with Palm) for 5 May 1969 to 14 May 1969.
Navy Unit Commendation for 5 May 1969 to 20 May 1969.
Based on history USS Frank E. Evans was also awarded the following:
China Service Medal
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with one bronze star
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal with 'Asia' Bar
National Defense Service Medal with star
Korean Service Medal with five battle stars
United Nations Korea Medal
Vietnam Campaign Medal
Korean War Service Medal
See also
, Also sunk in a collision with HMAS Melbourne in 1964.
Notes
References
In 2013, American songwriter Tom Guerra wrote and recorded "Put Up Their Names" (The Ballad of the USS Frank Evans) which was released with an accompanying video.
External links
USS Frank E. Evans
navsource.org: USS Frank E. Evans
hazegray.org: USS Frank E. Evans
USS Frank E. Evans Association – Official Website of the USS Frank E. Evans (DD 754) Association, Inc
Cold War destroyers of the United States
Korean War destroyers of the United States
Ships built in Staten Island
Maritime incidents in 1969
Shipwrecks in the South China Sea
Ships sunk in collisions
United States Navy Hawaii-related ships
World War II destroyers of the United States
1944 ships
Allen M. Sumner-class destroyers of the United States Navy
Ships sunk as targets
|
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] |
200427
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20largest%20cities%20of%20Iraq
|
List of largest cities of Iraq
|
This article shows a list of largest cities and towns in Iraq.
List
Other cities and towns
Ancient cities and towns
Babylon (ܒܒܝܠ) (بابل)
Ctesiphon (Al-Mada'in, المدائن)
Eridu (إريدو)
Hatra (حضر)
Kish (كيش)
Lagash (لجش)
Nineveh (ܢܝܢܘܐ) (نينوى)
Nippur (نيبور)
Nuzi (Nuzu)
Samarra
Shenna (Sinn Barimma)
Sumer (سومر)
Tell Ubaid (تل عبيد)
Ur (أور)
Uruk (أوروك)
See also
List of places in Iraq
Districts of Iraq
List of postal codes in Iraq
References
External links
Populated places in Iraq
Iraq, List of cities in
Cities
Iraq
|
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200430
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Admiralty%20Islands
|
USS Admiralty Islands
|
USS Admiralty Islands (CVE-99) was the forty-fifth of fifty built for the United States Navy during World War II. She was named after the Admiralty Islands campaign, a series of battles against isolated Japanese forces throughout the Admiralty Islands in the Bismarck Archipelago. The ship was launched in May 1944, commissioned in June, and served as a replenishment carrier, under the command of Capt. Edward Hastings Eldredge, in support of the invasion of Iwo Jima and the Battle of Okinawa. Postwar, she participated in Operation Magic Carpet. She was decommissioned in November 1946, when she was mothballed in the Pacific Reserve Fleet. Ultimately, she was sold for scrapping in January 1947.
Design and description
Admiralty Islands was a Casablanca-class escort carrier, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was long overall, she had a beam of , at her widest point, this was , and a draft of . She displaced standard, with a full load. She had a long hangar deck and a long flight deck. She was powered with two Skinner Unaflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing , thus enabling her to make . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . Her compact size necessitated the installment of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft.
One /38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight Bofors anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as 12 Oerlikon cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty 20 mm cannons, and the amount of 40 mm guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Although Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to function with a crew of 860 and an embarked squadron of 50 to 56, the exigencies of wartime often necessitated the inflation of the crew count. Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more. Because Admiralty Islands only operated in a replenishment capability, she usually operated with about 60 aircraft on board, the maximum carrying capacity at which take-offs would still be possible.
Construction
Her construction was awarded to Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington under a Maritime Commission contract, on 18 June 1942, under the name Chaplin Bay, as part of a tradition which named escort carriers after bays or sounds in Alaska. She was renamed Admiralty Islands on 26 April 1944, as part of a new naval policy which named subsequent Casablanca-class carriers after naval or land engagements. As the ninety-ninth escort carrier, and the forty-fifth of the Casablanca class carriers, she received the hull symbol CVE-99. The escort carrier was laid down on 26 February 1944, MC hull 1136, the forty-fourth of a series of fifty Casablanca-class escort carriers. She was launched on 10 May 1944; sponsored by the wife of Vice Admiral Homer N. Wallin; transferred to the United States Navy and commissioned on 13 June 1944, with Captain James Duke Barner in temporary command. Later that day, command of the ship was passed to Captain Marcel Emil Alcan Gouin.
Service history
Upon being commissioned, Admiralty Islands got underway, on 2 July 1944, from Astoria, Oregon on a shakedown cruise down the West Coast to San Francisco. Upon arriving, she took on fuel oil and aviation gas. Proceeding southwards, she arrived at San Diego on 14 July, for additional training. There, she was assigned to join the Carrier Transport Squadron of the Pacific Fleet, ferrying aircraft, personnel, and supplies to the frontline in the West Pacific. She took on a load of cargo at San Diego, and departed westwards.
Transiting via Pearl Harbor, Admiralty Islands headed to Majuro, in the Marshall Islands, arriving there on 9 August, where she disembarked her cargo. She returned to Pearl Harbor, where she transported aircraft and personnel back to the West Coast, arriving at San Francisco on 24 August. She then made another round-trip transport run in September, this time to Finschhafen, New Guinea. She returned to San Diego on 7 October, where she underwent refit from 8 October to 26 October. On 29 October, she left port, headed northwards towards Alameda, where she loaded aircraft and passengers from Naval Air Station Alameda. She then commenced another trip to Finschhafen, arriving on 21 November. Upon disembarking her load, she proceed to Manus Island in the Admiralty Islands, docking in Seeadler Harbor on 23 November. On her way back, she stopped at Pearl Harbor from 6 to 7 December, before reaching San Diego a week later. There, she loaded more aircraft and military passengers, and sailed westwards, touching Pearl Harbor on 24 December. On 26 December, the day after Christmas, she left port, bound for Guam.
Upon reaching Guam on 6 January 1945, Admiralty Islands conducted training operations for two days, before sailing for Hawaii on 10 January. She reached Pearl Harbor on 20 January, where repairs were made to her main engine, finishing on 31 January. Upon the completion of repairs, she was assigned to become a replenishment carrier as a part of Task Group 50.8.4, the mobile replenishment group supporting the frontline Fifth Fleet. Replenishment carriers enabled larger fleet carriers to operate out at sea for extended periods of time without having to withdraw to port. She served alongside three other escort carriers, , , and . She took on a complement of sixty-one replacement planes at Pearl Harbor, and she left port on 2 February, bound for the waters off of Iwo Jima, in support of the planned landings there. After stopping at Eniwetok and Ulithi, she began replenishment operations on 16 February, continuing throughout the next five months.
On 2 March, the carrier returned to Guam for provisioning and minor repairs. On 13 March, she sortied, this time in support of the prolonged Battle of Okinawa. This time, her task group had the task of resupplying both the escort carriers and the fleet carriers of the Fast Carrier Task Force. Throughout this period, she received provisions and aircraft from Guam, making trips to and from the island. On 18 April, Admiralty Islands suffered an operational casualty from a Grumman F6F Hellcat fighter crashing into her flight deck. At 12:17, she sounded flight quarters, and she commenced launching replacement aircraft at 13:52, delivering one Grumman F6F Hellcat, two Grumman TBM Avengers, and two Curtiss SB2C Helldivers to the fleet carrier . At 14:06, she began recovering ten combat-fatigued aircraft (commonly known as "Flyable Duds") from Essex.
The first aircraft which attempted to land was a Hellcat, piloted by Ensign Roy Edward Jones. As it approached Admiralty Islands, the pilot received a signal to abort its landing, after it responded poorly to "low" and "opposite slant" flag signals. With the "wave off" signal from the Landing Signal Officer (LSO) being sent late, the aircraft continued to lose altitude. As the pilot applied full throttle, its tail hook caught the No 5. arresting wire, forcing the aircraft onto a gun mount, splitting the fighter in half. The cockpit and engine were ejected into the ocean, whilst the latter half dangled off the wire. The carrier's crew was unable to retrieve the front half of the fighter, nor the body of the pilot. The LSO was forced to jump into the safety net, breaking his leg.
Admiralty Islands returned to Guam on 24 April for repairs to her boilers, two of which had become dysfunctional. Whilst she was moored for repairs, the other three escort carriers of her task group endured Typhoon Connie, which transited northwards through the waters east of Okinawa. Upon the completion of repairs, she departed on 14 May to continue replenishment duties. She continued these duties throughout May, before being detached and transiting, via Guam, to Saipan on 15 June. She remained in port for two weeks, before being assigned to Task Group 30.8, the Fleet Oiler and Transport Group which was supporting the Third Fleet, which was conducting airstrikes against the Japanese mainland. She suffered another casualty on 20 July, when aircraft from one of the fleet carriers conducting strikes was diverted to Admiralty Islands because its home carrier had experienced a crash landing, with a resulting fire. All of the aircraft landed safely, except for one, which was unable to eject its spare belly-mounted gasoline tanks. As the plane circled the carrier, refusing the order to ditch and struggling to jettison its belly tank, the rest of the aircraft had already been stowed beyond the forward wire barriers.
With the aircraft stored away, the plane was given the greenlight to attempt a landing, some forty-five minutes before sunset. As the plane caught the first arresting gear, the gasoline tank detached, skidded down the flight deck, hit a crewman, and exploded, killing the man. The explosion sprayed burning gasoline onto the parked planes, and set alight the wooden flight deck. The fire forced the evacuation of the bridge, and the engines were cut to deny the fire wind. It appears that the pilot of the landing plane escaped without injury. As a result of the damage sustained from this accident, Admiralty Island was ordered to detach from the task group and to retire to the West Coast. On 21 July, she was detached from Task Group 30.8, and she steamed for Guam, where she unloaded her cargo, and refueled.
After refueling, Admiralty Islands proceeded to the West Coast, arriving at San Diego on 11 August, before heading northwards to San Pedro for refit. Most of the planned alterations were cancelled, as a result of the Japanese surrender being announced on 15 August. Nonetheless, repairs were conducted, and on 1 September, she was assigned to join the "Magic Carpet" fleet, which repatriated servicemen from throughout the Pacific.
She conducted "Magic Carpet" runs until 24 April 1946, when she was decommissioned. She was struck from the Navy list on 8 May, and the hull was sold on 2 January 1947 to the Zidell Machinery and Supply Company of Portland, Oregon. She was ultimately broken up just miles from where she was constructed. Admiralty Islands received three battle stars for her World War II service.
See also
References
Sources
Online sources
Bibliography
External links
Casablanca-class escort carriers
World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Vancouver, Washington
S4-S2-BB3 ships
|
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] |
200431
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip%20Johnson
|
Phillip Johnson
|
Phillip, Philip, or Phil Johnson may refer to:
Sports
Phil Johnson (basketball, born 1941), former basketball player and coach
Phil Johnson (basketball, born 1958), assistant men's basketball coach at UTEP since 2012
Tony Johnson (rower) (Philip Anthony Johnson, born 1940), American rower
Philip Johnson (tennis) (born 1964), American tennis player
Philip G. Johnson (horseman) (1925–2004), American horseman
Philip Johnson (rugby league), rugby league footballer in England
Law, politics, crime
J. Philip Johnson (born 1938), North Dakota judge
Phil Johnson (judge) (born 1944), justice of the Texas Supreme Court
Philip Johnson (congressman) (1818–1867), U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania
Phillip E. Johnson (1940–2019), professor of law and one of the founders of the intelligent design movement
Philip Francis Johnson (1835–1926), Irish nationalist political labour activist
Philip N. Johnson (born 1955), armored car guard who stole approximately $19 million
Other
Philip Johnson (1906–2005), American architect
Philip Johnson (UK architect) (born 1972), UK architect
Philip G. Johnson (1894–1944), President of Boeing
Philip S. Johnson (1953–2011), American violinist and thief of the Ames Stradivarius
Philip Johnson (actor) (born 1991), American actor
See also
Philip Johnson-Laird (born 1936), professor of psychology
Philip Johnston (disambiguation)
Phil Johnston (footballer) (born 1990), Scottish footballer
Phil Johnstone (born 1957), musician
|
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200437
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatra
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Hatra
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Hatra was an ancient city in Upper Mesopotamia located in present-day eastern Nineveh Governorate in northern Iraq. The city lies northwest of Baghdad and southwest of Mosul.
Hatra was a strongly fortified caravan city and capital of the small Arab Kingdom of Hatra, located between the Roman and Parthian/Persian empires. Hatra flourished in the 2nd century, and was destroyed and deserted in the 3rd century. Its impressive ruins were discovered in the 19th century.
Name
Hatra is known as () in Arabic. It is recorded as ḥṭrʾ 𐣧𐣨𐣣𐣠 (Ḥaṭrā) in Hatran Aramaic inscriptions, probably meaning "enclosure, hedge, fence". In Syriac, it is usually recorded in the plural form Ḥaṭrē. In Roman works, it is recorded as Greek Átra and Latin and .
The city was officially called Beit ʾElāhāʾ 𐣡𐣩𐣵 𐣠𐣫𐣤𐣠 "House of God", in Hatran Aramaic inscriptions and once recorded as "Enclosure of Shamash" (ḥtrʾ d-šmš 𐣧𐣨𐣣𐣠 𐣣𐣴𐣬𐣴) on a coin.
History
There is no archeological information on the city before the Parthian period but settlement in the area likely dates back to at least the Seleucid period. Hatra flourished under the Parthians, during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, as a religious and trading center. Later on, the city became the capital of possibly the first Arab Kingdom in the chain of Arab cities running from Hatra, in the northeast, via Palmyra, Baalbek and Petra, in the southwest. The region controlled from Hatra was the Kingdom of Hatra, a semi-autonomous buffer kingdom on the western limits of the Parthian Empire, governed by Arabian princes.
Hatra became an important fortified frontier city and played an important role in the Second Parthian War, withstanding repeated attacks by the Roman Empire. During the 2nd century CE the city repulsed sieges by both Trajan (116/117) and Septimius Severus (198/199). Hatra's forces defeated the ascendant Sassanid Persians in 238 at the battle of Shahrazoor, but fell shortly after in 241 to the army of Sassanid king Shapur I and was destroyed. The traditional stories of the fall of Hatra tell of al-Nadirah, daughter of the King of Araba, who betrayed the city into the hands of Shapur as she fell in love with him. The story tells of how Shapur killed the king and married al-Nadirah, but later had her killed also after realizing her ingratitude towards her father.
Hatra was the best preserved and most informative example of a Parthian city. Its plan was circular, and was encircled by inner and outer walls nearly in diameter and supported by more than 160 towers. A temenos (τέμενος) surrounded the principal sacred buildings in the city's centre. The temples covered some 1.2 hectares and were dominated by the Great Temple, an enormous structure with vaults and columns that once rose to 30 metres. The city was famed for its fusion of Greek, Mesopotamian, Canaanite, Aramean and Arabian pantheons, known in Aramaic as ("House of God"). The city had temples to Nergal (Assyrian-Babylonian and Akkadian), Hermes (Greek), Atargatis (Syro-Aramaean), Allat, Shamiyyah (Arabian), and Shamash (the Mesopotamian sun god). Other deities mentioned in the Hatran Aramaic inscriptions were the Aramaean Ba'al Shamayn, and the female deity known as Ashurbel, which was perhaps the assimilation of the two deities the Assyrian god Ashur and the Babylonian Bel—despite their being individually masculine.
List of rulers
In inscriptions found at Hatra, several rulers are mentioned. Other rulers are sporadically mentioned by classical authors. The earlier rulers are titled mrjʾ (māryā, "lord") and the later ones mlkʾ d-ʿrb ("king of the Arabs"; malkā, "king").
Art of Hatra
According to John M. Rosenfield, the statuary of Hatra belong to the Parthian cultural sphere, with numerous similarities in terms of clothing, decorative elements or posture, which tend to be massive and frontal, with feet often splayed. The architecture of Hatra itself is generally seen as an example of Parthian architecture. Similarities can be seen with the Art of the Kushans as well, due either to direct cultural exchanges between the area of Mesopotamia and the Kushan Empire at that time, or from a common Parthian artistic background leading to similar types of representation.
Modern Hatra
Hatra was used as the setting for the opening scene in the 1973 film The Exorcist, and since 1985 has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The site was first surveyed by Walter Andrae of the German excavation team working in Assur from 1906 to 1911. But systematic excavations have been undertaken only from 1951 by Iraqi archeologists. From the 1980s, the Italian Archaeological Expedition, directed by R. Ricciardi Venco (University of Turin), made major discoveries at Hatra. The excavations were focused on an important house ("Building A"), located close to the Temenos, and on deep soundings in the Temenos central area. Now the Expedition is active in different projects regarding the preservation and development of the archaeological site. In 1990, a Polish expedition of the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw recorded and studied the city's defense walls. The team was directed by Michał Gawlikowski (PCMA UW).
In 2004, The Daily Telegraph stated "Hatra's finely preserved columns and statues make it one of the most impressive of Iraq's archaeological sites"
Restoration by Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein saw the site's Mesopotamian history as reflecting glory on himself, and sought to restore the site, and others in Ninevah, Nimrud, Ashur and Babylon, as a symbol of Arab achievement, spending more than US$80 million in the first phase of restoration of Babylon. Saddam Hussein demanded that new bricks in the restoration use his name (in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar) and parts of one restored Hatra temple have Saddam's name.
Destruction by ISIL
Actions by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, which occupied the area in mid-2014, have been a major threat to Hatra. In early 2015 they announced their intention to destroy many artifacts, claiming that such "graven images" were un-Islamic, encouraged shirk (or polytheism), and could not be permitted to exist, despite the preservation of the site for 1,400 years by various Islamic regimes. ISIL militants pledged to destroy the remaining artifacts. Shortly thereafter, they released a video showing the destruction of some artifacts from Hatra. After the bulldozing of Nimrud on March 5, 2015, "Hatra of course will be next" said Abdulamir Hamdani, an Iraqi archaeologist from Stony Brook University. On March 7, Kurdish and Iraqi official sources reported ISIS had begun the demolishing the ruins of Hatra. A video released by ISIL during the next month showed the destruction of the monuments.
UNESCO and ISESCO issued a joint statement saying "With this latest act of barbarism against Hatra, (the IS group) shows the contempt in which it holds the history and heritage of Arab people."
The pro-Iraqi government Popular Mobilization Forces captured the city on 26 April 2017. A spokeswoman for the militias stated that ISIL had destroyed the sculptures and engraved images of the site, but its walls and towers were still standing though contained holes and scratches received from ISIL bullets. PMF units also stated that the group had mined the site's eastern gates, thus temporarily preventing any assessment of damage by archaeologists. It was reported on 1 May that the site had suffered less damage than feared earlier. A journalist of EFE had earlier reported finding many destroyed statues, burnt buildings as well as signs of looting. Layla Salih, head of antiquities for Nineveh Governorate, stated that most of the buildings were intact and the destruction didn't compare with that of other archaeological sites of Iraq. A PMF commander also stated that the damage was relatively minor.
Gallery
Climate
Hatra has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh). Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Hatra is . About of precipitation falls annually.
See also
Aramaic of Hatra
Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL
Taq-i Kisra, sharing architectural features with structures at Hatra
References
Further reading
External links
Between Rome and Parthia: The Desert City of Hatra
http://lexicorient.com/e.o/hathra.htm
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9039509
http://shezaf.net/english/Video/Video/Hatra.html
http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/chronicle/8612.shtml BBC Chronicle "Lost Kings of the Desert"
https://hatrasite.com/ Italian Archaeological Expedition at Hatra
Iraqi forces seize ancient UNESCO site of Hatra from Islamic State as jihadis execute Mosul civilians
Nineveh Governorate
Archaeological sites in Iraq
World Heritage Sites in Iraq
Parthian cities
Sasanian cities
Destroyed cities
Former populated places in Iraq
District capitals of Iraq
Buildings and structures destroyed by ISIL
Articles containing video clips
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200440
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-space
|
F-space
|
In functional analysis, an F-space is a vector space over the real or complex numbers together with a metric such that that
Scalar multiplication in is continuous with respect to and the standard metric on or
Addition in is continuous with respect to
The metric is translation-invariant; that is, for all
The metric space is complete.
The operation is called an F-norm, although in general an F-norm is not required to be homogeneous. By translation-invariance, the metric is recoverable from the F-norm. Thus, a real or complex F-space is equivalently a real or complex vector space equipped with a complete F-norm.
Some authors use the term rather than , but usually the term "Fréchet space" is reserved for locally convex F-spaces.
Some other authors use the term "F-space" as a synonym of "Fréchet space", by which they mean a locally convex complete metrizable topological vector space.
The metric may or may not necessarily be part of the structure on an F-space; many authors only require that such a space be metrizable in a manner that satisfies the above properties.
Examples
All Banach spaces and Fréchet spaces are F-spaces. In particular, a Banach space is an F-space with an additional requirement that
The Lp spaces can be made into F-spaces for all and for they can be made into locally convex and thus Fréchet spaces and even Banach spaces.
Example 1
is an F-space. It admits no continuous seminorms and no continuous linear functionals — it has trivial dual space.
Example 2
Let be the space of all complex valued Taylor series
on the unit disc such that
then for are F-spaces under the p-norm:
In fact, is a quasi-Banach algebra. Moreover, for any with the map is a bounded linear (multiplicative functional) on
Sufficient conditions
Related properties
The open mapping theorem implies that if are topologies on that make both and into complete metrizable topological vector spaces (for example, Banach or Fréchet spaces) and if one topology is finer or coarser than the other then they must be equal (that is, if ).
A linear almost continuous map into an F-space whose graph is closed is continuous.
A linear almost open map into an F-space whose graph is closed is necessarily an open map.
A linear continuous almost open map from an F-space is necessarily an open map.
A linear continuous almost open map from an F-space whose image is of the second category in the codomain is necessarily a surjective open map.
See also
References
Notes
Sources
pl:Przestrzeń Frécheta (analiza funkcjonalna)
|
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] |
200442
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20pound%20%28British%20coin%29
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One pound (British coin)
|
The British one pound (£1) coin is a denomination of the pound sterling. Its obverse bears the Latin engraving ELIZABETH II D G REG () F D () meaning, 'Elizabeth II, by the grace of God, Queen, Defender of the Faith'. It has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the original coin's introduction on 21 April 1983. Four different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the latest design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The design on the reverse side of the current, 12-sided coin features four emblems to represent each of the nations of the United Kingdom — the English rose, the leek for Wales, the Scottish thistle, and the shamrock for Northern Ireland, also two or three oak leaves — emerging from a single 5-branched stem within a crown.
The original, round £1 coin replaced the Bank of England £1 note, which ceased to be issued at the end of 1984 and was removed from circulation on 11 March 1988, though still redeemable at the Bank's offices, like all English banknotes. One-pound notes continue to be issued in Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, and by the Royal Bank of Scotland, but the pound coin is much more widely used. A new, dodecagonal (12-sided) design of coin was introduced on 28 March 2017 and both new and old versions of the one pound coin circulated together until the older design was withdrawn from circulation on 15 October 2017. After that date, the older coin could only be redeemed at banks, although some retailers announced they would continue to accept it for a limited time, and they remained in use in the Isle of Man.
The main purpose of redesigning the coin was to combat counterfeiting. As of March 2014 there were an estimated 1,553 million of the original nickel-brass coins in circulation, of which the Royal Mint estimated in 2014 that just over 3% were counterfeit. The new coin, in contrast, is bimetallic like the current £2 coin, and features an undisclosed hidden security feature called "iSIS" (Integrated Secure Identification Systems).
The current 12-sided pound coins are legal tender to any amount when offered in repayment of a debt; however, the coin's legal tender status is not normally relevant for everyday transactions.
Design
To date, four different portraits of Elizabeth II have appeared on the obverse. For the first three of these, the inscription was , where 2013 is replaced by the year of minting. The fourth design, unveiled in March 2015, expanded the inscription slightly to . The 12-sided design, introduced in March 2017, reverted to
In summary:
In 1983 and 1984 the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse, in which the Queen wears the "Girls of Great Britain and Ireland" Tiara.
Between 1985 and 1997 the portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used, in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem.
Between 1998 and 2015 the portrait by Ian Rank-Broadley was used, again featuring the tiara, with a signature-mark below the portrait.
In 2015 the portrait by Jody Clark was introduced, in which the Queen wears the George IV State Diadem, with a signature-mark below the portrait.
In August 2005 the Royal Mint launched a competition to find new reverse designs for all circulating coins apart from the £2 coin. The winner, announced in April 2008, was Matthew Dent, whose designs were gradually introduced into the circulating British coinage from mid-2008. The designs for the 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p, 20p and 50p coins depict sections of the Royal Shield that form the whole shield when placed together. The shield in its entirety was featured on the £1 coin. The coin's obverse remained unchanged.
The design of the reverse of the original coin was changed each year from 1983 to 2008 to show, in turn, an emblem representing the UK, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and England, together with an appropriate edge inscription. This edge inscription could frequently be "upside-down" (when obverse is facing upward). From 2008, national-based designs were still minted, but alongside the new standard version and no longer in strict rotation. The inscription ONE POUND appeared on all reverse designs.
In common with non-commemorative £2 coins, the round £1 coin (except 2004–07 and the 2010–11 "capital cities" designs) had a mint mark: a small crosslet found on the milled edge that represents Llantrisant in South Wales, where the Royal Mint has been based since 1968.
The reverse of the new 12-sided, bimetallic pound coin, introduced on 28 March 2017, was chosen by a public design competition. The competition to design the reverse of this coin was opened in September 2014. It was won in March 2015 by 15-year-old David Pearce from Walsall, and unveiled by Chancellor George Osborne during his Budget announcement. The design features a rose, leek, thistle and shamrock bound by a crown.
Status as legal tender
Current £1 coins are legal tender to any amount. However, "legal tender" has a very specific and narrow meaning which relates only to the repayment of debt to a creditor, not to everyday shopping or other transactions. Specifically, coins of particular denominations are said to be "legal tender" when a creditor must by law accept them in redemption of a debt. The term does not mean - as is often thought - that a shopkeeper has to accept a particular type of currency in payment. A shopkeeper is under no obligation to accept any specific type of payment, whether legal tender or not; conversely they have the discretion to accept any payment type they wish.
Mintage figures
Round coin
Mintage figures below represent the number of coins of each date released for circulation. Mint Sets have been produced since 1982; where mintages on or after that date indicate 'none', there are examples contained within those sets.
All years except 1998 and 1999 have been issued into circulation, although the number issued has varied enormously – 1983, 1984 and 1985 in particular had large mintages to facilitate the changeover from paper notes, while some years such as 1988 are only rarely seen (although 1988 is more noticeable as it has a unique reverse). Production since 1997 has been reduced, thanks to the introduction of the circulating two pound coin.
The final round coins minted for 2016 and the 2015 Shield of the Royal Arms 5th portrait did not enter circulation, as they were only available through commemorative sets. These were the shield from the Royal Coat of Arms by Matthew Dent, and a design by Gregory Cameron, Bishop of St Asaph, of four heraldic beasts.
12-sided coin
Counterfeiting
During later years of the round pound's use, Royal Mint surveys estimated the proportion of counterfeit £1 coins in circulation. This was estimated at 3.04% in 2013, a rise from 2.74%. The figure previously announced in 2012 was 2.86%, following the prolonged rise from 0.92% in 2002–2003 to 0.98% in 2004, 1.26% in 2005, 1.69% in 2006, 2.06% in 2007, 2.58% in 2008, 2.65% in 2009, 3.07% in 2010 and 3.09% in 2011. Figures were generally reported in the following year; in 2008 (as reported in 2009), the highest levels of counterfeits were in Northern Ireland (3.6%) and the South East and London (2.97%), with the lowest being in Northwest England. Coin testing companies estimated in 2009 that the actual figure was about twice the Mint's estimate, suggesting that the Mint was underplaying the figures so as not to undermine confidence in the coin. It is illegal to pass on counterfeit currency knowingly; the official advice is to hand it in, with details of where received, to the police, who will retain it and investigate. One article suggested "given that fake coins are worthless, you will almost certainly be better off not even looking". The recipient also has recourse against the supplier in such cases.
Counterfeits are put into circulation by dishonest people, then circulated inadvertently by others who are unaware; in many cases banks do not check, and circulate counterfeits. In 2011 the BBC television programme Fake Britain withdrew 1,000 £1 coins from each of five major banks and found that each batch contained between 32 and 38 counterfeits; the Mint estimated that about 31 per 1,000 £1 coins were counterfeit. Some of the counterfeits were found by automated machinery, others could be detected only by expert visual inspection.
In July 2010, following speculation that the Royal Mint would have to consider replacing £1 coins with a new design because of the fakes, bookmakers Paddy Power offered odds of 6/4 (bet £4 to win £6, plus the £4 stake back; decimal odds of 2.5), that the £1 coin would be removed from circulation.
Some counterfeits were of poor quality, with obviously visible differences (less sharply defined, lacking intricate details, edge milling and markings visibly wrong). Many better counterfeits can be detected by comparing the orientation of the obverse and reverse—they should match in genuine modern UK coins, but very often did not in counterfeit round £1. The design on the reverse must be correct for the stamped year (e.g., a 1996 coin should have a Celtic cross). It was difficult to manufacture round pounds with properly-produced edges; the milling (grooves) was often incomplete or poor and the inscription (often "DECUS ET TUTAMEN") sometimes poorly produced or in the wrong typeface. A shiny coin with less wear than its date suggests is also suspect, although it may be a genuine coin that has rarely been used.
Counterfeit coins are made by different processes including casting, stamping, electrotyping, and copying with a pantograph or spark erosion. In a 2009 survey, 99% of fake £1 coins found in cash centres were made of a nickel-brass, of which three fifths contained some lead and a fifth were of a very similar alloy to that used by the Royal Mint. The remaining 1% were made of simple copper-zinc brass, or lead or tin, or both. Those made of lead or tin may have a gold-coloured coating; counterfeits made of acrylic plastic containing metal powder to increase weight were occasionally found.
The final 'round pounds' were minted in December 2015; the replacement, a new 12-sided design, was introduced in 2017, the earliest dated as 2016. The coin has a 12-edged shape, similar to the pre-decimal brass threepence coin; it has roughly the same size as the previous £1 coin, and is bi-metallic like most £2 coins. The new design is intended to make counterfeiting more difficult, and also has an undisclosed hidden security feature called "iSIS" (Integrated Secure Identification Systems), thought to be a code embedded in the top layer of metal on the obverse of the coin, visible only under a specific wavelength of ultraviolet light.
Current two-pound coins, being bi-metallic (excluding some rarely tendered commemorative issues), remain harder to counterfeit than the round pound was; such counterfeits would often easily seen to have wrong colour(s).
Other pound coins that entered circulation
While the round pound was operational, others that entered circulation, although not legal tender, in the UK were some £1 coins of British Crown Dependencies, Gibraltar and UK South Atlantic Overseas Territories. Most coins of these territories, in all denominations, were of the same size and composition as a UK equivalent and most bore the same portraits of the UK monarch. None of these territories rushed to replace their round pound coins except Gibraltar after the UK did so, which continues to use Gibraltarian pound coins as legal tender as well as the new UK pound coins.
Further reading
In an April 1993 The New Yorker article "Real Britannia", Julian Barnes describes the meetings to choose the 1994–1997 reverse designs. This is reprinted in his book Letters from London as "Britannia's New Bra Size".
See also
Banknotes of the pound sterling
Coin counterfeiting
Coins of the pound sterling
Sovereign — gold coin with a (nominal) value of £1
References
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft.
External links
Royal Mint – £1 coin
Royal Mint - the new pound coin
One Pound, Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club
Coins of the United Kingdom
Currencies introduced in 1983
One-base-unit coins
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200446
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mats%20Wilander
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Mats Wilander
|
Mats Arne Olof Wilander (; born 22 August 1964) is a Swedish former world No. 1 tennis player. From 1982 to 1988, he won seven Grand Slam singles titles (three at the French Open, three at the Australian Open, and one at the US Open), and one Grand Slam men's doubles title (at Wimbledon). His breakthrough came suddenly and unexpectedly when he won the 1982 French Open at the age of 17.
In 1988, Wilander won three of the four Grand Slam singles events and finished the year ranked as world No. 1. Although he never won the singles title at Wimbledon, Wilander twice won the Australian Open when it was played on grass courts. This makes Wilander one of only six men (along with Jimmy Connors, Andre Agassi, Rafael Nadal, Roger Federer and Novak Djokovic) to have won Grand Slam singles titles on grass courts, hard courts, and clay courts. since it was first achievable in 1978 (when US Open was played on a Hard Court). Since 1978 he, Nadal, and Djokovic are the only men to have won at least two Grand Slam singles titles on each of the three surfaces (two Australian when it was played on grass, one Australian and one US on hard court, and three French on clay).
Wilander won his fourth Grand Slam singles title at the age of 20, the youngest man in history to have achieved that feat. He also won eight Grand Prix Super Series titles (1983–88), the precursors to the current ATP World Tour Masters 1000. He won 33 singles titles and seven doubles titles during his career. He was also a driving force behind Sweden's run of seven consecutive Davis Cup finals in the 1980s.
In 2002, Wilander was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame.
Career
Juniors
Born in Växjö, Sweden, Wilander first came to the tennis world's attention when he won the French Open junior title, the European under-16 and under-18 championships, and the Orange Bowl under-16 event in Miami.
1980–1988
Wilander made his debut on the professional tour at the clay court tournament in Båstad, Sweden in 1980. In September 1981, he lost his only career match against Björn Borg, losing in the first round of the Geneva Open in straight sets.
Wilander surprised the tennis world at the 1982 French Open. As an unseeded player, he upset second seed Ivan Lendl in the fourth round, fifth seed Vitas Gerulaitis in the quarterfinals, fourth seed José Luis Clerc in the semifinals, and third seed Guillermo Vilas in a four-set final that lasted 4 hours and 42 minutes. At the end of the semifinal against Clerc he requested replay of the match ball as he did not want to win the game due to a questionable referee decision. This was seen as an extraordinary display of fair play and garnered him the Pierre de Coubertin World Fair Play Trophy. He was the youngest ever male Grand Slam singles champion at 17 years, 9 months, a record since broken by Boris Becker and Michael Chang. In only his third entry in a Grand Slam tournament, Wilander also became the player who needed the fewest attempts to win one, a record since equaled by Gustavo Kuerten at the 1997 French Open. Wilander then lost in the fourth round at both Wimbledon, to Brian Teacher, and the US Open to Lendl. Wilander won three additional tournaments in 1982 and finished the year ranked no. 7. During that year, Wilander was awarded the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal.
Wilander returned to the French Open in 1983, where he lost to Yannick Noah after defeating John McEnroe in a quarterfinal. He lost in the third round at Wimbledon to Roscoe Tanner and in the quarterfinals of the US Open to Lendl. Wilander won his second Grand Slam title later that year at the Australian Open, played on grass at Kooyong Stadium, where he defeated McEnroe in a semifinal and Lendl in the final. He won eight other tournaments in 1983, including two Grand Prix Championship Series titles, and finished the year ranked no. 4.
Wilander retained his Australian Open title in 1984, beating Stefan Edberg in the quarterfinals and Kevin Curren in the final. He lost in the semifinals of the French Open to Lendl, the second round at Wimbledon to Pat Cash, and the quarterfinals of the US Open to Cash. He won three tournaments in 1984 including his third Championships Series title and again finished the year ranked no. 4.
In 1985, Wilander won the French Open for the second time, beating Lendl in the final, and again reached the Australian Open final, where he lost to Edberg. However, he lost in the first round at Wimbledon to Slobodan Živojinović and the semifinals of the US Open to McEnroe. He won three tournaments in 1985 and finished the year ranked no. 3.
Wilander rose to the no. 2 ranking, behind Lendl, on 28 April 1986. He then lost in the third round of the French Open to Andrei Chesnokov, the fourth round of Wimbledon to Cash, and the fourth round of the US Open to Miloslav Mečíř. His consistency at other tournaments, however, allowed him to again finish the year ranked no. 3. Wilander partnered with countryman Joakim Nyström to win the men's doubles title at Wimbledon in 1986. He also won his fourth Grand Prix Championship Series title.
The 1987 season saw Wilander unveil a more potent service and a new highly effective one-handed slice backhand, the latter a somewhat remarkable development for a mid-career top-level tennis professional. Despite the improvements, however, Wilander was defeated by Lendl in the finals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1987. Cash again proved to be Wilander's nemesis at Wimbledon, winning their quarterfinal match in straight sets. Wilander won five tournaments in 1987 including two Grand Prix Tennis Championship Series titles and six overall, finishing the year ranked third in the world for the third consecutive year.
1988 was the pinnacle of Wilander's career. In January, he won his third Australian Open singles title, this time on Melbourne Park's hardcourts, defeating Edberg in a five-set semifinal and home town favourite Cash in a five-set final. In doing so, he became the only player to win the Australian Open on both grass and hardcourt. Wilander faced another home crowd favourite, Henri Leconte, in the final of the French Open. Wilander won in straight sets, missing only two out of 73 first serves in the entire match. At Wimbledon, Wilander reached the quarterfinals where he lost to Mečíř. At the US Open, he reached his third Grand Slam final of the year. In a repeat match-up of the previous year's final, he defeated Lendl in five sets in close to 5 hours and ended Lendl's three-year reign at the top of the world rankings. This was Wilander's seventh Grand Slam singles title and resulted in his receiving the number one ranking, having won three of the year's Grand Slam tournaments, two more Grand Prix Championship Series titles at Key Biscayne and Cincinnati, and one other title in Palermo. He held the top ranking for a total of 20 weeks until Lendl reclaimed it at the end of January 1989.
His 1988 title at Cincinnati was his fourth there, at the time making him one of only three players since 1899 to win four titles in Cincinnati, along with Bobby Riggs and George Lott. Roger Federer has since joined the list.
1989–1996
Wilander's motivation, results, and ranking suffered in 1989. He lost in the second round of the Australian Open to Ramesh Krishnan, the quarterfinals of the French Open to Andrei Chesnokov, the quarterfinals of Wimbledon to John McEnroe (7–6, 3–6, 6–3, 6–4), and the second round of the US Open to Pete Sampras (5–7, 6–3, 1–6, 6–1, 6–4). He did not win a tournament during 1989 and he finished the year ranked World No. 12.
Wilander briefly moved back into the top 10 rankings on 12 February 1990, but by the end of the year, his ranking had slumped to World No. 41. He defeated Boris Becker in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, only to lose to Stefan Edberg in straight sets in the semifinals. He skipped the French Open and Wimbledon and lost in the first round of the US Open to Brad Gilbert.
Wilander played only the first half of 1991. He lost in the fourth round of the Australian Open and the second round of the French Open. He finished the year ranked World No. 159.
Wilander was absent from the tour in 1992. He played seven tournaments in 1993, losing in the first round of five of them. At the US Open, he lost in the third round to Cédric Pioline. He finished the year ranked World No. 330.
Except for Wimbledon, Wilander played a full schedule in 1994. He lost in the fourth round of the Australian Open to MaliVai Washington, the first round of the French Open to Andre Agassi (6–2, 7–5, 6–1), and the first round of the US Open to Guy Forget. His only victory over a top ten player was in the second round of the tournament in Indianapolis against Todd Martin. He finished the year ranked World No. 129.
Wilander's results improved slightly in 1995 as he finished the year ranked World No. 46. After losing in the first round of the Australian Open to Jacco Eltingh, he lost in the second round of the French Open to eighth ranked Wayne Ferreira 6–7, 7–6, 6–3, 6–7, 8–6. He then lost in the third round of Wimbledon to Eltingh and the second round of the US Open to Martin. In other tournaments, he had wins against tenth ranked Marc Rosset, eighth ranked Ferreira, and sixth ranked Yevgeny Kafelnikov. He also won his final tour match against Edberg, in the second round of the Canadian Open in Montreal.
In 1996, Wilander played only one Grand Slam tournament, losing in the second round of the French Open to Martin. He retired from the tour after losing his final match to Martin Damm in Beijing in October.
During most of his career, Wilander used the Rossignol F-200 Carbon tennis racquet, an early fiberglass model.
Failed drug test and suspension
During the 1995 French Open he and Karel Nováček tested positive for cocaine. They appealed the initial three-month suspension by the International Tennis Federation, claiming flawed test procedures but withdrew their appeals in May 1997 and on 15 May 1997 received a three-month suspension from the ATP Tour for failing a drugs test. Additionally Wilander had to return his prize money since May 1995, amounting to $289,005, and forfeit ranking points.
Davis Cup
Wilander was an integral member of Sweden's highly successful Davis Cup team throughout the 1980s.
He reached his first final with Sweden in 1983, which they lost 3–2 to Australia (despite Wilander winning both his singles rubbers in the final). In 1984, Sweden (with Wilander) won the cup, beating the United States 4–1 in the final. Sweden retained the cup in 1985, with a 3–2 final victory over West Germany. Wilander helped Sweden reach the final again in 1986 but declined to play in the final because he was getting married (Sweden lost 3–2 to Australia). Wilander played in his fourth final in 1987, where Sweden beat India 5–0. Two more finals followed in 1988 and 1989, but Sweden lost both to West Germany. Wilander last played in Davis Cup in the 1995 semifinals, where he lost to Andre Agassi 7–6, 6–2, 6–2 and Pete Sampras 2–6, 7–6, 6–3.
Wilander compiled a 36–16 record in singles and a 7–2 record in doubles in the Davis Cup for Sweden. However, Wilander's most memorable Davis Cup match came in defeat. In a July 1982 quarterfinal tie against the United States on carpet in St. Louis, Missouri, Wilander was defeated in the deciding fifth rubber by John McEnroe 9–7, 6–2, 15–17, 3–6, 8–6. At 6 hours and 32 minutes it remains the second longest singles match in Davis Cup history.
Career statistics
Grand Slam tournament performance timeline
Grand Slam tournament finals
Singles: 11 (7 titles, 4 runner-ups)
Records
These records were attained in Open Era of tennis.
Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.
Personal life
Wilander, who won $8 million as a pro and more in endorsements, now spends much of his time living on an 81-acre estate in Hailey, Idaho, United States (part of the Sun Valley ski resort) with his wife Sonya (née Mulholland), a South African-born model. He competes from time to time on the senior tour. Since retiring as a player, he has served as captain of the Swedish Davis Cup team. Wilander also served as commentator for tennis matches on Eurosport.
Wilander has four children, Emma, Karl, Erik, and Oskar. His son Erik suffers from a comparatively mild form of epidermolysis bullosa, which benefits from Idaho's cool and dry air, and Wilander and his wife have worked to raise funds for research into cures for the disease.
Wilander created a minor controversy during the 2006 French Open when he criticized several top players, including Roger Federer and Kim Clijsters, as lacking the competitive edge to beat their toughest rivals. After Federer's 1–6, 6–1, 6–4, 7–6 loss to Nadal in the final, Wilander said that "Federer, today, unfortunately came out with no balls... you don't find too many champions in any sport in the world without heart or balls. He might have them, but against Nadal they shrank to a very small size and it's not once, it's every time."
In the aftermath of these comments, fans coined the neologism "Wilanders" as a humorous synonym for "balls", denoting a competitive spirit and tenacity to win.
Wilander began coaching Tatiana Golovin in July 2007. After working with Golovin in the later part of 2007, Wilander began coaching Paul-Henri Mathieu.
His brother, Anders Wilander, has been Mayor of Tranås Municipality since 2006.
In 2012, Wilander won the International Club's Jean Borotra Sportsmanship Award.
See also
Lendl–Wilander rivalry
List of Grand Slam men's singles champions
World number 1 ranked male tennis players
References
External links
1964 births
Living people
Australian Open (tennis) champions
French Open champions
French Open junior champions
Hopman Cup competitors
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
People from Hailey, Idaho
People from Växjö
Swedish expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Swedish male tennis players
Swedish tennis coaches
US Open (tennis) champions
Wimbledon champions
World No. 1 tennis players
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles
Tennis commentators
|
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200447
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer%20N.%20Wallin
|
Homer N. Wallin
|
Homer Norman Wallin (December 6, 1893 – March 6, 1984) was a vice admiral in the United States Navy, best known for his salvage of ships sunk in the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Biography
Wallin was born in Washburn, North Dakota. Following brief attendance at the University of North Dakota and a year in the state National Guard, he was appointed to the U.S. Naval Academy in 1913. He graduated in March 1917 and was commissioned in the rank of Ensign. During most of World War I, he served in the battleship . In September 1918, he was transferred to the navy's Construction Corps and was sent to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for postgraduate education in naval architecture.
After receiving his Master of Science degree in 1921, Wallin served for four years at the New York Navy Yard. He was assigned to the Bureau of Construction and Repair in Washington, D.C., in 1925 to 1929. Over the following decade he had successive tours at the Mare Island and Philadelphia Navy Yards and at the Bureau of Construction and Repair (redesignated the Bureau of Ships in 1940). During this time, Wallin met and married his wife Elizabeth, and had two children, son Homer Norman, Jr. and daughter Susan Ann.
In 1941, Captain Wallin became material officer for commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, and was serving in that position when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Early in the following year, he was placed in charge of the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard's Salvage Division. Through most of 1942, he directed the Pearl Harbor ship salvage effort, a huge task that enabled the navy to recover the use of three sunken battleships. From November 1942 to August 1943, he was force maintenance officer for the South Pacific Force, then spent a few months at the Bureau of Ships. Rear Admiral Wallin was supervisor of shipbuilding and inspector of ordnance at Seattle and commander of the naval station at Tacoma, Washington, beginning in October 1943.
Post-World War II Career
Following World War II, Wallin commanded the Philadelphia and Norfolk Naval Shipyards. In February 1951, he became chief of the Bureau of Ships, a post he held until August 1953, when he took command of the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. He retired from active service on 1 May 1955 and was simultaneously advanced to the rank of vice admiral on the basis of his combat awards.
In 1968, retired Vice Admiral Wallin published a memoir of his service, especially the Pearl Harbor salvage operations, titled Pearl Harbor: Why, How, Fleet Salvage and Final Appraisal.
Vice Admiral Homer N. Wallin died on 6 March 1984. He is interred at Willamette National Cemetery, Portland, Oregon.
Decorations
References
1893 births
1984 deaths
People from McLean County, North Dakota
Military personnel from North Dakota
United States Navy admirals
United States Naval Academy alumni
University of North Dakota alumni
United States Navy personnel of World War I
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy World War II admirals
United States Navy engineering officers
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
American people of Swedish descent
Burials at Willamette National Cemetery
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlow%20Castle
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Ludlow Castle
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Ludlow Castle is a ruined medieval fortification in the town of the same name in the English county of Shropshire, standing on a promontory overlooking the River Teme. The castle was probably founded by Walter de Lacy after the Norman conquest and was one of the first stone castles to be built in England. During the civil war of the 12th century the castle changed hands several times between the de Lacys and rival claimants, and was further fortified with a Great Tower and a large outer bailey. In the mid-13th century, Ludlow was passed on to Geoffrey de Geneville who rebuilt part of the inner bailey, and the castle played a part in the Second Barons' War. Roger Mortimer acquired the castle in 1301, further extending the internal complex of buildings, and the Mortimer family went on to hold Ludlow for over a century.
Richard, the Duke of York, inherited the castle in 1425, and it became an important symbol of Yorkist authority during the Wars of the Roses. When Richard's son, Edward IV, seized the throne in 1461 it passed into the ownership of the Crown. Ludlow Castle was chosen as the seat of the Council in the Marches of Wales, effectively acting as the capital of Wales, and it was extensively renovated throughout the 16th century. By the 17th century the castle was luxuriously appointed, hosting cultural events such as the first performance of John Milton's masque Comus. Ludlow Castle was held by the Royalists during the English Civil War of the 1640s, until it was besieged and taken by a Parliamentarian army in 1646. The contents of the castle were sold off and a garrison was retained there for much of the interregnum.
With the Restoration of 1660, the Council was reestablished and the castle repaired, but Ludlow never recovered from the civil war years and when the Council was finally abolished in 1689 it fell into neglect. Henry, 1st Earl of Powis, leased the property from the Crown in 1772, extensively landscaping the ruins, while his brother-in-law, Edward, 1st Earl of Powis (by the third creation of the Earldom of Powis), bought the castle outright in 1811. A mansion was constructed in the outer bailey but the remainder of the castle was left largely untouched, attracting an increasing number of visitors and becoming a popular location for artists. After 1900, Ludlow Castle was cleared of vegetation and over the course of the century it was extensively repaired by the Powis Estate and government bodies. In the 21st century it is still owned by the Earl of Powis and operated as a tourist attraction.
The architecture of Ludlow reflects its long history, retaining a blend of several styles of building. The castle is approximately in size, covering almost . The outer bailey includes the Castle House building, now used by the Powis Estate as offices and accommodation, while the inner bailey, separated by a trench cut out of the stone, houses the Great Tower, Solar block, Great Hall and Great Chamber block, along with later 16th century additions, as well as a rare, circular chapel, modelled on the shrine in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. English Heritage notes that the ruins represent "a remarkably complete multi-phase complex" and considers Ludlow to be "one of England's finest castle sites".
History
11th century
Ludlow Castle was probably founded by Walter de Lacy around 1075. Walter had arrived in England in 1066 as part of William fitzOsbern's household during the Norman conquest of England. FitzOsbern was made the Earl of Hereford and tasked with settling the area; at the same time, several castles were founded in the west of the county, securing its border with Wales. Walter de Lacy was the earl's second in command, and was rewarded with 163 manors spread across seven counties, with 91 in Herefordshire alone.
Walter began building a castle within the manor of Stanton Lacy; the fortification was originally called Dinham Castle, before it acquired its later name of Ludlow. Ludlow was the most important of Walter's castles: as well as being at the heart of his new estates, the site also lay at a strategic crossroads over the River Teme, on a strong defensive promontory. Walter died in a construction accident at Hereford in 1085 and was succeeded by his son, Roger de Lacy.
The castle's Norman stone fortifications were added possibly as early as the 1080s onwards, and were finished before 1115, based around what is now the inner bailey of the castle, forming a stone version of a ringwork. It had four towers and a gatehouse tower along the walls, with a ditch dug out of the rock along two sides, the excavated stone being reused for the building works, and would have been one of the first masonry castles in England. With its circular design and grand entrance tower, it has been likened to the earlier Anglo-Saxon burgheat designs. In 1096, Roger was stripped of his lands after rebelling against William II and they were reassigned to Roger's brother, Hugh.
12th century
Hugh de Lacy died childless around 1115, and Henry I gave Ludlow Castle and most of the surrounding estates to Hugh's niece, Sybil, marrying her to Pain fitzJohn, one of his household staff. Pain used Ludlow as his caput, the main castle in his estates, using the surrounding estates and knight's fees to support the castle and its defences. Pain died in 1137 fighting the Welsh, triggering a struggle for the inheritance of the castle. Robert fitzMiles, who had been planning to marry Pain's daughter, laid claim to it, as did Gilbert de Lacy, Roger de Lacy's son. By now, King Stephen had seized the English throne, but his position was insecure and he therefore gave Ludlow to fitzMiles in 1137, in exchange for promises of future political support.
A civil war between Stephen and the Empress Matilda soon broke out and Gilbert took his chance to rise up against Stephen, seizing Ludlow Castle. Stephen responded by taking an army into the Welsh Marches, where he attempted to garner local support by marrying one of his knights, Joce de Dinan, to Sybil and granting the future ownership of the castle to them. Stephen took the castle after several attempts in 1139, famously rescuing his ally Prince Henry of Scotland when the latter was caught on a hook thrown over the walls by the garrison. Gilbert still maintained that he was the rightful owner of Ludlow, however, and a private war ensued between Joce and himself. Gilbert was ultimately successful and retook the castle around a few years before the end of the civil war in 1153. He ultimately left for the Levant, leaving Ludlow in the hands of firstly, his eldest son, Robert, and then, after Robert's death, his younger son, Hugh de Lacy.
During this period, the Great Tower, a form of keep, was constructed by converting the entrance tower, probably either around the time of the siege of 1139, or during the war between Gilbert and Joce. The old Norman castle had also begun to become too small for a growing household and, probably between 1140 and 1177, an outer bailey was built to the south and east of the original castle, creating a large open space. In the process, the entrance to the castle shifted from the south to the east, to face the growing town of Ludlow. Gilbert probably built the circular chapel in the inner bailey, resembling the churches of the Templar order which he later joined.
Hugh took part in the Norman invasion of Ireland and in 1172 was made Lord of Meath; he spent much time away from Ludlow, and Henry II confiscated the castle in his absence, probably to ensure that Hugh stayed loyal while in Ireland. Hugh died in Ireland in 1186 and the castle passed to his son, Walter, who was a minor and did not take charge of the property until 1194. During Prince John's rebellion against Richard I in 1194, Walter joined in the attacks against the prince; Richard did not approve of this and confiscated Ludlow and Walter's other properties. Walter de Lacy offered to buy back his land for 1,000 marks, but the offer was rejected until in 1198 the vast sum of 3,100 marks was finally agreed.
13th century
Walter de Lacy travelled to Ireland in 1201 and the following year his properties, including Ludlow Castle, were once again confiscated to ensure his loyalty and placed under the control of William de Braose, his father-in-law. Walter's lands were returned to him, subject to the payment of a fine of 400 marks, but in 1207 his disagreements with royal officials in Ireland led to King John seizing the castle and putting it under the control of William again. Walter reconciled himself with John the following year, but meanwhile William himself had fallen out with the King; violence broke out and both Walter and William took refuge in Ireland, with John taking control of Ludlow yet again. It was not until 1215 that their relationship recovered and John agreed to give Ludlow back to Walter. At some point during the early 13th century, the innermost bailey was constructed in the castle, creating an additional private space within the inner bailey.
In 1223, King Henry III met with the Welsh prince Llywelyn ab Iorwerth at Ludlow Castle for peace talks, but the negotiations were unsuccessful. The same year Henry became suspicious of Walter's activities in Ireland and, among other measures to secure his loyalty, Ludlow Castle was taken over by the Crown for a period of two years. This was cut short in May 1225 when Walter carried out a campaign against Henry's enemies in Ireland and paid the King 3,000 marks for the return of his castles and lands. During the 1230s, however, Walter had accumulated a thousand pounds of debt to Henry and private moneylenders which he was unable to repay. As a result, in 1238 he gave Ludlow Castle as collateral to the King, although the fortification was returned to him sometime before his death in 1241.
Walter's granddaughters Maud and Margaret were due to inherit Walter's remaining estates on his death, but they were still unmarried, making it hard for them to hold property in their own right. Henry informally divided the lands up between them, giving Ludlow to Maud and marrying her to one of his royal favourites, Peter de Geneva, cancelling many of the debts they had inherited from Walter at the same time. Peter died in 1249 and Maud married a second time, this time to Geoffrey de Geneville, a friend of the Prince Edward, the future king. In 1260, Henry officially split up Walter's estate, allowing Geoffrey to retain the castle.
Henry lost control of power in the 1260s, resulting in the Second Barons' War across England. Following the Royalist defeat in 1264, the rebel leader Simon de Montfort seized Ludlow Castle, but it was recaptured shortly afterwards by Henry's supporters, probably led by Geoffrey de Geneville. Prince Edward escaped from captivity in 1265 and met up with his supporters at the castle, before commencing his campaign to retake the throne, culminating in de Montfort's defeat at Evesham later that year. Geoffrey continued to occupy the castle for the rest of the century under Edward I's rule, prospering until his death in 1314. Geoffrey built the Great Hall and the Solar block during his tenure of the castle, either between 1250 and 1280, or later, in the 1280s and 1290s. The town walls of Ludlow also began to be constructed in the 13th century, probably from 1260 onwards, and these were linked to the castle to form a continuous ring of defences around the town.
14th century
Geoffrey and Maud's oldest granddaughter, Joan, married Roger Mortimer in 1301, giving Mortimer control of Ludlow Castle. Around 1320, Roger built the Great Chamber block alongside the existing Great Hall and Solar complex, copying what was becoming a popular tripartite design for domestic castle buildings in the 14th century; an additional building was also constructed by Roger on the location of the later Tudor Lodgings, and the Guardrobe Tower was added to the curtain wall. Between 1321 and 1322 Mortimer found himself on the losing side of the Despenser War and, after being imprisoned by Edward II, he escaped from the Tower of London in 1323 into exile.
While in France, Mortimer formed an alliance with Queen Isabella, Edward's estranged wife, and together in 1327 they seized power in England. Mortimer was made the Earl of March and became extremely wealthy, possibly entertaining Edward III at the castle in 1329. The earl built a new chapel in the Outer Bailey, named after Saint Peter, honouring the saint's day on which he had escaped from the Tower. Mortimer's work at Ludlow was probably intended to produce what the historian David Whitehead has termed a "show castle" with chivalric and Arthurian overtones, echoing the now archaic Norman styles of building. Mortimer fell from power the following year and was executed but his widow Joan was permitted to retain Ludlow.
Ludlow Castle gradually became the Mortimer family's most important property, but for much of the rest of the century its owners were too young to control the castle personally. The castle was first briefly inherited by Mortimer's son, Edmund, and then in 1331 Mortimer's young grandson, Roger, who eventually became a prominent soldier in the Hundred Years War. Roger's young son, Edmund, inherited the castle in 1358, and also grew up to become involved in the war with France. Both Roger and Edmund used a legal device called "the use", effectively giving Ludlow Castle to trustees during their lifetimes in exchange for annual payments; this reduced their tax liabilities and gave them more control over the distribution of the estates on their deaths. Edmund's son, another Roger, inherited the castle in 1381, but King Richard II took the opportunity of Roger's minority to exploit the Mortimer estates until they were put into the control of a committee of major nobles. When Roger died in 1398, Richard again took wardship of the castle on behalf of the young heir, Edmund, until he was deposed from power in 1399.
15th century
Ludlow Castle was in the wardship of King Henry IV, when the Owain Glyndŵr revolt broke out across Wales. Military captains were appointed to the castle to protect it from the rebel threat, in the first instance John Lovel and then Henry's half-brother, Sir Thomas Beaufort. Roger Mortimer's younger brother, Edmund, set out from the castle with an army against the rebels in 1402, but was captured at the Battle of Bryn Glas. Henry refused to ransom him, and he eventually married one of Glyndŵr's daughters, before dying during the siege of Harlech Castle in 1409.
Henry placed the young heir to Ludlow, another Edmund Mortimer, under house arrest in the south of England, and kept a firm grip on Ludlow Castle himself. This persisted until Henry V finally granted Edmund his estates in 1413, with Edmund going on to serve the Crown overseas. As a result, the Mortimers rarely visited the castle during the first part of the century, despite the surrounding town having become prosperous in the wool and cloth trades. Edmund fell heavily into debt and having sold his rights to his Welsh estates to a consortium of nobles, before dying childless in 1425.
The castle was inherited by Edmund's sister's young son, Richard the Duke of York, who took possession in 1432. Richard took a keen interest in the castle, which formed the administrative base for his estates around the region, possibly living there in the late 1440s and definitely residing there for much of the 1450s. Richard also established his sons, including the future Edward IV, and their household at the castle in the 1450s, and was possibly responsible for rebuilding the northern part of the Great Tower during this period.
The Wars of the Roses broke out between the Lancastrian and Richard's Yorkist factions in the 1450s. Ludlow Castle did not find itself in the front-line of most of the conflict, instead acting as a safe retreat away from the main fighting. An exception to this was the Battle of Ludford Bridge which took place just outside the town of Ludlow in 1459, resulting in a largely bloodless victory for the Lancastrian Henry VI. After the battle, in a bid to break Richard's power over the region, Edmund de la Mare was placed in charge of the castle as constable, with John Talbot, the Earl of Shrewsbury, being given the wider lordship. Richard was killed in battle in 1460, and his son Edward seized the throne the following year, retaking control of Ludlow Castle and merging it with the property of the Crown.
The new Edward IV visited the castle regularly and established a council there to govern his estates in Wales. He probably conducted only modest work on the property, although he may could have been responsible for the remodelling of the Great Tower. In 1473, possibly influenced by his own childhood experiences at Ludlow, Edward sent his eldest son, the future Edward V, and his brother Prince Richard to live at the castle, which was also made the seat of the newly created Council in the Marches of Wales. By now Ludlow had become primarily residential, rather than military, but was still rich in chivalric connotations and a valuable symbol of the Yorkist authority and their claim to the throne. Edward died in 1483, but after Henry VII took the throne in 1485 he continued to use Ludlow Castle as a regional base, granting it to his son, Prince Arthur, in 1493, and reestablishing the dormant Council in the Marches at the property.
16th century
In 1501, Prince Arthur arrived in Ludlow for his honeymoon with his bride Catherine of Aragon, before dying the following year. The Council in the Marches of Wales continued to operate, however, under the guidance of its president, Bishop William Smyth. The council evolved into a combination of a governmental body and a court of law, settling a range of disputes across Wales and charged with maintaining general order, and Ludlow Castle became effectively the capital of Wales.
Mary Tudor, daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII, spent 19 months at Ludlow overseeing the Council of the Marches between 1525 and 1528, along with her entourage of servants, advisors, and guardians. The relatively small sum of £5 was spent restoring the castle before her arrival. The council's wide-ranging role was reinforced in legislation in 1534, and its purpose was further elaborated in the Act of Union of 1543; some presidents, such as Bishop Rowland Lee, used its harsher powers extensively to execute local criminals, but later presidents typically preferred to punish with the pillory, whipping or imprisonment in the castle. The Great Chamber itself was used as the council's meeting room.
The establishment of the Council in Ludlow Castle gave it a new lease of life, during a period in which many similar fortifications were falling into decay. By the 1530s, the castle needed considerable renovation; Lee began work in 1534, borrowing money to do so, but Sir Thomas Engleford complained the following year that the castle was still unfit for habitation. Lee repaired the castle roofs, probably using lead from the dissolved Carmelite friary in the town, and using the fines imposed and the goods confiscated by the court. He later claimed that the work on the castle would have cost around £500, had the Crown had to pay for it all directly. The porter's lodge and prison were built in the outer bailey around 1552. The woods around the castle were gradually cut down during the 16th century.
Elizabeth I, influenced by her royal favourite Robert Dudley, appointed Sir Henry Sidney as President of the Council in 1560, and he took up residence at Ludlow Castle. Henry was a keen antiquarian with an interest in chivalry, and used his post to restore much of the castle in a late-perpendicular style. He extended the castle by building family apartments between the Great Hall and Mortimer's Tower, and used the former royal apartments as a guest wing, starting a tradition of decorating the Great Hall with the coats of arms of council officers. The larger windows in the castle were glazed, a clock installed and water piped into the castle. The judicial facilities were improved with a new courthouse converted out of the 14th-century chapel, facilities for prisoners and storage facilities for the court records, Mortimer's Tower in the outer bailey being turned into a record depository. The restoration was generally sympathetic and, although it included a fountain, a real tennis court, walks and viewing platform, it was less ephemeral a make-over than seen in other castle restorations of the period.
17th century
The castle was luxuriously appointed by the 17th century, with an expensive, but grand, household based around the Council of the Marches. The future Charles I was declared Prince of Wales in the castle by James I in 1616, and Ludlow was made his principal castle in Wales. A company called the "Queen's Players" entertained the Council in the 1610s, and in 1634 John Milton's masque Comus was performed in the Great Hall for John Egerton, Earl of Bridgewater. The Council faced increased criticism over its legal practices, however, and in 1641 an Act of Parliament stripped it of its judicial powers.
When the English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the supporters of King Charles and those of Parliament, Ludlow and the surrounding region supported the Royalists. A Royalist garrison was put in place in the town, under the command of Sir Michael Woodhouse, and the defences were strengthened, with artillery being brought from nearby Bringewood Forge for the castle. As the war turned against the King in 1644, the garrison was drawn down to provide reinforcements for the field army. The military situation deteriorated and in 1645 the remaining outlying garrisons were drawn in to protect Ludlow itself. In April 1646 Sir William Brereton and Colonel John Birch led a Parliamentary army from Hereford to take Ludlow; after a short siege, Woodhouse surrendered the castle and town on good terms on 26 May.
During the years of the interregnum, Ludlow Castle continued to be run by Parliamentarian governors, the first being the military commander Samuel More. There was a Royalist plot to retake the castle in 1648, but no other military activity took place. The most valuable items in the castle were removed shortly after the siege, and the remainder of the luxurious furnishings were sold off in the town in 1650. The castle was initially kept garrisoned, but in 1653, most of the weapons in the castle were removed on the grounds of security and sent to Hereford, then in 1655 the garrison was disbanded altogether. In 1659, the political instability in the Commonwealth government led to the castle being regarrisoned by 100 men under the command of William Botterell.
Charles II returned to the throne in 1660 and reinstated the Council of the Marches in 1661, but the castle never recovered from the war. Richard Vaughan, the Earl of Carbery, was appointed president and given £2,000 to renovate the castle, and between 1663 and 1665, a company of infantry soldiers was garrisoned there, overseen by the earl, with the task of safeguarding the money and contents of the castle as well as the ammunition for the local Welsh militia. The Council of the Marches failed to reestablish itself and was finally disbanded in 1689, bringing an end to Ludlow Castle's role in government. Uncared for, the condition of the castle rapidly deteriorated.
18th century
The castle remained in disrepair, and in 1704 its governor, William Gower, proposed dismantling the castle and building a residential square on the site instead, in a more contemporary style. His proposal was not adopted but, by 1708, only three rooms were still in use in the hall range, many of the other buildings in the inner bailey had fallen into disuse, and much of the remaining furniture was rotten or broken. Shortly after 1714, the roofs were stripped of their lead and the wooden floors began to collapse; the writer Daniel Defoe visited in 1722, and noted that the castle "is in the very Perfection of Decay". Nonetheless, some rooms remained usable for many years afterwards, possibly as late as the 1760s and 1770s, when drawings show the entrance block to the inner bailey to still be intact, and visitors remarked on the good condition of the round chapel. The stonework became overgrown with ivy, trees and shrubs, and by 1800 the chapel of Saint Mary Magdalene had finally degenerated into ruin.
Alexander Stuart, an Army captain who served as the last governor of the castle, stripped down what remained of the fortification in the mid-1700s. Some of the stone was reused to build the Bowling Green House – later renamed the Castle Inn – on the north end of the tennis courts, while the north side of the outer bailey was used to make the bowling green itself. Stuart lived in a house in Ludlow itself, but decorated the Great Hall with the remains of the castle armoury, and may have charged visitors for admittance.
It became fashionable to restore castles as private homes, and the future George II may have considered making Ludlow habitable again, but was deterred by the estimated costs of £30,000. Henry Herbert, the Earl of Powis, later became interested in acquiring the castle and in 1771 approached the Crown about leasing it. It is uncertain if he intended to further strip the castle of its materials or, more likely, if he intended to turn it into a private home, but the castle was, according to Powis' surveyor's report later that year, already "extremely ruinous", the walls "mostly rubble and the battlements greatly decayed". The Crown offered a 31-year lease at £20 a year, which Powis accepted in 1772, only to die shortly afterwards.
Henry's son, George Herbert, the 2nd Earl, maintained the lease and his wife, Henrietta, constructed gravel-laid public walks around the castle, dug into the surrounding cliffs, and planted trees around the grounds to improve the castle's appearance. The castle walls and towers were given superficial repairs and tidied up, usually when parts threatened to collapse, and the interior of the inner bailey levelled, costing considerable sums of money. The landscape also required expensive maintenance and repairs.
The town of Ludlow was increasingly fashionable and frequented by tourists, with the castle forming a particularly popular attraction. Thomas Warton published an edition of Milton's poems in 1785, describing Ludlow Castle and popularising the links to Comus, reinforcing the castle's reputation as a picturesque and sublime location. The castle became a topic for painters interested in these themes: J. M. W. Turner, Francis Towne, Thomas Hearne, Julius Ibbetson, Peter de Wint and William Marlowe all produced depictions of the castle during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, usually taking some artistic licence with the details in order to produce atmospheric works.
19th century
Lord Clive, George's brother-in-law and heir, attempted to acquire the lease after 1803, citing the efforts that the family had put into restoring the castle. He faced competition for the lease from the government's Barrack Office, who were considering using the castle as a French prisoner-of-war camp for up to 4,000 inmates from the Napoleonic wars. After some extensive discussions the prisoner-of-war plan was finally dropped, and Lord Clive, by now declared the Earl of Powis, was offered the chance to buy the castle outright for £1,560, which he accepted in 1811.
Between 1820 and 1828 the earl had converted the abandoned tennis court and the Castle Inn – which he closed in 1812 after buying the castle – into a new, grand building, called Castle House, overlooking the north side of the outer bailey. By the 1840s the house had been leased out, first to George Hodges and his family, and then to William Urwick and to Robert Marston, all important members of the local landowning classes. The mansion included a drawing room, dining room, study, servants' quarters, a conservatory and grapevines, and in 1887 was worth £50 a year in rent.
Ludlow Castle was held in high esteem by Victorian antiquarians, George Clark referring to it as "the glory of the middle marches of Wales" and as being "probably without rival in Britain" for its woodland setting. When Ludlow became connected to the growing railway network in 1852, the numbers of tourists to the castle increased, with admission costing six pence in 1887. During the 19th century, vegetation continued to grow over the castle's stonework, although after a survey by Arthur Blomfield in 1883, which highlighted the damage being caused by the ivy, attempts were made to control the plants, cleaning them off many of the walls. The castle was put to a wide range of uses. The grassy areas of the bailey were kept cropped by grazing sheep and goats, and used for fox hunting meetings, sporting events and agricultural shows; parts of the outer bailey was used as a timber yard, and, by the turn of the century, the old prison was used as an ammunition store by the local volunteer militia.
20th century
W. H. St John Hope and Harold Brakspear began a sequence of archaeological investigations at Ludlow Castle in 1903, publishing their conclusions in 1909 in an account which continues to be held in regard by modern academics. George Herbert, the Earl of Powis, cleared away much of the ivy and vegetation from the castle stonework. In 1915 the castle was declared an ancient monument by the state, but it continued to be owned and maintained by the earl and trustees of the Powis estate.
The castle was increasingly rigorously maintained, and during the 1910s and 1920s the larger trees around the castle were cut down, and the animals were cleared from the inner and outer baileys on the basis that they posed a health and safety risk to visitors. The 1930s saw a major effort to clear the remaining vegetation from the castle, the cellars were cleared of debris by the government's Office of Works and the stable block was converted into a museum. Tourists continued to visit the castle, with the 1920s and 1930s seeing many day-trips by teams of workers in the region encouraged by the growth in motor transport. The open spaces inside the castle were used by the local townsfolk for football matches and similar events, and in 1934 Milton's Comus was restaged in the castle to mark the 300th anniversary of the first such event.
Castle House in the outer bailey was leased to the diplomat Sir Alexander Stephen in 1901, who carried out extensive work on the property in 1904, extending and modernising the north end of the house, including constructing a billiard room and a library; he estimated the cost of the work to be around £800. Castle House continued to be leased out by the Powis estate to wealthy individuals up until the Second World War. One such lessee, Richard Henderson observed that he had spent around £4,000 maintaining and upgrading the property, and the rentable value of the property rose from £76 to £150 over the period.
During the Second World War the castle was used by the Allied military. The Great Tower was used as a look-out post and United States' forces used the castle gardens for baseball games. Castle House fell empty after the death of its final lessee, James Geenway; the house was then briefly requisitioned in 1942 by the Royal Air Force and turned into flats for key war workers, causing extensive damage later estimated at £2,000. In 1956, Castle House was de-requisitioned and sold by the Earl of Powis the following year to Ludlow Borough Council for £4,000, which rented out the flats.
During the 1970s and early 1980s the Department of the Environment assisted the Powis estate by lending government staff to repair the castle. Visitor numbers were falling, however, in part due to the dilapidated condition of the property, and the estate became increasingly unable to afford to maintain the castle. After 1984, when the function of the department was taken over by English Heritage, a more systematic approach was put into place. This based around a partnership in which the Powis Estate would retain ownership of the castle and develop visitor access, in exchange for a £500,000 contribution from English Heritage for a jointly-funded programme of repairs and maintenance, delivered through specialist contractors. This included repairs to the parts of the curtain wall, which collapsed in 1990, and the redevelopment of the visitor's centre. Limited archaeological excavation was carried out in the outer bailey between 1992 and 1993 by the City of Hereford Archaeology Unit.
21st century
In the 21st century, Ludlow Castle is owned by John Herbert, the current Earl of Powis, but is held and managed by the Trustees of the Powis Castle Estate as a tourist attraction. The castle was receiving over 100,000 visitors a year by 2005, more than in previous decades. The castle traditionally hosts a Shakespearean play as part of the annual cultural Ludlow Festival in the town, and is at the centre of the Ludlow Food and Drink Festival each September.
English Heritage considers Ludlow to be "one of England's finest castle sites", with the ruins representing "a remarkably complete multi-phase complex". It is protected under UK law as a Scheduled Monument and a Grade I listed building. By the 21st century, however, Castle House had become dilapidated and English Heritage placed it on its "at risk" register. In 2002, the Powis Estate repurchased the property from the South Shropshire District Council for £500,000, renovating it and converting it for use as offices and rental apartments, reopening the building in 2005.
Architecture
Ludlow Castle sits on a rocky promontory, overlooking the modern town of Ludlow on lower ground to the east, while the ground slopes steeply from the castle to the rivers Corve and Teme to the south and west, about below. The castle is broadly rectangular in shape, and approximately in size, covering almost in total. The interior is divided into two main parts: an inner bailey which occupies the north-west corner and a much larger outer bailey. A third enclosure, known as the innermost bailey, was created in the early 13th century when walls were built to enclose the south-west corner of the inner ward. The castle's walls are linked to Ludlow's medieval town wall circuit on the south and east sides. The castle is built from a range of different types of stone; the Norman stone work is constructed from greenish-grey siltstone rubble, with the ashlar and quoin features carved from red sandstone, with the later work primarily using local red sandstone.
Outer bailey
The outer bailey is entered through a gatehouse; inside, the space within the curtain walls is divided into two. On the north side of the outer bailey is Castle House and its gardens; the house is a two-storeyed property, based around the old walls of the tennis court and the Castle Inn, and the curtain wall. The north end of Castle House butts onto Beacon Tower, overlooking the town.
The other half of the outer bailey houses the 16th-century porter's lodge, prison and stable block which run along its eastern edge. The porter's lodge and prison comprise two buildings, and across, both two-storeyed and well built in ashlar stone, with a stable block on the far end, more crudely built in stone and in size. The exterior of the prison was originally decorated with the coats of arms of Henry, the Earl of Pembroke, and Queen Elizabeth I, but these have since been destroyed, as have the barred windows which once protected the property.
Along the south of the bailey are the remains of St Peter's, a former 14th-century chapel, approximately in size, later converted to a courthouse by the addition of an extension reaching up to the western curtain wall. The courtroom occupied the whole of the combined first floor with records kept in the rooms underneath. The south-west corner of the outer bailey is cut off by a modern wall from the rest of the bailey.
The western curtain wall is approximately thick, and guarded by the 13th-century Mortimer's Tower, across externally, with a ground floor vaulted chamber inside, large. When first built, Mortimer's Tower was a three-storey gateway with an unusual D-shaped design, possibly similar to those at Trim Castle in Ireland, but in the 15th century the entrance way was blocked up to turn it into a conventional mural tower, and in the 16th century an additional internal floor was inserted. The tower is now roofless, although it was roofed as late as the end of the 19th century.
Inner bailey
The inner bailey represents the extent of the original Norman castle and is protected by a curtain wall between and thick. On the south and west sides the wall is protected by a ditch, originally up to deep, cut out of the rock and navigated by a bridge which still contains part of the ashlar stone of its 16th century predecessor. Within the inner bailey, a separate area, called the innermost bailey, was created by the addition of a thick stone wall around the south-west corner in the early 13th century.
The gatehouse to the inner bailey has the coats of arms of Sir Henry Sidney and Queen Elizabeth I displayed over it, dating to 1581, and was originally a three-storeyed building with transomed windows and fireplaces, probably used as the lodgings for the judges. There were probably additional heraldic supporters displayed alongside the arms, since lost. A porter's lodge would have been on the right hand side of the entrance to control access, with the rooms accessed by a spiral staircase in a protruding tower, with prominent triple chimneys, since lost. Alongside the gatehouse was originally a half-timbered building, possibly a laundry, approximately , which has since been lost.
On the east side of the bailey is the 12th-century chapel of Saint Mary Magdalene. The circular, Romanesque design of the chapel is unusual, with only three similar examples existing in England, at Castle Rising, Hereford and Pevensey. Built from sandstone, the circular design imitates the shrine at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Originally the chapel had a nave, a square presbytery, in size, and a chancel, but this design was heavily altered in the 16th century and only the nave survives. Although roofless, the nave survives to its full height and is in diameter, visibly divided into two sections by different bands of stonework, and with some plaster surviving on the lower level. Around the inside of the nave are 14 arcaded bays in the walls.
The north end of the bailey is occupied by a range of buildings, the Solar block, the Great Hall and the Great Chamber block, with the Tudor Lodgings in the north-east corner. The Tudor Lodgings take the form of two rhomboids to fit into the space provided by the curtain wall, divided by a cross-wall, the west side being approximately , and the east side . They were entered by a shared spiral staircase, a design used in various episcopal palaces in the 16th century, and originally provided sets of individual offices and personal rooms for the court officials, later being converted into two distinct apartments.
The Great Chamber block adjoining the Tudor Lodgings dates from around 1320. Another rhomboid design, approximately across, this originally had its main chamber on the first floor, but has been much altered over the subsequent years. The carved corbel heads that survive on the first floor may represent Edward II and Queen Isabella. Behind the Great Chamber block is the Guardrobe Tower, a four storeyed construction, providing a combination of bed chambers and guardrobes.
In the 13th-century Great Hall, the hall itself was also positioned on the first floor, originally fitted with a wooden floor supported by stone pillars in the basement, and a massive wooden roof. It was across: this 2:1 ratio between length and width was typical for castle halls of this period. The hall was reached by a flight of stone steps at the west end, and lit by three tall, trefoiled windows, each originally with its own window seat and south-facing to receive the sunlight. Originally the hall had an open fire in the centre, which was normal for the 13th century, but the middle window was turned into a more modern fireplace around 1580.
To the west of the Great Hall is the three-storeyed Solar block, an irregular oblong measuring up to in size. The first floor chamber would probably have been used as a solar, with the cellar being used as a service area. The Great Hall and Solar block were built at the same time in the 13th century, the builders carving out the inside of the old Norman tower behind them in the process. They were probably built in two phases and were originally intended to be smaller, less grand buildings, only for the design to be changed about halfway through construction; they were finished in a rushed manner, the traces of which can still be seen, along with other changes made in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The North-West and North-East towers behind the northern range are Norman in origin, from the 11th and early 12th century. When first built, they were created by pushing or folding the line of the curtain wall outwards to create the desired external shape, and then adding timber floors and a timber wall at the back, rather than being designed as individual buildings. The timber parts of the towers were later replaced in stone, and incorporated into the later range of buildings. The North-East Tower, also known as the Pendover Tower, was originally two-storeys high, with a third floor added on in the 14th century, followed by an extensive remodelling of the inside in the 16th century. It has chamfered angles on the external corners to make it harder to attack the stonework, although this has weakened the structural strength of the tower as a whole. The North-West Tower had similar chamfered corners, but the Closet Tower was built alongside it in the 13th century, altering the external appearance. Two more Norman towers survive in the innermost bailey, the West Tower, also known as the Postern Tower, because it contained a postern gate, and the South-West tower, also called the Oven Tower, on account of its cooking facilities. The Norman towers looked out towards Wales, probably to make a symbolic statement.
A range, now lost, once stretched from the innermost bailey towards the Great Hall, including a large stone house running along the curtain wall, in size, and on the other side of the innermost bailey, the Great Kitchen, in size, built around the same time as the Great Hall, and an oven building, since lost, .
The Great Tower, or keep, is on the south side of the innermost bailey. A roughly square building, four storeys tall, most of its walls are thick, with the exception of its newer northern facing wall, only thick. The Great Tower was constructed in several stages. Originally it was a relatively large gatehouse in the original Norman castle, probably with accommodation over the gateway, before being extended to form the Great Tower in the mid-12th century, although still being used as a gatehouse for the inner bailey. When the innermost bailey was created in the early 13th century, the gateway was then filled in and a new gateway cut into the inner bailey wall just to the east of the Great Tower. Finally, the north side of the tower was rebuilt in the mid-15th century to produce the Great Tower that appears today. The keep has a vaulted basement, high, with Norman wall arcading, and a row of windows along the first floor, since mostly blocked. The arcading echoes that in the chapel, and probably dates from around 1080. The windows and large entrance-way would have looked impressive, but would also have been very hard to defend; this form of tower probably reflected earlier Anglo-Saxon high-status towers and was intended to display lordship. The first floor originally formed a tall hall, across, which was subsequently subdivided into two separate floors.
Early 12th century chapel
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in England
Grade I listed buildings in Shropshire
Listed buildings in Ludlow (northern area)
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Ludlow Castle official information site
Castles in Shropshire
Grade I listed buildings in Shropshire
Grade I listed castles
History of Shropshire
Ruins in Shropshire
Scheduled monuments in Shropshire
Tourist attractions in Shropshire
Buildings and structures in Ludlow
History of Ludlow
Castle, Ludlow
Historic house museums in Shropshire
Catherine of Aragon
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200458
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive%20relation
|
Reflexive relation
|
In mathematics, a homogeneous binary relation R on a set X is reflexive if it relates every element of X to itself.
An example of a reflexive relation is the relation "is equal to" on the set of real numbers, since every real number is equal to itself. A reflexive relation is said to have the reflexive property or is said to possess reflexivity. Along with symmetry and transitivity, reflexivity is one of three properties defining equivalence relations.
Definitions
Let be a binary relation on a set , which by definition is just a subset of
For any the notation means that while "not " means that
The relation is called if for every or equivalently, if where denotes the identity relation on
The of is the union which can equivalently be defined as the smallest (with respect to ) reflexive relation on that is a superset of A relation is reflexive if and only if it is equal to its reflexive closure.
The or of is the smallest (with respect to ) relation on that has the same reflexive closure as It is equal to The irreflexive kernel of can, in a sense, be seen as a construction that is the "opposite" of the reflexive closure of
For example, the reflexive closure of the canonical strict inequality on the reals is the usual non-strict inequality whereas the reflexive reduction of is
Related definitions
There are several definitions related to the reflexive property.
The relation is called:
, or If it does not relate any element to itself; that is, if not for every A relation is irreflexive if and only if its complement in is reflexive. An asymmetric relation is necessarily irreflexive. A transitive and irreflexive relation is necessarily asymmetric.
If whenever are such that then necessarily
If whenever are such that then necessarily
If every element that is related to some element is also related to itself. Explicitly, this means that whenever are such that then necessarily Equivalently, a binary relation is quasi-reflexive if and only if it is both left quasi-reflexive and right quasi-reflexive. A relation is quasi-reflexive if and only if its symmetric closure is left (or right) quasi-reflexive.
Antisymmetric If whenever are such that then necessarily
If whenever are such that then necessarily A relation is coreflexive if and only if its symmetric closure is anti-symmetric.
A reflexive relation on a nonempty set can neither be irreflexive, nor asymmetric ( is called if implies not ), nor antitransitive ( is if implies not ).
Examples
Examples of reflexive relations include:
"is equal to" (equality)
"is a subset of" (set inclusion)
"divides" (divisibility)
"is greater than or equal to"
"is less than or equal to"
Examples of irreflexive relations include:
"is not equal to"
"is coprime to" (for the integers since 1 is coprime to itself)
"is a proper subset of"
"is greater than"
"is less than"
An example of an irreflexive relation, which means that it does not relate any element to itself, is the "greater than" relation () on the real numbers. Not every relation which is not reflexive is irreflexive; it is possible to define relations where some elements are related to themselves but others are not (that is, neither all nor none are). For example, the binary relation "the product of and is even" is reflexive on the set of even numbers, irreflexive on the set of odd numbers, and neither reflexive nor irreflexive on the set of natural numbers.
An example of a quasi-reflexive relation is "has the same limit as" on the set of sequences of real numbers: not every sequence has a limit, and thus the relation is not reflexive, but if a sequence has the same limit as some sequence, then it has the same limit as itself.
An example of a left quasi-reflexive relation is a left Euclidean relation, which is always left quasi-reflexive but not necessarily right quasi-reflexive, and thus not necessarily quasi-reflexive.
An example of a coreflexive relation is the relation on integers in which each odd number is related to itself and there are no other relations. The equality relation is the only example of a both reflexive and coreflexive relation, and any coreflexive relation is a subset of the identity relation. The union of a coreflexive relation and a transitive relation on the same set is always transitive.
Number of reflexive relations
The number of reflexive relations on an -element set is
Philosophical logic
Authors in philosophical logic often use different terminology.
Reflexive relations in the mathematical sense are called totally reflexive in philosophical logic, and quasi-reflexive relations are called reflexive.
Notes
References
Levy, A. (1979) Basic Set Theory, Perspectives in Mathematical Logic, Springer-Verlag. Reprinted 2002, Dover.
Lidl, R. and Pilz, G. (1998). Applied abstract algebra, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer-Verlag.
Quine, W. V. (1951). Mathematical Logic, Revised Edition. Reprinted 2003, Harvard University Press.
Gunther Schmidt, 2010. Relational Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, .
External links
Binary relations
|
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200459
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric%20relation
|
Symmetric relation
|
A symmetric relation is a type of binary relation. An example is the relation "is equal to", because if a = b is true then b = a is also true. Formally, a binary relation R over a set X is symmetric if:
where the notation means that .
If RT represents the converse of R, then R is symmetric if and only if R = RT.
Symmetry, along with reflexivity and transitivity, are the three defining properties of an equivalence relation.
Examples
In mathematics
"is equal to" (equality) (whereas "is less than" is not symmetric)
"is comparable to", for elements of a partially ordered set
"... and ... are odd":
Outside mathematics
"is married to" (in most legal systems)
"is a fully biological sibling of"
"is a homophone of"
"is co-worker of"
"is teammate of"
Relationship to asymmetric and antisymmetric relations
By definition, a nonempty relation cannot be both symmetric and asymmetric (where if a is related to b, then b cannot be related to a (in the same way)). However, a relation can be neither symmetric nor asymmetric, which is the case for "is less than or equal to" and "preys on").
Symmetric and antisymmetric (where the only way a can be related to b and b be related to a is if a = b) are actually independent of each other, as these examples show.
Properties
A symmetric and transitive relation is always quasireflexive.
A symmetric, transitive, and reflexive relation is called an equivalence relation.
One way to count the symmetric relations on n elements, that in their binary matrix representation the upper right triangle determines the relation fully, and it can be arbitrary given, thus there are as many symmetric relations as nxn binary upper triangle matrices,
References
See also
Binary relations
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmanian%20Devil%20%28Looney%20Tunes%29
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Tasmanian Devil (Looney Tunes)
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The Tasmanian Devil (also spelled Tazmanian Devil), commonly referred to as Taz, is an animated cartoon character featured in the Warner Bros. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of cartoons. Though the character appeared in only five shorts before Warner Bros. Cartoons shut down in 1964, marketing and television appearances later propelled Taz to new popularity in the 1990s.
Personality
Taz is generally portrayed as a ferocious, albeit dim-witted, carnivore with a notoriously short temper and little patience. He got his name in the short Ducking the Devil. Though he can be very devious, he is also sweet at times. His enormous appetite seems to know no bounds, as he will eat anything in his path. He is best known for his speech consisting mostly of grunts, growls, and rasps (in his earlier appearances, he does speak English with primitive grammar) as well as his ability to spin like a vortex and bite through nearly anything. Taz does have one weakness: he can be calmed by almost any music. While in this calm state, he can be easily dealt with. The only music known not to pacify Taz is the bagpipes, which he finds insufferable.
Creation
Robert McKimson based the character on the real life Tasmanian devil, or more specifically its carnivorous nature, voracious appetite, and surly disposition. Owen and Pemberton suggest that the character of the Tasmanian Devil was inspired by Errol Flynn. The model sheet was created by Ted Bonnicksen, who would later work for Fritz the Cat.
Appearances
In his first appearance in McKimson's Devil May Hare (first released on June 19, 1954), Taz stalks Bugs Bunny, but due to his dimwittedness and inability to frame complete sentences, he serves as little more than a nuisance. Bugs eventually gets rid of him in the most logical way possible: matching him up with an equally insatiable Tasmanian She-Devil. The character's speech, a deep, gravelly voice peppered with growls, screeches, and raspberries, is provided by Mel Blanc. Only occasionally would Taz actually speak, usually to utter some incongruous punchline, (e.g. "What for you bury me in the cold, cold ground?") and yet the character is capable of writing and reading. A running gag is that when Bugs Bunny hears of the approach of Taz, looks him up in an encyclopedia and starts reading off a list of animals that Taz eats, Bugs finds "rabbits" not listed until Taz enters and either points out that "rabbits" are listed or writes rabbits on the list.
After the film short debuted at theaters, producer Edward Selzer, head of the Warner Bros. animation studio, ordered McKimson to shelve the character, feeling that he was too violent for children, and that parents would dislike him. After a time with no new Taz shorts, studio head Jack L. Warner asked what had happened to the character. Warner saved Taz's career when he told Selzer that he had received "boxes and boxes" of letters from people who liked the character and wanted to see more of him.
McKimson would go on to direct four more Taz cartoons, beginning with Bedevilled Rabbit (released on April 13, 1957). McKimson would also pair the Devil with Daffy Duck in Ducking the Devil (August 17, 1957) before pitting him once again against Bugs in Bill of Hare (June 9, 1962) and Dr. Devil and Mr. Hare (March 28, 1964). His last two appearances done by the classic Warner Brothers directors, writers, and voice actors were in Bugs Bunny's Looney Christmas Tales appearing in The Fright Before Christmas segment and at the very end eating the sleigh full of presents.
Later appearances
Taz appeared in the 1983 movie Daffy Duck's Movie: Fantastic Island as Yosemite Sam's first mate.
Taz was going to have a cameo in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, but was later dropped for unknown reasons.
Taz appeared in various episodes of Tiny Toon Adventures, being the mentor of Dizzy Devil. He was voiced by Jeff Bergman, Maurice LaMarche, Noel Blanc and Greg Burson.
In 1991, Taz starred his own show known as Taz-Mania, which ran for four seasons in which Taz was the main protagonist and voiced by hensforth longtime voice actor Jim Cummings.
Taz also appeared in Animaniacs, in the episodes "Draculee, Draculaa/Phranken-Runt" and "Cutie and the Beast/Boo Happens/Noel". He also appeared in "Suffragette City" in the 2020 reboot.
Taz also appeared in an episode of The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries entitled "The Scare Up There" where he is revealed to have stolen peanut packs from the flights.
Taz appeared in the theatrical feature film Space Jam, as part of the TuneSquad, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. He also appeared in Looney Tunes: Back in Action, voiced by Brendan Fraser.
An infant version of Taz is one of the regular characters in Baby Looney Tunes, voiced by Ian James Corlett.
Taz appeared in The Looney Tunes Show episode "Devil Dog", voiced again by Jim Cummings. In the show, he is portrayed walking on four legs like a real Tasmanian devil and his eyes are bloodshot red (later turned yellow when Bugs uses a taming trick that Speedy Gonzales taught him). Initially, Bugs believed Taz to be a dog and kept him as a house pet much to his roommate Daffy Duck's discomfort. Eventually, Bugs learned the truth and tried to return him to his home in Tasmania, only to find out that Taz would rather live with him, naming him "Poochie". Taz subsequently appears in the following episodes "The Foghorn Leghorn Story", "Newspaper Thief", and "Bugs and Daffy Get a Job". Taz later played a major part in "Ridiculous Journey" where he, Sylvester (whom Taz tried to eat) and Tweety were accidentally sent to Alaska by Yosemite Sam. The three of them work to get home while encountering other characters and avoiding tracker Blacque Jacque Shellacque. Eventually, they make it home when it turned out that Blacque was hired by Yosemite Sam to retrieve the three on behalf of Bugs and Granny.
Taz originally appeared in the series Wabbit as Theodore Tasmanian, an accountant at Chesterfield Consultants who tries to repress his vicious side. Unlike most versions of the character, he spoke more coherently. He was also married and had a child. Taz eventually returned to his original characterization and way of speaking when the series was retooled as New Looney Tunes.
An alternate version of Taz appeared in the 2017 DC Comics/Looney Tunes crossover comics, where he was designed more for the DC Universe and faced off against Wonder Woman in the Wonder Woman/Tasmanian Devil Special. In the story, Taz is a Guardian of the Labyrinth on Themyscira and fought Diana when she was a teenager during her trials to become an Amazon warrior. Before Taz could attack her, Diana plays the harp and puts it to sleep before snipping off some of his fur as proof of her victory. She returns to Taz years later as Wonder Woman after Circe uses the Talisman of Eurytale to turn Hippolyta and the other Amazons into stone. As the Talisman can only be stopped by the Minotaur's Amulet, she requests Taz's help as Taz's connection to the other Guardians would lead them down the right path. During the journey, Taz reveals that he wasn't mad at Diana for tricking him, but was rather upset that she took the music away. The two defeat the Minotaur and Circe and the Amazons reward him with a large feast in return. In the issue's backup story (done more in the style of the classic Looney Tunes shorts), Diana sings to Taz the tale of the Trojan War with her and the Looney Tunes characters roleplaying the major players, but Taz in his dream alters the events to work out more in his favor.
Taz first appears in the Looney Tunes Cartoons special Bugs Bunny's 24-Carrot Holiday Special in where he is a caroler. Taz appears as a gladiator in the episode Taziator. While he is more like most depictions, he actually speaks more comprehensible English. He is voiced by Fred Tatasciore in these appearances.
Taz appears in the feature film Space Jam: A New Legacy with Tatasciore reprising the role, with additional dialogue done by Cummings.
Taz will appear in the preschool series Bugs Bunny Builders which will air on Cartoon Network's Cartoonito block and HBO Max.
Voice actors
Mel Blanc (1954–1989, Bugs Bunny's Birthday Ball (1990); archive audio, KFC Looney Tunes Mugs commercial (1995); archive footage)
Jeff Bergman (Tiny Toon Adventures, Taz-Mania (Sega Genesis version), Taz in Escape from Mars, Chasers Anonymous, Boomerang bumper, Looney Tunes Dash)
Noel Blanc (Tiny Toon Adventures)
Maurice LaMarche (Tiny Toon Adventures)
Greg Burson (Looney Tunes River Ride, Tiny Toon Adventures, Taz-Mania (Super NES version), The Toonite Show Starring Bugs Bunny, Bugs Bunny: Rabbit Rampage, Looney Tunes B-Ball, Warner Bros. Kids Club)
Jim Cummings (Taz-Mania, Have Yourself a Looney Tunes Christmas, Bugs & Daffy Sing the Beatles, Animaniacs, The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries, Superior Duck, Bugs & Friends Sing Elvis, Bugs Bunny's Learning Adventures, Looney Tunes: What's Up Rock?!, Tweety's High-Flying Adventure, Histeria!, Duck Dodgers, Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, The Looney Tunes Show, Looney Tunes Dash, New Looney Tunes, Space Jam: A New Legacy (additional lines), various commercials, video games and webtoons)
Keith Scott (Looney Tunes Musical Revue, Spectacular Light and Sound Show Illuminanza, KFC commercial, Looney Tunes: We Got the Beat!, Looney Tunes LIVE! Classroom Capers, The Looney Tunes Radio Show, Looney Tunes Christmas Carols)
Dee Bradley Baker (Space Jam)
Joe Alaskey (The Looney Tunes Kwazy Christmas, Looney Tunes webtoons, Looney Tunes ClickN READ Phonics)
Ian James Corlett (Baby Looney Tunes, Baby Looney Tunes' Eggs-traordinary Adventure)
Brendan Fraser (Looney Tunes: Back in Action)
Neil Fanning (Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed)
Eric Bauza (Looney Tunes: World of Mayhem)
Fred Tatasciore (Looney Tunes Cartoons, Space Jam: A New Legacy)
Home video
All five of the original Taz cartoons are included in Looney Tunes Platinum Collection: Volume 1, along with "The Fright Before Christmas".
In popular culture
The character's first video game outing was in a title from the later days of the Atari 2600, in a 1983 release entitled Taz. The 1990s saw a return of the character to video games in Taz-Mania and its semi-sequel Taz in Escape from Mars. Both titles appeared on the Mega Drive/Genesis, Master System & Game Gear systems. There were other Taz-Mania games released on the Nintendo SNES and Game Boy systems. He also costarred in the PlayStation/PC game Bugs Bunny & Taz: Time Busters, and in 2002's Taz: Wanted on PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox and PC. He also appeared in the video games The Bugs Bunny Crazy Castle 2, The Bugs Bunny Birthday Blowout, Looney Tunes: Acme Arsenal, Looney Tunes: Space Race, Bugs Bunny Crazy Castle 3, Bugs Bunny in Crazy Castle 4, Looney Tunes: Back in Action, Galactic Taz Ball. He was even the inspiration for a video game character himself, namely Crash Bandicoot.
In the late 1990s to early 2000s, when Chevrolet used the Looney Tunes as part of their NASCAR campaign, the Chevrolet Monte Carlo racing teams were referenced as Team Monte Carlo, with the Tasmanian Devil as the mascot.
Taz was a chocolate bar by Cadbury in the UK during the '90s and was later renamed Fredo Caramel.
Professional wrestler Peter Senercia adopted "Taz" and the variant spelling "Tazz" as his ring names.
In Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed (2004), Taz is one of the forms Scooby-Doo briefly takes upon accidentally drinking a chemical substance.
From 2005 to 2010, a custom-bodied Taz monster truck competed in the Monster Jam circuit, driven by Adam Anderson. Adam drove the truck to the Monster Jam World Finals Freestyle championship in 2008. It was retired in 2010, with a Scooby-Doo-themed truck being its replacement debuting in 2013.
Taz appeared in a 2014 GEICO commercial, where he drinks a "certain energy drink" and goes on a rampage.
In June 2017, the character appeared in the Wonder Woman / Tasmanian Devil Special #1, written by Tony Bedard with art by Barry Kitson. This version is reimagined as a Guardian of the Labyrinth on Themyscira whom Wonder Woman defeated when she was a teenager, but later teams up with her to save the Amazons from Circe.
In April 2017, Taz appeared in a Funko Pop and has appeared in 3 more since.
Lawsuits
In 1997, a newspaper report noted that Warner Bros had "trademarked the character and registered the name Tasmanian Devil", and that this trademark "was policed", including an eight-year legal battle to allow a Tasmanian company to call its fishing lure the "Tasmanian Devil". Debate followed, and a delegation from the Tasmanian state government met with Warner Bros. Ray Groom, the Tourism Minister, later announced that a "verbal agreement" had been reached. An annual fee would be paid to Warner Bros in return for the Government of Tasmania being able to use the image of Taz for "marketing purposes". This agreement later lapsed.
In 1997, the Tasmanian government and Warner Bros. disputed the government's right to use the character as a tourism promotion, which was offered only if a fee was paid. The government refused to pay a fee to Warner Bros.
In 2006, after much lobbying from the Tasmanian government, Warner Bros decided to assist the fight against extinction of the Tasmanian Devil due to devil facial tumour disease (DFTD). Tasmanian Environment Minister Judy Jackson, prior to the agreement, had heavily criticised Warner Bros., stating that the company had made millions of dollars from the character, but did not put up any money when other companies had.
The deal with Warner Bros allowed the Tasmanian government to manufacture and sell up to 5,000 special edition Taz plush toys, with all profit going towards funding scientific research into DFTD. The deal also aimed to increase public attention towards the threatening disease.
Notes
References
External links
LooneyTunes.com
Toonopedia: Tasmanian Devil
Looney Tunes characters
Fictional Tasmanian devils
Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Fictional anthropomorphic characters
Film characters introduced in 1954
Warner Bros. cartoon characters
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200463
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive%20relation
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Transitive relation
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In mathematics, a relation on a set is transitive if, for all elements , , in , whenever relates to and to , then also relates to . Each partial order as well as each equivalence relation needs to be transitive.
Definition
A homogeneous relation on the set is a transitive relation if,
for all , if and , then .
Or in terms of first-order logic:
where is the infix notation for .
Examples
As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.
On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is antitransitive: Alice can never be the birth parent of Claire.
"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" (equality) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:
whenever x > y and y > z, then also x > z
whenever x ≥ y and y ≥ z, then also x ≥ z
whenever x = y and y = z, then also x = z.
More examples of transitive relations:
"is a subset of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)
"divides" (divisibility, a relation on natural numbers)
"implies" (implication, symbolized by "⇒", a relation on propositions)
Examples of non-transitive relations:
"is the successor of" (a relation on natural numbers)
"is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")
"is perpendicular to" (a relation on lines in Euclidean geometry)
The empty relation on any set is transitive because there are no elements such that and , and hence the transitivity condition is vacuously true. A relation containing only one ordered pair is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form for some the only such elements are , and indeed in this case , while if the ordered pair is not of the form then there are no such elements and hence is vacuously transitive.
Properties
Closure properties
The converse (inverse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a subset of" is transitive and "is a superset of" is its converse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.
The intersection of two transitive relations is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "was born before" and "has the same first name as" are transitive, one can conclude that "was born before and also has the same first name as" is also transitive.
The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. Herbert Hoover is related to Franklin D. Roosevelt, which is in turn related to Franklin Pierce, while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.
The complement of a transitive relation need not be transitive. For instance, while "equal to" is transitive, "not equal to" is only transitive on sets with at most one element.
Other properties
A transitive relation is asymmetric if and only if it is irreflexive.
A transitive relation need not be reflexive. When it is, it is called a preorder. For example, on set X = {1,2,3}:
R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3), (3,2)} is reflexive, but not transitive, as the pair (1,2) is absent,
R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3)} is reflexive as well as transitive, so it is a preorder,
R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)} is reflexive as well as transitive, another preorder.
Transitive extensions and transitive closure
Let be a binary relation on set . The transitive extension of , denoted , is the smallest binary relation on such that contains , and if and then . For example, suppose is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let be the relation on towns where if there is a road directly linking town and town . This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by if you can travel between towns and by using at most two roads.
If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if is a transitive relation then .
The transitive extension of would be denoted by , and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of would be . The transitive closure of , denoted by or is the set union of , , , ... .
The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation.
The relation "is the birth parent of" on a set of people is not a transitive relation. However, in biology the need often arises to consider birth parenthood over an arbitrary number of generations: the relation "is a birth ancestor of" is a transitive relation and it is the transitive closure of the relation "is the birth parent of".
For the example of towns and roads above, provided you can travel between towns and using any number of roads.
Relation properties that require transitivity
Preorder – a reflexive and transitive relation
Partial order – an antisymmetric preorder
Total preorder – a connected (formerly called total) preorder
Equivalence relation – a symmetric preorder
Strict weak ordering – a strict partial order in which incomparability is an equivalence relation
Total ordering – a connected (total), antisymmetric, and transitive relation
Counting transitive relations
No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set is known. However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – , those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also Brinkmann and McKay (2005). Mala showed that no polynomial with integer coefficients can represent a formula for the number of transitive relations on a set, and found certain recursive relations that provide lower bounds for that number. He also showed that that number is a polynomial of degree two if contains exactly two ordered pairs.
Related properties
A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.
In contrast, a relation R is called antitransitive if xRy and yRz always implies that xRz does not hold.
For example, the relation defined by xRy if xy is an even number is intransitive, but not antitransitive. The relation defined by xRy if x is even and y is odd is both transitive and antitransitive.
The relation defined by xRy if x is the successor number of y is both intransitive and antitransitive. Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.
Generalized to stochastic versions (stochastic transitivity), the study of transitivity finds applications of in decision theory, psychometrics and utility models.
A quasitransitive relation is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in social choice theory or microeconomics.
See also
Transitive reduction
Intransitive dice
Rational choice theory
Hypothetical syllogism — transitivity of the material conditional
Notes
References
Gunther Schmidt, 2010. Relational Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, .
External links
Transitivity in Action at cut-the-knot
Binary relations
Elementary algebra
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200464
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligonucleotide
|
Oligonucleotide
|
Oligonucleotides are short DNA or RNA molecules, oligomers, that have a wide range of applications in genetic testing, research, and forensics. Commonly made in the laboratory by solid-phase chemical synthesis, these small bits of nucleic acids can be manufactured as single-stranded molecules with any user-specified sequence, and so are vital for artificial gene synthesis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, molecular cloning and as molecular probes. In nature, oligonucleotides are usually found as small RNA molecules that function in the regulation of gene expression (e.g. microRNA), or are degradation intermediates derived from the breakdown of larger nucleic acid molecules.
Oligonucleotides are characterized by the sequence of nucleotide residues that make up the entire molecule. The length of the oligonucleotide is usually denoted by "-mer" (from Greek meros, "part"). For example, an oligonucleotide of six nucleotides (nt) is a hexamer, while one of 25 nt would usually be called a "25-mer". Oligonucleotides readily bind, in a sequence-specific manner, to their respective complementary oligonucleotides, DNA, or RNA to form duplexes or, less often, hybrids of a higher order. This basic property serves as a foundation for the use of oligonucleotides as probes for detecting specific sequences of DNA or RNA. Examples of procedures that use oligonucleotides include DNA microarrays, Southern blots, ASO analysis, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), PCR, and the synthesis of artificial genes.
Oligonucleotides are composed of 2'-deoxyribonucleotides (oligodeoxyribonucleotides), which can be modified at the backbone or on the 2’ sugar position to achieve different pharmacological effects. These modifications give new properties to the oligonucleotides and make them a key element in antisense therapy.
Synthesis
Oligonucleotides are chemically synthesized using building blocks, protected phosphoramidites of natural or chemically modified nucleosides or, to a lesser extent, of non-nucleosidic compounds. The oligonucleotide chain assembly proceeds in the 3' to 5' direction by following a routine procedure referred to as a "synthetic cycle". Completion of a single synthetic cycle results in the addition of one nucleotide residue to the growing chain. A less than 100% yield of each synthetic step and the occurrence of side reactions set practical limits of the efficiency of the process. In general, oligonucleotide sequences are usually short (13-25 nucleotides long). The maximum length of synthetic oligonucleotides hardly exceeds 200 nucleotide residues. HPLC and other methods can be used to isolate products with the desired sequence.
Chemical modifications
Creating chemically stable short oligonucleotides was the earliest challenge in developing ASO therapies. Naturally occurring oligonucleotides are easily degraded by nucleases, an enzyme that cleaves nucleotides and is ample in every cell type. Short oligonucleotide sequences also have weak intrinsic binding affinities, which contributes to their degradation in vivo.
Backbone modifications
Nucleoside organothiophosphate (PS) analogs of nucleotides give oligonucleotides some beneficial properties. Key beneficial properties that PS backbones gives nucleotides are diastereomer identification of each nucleotide and the ability to easily follow reactions involving the phosphorothioate nucleotides, which is useful in oligonucleotide synthesis. PS backbone modifications to oligonucleotides protects them against unwanted degradation by enzymes. Modifying the nucleotide backbone is widely used because it can be achieved with relative ease and accuracy on most nucleotides. Fluorescent modifications on 5' and 3' end of oligonucleotides was reported to evaluate the oligonucleotides structures, dynamics and interactions with respect to environment.
Sugar ring modifications
Another modification that is useful for medical applications of oligonucleotides is 2’ sugar modifications. Modifying the 2’ position sugar increases the effectiveness of oligonucleotides by enhancing the target binding capabilities of oligonucleotides, specifically in antisense oligonucleotides therapies. They also decrease non specific protein binding, increasing the accuracy of targeting specific proteins. Two of the most commonly used modifications are 2’-O-methyl and the 2’-O-methoxyethyl. Fluorescent modifications on the nucleobase was also reported.
Antisense oligonucleotides
Antisense oligonucleotides (ASO) are single strands of DNA or RNA that are complementary to a chosen sequence. In the case of antisense RNA they prevent protein translation of certain messenger RNA strands by binding to them, in a process called hybridization. Antisense oligonucleotides can be used to target a specific, complementary (coding or non-coding) RNA. If binding takes place this hybrid can be degraded by the enzyme RNase H. RNase H is an enzyme that hydrolyzes RNA, and when used in an antisense oligonucleotide application results in 80-95% down-regulation of mRNA expression.
The use of Morpholino antisense oligonucleotides for gene knockdowns in vertebrates, which is now a standard technique in developmental biology and is used to study altered gene expression and gene function, was first developed by Janet Heasman using Xenopus. FDA-approved Morpholino drugs include eteplirsen and golodirsen. The antisense oligonucleotides have also been used to inhibit influenza virus replication in cell lines.
Neurodegenerative diseases that are a result of a single mutant protein are good targets for antisense oligonucleotide therapies because of their ability to target and modify very specific sequences of RNA with high selectivity. Many genetic diseases including Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) have been linked to DNA alterations that result in incorrect RNA sequences and result in mistranslated proteins that have a toxic physiological effect.
Analytical techniques
Chromatography
Alkylamides can be used as chromatographic stationary phases. Those phases have been investigated for the separation of oligonucleotides. Ion-pair reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography is used to separate and analyse the oligonucleotides after automated synthesis.
Mass spectrometry
A mixture of 5-methoxysalicylic acid and spermine can be used as a matrix for oligonucleotides analysis in MALDI mass spectrometry. ElectroSpray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS) is also a powerful tool to characterize the mass of oligonucleotides.
DNA microarray
DNA microarrays are a useful analytical application of oligonucleotides. Compared to standard cDNA microarrays, oligonucleotide based microarrays have more controlled specificity over hybridization, and the ability to measure the presence and prevalence of alternatively spliced or polyadenylated sequences. One subtype of DNA microarrays can be described as substrates (nylon, glass, etc.) to which oligonucleotides have been bound at high density. There are a number of applications of DNA microarrays within the life sciences.
See also
Aptamers, oligonucleotides with important biological applications
Morpholinos, oligos with non-natural backbones, which do not activate RNase-H but can reduce gene expression or modify RNA splicing
Polymorphism, the appearance in a population of the same gene in multiple forms because of mutations; can often be tested with ASO probes
CpG Oligodeoxynucleotide, an ODN with immunostimulatory properties
Polypurine reverse-Hoogsteen hairpins, PPRHs, oligonucleotides that can bind either DNA or RNA and decrease gene expression.
References
Further reading
External links
RNAi Atlas: a database of RNAi libraries and their target analysis results
physorg.com | Genetic source of muscular dystrophy neutralized
Nucleic acids
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor%20Benfey
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Theodor Benfey
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This is about the German philologist. For Theodor Benfey (born 1925) who developed a spiral periodic table of the elements in 1964, see Otto Theodor Benfey.
Theodor Benfey (; 28 January 1809, in Nörten near Göttingen26 June 1881, in Göttingen) was a German philologist and scholar of Sanskrit. His works, particularly his Sanskrit-English dictionary, formed a major contribution to Sanskrit studies.
Biography
Benfey was born into a Jewish family in the small town of Nörten, near the city of Göttingen in Lower Saxony. He was born during the political upheaval of the Napoleonic War, when Lower Saxony was occupied by the French Army (1806–1814). His father, Isaak Benfey (died 1832), was a merchant and Talmud scholar, and the family had 8 children. In 1810, when Theodor was one year old, the family relocated to Göttingen. The French occupation ended when Benfey was 5, and Gottingen, which belonged to the Electorate of Hanover, became part of the Kingdom of Hanover, then ruled over by the British House of Hanover (1814–66). Most of Benfey's childhood and youth was lived during the post-war period, which was marked by economic impoverishment and political oppression of nationalists and liberals. Benfey attended secondary school at the Gottingen gymnasium, and was tutored in Hebrew by his father Isaak.
Theodor showed exceptional talent for languages, and the Hebrew he studied with his father had given him a taste for philology. At the age of 16, Benfey began studies at the University of Göttingen, where he studied Greek and Latin languages under Ludolph Dissen and Otfried Müller. In 1827, he traveled to Munich, where he studied under Friedrich Wilhelm Thiersch. He returned to Göttingen, where he defended in thesis, titled De Liguris. His defense was successful, and he was granted his Ph.D. at the age of 19. He immediately began working towards a university teaching license. In 1830, he successfully presented his dissertation, Observationes ad Anacreontis Fragmenta Genuina, and was granted a venia legendi, or license to teach university courses.
Benfey began his teaching career that year in the city of Frankfurt, where he worked and lived for two years. He then took up a position in Heidelberg, where he remained for two years as well. These were to be the last paid teaching position that Benfey would have for nearly 14 years. In 1834, he returned to his home-town of Göttingen, where he took up a position at his alma mater, the University of Göttingen. He worked at the university as a privat-docent, a lecturer who is unpaid and untenured. It is likely that he lived with family during this time, as he had no means of income for quite some time. He searched unsuccessfully for paid work, even looking so far as France.
Initially, Benfey lectured in classical languages such as Greek and Latin, which had been the subject of his University studies and Ph.D. dissertation. While teaching in Frankfurt, he had published his first book, a translation of the comedies Roman playwright Terence. During his first few years lecturing at the University of Gottingen, he had also begun work on a lexicon of Greek roots. It was actually by chance that Benfey was first introduced to Sanskrit: There was a wager made that Benfey could not teach himself Sanskrit in time to review a new translation of a Sanskrit book, a mere 4 weeks. But Benfey did teach himself the language, and was able to review the Latin-Sanskrit edition of the Markandeya Purana for an academic journal. This feat of learning is made all the more impressive by the fact that the only books on Sanskrit available at the time were H. H. Wilson's Sanskrit-English Dictionary, and Monier Monier-Williams's Sanskrit grammar, neither of which were particularly helpful, as they only superficially covered Vedic Sanskrit. The subject matter he lectured on began to broaden, and in 1836, he collaborated on Ueber die Monatsnamen Einiger Alten Völker (Month Names of Ancient Peoples) with his friend Moritz A. Stern, a jewish mathematician who also taught at the University of Gottingen. This work demonstrated the Hebrew month-names are derived from Persian. In 1839, he also wrote an article on India for Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste ("Universal Encyclopaedia of Sciences and Arts").
In 1839, Benfey published his first major work, his Griechisches Wurzellexikon (Lexicon of Greek Roots). This work brought him degree of financial and professional success, and enabled him to marry Fanny Wallenstein in 1840. In 1842, The Institut de France awarded Benfey the prix Volney for his Lexicon, which brought him international recognition in the world of philology and comparative languages. By this time, Benfey had been working at the University of Gottingen as an unpaid privet-docent for over 8 years, and despite his experience and publications, he had never been granted a paid position. Younger, less accomplished lecturers were promoted and hired ahead of him, leading many to believe that this was a purposeful snub, and a display of prejudice against Benfey's Jewish religion and heritage. When the university's snub became more widely know, it sparked an international controversy, and the university was subsequently shamed into offering him a tenured position. Instrumental in securing Benfey a position was Alexander von Humboldt, a famous 19th century naturalist and explorer, who was particularly close to the Prussian monarch Frederick William IV. Alexander's brother Wilhelm von Humboldt had also been an accomplished linguist, and had recently died. Alexander showed religious tolerance towards Judaism, and petitioned the University for a tenured position on Benfey's behalf.
The much-deserved promotion to a paid, entry-level "assistant-professor" (Professor extraordinarius) did not come until 1848, and only when Benfey and his family had converted from Judaism to Christian protestantism. It has been surmised that Benfey's conversion was not sincere, and that was made mainly for social advantages.
From this time Benfey's attention was principally given to Sanskrit. In 1848 he became an assistant professor, and published his edition of the Samaveda; in 1852–1854 his Handbuch der Sanskritsprache ("Manual of Sanskrit"), comprising a grammar and chrestomathy; in 1858 his practical Sanskrit grammar, afterwards translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the Panchatantra, with an extensive dissertation on the fables and mythologies of primitive nations. All these works had been produced under the pressure of poverty, the government, whether from parsimony or from prejudice against a Jew, refusing to make any substantial addition to his small salary as an assistant professor at the university.
At length, in 1862, the growing appreciation of foreign scholars shamed it into making him a full professor, and in 1866 Benfey published the laborious work by which he is on the whole best known, his great Sanskrit-English Dictionary. In 1869 he wrote a history of German philological research, especially Oriental, during the 19th century. In 1878 his jubilee (50th anniversary) as doctor was celebrated by the publication of a volume of philological essays dedicated to him and written by the top scholars in Germany. He had designed to close his literary labours by a grammar of Vedic Sanskrit, and was actively preparing it when he was interrupted by illness, which terminated in his death at Göttingen.
A collection of Benfey's various writings was published in 1890, prefaced by a memoir by his son. Among his pupils was James Murdoch. Some of his ideas were developed in Russia by Fyodor Buslaev.
Works (titles translated into English)
Selected works:
De Liguris, 1828, Ph.D. thesis.
Observationes ad Anacreontis Fragmenta Genuina (Observations on Anacreontis and Genuine Fragments), 1830. Venia Legendi dissertation.
Ueber die Monatsnamen Einiger Alten Völker (Month Names of Ancient Peoples), 1836, in collaboration with Moritz A. Stern.
Griechisches Wurzellexikon (Lexicon of Greek Roots), 1839.
Ueber das Verhältniss der Aegyptischen Sprache zum Semitischen Sprachstamm (On the relationship of the Egyptian language to the Semitic language group), 1844
The Cuneiform Inscriptions, 1847.
The Hymns of Sama-Veda, 1848.
The History of Oriental Philosophy in Germany, 1868.
A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language for the Use of Early Students, 1868.
A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: With References to the Best Edition of Sanskrit Author and Etymologies and Comparisons of Cognate Words Chiefly in Greek, Latin, Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, 1866.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Willibald Kirfel (1955), Benfey, Theodor, in: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB), vol. 2, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. , p. 46
Adalbert Bezzenberger (1902), Benfey, Theodor. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, vol. 46, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, p. 358
Renate Heuer (ed.) (1993), Lexikon deutsch-jüdischer Autoren, vol. 2, München: Saur, pp. 31–50
1809 births
1881 deaths
People from Northeim (district)
University of Göttingen faculty
German people of Jewish descent
German orientalists
German philologists
German Sanskrit scholars
|
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200470
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Thiersch
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Friedrich Thiersch
|
Friedrich Wilhelm Thiersch (17 June 178425 February 1860), was a German classical scholar and educationist.
Biography
He was born at Kirchscheidungen (now a part of Laucha an der Unstrut, Saxony-Anhalt). In 1809 he became professor at the gymnasium at Munich, and in 1826 professor of ancient literature at the University of Landshut; he was transferred in that year to Munich where he remained till his death. Thiersch, the "tutor of Bavaria" (praeceptor Bavariae), found an extremely unsatisfactory system of education in existence. There was a violent feud between the Protestant "north" and the Catholic "south" Germans; Thiersch's colleagues, chiefly old monks, offered violent opposition to his reforms, and an attempt was made upon his life. His plans were nevertheless carried out, and became the governing principle of the educational institutions of Bavaria.
Thiersch was an ardent supporter of Greek independence. In 1832 he visited Greece, and his influence is said to have helped secure the throne of the newly created kingdom for Otto of Greece. He wrote a Greek grammar, a metrical translation of Pindar, and an account of Greece (L'état actuel de la Grece) in 1833. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1855.
Thiersch died in Munich. He is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich. After his death the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften commissioned a bronze medal made by the engraver Joahnn Adam Ries in 1860.
His biography was written by his son, H. W. J. Thiersch (1866). Another son, Karl Thiersch, was a renowned surgeon, and yet another, Ludwig Thiersch, was an influential painter.
References
External links
Rolf Selbmann und Peter Kefes: Friedrich Thiersch und der Neuhumanismus in Altbayern. Wahrheit und Legende
1784 births
1860 deaths
People from Laucha an der Unstrut
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
German educational theorists
German classical scholars
German philhellenes
Burials at the Alter Südfriedhof
|
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] |
200472
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tas%20kebab
|
Tas kebab
|
Tas kebab (also tas kebap or tas kebabı) is a Turkish, Iranian meat stew. It is also used in Balkans, especially in Albania and also Greece, with a different cooking method. It may be made with veal or mutton.
See also
List of stews
References
External links
Turkish cuisine
Iranian cuisine
Turkish stews
Iranian stews
|
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200474
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Hunt%20%28author%29
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Stephen Hunt (author)
|
Stephen Hunt is a writer best known for a series of fantasy novels with steampunk elements known as the Jackelian series, whose central setting is a nation somewhat resembling Victorian England named the Kingdom of Jackals. Influences on his work include: Jack Williamson, Stephen Goldin, David Gemmell, Bruce Sterling, Larry Niven and Michael Moorcock.
Publishing history
Hunt's short fiction has appeared in various mainly US and UK-based genre magazines, and some of his earliest works were written in the cyberpunk subgenre of science fiction. The best-known of these was the "Hollow Duellists," a short story which William Gibson was reported to admire as one of the leading works of the second-wave of cyberpunk fiction, and which later went on to win the 1992 ProtoStellar magazine prize for best short fiction story, a tie with British SF author Stephen Baxter.
Stephen Hunt became the first client of the then-newly established John Jarrold Literary Agency in 2005. Hunt's second novel, The Court of the Air, was the subject of an auction held by John Jarrold in late 2005 between the UK's main publishing houses. HarperCollins outbid their competitors to sign Hunt for a three-book deal, later extended to a six-book contract. The Bookseller magazine reported HarperCollins won the auction with a high six-figure sum.
Foreign-language and international editions of the novels of the Jackelian series have been sold to Tor Books (USA), Albin Michel (France), Verlagsgruppe Random House (Germany), Enterbrain Manga and Anime (Japan), Edições Saída de Emergência (Portugal and Brazil), Paidós (Spain), AST (Russia), and the Anhui Literature and Art Publishing House (China).
Works
His first fantasy novel, For the Crown and the Dragon, was published in 1994, and introduced a young officer, Taliesin, fighting for the Queen of the United Kingdom in a Napoleonic-period alternative reality, where the wars of Europe were being fought with sorcery and steampunk weapons (airships, clockwork machine guns, and steam-driven trucks called kettle-blacks). The book reviewer Andrew Darlington used Hunt's novel to coin the phrase "Flintlock Fantasy" to describe the subgenre of fantasy set in a Regency or Napoleonic-era period.
Sliding Void series
The Sliding Void sequence is a space opera series from Stephen Hunt published under the Green Nebula imprint. It follows the misadventures of the crew of a commercial tramp freighter called the Gravity Rose, captained by a female Han Solo-like commander, Lana Fiveworlds. The first novel, Void all the Way Down was originally published as three serialised novellas, Sliding Void, Transference Station, and Red Sun Bleeding, before being combined into the novel. A second full-length novel which was not serialised followed called Anomalous Thrust.
Sliding Void's main polity is the Triple Alliance (often simply the 'Alliance' or 'TA'), a bureaucratic multi-world confederation of the three dominant species, of which humanity is one. Most of the books' events occur in The Edge, a lawless independent region of free worlds bordering the Alliance. While guest of honour at Toronto's Ad Astra convention, Hunt described how he had written the series as a homage to fill the void left by the cancellation of all of his favourite TV science fiction series: Star Trek, Stargate, Firefly, Battlestar Galactica and Farscape (the void of the series title being both an allusion to this, as well as 'Sliding Void' being used by spacers as slang for sub-warp transit).
The first novel, Void all the Way Down, focuses on the inclusion of Calder, an exiled prince from a medieval-level failed colony world, into the ship's crew as they embark on running supplies to an illegal mining operation.
The second novel, Anomalous Thrust, finds the crew stranded on a world boycotted by civilisation for its human colonists' enslavement of the local sentient species. Here, they find they can only escape by taking part in a solar sail race to recover valuable alien garbage jettisoned by a moon-sized vessel making a periodic tour of multiple galaxies - a trope inspired by Rendezvous with Rama.
Far-called series
The Far-called sequence is a fantasy series from Stephen Hunt set on the world of Pellas. The first book in the series, In Dark Service was published by Gollancz, the science fiction and fantasy imprint of Hachette and Orion Publishing, on 15 May 2014. The second novel in the series, Foul Tide's Turning, was released on 21 May 2015. The third novel in the series, The Stealers' War, was released on 16 March 2016.
Hunt mentioned at Comic-Con that his books set in Pellas draw on the events of the U.S. Civil War, just as Game of Thrones draw on the feuding of 15th-century England's Wars of the Roses (an idea that came to Hunt after meeting George RR Martin at a party hosted by HarperCollins in the Tower of London during April 2012).
The plot of In Dark Service concerns two central families, the Carnehans and Landors, whose children are kidnapped by slavers from the town of Northhaven in the Kingdom of Weyland. The town launches a rescue expedition to free the taken from captivity, but with little chances of success given the vast scale of the world of Pellas. The first novel focuses on both the adventures of the pursuing towns-people and the slaves' struggle to survive their harsh captivity. While little is revealed of the geophysics enabling a planet the size of Pellas to sustain habitable levels of gravity (aside from occasional references to anti-gravity stones), the geopolitical impacts of such a vast land, where inequitable access to resources causes incredible polarisation of technological progress, are explored through the narrative and the descriptions of a wide range of cultures.
The second book in the series builds tension as the actions of the Carnehan protagonists bring the distant and ruthlessly amoral Vandian Empire into conflict with the far less technologically advanced and economically enriched kingdoms which have ostensibly thrived in a different part of the world. It also begins to reveal undercurrents of a deeper spiritual battle between good and evil.
The third book in the series, The Stealers' War, moves towards the trilogy's end-game as the various forces of Vandia and the two sides of Weyland's civil war plays out in a final battle.
Jackelian series
The Court of the Air (published 2007), is a fantasy steampunk novel set in a Victorian-esque world with the addition of magic in various forms and where steam power, rather than oil, drives the economy.
The nation in which the plot is largely set (the Kingdom of Jackals) is recognisably based on Victorian Britain and the main neighbouring country (Quatérshift) is presumably inspired by the Paris Commune and various other communist states . A follow-up of sorts, The Kingdom Beyond the Waves (published 2008), is set in the same world and introduces more races and tells some of the back-story.
The Court of the Air commenced Hunt's Jackelian fantasy series, and was the first of his works to be published by HarperCollins. The Court of the Air was one of the ten books selected by the organisers of the Berlinale Film Festival/Co-Production Market for presentation to US and European film producers. HarperCollins's elevator pitch for The Court of the Air was summarised as Charles Dickens meets Blade Runner.
In November 2008, his second book in the Jackelian series, The Kingdom Beyond the Waves, was nominated for the long-list of the David Gemmell Legend Award for Fantasy. The second novel continues the misadventures of u-boat privateer Commodore Jared Black, as the commodore goes in search of the ruins of a lost ancient utopia.
The third book in the series, The Rise of the Iron Moon, published in the UK in February 2009, features the invasion of the Kingdom of Jackals from the north by a horde called the Army of Shadows. It features the reappearance of the main protagonists from The Court of the Air, including Molly Templar, Oliver Brooks, the steamman scientist Coppertracks and Commodore Jared Black. The main new character is Purity Drake, a royalist prisoner of the state.
The fourth book, Secrets of the Fire Sea, is a murder mystery set on the island of Jago (in the Fire Sea of the title), and features the consulting detective Jethro Daunt and his steamman assistant Boxiron attempting to uncover the murderer of the island's arch-bishop. Commodore Black ferries the investigators from the kingdom to Jago, and acts as a reluctant foil for the pair's sleuthing. The novel was published in the UK as a hardback in 2010 and as a paperback in 2011.
The fifth novel in the series, Jack Cloudie, centres around an airship war between the Kingdom of Jackals and the Empire of Cassarabia in the south. The main characters are Jack Keats, a young thief pressed into service with the Jackelian airship fleet, and Jared Black. The commodore is being blackmailed into helping the high fleet by the Kingdom's secret police, the State Protection Board.
The title of the sixth book, published in February 2012, is From the Deep of the Dark. While appearing as guest of honour at the 2010 Forum Fantastico, Portugal's national science fiction convention, Hunt described his sixth book as primarily a spy mystery. It features Dick Tull, an officer of the State Protection Board close to retirement, the consulting detectives Jethro Daunt and Boxiron, and Commodore Jared Black. The characters are investigating the theft of the Jackelian royal sceptre and a series of strange murders and bloodless corpses in the capital, Middlesteel. Thief Charlotte Shades is asked by two mysterious men to steal King Jude's Sceptre from the Parliament vaults. Daunt and Boxiron know there is more to the two men than meets the eye and, with the rescued thief, escape in an ancient submarine captained by Commodore Jethro Black. They encounter resistance from strange underwater races, but human, steam-man, seanore and gillneck must band together to save the kingdom from danger.
While speaking at the Forum Fantastico, Hunt noted the versatility of fantasy as a genre, and described his Jackelian series as quest novel (The Court of the Air), adventure novel (The Kingdom Beyond the Waves), invasion tale (The Rise of the Iron Moon), murder mystery (Secrets of the Fire Sea), war story (Jack Cloudie) and spy novel (From the Deep of the Dark ).
Bibliography
For the Crown and the Dragon (October 1994, )
The Agatha Witchley Mysteries series
Secrets of the Moon (May 2015, )
The Songs of Old Sol series
Empty Between The Stars (June 2018, )
Jackelian series
The Court of the Air (April 2007, )
Published in the US in June 2008,
The Kingdom Beyond the Waves (May 2008, )
Published in the US July 2009,
The Rise of the Iron Moon (Feb 2009, )
Published in the US March 2011, 978-0765327666
Secrets of the Fire Sea (Feb 2010, )
Jack Cloudie (July 2011, )
From The Deep of the Dark (Feb 2012, )
Mission to Mightadore (May 2015, )
Far-called series
In Dark Service (May 2014, )
Foul Tide's Turning (May 2015, )
The Stealers' War (March 2016, )
Sliding Void
Void all the Way Down (September 2014, )
Anomalous Thrust (May 2016, )
Hell Fleet (December 2018, )
Reviews
References
External links
Stephen Hunt's official blog
Stephen Hunt's official author's site
1966 births
Living people
British fantasy writers
British alternative history writers
British historical novelists
20th-century British novelists
21st-century British novelists
British male novelists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosul
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Mosul
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Mosul (, , Turkish: Musul, ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. The city is considered the second largest city in Iraq in terms of population and area after the capital Baghdad, with a population of over 3.7 million. Mosul is approximately north of Baghdad on the Tigris river. The Mosul metropolitan area has grown from the old city on the western side to encompass substantial areas on both the "Left Bank" (east side) and the "Right Bank" (west side), as locals call the two riverbanks. Mosul encloses the ruins of the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on its east side.
Mosul and its surroundings have an ethnically and religiously diverse population; a large majority of its population are Arabs, with Assyrians, Turkmens, and Kurds, and other, smaller ethnic minorities comprising the rest of the city's population. Sunni Islam is the largest religion, but there are a significant number of Christians, as well as adherents of other sects of Islam and various other minority religions.
Mosul is considered to be among the larger and more historically and culturally significant cities of the Arab World. Due to Mosul's strategic location it has traditionally serving as a hub of international commerce and travel. The North Mesopotamian dialect of Arabic, commonly known as Moslawi, is named after the city of Mosul and is widely spoken in the region.
Historically, important products of the area include Mosul marble and oil. Mosul is home to the University of Mosul and its renowned Medical College, one of the largest educational and research centers in the Middle East.
Together with the nearby Nineveh Plains, Mosul is one of the historic centers of the Assyrian people.
Etymology
The city's name is first mentioned by Xenophon in his expeditionary logs in Achaemenid Assyria of 401 BC, during the reign of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. There, he notes a small Assyrian town of "Mépsila" () on the Tigris around where Mosul is today (Anabasis, III.iv.10). It may be safer to identify Xenophon's Mépsila with the site of Iski Mosul, or "Old Mosul", about north of modern Mosul, where six centuries after Xenophon's report, the Sasanian Empire's center of Budh-Ardhashir was built. In any case, "Mepsila" is doubtless the root of the modern name.
In its current Arabic form and spelling, the term Mosul, or rather "Mawsil", means "linking point"—or, loosely, "Junction City", in Arabic. On Mosul's eastern side are the ruins of the ancient city of Nineveh and Assyrians still call the entire city Nineveh (or Ninweh).
Mosul is also nicknamed al-Faiha ("the Paradise"), al-Khaḍrah ("the Green"), and al-Hadbah ("the Humped"). It is sometimes called "The Pearl of the North" and "the city of a million soldiers".
History
Ancient era and early Middle Ages
The area where Mosul lies was an integral part of Assyria from as early as the 25th century BC. After the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC), which united all the peoples of Mesopotamia under one rule, Mosul again became a continuous part of Assyria proper from circa 2050 BC through the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire between 612 and 599 BC. Mosul remained within the geopolitical province of Assyria for another 13 centuries (as a part of Achaemenid Assyria, Seleucid, Roman Assyria and Sasanian Asōristān) until the early Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century. After the Muslim conquests, the region saw a gradual influx of Muslim Arab, Kurdish and Turkic peoples, although indigenous Assyrians continue to use the name Athura for the ecclesiastical province.
Nineveh was one of the oldest and greatest cities in antiquity, and was settled as early as 6000 BC. The city is mentioned in the Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1750), and during the reign of Shamshi-Adad I (1809–1776 BC) it was listed as a centre of worship of the goddess Ishtar, remaining so during the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1056 BC). During the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) Nineveh grew in size and importance, particularly from the reigns of Tukulti-Ninurta II and Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) onward; he chose the city of Kalhu (the Biblical Calah, modern Nimrud) as his capital in place of the ancient traditional capital of Aššur (Ashur), from present-day Mosul.
Thereafter, successive Assyrian emperor-monarchs, such as Shalmaneser III, Adad-nirari III, Tiglath-Pileser III, Shalmaneser V and Sargon II, continued to expand the city. Around 700 BC, King Sennacherib made Nineveh Assyria's new capital. Immense building work was undertaken, and Nineveh eclipsed Babylon, Kalhu and Aššur in size and importance, making it the largest city in the world. A number of scholars believe the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were in fact at Nineveh.
The mound of Kuyunjik in Mosul is the site of the palaces of King Sennacherib, and his successors Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal, (who established the Library of Ashurbanipal), Ashur-etil-ilani, Sin-shumu-lishir and Sin-shar-ishkun. The Assyrian Empire began to unravel in 626 BC, being consumed by a decade of brutal internal civil wars, greatly weakening it. A war-ravaged Assyria was attacked in 616 BC by a vast coalition of its former subjects, most notably their Babylonian relations from southern Mesopotamia, together with the Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, Scythians, Cimmerians, and Sagartians. Nineveh fell after a siege and bitter house to house fighting in 612 BC during the reign of Sin-shar-ishkun, who was killed defending his capital. His successor, Ashur-uballit II, fought his way out of Nineveh and formed a new Assyrian capital at Harran (now in southeastern Turkey).
Mosul (then the Assyrian town of Mepsila, founded by the former inhabitants out of the ruins of their former capital) later succeeded Nineveh as the Tigris bridgehead of the road that linked Assyria and Anatolia with the short-lived Median Empire and succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546–332 BC), where it was a part of the geopolitical province of Athura (Assyria), where the region, and Assyria in general, saw a significant economic revival.
Mosul became part of the Seleucid Empire after Alexander's conquests in 332 BC. While little is known of the city from the Hellenistic period, Mosul likely belonged to the Seleucid satrapy of Syria, the Greek term for Assyria ("Syria" originally meaning Assyria rather than the modern nation of Syria), which the Parthian Empire conquered circa 150 BC.
Mosul changed hands once again with the rise of the Sasanian Empire in 225 and became a part of the Sasanian province of Asōristān. Christianity was present among the indigenous Assyrian people in Mosul as early as the 1st century, although the ancient Mesopotamian religion remained strong until the 4th century. It became an episcopal seat of the Assyrian Church of the East in the 6th century.
In 637 (other sources say 641), during the period of the Caliph Umar, Mosul was annexed to the Rashidun Caliphate by Utba ibn Farqad al-Sulami during the early Arab Muslim invasions and conquests, after which Assyria dissolved as a geopolitical entity.
9th century to 1535
In the late 9th century the Turkish dynasts Ishaq ibn Kundaj and his son Muhammad seized control over Mosul, but in 893 Mosul came once again under the direct control of the Abbasid Caliphate. In the early 10th century Mosul came under the control of the native Arab Hamdanid dynasty. From Mosul, the Hamdanids under Abdallah ibn Hamdan and his son Nasir al-Dawla expanded their control over Upper Mesopotamia for several decades, first as governors of the Abbassids and later as de facto independent rulers. A century later they were supplanted by the Uqaylid dynasty. Ibn Hawqal, who visited Mosul in 968, described it as a beautiful town inhabited mainly by Kurds.
Mosul was conquered by the Seljuq Empire in the 11th century. After a period under semi-independent atabeg such as Mawdud, in 1127 it became the centre of power of the Zengid dynasty. Saladin besieged the city unsuccessfully in 1182 but gained control of it in 1186. In the 13th century it was captured by the Mongols led by Hulagu Khan, but was spared the usual destruction since its governor, Badr al-Din Luʾluʾ, helped the Khan in his following campaigns in Syria.
After the Mongol defeat in the Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mamluks, Badr al-Din's son sided with the latter; this led to the city's destruction. It later regained some importance but never recovered its original splendor. Mosul was thenceforth ruled by the Mongol Ilkhanate and Jalairid Sultanate and escaped Timur's destructiveness.
In 1165, Benjamin of Tudela passed through Mosul; he wrote that he found a small Jewish community estimated at 7,000 people in Mosul, led by Rabbi Zakkai, presumably connected to the Davidic line. In 1288–89, the Exilarch was in Mosul and signed a supporting paper for Maimonides. In the early 16th century, Mosul was under the Turkmen federation of the Ağ Qoyunlu, but in 1508 it was conquered by the Safavid dynasty of Iran.
Ottoman period
What started as irregular attacks in 1517 were finalized in 1538, when Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent added Mosul to his empire by capturing it from his archrival, Safavid Persia. Thenceforth Mosul was governed by a pasha. Mosul was celebrated for its line of walls, comprising seven gates with large towers, a renowned hospital (maristan) and a covered market (qaysariyya), and its fabrics and flourishing trades.
Mesopotamia had been acquired by the Ottoman Empire in 1555 by the Peace of Amasya, but until the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 Ottoman control over Mesopotamia was not decisive. After the Peace of Amasya, the Safavids recaptured most of Mesopotamia one more time during the reign of king Abbas I (r. 1588–1629). Among the newly appointed Safavid governors of Mesopotamia during those years was Qasem Sultan Afshar, who was appointed governor of Mosul in 1622. Before 1638, the Ottomans considered Mosul "still a mere fortress, important for its strategic position as an offensive platform for Ottoman campaigns into Iraq, as well as a defensive stronghold and staging post guarding the approaches to Anatolia and to the Syrian coast. Then, with the Ottoman reconquest of Baghdad (1638), the liwa of Mosul became an independent wilaya."
Despite being a part of the Ottoman Empire, during the four centuries of Ottoman rule Mosul was considered "the most independent district" within the Middle East, following the Roman model of indirect rule through local notables. "Mosuli culture developed less along Ottoman–Turkish lines than along Iraqi–Arab lines; and Turkish, the official language of the State, was certainly not the dominant language in the province."
In line with its status as a politically stable trade route between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf, Mosul developed considerably during the 17th and early 18th centuries. Like the development of the Mamluk dynasty in Baghdad, during this time "the Jalili family was establishing itself as the undisputed master of Mosul" and "helping to connect Mosul with a pre-Ottoman, pre-Turcoman, pre-Mongol, Arab cultural heritage that was to put the town on its way to recapturing some of the prestige and prominence it had enjoyed under the golden reign of Badr ad-Din Lu’lu’."
Along with the al-Umari and Tasin al-Mufti families, the Jalilis formed an "urban-based small and medium gentry and a new landed elite", which proceeded to displace the control of previous rural tribes. Such families establish themselves through private enterprise, solidifying their influence and assets through rents on land and taxes on manufacturing.
As well as by elected officials, Mosul's social architecture was highly influenced by the Dominican fathers who arrived in Mosul in 1750, sent by Pope Benedict XIV (Mosul had a large Christian population, predominantly indigenous Assyrians). In 1873 they were followed by the Dominican nuns, who established schools, health clinics, a printing press, an orphanage, and workshops to teach girls sewing and embroidery. A congregation of Dominican sisters founded in the 19th century still had its motherhouse in Mosul in the early 21st century. Over 120 Assyrian Iraqi Sisters belonged to this congregation.
In the 19th century the Ottoman government started to reclaim central control over its outlying provinces. Their aim was to "restore Ottoman law, and rejuvenate the military" and to revive "a secure tax base for the government". In order to reestablish rule, in 1834 the sultan abolished public elections for governor, and began "neutraliz[ing] local families such as the Jalilis and their class" and appointing new, non-Maslawi governors directly. In line with its reintegration within central government rule, Mosul was required to conform to new Ottoman reform legislation, including the standardization of tariff rates, the consolidation of internal taxes and the integration of the administrative apparatus with the central government.
This process started in 1834 with the appointment of Bayraktar Mehmet Pasha, who was to rule Mosul for the next four years. After his reign, the Ottoman government (wishing still to restrain the influence of powerful local families) appointed a series of governors in rapid succession, ruling "for only a brief period before being sent somewhere else to govern, making it impossible for any of them to achieve a substantial local power base." Mosul's importance as a trading center declined after the opening of the Suez Canal, which enabled goods to travel to and from India by sea rather than by land through Mosul.
Mosul was the capital of Mosul Vilayet, one of the three vilayets (provinces) of Ottoman Iraq, with a brief break in 1623, when Persia seized the city.
During World War I, the Ottoman Empire sided with Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria against the British Empire, France and the Russian Empire. In northern Mesopotamia, northern Syria and southeast Turkey the Ottomans held the armed support of the Kurds, Turcomans, Circassians and some Arab groups, while the British and Russians were militarily supported by the Assyrians and Armenians (particularly in the wake of the Armenian genocide and Assyrian genocide), and some Arab groups. The Ottomans were defeated, and in 1918 the British occupied Mosul and the whole of Iraq.
1918 to 1990s
At the end of World War I in October 1918, after the Armistice of Mudros, British forces occupied Mosul. After the war, the city and surrounding area became part of the British-occupied Iraq (1918–1920) and then Mandatory Iraq (1920–1932). This mandate was contested by Turkey, which continued to claim the area on the grounds that it was under Ottoman control during the signature of the Armistice.
In the Treaty of Lausanne, the dispute over Mosul was left for future resolution by the League of Nations. In 1926, Iraq's possession of Mosul was confirmed by the League of Nations' brokered agreement between Turkey and Great Britain. Former Ottoman Mosul Vilayet became the Nineveh Governorate of Iraq, but Mosul remained the provincial capital.
Mosul's fortunes revived with the discovery of oil in the area, from the late 1920s onward. It became a nexus for the movement of oil via truck and pipeline to Turkey and Syria. Qyuarrah Refinery was built within about an hour's drive from the city and was used to process tar for road-building projects. It was damaged but not destroyed during the Iran–Iraq War.
The opening of the University of Mosul in 1967 enabled the education of many in the city and surrounding area.
After the 1991 uprisings by the Kurds, Mosul did not fall within the Kurdish-ruled area, but was included in the northern no-fly zone imposed and patrolled by the United States and Britain between 1991 and 2003.
Although this prevented Saddam's forces from mounting large-scale military operations again in the region, it did not stop his regime from implementing a steady policy of "Arabisation" by which the demography of some areas of Nineveh Governorate were gradually changed. Despite this program, Mosul and its surrounding towns and villages remained home to a mixture of Arabs, Kurds, Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens, Shabaks, a few Jews, and isolated populations of Yazidis, Mandeans, Kawliya and Circassians.
Saddam was able to garrison portions of the 5th Army within Mosul, had Mosul International Airport under military control, and recruited heavily from Mosul for his military's officer corps. This may have been because most of the Iraqi Army officers and generals were from Mosul long before the Saddam regime.
2003 American invasion
When the 2003 invasion of Iraq was being planned, the United States had originally intended to base troops in Turkey and mount a thrust into northern Iraq to capture Mosul, but the Turkish parliament refused to grant permission for the operation. When the Iraq War broke out in March 2003, U.S. military activity in the area was confined to strategic bombing with airdropped special forces in the vicinity. Mosul fell on 11 April 2003, when the Iraqi Army 5th Corps, loyal to Saddam, abandoned the city and surrendered two days after the fall of Baghdad. U.S. Army Special Forces with Kurdish fighters quickly took civil control of the city. Thereafter began widespread looting before an agreement was reached to cede overall control to U.S. forces.
On 22 July 2003, Saddam Hussein's sons, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein, were killed in a gun battle with Coalition forces in Mosul after a failed attempt at their capture. Mosul also served as the operational base for the US Army's 101st Airborne Division during the occupational phase of the Operation Iraqi Freedom. During its tenure, the 101st Airborne Division was able to extensively survey the city and, advised by the 431st Civil Affairs Battalion, non-governmental organizations, and the people of Mosul, began reconstruction work by employing the people of Mosul in security, electricity, local governance, drinking water, wastewater, trash disposal, roads, bridges, and environmental concerns.
Other U.S. Army units to have occupied the city include the 4th Brigade Combat Team of the 1st Cavalry Division, the 172nd Stryker Brigade, the 3rd Brigade-2nd Infantry Division, 18th Engineer Brigade (Combat), Alpha Company 14th Engineer Battalion-555th Combat Engineer Brigade, 1st Brigade-25th Infantry Division, the 511th Military Police Company, the 812th Military Police Company and company-size units from Reserve components, an element of the 364th Civil Affairs Brigade, and the 404th Civil Affairs Battalion, which covered the areas north of the Green Line. The 67th Combat Support Hospital (CSH) deployed in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) from January 2004 to January 2005, running split based operations in Mosul and Tikrit. The Task Force (TF) 67 Headquarters and Company B operated out of Forward Operating Base (FOB) Diamondback (Mosul), and Company A operating out of FOB Speicher (Tikrit).
On 24 June 2004, a coordinated series of car bombs killed 62 people, many of them policemen.
On 21 December 2004, 14 U.S. soldiers, four American employees of Halliburton, and four Iraqi soldiers were killed in a suicide attack on a dining hall at the Forward Operating Base (FOB) Marez next to the main U.S. military airfield at Mosul. The Pentagon reported that 72 other personnel were injured in the attack, carried out by a suicide bomber wearing an explosive vest and the uniform of the Iraqi security services. The Islamist group Army of Ansar al-Sunna (partly evolved from Ansar al-Islam) took responsibility for the attack in an online statement.
In December 2007, Iraq reopened Mosul International Airport. An Iraqi Airways flight carried 152 Hajj pilgrims to Baghdad, the first commercial flight since U.S. forces declared a no-fly zone in 1993, though further commercial flight remained prohibited. On 23 January 2008, an explosion in an apartment building killed 36 people. The next day, a suicide bomber dressed as a police officer assassinated the local police chief, Brigadier General Salah Mohammed al-Jubouri, the director of police for Nineveh province, as he toured the site of the blast.
In May 2008, US-backed Iraqi Army Forces led by Major General Riyadh Jalal Tawfiq, the commander of military operations in Mosul, launched a military offensive of the Ninawa campaign in hopes of bringing stability and security to the city. The representatives of Mosul in the Iraqi Parliament, the intellectuals of the city, and other concerned humanitarian groups agreed on the pressing need for a solution to the city's unbearable conditions, but still believed the solution was political and administrative. They also questioned whether such a large-scale military offensive would spare the lives of innocent people.
All these factors deprived the city of its historical, scientific and intellectual foundations between 2003 and 2008, when many scientists, professors, academics, doctors, health professionals, engineers, lawyers, journalists, religious clergy (both Muslim and Christian), historians, as well as professionals and artists, were either killed or forced to leave the city under the threat of being shot, exactly as happened elsewhere in Iraq in those years.
Christian exodus
In 2008, many Assyrian Christians (about 12,000) fled the city, following a wave of murders and threats against their community. The murder of a dozen Assyrians, threats that others would be murdered unless they converted to Islam, and the destruction of their houses sparked a rapid exodus of the Christian population. Some fled to Syria and Turkey; others were given shelter in churches and monasteries. Accusations were exchanged between Sunni fundamentalists and some Kurdish groups of being behind this new exodus. Some claims linked it to the provincial elections of January 2009, and the related Assyrian Christians' demands for broader representation in the provincial councils.
Mosul was attacked on 4 June 2014. After six days of fighting, on 10 June the Islamic State took over the city during the June 2014 Northern Iraq offensive. By August, the city's new ISIL administration was dysfunctional, with frequent power cuts, a tainted water supply, collapse of infrastructure, and failing health care.
Government by the Islamic State
On June 10, 2014, the Islamic State captured Mosul, after the Iraqi troops stationed there withdrew. Troop shortages and infighting among top officers and Iraqi political leaders played into ISIL's hands and fueled panic that led to the city's abandonment. Half a million people escaped on foot or by car during the next two days. According to western and pro-Iraqi government press, Mosul residents were de facto prisoners, forbidden to leave the city unless they left ISIL a significant collateral of family members, personal wealth and property. They could then leave after paying a significant "departure tax" for a three-day pass (for a higher fee they could surrender their home, pay the fee and leave for good) and if those with a three-day pass failed to return within that time, their assets would be seized and their family killed. While ISIL ruled Mosul with an extreme monopolization of violence and committed many acts of terror, some scholars argue that it also had a highly efficient bureaucratic government that ran a highly functioning state within Mosul's borders via sophisticated diwans (governing
bodies).
Ali Ghaidan, a former commander of the Iraqi ground forces, accused al-Maliki of being the one who issued the order to withdraw from the city. A short period of time after, Al-Maliki called for a national state of emergency on 10 June following the attack on Mosul, which had been seized overnight. Despite the security crisis, Iraq's parliament did not allow Maliki to declare a state of emergency; many legislators boycotted the session because they opposed expanding the prime minister's powers, since his regin has been described as sectarian by both Iraqis and western analysts, as well allegations of corruption, with hundreds of billions of dollars allegedly vanishing from government coffers.
After more than two years of ISIL occupation of Mosul, Iraqi forces, with the help of American and French forces launched a joint offensive to recapture it on 16 October 2016. The battle for Mosul was considered key in the military intervention against ISIL. A military offensive to retake the city was the largest deployment of Iraqi forces since the 2003 invasion by U.S. and coalition forces On 9 July 2017, Prime Minister Haider Al-Abadi arrived in preparation to announce the full liberation and reclamation of Mosul after three years of ISIL control. A formal declaration was made on the next day. The battle continued for another couple of weeks in the Old City before Iraqi forces regained full control of Mosul on 21 July 2017.
Demography
According to Salahuddin Khuda Bakhsh, the Arab geographer Ibn Hawqal was at Mosul in 358 (969 CE). He called it a "fine town with excellent markets, surrounded by fertile districts of which the most celebrated was that round Nineveh where the prophet Jonah was buried. In the 4th [10th] century the population consisted chiefly of Kurds, and the numerous districts round Mosul, occupying all Diyir Rabi'ah, are carefully enumerated by Ibn Hawkal."
In 1813, James Playfair, the author of the book A System of Geography: Ancient and Modern wrote, "Mosul Is chiefly peopled by Curds [Kurds], a sober and industrious race". But Mosul has had various ethnic groups during its history. In 1923, half of its population was Kurd. In the 20th century, Mosul was indicative of Iraq's mingling ethnic and religious cultures. There was a Sunni Arab majority in urban areas, such as downtown Mosul west of the Tigris; across the Tigris and further north in the suburban areas, thousands of Assyrians, Kurds, Turkmens, Shabaks, Yazidis, Armenians and Mandeans made up the rest of Mosul's population. Shabaks were concentrated on the city's eastern outskirts.
Religion
Mosul has a predominantly Sunni population. This city had an ancient Jewish population. Like their counterparts elsewhere in Iraq, most were forced out in 1950–51. Most Iraqi Jews have moved to Israel, and some to the United States. In 2003, during the Iraq War, a rabbi in the American army found an abandoned, dilapidated synagogue in Mosul dating to the 13th century.
During ISIL's occupation, religious minorities were targeted to convert to Islam, pay tribute (jizya) money, leave, or be killed. The persecution of Christians in Mosul and the surrounding Nineveh Plains removed a Christian community that had been present in the region since the 1st century.
Infrastructure
The Mosul Dam was built in the 1980s to supply Mosul with hydroelectricity and water. Despite this, water supply cuts are still common.
Five bridges cross the Tigris in Mosul, known from north to south as:
Al Shohada Bridge (or "Third Bridge")
Fifth Bridge
Old Bridge (or "Iron Bridge", or "First Bridge")
Al Huriya Bridge (literally "Freedom Bridge", also known as "Second Bridge")
Fourth Bridge
During the Battle of Mosul (2016–17) between ISIL and the Iraqi Army supported by an international coalition, two bridges were 'damaged' by coalition airstrikes in October 2016, two others in November, and the Old Bridge was 'disabled' in early December. According to the BBC, in late December the bridges were targeted to disrupt the resupply of ISIL forces in East Mosul from West Mosul. In January 2017, CNN reported that ISIL itself had 'destroyed' all bridges to slow the Iraqi ground troops' advance, citing Iraqi commander Lieutenant General Abdul Amir Rasheed Yarallah.
During the last stages of the battle to retake Mosul, Lise Grande stated that per an initial assessment, basic infrastructure repair would cost over 1 billion USD. She stated that while stabilization in east Mosul could be achieved in two months, in some districts of Mosul it might take years, with six out of 44 districts almost completely destroyed. Every district of Mosul received light or moderate damage. Per the United Nations, 15 of the 54 residential districts in the western half of Mosul were heavily damaged while at least 23 were moderately damaged.
Mosul is served by Mosul International Airport.
Geography
Mosul stands 223 meters above sea level in the Upper Mesopotamia region of the Middle East. To the south west of Mosul is the Syrian Desert and to the East is the Zagros Mountains.
Climate
Mosul has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh), verging on the Mediterranean climate (Csa), with extremely hot, prolonged, dry summers, brief and mild autumn and spring, and moderately wet, relatively cool winters.
Historical and religious buildings
Mosul is rich in old historical places and ancient buildings: mosques, castles, churches, monasteries, and schools, many of which have architectural features and decorative work of significance. The town centre is dominated by a maze of streets and 19th-century houses. There are old houses of beauty. The markets are particularly interesting for the mixture of people who jostle there: Arabs, Kurds, Assyrians, Iraqi Jews, Kurdish Jews, Iraqi Turkmens, Armenians, Yazidi, Mandeans, Romani and Shabaks.
The Mosul Museum contains many finds from the ancient sites of the old Assyrian capital cities Nineveh and Nimrud. It is a beautiful old building, around a courtyard and with a façade of Mosul marble containing displays of Mosul life depicted in tableau form. On February 26, 2015, ISIL militants destroyed the museum's ancient Assyrian artifacts.
The English writer Agatha Christie lived in Mosul while her second husband, Max Mallowan, an archaeologist, was involved in the excavation in Nimrud.
Mosques and shrines
Umayyad Mosque: The first ever in the city, built in 640 AD by Utba bin Farqad Al-Salami after he conquered Mosul in the reign of Caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab. The only original part extant to recent times was the remarkably elaborate brickwork 52m high minaret that leans like the Leaning Tower of Pisa, called Al-Hadba (The Humped). It was largely destroyed during the Battle of Mosul.
The Great (Nuriddin) Mosque: Built by Nuriddin Zangi in 1172 AD next door to the Umayyad Mosque. Ibn Battuta (the great Moroccan traveller) found a marble fountain there and a mihrab (the niche that indicates the direction of Mecca) with a Kufic inscription. It was destroyed during the Battle of Mosul.
Mujahidi Mosque: The mosque dates back to 12th century AD, and is distinguished for its shen dome and elaborately wrought mihrab.
Prophet Younis Mosque and Shrine: Located east of the city, and included the tomb of Prophet Younis (Jonah), dating back to the 8th century BC, with a tooth of the whale that swallowed and later released him. It was completely demolished by IS in July 2014.
Prophet Jirjis Mosque and Shrine: The late 14th century mosque and shrine honoring Prophet Jirjis (George) was built over the Quraysh cemetery. It was destroyed by IS in July 2014.
Prophet Daniel Shrine: A Tomb attributed to Prophet Daniel was destroyed by IS in July 2014.
Hamou Qado (Hema Kado) Mosque: An Ottoman-era mosque in the central Maydan area built in 1881, and officially named Mosque of Abdulla Ibn Chalabi Ibn Abdul-Qadi. It was destroyed by IS in March 2015 because it contained a tomb that was revered and visited by local Muslims on Thursdays and Fridays.
Churches and monasteries
Mosul had the highest proportion of Assyrian Christians of all the Iraqi cities outside of the Kurdish region, and contains several interesting old churches, some of which originally date back to the early centuries of Christianity. Its ancient Assyrian churches are often hidden and their entrances in thick walls are not easy to find. Some of them have suffered from overmuch restoration.
Shamoun Al-Safa (St. Peter, Mar Petros): This church dates from the 13th century is and named after Shamoun Al-Safa or St. Peter (Mar Petros in Assyrian Aramaic). Earlier it had the name of the two Apostles, Peter and Paul, and was inhabited by the nuns of the Sacred Hearts.
Church of St. Thomas (Mar Touma in Assyrian Aramaic): One of the oldest historical churches, named after St. Thomas the Apostle who preached the Gospel in the East, including India. The exact time of its foundation is unknown, but it was before 770 AD, since Al-Mahdi, the Abbasid Caliph, is mentioned as listening to a grievance concerning this church on his trip to Mosul.
Mar Petion Church: Mar Petion, educated by his cousin in a monastery, was martyred in 446 AD. It is the first Chaldean Catholic church in Mosul, after the union of many Assyrians with Rome in the 17th century. It dates back to the 10th century, and lies 3 m below street level. This church suffered destruction, and it has been reconstructed many times. A hall was built on one of its three parts in 1942. As a result, most of its artistic features have been severely damaged.
Ancient Tahira Church (The Immaculate): Near Bash Tapia, considered one of the most ancient churches in Mosul. No evidence helps to determine its exact area. It could be either the remnants of the church of the Upper Monastery or the ruined Mar Zena Church. Al-Tahira Church dates back to the 7th century, and it lies 3 m below street level. Reconstructed last in 1743.
Al-Tahera Church: Syriac Catholic Church completed in 1862.
Mar Hudeni Church: It was named after Mar Ahudemmeh (Hudeni) Maphrian of Tikrit who was martyred in 575 AD. Mar Hudeni is an old church of the Tikritans in Mosul. It dates back to the 10th century, lies 7 m below street level and was first reconstructed in 1970. People can get mineral water from the well in its yard. The chain, fixed in the wall, is thought to cure epileptics.
St. George's Monastery (Mar Gurguis): One of the oldest churches in Mosul, named after St. George, located to the north of Mosul, was probably built late in the 17th century. Pilgrims from different parts of the North visit it yearly in the spring, when many people also go out to its whereabouts on holiday. It is about 6 m below street level. A modern church was built over the old one in 1931, abolishing much of its archeological significance. The only monuments left are a marble door-frame decorated with a carved Estrangelo (Syriac) inscription, and two niches, which date back to the 13th or 14th century.
Mar Matte: This famous monastery is situated about east of Mosul on the top of a high mountain (Mount Maqloub). It was built by Mar Matte, a monk who fled with several other monks in 362 AD from the Monastery of Zuknin near the City of Amid (Diyarbakir) in the southern part of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and the north of Iraq during the reign of Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 AD). It has a precious library containing Syrianic scriptures.
Monastery of Mar Behnam: Also called Deir Al-Jubb (The Cistern Monastery) and built in the 12th or 13th century, it lies in the Nineveh Plain near Nimrud about southwest of Mosul. The monastery, a great fort-like building, rises next to the tomb of Mar Behnam, a prince who was killed by the Sassanians, perhaps during the 4th century AD. A legend made him a son of an Assyrian king.
St. Elijah's Monastery (Dair Mar Elia): Dating from the 6th century, it was the oldest Christian Monastery in Iraq, until its destruction by IS in January 2016.
Other Christian historical buildings:
The Roman Catholic Church (built by the Dominican Fathers in Nineveh Street in 1893)
Mar Michael
Mar Elias
Mar Oraha
Rabban Hormizd Monastery, the monastery of Notre-Dame des Semences, near the Assyrian town of Alqosh
Other sites
Bash Tapia Castle: A ruined castle rising high over the Tigris, which was one of the few remnants of Mosul's old walls until it was blown up by IS in 2015.
Qara Serai (The Black Palace): The remnants of the 13th-century palace of Sultan Badruddin Lu'lu'.
Arts
Painting
The so-called Mosul School of Painting refers to a style of miniature painting that developed in northern Iraq in the late 12th to early 13th century under the patronage of the Zangid dynasty (1127–1222). In technique and style the Mosul school was similar to the painting of the Seljuq Turks, who controlled Iraq at that time, but the Mosul artists had a sharper sense of realism based on the subject matter and degree of detail in the painting rather than on representation in three dimensions, which did not occur. Most of the Mosul iconography was Seljuq—for example, the use of figures seated cross-legged in a frontal position. Certain symbolic elements, however, such as the crescent and serpents, were derived from the classical Mesopotamian repertory.
Most Mosul paintings were manuscript illustrations—mainly scientific works, animal books, and lyric poetry. A frontispiece painting, now held in the Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, dating from a late 12th century copy of Galen's medical treatise, the Kitab al-diriyak ("Book of Antidotes"), is a good example of the earlier work of the Mosul school. It depicts four figures surrounding a central, seated figure who holds a crescent-shaped halo. The painting is in a variety of whole hues; reds, blues, greens, and gold. The Küfic lettering is blue. The total effect is best described as majestic.
Another mid-13th century frontispiece held in the Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, to another copy of the same text suggests the quality of later Mosul painting. There is realism in its depiction of the preparation of a ruler's meal and of horsemen engaged in various activities, and the painting is as many hued as that of the early Mosul school, yet it is somehow less spirited. The composition is more elaborate but less successful. By this time the Baghdad school, which combined the styles of the Syrian and early Mosul schools, had begun to dominate. With the invasion of the Mongols in the mid-13th century the Mosul school came to an end, but its achievements were influential in both the Mamluk and the Mongol schools of miniature painting.
Education
Mosul has several universities and colleges. These include the University of Mosul, which is the largest university in Mosul, Ninevah University, Al-Hadbaa University College, and the Northern Technical University.
Mosul also has multiple highschools some of which are coeducational while others are gender segregated. These include but are not limited to:
Al-Hafsah School
Al-Haj Secondary School for Girls
Kourtoba High School for Girls
Al-Mouhobeen Secondary School for Boys and Girls
Al-Mustaqbal High School for Boys
Al-Mutamaizat High School for Girls
Al-Mutamaizeen High School for Boys
Al-Resalah Al-Islamia (Al-Resalah) High School for Boys
Al-Sharqiya High School for Boys
Sport
The city has one football team capable of competing in the top-flight of Iraqi football – Mosul FC.
Al Mosul University Stadium is the home stadium to Mosul FC and can hold up to 20,000 people.
The University of Mosul contains a College of Physical Education and Sports Science which teaches undergraduate and graduate students and performs research in three scientific departments.
Notable people
Zaha Hadid, World-famous architect and first woman to win the Pritzker award. Was named "dame" by Queen Elizabeth II.
Al Jalili, Hussein Pasha, raised and led army to defend Mosul against Persian Shah Nadir Shah, 1743.
Al Jalili, Ismael, Eye doctor who discovered and researched the Jalili syndrome.
Al Jamil, Sayyar, Historian and political analyst.
Abu Al Soof, Behnam, Archeologist, anthropologist, historian and writer of Christian ancestry.
Tariq Aziz, Assyrian Deputy Prime Minister 1979–2003 (real name Michael Youkhanna) (from Tel Keppe)
Munir Bashir, Assyrian musician and famous musician in the Mideast during the 20th century
Asenath Barzani, first Jewish female rabbi
Vian Dakhil, Yazidi member of the Iraqi parliament.
Hawar Mulla Mohammed, Kurdish Iraqi soccer player for the national team
Paulos Faraj Rahho, Assyrian Chaldean Catholic Archbishop of Mosul, assassinated 2008
Taha Yassin Ramadan, Kurdish former Vice President of Iraq
Hormuzd Rassam, Assyrian Archaeologist and diplomat of the 19th century
Kathem Al Saher, Arab Iraqi pop singer, songwriter, and musician
Adnan Koucher, Iraqi scholar
Salah al-Din al-Sabbagh, Arab Iraqi Army officer
Salah Salim Ali, Norwegian Iraqi Writer and translator, author of Ibsen i Arabia.
Ignatius Gabriel I Tappouni, Assyrian Patriarch of Antioch and all east for the Syriac Catholic Church between 1929 and 1968, Church Father of the Second Vatican Council and the first Eastern Rite prelate to be raised to the College of Cardinals since the reign of Pope Pius IX
Behnam Afas, Iraqi-New Zealander author and researcher into the role of Christian scholars and missionaries
Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer, Arab Interim President of Iraq during 2004–05
Ignatius Zakka I, Assyrian Patriarch of Antioch and all east for the Syriac Orthodox Church
Mosul Eye, Mosul Eye (Arabic: عين الموصل) is a news blog created and maintained by historian and citizen journalist Omar Mohammed.
Loris Ohannes Chobanian, Armenian-American composer and professor at Baldwin Wallace University
See also
* List of places in Iraq
List of Emirs of Mosul
University of Mosul
Iraq
Nineveh Governorate
Mosul District
Assyrian homeland
Asteroid 22292 Mosul named after the city in 2018
Battle of Mosul (2016–17)
Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Mosul
Mosul Question
Nineveh Plains
References
Sources
External links
ninava-explorer
Iraq Image – Mosul Satellite Observation
Detailed map of Mosul by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, from lib.utexas.edu
Cities in Iraq
District capitals of Iraq
Populated places in Nineveh Governorate
Populated places on the Tigris River
Assyrian communities in Iraq
Turkmen communities in Iraq
Shabak communities
Historic Jewish communities in Iraq
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] |
200481
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestorian%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Nestorian (disambiguation)
|
Nestorian relates to Nestorianism, a Christological doctrine developed by Nestorius, leading to the Nestorian controversy and Nestorian Schism; it was condemned as heresy by the Council of Ephesus in 431.
"Nestorian" or "Nestorians" may also refer to:
Church of the East, originally the church in the Sassanid Empire, which once accepted the Nestorian doctrine and split off from orthodoxy at the Nestorian Schism
Assyrian Church of the East
Ancient Church of the East
"Nestorian" script or East Syriac Maḏnḥāyā, a form of the Syriac alphabet
"Nestorian" Stele in China
See also
The Nestorian controversy, part of the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries
Church of the East (disambiguation), any of several Churches that historically go back to the original Church of the East but developed doctrinal differences
|
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] |
200484
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit%20of%20measure%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Unit of measure (disambiguation)
|
Unit of measure most commonly refers to units of measurement in weights and measures.
Unit of measure may also refer to:
Unit of account, a monetary unit of measure in economics
Unit of Measure (album), a 2000 album by Tony Rice
|
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200485
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslin
|
Muslin
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Muslin () is a cotton fabric of plain weave. It is made in a wide range of weights from delicate sheers to coarse sheeting. It gets its name from the city of Mosul, in Iraq, where it was first manufactured. In the 17th and 18th centuries Dacca in Bengal was regarded as producing the finest muslins.
Early muslin was handwoven of uncommonly delicate handspun yarn. It was imported from Bengal into Europe for much of the 17th and early 18th-centuries.
History
The earliest muslin was known as Mulmul or Malmal. It was a handwoven fabric made with the finest handspun yarns. There were muslin qualities with 2425 thread count, which are questionable even with advanced technology. Some notable qualities of muslin were Mulmul khas or Kings muslin, Eksuti malmal, and Alibal malmals. The yarn count, weights and textures, thread count, origin, and particular use were the main criteria to differentiate them from each other. Muslin was one of the legendary cloths of East India. These were made with locally grown cotton called "Phuti karpas" (Gossypium arboreum var. neglecta). The cotton was grown alongside the river banks of Brahmaputra. Some notable varieties were as following. Muslin from eastern parts of ancient India was praised in the international market as "woven wind" and "wonder gossamer", and earned a great price.
In 1298 CE, Marco Polo described the cloth in his book The Travels. He said it was made in Mosul, Iraq. The 16th-century English traveller Ralph Fitch lauded the muslin he saw in Sonargaon. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Mughal Bengal emerged as the foremost muslin exporter in the world, with Mughal Dhaka as capital of the worldwide muslin trade. It became highly popular in 18th-century France and eventually spread across much of the Western world.
Manufacturing process
Since all the processes were manual, manufacturing involved many artisans for yarn spinning and weaving activities, but the leading role lay with the material and weaving.
Ginning: To removing trash and cleaning and combing the fibers and making them parallel ready for spinning a boalee (upper jaw of a catfish) was used.
Spinning and Weaving: For extra humidity they used to weave during the rainy season for elasticity in the yarns and to avoid breakages. The process was so sluggish that it could take over five months to weave one piece of muslin.
Characteristics
Thin
Muslins were originally made of cotton only. These were very thin, transparent, delicate and feather light breathable fabrics. There could be 1000-1800 yarns in warp and weigh for . Some varieties of muslin were so thin that they could even pass through the aperture of a lady finger-ring.
Transparency
Gaius Petronius Arbiter (1st century AD Roman courtier and author of the Satyricon) described the transparent nature of the muslin cloth as below:
Poetic names
Certain delicate muslins were given poetic names such as Baft Hawa ("woven air"), Shabnam ("evening dew"), and āb-i-ravān ("flowing water"). The latter name refers to a fine and transparent variety of fine muslin from Dacca. The fabric's characteristics are summed up in its name.
Types
Many of the below are mentioned in Ain-i-Akbari (16th-century detailed document)
Khasa
Tansukh
Nainsook
Chautar
Alliballi The name embraces , 'superior,' , 'good.'
Adatais, a fine and clear fabric.
Seerhand muslin was a variety in between nainsook and mull (another muslin type, a very thin and soft). The fabric was resistant to washing, retaining its clearness.
and varieties of mulmul (Mulboos khas, Jhuna, Sarkar ali, Sarbati, Tarindam) were among the most delicate cotton muslins produced in the Indian subcontinent.
Decline under Company rule
During the period of Company rule, the East India Company imported British-produced cloth into the Indian subcontinent, but became unable to compete with the local muslin industry. The Company administration initiated several policies in an attempt to suppress the muslin industry, and muslin production subsequently experienced a period of decline. It has been alleged that in some instances Indian weavers were rounded up and their thumbs chopped off, although this has been refuted by historians as an misreading of a report by William Bolts from 1772. The quality, finesse and production volume of Bengali muslin declined as a result of these policies, continuing when India transitioned from Company rule to British Crown control.
Uses
Dressmaking and sewing
When sewing clothing, a dressmaker may test the fit of a garment, using an inexpensive muslin fabric before cutting pieces from expensive fabric, thereby avoiding potential costly mistakes. These test-models are sometimes referred to as "muslins" in the United States, named for the cheap, unbleached cotton fabric available in different weights, and the process is called "making a muslin." In this context, in the United States "muslin" has become the generic term for a test or fitting garment, regardless of what it is made from.
The equivalent term in Australian and British terminology was in the middle ages Toile. This term toile meanwhile has disappeared. The term entered the English language around the 12th century.
The equivalent term in Germany these days is Nesselmodell.
Muslin is also often used as a backing or lining for quilts, and thus can often be found in wide widths in the quilting sections of fabric stores.
Cuisine
Muslin can be used as a filter:
In a funnel when decanting fine wine or port to prevent sediment from entering the decanter
To separate liquid from mush (for example, to make apple juice: wash, chop, boil, mash, then filter by pouring the mush into a muslin bag suspended over a jug)
To retain a liquidy solid (for example, in home cheese-making, when the milk has curdled to a gel, pour into a muslin bag and squash between two saucers (upside down under a brick) to squeeze out the liquid whey from the cheese curd)
Muslin is the material for the traditional cloth wrapped around a Christmas pudding.
Muslin is the fabric wrapped around the items in barmbrack, a fruitcake traditionally eaten at Halloween in Ireland.
Muslin is a filter in traditional Fijian kava production.
Beekeepers use muslin to filter melted beeswax to clean it of particles and debris.
Set design and photography
Muslin is often the cloth of choice for theatre sets. It is used to mask the background of sets and to establish the mood or feel of different scenes. It receives paint well and, if treated properly, can be made translucent.
It also holds dyes well. It is often used to create nighttime scenes because when dyed, it often gets a wavy look with the color varying slightly, such that it resembles a night sky. Muslin shrinks after it is painted or sprayed with water, which is desirable in some common techniques such as soft-covered flats.
In video production, muslin is used as a cheap greenscreen or bluescreen, either pre-colored or painted with latex paint (diluted with water). It is commonly used as a background for the chroma key technique.
Muslin is the most common backdrop material used by photographers for formal portrait backgrounds. These backdrops are usually painted, most often with an abstract mottled pattern.
In the early days of silent film-making, and until the late 1910s, movie studios did not have the elaborate lights needed to illuminate indoor sets, so most interior scenes were sets built outdoors with large pieces of muslin hanging overhead to diffuse sunlight.
Medicine
Surgeons use muslin gauze in cerebrovascular neurosurgery to wrap around aneurysms or intracranial vessels at risk for bleeding. The thought is that the gauze reinforces the artery and helps prevent rupture. It is often used for aneurysms that, due to their size or shape, cannot be microsurgically clipped or coiled.
Recognition
In 2013, the traditional art of weaving Jamdani muslin in Bangladesh was included in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. In 2020, it was given Geographical indication status as a product of Bangladesh due to efforts of the government of Bangladesh, the fourth GI-certified product after Jamdani sarees, Hilsa fish, and Khirsapat mangoes.
Revival
Muslin saree was woven in Bangladesh by a group of researchers under a government project. The research team has woven six muslin sarees in 2020. It is expecting to launch the muslin saree in the market in the next two years.
See also
Muslin trade in Bengal
Jamdani
Tanzeb
Toile
References
Further reading
Islam, Khademul. 2016. Our Story of Dhaka Muslin. AramcoWorld. Volume 67 (3). May/June 2016. Pages 26–32. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/895830331.
Woven fabrics
Folk costumes
Bengali culture
Textile arts of Bangladesh
Bangladeshi clothing
Indian clothing
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200491
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20legendary%20kings%20of%20Denmark
|
List of legendary kings of Denmark
|
The legendary kings of Denmark are the predecessors of Gorm the Old, a king who reigned ca. 930s to 950s and is the earliest reliably attested Danish ruler. Historicity of the earlier legendary kings are thus half legend and half history. The accounts of the Danish kings are confusing and contradictory, and so this presentation tries to separate the various sources from each other. Different sources sometimes mention the same kings.
Multiple sources
Many kings are mentioned by multiple sources, but are for various reasons still considered more legendary than historical kings of Denmark
Harthacnut (Hardeknud) (c. 916 – c. 936), the father of Gorm the Old according to multiple sources. The main question is whether he was king of Denmark or only king of some part of Denmark. His parentage is also disputed, as either from an unknown king Sweyn, or from either Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye or king Erik, both said to be children of Ragnar Lodbrok.
Sigtrygg Gnupasson, deposed c. 916 either by Harthacnut or a contemporary, depending on sources. Likely had base in Schleswig, but the extent of his realm is unknown. Son of Gnupa.
Gnupa (early 900s). Father of Sigtrygg. According to one source he shared power with his brother Gyrd. According to the Saga of Olaf Tryggvason, he was defeated as one of the minor border kings by Gorm when he united Denmark, though that conflicts with Gnupa's son being deposed by Gorm's father according to other sources.
Olof the Brash conquered Denmark (or part of Denmark) c. 900.
Helgi, supposedly deposed by Olaf the Brash.
Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye (Sigurd Orm-i-øje or Snogeøje) became king of Zealand and Scania according to the sagas, perhaps correctly named Sigfred and co-ruling as king of Denmark with his brother Halfdan Ragnarsson (d. 877). Mentioned by Chronicon Roskildense and Ragnarssona þáttr. Son of Ragnar Lodbrok.
Halfdan Ragnarsson (c. 871 – 877), son of Ragnar Lodbrok and older brother of Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye. Leader of the so called Great Heathen Army of the Anglo-Saxon sources, in 870 and 871. King Bagsecg joined him to become the co-leader of the Great Summer Army of 870 but Bagsecg was killed in battle with the English in January 871. Halfdan succeeded Bagsecg as king of Jutland.
Bagsecg, Danish king who came to England and was killed in 871.
Horik II, king from about 854 until about 870.
Horik I, co-ruler of Denmark from 813, the sole king of Denmark c. 828 to 854. Son of Gudfred.
Harald Klak, 812 to 813 and 819 to 827, a period of civil war with the sons of Gudfred. Nephew of an earlier Harald.
Hemming, c. 810 to c. 812. Nephew of Gudfred. Brother of Ragnvald, Håkon and Angantyr.
Gudfred (Godfred or Gøtrik), a Danish king c. 804 to 810. Said to be father of Ogier the Dane (Holger Danske); possibly the son of Sigfred.
Ragnar Lodbrok was a legendary king, allegedly flourishing before 865. He is mentioned in multiple sources, but the sources are wildly inconsistent. There is no historical record of anyone named Ragnar ruling Denmark in the 9th century. However his sons Halfdan Ragnarsson and Sigurd Snake-In-the-Eye may have become kings of Denmark, while his son Bjorn Ironside became king of Sweden and Uppsala according to various late sagas.
Sigfred, Danish king c. 770 to c. 804. Possibly the historical basis for Sigurd Hring. Reported to have assisted the Saxons against Charlemagne.
Harald Wartooth (Harald Hildetand), legendary king of Denmark, Sweden and parts of Norway, sometimes assigned to c. 715 to c. 770. Mentioned in multiple sources. According to one source his conquests reached as far as the Mediterranean. Said to be grandfather of Ragnar Lodbrok.
Ongendus was a king of the Danes, reigning c. 710, the first Danish king known from contemporary literature.
Randver, sometimes assigned to the early 700s. Son of Valdar (or Radbard) according to late sagas; fell in England.
Valdar, sometimes assigned to the early 700s. Son-in-law of Ivar Vidfamne and sub-king in Denmark according to the late sagas.
Ivar Vidfamne, sometimes assumed to have died in c. 700. The Viking sagas say that Ivar Vidfamne ruled over most of Denmark, Sweden, Saxland and even parts of England.
Rig and Scylding line
Early kings of the Rig and Scylding lines, mentioned by multiple sources
Dan mikilláti, son of Danp, brother-in-law of Domar.
Fróði mikilláti, son of Dan Mikillati
Halfdan, son of Fróði
Hroðgar (Roar), 6th century?, son of Halfdan
Halga (Helge), 6th century?, son of Halfdan
Hrólfr Kraki, son of Helga
After Hrólf Kraki no two sources give the same succession.
Adam of Bremen
Adam of Bremen mentions several kings from the 10th century preceding Gorm the Old. He claims Svend Estridson as his source. Many of these are also confirmed by other sources.
Helgi
Olof the Brash (Olav/Ole den Frøkne): mention o. 925
Gyrd and Gnupa: mention 934
Sigtrygg Gnupasson (Sigerich): c. 935, but conflicts with Harthacnut's deposition of him about 917
Harthacnut Very likely preceded Gorm the Old
Gesta Danorum
The kings from Saxo Grammaticus' chronicle Gesta Danorum ("Deeds of the Danes").
Other Danish kings include:
Hadingus
Frotho I
Haldanus I
Ro
Helgo
Rolvo Krake
Høtherus (and Balderus)
Rørikus (the grandfather of Hamlet)
Wiglecus
Wermundus
Uffo
Dan II
Huglecus
Frotho II
Dan III
Hiarnus
Fridlevus I
Frotho III
Fridlevus II
Frotho IV
Ingellus
Olavus I
Haraldus I
Frotho V
Haldanus II
Yngwin
Sywaldus I
Sygarus
Haraldus Hyldetan (Harald Wartooth)
Ringo
Olo
Omundus
Sywardus I
Iarmericus
Broderus
Sywaldus II
Snio
Biorn
Haraldus III
Gormo I
Gudfred
Olavus II
Hemmingus
Siwardus Ring
Regner Lothbrog
Siwardus III
Ericus I
Ericus II
Kanutus I
Frotho VI
Gormo II
Haraldus III
Gormo III
Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundenses
The kings from the Chronicle of Lejre.
Dan, son of Ypper (a primeval king of Sweden)
(Hadding) (only referred to)
Ro (= Haldan)
Haldanus (= Ro) in Lejre and sea-king Helghe, the sons of Ro (= Haldan)
A dog king Raki, Rachus or Saurr ruled Denmark on the order of the Swedish king Adils (or Hakon)
Snyo, son of Frosti
Rolf Kraki
Hiartwart
Haki or Aki, brother of Haghbardus and son of Hamundus
Fritleff
Frotha Largus (the Generous)
Ingyald
Olavus
Asa, queen
Haraldus Hyldetan
Hetha or Wysna, queen in Hedeby
Other manuscript have a supplementary list, following the name of Hartwar:
Wig
Aki
Hother of Saxland, son of Hodbrod and Hadding's daughter, as nearest heir.
Rorik Slengeborre or Rake
Wighlec
Wermund
Offe the Strong
Beowulf
The kings in epic poem Beowulf
Heremod, a Danish king
Scyld, a foundling who became king
Scealdwea (Scealdea), son of Heremod
Beowa, son of Scyld
Healfdene, son of Beowa
Heorogar, son of Healfdene
Hroðgar, son of Healfdene
Hroðulf, probably the son of Hroðgar's brother Halga
Gróttasöngr
The kings in the poem Gróttasöngr
Skjöldr
Friðleifr
Fróði
Skjöldunga saga (partial list)
The kings of the saga of the Scylding family.
Scioldus
Fridleifus I
Frodo I
Herleifus
Havardus
Leifus
Herleifus
Hunleifus
Aleifus
Oddleifus
Geirleifus
Gunnleifus
Frodo II
Vermundus
Dan I
Dan II
Frodo III
Fridleifus II
Frodo IV
Ingjaldus
Helgo and Roas
Rolfo Krake
Hiorvardus
Rærecus
Sögubrot
Sögubrot or Sǫgubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum Dana ok svíaveldi is an Old Icelandic saga fragment which is believed to be a part of the original Skjöldunga saga. The fragment begins in the middle of a discussion between the Scanian king Ivar Vidfamne and his daughter Auðr.
Kings of the whole of Denmark or individual Danish regions, which appear in Sögubrot
Helgi, (joint ?) king of Zealand
Hrœrekr Ringslinger (brother of Helgi), king / (co-kingship) of Zealand
Ivar Vidfamne (the father-in-law of Hrœrekr), King of Scania – later King of Denmark, Sweden, Norway and parts of several adjoining countries.
Harald Wartooth (grandson of Ivar), he became king after Ivar (possibly identical with the "former" or "senior" King Harald mentioned in connection with the royal Danish brothers Anulo and Harald in the Royal Frankish Annals)
Hring or Sigurd Hring (nephew of Harald Wartooth), at first king of Sveariket (Beowulf: Swēorice; oldest Swedish form: Swerike), later also king of Denmark (could possibly be identical with king Sigfred).
At the end of Sögubrot is mentioned Ragnar (Ragnarr) as a son of Sigurd Hring. From other known sources it must be concluded that this Ragnarr is the famous Viking king Ragnar Lodbrok.
Ynglinga saga
The kings of the saga of the Ynglinga family.
Skjöldr
...
Frið-Fróði
...
Danr hinn mikilláti
Fróði hinn mikilláti eða friðsami
Hálfdan
Friðleifr
Áli hinn frækni
...
Fróði hinn frækni
...
Helgi Hálfdanarson
Hrólfr kraki
Other sources
Chlochilaicus: 6th century killed by Theuderic I during a Viking raid in ca 516, mentioned as a Dane though that might have been be a mistake on the author's part. He is called 'Rex Getarum' (King of The Geats) in most accounts and is thought to be Hygelac, mentioned in Beowulf as the King of Geatland.
Fróði: 6th century or 7th century
Ongendus (Angantyr): mentioned early 8th century
Siger: mentioned 8th century
Sigfred (Sigfred/Sigurd): mentioned 777, d. before 804
Harold: of Norway?
Gudfred (Godfred): latest 804 – d. 810
Eystein fart (Eystein Fjært): of Västergötland?
Halfdan (Halvdan): of Norway?
Hemming: d. 811
Anulo (Anulo/Ring): d. 812
Sigfrid (Sigfred/Sigurd): d. 812
Harold: 812–813, 819-827, died in exile
Eric (Horik/Erik): 812-854
Halfdan (Halvdan) o. 812, possibly died in exile
Eric the Child (Horik/Erik Barn): 854- after 864, dead or deposed by 873
Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye (Sigurd Orm i Øje): mention 873, d. 903, do coin money by East Anglia
Halfdan (Halvdan): mention 873, d. 876/877
Guthfrith (Godred/Canute/Harde-Knud/Gudfred/Gudrød): c. 881, d. 895/896 in Northumbria, do coin money by East Anglia
Guichtlac: King of the Danes in antiquity. Cited In Book III of the Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffry of Monmouth.
For later Danish monarchs whose existence is verified, see List of Danish monarchs
See also
List of legendary kings of Sweden
List of legendary kings of Norway
References
Kings
Danish
Viking Age monarchs
|
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] |
200493
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Solitary%20Grief
|
A Solitary Grief
|
A Solitary Grief (1991) is a novel by Bernice Rubens about a Harley Street doctor who cannot cope with his own life. Increasingly alienated from his wife and daughter, he also considers himself unable to help his patients any longer and decides to start a new life together with a newly found friend. However, his hopes are again shattered, which eventually leads to catastrophe.
Plot summary
The novel opens with psychiatrist Dr Alistair Crown's wife Virginia giving birth to the couple's first child. Crown, who is not present during birth, is informed immediately afterwards that their daughter Doris has Down's syndrome, a fact he is unable to accept. For the next five years, he avoids Doris's face: He never looks at her and he refuses to be shown photos of her. His idea of being close to his daughter consists in his nocturnal visits to her bedroom when she is fast asleep: Then he gropes around under the sheets — in a harmless way, imagining what it would be like to have a normal child and envisaging the day when he will actually come face to face with her.
However, he keeps postponing that day, telling himself and his wife that he is not ready for it yet. He leaves for work early in the morning and comes home at night when his daughter is already asleep. He does not tell his parents, who live abroad, that their granddaughter is handicapped and, for years, can persuade them not to visit. Although Virginia is a devoted mother and an understanding wife, the ensuing marital crisis is unavoidable. When Doris is of preschool age, Crown actually has to lock himself in his room so as to make sure that he does not accidentally see his daughter's face. After a brief fling with a former girlfriend he moves out of the house.
His life takes a decisive turn when he meets a man who calls himself Esau. Esau, who has a very hairy body, is still suffering under his dominant father although the latter has been dead for some time. He has become a compulsive stripper, making appointments with doctors, dentists and masseurs only to perform his stripping routine in front of them and wait for their reaction. The two men strike up an asexual friendship, and Crown moves into Esau's large house. Although he realizes that Esau is in urgent need of psychiatric treatment, Crown just sees a friend in him and refuses to have any therapeutic influence on Esau. He is devastated when Esau commits suicide by hanging himself in the attic.
Now Crown's life totally gets out of control. Early one morning a few days before Doris's fifth birthday he kidnaps her from the playground of her nursery school — still without looking at her —, drives with her to Hyde Park, strangles her from behind and buries her face down under a tree in a shallow grave dug out with his bare hands. Back at his office, he is informed by his wife that Doris has gone missing. For a couple of days, the police search for the girl but then give up all hope of ever finding her alive and well. When soon afterwards her body is found, Crown has to accompany the police to the morgue to identify his daughter. This is when he comes face to face with her for the first — and last — time.
The police never solve the crime. Some time later Crown hangs himself in the garage.
1991 British novels
Novels by Bernice Rubens
Novels set in London
Sinclair-Stevenson books
|
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] |
200494
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate
|
Lactate
|
Lactate may refer to:
Lactation, the secretion of milk from the mammary glands
Lactate, the conjugate base of lactic acid
|
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200495
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Felix%20Halm
|
Karl Felix Halm
|
Karl Felix Halm (also Carl; Karl Felix Ritter von Halm after 1872; 5 April 1809 – 5 October 1882), was a German classical scholar and critic.
Life
He was born at Munich. In 1849, having held appointments at Speyer and Hadamar, he became rector of the newly founded Maximiliansgymnasium at Munich, and in 1856 director of the royal library and professor in the University of Munich. These posts he held till his death.
Works
Halm is known chiefly as the editor of Cicero and other Latin prose authors, although during his early career he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the death of J.C. Orelli, he joined J.G. Baiter in the preparation of a revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical writings of Cicero (1854–1862). His school editions of some of the speeches of Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with notes and introductions, were very successful. He also edited a number of classical texts for the Teubner series, the most important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883); Rhetores Latini minores (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus (1866); Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus De errore (1867); Salvianus (1877) and Victor Vitensis's Historia persecutionis Africanae provinciae (1878). He was also an enthusiastic collector of autographs.
References
Wilhelm von Christ and Georg von Laubmann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie
Conrad Bursian in Biographisches Jahrbuch
John Edwin Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, iii. 195 (1908).
1809 births
1882 deaths
German classical scholars
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty
German librarians
|
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200496
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Hart
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Gary Hart
|
Gary Warren Hart (né Hartpence; born November 28, 1936) is an American politician, diplomat, and lawyer. He was the front-runner for the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination until he dropped out amid revelations of extramarital affairs. He represented Colorado in the United States Senate from 1975 to 1987.
Born in Ottawa, Kansas, he pursued a legal career in Denver, Colorado, after graduating from Yale Law School. He managed Senator George McGovern's successful campaign for the 1972 Democratic presidential nomination and McGovern's unsuccessful general election campaign against President Richard Nixon. Hart defeated incumbent Republican Senator Peter Dominick in Colorado's 1974 Senate election. In the Senate, he served on the Church Committee and led the Senate investigation regarding the Three Mile Island accident. After narrowly winning re-election in 1980, he sponsored the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, becoming known as an "Atari Democrat".
Hart sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984, narrowly losing the race to former Vice President Walter Mondale. Hart declined to seek re-election to the Senate in 1986 and sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988. He was widely viewed as the front-runner until reports surfaced of an extramarital affair, and Hart withdrew from the race in May 1987. He re-entered the race in December 1987 but withdrew from the race again after faring poorly in the early primaries.
Hart returned to private practice after the 1988 election and served in a variety of public roles. He co-chaired the Hart-Rudman Task Force on Homeland Security, served on the Homeland Security Advisory Council, and was the United States Special Envoy for Northern Ireland. He earned a doctorate in politics from the University of Oxford and has written for outlets such as The Huffington Post. He has also written several books, including a biography of President James Monroe. Hart married Lee Ludwig in 1958, who died aged 85 on April 9, 2021. They had two children—John and Andrea Hart.
Early life and education
Hart was born in Ottawa, Kansas, the son of Nina (née Pritchard) and Carl Riley Hartpence, a farm equipment salesman. As a young man, he worked as a laborer on the railroad. He and his father changed their last name to "Hart" in 1961 because "Hart is a lot easier to remember than Hartpence." Raised in the Church of the Nazarene (which he ultimately left in 1968), he won a scholarship to the Church-affiliated Bethany Nazarene College (now Southern Nazarene University) in Bethany, Oklahoma, in 1954 and graduated with a B.A. in philosophy in 1958. He met his wife, Oletha "Lee" Ludwig, there, and they married in 1958. Initially intending to enter the Nazarene ministry, he received a B.D. from Yale Divinity School in 1961 before receiving an LL.B. from Yale Law School in 1964.
Career
Early legal work
Hart became an attorney for the United States Department of Justice from 1964 to 1965, and was admitted to the Colorado and District of Columbia bars in 1965. He was special assistant to the solicitor of the United States Department of the Interior from 1965 to 1967. He then entered private law practice in Denver, Colorado, at the firm of Davis Graham & Stubbs.
George McGovern's 1972 presidential campaign
Following the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, U.S. Senator George McGovern of South Dakota co-chaired a commission that revised the Democratic presidential nomination structure. The new structure weakened the influence of such old-style party bosses as Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, who were once able to hand-pick national convention delegates and dictate the way they voted. The new rules made caucuses a process in which relative newcomers could participate without paying dues to established party organizations.
In the 1972 primary elections, McGovern named Hart his national campaign director. Along with Rick Stearns, an expert on the new system, they decided on a strategy to focus on the 28 states holding caucuses instead of primary elections. They felt the nature of the caucuses made them easier (and less costly) to win if they targeted their efforts. While their primary election strategy proved successful in winning the nomination, McGovern went on to lose the 1972 presidential election in one of the most lopsided elections in U.S. history.
United States Senator
In 1974, Hart ran for the United States Senate, challenging two-term incumbent Republican Peter Dominick. Hart was aided by Colorado's trend toward Democrats during the early 1970s, as well as Dominick's continued support for the unpopular President Richard Nixon and concerns about the senator's age and health. In the general election, Hart won by a wide margin (57.2% to Dominick's 39.5%) and was immediately labeled a rising star. He got a seat on the Armed Services Committee, and was an early supporter of reforming the bidding for military contracts, as well as an advocate for the military using smaller, more mobile weapons and equipment, as opposed to the traditional large-scale items. He also served on the Environment and Public Work Committee and the Senate Intelligence Committee. From 1975 to 1976, Hart was a member of the post-Watergate Church Committee that investigated abuses by the Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Internal Revenue Service. Hart served as the chairman of Senate Subcommittee on Nuclear Regulation. He flew over the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in an Army helicopter several times with fellow Senator Alan Simpson during the nuclear accident and led the subsequent Senate investigation into the incident.
In 1980, he sought a second term. In something of a surprise, his Republican opponent was Colorado Secretary of State Mary Estill Buchanan, a moderate candidate who narrowly defeated the more conservative choice, Howard "Bo" Callaway, in the party primary, by fewer than 2,000 primary votes. Fourteen years earlier, Callaway was the Republican gubernatorial nominee in his native Georgia. Callaway in the early 1970s had bought and run an elegant resort in Crested Butte. Buchanan hit Hart hard for supporting the Panama Canal Treaties and for backing then-President Jimmy Carter in 80% of his Senate votes. Buchanan charged in a campaign ad about Hart: "He votes one way and talks another when he is back here. He is a liberal, McGovernite carpetbagger." Hart responded that Buchanan's charges reflected her narrow viewpoint and insisted that his campaign would rise above partisanship. Said Hart in a campaign ad: "I will not ignore her. We will interact and debate, but I am going to run a campaign for the 1980s. What is her plan for the environment? For national defense? For the economy? It took me a year or so to formulate my ideas." In the end, Hart won narrowly, with 50.2% of the vote to his opponent's 48.7%.
On December 2, 1981, Hart was one of only four senators to vote against an amendment to President Reagan's MX missiles proposal that would divert the silo system by $334 million as well as earmark further research for other methods that would allow giant missiles to be based. The vote was seen as a rebuff of the Reagan administration.
Hart cosponsored the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 with Senator Charles Mathias, which was signed into law. The act created a new category of intellectual property rights that makes the layouts of integrated circuits legally protected upon registration, and hence illegal to copy without permission. This protected Silicon Valley chips from cheap foreign imitations. Similar legislation had been proposed in every Congress since 1979. It led to Hart being called the leader of the "Atari Democrats".
Conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater remarked of Hart, "You can disagree with him politically, but I have never met a man who is more honest and more moral."
Like most of the Democratic party, Hart supported abortion rights.
United States Naval Reserve service
Citing the increasing likelihood of an armed conflict in the Persian Gulf and his reluctance to "stay in the Senate and authorize and appropriate funds to send young men like my son off to fight that war," Hart applied for a commission in the United States Naval Reserve's Standby Reserve Active Status List program in the late 1970s. He was over the statutory age limit of 38 and had not amassed any prior military experience; moreover, in contrast to his stated rationale, this category "would not be called up immediately in the event of a mobilization." By mutual agreement, Hart and United States Secretary of the Navy Edward Hidalgo deferred the consideration of the request until the aftermath of the 1980 election. His application contained an incorrect birth date (November 28, 1937) that he had used inconsistently on official documents for 15 years.
Following his reelection, Hart received an age waiver from Hidalgo and was commissioned as a lieutenant (junior grade) in the Judge Advocate General's Corps on December 4, 1980. The commission carried "no pay or allowances." Although Hart sought to be commissioned in the grades of lieutenant commander or commander (in keeping with contemporaries in Congress who had served in World War II and the Korean War), Navy Judge Advocate General John S. Jenkins advised Hidalgo to commission Hart at the lower rank because he "didn't bring to the program anything that was so unusual that we could recommend appointment at a higher grade." However, then-U.S. Navy Senate liaison officer John McCain (who cultivated a close friendship with Hart in that capacity, presaging his own political career) maintained in a 1984 interview that a field officer appointment would have been "appropriate." Following ten days of active duty with the United States Sixth Fleet in August 1981, Hart was promoted to lieutenant on January 1, 1982. Pundits such as Rowland Evans and Robert Novak suggested that Hart's appointment was a cynical political maneuver designed to "clear the biographical decks" for the 1984 presidential election in an era when military service was perceived as a tacit prerequisite for the presidency.
In a 2007 commentary for HuffPost, Hart asserted that his desire to "understand and communicate better with our troops" was the primary motivation for his appointment. Although he "did not routinely fulfill [his] reserve duties" and "chose not to feature this experience in subsequent campaigns," he maintained that his service "helped [him] enormously in appreciating what our military does to make us more secure."
1984 presidential campaign
In February 1983, during his second term, Hart announced his candidacy for president in the 1984 presidential election. At the time of his announcement, Hart was a little-known senator and barely received above 1 percent in the polls against better-known candidates such as Walter Mondale, John Glenn and Jesse Jackson. To counter this situation, Hart started campaigning early in New Hampshire, making a then-unprecedented canvassing tour in late September, months before the primary. This strategy attracted national media attention to his campaign, and by late 1983, he had risen moderately in the polls to the middle of the field, mostly at the expense of the sinking candidacies of Glenn and Alan Cranston. Mondale won the Iowa caucus in late January, but Hart polled a respectable 16 percent. Two weeks later, in the New Hampshire primary, he shocked much of the party establishment and the media by defeating Mondale by 10 percentage points. Hart instantly became the main challenger to Mondale for the nomination and appeared to have the momentum on his side.
Hart's media campaign was produced by Raymond Strother, a native Texan who had begun his career in Louisiana. Hart could not overcome Mondale's financial and organizational advantages, however, especially among labor union leaders in the Midwest and industrial Northeast. Hart's campaign was chronically in debt, to a final count of $4.75 million. In states like Illinois, where delegates were elected directly by primary voters, Hart often had incomplete delegate slates. Hart's ideas were criticized as too vague and centrist by many Democrats. Shortly after he became the new frontrunner, it was revealed that Hart had changed his last name, had often listed 1937 instead of 1936 as his birth date and had changed his signature several times. This, along with two separations from his wife (1979 and 1981), Lee, caused some to question Hart's "flake factor." Hart himself admitted in an interview that he was going through a midlife crisis and focused too much on his career, neglecting his family. Reporters observed that the Harts appeared distant and distracted in public. Hart was also not close to his children, often leaving his wife to raise them completely alone. He and his wife briefly dated each other casually during their second separation, which occurred for a few months in 1981. Additionally, the Harts had begun divorce proceedings but had stopped them after reconciling. Hart and his wife later stated that the separations, caused by too much time spent apart due to politics, only strengthened their marriage. The Harts would remain married until Lee's death on April 10, 2021.
The two men swapped victories in the primaries, with Hart getting exposure as a candidate with "new ideas" and Mondale rallying the party establishment to his side. The two men fought to a draw in the Super Tuesday, with Hart winning states in the West, Florida and New England. Mondale fought back and began ridiculing Hart's campaign platform. The most famous television moment of the campaign was during a debate when he mocked Hart's "new ideas" by quoting a line from a popular Wendy's television commercial at the time: "Where's the beef?" Hart's campaign could not effectively counter this remark, and when he ran negative TV commercials against Mondale in the Illinois primary, his appeal as a new kind of Democrat never entirely recovered. Hart lost the New York and Pennsylvania primaries, but won those of Ohio and Indiana.
Mondale gradually pulled away from Hart in the delegate count, but the race was not decided until June, on "Super Tuesday III". Decided that day were delegates from five states: South Dakota, New Mexico, West Virginia, California and New Jersey. The proportional nature of delegate selection meant that Mondale was likely to obtain enough delegates on that day to secure the stated support of an overall majority of delegates, and hence the nomination, no matter who actually "won" the states contested. However, Hart maintained that unpledged superdelegates that had previously claimed support for Mondale would shift to his side if he swept the Super Tuesday III primary. Once again, Hart committed a faux pas, insulting New Jersey shortly before the primary day. Campaigning in California, he remarked that while the "bad news" was that he and his wife had to campaign separately, "[T]he good news for her is that she campaigns in California while I campaign in New Jersey." Compounding the problem, when his wife interjected that she "got to hold a koala bear", Hart replied that "I won't tell you what I got to hold: samples from a toxic waste dump." While Hart won California, he lost New Jersey after leading in polls by as much as 15 points.
By the time the final primaries concluded, Mondale had a considerable lead in total delegates, though he was 40 delegates short of clinching victory. Superdelegates voted overwhelmingly for Mondale at the Democratic National Convention in San Francisco on July 16, making him the presidential nominee. Hart, already aware that the nomination was all but Mondale's after the final primaries, lobbied for the vice presidential slot on the ticket, claiming that he would do better than Mondale against President Ronald Reagan (an argument undercut by a June 1984 Gallup poll that showed both men nine points behind the president). While Hart was given serious consideration, Mondale chose Geraldine Ferraro instead. In his address to the convention, after his name was placed in nomination for president by Nebraska governor Bob Kerrey and he received a 15-minute standing ovation, Hart concluded, "Our party and our country will continue to hear from us. This is one Hart you will not leave in San Francisco."
This race for the nomination was the most recent occasion that a major party presidential nomination has gone all the way to the convention. Mondale was later defeated in a landslide by the incumbent Reagan, winning only his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. Many felt that Hart and other similar candidates, younger and more independent-minded, represented the future of the party. Hart had refused to take money from Political Action Committees (PACs), and as a result he mortgaged his house to self-finance his campaign, and was more than $1 million in debt at the end of the campaign.
1988 presidential campaign
Hart declined to run for re-election to the Senate, leaving office when his second term expired with the intent of running for president again. On December 20, 1986, Hart was allegedly followed by an anonymous private investigator from a radio station where he had given the Democratic Party's response to President Reagan's weekly radio address. That alleged investigator report claimed that Hart had been followed to a woman's house, photographed there, and left sometime the following morning. This allegation would ultimately cause him to suspend his planned presidential campaign. After Mario Cuomo announced that he would not enter the race in February 1987, Hart was the clear frontrunner for the Democratic nomination in the 1988 election.
Hart officially declared his candidacy on April 13, 1987.
When Lois Romano, a reporter for The Washington Post, asked Hart to respond to rumors spread by other campaigns that he was a "womanizer", Hart said such candidates were "not going to win that way, because you don't get to the top by tearing someone else down." The New York Post reported that comment on its front page with the headline lead in "Straight from the Hart", followed below with big, black block letters: "., and then a summary of the story: "Dem blasts rivals over sex life rumors".
In late April 1987, The Miami Herald claimed that an anonymous informant contacted the paper to relate that Hart was having an affair with a friend, claimed it was the equivalent of the Iran-Contra scandal, provided details about the affair, and told the Herald that Hart was going to meet this person at his Washington, D.C., townhouse on May 1, a Friday. As a result, a team of Herald reporters followed Donna Rice on a flight from Miami to Washington, D.C., then staked out Hart's townhouse that evening and the following day, and observed a young woman and Hart together. The Herald reporters confronted Hart on Saturday evening in an alley about his relationship with Rice. Hart replied, "I'm not involved in any relationship," and alleged that he had been set up.
The Herald published a story on May 3 that Hart had spent Friday night and most of Saturday with a young woman in his Washington, D.C. townhouse. On that same day, in an interview with E. J. Dionne that appeared in the New York Times, Hart, responding to the rumors of his womanizing, said: "Follow me around. I don't care. I'm serious. If anybody wants to put a tail on me, go ahead. They'll be very bored." At some point, the reporters for the Herald learned that the New York Times was planning to feature the quote in their article on Sunday. When the two articles appeared on the same day, a political firestorm was ignited. On Sunday, Hart's campaign denied any scandal and condemned the Heralds reporters for intrusive reporting. Hart later noted that his "follow me around" comment was not "challenging the press with a taunt", but, made in frustration, was only intended to invite the media to observe his public behavior, and never intended to invite reporters to be "skulking around in the shadows" of his home. "'He did not think of it as a challenge,' Dionne would recall many years later. 'And at the time, I did not think of it as a challenge.'" Nor did Hart's comment influence the Miami Herald to pursue the story.
The next day, Monday, the young woman was identified as Donna Rice, and she gave a press conference also denying any sexual relationship with Hart. Hart insisted that his interest in Rice was limited to her working as a campaign aide. However, as a New York Times article put it, "the facts floated on a sea of innuendo."
The scandal spread rapidly through the national media, as did another damaging story about angry creditors of the $1.3 million debt Hart had incurred in his 1984 campaign. Media questions about the affair came to dominate coverage of Hart's campaign, but his staff believed that voters were not as interested in the topic as the media was. Hart's staff believed that the media was filtering his message. A Gallup Poll conducted that week for Newsweek (but published the following week) found that 55% of Democrats believed that Hart had been truthful, and 44% of them were unconcerned about the issue. The polling of all voters was even more favorable to Hart. Nearly two-thirds (64 percent) of the respondents it surveyed thought the media treatment of Hart was "unfair", and 70% disapproved of covert surveillance by the media. A little over half (53%) responded that marital infidelity had little to do with a president's ability to govern. Time magazine had similar results: of those polled, 67% disapproved of the media writing about a candidate's sex life, and 60% stated that Hart's relationship with Rice was irrelevant to the presidency. When queried about the matter, Cuomo remarked that there were "skeletons in everybody's closet."
On May 8, 1987, a week after the story broke, Hart suspended his campaign after The Washington Post threatened to run a story about a woman Hart had dated while separated from his wife, and his wife and daughter became similar subjects of interest for tabloid journalists.
At a press conference, Hart defiantly stated, "I said that I bend, but I don't break, and believe me, I'm not broken." Hart identified the invasive media coverage, and its need to "dissect" him, as his reason for suspending his campaign, "If someone's able to throw up a smokescreen and keep it up there long enough, you can't get your message across. You can't raise the money to finance a campaign; there's too much static, and you can't communicate. Clearly, under the present circumstances, this campaign cannot go on. I refuse to submit my family and my friends and innocent people and myself to further rumors and gossip. It's simply an intolerable situation." Hart paraphrased Thomas Jefferson and warned, "I tremble for my country when I think we may, in fact, get the kind of leaders we deserve." Hart later recalled, "I watched journalists become animals, literally."
The New York Times opined that some compared Hart's press conference to Richard Nixon's "Last Press Conference" of November 7, 1962, in which Nixon blamed the media for his loss in the 1962 California gubernatorial election and did not take responsibility for his own actions. Hart, in fact, received a letter from Nixon himself commending him for "handling a very difficult situation uncommonly well". The unprecedented nature of the investigation and reporting on Hart's personal life was widely noted and reported at the time; The New York Times said the situation "will certainly provoke a needed debate on his contention that the system has gone out of control."
Having withdrawn from the presidential race, Hart left for Ireland to spend time away from the media with his son. He rented a cottage in Oughterard, though he remained in contact with key members of his team. What news did filter out was that he was not excluding a return to the race. The New York Times also pointed to his odd ambivalence toward the presidency even before being caught by "the system": "Only half of me wants to be President. [...] The other half wants to go write novels in Ireland. But the 50 percent that wants to be President is better than 100 percent of the others."
His campaign chairwoman, Colorado congresswoman Patricia Schroeder, jumped into the race following Hart's withdrawal, but soon after withdrew herself at an emotional press conference on September 28, 1987.
In December 1987, Hart returned to the race, declaring on the steps of New Hampshire Statehouse, "Let's let the people decide!" Hart said that the other candidates did not represent his new ideas of strategic investment economics, military reform and "enlightened engagement in foreign policy." Hart warned, "We could lose more young Americans unnecessarily in the Persian Gulf." He initially rose to the top of the polls nationally, and second behind Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis in New Hampshire, but was soon confronted with more negative stories about prior debts from his 1984 campaign. He competed in the New Hampshire primary and received 4,888 votes, about 4 percent. After the Super Tuesday contests on March 8, in which he won no more than 5 percent of the vote, Hart withdrew from the campaign a second time. Eventual Democratic nominee Michael Dukakis lost the 1988 United States presidential election by a substantial margin in both the popular and electoral vote, by margins unequaled since, winning in only 10 of 50 states.
A Miami Herald editor who participated in the paper's initial Hart scandal stories disputed the possibility of a conspiracy theory involving Lee Atwater as published in The Atlantic.
Later career
After his Senate service and presidential races, Hart resumed his law practice. He remained moderately active in public policy matters, serving on the bipartisan US Commission on National Security/21st Century, also known as the Hart–Rudman Commission, commissioned on behalf of Bill Clinton in 1998 to study U.S. homeland security. The commission issued several findings calling for broad changes to security policy, but none were implemented until after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. He earned a D.Phil. in politics from the University of Oxford in 2001 with a dissertation entitled The Restoration of the Republic; while at Oxford, he was a member of St Antony's College.
Hart gave a speech before the American international law firm Coudert Brothers on September 4, 2001, exactly one week before the September 11 attacks, warning that within the next 25 years a terrorist attack would lead to mass deaths in the United States. Hart met with aviation executives in Montreal, Canada, on September 5, 2001, to warn of terrorist attacks. The Montreal Gazette reported the story the following day with a headline, "Thousands Will Die, Ex-Presidential Hopeful Says." On September 6, 2001, Hart met with National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice to urge, "You must move more quickly on homeland security. An attack is going to happen." In a subsequent interview with Salon.com, Hart accused President George W. Bush and other administration officials of ignoring his warnings.
In late 2002, urged by former Oxford classmates, Hart began testing the waters for another run for the presidency, launching a website at GaryHartNews.com and a related speaking tour to gauge reactions from the public. He started his own blog in the spring of 2003, the first prospective presidential candidate to do so. After a few months of speaking, Hart decided not to run for president and instead endorsed Democrat John Kerry. According to an October 23, 2004 National Journal article and later reports in The Washington Post, Hart was mentioned as a probable Cabinet appointment if Kerry won the presidency. He was considered a top candidate for either Director of National Intelligence, Secretary of Homeland Security or Secretary of Defense.
Since May 2005, he has been a contributing blogger at HuffPost. He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. Hart also sits on the Advisory Board of Operation USA, a Los Angeles-based international relief and development agency. It was announced in January 2006 that Hart will hold an endowed professorship at the University of Colorado. He is the author of James Monroe, part of the Times Books series on American presidents published in October 2005. Hart is an Honorary Fellow of the Literary & Historical Society of University College Dublin. He is an Advisory Board member for the Partnership for a Secure America, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to recreating the bipartisan center in American national security and foreign policy. He is also a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One.
In September 2007, The Huffington Post published Hart's letter, "Unsolicited Advice to the Government of Iran", in which he stated that "Provocation is no longer required to take America to war" and warns Iran that "for the next sixteen months or so, you should not only not take provocative actions, you should not seem to be doing so." He went on to suggest that the Bush-Cheney administration was waiting for an opportunity to attack Iran, writing: "Don't give a certain vice president we know the justification he is seeking to attack your country."
Hart linked American energy policy with national security in an essay published in November 2007. Hart wrote, "In fact, we do have an energy policy: It's to continue to import more than half our oil and sacrifice American lives so we can drive our Humvees. This is our current policy, and it is massively immoral." Hart currently sits on the board of directors for the Energy Literacy Advocates. He founded the American Security Project in 2007 and he started a new blog in 2009.
Since retiring from the Senate, he has emerged as a consultant on national security, and continues to speak on a wide range of issues, including the environment and homeland security. In 2006, Hart accepted an endowed professorship at the University of Colorado at Denver. He has been a visiting lecturer at Oxford University, Yale University, and the University of California. He is Chair of the U.S. State Department's International Security Advisory Council, Chair of the U.S. Defense Department's Threat Advisory Council, and Chair of the American Security Project. He was Vice-Chair of the Advisory Council for the U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security, Co-Chair of the U.S.-Russia Commission, Chairman of the Council for a Livable World, and President of Global Green, the U.S. affiliate of Mikhail Gorbachev's environmental foundation. Most notably, he was Co-Chair of the U.S. Commission on National Security for the 21st Century, known as the Hart-Rudman Commission, which predicted terrorist attacks on America before 9/11.
He has written or co-authored numerous books and articles, including five novels.
U.S. Special Envoy for Northern Ireland
In October 2014, President Barack Obama and Secretary of State John Kerry named Hart as the new United States Special Envoy for Northern Ireland. Hart is the second former U.S. Senator to hold the post. The first was George Mitchell, former seat-mate and former Majority Leader of the United States Senate, who served from 1995 to 2001. In a statement, Kerry called Hart "a longtime friend" and said he was "a problem-solver, a brilliant analyst, and someone capable of thinking at once tactically, strategically, and practically."
Publications
Nonfiction
The Republic of Conscience (Blue Rider Press, 2016);
The Thunder and the Sunshine: Four Seasons in a Burnished Life (Fulcrum Publishing, 2010);
Under The Eagle's Wing: A National Security Strategy of the United States for 2009 (Speaker's Corner, 2008);
The Courage of Our Convictions: A Manifesto for Democrats (Times Books/Henry Holt, 2006);
The Shield and The Cloak: The Security of the Commons (Oxford University Press, 2006);
God and Caesar in America: An Essay on Religion and Politics (Fulcrum Books, 2005);
James Monroe (in the American Presidency series edited by Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.; Times Books/Henry Holt, 2005);
The Fourth Power: A New Grand Strategy for the United States in the 21st Century (Oxford University Press, 2004);
Restoration of the Republic: The Jeffersonian Ideal in 21st Century America (Oxford University dissertation, 2002);
The Minuteman: Restoring an Army of the People (Free Press, 1998);
The Patriot: An Exhortation to Liberate America from the Barbarians (Free Press, 1996);
The Good Fight: The Education of an American Reformer (New York Times Notable Book; Random House, 1993);
Russia Shakes the World: The Second Russian Revolution (HarperCollins, 1991);
America Can Win: The Case for Military Reform (Adler and Adler, 1986);
A New Democracy: A Democratic Vision for the 1980s and Beyond (William Morrow, 1983);
Right from the Start: A Chronicle of the McGovern Campaign (Quadrangle, 1973);
Novels
Durango (Fulcrum Publishing, 2012)
I, Che Guevara (as John Blackthorn; William Morrow, 2000)
Sins of the Fathers (as John Blackthorn; William Morrow, 1998)
The Strategies of Zeus (William Morrow, 1987)
The Double Man (with William Cohen; William Morrow, 1985)
In January 2000, Hart revealed that he is the political thriller writer John Blackthorn, whose books include Sins of the Fathers and I, Che Guevara.
Electoral history
Colorado United States Senate election, 1974 (Democratic primary):
Gary Hart – 81,161 (39.92%)
Herrick S. Roth – 66,819 (32.86%)
Martin P. Miller – 55,339 (27.22%)
Colorado United States Senate election, 1974
Gary Hart (D) – 471,688 (57.23%)
Peter H. Dominick (R) (inc.) – 325,526 (39.50%)
John McCandish King (I) – 16,131 (1.96%)
Joseph Fred Hyskell (Prohibition) – 8,404 (1.02%)
Henry John Olshaw (Independent American) – 2,394 (0.29%)
Colorado United States Senate election, 1980:
Gary Hart (D) (inc.) – 590,501 (50.34%)
Mary Estill Buchanan (R) – 571,295 (48.70%)
Earl Higgerson (Prohibition) – 7,265 (0.62%)
Henry John Olshaw (I) – 4,081 (0.35%)
1984 Democratic presidential primaries:
Walter Mondale – 6,952,912 (38.32%)
Gary Hart – 6,504,842 (35.85%)
Jesse Jackson – 3,282,431 (18.09%)
John Glenn – 617,909 (3.41%)
George McGovern – 334,801 (1.85%)
Unpledged delegates – 146,212 (0.81%)
Lyndon LaRouche – 123,649 (0.68%)
Reubin O'Donovan Askew – 52,759 (0.29%)
Alan Cranston – 51,437 (0.28%)
Ernest Hollings – 33,684 (0.19%)
1984 Democratic National Convention:
Walter Mondale – 2,191 (56.41%)
Gary Hart – 1,201 (30.92%)
Jesse Jackson – 466 (12.00%)
Thomas Eagleton – 18 (0.46%)
George McGovern – 4 (0.10%)
John Glenn – 2 (0.05%)
Joe Biden – 1 (0.03%)
Martha Kirkland – 1 (0.03%)
1988 Democratic presidential primaries:
Michael Dukakis – 9,898,750 (42.47%)
Jesse Jackson – 6,788,991 (29.13%)
Al Gore – 3,185,806 (13.67%)
Dick Gephardt – 1,399,041 (6.00%)
Paul M. Simon – 1,082,960 (4.65%)
Gary Hart – 415,716 (1.78%)
Unpledged delegates – 250,307 (1.07%)
Bruce Babbitt – 77,780 (0.33%)
Lyndon LaRouche – 70,938 (0.30%)
David Duke – 45,289 (0.19%)
James Traficant – 30,879 (0.13%)
Douglas Applegate – 25,068 (0.11%)
1988 Democratic National Convention:
Michael Dukakis – 2,877 (70.09%)
Jesse Jackson – 1,219 (29.70%)
Richard Stallings – 3 (0.07%)
Joe Biden – 2 (0.05%)
Dick Gephardt – 2 (0.05%)
Lloyd Bentsen – 1 (0.02%)
Gary Hart – 1 (0.02%)
In popular culture
At a 2015 concert in Denver, Bono of U2 recognized Hart for his work in the Irish peace process: "And tonight, in the room, I want to thank Gary Hart for his work in bringing peace to our country in Ireland. You worked hard on it, sir."
In the final chapter of Stephen King's Dark Tower series, The Dark Tower, the character Susannah Dean travels to an alternate 1980s America where Hart is president.
Hart appeared as himself on a May 1986 episode of Cheers (episode 425; "Strange Bedfellows, Part 2").
Chilean folk-rock band Sexual Democracia's song "Don't Cry, Gary Hart", a cueca sung in English, appears on their album Buscando Chilenos 2 (1992).
Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young released a video satirizing the events of the Miami Heralds stake-out of Hart's home, and other events of 1987, in American Dream (Neil Young, 1988).
In his novel Then Everything Changed, author Jeff Greenfield creates an alternate history in which Hart defeats Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election, following Gerald Ford's victory in the 1976 Election.
Hart is mentioned in the Jeffrey Archer book First Among Equals.
The "womanizer" scandal involving Donna Rice is the topic of an episode of the RadioLab podcast (January 29, 2016).
Hart is portrayed by Hugh Jackman in the 2018 film The Front Runner, which focuses on his 1987 scandals.
In a November 1987 episode of The Golden Girls, "Brotherly Love" (S3/E8), Dorothy's ex-brother-in-law, Ted, asks Rose what she does for a living. Dorothy cuts into their conversation and quips, "Gary Hart's Campaign Manager."
The February 7, 2019, episode of the You're Wrong About podcast discussed Hart.
See also
Atari Democrat
Buie Seawell
List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
External links
Source material: Biographical Database of the U.S. Congress: HART, Gary Warren, 1936–
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1936 births
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
Alumni of St Antony's College, Oxford
American campaign managers
American male non-fiction writers
American male novelists
American political writers
Candidates in the 1984 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1988 United States presidential election
Colorado Democrats
Colorado lawyers
Democratic Party United States senators
HuffPost writers and columnists
Living people
Novelists from Colorado
People from Ottawa, Kansas
Southern Nazarene University alumni
United States Department of Justice officials
United States Department of the Interior officials
United States senators from Colorado
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University of Colorado Denver faculty
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Yale Divinity School alumni
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200497
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20pounds%20%28British%20coin%29
|
Five pounds (British coin)
|
The British five pound (£5) coin is a commemorative denomination of the pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s introduction in 1990. Two different portraits of the Queen have graced the coin, with the latest design by Ian Rank-Broadley being introduced in 1998. The coin has no standard reverse; instead it is altered each year to commemorate important events. Variant obverses have also been used on occasion.
The coin is a continuation of the crown, which after decimalisation became the commemorative twenty-five pence coin. The twenty-five pence was discontinued in 1981 after creating a large coin with such small value became prohibitively expensive. The five pound coin shares the same dimensions as the twenty-five pence coin, and the five shilling coin before it, but has a value twenty times greater.
Five pound coins are legal tender but are intended as souvenirs and are rarely seen in circulation. The coins are sold by the Royal Mint at face value and also, with presentation folders, at a premium to that face value. The 2010 coins, with such folders, were sold for £9.95 each. As of 2020 the coin and folder cost £13.
Separate five pound coin designs have also been released in various British crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories. These are outside of the scope of this article and are not listed below.
Design
The designs which have appeared on the five pound coin's reverse are summarised in the table below, they can now be spent at the shops since 16 November 2015 as it started to circulate again.
C = Circulating
Coin Sets
Additionally, the Royal Mint have released a number of five pound coin sets in silver proof quality.
2012 Olympics Set
A series of 18 commemorative £5 coins were issued to celebrate the London 2012 Olympics.
Mind Stonehenge
Mind Big Ben
Mind Angel of the North
Mind Flying Scotsman
Mind The Globe Theatre
Mind Sir Isaac Newton
Body Giant's Causeway
Body The Great British Oak
Body River Thames
Body Weather
Body British Fauna
Body The Coastline of Britain
Spirit Courage
Spirit Pageantry
Spirit Unity
Spirit Music
Spirit Humour
Spirit Tolerance
Queen's Portrait Set
Four proof coins were released as part of the 2013 Queen's Portrait set. These coins feature the four portraits of Elizabeth II that appear on British coins.
The Portrait of Britain Set
Sixteen silver proof coins have been released as part of the 'Portrait of Britain' set.
2015 Big Ben (Elizabeth Tower)
2015 Tower Bridge
2015 Trafalgar Square
2015 Buckingham Palace
2016 White Cliffs of Dover
2016 Giant's Causeway
2016 Lake District
2016 Snowdonia
2017 Westminster Abbey
2017 Hampton Court Palace
2017 Downing Street
2017 Edinburgh Castle
2018 Blackpool
2018 Brighton
2018 Tenby
2018 Southwold
The First World War Set
A series of silver proof coins have been released as part of the 'First World War' set. 36 coins were released as part of this series.
2014 - British Expeditionary Force
2014 - Royal Navy Coin
2014 - Home Front Coin
2014 - Walter Tull
2014 - Propaganda
2014 - Howitzer Gun
2015 - Albert Ball VC
2015 - Animals at War
2015 - Submarines
2015 - Edith Cavell
2015 - Merchant Navy
2015 - Gallipoli
2016 - Poetry and Language
2016 - The Somme
2016 - Jutland
2016 - Jack Cornell VC
2016 - The Army
2016 - Dreadnought
2017 - Noel Godfrey Chavasse VC
2017 - The dedication of the medical services
2017 - The cultural importance of the war artist
2017 - The Sopwith Camel
2017 - Gas warfare
2017 - The Battle of Arras
2018 - TE Lawrence
2018 - Ypres
2018 - Tanks
2018 - Royal Air force
2018 - Women in factories
2018 - Widows left behind
2018 - Remembrance Day
2018 - War Memorials
2018 - Poppies
2018 - Imperial War Museums
2018 - Commonwealth War Graves
2018 - Peace
Criticism
While the coins being stopped on 16 January 2020 (because of COVID-19) , the number of commemorative £5 coins has been criticised in some quarters. Christopher Henry Perkins characterises the coins as being released at an "alarming rate". Perkins notes that "during the entire 100 year period 1900-1999 there were twenty-seven crowns issued. In 2017 alone, there were 19!"
References
External links
Royal Mint blog – Are £5 coins legal tender?
Royal Mint – £5 coin
Crown (Five Pounds), Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club
Coins of the United Kingdom
Five-base-unit coins
|
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200499
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Caspar%20von%20Orelli
|
Johann Caspar von Orelli
|
Johann Caspar von Orelli (13 February 1787 – 6 January 1849), was a Swiss classical scholar.
He was born at Zürich of a distinguished Italian family which had taken refuge in Switzerland at the time of the Protestant Reformation. His cousin, Johann Conrad Orelli (1770–1826), was the author of several works in the department of later Greek literature.
From 1807 to 1814 Orelli worked as preacher in the reformed community of Bergamo, where he acquired the taste for Italian literature which led to the publication of Contributions to the History of Italian Poetry (1810) and a biography (1812) of Vittorino da Feltre, his ideal of a teacher.
In 1814 he became teacher of modern languages and history at the cantonal school at Chur; in 1819, professor of eloquence and hermeneutics at the Carolinum, Zürich, and in 1833 professor at the new University of Zürich, the foundation of which was largely due to his efforts. His attention during this period was mainly devoted to classical literature and antiquities. He had already published (1814) an edition, with critical notes and commentary, of the Antidosis of Isocrates, the complete text of which, based upon the manuscripts in the Ambrosian and Laurentian libraries, had been made known by Andreas Mustoxydis of Corfu.
The three works upon which his reputation rests are the following:
A complete edition of Cicero in seven volumes (1826–1838). The first four volumes contained the text (new ed., 1845–1863), the fifth the old Scholiasts, the remaining three (called Onomasticon Tullianum) a life of Cicero, a bibliography of previous editions, indexes of geographical and historical names, of laws and legal formulae, of Greek words, and the consular annals. After his death, the revised edition of the text was completed by J.G. Baiter and K. Halm, and contained numerous emendations by Theodor Mommsen and J.N. Madvig.
The works of Horace (1837–1838). The exegetical commentary, although confessedly only a compilation from the works of earlier commentators, shows great taste and extensive learning, although hardly up to the exacting standard of modern criticism.
Inscriptionum Latinarum Selectarum Collectio (1828; revised edition by Wilhelm Henzen, 1856), extremely helpful for the study of Roman public and private life and religion. His editions of Plato (1839–1841, including the old scholia, in collaboration with A. W. Winckelmann) and Tacitus (1846–1848) also deserve mention.
He was a most liberal-minded man, both in politics and religion, an enthusiastic supporter of popular education and a most inspiring teacher. He took great interest in the struggle of the Greeks for independence, and strongly favoured the appointment of the notorious David Strauss to the chair of dogmatic theology at Zürich, which led to the disturbance of September 6, 1839 and the fall of the liberal government.
In 1832 he became a third class corresponding member, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.
References
Life by his younger brother Conrad in Neujahrsblatt der Stadtbibliothek Zürich (1851)
Jacques Adert, Essai sur la Vie el les Travaux de J.C.O. (Geneva, 1849)
Heinrich Schweizer-Sidler, Gedächtnissrede auf J.C.O. (Zürich, 1874)
Conrad Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883).
1787 births
1849 deaths
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
People from Zürich
People associated with the University of Zurich
Swiss classical scholars
|
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200500
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Adventures%20of%20Brisco%20County%2C%20Jr.
|
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.
|
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., often referred to as just Brisco or Brisco County, is an American weird western television series created by Jeffrey Boam and Carlton Cuse. It ran for 27 episodes on the Fox network starting in the 1993–94 season. Set in the American West of 1893, the series follows its title character, a Harvard-educated lawyer-turned-bounty hunter hired by a group of wealthy industrialists to track and capture outlaw John Bly and his gang. Bruce Campbell plays Brisco, who is joined by a colorful group of supporting characters, including Julius Carry as fellow bounty hunter Lord Bowler and Christian Clemenson as stick-in-the-mud lawyer Socrates Poole.
While ostensibly a Western, the series routinely includes elements of the science fiction and steampunk genres. Humor is a large part of the show; the writers attempted to keep the jokes and situations "just under over-the-top". A large number of episodes involve the Orb, a powerful device from the future. John Astin plays Professor Wickwire, an inventor who assists Brisco with anachronistic technology including diving suits, motorcycles, rockets, and airships. The search for new technology and progressive ideas, what the writers of the show called "The Coming Thing", is a central theme throughout the series.
Brisco was developed by Boam and Cuse at the request of Fox executive Bob Greenblatt. Impressed by the duo's work on the script for the 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Greenblatt suggested they develop a series that bore the tone and style of vintage movie serials. The initial ideas and proposals from the show's writers were more often suited for film than television and had to be scaled down. Brisco was one of the last television shows to be filmed on the Warner Bros. Western backlot. Randy Edelman composed the distinctive theme music, which has been reused by NBC during its coverage of the Olympic Games.
During its broadcast run, The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr. garnered a small but dedicated following and was well received by critics. The series earned high ratings at the beginning of its season, but later episodes failed to attract a substantial number of viewers. Fox canceled the show at the end of its first and only season. In 2006, Warner Home Video released a DVD set containing all 27 episodes. The series has been remembered fondly by critics, who praise its humor and unique blend of genres.
Plot
Background
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., is set in a fictional American Old West of 1893. Robber barons control the financial and industrial interests of the West from the boardrooms of San Francisco's Westerfield Club. The famous U.S. Marshal Brisco County, Sr. (R. Lee Ermey) has apprehended a gang of outlaws and its leader, the notorious John Bly (Billy Drago). While transporting them to stand trial, County is murdered and the gang escapes. Meanwhile, in a nearby mine, a group of shackled Chinese workers unearths "The Orb", a large golden globe studded with rods. A worker draws one of the rods from out of the Orb, then touches several of his co-workers with it. As each worker is touched with the rod he is imbued with superhuman strength which they use to break the iron chains binding them, thus freeing themselves. The murder of Brisco County, Sr., and the discovery of the Orb set into motion the major plots of the series.
Synopsis
Members of the Westerfield Club hire Brisco County, Jr. (Bruce Campbell), the son of the slain U.S. Marshal, to track and re-capture Bly and his gang. The Westerfield Club's timid lawyer, Socrates Poole (Christian Clemenson) relays instructions and financial support to Brisco. Another bounty hunter, Lord Bowler (Julius Carry), who is known for his expert tracking skills, also hopes to capture Bly. Bitter over the elder County's fame, Bowler treats Brisco as a rival. The two men often find themselves reluctantly joining forces to achieve a common goal. Later in the series, Brisco and Bowler work together as partners and friends.
In the pilot episode, Brisco tracks John Bly's second-in-command, Big Smith (M. C. Gainey). In a battle on a train car, Brisco knocks Smith off the train and into a river; he is assumed dead until he reappears later in the series. Brisco, Bowler and Socrates hunt the rest of Bly's gang in subsequent episodes. All ten of the gang members are captured or killed, and Brisco's pursuit of Bly, who is seeking the Orb for its supernatural power, frequently puts him into contact with the object. Each encounter with the Orb reveals a fantastic effect on people who use it. In the episode "The Orb Scholar", Bly shoots Brisco and leaves him to die. Professor Ogden Coles (Brandon Maggart), a scientist who studies the Orb, heals Brisco with the device. In the episode "Bye Bly", it is revealed that Bly is a fugitive from the distant future who has traveled to 1893 to steal the Orb. Bly plans to use the Orb to travel back to his time and rule the world. Instead, Brisco uses the Orb to travel through time to save Bowler's life. Brisco eventually kills Bly by stabbing him with a rod from the Orb, causing Bly to disintegrate into a pile of ashes. Series creator and executive producer Carlton Cuse said that the Orb represents faith and that depending on the intentions of those who use it, the object rewards or punishes them accordingly.
The pilot episode introduces several characters who make recurring appearances throughout the series. Big Smith's moll Dixie Cousins (Kelly Rutherford) is a saloon singer and con artist who has a brief romantic encounter with Brisco. In later episodes, Dixie becomes Brisco's primary love interest. In his first mission, Brisco also meets Professor Albert Wickwire (John Astin), an eccentric scientist who returns to help many times during the series. Wickwire's ideas and inventions play into Brisco's interest in technology and the future, something Brisco calls "The Coming Thing". Pete Hutter (John Pyper-Ferguson) is a hapless mercenary working for Bly. He has a compulsive attachment to his "piece" (pistol), and given any opportunity will pontificate about topics such as art and philosophy. Pete appears throughout the series as a comic foil to trade barbs with the heroes. He appears to be killed three times during the series, but returns each time with a comic excuse for why he didn't die. The second half of the series includes many episodes with Whip Morgan (Jeff Phillips), a young cardsharp whose attempts to assist Brisco and Bowler often end up causing trouble.
Signature show elements
The show features classic Western motifs such as train robberies and gunfighter showdowns, in combination with atypical elements. Much of the series is devoted to the science fiction plot surrounding the Orb, and it is this mix of the Western genre with fantasy that has helped Brisco maintain its cult status. In almost every episode, the characters discover or are confronted by what is, for the time, fantastic technology. In the pilot episode, Brisco and Professor Wickwire modify a rocket to run on train tracks. In the episode "Brisco For the Defense", Brisco uses a slide projector to show a trial jury fingerprint evidence. Professor Wickwire returns many times in the series to assist with technology, including tinkering with motorcycles and rescuing the heroes with a helium-filled zeppelin. Campbell told Starlog magazine, "It's kind of Jules Verne meets The Wild Wild West." The presence of futuristic technology in a Victorian era Western places the series in the steampunk genre; it is one of the few such shows to have aired on prime-time television. At least one-third of the show's episodes contain steampunk or Weird West elements. Though "technology-out-of-time" frequently intrudes into the plots of Brisco, the fantastic machines or methods rarely appear again. Some of these out-of-time technologies were archaic renderings of those prevalent in the 20th century, and two film researchers, Cynthia Miller and A. Bowdoin Van Riper, suggest that followers of the show may be puzzled that such inventions, so useful in their own lives, are not exploited further.
According to Cuse, the show was purposely set in 1893, exactly 100 years before the series premiered in 1993. Brisco is meant to be aware of the imminent changes in society and technology and actively looks for them. The writers of the show, and also the character of Brisco, refer to this concept as "The Coming Thing". Elaborating on this theme, Campbell said, "Basically this show is about the turn of the century, when the Old West met the Industrial Era. Cowboys still chew tobacco and ride the range and states are still territories, but over the horizon is the onset of electricity, the first autos and telephones. Brisco is in the middle of a transition from the past to the future." The collision of cowboy characters with puzzling technology and other anachronisms generates humor throughout the series. The writers made it a point to insert scenes mirroring the pop culture of the 20th century, from the apparent invention of the term "UFO" in the pilot episode to the appearance of a sheriff who looks and acts like Elvis Presley. Speaking about the humor of the show, Campbell said, "I would say 30 percent of each episode is being played for laughs. But it's not a winking at the camera, Airplane-type of humor. We're funny like Indiana Jones is funny; the laughs come primarily from the wide variety of ridiculous, colorful characters that come in and out of this series."
Cast
Main
Bruce Campbell as Briscoe County, Jr.: Campbell went through five auditions for the role of Brisco before he was hired. In his first audition with the casting director, Campbell spontaneously did a standing flip. The stunt impressed the casting director so much that during each subsequent audition, Campbell was asked to do the flip again. In his final audition, Campbell assured the network executives that if hired for the role, he would work hard to make the show a success. In an interview, Campbell said, "It's every actor's dream to play a cowboy, so when this opportunity came up, I mean, yeah, where do I sign?" He added that working on Brisco provided him with acting opportunities he would not have otherwise had. Cuse said getting Campbell "was just one of those collisions between an actor and a script that was just perfect ... I can't imagine Brisco having ever existed without him." Writing in Auxiliary Magazine, Luke Copping claimed that Brisco was Campbell's "last great" role before the actor fell into "a period of self-parody and overt camp that he did not redeem himself from until joining the cast of Burn Notice".
Julius Carry as Lord Bowler: Carry saw great potential in the character of Bowler. He had researched black cowboys for a project in college and used that knowledge in his portrayal of Bowler. Carry said that Bowler was similar to the real-life black deputy U.S. Marshal Bass Reeves, in that "Reeves always got his man and would often pull off incredible tricks to bring people in." Carry knew Clemenson from the time they worked together on the Western television pilot Independence. He had no knowledge of Campbell, but approved of the choice for the leading man after watching Army of Darkness. He later told Starlog, "I saw that he would be very good with the physical stuff and that he could deliver a one-liner. I knew the situation would be good." The original direction for Bowler was to have him constantly oppose Brisco, but as the series progressed the writers saw the good-natured chemistry between the actors and decided to make Brisco and Bowler a team. Bowler's race was never an issue in the show. According to Cary Darling, a television critic, this attitude is different from serious Westerns and "may hew more to the truth than one might think". He said historians have noted that black cowboys were common and that conflicts with white cowboys were rare.
Christian Clemenson as Socrates Poole: Clemenson went to Harvard with Cuse but still went through the normal audition channels to get the part of Poole. Clemenson was apprehensive about pursuing one of the lead roles in a television show because of the long time commitments involved. He later said, "The similarities between this show and The Wild Wild West, and my character to that show's Artemus Gordon, was an important hook for me. It was one of my favorite shows growing up, and as soon as I saw that Brisco County was based on the same kind of material and attitude as that show, I called my agent and said, 'I'll do anything I have to do to get this. Clemenson applied his experiences at Ivy League schools to play the uptight Poole. Praising Clemenson's work on Brisco, Cuse said, "You can't give him anything he's not capable of doing. He adds the voice of intelligence and caution to balance our cast".
Recurring
Kelly Rutherford as Dixie Cousins: Rutherford's portrayal of Dixie Cousins, with her emphasis on innuendo and subtext, has been described as "less Miss Kitty (Gunsmoke) than Mae West". Rutherford said that playing Dixie allowed her to fulfill her "fantasy of being Madeline Kahn in Blazing Saddles".
John Astin as Professor Albert Wickwire: When Astin was cast, he was best known for his portrayal of Gomez Addams in The Addams Family. Cuse said that he and the writers enjoyed paying homage to the television star of their childhoods: "For us, it was like, 'Oh wow, we get to meet John Astin in the guise of employing him on this show!
Production
Conception and development
In 1989, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade was released in the cinemas. It was a commercial success, earning its producers US$115 million from domestic screenings. The action-packed story, unfolding in a manner reminiscent of Saturday matinee movie serials, about the adventures of an archaeologist was written by Jeffrey Boam, with development and story help from Carlton Cuse; this film was their third collaboration, after Lethal Weapon 2 and 3. According to Cuse, Bob Greenblatt, an executive at Fox Broadcasting Company, engaged him and Boam to develop a television series "because of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". Greenblatt wanted a show that had a style similar to the Indiana Jones movies. Cuse started watching old serials and noticed that many fell into two genres: Westerns and science fiction. This gave Boam and Cuse the idea to combine the genres. They decided to emulate the serials' style; for example, each act within an episode begins with a title, usually a pun, and ends with a cliffhanger.
Boam and Cuse did not intend for the series to be historically accurate. Their aim was to create an action-adventure with a modern feel. Cuse told USA Today, "We're not approaching this show as if we were doing a period piece. We see it as a contemporary program. Our characters just happen to be living in the West with 1990s sensibilities. The Indiana Jones movies were period pieces too, but you never thought of them that way." Anachronisms and pop culture references were intentionally inserted into the series. The show was intended to be family friendly, so violence was minimized in favor of having Brisco think his way out of dangerous situations. Boam said, "In the two-hour pilot Brisco doesn't even once have to shoot his gun. Our violence is cartoonish. There is no pain and suffering." Bruce Campbell was prominently featured in advertisements, billboards, and even a trailer shown in movie theaters. When the series was being promoted in the summer of 1993, Fox Entertainment chief Sandy Grushow said that if Campbell "isn't the next big television star, I'll eat my desk".
Writing
Cuse served as show runner and head writer. Boam, who served as executive producer, also contributed scripts for the show. The writing staff included John Wirth, Brad Kern, Tom Chehak, David Simkins, and John McNamara. They followed Cuse's informal instruction that the tone of the show remain "just under over-the-top": the series would be humorous but not too campy. Every member of the staff participated in breaking down and analyzing the stories they conceived. Worth commented, "there was a very high percentage of ideas that worked in the room and got translated to paper that worked when you put them on film. That doesn't always happen." Cuse described long hours writing the show, including several overnight sessions. Each episode of Brisco was filmed in seven days, so the turn-around time for scripts was one week. McNamara said that he became a "student of TV history" while writing for Brisco, reviewing old episodes of Maverick for inspiration on using humor in the Western genre. He said the writing team felt the television audience was ready for a "trans-genre form", because much of the audience grew up with Lethal Weapon, Star Trek, and The Wild Wild West. Researchers Lynnette Porter and Barry Porter acknowledge the writer's familiarity with Mark Twain's novel Pudd'nhead Wilson. Porter and Porter describe the novel as an "ancestor text", because the characters of Brisco and Bly both refer to it, and say that this type of literary device is used again by Cuse in Lost.
One of the challenges the writers faced was scaling down their ideas to make them feasible for production. Cuse said that he let such ideas flourish because of his relative inexperience with writing for television series. An example given by the writers was Boam's idea for a full-sized "pirate ship on wheels". The writers quickly realized they needed to scale the idea down to something the production designers could create. They settled on putting a full pirate crew on a stagecoach with cannons. Kern said it was better to "shoot past the mark, and come back to it, rather than start below it". He elaborated on this, saying, "if you envision the 40-foot galleon and go back from that, you'll always end up with more than if you start out with a pirate on a horse."
As the series progressed during its broadcast season, the writers received frequent notes and directives from Fox network executives calling for increases and decreases in the science-fiction, comedy and traditional Western elements. Cuse said, "I think we did a particularly good job of maintaining continuity with all the schizophrenic notes we were getting from the network." However, midway through the first season, the writers made a thematic shift from science-fiction to more comedy and adventure. Cuse said, "We were biting off more than we could chew... we were trying to do a comedic action adventure Western, with tongue-in-cheek humor, genuine drama, plus science fiction. All these things added too many elements to serve simultaneously." By the final third of the series, the writers had wrapped up the science-fiction plot with the Orb and focused more on traditional Western motifs.
Production design
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., was filmed primarily on the Warner Bros. soundstages. Town and street scenes were staged on the Western backlot, known as Laramie Street. It was one of the last Western shows to use the backlot. Cuse said that logistics were a problem because so many of the Hollywood Western sets and towns had been torn down by the 1990s. Outdoor scenes were shot on the Warner Bros. ranch in Valencia, California; Bronson Canyon in Los Angeles; and the Valuze Ranch in Santa Clarita, California. Some of the locomotive scenes from Brisco were filmed on location at Railtown 1897 State Historic Park in Jamestown, California. A painting used in the show as a backdrop to create illusions of greater depth perspectives is exhibited at the park.
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=I was proud of the pilot, when Brisco and Bowler were tied up on the railroad track, and Comet had to come walking up and pull the rope loose and untie them and get them loose... Working a TV series for a trainer of horses is very tough because you don't have any time to prepare for the next show... It was a tough show, but I was very proud of the horses because they worked well, they never held the company up, and everything seemed to work fine.|source=Gordon Spencer, head wrangler on The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr."}}
Comet was portrayed by five horses, each with a different talent. The main horse was Copper, chosen by veteran wrangler Gordon Spencer because it was calm and gentle. Campbell nicknamed the horse "Leadbelly" due to its ability to remain calm during action or dialogue scenes. Another horse, Boss, was used for long-range shots, chase scenes, and elaborate stunts, such as leaps through windows. Ace was called in when the crew had to shoot scenes in which the horse reared. Near the end of the season, a horse named Comet was trained, its name chosen so that the horse would get used to hearing it on set. The "true show horse" was Strip, which was adept at doing tricks, such as lip movements, head nods, and hoof stamping. According to Spencer, all those stunts "as well as tying the knots and opening the door and going into rooms and all of that" were done by Strip. For these scenes, Spencer would stand off-camera and use a stick to signal Strip. Campbell had a special pocket sewn into his costume and filled it with grain to reward Strip after every take. No other horse had more scenes than Strip and Copper. With white colorings on his nose and legs, Strip's appearance was chosen for Brisco's steed; Copper and the other horses were touched up with "clown white" greasepaint to match Strip's markings.
Foley artist Casey Crabtree provided sounds for horse hoof movements, work that was praised by sounds effects industry expert David Yewdall. He said of Crabtree's work on Brisco, "Her horses sounded so natural and real – their hooves, the sound of their hooves on the texture of the ground, the sound of saddle movement, bridle jingles – it was as good as anything I would want for a feature film, and this was episodic television." The make-up on many of Briscos episodes was done by veteran artist Mel Berns Jr.
Two props of the Orb were made. One of the prop Orbs was used for stunts and had retractable rods. A second version was manufactured from cast bronze, making it heavy: "You really didn't want to have to handle it," Campbell said. The rocket car seen in the pilot episode was built by special effects coordinator Kam Cooney and was a working vehicle with an internal combustion engine and throttle controls. Some items used in the show had been repurposed from older productions, and some would later be used in other shows. For example, the steam locomotive seen in the pilot episode was the same as the one used in Back to the Future Part III. Two of Carry's prop guns – rifles whose barrels were sawed-off in fashion of the Mare's Leg – were later reused in the science fiction television series Firefly.
Music
Stephen Graziano and Velton Ray Bunch composed original music for the series.
Composed by Randy Edelman, the distinctive theme music gained recognition beyond the show's following; in the mid-1990s, NBC Sports had commissioned Edelman to compose theme music for its NFL coverage. At the time, NBC had often used excerpts from film scores as theme music for its sports broadcasts, and had used a portion of Edelman's Gettysburg score for the Breeder's Cup. A portfolio Edelman sent NBC included the Brisco theme, and by 1996 it was being used during coverage of the Olympics; the theme would be retired after the 2016 games. NBC used it again as the theme for their coverage of the 1997 World Series. Edelman said, "It was original, and it seemed to have the right spirit. It's got a very flowing melody, it's triumphant, and it has a certain warmth. And it has at the end of it, what all television things like this have, a 'button', an ending flourish that works really well if they need to chop it down into a 15-second thing."
Cary Darling said that the "booming" theme song was "part Magnificent Seven, part Aaron Copland and as grand and wide as 'Big Sky Country' ".
Broadcast history
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., premiered on the Fox network at 8:00 pm on Friday, August 27, 1993, with a two-hour pilot movie. To bolster viewer interest in the show, Fox rebroadcast the pilot two days later at 7:00 pm. Both airings of the pilot returned strong ratings. Brisco's ratings for the pilot and first episode were high, particularly with the demographic of adults aged 18–49. The series was aired in Canada, including on Global Toronto (channel 29).
The pilot movie was followed by 26 episodes, each 45 minutes long and airing at 8:00 pm on Fridays. Fox Entertainment chief Sandy Grushaw openly touted Brisco and its star Bruce Campbell. The network fully expected the show to be its breakout hit of the year, a distinction which eventually went to Briscos follow-up, The X-Files. Hoping that more viewers would follow Brisco as it progressed, Fox approved producing an entire season of the show, despite post-pilot low ratings. Subsequent episodes failed to attract more viewers and the show was cancelled at end of its first and only season. After the series ended, Fox retransmitted the show on Sunday nights at 8:00 pm during July and August 1994. The show was later broadcast for a short time in syndication, airing on the U.S. cable channel TNT.
Episodes
Cancellation
As the season progressed, the ratings declined, greatly hurting the show's chances of being renewed. Writer John McNamara partially blamed Briscos low ratings on its Friday 8:00 p.m. time slot. He said not many people watch television at that time, so "fighting for numbers" then was "like being stuck on Normandy beach". Grushaw acknowledged the high quality of the show and the vocal support from its small fan base. "Obviously the viewers are very passionate about the show... and when you read some of the things they have to say, it gives you real pause", Grushaw told USA Today in 1994. By May of that year, Grushaw said renewing Brisco was a 50–50 call. At the end of its season, Brisco was one of the lowest rated shows of the year, and Fox confirmed its cancellation in June.
Briscos writers were planning for another season before the show's cancellation. They had not penned the ending of the first season as a finale for the series and had broad ideas for the second season, which would have featured Brisco settling in as the sheriff of a small town. In his autobiography, Campbell mused, "To explain why a TV show is canceled is almost impossible. Ironically Brisco, with its off-kilter humor, wouldn't have been developed on any other network, yet the appeal of 'Westerns' was still rural – not the side Fox's urban bread was buttered on."
Writer and supervising producer Brad Kern reflected on the show's cancellation, saying, "Ten years later, everybody you talk to... they all love the show. I think that was the biggest disappointment about the show not coming back. We knew we were doing something special." Told of the show's success in the TV Guide "Save Our Shows" poll, Sandy Grushow said, "Obviously I'm happy and not entirely surprised", but added, "You can't dismiss a season's worth of ratings." Kim Manners, director on nearly a third of the Brisco episodes, said working on the series gave him an opportunity to grow creatively. He told writer Joe Nazzaro, "It really woke me up as a director, almost spiritually", and that directing for Brisco was a large contributing factor to his success as a regular director on The X-Files. Manners said, "When they didn't give it a second year, I was devastated", adding that he wished Cuse would have made a feature film based on Brisco. Considering the show's short life, Cuse later commented, "If the show could have survived into a second season, I think it could have ended up running for actually a long time. Some shows just sort of fall through the cracks in the right away and they kind of stay on the air long enough to aggregate an audience. I think if circumstances had been different, Brisco could have had a much longer life." Cuse also said the Friday night time slot hurt Briscos chances of building an audience, saying, "We were on at 8 p.m. on Friday night, which is sort of a death slot – I mean people do still go bowling – few shows have succeeded in that slot."
Home media
In 2005, Kirthana Ramisetti of Entertainment Weekly posted that The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., deserved to be released on DVD. Gord Lacey, the creator of the website TVShowsonDVD.com, told the New York Daily News that Brisco was among the five most requested shows on the site. Lacey spent several years lobbying industry contacts to get Brisco released on DVD. This led to correspondence with Cuse, who also wanted to get a DVD set produced. On July 18, 2006, Warner Home Video released The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1, an 8-disc DVD set that contains all 27 episodes of the series. The release includes commentary tracks from Campbell and Cuse; an interactive menu of Brisco's signature references narrated by Campbell; The History of Brisco County, Jr., documentary; a feature called A Reading from the Book of Bruce; and another gallery hosted by Campbell focusing on the gadgets from the show.
Reception
Pilot episode
In July 1993, Briscos two-hour pilot was screened for television critics in Los Angeles. Initial critical reaction to the pilot was positive and focused on the humor and the science fiction plot points. USA Todays Matt Roush enjoyed the campy humor and the cast of the show, saying it worked on many levels and would "please all but the family curmudgeon". Calling Brisco "one of the best shows of the fall season", Jennifer Stevenson of the St. Petersburg Times praised the show's "intelligent, satirical asides". Kay Gardella wrote in the New York Daily News that the pilot set itself "apart from others of genre" with its humorous script and sight gags. The Los Angeles Times called Brisco "gratifying nonsense", and praised Campbell and the supporting cast for supplying humor without "going over the top". Some critics, such as Walter Goodman of The New York Times and David Hiltbrand of People, found the supporting characters "weakly cast" and not as strong as Campbell in the lead. Other reviewers praised the overall look of the show, such as Todd Everett of Variety, who approved of the "strong comic-book visual style" and the pilot's high production values. Writing in The Washington Post, Tom Shales said that the pilot's production was "more movielike than serieslike".
The pilot's science-fiction plot elements were appreciated by New York magazine, which wrote favorably about the "millenarianism" of the show, including Brisco's use of a rocket to travel on railroad tracks. While Rod Dreher of the Washington Times liked the "nifty" Orb subplot, some critics responded negatively to the Orb. The Washington Posts Shales called the Orb "hokey supernatural bunk". Other reviewers complained generally about the broad mix of genres and number of subplots in the pilot. While TV Guides Jeff Jarvis roundly praised the quality of the pilot and called Brisco his favorite Fox show of 1993, he criticized the pilot for being "padded with outlaws and mysterious orbs". Diane Werts of Newsday similarly said that Brisco "just about hits the bulls eye" with its "sharp wit" and "thrill a minute" action, although she noted that the pilot was over-packed with characters and subplots. Writing in The New York Times, Goodman said, "The writers try everything, including some business involving raiders of a lost orb, without much of a payoff."
Entertainment Weeklys Ken Tucker enjoyed the "nervy attempt to do something different with the TV Western" in the pilot and said that "Brisco County is less a satire of the Western's cliches than a revitalization of them." Writing in the Toronto Star, Greg Quill said that the pilot introduced Brisco as "a western in the loosest use of the term". Quill noted that the pilot includes "every cliche in the western movie arsenal", but that "everything, from characters to plot turns, is skewed away from the norm", and that the pilot episode rose above the level of western spoof to become an "outrageously confident tribute to... the best of the genre".
Broadcast run
During the broadcast run of The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., TV Guide featured a positive review of the show in its Couch Critic column and wrote, "It's as funny as it is exciting, which is not an easy combo to pull off... it's fresh and funny and different, and that's why we like it." The magazine twice listed Brisco as a family-friendly TV program: "Back when some of us grew up, Westerns were synonymous with great family entertainment, but – let's be honest – some of them were dull as dust. Not this one. Brisco is a Western with a sense of humor, filled with impish action for kids and adults."
The Wall Street Journal reviewed a host of Westerns from 1992 and 1993 and said that Brisco was "the most sheer fun of the bunch", calling it "a period piece with slick production values and a mix of drama and humor, fast pace and high camp". In an article on the 1993 television season, the Toronto Stars Greg Quill wrote that Brisco was a program that represented "American TV craft at the top of its form". In contrast, Elvis Mitchell of Spin magazine gave Brisco a scathing review, calling the show's premise a "tedious... rickety gimmick". Mitchell acknowledged the show's "quick reflexes", but said the humor was "uncomfortable" with a "cynical quickness". He added, "Brisco County relieves us of the burden of laughing. It spends too much time looking at itself in the mirror, admiring its own adorable dimpled half-smile."
Viewership figures for Brisco fell as its season progressed and in 1994, it was listed in TV Guides annual "Save Our Shows" article. Readers were requested to write in and vote to save one of the four listed shows – one from each television network – that were in danger of being cancelled. The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr., won with 34.7 percent of the 72,000 votes cast. Cuse said the vote "reaffirms for me a feeling I've had – namely that the Nielsens aren't accurately reflecting people's interest in this show", adding that, given Fox's then relatively small share of the market, it was notable that the show got more votes than any of the programs from NBC, CBS, and ABC.
Writing in USA Today, Matt Roush encouraged readers to watch the low-rated show, saying that families should watch it rather than "that interchangeable T.G.I.F. tripe". He said, "Brisco is mighty lavish but even more mightily loony, happily saddled with broad sight gags and tortured puns." Bruce Fretts of Entertainment Weekly speculated that mainstream success eluded the show because of its mixing of genres. He said, "Brisco refuses to behave like a normal Western, mixing in sci-fi, slapstick, and... kung fu." Chicago Tribune'''s Scott Williams praised Brisco for its "strong supporting cast" and "superb physical comedy and crisp dialogue". He said the show should have been a hit, but that the Friday night time slot hampered its ratings.
Level of violenceBrisco was criticized early on for the violence it portrayed; meant to be comical, a scene in the pilot in which four villains accidentally kill each other in a crossfire troubled critics instead. Cuse insisted that the show was still appropriate for children, saying, "I think we're very conscious of violence and I think we've made an effort to avoid violence in the pilot and in the future episodes". Halfway through the season, U.S. Senator Byron Dorgan singled out Brisco as the most violent show on television based on a study at Minnesota's Concordia University, in which students watched 132 hours of network and cable programming, during the week of September 28 to October 4, 1993. The students tallied each act of violence, and found that Brisco had 117 violent acts per hour. The study deemed Brisco more violent than the film Beverly Hills Cop, which was also viewed for the study. Cuse called the criticism "patently ridiculous", noting that only one episode of the show was viewed, in which a boxing match takes place. Each punch and jab was counted as an act of violence. Cuse spoke out against legislation to curb television violence, saying that politicians were "chasing a false objective". He said it was the job of a show's producer to control the moral content of a television program and the parents' duty to monitor what their children watch.
The Los Angeles Times printed a story about Senator Dorgan's efforts to elicit a response from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) with the title "Fox Tops Tally of Violence on Major TV Networks Media: Study of a week of prime-time shows also lists 'Brisco County' as bloodiest series. Senator wants FCC to issue report card, name sponsors". Cuse responded by writing a letter to the editor. In the letter, entitled "'Brisco County' Is a Family-Oriented Series", Cuse objected to the newspaper story title labeling Brisco as the "bloodiest series". He said that Senator Dorgan's press release did not mention blood and that the show's violence should be viewed in context. Cuse added the show had been listed as family friendly in other publications, and that he read every viewer letter sent regarding the show. "The overwhelming majority praise "Brisco County" for being a show that the entire family can watch together. After 15 original airings, I have not received one single letter criticizing the show on the grounds of violence or violent content." When the US Senate discussed forcing broadcast and cable networks to regulate violent programming, Cuse said that self-regulation within the industry was a positive move. As he operated on his "own internal moral principles", the measures would not affect his week-to-week work.
Post-cancellation
Writing in People magazine in 1995, Craig Tomashoff said the cancellation of Brisco was "one of the tragedies going into [the 1994–1995] TV season". Tomashoff suggested that the show influenced UPN's Legend, another Western series with comedy and science fiction elements. Reflecting on the show in the Orange County Register in 1996, critic Cary Darling lamented Briscos cancellation, saying that the show "stood way out from the rest of the broadcast pack". Darling reviewed the show, describing it as "a witty, multiracial Western that tempered its fisticuffs with fantasy, its innocence with irony, and its romantic vision of the Old West with an abiding New World faith in the future's infinite possibilities". Writing in Entertainment Weekly, Ken Tucker called the show a "one season wonder" that was "ahead of its time".
When the series was released on DVD, critics remembered it fondly. Video Librarian called Brisco "criminally short-lived" and "wildly entertaining". Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the series an "A-", calling the show "smart-alecky and witty, suspenseful and absurd". IGN DVD called the DVD set "impressive" and said that the series was "a satisfying show that hits its mark". Auxiliary Magazine called Brisco "one of the greatest sci-fi/Western epics in television history" and compared it favorably to the more well-known sci-fi/Western shows, Firefly and The Wild Wild West. In its 2006 gift guide, the Christian Science Monitor gave Brisco a positive review, saying, "Folks, there are so few comic sci-fi/Westerns, they should be celebrated, not canceled prematurely."
In a 2018 interview with Houston Chronicle, Bruce Campbell voiced an interest in reviving the series. "I would actually be willing to do a Brisco revisited".
References
External links
Warner's Official DVD release Website
1993 American television series debuts
1994 American television series endings
1990s American science fiction television series
1990s American time travel television series
1990s Western (genre) television series
English-language television shows
Fiction set in 1893
Fox Broadcasting Company original programming
Science fiction Westerns
Steampunk television series
Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Television series created by Carlton Cuse
Television series set in the 1890s
Television shows set in San Francisco
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200502
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudun
|
Loudun
|
Loudun (; ) is a commune in the Vienne department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region in western France.
It is located south of the town of Chinon and 25 km to the east of the town Thouars. The area south of Loudun is the place of origin of a significant portion of the Acadians, one of the early founding people of New France in Canada.
Demographics
Sights
An ancient town, Loudun contains numerous old streets, and buildings and monuments of which five are Government-listed monuments. It is also the location of a vicus type archaeological site.
History
The Treaty of Loudun, negotiated and signed in Loudun on May 3, 1616, temporarily resolved the power struggle for control of the French government between the Prince of Condé (next in line for Louis XIII's throne) and queen mother Marie de Medici's favorite Concino Concini, Marquis of Ancre.
Loudun was also the site of mass hysteria surrounding the supposed mass possession of Ursuline nuns by the Devil in 1634 (see Loudun possessions).
Loudun in art
Eyvind Johnson's 1949 novel Drömmar om rosor och eld was based on the Loudun possessions.
Aldous Huxley's 1952 non-fiction novel The Devils of Loudun was also based on the Loudun possessions.
John Whiting's 1961 theatre play The Devils, commissioned by Sir Peter Hall for the Royal Shakespeare Company, was based on Aldous Huxley's novel.
A Polish film, Mother Joan of the Angels (1961), is based on Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz short story which transposes the story to Poland.
Krzysztof Penderecki's 1969 opera The Devils of Loudun (Die Teufel von Loudun), which premiered at the Hamburg State Opera, was based on Huxley's novel and Whiting's play.
Ken Russell's 1971 film The Devils was based on Huxley's novel and Whiting's play.
Personalities
Loudun is the birthplace of:
Jean Salmon Macrin (1490–1557), Neo-Latin poet
Théophraste Renaudot (1586–1653), medical practitioner, inventor of French written press, journalist, philanthropist
Ismaël Bullialdus (1604–1694), astronomer
Jean-Charles Cornay, martyr.
Marie Besnard, accused of poisoning in the 1950s in what was a very mediatized trial; her story was the subject of a successful TV movie and of several books
René Monory, mayor of Loudun, senator of Vienne, president of the French Senate, Minister of Education, president of the Vienne General Council, fonder of the Futuroscope park of Poitiers
Nicolas Ghesquière (born 1972), creative director of the French fashion house Balenciaga was born in 1972 in Comines, Nord-Pas-de-Calais but was always raised in Loudun where his parents own a golf course.
Loudun is the place of death of:
Urbain Grandier (18 August 1634), French Catholic priest who was burned at the stake after being convicted of witchcraft.
André Andrejew (16 March 1967), French-Russian classic film production designer, built decors for movies produced in Germany, France, England and the US.
Twin towns
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Audun le Tiche, France
Shippagan, Canada
Leuze, Belgium
Burgos, Spain
See also
Lugus
Communes of the Vienne department
References
External links
http://www.ville-loudun.Fr
Loudon
Anjou
|
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200505
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle%20of%20incidence
|
Angle of incidence
|
Angle of incidence is a measure of deviation of something from "straight on" and may refer to:
Angle of incidence (aerodynamics), angle between a wing chord and the longitudinal axis, as distinct from angle of attack, which is relative to the airflow.
Angle of incidence (optics), describing the approach of a ray to a surface
|
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] |
200507
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20westerns%20on%20television
|
List of westerns on television
|
A television western is a television series which takes place in the Old West and involves cowboys, cattle ranchers, miners, farmers, Native Americans, Spaniards, swords, guns and horses. It was the most popular genre of TV show in the 1950s and 1960s, when several hundred were aired.
List
See also
Western (genre)
Westerns on television
External links
TV Westerns, listings for 200 Western shows
Western
Western (genre) television series
|
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200511
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Joachim%20Winckelmann
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Johann Joachim Winckelmann
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Johann Joachim Winckelmann (; ; 9 December 17178 June 1768) was a German art historian and archaeologist. He was a pioneering Hellenist who first articulated the difference between Greek, Greco-Roman and Roman art. "The prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology", Winckelmann was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the history of art. Many consider him the father of the discipline of art history. He was one of the first to separate Greek Art into periods, and time classifications. His would be the decisive influence on the rise of the Neoclassical movement during the late 18th century. His writings influenced not only a new science of archaeology and art history but Western painting, sculpture, literature and even philosophy. Winckelmann's History of Ancient Art (1764) was one of the first books written in German to become a classic of European literature. His subsequent influence on Lessing, Herder, Goethe, Hölderlin, Heine, Nietzsche, George, and Spengler has been provocatively called "the Tyranny of Greece over Germany."
Today, Humboldt University of Berlin's Winckelmann Institute is dedicated to the study of classical archaeology.
Winckelmann was homosexual, and open homoeroticism formed his writings on aesthetics. This was recognized by his contemporaries, such as Goethe.
Biography
Early life
Winckelmann was born in poverty in Stendal in the Margraviate of Brandenburg. His father, Martin Winckelmann, worked as a cobbler, while his mother, Anna Maria Meyer, was the daughter of a weaver. Winckelmann's early years were full of hardship, but his academic interests pushed him forward. Later in Rome, when he had become a famous scholar, he wrote: "One gets spoiled here; but God owed me this; in my youth I suffered too much."
Winckelmann attended the Köllnisches Gymnasium in Berlin and the Altstädtisches Gymnasium at Salzwedel, and in 1738, at age 21, went as a student of theology to the University of Halle. However, Winckelmann was no theologian; he had become interested in Greek classics in his youth, but soon realized that the teachers in Halle could not satisfy his intellectual interests in this field. He nonetheless devoted himself privately to Greek and followed the lectures of Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, who coined the term "aesthetics".
With the intention of becoming a physician, in 1740 Winckelmann attended medical classes at Jena. He also taught languages. From 1743 to 1748, he was the deputy headmaster of the gymnasium of Seehausen in the Altmark but Winckelmann felt that work with children was not his true calling. Moreover, his means were insufficient: his salary was so low that he had to rely on his students' parents for free meals. He was thus obliged to accept a tutorship near Magdeburg. While tutor for the powerful Lamprecht family, he fell into unrequited love with the handsome Lamprecht son. This was one of a series of such loves throughout his life. His enthusiasm for the male form excited Winckelmann's budding admiration of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture.
Von Bünau's librarian
In 1748, Winckelmann wrote to Count Heinrich von Bünau: "[L]ittle value is set on Greek literature, to which I have devoted myself so far as I could penetrate, when good books are so scarce and expensive". In the same year, Winckelmann was appointed secretary of von Bünau's library at Nöthnitz, near Dresden. The library contained some 40,000 volumes. Winckelmann had read Homer, Herodotus, Sophocles, Xenophon, and Plato, but he found at Nöthnitz the works of such famous Enlightenment writers as Voltaire and Montesquieu. To leave behind the spartan atmosphere of Prussia came as a great relief for him. Winckelmann's major duty involved assisting von Bünau in writing a book on the Holy Roman Empire and helping collect material for it. During this period he made several visits to the collection of antiquities at Dresden, but his description of its best paintings remained unfinished. The treasures there, nevertheless, awakened in Winckelmann an intense interest in art, which was deepened by his association with various artists, particularly the painter Adam Friedrich Oeser (1717–1799)—Goethe's future friend and influence—who encouraged Winckelmann in his aesthetic studies. (Winckelmann subsequently exercised a powerful influence over Johann Wolfgang von Goethe).
In 1755, Winckelmann published his Gedanken über die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke in der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst ("Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"), followed by a feigned attack on the work and a defense of its principles, ostensibly by an impartial critic. The Gedanken contains the first statement of the doctrines he afterwards developed, the ideal of "noble simplicity and quiet grandeur" (edle Einfalt und stille Größe) and the definitive assertion, "[t]he one way for us to become great, perhaps inimitable, is by imitating the ancients". The work won warm admiration not only for the ideas it contained, but for its literary style. It made Winckelmann famous, and was reprinted several times and soon translated into French. In England, Winckelmann's views stirred discussion in the 1760s and 1770s, although it was limited to artistic circles: Henry Fuseli's translation of Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks was published in 1765, and reprinted with corrections in 1767.
Rome
In 1751, the papal nuncio and Winckelmann's future employer, Alberico Archinto, visited Nöthnitz, and in 1754 Winckelmann joined the Roman Catholic Church. Goethe concluded that Winckelmann was a pagan, while Gerhard Gietmann contended that Winckelmann "died a devout and sincere Catholic"; either way, his conversion ultimately opened the doors of the papal library to him. On the strength of the Gedanken über die Nachahmung der Griechischen Werke, Augustus III, king of Poland and elector of Saxony, granted him a pension of 200 thalers, so that he could continue his studies in Rome.
Winckelmann arrived in Rome in November 1755. His first task there was to describe the statues in the Cortile del Belvedere—the Apollo Belvedere, the Laocoön, the so-called Antinous, and the Belvedere Torso—which represented to him the "utmost perfection of ancient sculpture."
Originally, Winckelmann planned to stay in Italy only two years with the help of the grant from Dresden, but the outbreak of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) changed his plans. He was named librarian to Cardinal Passionei, who was impressed by Winckelmann's beautiful Greek writing. Winckelmann also became librarian to Cardinal Archinto, and received much kindness from Cardinal Passionei. After their deaths, Winckelmann was hired as librarian in the house of Alessandro Cardinal Albani, who was forming his magnificent collection of antiquities in the villa at Porta Salaria.
With the aid of his new friend, the painter Anton Raphael Mengs (1728–79), with whom he first lived in Rome, Winckelmann devoted himself to the study of Roman antiquities and gradually acquired an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art. Winckelmann's method of careful observation allowed him to identify Roman copies of Greek art, something that was unusual at that time—Roman culture was considered the ultimate achievement of Antiquity. His friend Mengs became the channel through which Winckelmann's ideas were realized in art and spread around Europe. ("The only way for us to become great, yes, inimitable, if it is possible, is the imitation of the Greeks," Winckelmann declared in the Gedanken. With imitation he did not mean slavish copying: "... what is imitated, if handled with reason, may assume another nature, as it were, and become one's own"). Neoclassical artists attempted to revive the spirit as well as the forms of ancient Greece and Rome. Mengs's contribution in this was considerable—he was widely regarded as the greatest living painter of his day. The French painter Jacques-Louis David met Mengs in Rome (1775–80) and was introduced through him to the artistic theories of Winckelmann. Earlier, while in Rome, Winckelmann met the Scottish architect Robert Adam, whom he influenced to become a leading proponent of neoclassicism in architecture. Winckelmann's ideals were later popularized in England through the reproductions of Josiah Wedgwood's "Etruria" factory (1782).
In 1760, Winckelmann's Description des pierres gravées du feu Baron de Stosch [Description of incised gems of the late Baron of Stosch] appeared, followed in 1762 by his Anmerkungen über die Baukunst der Alten ("Observations on the Architecture of the Ancients"), which included an account of the temples at Paestum. In 1758 and 1762, he visited Naples to observe the archaeological excavations being conducted at Pompeii and Herculaneum. "Despite his association with Albani, Winckelmann steered clear of the shady world of art dealing which had compromised the scholarly respectability of such brilliant, if much less systematic antiquarians as Francesco Ficoroni and the Baron Stosch." Winckelmann's poverty may have played a part: the trade in antiquities was an expensive and speculative game. In 1763, with Albani's advocacy, he was appointed Pope Clement XIII's Prefect of Antiquities.
From 1763, while retaining his position with Albani, Winckelmann worked as a prefect of antiquities (Prefetto delle Antichità) and scriptor (Scriptor linguae teutonicae) of the Vatican. Winckelmann visited Naples again, in 1765 and 1767, and wrote for the use of the electoral prince and princess of Saxony his Briefe an Bianconi, which were published, eleven years after his death, in the Antologia romana.
Winckelmann contributed various essays to the Bibliothek der schönen Wissenschaften; and, in 1766, published his Versuch einer Allegorie. Of much greater importance was the work entitled Monumenti antichi inediti ("Unpublished monuments of antiquity", 1767–1768), prefaced by a Trattato preliminare, which presented a general sketch of the history of art. The plates in this work are representations of objects which had either been falsely explained or not explained at all. Winckelmann's explanations were of tremendous use to the future science of archaeology, by showing through observational method that the ultimate sources of inspiration of many works of art supposed to be connected with Roman history were to be found in Homer.
Masterwork
Winckelmann's masterpiece, the Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("The History of Art in Antiquity"), published in 1764, was soon recognized as a permanent contribution to European literature. In this work, "Winckelmann's most significant and lasting achievement was to produce a thorough, comprehensive and lucid chronological account of all antique art—including that of the Egyptians and Etruscans." This was the first work to define in the art of a civilization an organic growth, maturity, and decline. Here, it included the revelatory tale told by a civilization's art and artifacts—these, if we look closely, tell us their own story of cultural factors, such as climate, freedom, and craft. Winckelmann sets forth both the history of Greek art and of Greece. He presents a glowing picture of the political, social, and intellectual conditions which he believed tended to foster creative activity in ancient Greece.
The fundamental idea of Winckelmann's artistic theories are that the goal of art is beauty, and that this goal can be attained only when individual and characteristic features are strictly subordinated to an artist's general scheme. The true artist, selecting from nature the phenomena suited to his purpose and combining them through the exercise of his imagination, creates an ideal type in which normal proportions are maintained, and particular parts, such as muscles and veins, are not permitted to break the harmony of the general outlines.
Death
In 1768 Winckelmann journeyed north over the Alps, but Tyrol depressed him and he decided to return to Italy. However, his friend, the sculptor and restorer Bartolomeo Cavaceppi managed to persuade him to travel to Munich and Vienna, where he was received with honor by Maria Theresa. On his way back, he was murdered in Trieste on 8 June 1768, in a hotel bed by a fellow traveller, a man named Francesco Arcangeli. The true reasons for the murders are not known. One hypothesis argues that the medals given to Winckelmann by the Empress Maria Theresa were the motives, but they were not stolen after the crime. Another possibility is that Arcangeli killed Winckelmann over homosexual advances, although Winckelmann had thought that he was only "un uomo di poco conto" ("a man of little account"). Arcangeli was executed a month later by breaking on the wheel outside the hotel in which both had been staying.
Winckelmann was buried in the churchyard of Trieste Cathedral. and documented the last week of Winckelmann's life; Heinrich Alexander Stoll translated the Italian document, the so-called "Mordakte Winckelmann", into German.
Critical response and influence
Winckelmann's writings are key to understanding the modern European discovery of ancient (sometimes idealized) Greece, neoclassicism, and the doctrine of art as imitation (Nachahmung). The mimetic character of art that imitates but does not simply copy, as Winckelmann restated it, is central to any interpretation of Enlightenment classical idealism. Winckelmann stands at an early stage of the transformation of taste in the late 18th century.
Winckelmann's study Sendschreiben von den Herculanischen Entdeckungen ("Letter about the Discoveries at Herculaneum") was published in 1762, and two years later Nachrichten von den neuesten Herculanischen Entdeckungen ("Report on the Latest Discoveries at Herculaneum"). From these, scholars obtained their first real information about the excavations at Pompeii.
His major work, Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums (1764, "The History of Ancient Art"), deeply influenced contemporary views of the superiority of Greek art. It was translated into French in 1766 and later into English and Italian. Among others, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing based many of the ideas in his Laocoön (1766) on Winckelmann's views on harmony and expression in the visual arts.
In the historical portions of his writings, Winckelmann used not only the works of art he himself had studied but the scattered notices on the subject to be found in ancient writers; and his wide knowledge and active imagination enabled him to offer many fruitful suggestions as to periods about which he had little direct information. To the still existing works of art, he applied a minute empirical scrutiny. Many of his conclusions, based on inadequate evidence of Roman copies, would be modified or reversed by subsequent researchers. Nonetheless, the fervid descriptive enthusiasm of passages in his work, its strong and yet graceful style, and its vivid descriptions of works of art gave it a most immediate appeal. It marked an epoch by indicating the spirit in which the study of Greek art and of ancient civilization should be approached, and the methods by which investigators might hope to attain solid results. To Winckelmann's contemporaries it came as a revelation, and it exercised a profound influence on the best minds of the age. It was read with intense interest by Lessing, who found in the earliest of Winckelmann's works the starting-point for his Laocoön, and by Herder, Goethe and Kant.
Winckelmanns historical standing is best illustrated by the countless honors he received after his death. One of these is a medal published in a French medal series for illustrious men struck in 1819.
Works
The most accessible editions of selected works, in condensed forms, are David Irwin, Winckelmann: Selected Writings on Art (London: Phaidon) 1972, and David Carter, Johann Joachim Winckelmann on Art, Architecture, and Archaeology (Camden House) 2013, and the critical edition is Walther Rehm and , eds., Kleine Schriften, Vorreden, Entwürfe (Berlin), 1968.
Gedanken über die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke in der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst ("Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"), followed by a feigned attack on the work, and a defence of its principles, nominally by an impartial critic. (First edition of only 50 copies 1755, 2nd ed. 1756)
Description des pierres gravées du feu Baron de Stosch (1760).
Anmerkungen über die Baukunst der Alten ("Remarks on the Architecture of the Ancients"), including an account of the temples at Paestum (1762)
Sendschreiben von den Herculanischen Entdeckungen ("Letter About the Discoveries at Herculaneum") (1762).
("Essay on the Beautiful in Art") (1763), an epistolary essay addressed to Friedrich Rudolph von Berg.
"Nachrichten von den neuesten Herculanischen Entdeckungen" ("Report About the Latest Herculanean Discoveries") (1764).
Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art") (1764).
Versuch einer Allegorie ("Attempt at an Allegory") (1766), which, although containing the results of much thought and reading, is not conceived in a thoroughly critical spirit.
Monumenti antichi inediti (1767–1768), prefaced by a Trattato preliminare, presenting a general sketch of the history of art. The plates in this work are representations of objects which had either been falsely explained or not explained at all.
Briefe an Bianconi ("Letters to Bianconi"), which were published eleven years after his death, in the Antologia Romana.
References
Cited sources
Further reading
Klaus-Werner Haupt: Johann Winckelmann. Begründer der klassischen Archäologie und modernen Kunstwissenschaften. (2014. Weimarer Verlagsgesellschaft)
K. Harloe, Winckelmann and the invention of Antiquity History and Aesthetics in the Age of Altertumswissenschaft (2013)
Klaus-W. Haupt, Die zwei Federn des Johann Winckelmann. Oder: Wer sein Glück erkennt und nutzt, der ist es wert! [nonfictional book] (2012. Druckzone Cottbus GmbH)
Efthalia Rentetzi, 'Johann Joachim Winckelmann und der altgriechische Geist', in Philia (Universität Würzburg); vol. I (2006), pp. 26–30, ISSN 0936-1944
Wouter Soudan, Normativiteit en Historisch Bewustzijn in de Achttiende Eeuw: Winckelmanns kunstpedagogie en de epistemologie van het Schone [PhD diss., Leuven] (2008) (full text pdf with exhaustive bibliography)
R. M. Fridrich, Sehnsucht nach dem Verlorenen: Winckelmanns Ästhetik und ihre frühe Rezeption (2003)
F. Testa, Winckelmann e l'invenzione della storia d'arte (1999)
A. Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the origins of art history (1994)
E. Pommier, ed., Winckelmann: La Naissance de l'histoire de l'art ... (1991)
D. M. Sweet, 'The Personal, the Political and the Aesthetic: Johann Joachim Winckelmann's German Enlightenment life', in Journal of Homosexuality; 18 (1988), p. 152
D. Constantine, Early Greek travellers and the Hellenic ideal (1984), p. 85–146
I. Parry, 'Belvedere Hercules', in I. Parry, Hand to mouth (1972); reprinted in I. Parry, Speak Silence Essays (1988), p. 156–174
Wolfgang Leppmann, Winckelmann (1970) . Alfred A. Knopf, LOC: 70-118711
H. Honour, Neoclassicism (1968)
E. M. Butler, The Tyranny of Greece over Germany (1935)
Walter Pater, 'Winckelmann', in Westminster Review (1867 January) (repr. in W. Pater, Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873) and The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry (1877))
J. W. von Goethe, Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert (1805)
External links
Johann Joachim Winckelmann as inspirer of Weimar Classicism in Literary Encyclopedia.
Johann Joachim Winkelmann by the Catholic Encyclopedia
Winckelmann Institute at the Humboldt University in Berlin
Johann Joachim Winckelmann and the rediscovery of Pompeii.
Johann Joachim Winckelmann at arthistoricum.net
Has Art Lost Its Soul? lecture by Elizabeth Lev, Art Historian, Seton Hall University, Center for Catholic Studies at iTunesU
1717 births
1768 deaths
18th-century LGBT people
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Lutheranism
German gay writers
German antiquarians
Archaeologists from Saxony-Anhalt
German art historians
German male non-fiction writers
German people murdered abroad
German Roman Catholics
LGBT Roman Catholics
People from Stendal
People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg
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University of Halle alumni
Köllnisches Gymnasium alumni
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200512
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najaf
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Najaf
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Najaf () or An-Najaf al-Ashraf (), also known as Baniqia (), is a city in central Iraq about 160 km (100 mi) south of Baghdad. Its estimated population in 2013 was 1,000,000 people. It is the capital of Najaf Governorate. It is widely considered amongst the holiest cities of Shia Islam and one of its spiritual capitals, whilst also remaining the center of Shia political power in Iraq.
Name
According to Ibn al-Manzur, the word, "najaf" (), literally means a high and rectangular place around which water is accumulated, although the water does not go above its level. Al-Shaykh al-Saduq appeals to a hadith from Imam al-Sadiq (a), claiming that "Najaf" comes from the phrase, "nay jaff" which means "the nay sea has dried" which gradually changed into "Najaf".
"Najaf" is usually accompanied with the adjective, "al-Ashraf" (dignified). According to the author of al-Hawza al-'ilmiyya fi l-Najaf al-ashraf, this is because Imam 'Ali (a), one of the most dignified persons, is buried in the city.
Other Names
Al-Ghari or al-Ghariyyan, Hadd al-'Adhra', al-Hiwar, al-Judi, Wadi l-Salam, al-Zahr, Zahr al-Kufa (behind Kufa), al-Rabwa, Baniqiya, and Mashhad are other names for this land.
History
The area of An-Najaf is located 30 km (19 mi) south of the ancient city of Babylon, and 400 km (248 mi) north of the ancient city of Ur. The city itself was founded in 791 [AD], by the Abbasid Caliph Harūn ar-Rashīd, as a shrine to ‘Alī bin Abī Ṭālib.
Prehistoric and ancient times
Archaeological discoveries show the existence of a populace dating back to the 1st century BC. Najaf possesses one of the largest burial grounds in the vicinity for Christians. The centuries following have proven this to also be a city with a multicultural and religious people. Mohammed al-Mayali, director of Inspectorate Effects of the province of Najaf, states "the excavation on the graves, which we have been working on for years, confirm that "Najaf" contains the largest Christian cemetery in Iraq, with a cemetery area of 1416 acres. We have found indications of Christianity on the graves through representations of crosses and stones with Christ-like engravings. There are also relics that date back to the Sassanid period. Also discovered in the excavation was proof of a thriving glass industry. Pots were decorated with the cross. as well as Hebrew writings, indicating a community of religious coexistence."
Wadi-us-Salaam in Najaf was a holy cemetery for Jewish and was Najaf called at that time Baniqia, and could be this is the first name of Najaf area.
The name Baniqia also was found in some texts which tell that in one day Abraham visited this village and stayed couple of days, then he continued in his journey from Mesopotamia to Arabia.
In Islam, the city is considered to have started with Hazrat Ali who instructed that his burial place should remain a secret, as he had many enemies and he feared that his body might be subjected to some indignity. According to legend, the body of Ali was placed on a camel which was driven from Kufah. The camel stopped a few miles west of the city where the body was secretly buried. No tomb was raised and nobody knew of the burial place except for a few trusted people. It is narrated that more than a hundred years later the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid, went deer hunting outside Kufah, and the deer sought sanctuary at a place where the hounds would not pursue it. On inquiry as to why the place was a sanctuary Harūn ar-Rashīd, he was told that it was the burial place of ‘Ali. Harūn ar-Rashīd ordered a mausoleum to be built on the spot and in due course the town of Najaf grew around the mausoleum.
Medieval and modern history
In early 14th century Sheikh Ibn Battuta visited the burial site of Ali ibn Abi Talib during his travels in Iraq after his pilgrimage to Mecca. During this period Najaf was called Meshhed Ali. As Translated by Samuel Lee, Ibn Battuta in his Arabic Rihla relates:
In the 16th century, Najaf was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. The Safavid dynasty of Iran maintained continuous interest to this Shia site. During the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639), they were twice able to capture the city, but lost it again to the Ottomans in 1638.
Under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, Najaf experienced severe difficulties as the result of repeated raids by Arab desert tribes and the Persian army with acute water shortages causing lack of a reliable water supply. The number of inhabited houses in the city had plummeted from 3,000 to just 30 by the start of the 16th century.
When the Portuguese traveller Pedro Texeira passed through Najaf in 1604, he found the city in ruins, inhabited by little more than 500 people. This was largely the result of a change in the course of the Euphrates river eastwards in the direction of Hilla, leaving Najaf and Kufa high and dry, leading to the destruction of the local formerly rich agriculture, demise of the palm groves and orchards, followed by the salinization of the underground water due to evaporation.
During the 18th century the scholarly life of Najaf came to be dominated by Farsi-speaking ‘Ulema’ (, Scholars) from Iran.
The water shortages were finally resolved in 1803 when the Euphrates made its way to the city once again. The shift in the river's flow was the product of a century-long effort by the Ottomans to shift the flow of the river, so as to deprive marsh-dwelling tribes like the Khaza'il of the watery environment that allowed them to evade state control. These long-term efforts rendered successful the construction of the Hindiyya Canal in 1793, which further shifted the flow of the Euphrates. These hydrological shifts were to have religious implications. Most notable was the consolidation and spread of Shi'ism. As the shrine city of Najaf gained access to water again, its notables and holy men began to wield considerable power in the area. In 1811, the last city wall was rebuilt.
The Ottomans were expelled in an uprising in 1915, following which the city fell under the rule of the British Empire. The sheikhs of Najaf rebelled in 1918, killing the British governor of the city, Sayyed Mahdi Al-Awadi, and cutting off grain supplies to the Anazzah, a tribe allied with the British. In retaliation the British besieged the city and cut off its water supply. The rebellion was put down and the rule of the sheikhs was forcibly ended. A great number of the Shi‘i ‘Ulema’ were expelled into Persia, where they set the foundations for the rise of the city of Qom as the center of the Shi‘ite learning and authority, in lieu of Najaf. Najaf lost its religious primacy to Qom, and was not to regain it until the 21st century, during the establishment of a Shī‘ī-majority government in Iraq after 2003.
In the 20th century, much of the Old City was rebuilt in a series of modernization initiatives. Beginning in the 1950s, many historic buildings and monuments, including those adjoining the shrine, were demolished for the construction of Sadeq, Zainulabidin, Rasool and Tousi streets. In 1958, the city wall was torn down and replaced with a ring road. In the 1980s, the entire area between the shrine and the city's western edge was demolished, and the residents resettled outside the city, in what locals perceived as a government reprisal for the Shia uprising under the leadership of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, who was based in the neighborhood.
Post-Baathist period
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Najaf was a key target of the invading United States Forces. The city was encircled during heavy fighting on 26 March 2003 and was captured on 3 April 2003 (Battle of Najaf).
The clerical authorities of the Shī‘ī enclave of Sadr City in Baghdad, which claimed autonomy in April 2003, after the fall of Baghdad, claimed to be taking their orders from senior clerics in Najaf.
On 4 April 2004, the Mahdi Army attacked the Spanish-Salvadoran-ALARNG base (Camp Golf, later renamed Camp Baker) in An Najaf, part of a coordinated uprising across central and southern Iraq in an apparent attempt to seize control of the country ahead of the 30 June 2004 handover of power to a new Iraqi government. This uprising led to the American troops arriving in the city in the wake of the Spanish withdrawal. In August 2004, heavy fighting broke out again between US forces and Al-Sadr's Mahdi Army. The battle lasted three weeks and ended when senior Iraqi cleric Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani negotiated an end to the fighting.
The fall of the Baathist regime ended restrictions on Shi'ite pilgrimage, which led to a pilgrimage boom in Najaf and increased demand for facilities and infrastructure. In 2006, the government sponsored redevelopment of the previously demolished western area of the city as the City of Pilgrims project.
In 2012 Najaf was named the Cultural Centre of the Arab World.
On 6 March 2021, Pope Francis visited the city during his historic papal visit to Iraq and held an interfaith dialogue with al-Sistani, where he expressed a message of peaceful coexistence between Muslims and Christians in the country.
Religious significance
An-Najaf is considered sacred by Shi'a Muslims. An-Najaf is renowned as the site of the burial place of Muhammad's son in law and cousin, Imam ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib. The city is now a center of pilgrimage throughout the Shi'ite Islamic world. It is estimated that only Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims. As the burial site of Shi'a Islam's second most important figure, the Imam Ali Mosque is considered by Shiites as the third holiest Islamic site.{{refn|<ref>Iraqi forces in Najaf take cover in important Shia shrine, The Boston Globe, April 2, 2003. "For the world's nearly 120 million Muslim Shiites, Najaf is the third holiest city behind Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia."</ref>}}
The Imam ‘Ali Mosque is housed in a grand structure with a gold gilded dome and many precious objects in the walls. Nearby is the Wadi-us-Salaam cemetery, the largest in the world. It contains the tombs of several prophets and many of the devout from around the world aspire to be buried there, to be raised from the dead with Imām ‘Alī on Judgement Day. Over the centuries, numerous hospices, schools, libraries and convents were built around the shrine to make the city the center of Shīʻa learning and theology.
The An-Najaf seminary is one of the most important teaching centres in the Islamic world. Ayatollah Khomeini lectured there from 1964 to 1978.
Many of the leading figures of the new Islamic movement that emerged in Iraq, Iran and Lebanon in the 1970s had studied at Najaf.
Najaf, alongside Karbala, is considered a thriving pilgrimage destination for Shia muslims and the pilgrimage industry in the city boomed after the end of Saddam Hussein's rule. However, due to the U.S. sanctions on Iran, the number of Iranian pilgrims dropped significantly.
Geography
Climate
Najaf has a hot desert climate, BWh in the Köppen climate classification, with long, very hot summers and mild winters. The average annual temperature is 23.6 °C (74.5° F). The rainfall averages 69 mm (2.71 in).
See also
1977 Shia protests in Iraq
Battle of Najaf (2003)
Battle of Najaf (2004)
Battle of Najaf (2007)
Big Four (Najaf)
Al Najaf International Airport
Al-Hannanah mosque
References
Further reading
Published in the 19th-20th centuries
Published in the 21st century
External links
Miracles in Najaf
The Holy City of Najaf (Iraq)
Interactive Guide: Najaf - The Guardian''
791 establishments
Cities in Iraq
District capitals of Iraq
Holy cities
Populated places established in the 8th century
Shia holy cities
Ali
Ziyarat
|
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200514
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adeliza%20of%20Louvain
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Adeliza of Louvain
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Adeliza of Louvain, sometimes known in England as Adelicia of Louvain, also called Adela and Aleidis; (c. 1103 – March/April 1151) was Queen of England from 1121 to 1135, as the second wife of King Henry I. She was the daughter of Godfrey I, Count of Louvain.
Henry was some 35 years older than Adeliza, who was about 18 when they married. Having survived his legitimate son William Adelin, Henry hoped to have another with Adeliza and spent a lot of time with her. She seems to have been influential in the promotion of French poetry and other arts at court, but played little part in politics. Though otherwise successful, their marriage produced no children, and Henry decided to leave the throne to his daughter Empress Matilda. Adeliza was among those who swore to support her stepdaughter and did so during her struggle against Henry's nephew Stephen of Blois, who took the throne after Henry's death in 1135.
As queen dowager, Adeliza spent three years based in a convent, then married again and had seven children by William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel. In 1150 she left her husband to move to the Affligem Abbey in Brabant, where she died the next year.
Early life and family
Adeliza was renowned for her beauty, reflected in the epithet 'the fair maiden of Brabant'. The chronicler Henry of Huntingdon also mentions Adeliza's beauty in an interlude in his Historia Anglorum, stating, "A jewel grows pale on you, a crown does not shine. Put adornment aside, for nature provides your adornment..."
Adeliza's father was Godfrey I, Count of Louvain (1095–1139), Landgrave of Brabant, and Duke of Lower Lotharingia (1106–1128), an ally of Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor. After the death of Adeliza's mother, Ida of Chiny, Godfrey married Clementia of Burgundy, the mother of Baldwin VII, Count of Flanders, who had fought with the French against the Normans in 1118.
Adeliza's illegitimate brother, Joscelin of Louvain, married the heiress to the Percy fortune. He is often referred to as an "opportunist".
Queenship
Plans for Adeliza's marriage to Henry I of England may have begun when she was as young as sixteen, even before Henry's only legitimate son, William Adelin, died on 25 November 1120 in the White Ship disaster. However, Henry's need for a new male heir expedited the marriage plans and the couple wed on 24 January 1121. Apparently in addition to her beauty, Henry was also attracted to Adeliza as a wife because she was a descendant of Charlemagne. It is thought that Henry's only surviving legitimate child Empress Matilda, from his first wife Matilda of Scotland, may have been involved in arranging his second marriage, due to the fact that she was with him near the time that it was being negotiated.
Henry of Huntingdon mentions the royal couple in his Historia Anglorum, stating that the new queen accompanied Henry to London at Whitsun (that is, 29 May 1121). Adeliza appears to have travelled extensively with Henry, probably to increase the chances of her conception. Despite their close contact, however, Adeliza and Henry never produced a child.
There is a possibility, despite what the biography produced by Laura Wertheimer states, that Adeliza prayed to St. Romanus to aid her in conceiving a child; St. Romanus, according to legend, was 'born to parents miraculously cured of infertility', and in 1124, there was a double viewing of the relics of St. Romanus at Rouen Cathedral. We know about this from the Archives départementales de la Seine-Maritime G 3666 (more simply referred to as the G 3666), and Adeliza was certainly present in Rouen while the relics were present.
Unlike Henry's first wife Matilda, Adeliza appears to have played a very passive role in the administration of the kingdom. While Matilda issued some thirty-one charters and writs during her queenship, during Adeliza's fifteen-year marriage to Henry I she issued one, and she only attested 13 of Henry's many charters, even though they were almost always together.
Role as artistic patron
Despite her limited involvement in politics, Adeliza seems to have played an active role as a patron of the arts and literature, and was influential in fostering the rise of French poetry in the English court. While English queens had been traditionally associated with artistic patronage for decades, and a number of them, including Edith of Wessex, Emma of Normandy and Matilda, had financed a number of works in different media, Adeliza primarily sponsored books written in French. At the time, secular books in the French or Anglo-Norman vernacular were extremely popular, a trend given impetus by wealthy aristocratic women like Adeliza. Philippe de Thaon, an Anglo-Norman poet, dedicated his zoological treatise known as the Bestiary to the queen:
Philippe de Thaon Has distilled into a French treatise
The Bestiary, A book in Latin,
For the honour of a jewel Who is an outstandingly beautiful woman.
And she is courtly and wise, Of good customs and generous:
She is called 'Aaliz', Queen is she crowned,
She is the queen of England; May her soul never know trouble!
Listen to what we find About her name in Hebrew:
"Aaliz" is her name; "Praise of God" is
In Hebrew truly "Aaliz", laus of God.
I do not dare give further praise, Lest envy take me,
But so that she may be remembered And praised forever more
I wish to compose this book; May God be present at its beginning!
The Bestiary would have been amply illustrated, and was intended to be read page by page, not all at once, like a poem. Many other works that Adeliza commissioned were similar in structure to the Bestiary, including the now lost Life of King Henry by David.
Widowhood and remarriage
When Henry died on 1 December 1135, Adeliza retired temporarily to the Benedictine convent of Wilton Abbey, near Salisbury. She was present at the dedication of Henry's tomb at Reading Abbey on the first anniversary of his death. At about that time, she founded a leper hospital dedicated to Saint Giles at Fugglestone St Peter, Wiltshire.
In 1138, three years after Henry I's death, Adeliza married William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel, one of Henry I's advisors, and son of Guillaume d’Aubigny and Maud le Bigod. Together, they lived at her castle of Arundel on the Sussex coast and had seven children. Their names were (by order of birth), Alice, William, Olivia, Reynor, Geoffrey, Henry, and Agatha.
Relationship with Matilda
Although not a great deal is known about Adeliza's relationship with her stepdaughter, it is known she was present at the ceremony when Henry officially named Matilda as his heir presumptive, since the chronicler John of Worcester states that the Queen "swore [an oath] for the king's daughter... and agreed ... that if the king did not have an heir of either sex [......], but ... did not lack a survivor of each sex, then the survivor should inherit the kingdom.'"
After her second marriage, Adeliza received Matilda at her home in Arundel, along with Matilda's half-brother Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester, in defiance of the wishes of her second husband who was a staunch supporter of King Stephen. She later betrayed them and handed them over when King Stephen besieged the castle.
Trying to explain Adeliza's actions, John of Worcester suggests that "she feared the king's majesty and worried that she might lose the great estate she held throughout England". He also mentions Adeliza's excuse to King Stephen: "She swore on oath that his enemies had not come to England on her account but that she had simply given them hospitality as persons of high dignity once close to her." In the end King Stephen yielded to an appeal from Adeliza, and permitted Matilda to depart and join her half-brother Robert at Bristol.
Landholdings
Adeliza was given the revenues of Rutland, Shropshire and a large district of London, with possession of the city of Chichester. Henry also gave the manor of Aston to Adeliza "as his queen and wife". Landholdings that were part of Adeliza of Louvain's estate included Waltham Abbey in Essex, and properties in Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Middlesex, and Devon. As a gift from Henry I, she was given a property in Ashleworth, a component of the royal estate of Berkeley. In 1126 the whole county of Shropshire was given to her, even though it is not listed in the Pipe Roll.
Adeliza gave her brother Joscelin a large estate in Sussex called Petworth that was dependent on her castle of Arundel; much of the estate is still owned by his descendants, the Egremonts. Henry also gave Adeliza lands that had previously been Matilda's including Waltham and Queenhithe. She had estates in Essex, Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Middlesex, Gloucestershire, and Devon. Her husband then granted her exemption from tax for those lands. In additions to those gifts, she was given a portion of the royal estate at Berkeley, and the county of Shropshire.
After Henry died, Adeliza continued to exercise jurisdiction over her lands, retaining some of her property until 1150. In 1136, she endowed Reading Abbey with one hundred shillings a year from the revenues of Queenhithe.
On the first anniversary of Henry I's death, Adeliza gave the manor of Aston to the Abbey of Reading, and endowed them with lands "to provide for the convent and other religious pweaona [sic] coming to the abbey on the occasion of the anniversary of my lord King Henry." She added the gift of a church a few years later.
Later years
In the last years of her life, Adeliza appears to have faded into obscurity. In 1150, Adeliza left William to enter the monastery of Affligem in Flanders. At least one of her brothers was also living at this monastery. The annals at the monastery are the only source to mention her death in 1151, and her burial site is unknown. Some traditions imply she was buried at the monastery, but a donation made by her brother Joscelin to Reading Abbey seems to suggest she was buried there with Henry I.
Notes
References
Bartlett, Robert. England under the Norman and Angevin Kings: 1075 – 1225. Oxford: Clarendon, 2000.
Crouch, David. The Normans: The History of a Dynasty. London: Hambledon and London, 2002.
Henry of Huntingdon. The Chronicle of Henry of Huntingdon: Comprising The History of England, from the Invasion of Julius Cæsar to the Accession of Henry II. Ed. Thomas Forester. Dyfed: Llanerch, 1991.
Hilton, Lisa. Queens Consort: England's Medieval Queens from Eleanor of Aquitaine to Elizabeth of York. New York: Pegasus Books, 2010.
Huneycutt, Lois L. Matilda of Scotland: A Study in Medieval Queenship. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2003.
Huneycutt, Lois L. "Adeliza (c.1103–1151)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004.
Johns, Susan M. Noblewomen, Aristocracy and Power in the Twelfth-century Anglo-Norman Realm. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2003.
Lees, Clare A., ed. The Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature. 1st ed. Cambridge: 2012. Cambridge Histories Online. Web. 22 November 2013.
"Medieval Bestiary: Philippe De Thaon." Medieval Bestiary : Philippe De Thaon. N.p., n.d. 22 November 2013.
Medieval History Timelines. TimeRef, n.d. http://www.timeref.com/hpra_minor.htm#J208.
Nolan, Kathleen. Capetian Women. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
O’Donnell, Thomas, Matthew Townend, and Elizabeth M. Tyler. "European literature and eleventh-century England", The Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. 607–636.Cambridge Histories Online. .
Strickland, Agnes. Lives of the Queens of England: From the Norman Conquest. N.p., 1840–1848. 7 December 2013. <https://web.archive.org/web/20100513133158/http://1066.co.nz/library/queens/queens.txt>.
van Houts, Elisabeth M.C. "Latin Poetry and the Anglo-Norman court, 1066–1135: The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio." The Journal of Medieval History 15.1 (1989): 39–62.
Weir, Alison. Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy. London: Bodley Head, 1989.
Worcester, John of. The Annals from 1067 to 1140 with Gloucester Interpolations and The Continuation to 1141. Vol. 3. Ed. P. McGurk. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. 3 vols.
York, Laura. "Adelicia of Louvain." Women in History: Biographical Encyclopedia, vol 1 p. 82.
|-
1100s births
1151 deaths
English royal consorts
Duchesses of Normandy
Nobility of the Duchy of Brabant
House of Reginar
12th-century English women
Henry I of England
12th-century women of the Holy Roman Empire
Remarried royal consorts
|
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] |
200517
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najaf%20Governorate
|
Najaf Governorate
|
Najaf Governorate () or Najaf Province is a governorate in central and southern Iraq. The capital is the city of Najaf. The other major city is Al Kufah. Both cities are holy to Shia Muslims, who form the majority of the population.
Provincial Government
Governor: Luay al-Yasiri (resigned)
Deputy Governor: Abbas Alelyawi
Districts
Najaf District
Kufa District
Al-Manathera District
Al-Meshkhab District
References
Governorates of Iraq
1976 establishments in Iraq
States and territories established in 1975
|
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] |
200518
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Yule
|
Henry Yule
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Sir Henry Yule (1 May 1820 – 30 December 1889) was a Scottish Orientalist and geographer. He published many travel books, including translations of the work of Marco Polo and Mirabilia by the 14th-century Dominican Friar Jordanus. He was also the compiler of a dictionary of Anglo-Indian terms, the Hobson-Jobson, with Arthur Coke Burnell.
Early life
Henry Yule was born at Inveresk near Edinburgh in Scotland on 1 May 1820. He was the youngest son of Major William Yule (1764–1839) and his wife Elizabeth Paterson (died circa 1827). William Yule had served as an officer in the Bengal army of the East India Company and had retired in 1806. William's uncle was the botanist John Yule FRSE.
Elizabeth died before Henry was eight and William moved to Edinburgh with his sons, where he attended the Royal High School. In 1833 he was sent to be coached by the Reverend Henry Hamilton at his rectory in the village of Wath near Ripon in North Yorkshire. When Hamilton moved to Cambridge in the following year Yule was transferred to the care of the Reverend James Challis, at Papworth Everard near Cambridge. The other resident pupils were John Neale and Harvey Goodwin. (Neale co-founded the Society of Saint Margaret, an order of women in the Church of England dedicated to nursing the sick, while Goodwin became Bishop of Carlisle.) Yule's stay at Papworth Everard ended in 1826 when Challis was appointed Plumian Professor of Astronomy and moved to the Observatory in Cambridge.
After a brief period at University College London, Yule entered the East India Military College at Addiscombe near Croydon (1837–8), followed by the Royal Engineers Establishment at Chatham, Kent. He obtained his commission in December 1838, and joined the Bengal Engineers in 1840.
Both of Henry's brothers worked in India. The eldest, George Udny Yule (1813–1886), worked in the Bengal civil service. The other brother, Robert (1817–1857), died near Delhi during the Indian Rebellion. The statistician Udny Yule was the son of George and thus the nephew of Henry.
Henry was interested in Arabic and Persian literature and collected early manuscripts. These were later donated by his sons to the British Museum. He translated the Apothegms of Ali the son of Abu Talib (referring to Ali, the successor to Mohammed, the prophet of Islam; the obscure English word "apothegm" refers to short pithy sayings, see hadith.)
India
Yule arrived in Calcutta at the end of 1840. His first posting was in the Khasi Hills, a remote area to the northeast of Bengal in the modern state of Meghalaya. His mission was to establish a practical method of transporting coal to the plains. In this he was unsuccessful but he became fascinated by the region and wrote an account of its people, including the first written description of their living root bridges. In 1842 he was transferred to a team of engineers led by Captain (later General) William Baker charged with the construction of irrigation canals. Their headquarters were at Karnal, to the north of Delhi.
He returned to England in 1843 and married his cousin Anna Maria (died 1875), daughter of Major-General Martin White of the Bengal Infantry (died 1856). In November 1843 she accompanied him back to India but returned owing to ill health. He was appointed to a committee charged with investigating the relationship between irrigation by the proposed Ganges Canal and its impact on public health in the area. He served in both the Sikh wars (1845–1846 and 1848–1849). In 1849 he took three years of extended leave and returned to live in Edinburgh with his wife. He lectured at the Scottish Naval and Military Academy and wrote a volume on fortifications (1851).
A daughter, Amy, was born in 1852 and shortly after her birth, Yule returned to Bengal. He worked in Arakan and Burma and was put in charge of a new railway system. This was interrupted by a posting as a secretary to Colonel Arthur Phayre's mission to Ava, Burma, in 1855. In 1858 he published his account of this journey, Narrative of the Mission to the Court of Ava with illustrations. The 1857 rebellion made his life difficult, and although Yule was close to the governor generals Lord Dalhousie and Lord Canning, he lost interest in his work.
Retirement in Europe
Yule retired in 1862, and Canning's death in that year made it difficult for him to find any official appointment in London. In 1863 he was created a Companion of the Order of the Bath through the influence of Sir Roderick Murchison. He devoted his leisure to the medieval history and geography of Central Asia. His wife became unwell, and they crossed Europe to settle in Palermo, Sicily. He made use of the richly stocked public libraries there during this period. He published Cathay and the Way Thither (1866), and the Book of Marco Polo (1871), for which he received the Founder's Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society the following year. After his wife's death in 1875, Yule returned to England, where he was appointed to the Council of India. Yule remarried in 1877, his new wife Mary Wilhelmina (died 26 April 1881) the daughter of a Bengal civil servant, Fulwar Skipwith.
Yule was a member, and from 1877 to 1889 President, of the Hakluyt Society. He was also vice-president of the Royal Geographical Society (1887–9), and would have become a president but for a protest that he led along with Henry Hyndman against Henry Morton Stanley. The Society wanted to welcome Stanley but Yule stood against the violent methods used in Africa. One of his heroes, on the other hand, was Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley.
For the Hakluyt Society, Yule edited the Mirabilia Descripta (1863), a translation of the travels of the 14th century Friar Jordanus, and The Diary of William Hedges (3 vols, 1887–89). The latter contains a biography of Governor Pitt, grandfather of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. He contributed introductions to Nikolay Przhevalsky's Mongolia (1876) and Captain William Gill's The River of Golden Sand (1880). He wrote biographical notes for the Royal Engineers' Journal, and many geographical entries in the Encyclopædia Britannica.
Yule's most popular work, compiled with Arthur C. Burnell, was the Hobson-Jobson (1886), a historical dictionary of Anglo-Indian words and phrases which continues to provide an insight into the language used in British India.
Yule died at his home at 3 Penywern Road, Earls Court, London, on 30 December 1889 aged 69, and is buried at Tunbridge Wells.
Awards
Yule was awarded an honorary doctorate (LL.D.) from Edinburgh University in 1884 and served as royal commissioner for the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886. He was created Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India in 1889. In 1889 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society (FRSGS).
Selected publications
For a full list see Cordier & Yule (1903).
Scans from Google: Volume 1, Volume 2. Scans from the Digital Silk Road Project: Volume 1, Volume 2
Volume 1, Volume 2.
Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 3 William Hedges was an administrator of the East India Company
(Searchable database)
Editions revised by Henri Cordier
Volume 1; Volume 2. Scans from the Digital Silk Road Project: Volume 1 Volume 2.
Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 3; Volume 4.
Contributions
Volume 1, Volume 2. The travels of Nikolay Przhevalsky.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
1820 births
1889 deaths
Alumni of Addiscombe Military Seminary
Alumni of University College London
Bengal Engineers officers
British lexicographers
British military personnel of the First Anglo-Sikh War
British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Sikh War
Fellows of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society
Indologists
Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Members of the Council of India
People from Musselburgh
Scottish orientalists
Recipients of the Royal Geographical Society Gold Medal
19th-century lexicographers
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200519
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad%20Governorate
|
Baghdad Governorate
|
Baghdad Governorate ( Muḥāfaẓät Baġdād), also known as the Baghdad Province, is the capital governorate of Iraq. It includes the capital Baghdad as well as the surrounding metropolitan area. The governorate is the smallest of the 19 provinces of Iraq but the most populous.
Description
Baghdad Governorate is one of the most developed parts of Iraq, with better infrastructure than much of Iraq, though heavily damaged from the US-led invasion in 2003 and continuing violence during the Iraq War. It used to have one of the highest rates for terrorism in the world with suicide bombers, however terrorist attacks have been rare since the territorial defeat of ISIL in Iraq in late 2017.
Baghdad has at least 12 bridges spanning the Tigris river - joining the east and west of the city. The governorate's northeast includes multiple Mesopotamian Marshes.
The Sadr City district is the most densely populated area in Iraq.
Province administration
Baghdad is governed by the Baghdad Provincial Council. Representatives to the Baghdad Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils of the administrative districts in Baghdad in numbers proportional to the population of the various districts that were represented.
Government
Governor: Atwan Al Atwani
Provincial Council Chairman (PCC): Riyadh Al Adhadh
Districts
Adhamiyah
Karkh
Karrada
Kadhimiya
Mansour
Sadr City
Al-Rashid
Al-Rusafa
New Baghdad
See also
References
External links
http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/
Baghdad-Denver Region Partnership
Governorates of Iraq
|
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200521
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Martinson
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Harry Martinson
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Harry Martinson (6May 190411February 1978) was a Swedish author, poet and former sailor. In 1949 he was elected into the Swedish Academy. He was awarded a joint Nobel Prize in Literature in 1974 together with fellow Swede Eyvind Johnson "for writings that catch the dewdrop and reflect the cosmos". The choice was controversial, as both Martinson and Johnson were members of the academy.
He has been called "the great reformer of 20th-century Swedish poetry, the most original of the writers called 'proletarian'."
Life
Martinson was born in Jämshög, Blekinge County in south-eastern Sweden. At a young age he lost both his parents whereafter he was placed as a foster child (Kommunalbarn) in the Swedish countryside. At the age of sixteen Martinson ran away and signed onto a ship to spend the next years sailing around the world visiting countries including Brazil and India.
A few years later lung problems forced him to set ashore in Sweden where he travelled around without a steady employment, at times living as a vagabond on country roads. At the age of 21, he was arrested for vagrancy in Lundagård park, Lund.
In 1929, he debuted as a poet. Together with Artur Lundkvist, Gustav Sandgren, Erik Asklund and Josef Kjellgren he authored the anthology Fem unga (Five Youths), which introduced Swedish modernism. His poetry, characterized by linguistic innovation and a frequent use of metaphors, combined an acute eye for, and love of nature, with a deeply felt humanism. His popular success as a novelist came with the semi-autobiographical Nässlorna blomma (Flowering Nettle) in 1935, about hardships encountered by a young boy in the countryside. It has since been translated into more than thirty languages. The novel Vägen till Klockrike (The Road to Klockrike, 1948) was another huge success, and in 1949 Martinson became the first proletarian writer to be elected a member of the Swedish Academy.
One of his most noted works is the poetic cycle Aniara, which is a story of the spacecraft Aniara that during a journey through space loses its course and subsequently floats on without destination. The book was published in 1956 and became an opera in 1959 composed by Karl-Birger Blomdahl. The cycle has been described as "an epic story of man's fragility and folly".
From 1929 to 1940, he was married to novelist Moa Martinson, prominent as a feminist and proletarian author, whom he met through a Stockholm anarchist newspaper, Brand. He travelled to the Soviet Union in 1934. He and Moa were divorced due to her criticism of his lack of political commitment. Harry married Ingrid Lindcrantz (1916–1994) in 1942.
Writing
Harry Martinson debuted in 1929 with the collection of poems Spökskepp (Ghost Ship), that for the most part employed motifs of the ocean and life as a seaman. The same year he contributed to anthology Fem unga, a ground-breaking and highly influential book in modernist Swedish literature. Martinson's major breakthrough was his 1931 poetry collection Nomad. His poetry was noted for rich imagery with precise observations that emphazised details. In the books Resor utan mål (Aimless journeys, 1932) and Kap Farväl! (1933; English translation Cape Farewell, 1934) Martinson recalled memories of his life as a seaman. In his later writing nature and the earth became increasingly important motifs. During the 1930s he developed a mastery in describing nature in both prose and poetry and was especially noted for his short nature poems with precise observations. In the autobiographical novels Nässlorna blomma (Flowering Nettle, 1935) and Vägen ut (The Way Out, 1936) Martinson tells about his childhood. Martinson had a strong interest in science which was a prominent influence in his work. In his book Verklighet till döds (Reality to Death, 1940) written during World war II Martinson criticized contemporary social conditions and technological development. Criticism of modern culture is also a theme in Martinson's philosophical vagabond novel Vägen till Klockrike (1948; English translation The Road, 1950) and the collection of poems Passad (1945).
In his later writing Martinson developed a new major theme based on his increasing interest in outer space and the cosmic. This came to most distinct expression in Aniara (1956), a poetic space epic that became Martinson's best known work. In his late work criticism of modern life and its technology came to an even stronger expression in his 1960 poetry collection Vagnen (The Wagon), which unlike his previous books was not well received by contemporary critics. Sensitive to criticism it appeared to be Martinson's last published collection of poems, but in 1971 he returned with Dikter om ljus och mörker (Poems of Light and Darkness), which was followed by a collection of nature poems Tuvor (Tufts) in 1973.
Nobel Prize
In 1974 Martinson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for writings that catch the dewdrop and reflect the cosmos."
The joint selection of Eyvind Johnson and Martinson for the Nobel Prize was very controversial as both were members of the Swedish Academy, the institution that awards the Nobel Prize in Literature. Graham Greene, Jorge Luis Borges, Saul Bellow and Vladimir Nabokov were favourites to win the award that year.
At the award ceremony on 10 December 1974, Karl Ragnar Gierow of the Swedish Academy said that Johnson and Martinson were "representative of the many proletarian writers or working-class poets who, on a wide front, broke into our literature, not to ravage and plunder, but to enrich it with their fortunes. Their arrival meant an influx of experience and creative energy, the value of which can hardly be exaggerated."
Death
The sensitive Martinson found it hard to cope with the criticism following his award, and committed suicide on 11February 1978 at the Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm by cutting his stomach open with a pair of scissors in what has been described as a "hara-kiri-like manner".
Legacy
Martinson is widely regarded as the greatest Swedish author since August Strindberg. The 100th anniversary of Martinson's birth was celebrated around Sweden in 2004. The Cikada Prize is awarded in memory of Harry Martinson since that year. The Harry Martinson Society was founded in 1984 and awards the Harry Martinson Prize to individuals or organisations working in the spirit of Harry Martinson. The Swedish Academy awards a scholarship in memory of Harry Martinson to an author writing in Swedish.
Bibliography
Titles in English where known.
Novels
Kap Farväl (Cape Farewell) 1933
Nässlorna blomma (Flowering Nettle) 1935
Vägen ut (The Way Out) 1936
Den förlorade jaguaren (The Lost Jaguar) 1941
Vägen till Klockrike (The Road) 1948
Essays
Resor utan mål (Aimless Journeys) 1932
Svärmare och harkrank 1937
Midsommardalen (Midsommer valley) 1938
Det enkla och det svåra (The easy and the hard) 1938
Verklighet till döds (Reality to death) 1940
Utsikt från en grästuva (Views From A Tuft of Grass) 1963
Poems
Spökskepp 1929
Nomad 1931. Illustrated edition 1943 with new poems and drawings by Torsten Billman
Passad (Trade Wind) 1945
Cikada 1953
Aniara 1956
Gräsen i Thule 1958
Vagnen 1960
Dikter om ljus och mörker 1971
Tuvor 1973
Radio plays
Gringo
Salvation 1947
Lotsen från Moluckas 1948
Stage play
Tre knivar från Wei 1964
Psalms
De blomster som i marken bor
Works in English
Cape Farewell (Kap Farväl!), 1934 - translated by Naomi Walford
Flowering Nettle (Nässlorna blomma), 1936 - translated by Naomi Walford
The Road (Vägen till Klockrike), 1955 - translated by M.A. Michael
Friends, you drank some darkness Three Swedish Poets: Harry Martinson, Gunnar Ekelöf and Tomas Tranströmer, 1975 - translated by Robert Bly
Aniara, 1976 - translated by Hugh McDiarmid and Elsepeth Harley Schubert
Wild Bouquet Nature Poems, 1985 - translated by William Jay Smith and Leif Sjöberg
Aniara, 1991 - translated by Stephen Klass and Leif Sjöberg
Views From a Tuft of Grass (Utsikt från en grästuva), 2005 - translated by Lars Nordström and Erland Anderson
References
External links
A translator's look at Flowering Nettles Swedish book review
1904 births
1978 suicides
People from Olofström Municipality
Writers from Blekinge
Swedish science fiction writers
Members of the Swedish Academy
Nobel laureates in Literature
Suicides by sharp instrument in Sweden
Swedish-language writers
Swedish Nobel laureates
Dobloug Prize winners
Swedish poets
20th-century Swedish novelists
20th-century Swedish poets
Swedish male poets
Swedish male novelists
|
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200525
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%20Jessica
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Lady Jessica
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Lady Jessica is a fictional character in the Dune universe created by Frank Herbert. A main character in the 1965 novel Dune, Jessica also plays an important role in the later installment Children of Dune (1976). The events surrounding Jessica's conception, her birth and her early years with Leto are chronicled in the Prelude to Dune prequel trilogy (1999–2001) by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson. The character is brought back as a ghola in the Herbert/Anderson sequels which conclude the original series, Hunters of Dune (2006) and Sandworms of Dune (2007).
Lady Jessica was portrayed by Francesca Annis in the 1984 David Lynch film Dune. Saskia Reeves played the role in the 2000 Sci-Fi Channel TV miniseries Frank Herbert's Dune, and was succeeded by Alice Krige in the 2003 sequel, Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. Rebecca Ferguson portrays Jessica in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film adaptation.
Description
Jessica is described in Dune as having "hair like shaded bronze ... and green eyes" as well as an "oval face." This shape is later notable as a marker of Jessica's bloodline. Novelist Brian Herbert, Frank Herbert's son and biographer, said that the character of Lady Jessica is modeled after his mother and Frank Herbert's wife, Beverly Herbert. Brian Herbert wrote:
The original series
Dune
As Dune begins, Jessica is the Bene Gesserit concubine to the Duke Leto Atreides, and mother to his young son and heir Paul. Leto has been granted control of the lucrative planetary fief of Arrakis, and is moving his entire household there from his ocean homeworld of Caladan. Jessica's former instructor, the Bene Gesserit Reverend Mother Gaius Helen Mohiam, is still furious over Jessica's past insubordination—she had been instructed to bear Leto a daughter but had instead intentionally conceived a son—but Mohiam is somewhat intrigued by the potential she sees in 15-year-old Paul. Still, an Atreides daughter is a crucial part of the Bene Gesserit breeding program to eventually produce a super-being they call the Kwisatz Haderach.
Previously managed by House Atreides' longtime enemies, the Harkonnens, Arrakis is an inhospitable desert planet plagued by giant sandworms, and the only known source of melange, the valuable drug at the center of the galactic empire's economy. Leto suspects treachery on the part of Padishah Emperor Shaddam IV, but cannot refuse the assignment. Soon the Baron Harkonnen launches an attack, his forces secretly bolstered by Shaddam's fierce Sardaukar warriors and aided by Leto's own trusted Suk doctor, Wellington Yueh. Coerced by the Baron to save his wife from torture, Yueh disables the shields of the Atreides fortress and delivers a drugged Leto to the Baron, but also provides Leto with a false tooth filled with poison gas. Leto bites down on the tooth in the Baron's presence, but the gas only manages to kill Leto and the Baron's twisted Mentat, Piter De Vries. Jessica is drugged, bound and gagged to prevent her using her powers. The Baron orders that she and Paul be disposed of in the desert. Thanks to supplies left by Yueh, Paul and Lady Jessica escape into the desert and find refuge with the native Fremen. They take advantage of the legends planted there by the Bene Gesserit's Missionaria Protectiva, which practices religious engineering. Jessica casts Paul as the Lisan al'Gaib, the messiah, and herself as the Reverend Mother who shall bring him, even though she has not yet experienced the Bene Gesserit spice agony that transforms an acolyte into a full Reverend Mother. Jessica is also revealed to be the secret daughter of the Baron Harkonnen himself.
Paul soon molds the Fremen into a massive army with which he hopes to retake the planet from Imperial rule. The Fremen have their own "wild" Reverend Mothers, women who undergo their own version of the spice agony to awaken their Other Memory. Jessica undergoes the ritual of spice agony and replaces the dying Fremen Reverend Mother. But Jessica is pregnant during the ordeal, exposing the fetus to the same awakening of ancestral ego-memories. A child born this way is called an Abomination by the Bene Gesserit, because experiencing this heightened awareness before they have formed a personality of their own makes them vulnerable to eventually being overtaken by one of their ancestral personalities. Jessica's daughter Alia, a full Reverend Mother from birth, is a grown woman in a child's body. Paul's Fremen seize control of Arrakis from Shaddam and the Harkonnens, and Paul accedes to the throne as Emperor.
Paul is the Kwisatz Haderach, and eventually sets the Imperium on a course lasting thousands of years in the person of his son, Leto II. Much to the frustration of the Bene Gesserit, they do not control Paul, and the events of the coming millennia leave Jessica noteworthy as a figure of history who committed a great wrong (according to the Bene Gesserit); in the coming centuries, for a Bene Gesserit to choose her love over the instructions of her order is known as "the Jessica crime."
Children of Dune
By the time of Dune Messiah, Jessica has returned to Caladan, the ancestral home of the Atreides. She has also, by some accounts, returned to the Sisterhood following the death of her Duke, and while she cannot influence Paul, she does act as distant counselor. It is also implied that she and Atreides Weapons Master Gurney Halleck have become lovers.
In Children of Dune, Jessica returns to Dune to inspect Paul's children, Leto II and Ghanima, to see if they can be returned to the control of the Sisterhood. Leto notes the identity of Jessica's birth mother: Tanidia Nerus. Realizing that Alia is fully possessed, Jessica survives an assassination attempt by Alia and flees to the desert once more, taking refuge with Fremen leader (and old friend) Stilgar in Sietch Tabr. A civil war has divided Arrakis, with Fremen revolting against the transformation of the desert started by Pardot Kynes. Alia's husband, Duncan Idaho, also realizes that Alia is possessed. When Alia instructs Duncan to make her mother disappear, Duncan kidnaps her on the orders of the Preacher, a mysterious desert figure that some suspect is Paul Atreides, who disappeared into the desert. Duncan takes her to Salusa Secundus, the home of exiled House Corrino and the previous Emperor Shaddam IV. The Preacher has told Jessica, through Duncan, to train the pupil she finds there: Prince Farad'n, Shaddam's grandson. She trains him in the Bene Gesserit way, and at the end of Children of Dune, he becomes Ghanima's concubine and Leto's Royal Scribe.
Jessica is quoted via epigraph in Heretics of Dune:
When strangers meet, great allowance should be made for differences of custom and training. — The Lady Jessica, from Wisdom of Arrakis In Chapterhouse: Dune it is noted that she "lived out her years on Caladan." According to the Appendix IV: The Almanak en-Ashraf (Selected Excerpts of the Noble Houses) in Dune, Lady Jessica dies in the year 10,256 A.G. after 102 years of life.
Prelude to Dune
In the Prelude to Dune series, it is revealed that Jessica's mother is in fact Mohiam; according to the authors, this fact was pulled directly from Frank Herbert's working notes for the original Dune series. In the storyline, Mohiam blackmails the homosexual Baron Harkonnen into a sexual encounter; when the first daughter she conceives proves genetically undesirable, she is forced to return. At this point the Baron drugs and viciously rapes Mohiam, and in retribution she secretly infects him with the disease that will later leave him horribly obese. The daughter born of this second union is Jessica.
The Prelude series also follows Jessica and Leto's relationship from their first meeting through the birth (and subsequent kidnapping and return) of their son Paul. It is indicated that Jessica's choice to bear a son is partially due to her desire to help Leto overcome the devastating loss of his first son, Victor, by his concubine Kailea Vernius.
Journal entries are attributed to Jessica via epigraph in the Prelude to Dune series:
The greatest and most important problems of life cannot be solved. They can only be outgrown. — Dune: House Harkonnen
It is not easy for some men to know they have done evil, for reasoning and honor are often clouded by pride. — Dune: House Corrino
There is no mystery about the source from which love draws its savage power: It comes from the flow of Life itself — a wild, torrential, outpouring that has its source in the most ancient of times... — Dune: House Corrino
In adaptations
1984 film
Lady Jessica was portrayed by Francesca Annis in the 1984 David Lynch film Dune. Richard Corliss of Time praised "the lustrous Francesca Annis ... who whispers her lines with the urgency of erotic revelation. In those moments when Annis is onscreen, Dune finds the emotional center that has eluded it in its parade of rococo decor and austere special effects. She reminds us of what movies can achieve when they have a heart as well as a mind."
2000 miniseries
Saskia Reeves played the role in the 2000 Sci-Fi Channel TV miniseries Frank Herbert's Dune. In her review of the 2000 miniseries, Emmet Asher-Perrin of Tor.com wrote that Reeves "embodies everything that you would expect from Lady Jessica in both bearing and commanding presence."
2003 miniseries
Reeves's real-life pregnancy forced producers to recast the role with Alice Krige for the 2003 sequel miniseries, Frank Herbert's Children of Dune. Laura Fries of Variety noted, "it's Susan Sarandon [as Farad'n's mother Wensicia] and Alice Krige who steal the thunder as opposing matriarchs of the great royal houses. Although the two never catfight, their ongoing struggle to rule the Dune dynasty gives this mini a real kick." Observing that Sarandon and Krige were "clearly relishing their roles", Fries added that "Sarandon makes a formidable enemy, while Krige, traditionally cast as the villain, proves she can work both sides of the moral fence." Asher-Perrin noted of the recast, "While it’s hard not to miss Reeves's elegance, there is an otherworldliness to Krige that suits a Bene Gesserit 'witch' superbly."
2021 film
Rebecca Ferguson portrays Jessica in the 2021 Denis Villeneuve film Dune. Ferguson explained, "She's a mother, she's a concubine, she’s a soldier. Denis was very respectful of Frank's work in the book, [but] the quality of the arcs for much of the women have been brought up to a new level. There were some shifts he did, and they are beautifully portrayed now."
Merchandising
A line of Dune action figures from toy company LJN was released to lackluster sales in 1984. Styled after David Lynch's film, the collection featured figures of various characters. A figure of Lady Jessica previewed in LJN's catalog was never produced.
Notes and references
Dune (franchise) characters
Literary characters introduced in 1965
Fictional lords and ladies
Female characters in literature
Female characters in film
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] |
200526
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil%20Governorate
|
Babil Governorate
|
Babil Governorate or Babylon Province ( Muḥāfaẓa Bābil) is a governorate in central Iraq. It has an area of , with an estimated population of 2,065,042 people in 2018. The provincial capital is the city of Hillah, which lies opposite the ancient city of Babylon (بابل), on the Euphrates river.
History
The ancient city of Babylon in present-day Babylon Province was the capital of ancient Babylonia, situated on the Euphrates river south of Baghdad, Iraq.
The city was occupied from the 3rd millennium BC but became important early in the 2nd millennium under the kings of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The sixth king of this dynasty was Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC) who made Babylon the capital of a vast empire and is best remembered for his code of laws.
The city achieved pre-eminence when Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) extended the Babylonian Empire over most of Western Asia.
Bestowing this name on the province is a manifestation of the policy of modern Iraq to link itself to the history of pre-Islamic Mesopotamia.
In 1991 Babil Governorate was the center of a Shia uprising.
Geography
Babylon province is located between 32° to 33.25° North latitude and 44° to 45° East longitude.
Districts
The Babil Governorate is divided into four districts:
Al-Mahawil District (Al-Mahawil)
Al-Musayab District (Al-Musayab)
Hashimiya District (Al Hashimiyah)
Hilla District (Hillah)
Cities
Postal codes
See also
Babylon
Babylonia
Notes and references
External links
Governorates of Iraq
|
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200527
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhi%20Qar%20Governorate
|
Dhi Qar Governorate
|
Dhi Qar Governorate () is a governorate in southern Iraq. The provincial capital is Nasiriyah. Prior to 1976 the governorate was known as Muntafiq Governorate. Dhi Qar was the heartland of the ancient Iraqi civilization of Sumer, and includes the ruins of Ur, Eridu, Lagash, Larsa, Girsu, Umma, and Bad-tibira. The southern area of the governorate is covered by Mesopotamian Marshes.
History
Ancient history
Battle of Dhi Qar
Government
Governor: Yahia Nasseri
Deputy Governor: Ahmed al-Sheik Taha
Governorate Council Chairman (GCC): Ihsan Al-Taei
Modern Dhi Qar
The governorate includes the towns of al-Rifai, Qalat Sukkar, Ash Shatrah, al-Gharraf, Suq al-Shuyouk, Khamisiyah and al-Chibayish
In the mid 1990s the governor was Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti, who later became police chief of the country, and in 1999, director of the Iraqi Intelligence Service.
Demographics
The population is approximately 2,000,000, predominantly Shia Arab. The southern marshes have traditionally been home to many Marsh Arabs.
As of 2007, the area is very poor, with an unemployment rate of 31% and poverty rate of 32%.
Districts
Al-Chibayish
Al-Rifa'i
Shatrah
Nasiriyah
Suq Al-Shuykh
See also
Al-Habboubi Square
Ayad Radhi
Cradle of civilization
References
External links
Iraq Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit Reports, Maps and Assessments of Iraq's Governorates from the UN Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit
Governorates of Iraq
1976 establishments in Iraq
States and territories established in 1976
|
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] |
200530
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20IV%20of%20Macedon
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Alexander IV of Macedon
|
Alexander IV (Greek: ; 323/322– 309 BC), sometimes erroneously called Aegus in modern times, was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) and Princess Roxana of Bactria.
Birth
Alexander IV was the son of Alexander the Great (a Macedonian Greek) and Alexander's wife Roxana (a Sogdian). He was the grandson of Philip II of Macedon. Because Roxana was pregnant when Alexander the Great died on 11 June 323 BC and the sex of the baby was unknown, there was dissension in the Macedonian army regarding the order of succession. While the infantry supported Alexander the Great's half-brother Philip III (who had some unknown cognitive disability present throughout his life), the chiliarch Perdiccas, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, persuaded them to wait in the hope that Roxana's child would be male. The factions compromised, deciding that Perdiccas would rule the Empire as regent while Philip would reign, but only as a figurehead with no real power. If the child was male, then he would be king. Alexander IV was born in late 323 BC or early 322.
Regents
After a severe regency, military failure in Egypt, and mutiny in the army, Perdiccas was assassinated by his senior officers in May or June 321 or 320 BC (problems with Diodorus's chronology have made the year uncertain), after which Antipater was named as the new regent at the Partition of Triparadisus. He brought with him Roxana and the two kings to Macedon and gave up the pretence of ruling Alexander's Empire, leaving former provinces in Egypt and Asia under the control of the satraps. When Antipater died in 319 BC he left Polyperchon, a Macedonian general who had served under Philip II and Alexander the Great, as his successor, passing over his own son, Cassander.
Civil war
Cassander allied himself with Ptolemy Soter, Antigonus and Eurydice, the ambitious wife of king Philip Arrhidaeus, and declared war upon the Regency. Polyperchon was allied with Eumenes and Olympias.
Although Polyperchon was successful at first, taking control of the Greek cities, his fleet was destroyed by Antigonus in 318 BC. When, after the battle, Cassander assumed full control of Macedon, Polyperchon was forced to flee to Epirus, followed by Roxana and the young Alexander. A few months later, Olympias was able to persuade her relative Aeacides of Epirus to invade Macedon with Polyperchon. When Olympias took the field, Eurydice's army refused to fight against the mother of Alexander and defected to Olympias, after which Polyperchon and Aeacides retook Macedon. Philip and Eurydice were captured and executed on December 25, 317 BC, leaving Alexander IV king, and Olympias in effective control, as she was his regent.
Cassander returned in the following year (316 BC), conquering Macedon once again. Olympias was immediately executed, while the king and his mother were taken prisoner and held in the citadel of Amphipolis under the supervision of Glaucias. When the general peace between Cassander, Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus put an end to the Third Diadoch War in 311 BC, the peace treaty recognized Alexander IV's rights and explicitly stated that when he came of age he would succeed Cassander as ruler.
Death
Following the treaty, defenders of the Argead dynasty began to declare that Alexander IV should now exercise full power and that a regent was no longer needed, since he had almost reached the significant age of 14, the age at which a Macedonian noble could become a court page. Cassander's response was definitive: to secure his rule, in 309 BC he commanded Glaucias to secretly assassinate the 14-year-old Alexander IV and his mother. The orders were carried out, and they were both poisoned. There is controversy about the exact year of Alexander IV's death because of conflicting sources but the consensus of Hammond and Walbank in A History of Macedonia Vol. 3 is that Alexander was killed late in the summer of 309 BC, shortly after his alleged half-brother Heracles. However, Green thinks that Heracles was killed after Alexander IV's assassination.
One of the royal tombs discovered by the archaeologist Manolis Andronikos in the so-called "Great Tumulus" in Vergina in 1977/8 is believed to belong to Alexander IV.
References
Further reading
Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Alexander IV", Boston, (1867).
External links
Livius.org: Alexander IV
Wiki Classical Dictionary: Alexander IV
323 BC births
309 BC deaths
4th-century BC Babylonian kings
4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs
4th-century BC murdered monarchs
4th-century BC Pharaohs
Ancient child rulers
Argead kings of Macedonia
Deaths by poisoning
Family of Alexander the Great
Greek people of Iranian descent
Monarchs of Persia
Murdered royalty of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
People who died under the regency of Cassander
Pharaohs of the Argead dynasty
Rulers who died as children
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] |
200532
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkuk%20Governorate
|
Kirkuk Governorate
|
Kirkuk Governorate (, , ) or Kirkuk Province is a governorate in northern Iraq. The governorate has an area of . In 2017 the estimated population was 1,259,561 people. The provincial capital is the city of Kirkuk. It is divided into four districts.
The province was named Kirkuk Governorate until 1976, when it was named At-Ta'mim Governorate, meaning "nationalization", referring to the national ownership of the regional oil and natural gas reserves. In 2006, the name "Kirkuk Governorate" was restored.
Governorate government
Governor:Rakan Saeed al-Jabouri
Provincial Council Chairman (PCC): Rebwar Talabani
Districts
Demographics
Kirkuk Governorate borders were altered in 1976; when 4 districts were added to the Sulaymaniya, Diyala and Saladin Governorates. With these 4 districts, in the Kirkuk Governorate the Kurds would form a clear majority. The Kirkuk Governorate received the Arab populated Zab District from the Mosul Governorate.
With the Arabization policies of the Ba'ath party, the number of Arabs in official censuses increased fivefold within 40 years, however the most reliable data indicative of the ethnic breakdown of the governorate are those of the 1957 census. The number of Kurds remained relatively constant from 1957 until 1977, decrease in their numbers coincides with the Arabization process in the 1990s. The Turkmens were seriously affected by the Ba'ath changing Kirkuk borders their percentage fell from 21% to 7%.
Starting from 1977, 2,000 Christians (Assyrians) were registered as Arabs. From the end of the Gulf War to 1999, about 11,000 Kurdish families were deported from Kirkuk. Since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, 100,000 Kurds have returned to the city of Kirkuk.
Statistics
Ethnic data from a League of Nations report from 1925 and British data from 1924, 1930 and 1931:
A report by the International Crisis Group points out that figures from 1977 and 1997 censuses "are all considered highly problematic, due to suspicions of regime manipulation" because Iraqi citizens were only allowed to indicate belonging to either the Arab or Kurdish ethnic groups; consequently, this skewed the number of other ethnic minorities, such as Iraq's third largest ethnic group – the Iraqi Turkmen.
2018 election results
The following is the results of the 2018 Iraqi parliamentary election in the Kirkuk governorate. Election results are often used to estimate the demographics of the region. However, Iraqi citizens do not necessary vote for parties based on its ethnic affiliation.
See also
2009 Kirkuk governorate election
Arabization and Kurdification
Disputed territories of Northern Iraq
References
External links
Iraq Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit Reports, Maps and Assessments of Iraq's Governorates from the UN Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit
Governorates of Iraq
|
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200535
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella%20of%20Valois
|
Isabella of Valois
|
Isabella of France (9 November 1389 – 13 September 1409) was Queen of England as the second spouse of Richard II. She married the king at the age of six and was widowed three years later. She later married Charles, Duke of Orléans, dying in childbirth at the age of nineteen.
Life
Isabella was the daughter of Charles VI of France and Isabeau of Bavaria. On 31 October 1396, at the age of six, Isabella married the widower King Richard II of England in a move for peace with France. The fact that she was a child was discussed during the negotiations, but Richard replied that each day would rectify that problem, that it was an advantage as he would then be able to shape her in accordance with his ideal, and that he was young enough to wait.
Isabella herself told the English envoys that she was happy to be Queen of England, because she had been told that this would make her a great lady. She is described as pretty, and reportedly practised in order to be able to perform her role as queen. King Richard travelled to Paris to fetch her, where the wedding was celebrated with grand festivities at the French royal court, before they continued to the English enclave of Calais, where the formal wedding ceremony was performed on 31 October.
Queen of England
After the wedding, Queen Isabella followed Richard to England, where she moved into Windsor Castle with her own court under the supervision of her appointed governess and chief lady-in-waiting Lady de Coucy (later replaced by Lady Mortimer). She was formally crowned Queen of England in Westminster Abbey in 1397.
Although their union was an arranged political marriage, Richard II and Isabella developed a mutually respectful relationship. Richard regularly visited her in Windsor, where he treated her with respect and entertained her and her ladies-in-waiting with humorous conversation, and Isabella reportedly enjoyed and looked forward to his visits.
By May 1399, the Queen had been moved to Portchester Castle for protection while Richard went on a military campaign in Ireland. During the following rebellion against Richard, Isabella was moved by the Duke of York first to Wallingford Castle and then to Leeds Castle. When on his return to England Richard II was imprisoned and died in custody, Queen Isabella was ordered by the new King Henry IV to move out of Windsor Castle and to settle in the Bishop of Salisbury's Thames-side Sonning Palace in formal house arrest.
Later life
In 1400, Richard was killed, and the French court requested that Isabella return to France. King Henry IV initially refused, deciding Queen Isabella should marry his son, the future Henry V of England, but she refused. Knowing her spouse was dead, she went into mourning, ignoring Henry IV's demands. In August 1401, he let her go back to France, but kept her dowry.
In 1406, Henry IV repeated his suggestion that Isabella marry his son, but it was refused by the French court. Henry V went on to marry her sister, Catherine of Valois.
On 29 June 1406, Queen Isabella, aged 16, married her cousin, Charles, Duke of Orléans, aged 11. She died in childbirth at the age of 19. Her surviving daughter, Joan, married John II of Alençon in 1424. Isabella's body was interred in Blois, in the abbey of St Laumer, where it was later discovered in 1624, curiously wrapped in bands of linen plated over with quicksilver. It was then transferred to the church of the Celestines in Paris, France.
Ancestry
References
Sources
|-
Irish royal consorts
1389 births
1409 deaths
French princesses
English royal consorts
People of the Hundred Years' War
House of Valois
Ladies of the Garter
15th-century English women
People from Sonning
Deaths in childbirth
Duchesses of Orléans
14th-century French people
15th-century French people
14th-century English people
15th-century English people
14th-century French women
15th-century French women
14th-century English women
Richard II of England
Daughters of kings
Remarried royal consorts
|
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] |
200536
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20monarchs%20of%20East%20Anglia
|
List of monarchs of East Anglia
|
The kingdom of East Anglia (also known as the kingdom of the East Angles), was a small independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom that comprised what are now the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk and perhaps the eastern part of the Fens. The kingdom was one of the seven traditional members of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. The East Angles were initially ruled (from the 6th century until 749) by members of the Wuffingas dynasty, named after Wuffa, whose name means 'descendants of the wolf'. The last king was Guthrum II, who ruled in the 10th century.
After 749 East Anglia was ruled by kings whose genealogy is not known, or by sub-kings who were under the control of the kings of Mercia. East Anglia briefly recovered its independence after the death of Offa of Mercia in 796, but Mercian hegemony was soon restored by his successor, Coenwulf. Between 826 and 869, following an East Anglian revolt in which the Mercian king, Beornwulf, was killed, the East Angles again regained their independence. In 869 a Danish army defeated and killed the last native East Anglian king, Edmund the Martyr. The kingdom then fell into the hands of the Danes and eventually formed part of the Danelaw. In 918 the East Anglian Danes accepted the overlordship of Edward the Elder of Wessex. East Anglia then became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England.
Many of the regnal dates of the East Anglian kings are considered unreliable, often being based upon computations. Some dates have presented particular problems for scholars: for instance, during the three-year-long period of apostasy that followed the murder of Eorpwald, when it is not known whether any king ruled the East Angles. The main source of information about the early history of the kingdom's rulers is Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
Chronological list
See also
Footnotes
Sources
Further reading
East Anglia
Kingdom of East Anglia
|
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200537
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin%20Governorate
|
Saladin Governorate
|
The Saladin or Salah ad Din Governorate () is one of Iraq's 19 governorates, north of Baghdad. It has an area of , with an estimated population of 1,042,200 people in 2003. It is made up of 8 districts, with the capital being Tikrit. Before 1976 the province was part of Baghdad Governorate.
The province is named after Muslim leader Saladin, who hailed from the province. The province is also known as the home of Saddam Hussein, who was from the village of Al-Awja.
Overview
Saladin Governorate contains a number of important religious and cultural sites. Samarra, the governorate's largest city, is home to both the Al-Askari Shrine (an important religious site in Shia Islam where the 10th and 11th Shia Imams are buried), the Sardab where the 12th Imam al-Mahdi went into occultation, and the Great Mosque of Samarra with its distinctive Malwiya minaret.
Samarra was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century CE, and today Abbasid Samarra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The ancient Neo-Assyrian Empire Assyrian city of Assur is located in Al-Shirqat District on the banks of the Tigris River. Other sites in the governorate include the Crusader Dome (القبة الصلبية) north of Samarra and the Al-`Ashaq Palace (قصر العاشق).
In January 2014, there were plans announced by Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki to make the Tuz Khurmatu district into a new governorate due to its Turkmen majority. However, these plans were not implemented.
Autonomy
In October 2011, the governorate's administration declared itself a semi-autonomous region, explaining that the declaration was in response to the central government's "domination over the provincial council authorities". Saladin, which is a largely Sunni governorate, is also hoping that by declaring themselves an autonomous region within Iraq, it will entail them to a larger portion of government funding. The council cited "article 119 of Iraq's constitution" in its call for autonomy, which states that "one or more governorates [provinces] shall have the right to organize into a region" if one third of the Provincial Council members or one tenth of the voters request to form a region".
Provincial government
Governor: Raed al-Jabouri
Deputy Governor: Ammar Hikmat
Provincial Council Chairman: Ahmed Abdel-Jabbar al-Karim
Districts
Al-Daur District (Al-Daur)
Al-Shirqat District (Al-Shirqat)
Baiji District (Baiji)
Balad District (Balad)
Samarra District (Samarra)
Tikrit District (Tikrit)
Tooz District (Tuz Khurmatu)
Dujail District (Dujail)
Towns and cities
Tikrit
Baiji
Balad
Samarra
Dujail
Al-Dour
Yathrib
Al-Shirqat
Sulaiman Bek
Yankjah
Tuz Khurmatu
Al Ishaqi
Amirli
Al Seniyah
Al Dhuluiya
Sa'ad (Iraq)
Al-Faris (Bamerni)
Al-Hajaj
Population
The following table shows the populations of the districts of Saladin Governorate, according to the United Nations in 2003. No data is available for Dujail District.
See also
Assur
Tigris River
References
External links
Article and video on civilians massacre on BBC News.
"3 U.S. soldiers charged with killing of Iraqis" on CNN.
Governorates of Iraq
Saladin
1976 establishments in Iraq
States and territories established in 1975
|
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] |
200540
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinslaken
|
Dinslaken
|
Dinslaken is a town in the district of Wesel, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is known for its harness racing track, its now closed coal mine in Lohberg and its wealthy neighborhoods Hiesfeld and Eppinghoven.
Geography
Dinslaken is a city of the Lower Rhine region and situated at the northwestern margin of the Ruhr area, approx. north of Duisburg.
Neighbouring municipalities
Hünxe
Bottrop
Oberhausen
Duisburg
Rheinberg
Voerde
Division of the town
Dinslaken consists of 7 subdivisions
Eppinghoven
Hiesfeld
Innenstadt
Lohberg
Oberlohberg
Bruch
Averbruch
Hagenbezirk
Sights
The medieval parish church, St. Vincentius, was heavily damaged during World War II, but was rebuilt from 1951 to 1952.
Twin towns – sister cities
Dinslaken is twinned with:
Agen, France
Arad, Israel
Notable people
Dietrich Barfurth (1849–1927), physician and anatomist, rector of the University of Rostock
Maria Sander-Domagala (1924–1999), athlete (sprinter) and Olympic medalist
Frank Saborowski (born 1958), footballer
Wolfgang de Beer (born 1964), football player and coach
Katrin Himmler (born 1967), political scientist, author of the book The Himmler Brothers: A German Family History
Ralf Kelleners (born 1968), racing driver
Michael Wendler (born 1972), composer and songwriter
Paula Kalenberg (born 1986), actress
Timm Golley (born 1991), footballer
Linda Dallmann (born 1994), footballer
References
External links
Official website
Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia
Rhine Province
Wesel (district)
Members of the Hanseatic League
|
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200541
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%20B%C3%B6ckh
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August Böckh
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August Böckh or Boeckh (; 24 November 1785 – 3 August 1867) was a German classical scholar and antiquarian.
Life
He was born in Karlsruhe, and educated at the local gymnasium; in 1803 he left for the University of Halle, where he studied theology. F. A. Wolf was teaching there, and creating an enthusiasm for classical studies; Böckh transferred from theology to philology, and became the best of Wolf's scholars.
In 1807, he established himself as Privatdozent in the University of Heidelberg and was shortly afterwards appointed professor extraordinarius, becoming professor two years later.
The common misapprehension of Böckh's first name being not just August but Philipp August originated in Heidelberg where staff of the university misread the abbreviation 'Dr phil' (doctor philosophiae) as 'Dr Philipp August Böckh'.
In 1811, he moved to the new University of Berlin, where he had been appointed professor of eloquence and classical literature. He remained there till his death. He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814, and for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches contained in his Gesammelte kleine Schriften were delivered in this latter capacity. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1853.
Böckh died in Berlin in 1867.
Works
Böckh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology and illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old idea that philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words and the exercise of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire knowledge of antiquity (totius antiquitatis cognitio), historical and philosophical. He divides philology into five parts: first, an inquiry into public acts, with a knowledge of times and places, into civil institutions, and also into law; second, an inquiry into private affairs; third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of the ancient nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical speculations and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a complete explanation of the language.
Böckh set forth these ideas in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (Gesammelte kleine Schriften, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress of German philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the historical construction of the entire life — therefore, of all forms of culture and all the productions of a people in its practical and spiritual tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great for any one person; but the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus to the pursuit of truth, and scholars strive because they have not attained. An account of Böckh's division of philology will be found in Freund's Wie studiert man Philologie?.
From 1806, till his death Böckh's literary activity was unceasing. His principal works include an edition of Pindar, the first volume of which (1811) contains the text of the Epinician odes; a treatise, De Metris Pindari, in three books; and Notae Criticae: the second (1819) contains the Scholia; and part ii. of volume ii. (1821) contains a Latin translation, a commentary, the fragments and indices. It was for a long time the most complete edition of Pindar. But it was especially the treatise on the metres which placed Böckh in the first rank of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of the subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine the Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing out at the same time the close connection between the music and the poetry of the Greeks. He investigated minutely the nature of Greek music as far as it can be ascertained, as well as all the details regarding Greek musical instruments; and he explained the statements of the ancient Greek writers on rhythm. In this manner he laid the foundation for a scientific treatment of Greek metres.
His Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener (1817; 2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume Urkunden über das Seewesen des attischen Staats; 3rd ed. 1886) was translated into English under the title of The Public Economy of Athens. In it he investigated a subject of peculiar difficulty with profound learning. He amassed information from the whole range of Greek literature, carefully appraised the value of the information given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his Metrologische Untersuchungen über Gewichte, Münzfüsse, und Masse des Alterthums (1838).
In regard to the taxes and revenue of the Athenian state he derived a great deal of his most trustworthy information from inscriptions, many of which are given in his book. When the Berlin Academy of Sciences projected the plan of a Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, Böckh was chosen as the principal editor. This work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the third and fourth volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A. Kirchhoff and H. Röhl.
Böckh's activity was continually digressing into widely different fields. He gained for himself a foremost position amongst the investigators of ancient chronology, and his name occupies a place by the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen. His principal works on this subject were: Zur Geschichte der Mondcyclen der Hellenen (1855); Epigraphisch-chronologische Studien (1856); Über die vierjährigen Sonnenkreise der Alten (1863), and several papers which he published in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy. Böckh also occupied himself with philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic doctrine of the world, De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica et de vera Indole, Astronomiae Philolaice (1810), to which may be added Manetho und die Hundsternperiode (1845).
In opposition to Otto Gruppe, he denied that Plato affirmed the diurnal rotation of the earth (Untersuchungen über das kosmische System des Platon, 1852), and when in opposition to him Grote published his opinions on the subject (Plato and the Rotation of the Earth) Böckh was ready with his reply. Another of his earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was Commentatio Academica de simultate quae Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur (1811). Other philosophical writings were Commentatio in Platonis qui vulgo fertur Minoem (1806), and Philolaos des Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruchstücken (1819), in which he endeavoured to show the genuineness of the fragments.
Besides his edition of Pindar, Böckh published an edition of the Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation and essays. An early and important work on the Greek tragedians is his Graecae Tragoediae Principum ... num ea quae supersunt et genuine omnia sint et forma primitive servata (1808).
The smaller writings of Böckh began to be collected in his lifetime. Three of the volumes were published before his death, and four after (Gesammelte kleine Schriften, 1858–1874). The first two consist of orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his contributions to the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, and the seventh contains his critiques. Böckh's lectures, delivered from 1809-1865, were published by Bratusehek under the title of Encyklopädie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften (1877; 2nd ed. Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set forth in Elze, Über Philologie als System (1845), and Reichhardt, Die Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt (1846). His correspondence with Karl Otfried Müller appeared at Leipzig in 1883.
John Paul Pritchard has made an abridged translation of Böckh's Encyclopädie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften: August Boeckh, On Interpretation and Criticism, University of Oklahoma Press, 1968.
Works
Philolaos des Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruchstücken seines Werkes (1819)
See also
Friedrich August Wolf
References
Citations
Sources
Frederick C. Beiser, The German Historicist Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2011.
Max Hoffmann, August Böckh, 1901.
S. Reiter, in Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum (1902), p. 436.
Sachse, Erinnerungen an August Böckh, 1868.
Stark, in the Verhandlungen den Würzburger Philologensammlung, 1868.
External links
1785 births
1867 deaths
People from the Margraviate of Baden
German classical scholars
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
University of Halle alumni
Heidelberg University faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Writers from Karlsruhe
|
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200550
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baire%20space
|
Baire space
|
In mathematics, a topological space is said to be a Baire space, if for any given countable collection of closed sets with empty interior in , their union also has empty interior in . Equivalently, a locally convex space which is not meagre in itself is called a Baire space. According to Baire category theorem, compact Hausdorff spaces and complete metric spaces are examples of a Baire space. Bourbaki coined the term "Baire space".
Motivation
In an arbitrary topological space, the class of closed sets with empty interior consists precisely of the boundaries of dense open sets.
These sets are, in a certain sense, "negligible".
Some examples are finite sets in smooth curves in the plane, and proper affine subspaces in a Euclidean space.
If a topological space is a Baire space then it is "large", meaning that it is not a countable union of negligible subsets.
For example, the three-dimensional Euclidean space is not a countable union of its affine planes.
Definition
The precise definition of a Baire space has undergone slight changes throughout history, mostly due to prevailing needs and viewpoints. A topological space is called a Baire space if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:
Every non-empty open subset of is a nonmeager subset of ;
Every comeagre subset of is dense in ;
The union of any countable collection of closed nowhere dense subsets (i.e. each closed subset has empty interior) has empty interior;
Every intersection of countably many dense open sets in is dense in ;
Whenever the union of countably many closed subsets of has an interior point, then at least one of the closed subsets must have an interior point;
Every point in has a neighborhood that is a Baire space (according to any defining condition other than this one).
So is a Baire space if and only if it is "locally a Baire space."
Sufficient conditions
Baire category theorem
The Baire category theorem gives sufficient conditions for a topological space to be a Baire space.
It is an important tool in topology and functional analysis.
(BCT1) Every complete pseudometric space is a Baire space. More generally, every topological space that is homeomorphic to an open subset of a complete pseudometric space is a Baire space. In particular, every completely metrizable space is a Baire space.
(BCT2) Every locally compact Hausdorff space (or more generally every locally compact sober space) is a Baire space.
BCT1 shows that each of the following is a Baire space:
The space of real numbers
The space of irrational numbers, which is homeomorphic to the Baire space of set theory
Every compact Hausdorff space is a Baire space.
In particular, the Cantor set is a Baire space.
Indeed, every Polish space.
BCT2 shows that every manifold is a Baire space, even if it is not paracompact, and hence not metrizable.
For example, the long line is of second category.
Other sufficient conditions
A product of complete metric spaces is a Baire space.
A topological vector space is nonmeagre if and only if it is a Baire space, which happens if and only if every closed balanced absorbing subset has non-empty interior.
Examples
The space of real numbers with the usual topology, is a Baire space, and so is of second category in itself. The rational numbers are of first category and the irrational numbers are of second category in .
Another large class of Baire spaces are algebraic varieties with the Zariski topology. For example, the space of complex numbers whose open sets are complements of the vanishing sets of polynomials is an algebraic variety with the Zariski topology. Usually this is denoted .
The Cantor set is a Baire space, and so is of second category in itself, but it is of first category in the interval with the usual topology.
Here is an example of a set of second category in with Lebesgue measure :
where is a sequence that enumerates the rational numbers.
Note that the space of rational numbers with the usual topology inherited from the real numbers is not a Baire space, since it is the union of countably many closed sets without interior, the singletons.
Non-example
One of the first non-examples comes from the induced topology of the rationals inside of the real line with the standard euclidean topology.
Given an indexing of the rationals by the natural numbers so a bijection and let where which is an open, dense subset in
Then, because the intersection of every open set in is empty, the space cannot be a Baire space.
Properties
Every non-empty Baire space is of second category in itself, and every intersection of countably many dense open subsets of is non-empty, but the converse of neither of these is true, as is shown by the topological disjoint sum of the rationals and the unit interval
Every open subspace of a Baire space is a Baire space.
Given a family of continuous functions = with pointwise limit If is a Baire space then the points where is not continuous is in and the set of points where is continuous is dense in A special case of this is the uniform boundedness principle.
A closed subset of a Baire space is not necessarily Baire.
The product of two Baire spaces is not necessarily Baire. However, there exist sufficient conditions that will guarantee that a product of arbitrarily many Baire spaces is again Baire.
See also
Baire space (set theory)
Banach–Mazur game
Barrelled space
Descriptive set theory
Meagre set
Nowhere dense set
Blumberg theorem
Citations
References
Baire, René-Louis (1899), Sur les fonctions de variables réelles, Annali di Mat. Ser. 3 3, 1–123.
External links
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics article on Baire space
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics article on Baire theorem
General topology
Functional analysis
Properties of topological spaces
Set theory
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200554
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergstra%C3%9Fe%20%28district%29
|
Bergstraße (district)
|
Bergstraße (; "Mountain Road") is a Kreis (district) in the south of Hesse, Germany. It is at the northern end of the Bergstraße route. Neighboring districts are Groß-Gerau, Darmstadt-Dieburg, Odenwaldkreis, Rhein-Neckar-Kreis, the urban district Mannheim, the Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis, and the urban district of Worms. Kreis Bergstraße belongs both to the Rhine Neckar Area and the Rhein-Main Region.
History
The district was created in 1938, when the two former districts Bensheim and Heppenheim were merged.
Geography
The district is located in the Odenwald mountains, with the 517m high Melibokus as the highest elevation. The Bergstraße is a tourist route which leads from Darmstadt to Wiesloch; the northern part of this route goes through the district and gave it its name.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms is split into four quarters. In the top-left it shows the Starkenburg castle, which is one of the major landmarks in the district and a reminiscence of the former Province Starkenburg, a former provinces of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, to which the District once belonged. The flower in the top-right stands for the flower-richness in spring. The cross in the bottom-left derives from the coat of arms of the imperial abbey of Lorsch Abbey, and the lion in the bottom-right is the sign of Hesse.
German Formula One driver Sebastian Vettel, who is from Heppenheim, has the Bergstraße coat of arms on the front (chin area) of his racing helmet.
Politics
Bergstraße (electoral district) for the Bundestag.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Odenwald
|
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] |
200559
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITN
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ITN
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Independent Television News (ITN) is a UK-based television production company. It is made up of two divisions: Broadcast News and ITN Productions. ITN is based in London, with bureaux and offices in Beijing, Brussels, Jerusalem, Johannesburg, New York, Paris, Sydney and Washington, D.C.
ITN produces the daily news programmes for ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 in the UK, and in recent years has diversified to produce a wide range of content including documentaries, sports, advertising and digital material for a range of international clients.
Between 1955 and 1999, ITN was more commonly known as the general brand name of ITV's news programmes. Since 8 March 1999, ITV has used ITV News as the brand name for its news programmes, though ITN continues as the network's news provider.
History
ITN was founded in May 1955 by a consortium of the initial four Independent Television (later ITV) broadcasting companies, with former Labour MP Aidan Crawley as editor-in-chief. The first bulletin was broadcast at 10 pm on 22 September 1955 on ITV's launch night. The bulletin was presented by former champion athlete Christopher Chataway. From the start, ITN broke new ground by introducing in-vision and named 'newscasters' (rather than the BBC's nameless and sound-only 'newsreaders'), and reporter packages. The unique, probing reporting style of Robin Day caused shock among politicians, finding themselves questioned continually for information – this had never been the case with the BBC. There was also some early tensions with the ITV companies. ABC Television, the ITV contractor for the north and Midlands on weekends, immediately called for shorter ITN bulletins. While the ITA ruled on a minimum of a 20-minute bulletin, disagreements with the ITV companies over ITN's budget triggered the resignation of its news editor Aidan Crawley after just one year in 1956. He was replaced by Geoffrey Cox.
Throughout the early years, ITN continued to develop its service to the ITV network with an agenda to firstly, fulfil its public service broadcasting requirements and secondly satisfy the ITV companies by attracting viewers. Under this method, ITN continued to differentiate itself from the BBC by conducting probing interviews, introducing more human interest stories and bringing ordinary people on to screen by using so-called 'vox pops' (interviews, usually held in the street, with members of the general public), all of which were seen as a radical departure at the time in British broadcasting. As the ITN reporter and later ITN political editor Julian Haviland, put it: "My view was that at ITN we must be at least as responsible and accurate as the BBC, without being so damned boring". As ITV expanded, each ITV company that made up the network's federal structure had to purchase a stake in ITN and to continue to finance the company.
In 1967, ITN was given the go-ahead by the ITA to provide a full 30-minute daily news programme at 10 pm on ITV. There was further tension with the ITV executives as they were sceptical of the idea that viewers would want a full 30 minutes of news every Monday to Friday and they were also losing valuable peak time slots which could be used for the sale of commercial advertising. News at Ten began broadcasting on 3 July 1967 with a newscaster team consisting of Alastair Burnet, Andrew Gardner, George Ffitch and Reginald Bosanquet. It was initially given a 13-week trial run, however, the programme proved to be extremely popular with viewers and continued for a further 32 years. News at Ten was to become one of the most prestigious news programmes of its time in British history with a reputation for high-quality journalism and innovation. ITN's News at Ten also prompted the BBC to gradually expand its 20:50 news bulletin from ten minutes to fifteen, twenty and then twenty-five minutes. The Nine O'Clock News began broadcasting in 1970 as News at Ten's rival. ITN also established other programmes in the ITV schedule. First Report, a lunchtime bulletin began in 1972 and by 1976, News at 5.45 commenced. This was a period when ITN enjoyed its greatest plaudits, following Lord Annan's 1977 report on the future of broadcasting, which declared: "We subscribe to the generally held view that ITN has the edge over BBC news."
ITN obtained the contract to produce Channel 4 News when the channel started broadcasting in 1982. The programme was launched by Peter Sissons, Trevor McDonald and Sarah Hogg. The hour-long programme has been broadcast at 7 pm since it started and has a reputation for high-quality journalism and thorough analysis. Further expansion came with the launch of overnight television on ITV in 1988, with ITN providing hourly news bulletins, as well as the half-hour ITN Morning News to conclude the overnight schedules.
Until the 1990s, the individual ITV companies had an obligation to provide a national news programme, which required them to take a share in the ITN operation. Following the Broadcasting Act 1990, ITN had to apply and bid for a licence to provide such services on these ITV networks, and would have to fight competition in order to preserve its services, as had become the case with other ITV franchisees. The Broadcasting Act also allowed the Independent Television Commission to introduce ownership rules for news providers. The move was to transform the company from a 'cost centre' to a 'profit-making business'. The move saw 400 staff made redundant, and the closure of a number of international bureaux to claw back a £10 million deficit in order to provide a competitive product to obtain the ITV news contract. Within three years the company turned to profit in 1993 with suggestions at the time that the company should be listed on the stock exchange.
The company launched 5 News in 1997 following the foundation of Channel 5.
The 1990s saw major changes to the television landscape in Britain. The growth of multichannel television saw ITV's share of audience fall. Against this backdrop ITV itself became increasingly commercially aggressive. This was to be a major turning point in ITN's history which saw a reduction in the ITV news contract. By this period the main ITV companies Granada and Carlton had also viewed unfavourably the scheduling of News at Ten which became a subject of dispute between ITN and the ITV companies. ITN favoured keeping the bulletin, however, the ITV companies claimed audiences were lost at 10 pm as the news interrupted films and drama programming. News at Ten eventually ended in March 1999 with ITN's flagship bulletin moved to 6.30 pm with a shorter late night bulletin at 11 pm. Consolidation of the ITV network under a unified ITV brand also saw the removal of the on-screen ITN brand which was replaced with ITV News. From this point, the ITN brand was gradually phased out and it is now only referenced to in the end production caption.
In 1997, ITN started producing the Royal Christmas Message every other year.
The early years of the 21st century was to prove to be a challenging period. The axing of News at Ten caused public outcry and ITN's viewership figures fell by 13.9% Political pressure and pressure from the media resulted in ITV bringing back a shorter 20-minute bulletin at 10 pm three nights a week. The programme eventually lost share to the BBC News at Ten (which launched in 2000 to capitalise on ITV's move) and ITV eventually axed the programme again in 2004 and moved the bulletin to 10:30 pm before bringing it back to 10 pm again in 2008. The biggest challenge came in 2001 when British Sky Broadcasting bid to supply network news to ITV as part of a consortium. ITN eventually succeeded and was awarded a contract extension to 2008. In January 2005 Sky News took over supplying bulletins to Channel 5; ITN had produced 5 News since its launch in 1997 and the contract was returned in February 2012, following a change of ownership at Channel 5.
In August 2000, ITN launched its own 24-hour news channel in the UK, broadcast on satellite, cable and digital terrestrial. It was 50% owned by ITN and 50% owned by NTL. Carlton and Granada gradually bought out the two stakes and renamed the channel the ITV News Channel. It closed down on 23 December 2005. Poor ratings in comparison to BBC News 24 and Sky News, and ITV's desire to re-use the channel's allocation on Freeview, were cited as the reasons.
In March 2004 following its acquisition of the London News Network, a company previously owned by the now merged Carlton and Granada, ITN began producing local news bulletins for the ITV London region. ITN produced More4 News between 2005 and 2009. In 2007 it began producing Setanta Sports News; however it closed in 2009.
Between 1996 and 2002, it also owned a share of London News Radio, which was based at ITN's Gray's Inn Road headquarters and operated the LBC and News Direct London radio stations. ITN used to operate a radio news service on behalf of Independent Radio News (IRN) but on 15 October 2008, IRN announced that Sky News Radio was to replace ITN as its main supplier from March 2009.
While news production remains the cornerstone of ITN's business model, the company has diversified from its original remit. ITN Source (originally ITN Archive) is one of the world's largest sources of historical film. ITN Productions creates multi-platform content for major global brands, covering genres such as factual, entertainment, news and corporate production. Clients that commission award-winning programmes from ITN Productions include major UK and international broadcasters such as ITV, the BBC, Channel 4, Channel 5, History and Discovery, with television commissions including Climbing Great Buildings on BBC2 and Mud Men on the History Channel.
News and current affairs programmes
ITV News
ITN has produced all national news bulletins on ITV since the network was launched on 22 September 1955. Originally the ITN logo and brand featured prominently on all news bulletins on ITV, however, since March 1999, bulletins have been branded as ITV News. Trademarks of ITV News include the use of the clock-face of the Elizabeth Tower of Westminster Palace, the chimes of Big Ben punctuating the day's headlines and the signature theme tune; The Awakening by Johnny Pearson.
Throughout the early years, ITN established programmes in the ITV schedule including First Report at lunchtime, News at 5.45 in the evening and the flagship News at Ten. Today, ITV News on weekdays broadcasts the ITV Lunchtime News at 1.30pm, the ITV Evening News at 6.30pm and ITV News at Ten with bulletins broadcast at various times on weekends. ITN has at times interrupted the ITV schedule to provide updates on major breaking stories of national and international importance including the September 11 attacks, London bombings, 2005 or events involving the British Royal Family. ITN has covered every general election since 1959 for ITV, providing comprehensive coverage of the counts throughout election night and has also broadcast special programmes covering the UK budget speech given by the Chancellor of the Exchequer.
ITN's history is inextricably linked to that of ITV as prior to the Broadcasting Act 1990 each of the ITV companies owned a share. In the 1990s, under new ownership, it was accused of abandoning its previous news style, which was broadsheet in style to mid-market tabloid with news stories that focused on personalities in the news, leading to accusations of dumbing down.
ITN's most famous news programme, News at Ten was also controversially replaced by an 11 pm news bulletin in 1999, said to be in order to allow ITV to broadcast films without the interruption of a 10 o'clock news bulletin. News at Ten was subsequently re-instated in 2001 after heavy public criticism over the change. The restored programme was 10 minutes shorter than its predecessor and carried less in-depth news coverage. It was also broadcast at a later time at least one day a week, which meant it was often jokingly referred to as News at When? There was increasing speculation that the News at Ten would again be moved, after under-performing against the [[BBC News at Ten|BBC's Ten O'Clock News]] on BBC One which broadcasts every day at 10:00 pm. In October 2003, the Independent Television Commission gave ITV approval to move News at Ten.The ITV News at 10.30 launched on ITV on 2 February 2004 (the day that ITV in England, Wales and Southern Scotland came under the ownership of a single company) and was presented by Sir Trevor McDonald. The programme was longer than its predecessor and carried an integrated regional bulletin, as well as more business stories, a nightly sports update and a preview of the following day's newspapers. Mark Austin took over main presenting duties on 16 January 2006.
The rebranded programme again saw new titles, this time featuring people walking over the face of Big Ben and has lately followed a more "sensationalist" approach to its main headlines. When ITV executive chairman Michael Grade joined ITV, he made it clear that he saw news as the key in defining any channel. On 14 January 2008, the News at Ten returned, presented by Julie Etchingham and McDonald returned to his duties again. Mark Austin joined Etchingham as co-presenter in 2009. As of October 2015, Tom Bradby has been the main presenter on the programme.
The ITV Evening News has, since it was launched in 1999, been the network's most popular bulletin. Its main presenter is Mary Nightingale.
In March 2004, ITN took over production of ITV London's regional news programmes, which relocated from The London Television Centre on the South Bank to ITN's Gray's Inn Road base.
On 24 January 2022, ITV announced that the 6:30pm ITV Evening News will be extended to an hour from March 2022, making it the third hour long news programme ITN will be producing for the national PSB channels in 2022, along with Channel 4 News and 5 News at 5'.
Channel 4 News
ITN is home to Channel 4 News, having produced the programme since the channel's inception in 1982.
The Channel 4 News flagship programme is 55 minutes of in-depth news and current affairs broadcast at 7 pm each weekday and at 6:30 pm on Saturdays and Sundays. The weekday evening programme was anchored by journalist Jon Snow for 32 years until 23 December 2021, with the programme now being presented by a range of newscasters, including Unreported World presenter Krishnan Guru-Murthy.
A five-minute-long news summary goes out Monday to Friday at midday. The bulletin replaced Channel 4's 30-minute News at Noon programme in late 2009, six years after its launch during the Iraq War of 2003.
ITN created More4 News when the digital channel More4 was launched in October 2005. It ran at 8 pm, immediately after Channel 4 News. It was originally presented by Sarah Smith; Kylie Morris took over presenting duties in June 2007 and Smith was posted to the US as Channel 4 News' Washington correspondent. In December 2009 Channel 4 cancelled More4 News.
5 News
From the launch of Channel 5 in 1997, ITN provided the news bulletins for 5 News. However, in January 2005, ITN lost the contract, which was awarded to Sky News. In 2011 ITN regained the contract in a three-year deal to provide news for Channel 5 from early 2012, but on a much-reduced budget. The deal followed an agreement by Sky and Northern & Shell, the then-owner of Channel 5, to terminate the 5 News contract early.
In addition to a number of short bulletins, ITN provided two main half-hour evening news programmes for Channel 5 until 2021. In September 2021, Ofcom approved the removal of the 6.30pm news slot by Channel 5 in order for the ViacomCBS channel to schedule Neighbours at 6pm and Eggheads at 6.30pm with a new hour long 5 News programme going out on the channel at 5pm. Ofcom's approval of the channel's new conditions recognised that there will be still three-hours of news between 5-8pm over all the main public service broadcasters’ channels, and that Channel 5 was still committed to delivering more than 280 hours of news each year. The relaunched hour long 5 News at 5 was first broadcast by the channel on 8 November 2021, with the programme presented by Sian Williams and Claudia-Liza Vanderpuije. In addition to the channel's news, ITN was given an extra hour slot by Channel 5 in January 2022 to extend their daily current affairs phone-in and discussion show Jeremy Vine each weekday morning.
The Wright Stuff/Jeremy Vine
In 2018, ITN secured the contract for Channel 5's topical morning debate and chat show The Wright Stuff, just before the host of 18 years, Matthew Wright, announced he was going to leave the programme. Wright was replaced by BBC Radio 2 presenter Jeremy Vine, who had been hosting a lunchtime phone-in debate show on the radio since 2003, with the programme becoming eponymously named when Vine took over in September 2018. In 2022, the programme was extended by Channel 5, with the extra hour being known as Jeremy Vine Extra as it is presented by Storm Huntley rather than Vine, who starts his radio show at 12pm.
Other programmes of note
Channel 5 Royal Documentaries
ITN's royal documentaries have been a ratings winner for Channel 5 on Saturday nights, with programmes released about the current monarchy under names such as Harry and Meghan: Two Troubled Years, Charles and Camilla: King and Queen in Waiting and Fergie & Andrew The Duke & Duchess of Disaster. Documentaries about the past members of the British Royal Family are also getting good viewing figures, with a programme about King George V (whose reign was from 6 May 1910 until 20 January 1936) achieving a rating of 1.4 million viewers when it was first broadcast. Most of these documentaries feature archive clips with contributions from historians and royal watchers like former BBC royal correspondent Jennie Bond or Lady Colin Campbell. As well as the British Royal Family, the slot had also been used to schedule an ITN documentary called The Grace of Monaco: Hollywood Princess about Grace Kelly, the American actor who married Prince Rainier III of Monaco in April 1956, one of the few ITN royal titles featuring foreign-born royalty.
Operations
ITN Productions
ITN Productions was formed in February 2010 and incorporates the non-news operations of ITN, including the former ITN On, ITN Factual and ITN Corporate divisions.
ITN was one of the first companies to provide news content for 3G mobile phones, when it struck a deal to provide daily news bulletins for the 3 network in 2003.
It has since expanded its video news service providing news, sport and showbiz content to a wide range of broadcasters, newspapers and websites.
Showbiz bulletins from ITN are broadcast daily on a number of television channels, including FYI Daily on ITV2, ITV3 and ITV4, and Entertainment News on 5 (formally called Access) for Channel 5's range of channels. A daily showbiz breakfast show, The Breakfast Fix was broadcast on 4Music along with showbiz updates under the name of The Fix.
From August 2013, ITN Productions was awarded the contract to produce the Premier League online and mobile highlights service for News UK. Content appears on The Sun and The Times subscription websites and mobile apps.
Digital content is supplied to sports news video agency SNTV.
ITN Productions also creates factual programming for ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 as well as international broadcasters, including Discovery Channel, History Channel, PBS and National Geographic Channel.
ITN has produced shows for Sky, with one of its later programmes being Harrow: A Very British School.
ITN also supplied programming to the now-closed Teachers TV service.
Former operations
ITN began its own World News bulletins in the late 1980s, which were shown around the world on local television channels, particularly on PBS stations in the US, where presenter Daljit Dhaliwal (now with Al-Jazeera English) enjoyed cult status. These were discontinued in 2001, in the face of competition from dedicated news channels such as BBC World (now known as BBC World News), although it still provides footage to CNN International and reports often appear on PBS NewsHour. Its ITV Evening News bulletin was shown on the Newsworld International cable channel in the US.
From December 1997 to April 2003, ITN held a 49% stake in European news channel Euronews.
ITN launched a 24-hour news channel on 1 August 2000, which in 2002 was sold to the main ITV companies Carlton and Granada, and rebranded as the ITV News Channel. It was closed down in 2005.
On the same day, ITN launched a 24-hour radio station called ITN News Radio. It broadcast nationally on the Digital One multiplex until 2003.
In 2005, ITN became a shareholder in Espresso Group, a provider of digital content to more than 60% of primary schools in the UK and also internationally. Espresso services feature an extensive library of broadband teaching resources and student activities to motivate pupils and support teachers, including content from ITN Source. In May 2008, the Education Clip Library, a unique, video licensing service for educational publishers and broadcasters around the world, was launched. It is aimed at educational publishers and broadcasters seeking to add video to their instructional products and services. Espresso was acquired by Discovery Education (part of Discovery Communications) on 7 November 2013.
Setanta Sports News was a 24-hour sports news television channel produced by ITN and jointly owned by Virgin Media Television and Setanta Sports, launched on 29 November 2007. The channel ceased broadcasting on 23 June 2009, when Setanta's UK operation were placed into administration following financial difficulties.
In October 2008, ITN founded digital production company Diagonal View as a joint venture together with digital entrepreneur Matt Heiman. The company packages footage from the ITN archive and syndicates it to a range of commercial partners including MySpace, YouTube and MSN. In March 2017, the company was sold to Sky, who paid £2.6m for ITN's stake.
ITN Consulting was the management consultancy arm of ITN, combining the resources of ITN with the consulting team's experience to advise global media companies on issues spanning all areas of strategy and operations, including financial planning, marketing, scheduling and content, recruitment, and interim management. With partner Venture Consulting, it had offices in London, Milan, Dubai, Singapore and Sydney. It operated as a network with its consultants working on engagements globally and focused "on how strategy can be implemented to deliver to real change". ITN Consulting stated that "an understanding of how global, regional and local media markets conflict and come together enables them to identify the opportunities this creates". They took an external, outsider perspective as well as having the viewpoint of senior "insider" media executives. ITN Consulting was extensively involved in the development of business plans for local TV in the UK. It also consulted a range of national broadcasters on improving performance. The unit closed in 2012.
ITN Source (formerly ITN Archive) licensed video footage from ITN's one million hours of archive content including news, drama, celebrity, comedy, music, wildlife, natural history and film. It also syndicated on-the-day news footage generated by ITN to other broadcasters and producers worldwide. The service represented the moving image libraries of Reuters, ITV (including ITV Studios), ANI, UTV, Fox News, Fox Movietone, Gaumont British, Nine Network and other specialist collections. The division was closed at the end of 2016, when ITN outsourced its archive sales to Getty Images.
Corporate affairs
Headquarters and studios
ITN has been based at 200 Gray's Inn Road since 1991. The purpose-built headquarters were designed by architect Sir Norman Foster, and officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 8 May 1991. The building also houses the ITV Network Centre and Warner Bros. offices. Prior to the redevelopment, the site was the location of The Times and The Sunday Times offices from 1974 to 1986, and The Guardian offices from 1961 to 1976.
ITN's first base was Ingersoll House on Kingsway, before moving across the road to Associated-Rediffusion's newly converted Television House shortly before the first broadcast.
In August 1969, the company moved to ITN House at 48 Wells Street, close to the BBC's Broadcasting House.
As of December 2020, there are three operational television studios based at ITN. Studios 1 and 2 are located in the basement of the building, with both studios measuring 2,438 sq ft in size each. Studio 1 is currently used by the ITV national news bulletins and the ITV News London bulletins, and comprises a full green screen backdrop in the studio, with two desk areas facing each other. Studio 2 is used by Channel 5 News and also produces Jeremy Vine's morning show on Channel 5. Studio 6 is located adjacent to the atrium of ITN and has been home to Channel 4 News since 1999.
Leadership
The Chief Executive of ITN is Deborah Turness, who re-joined the company in April 2021 after her predecessor, Anna Mallett, left to join Netflix. Mallett had been in post for around two years, having joined the company in April 2019.
Ownership
The current shareholders of ITN are:
ITV plc (40%)
Daily Mail and General Trust (20%)
Thomson Reuters (20%)
Informa (20%)
Upon its inception, ITN was jointly owned by all the ITV operating companies, with shareholdings split roughly in proportion to each company's advertising income. However, the Broadcasting Act 1990 allowed the ITC to set ownership rules. It was decided to limit the ITV companies to a maximum joint 49% stake, with no single company allowed more than a 20% holding. The powers were abolished by the Communications Act 2003.
Parodies
ITN has been spoofed several times on ITV's The Benny Hill Show, namely in one 1971 show with the logo reading "NIT" instead of "ITN" and with Hill as Reginald "Boozenquet" and Andrew Gardner.
ITN was also spoofed in a sketch in 1978 with Benny Hill as Angela O'Rippon, a parody of Angela Rippon, and as Ann Afford, a parody of Anna Ford. It was also spoofed in a black and white 1971 show and a 1973 episode.
See also
List of ITV journalists and newsreaders
Independent Radio News
References
External links
Television news in the United Kingdom
Television production companies of the United Kingdom
Companies based in London
Mass media companies based in London
1955 establishments in England
International Emmy Awards Current Affairs & News winners
Daily Mail and General Trust
ITV (TV network)
Thomson Reuters
Informa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowruz
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Nowruz
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Nowruz (, ; ) is the Persian-language term for the day of the Iranian New Year, also known as the Persian New Year. It begins on the spring equinox and marks the beginning of Farvardin, the first month of the Solar Hijri calendar (an Iranian calendar used officially in Iran and Afghanistan). The day is celebrated worldwide by various ethnolinguistic groups and falls on or around the date of 21 March on the Gregorian calendar.
The day of Nowruz has its origins in the Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism and is thus rooted in the traditions of the Iranian peoples; however, it has been celebrated by diverse communities for over 3,000 years in Western Asia, Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Black Sea Basin, the Balkans, and South Asia. Presently, while it is largely a secular holiday for most celebrants and enjoyed by people of several different faiths and backgrounds, Nowruz remains a holy day for Zoroastrians, Baháʼís, and some Muslim communities.
As the spring equinox, Nowruz marks the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere. The moment at which the Sun crosses the celestial equator and equalizes night and day is calculated exactly every year, and families traditionally gather together to observe the rituals.
While Nowruz has been celebrated since the reform of the Iranian calendar in the 11th century CE to mark the new year, the United Nations officially recognized the "International Day of Nowruz" with the adoption of Resolution 64/253 by the United Nations General Assembly in February 2010.
Nowruz
The first day of the Iranian calendar falls on the March equinox, the first day of spring, around 21 March. In the 11th century CE the Iranian calendar was reformed in order to fix the beginning of the calendar year, i.e. Nowruz, at the vernal equinox. Accordingly, the definition of Nowruz given by the Iranian scientist Tusi was the following: "the first day of the official New Year [Nowruz] was always the day on which the sun entered Aries before noon." Nowruz is the first day of Farvardin, the first month of the Iranian solar calendar.
Etymology
The word is a combination of Persian words نو now—meaning "new"—and روز ruz—meaning "day". Pronunciation varies among Persian dialects, with Eastern dialects using the pronunciation (as in Dari and Classical Persian, whereas in Tajik, it is written as "Наврӯз" Navröz), western dialects , and Tehranis . A variety of spelling variations for the word nowruz exist in English-language usage, including novruz, nowruz, nauruz and newroz.
Timing accuracy
Nowruz's timing in Iran is based on Solar Hijri algorithmic calendar, which is based on precise astronomical observations, and moreover use of sophisticated intercalation system, which makes it more accurate than its European counterpart, the Gregorian calendar.
Each 2820 year great grand cycle contains 2137 normal years of 365 days and 683 leap years of 366 days, with the average year length over the great grand cycle of 365.24219852. This average is just 0.00000026 (2.6×10−7) of a day shorter than Newcomb's value for the mean tropical year of 365.24219878 days, but differs considerably more from the current average vernal equinox year of 365.242362 days, which means that the new year, intended to fall on the vernal equinox, would drift by half a day over the course of a cycle. As the source explains, the 2820-year cycle is erroneous and has never been used in practice.
Charshanbe Suri
Chaharshanbe Suri ( (lit. "Festive Wednesday") is a prelude to the New Year. In Iran, it is celebrated on the eve of the last Wednesday before Nowruz. It is usually celebrated in the evening by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting off firecrackers and fireworks.
In Azerbaijan, where the preparation for Novruz usually begins a month earlier, the festival is held every Tuesday during four weeks before the holiday of Novruz. Each Tuesday, people celebrate the day of one of the four elements – water, fire, earth and wind. On the holiday eve, the graves of relatives are visited and tended.
Iranians sing the poetic line "my yellow is yours, your red is mine", which means my weakness to you and your strength to me () to the fire during the festival, asking the fire to take away ill-health and problems and replace them with warmth, health, and energy. Trail mix and berries are also served during the celebration.
Spoon banging () is a tradition observed on the eve of Charshanbe Suri, similar to the Halloween custom of trick-or-treating. In Iran, people wear disguises and go door-to-door banging spoons against plates or bowls and receive packaged snacks. In Azerbaijan, children slip around to their neighbors' homes and apartments on the last Tuesday prior to Novruz, knock at the doors, and leave their caps or little basket on the thresholds, hiding nearby to wait for candies, pastries and nuts.
The ritual of jumping over fire has continued in Armenia in the feast of Trndez, which is a feast of purification in the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Armenian Catholic Church, celebrated forty days after Jesus's birth.
Sizdebedar
In Iran, the Nowruz holidays last thirteen days. On the thirteenth day of the New Year, Iranians leave their houses to enjoy nature and picnic outdoors, as part of the Sizdebedar ceremony. The greenery grown for the Haft-sin setting is thrown away, particularly into a running water. It is also customary for young single people, especially young girls, to tie the leaves of the greenery before discarding it, expressing a wish to find a partner. Another custom associated with Sizdah Bedar is the playing of jokes and pranks, similar to April Fools' Day
History and origin
Ancient roots
There exist various foundation myths for Nowruz in Iranian mythology.
The Shahnameh credits the foundation of Nowruz to the mythical Iranian King Jamshid, who saves mankind from a winter destined to kill every living creature. To defeat the killer winter, Jamshid constructed a throne studded with gems. He had demons raise him above the earth into the heavens; there he sat, shining like the Sun. The world's creatures gathered and scattered jewels around him and proclaimed that this was the New Day (Now Ruz). This was the first day of Farvardin, which is the first month of the Iranian calendar.
Although it is not clear whether Proto-Indo-Iranians celebrated a feast as the first day of the calendar, there are indications that Iranians may have observed the beginning of both autumn and spring, respectively related to the harvest and the sowing of seeds, for the celebration of the New Year. Mary Boyce and Frantz Grenet explain the traditions for seasonal festivals and comment: "It is possible that the splendor of the Babylonian festivities at this season, led the Iranians to develop their own spring festival into an established New Year feast, with the name Navasarda "New Year" (a name which, though first attested through Middle Persian derivatives, is attributed to the Achaemenian period)." Akitu was the Babylonian festivity held during the spring month of Nisan in which Nowruz falls. Since the communal observations of the ancient Iranians appear in general to have been seasonal ones and related to agriculture, "it is probable that they traditionally held festivals in both autumn and spring, to mark the major turning points of the natural year."
Nowruz is partly rooted in the tradition of Iranian religions, such as Mithraism and Zoroastrianism. In Mithraism, festivals had a deep linkage with the Sun's light. The Iranian festivals such as Mehregan (autumnal equinox), Tirgan, and the eve of Chelle ye Zemestan (winter solstice) also had an origin in the Sun god (Mithra). Among other ideas, Zoroastrianism is the first monotheistic religion that emphasizes broad concepts such as the corresponding work of good and evil in the world, and the connection of humans to nature. Zoroastrian practices were dominant for much of the history of ancient Iran. In Zoroastrianism, the seven most important Zoroastrian festivals are the six Gahambar festivals and Nowruz, which occurs at the spring equinox. According to Mary Boyce, "It seems a reasonable surmise that Nowruz, the holiest of them all, with deep doctrinal significance, was founded by Zoroaster himself"; although there is no clear date of origin. Between sunset on the day of the sixth Gahambar and sunrise of Nowruz, Hamaspathmaedaya (later known, in its extended form, as Frawardinegan; and today is known as Farvardigan) was celebrated. This and the Gahambars are the only festivals named in the surviving text of the Avesta.
The 10th-century scholar Biruni, in his work Kitab al-Tafhim li Awa'il Sina'at al-Tanjim, provides a description of the calendars of various nations. Besides the Iranian calendar, various festivals of Greeks, Jews, Arabs, Sabians, and other nations are mentioned in the book. In the section on the Iranian calendar, he mentions Nowruz, Sadeh, Tirgan, Mehrgan, the six Gahambars, Farvardigan, Bahmanja, Esfand Armaz and several other festivals. According to him, "It is the belief of the Iranians that Nowruz marks the first day when the universe started its motion." The Persian historian Gardizi, in his work titled Zayn al-Akhbār, under the section of the Zoroastrians festivals, mentions Nowruz (among other festivals) and specifically points out that Zoroaster highly emphasized the celebration of Nowruz and Mehrgan.
Achaemenid period
Although the word Nowruz is not recorded in Achaemenid inscriptions, there is a detailed account by Xenophon of a Nowruz celebration taking place in Persepolis and the continuity of this festival in the Achaemenid tradition. Nowruz was an important day during the Achaemenid Empire (). Kings of the different Achaemenid nations would bring gifts to the King of Kings. The significance of the ceremony was such that King Cambyses II's appointment as the king of Babylon was legitimized only after his participation in the referred annual Achaemenid festival.
It has been suggested that the famous Persepolis complex, or at least the palace of Apadana and the Hundred Columns Hall, were built for the specific purpose of celebrating a feast related to Nowruz.
In 539 BCE, the Jews came under Iranian rule, thus exposing both groups to each other's customs. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the story of Purim as told in the Book of Esther is adapted from an Iranian novella about the shrewdness of harem queens, suggesting that Purim may be an adoption of Iranian New Year. A specific novella is not identified and Encyclopædia Britannica itself notes that "no Jewish texts of this genre from the Persian period are extant, so these new elements can be recognized only inferentially". Purim is celebrated the 14 of Adar, usually within a month before Nowruz as the date of Purim is based on a Lunisolar calendar, while Nowruz occurs at the spring equinox. It is possible that the Jews and Iranians of the time may have shared or adopted similar customs for these holidays. The Lunar new year of the Middle East occurs on 1 Nisan, the new moon of the first month of spring, which usually falls within a few weeks of Nowruz.
Parthian and Sassanid periods
Nowruz was the holiday of Parthian dynastic empires who ruled Iran (248 BCE–224 CE) and the other areas ruled by the Arsacid dynasties outside of Parthia (such as the Arsacid dynasties of Armenia and Iberia). There are specific references to the celebration of Nowruz during the reign of Vologases I (51–78 CE), but these include no details. Before Sassanids established their power in Western Asia around 300 CE, Parthians celebrated Nowruz in autumn, and the first of Farvardin began at the autumn equinox. During the reign of the Parthian dynasty, the spring festival was Mehregan, a Zoroastrian and Iranian festival celebrated in honor of Mithra.
Extensive records on the celebration of Nowruz appear following the accession of Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE). Under the Sassanid emperors, Nowruz was celebrated as the most important day of the year. Most royal traditions of Nowruz, such as royal audiences with the public, cash gifts, and the pardoning of prisoners, were established during the Sassanid era and persisted unchanged until modern times.
After the Arab-Muslim conquest
Nowruz, along with the mid-winter celebration Sadeh, survived the Muslim conquest of Persia of 650 CE. Other celebrations such as the Gahambars and Mehrgan were eventually side-lined or only observed by Zoroastrians. Nowruz became the main royal holiday during the Abbasid period. Much like their predecessors in the Sasanian period, Dehqans would offer gifts to the caliphs and local rulers at the Nowruz and Mehragan festivals.
Following the demise of the caliphate and the subsequent re-emergence of Iranian dynasties such as the Samanids and Buyids, Nowruz became an even more important event. The Buyids revived the ancient traditions of Sassanian times and restored many smaller celebrations that had been eliminated by the caliphate. The Iranian Buyid ruler 'Adud al-Dawla (r. 949–983) customarily welcomed Nowruz in a majestic hall, decked with gold and silver plates and vases full of fruit and colorful flowers. The King would sit on the royal throne, and the court astronomer would come forward, kiss the ground, and congratulate him on the arrival of the New Year. The king would then summon musicians and singers, and invited his friends to gather and enjoy a great festive occasion.
Later Turkic and Mongol invaders did not attempt to abolish Nowruz.
In 1079 AD during the Seljuq dynasty era, a group of eight scholars led by astronomer and polymath Omar Khayyam calculated and established the Jalali calendar, computing the year starting from Nowruz.
Contemporary era
Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Iran and Afghanistan were the only countries that officially observed the ceremonies of Nowruz. When the Caucasian and Central Asian countries gained independence from the Soviets, they also declared Nowruz as a national holiday.
Nowruz was added to the UNESCO List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010.
Holiday customs
House cleaning and shopping
House cleaning, or shaking the house () is commonly done before the arrival of Nowruz. People start preparing for Nowruz with a major spring cleaning of their homes and by buying new clothes to wear for the New Year, as well as the purchase of flowers. The hyacinth and the tulip are popular and conspicuous.
Visiting family and friends
During the Nowruz holidays, people are expected to make short visits to the homes of family, friends and neighbors. Typically, young people will visit their elders first, and the elders return their visit later. Visitors are offered tea and pastries, cookies, fresh and dried fruits and mixed nuts or other snacks. Many Iranians throw large Nowruz parties in as a way of dealing with the long distances between groups of friends and family.
Food preparation
One of the most common foods cooked on the occasion of Nowruz is Samanu (Samanak, Somank, Somalek). This food is prepared using wheat germ. In most countries that celebrate Nowruz, this food is cooked. In some countries, cooking this food is associated with certain rituals. Women and girls in different parts of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan cook Samanu in groups and sometimes during the night, and when cooking it, they sing memorable songs.
Cooking other foods is also common on Nowruz. For example, Sabzi polo with fish is eaten on Eid night and sweets such as Nan-e Nokhodchi. In general, cooking Nowruz food is common in every region where Nowruz is celebrated, and each area has its food and sweets.
Haft-sin
Typically, before the arrival of Nowruz, family members gather around the Haft-sin table and await the exact moment of the March equinox to celebrate the New Year. The number 7 and the letter S are related to the seven Ameshasepantas as mentioned in the Zend-Avesta. They relate to the four elements of Fire, Earth, Air, Water, and the three life forms of Humans, Animals and Plants. In modern times the explanation was simplified to mean that the Haft-sin (, seven things beginning with the letter sin (س)) are:
Sabze () – wheat, barley, mung bean, or lentil sprouts grown in a dish.
Samanu () – sweet pudding made from wheat germ
Persian olive ()
Vinegar ()
Apple ()
Garlic ()
Sumac ()
The Haft-sin table may also include a mirror, candles, painted eggs, a bowl of water, goldfish, coins, hyacinth, and traditional confectioneries. A "book of wisdom" such as the Quran, Bible, Avesta, the of Ferdowsi, or the divān of Hafez may also be included. Haft-sin's origins are not clear. The practice is believed to have been popularized over the past 100 years.
Haft-mewa
In Afghanistan, people prepare Haft Mēwa (, ) for Nauruz, a mixture of seven different dried fruits and nuts (such as raisins, silver berry, pistachios, hazelnuts, prunes, walnut, and almonds) served in syrup.
Khoncha
Khoncha () is the traditional display of Novruz in the Republic of Azerbaijan. It consists of a big silver or copper tray, with a tray of green, sprouting wheat (samani) in the middle and a dyed egg for each member of the family arranged around it. The table should be with at least seven dishes.
Amu Nowruz and Hajji Firuz
In Iran, the traditional heralds of the festival of Nowruz are Amu Nowruz and Haji Firuz, who appear in the streets to celebrate the New Year.
Amu Nowruz brings children gifts, much like his counterpart Santa Claus. He is the husband of Nane Sarma, with whom he shares a traditional love story in which they can meet each other only once a year. He is depicted as an elderly silver-haired man with a long beard carrying a walking stick, wearing a felt hat, a long cloak of blue canvas, a sash, giveh, and linen trousers.
Haji Firuz, a character with his face and hands covered in soot, clad in bright red clothes and a felt hat, is the companion of Amu Nowruz. He dances through the streets while singing and playing the tambourine. In the traditional songs, he introduces himself as a serf trying to cheer people whom he refers to as his lords.
Kampirak
In the folklore of Afghanistan, Kampirak and his retinue pass village by village distributing gathered charities among people. He is an old bearded man wearing colorful clothes with a long hat and rosary who symbolizes beneficence and the power of nature yielding the forces of winter. The tradition is observed in central provinces, specially Bamyan and Daykundi.
Nauryz kozhe
In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhs and Kyrgyzs start the new year by cooking nauryz kozhe or nooruz koze, a traditional drink.
Locality
The festival of Nowruz is celebrated by many groups of people in the Black Sea basin, the Balkans, the South Caucasus, Western Asia, central and southern Asia, and by Iranian peoples worldwide.
Places where Nowruz is a public holiday include:
Afghanistan
Albania
Azerbaijan (five days)
Georgia
Iran (thirteen days)
Iraqi Kurdistan
Kazakhstan (four days)
Kosovo
Kyrgyzstan
Bayan-Ölgii, Mongolia
Tajikistan (four days)
Turkmenistan (two days)
Uzbekistan
Nowruz is celebrated by Kurds in Iraq and Turkey, as well as by the Iranis, Shias and Parsis in the Indian subcontinent and diaspora.
Nowruz is also celebrated by Iranian communities in the Americas and in Europe, including Los Angeles, Phoenix, Toronto, Cologne and London. In Phoenix, Arizona, Nowruz is celebrated at the Persian New Year Festival. But because Los Angeles is prone to devastating fires, there are very strict fire codes in the city. Usually, Iranians living in Southern California go to the beaches to celebrate the event where it is permissible to build fires. On March 15, 2010, the United States House of Representatives passed the Nowruz Resolution (H.Res. 267), by a 384–2 vote, "Recognizing the cultural and historical significance of Nowruz".
Afghanistan
Nowruz marks Afghanistan's New Year's Day with the Solar Hijri Calendar as their official calendar.
In Afghanistan, the festival of Gul-i-Surkh (, ) is the principal festival for Nauruz. It is celebrated in Mazar-i-Sharif during the first 40 days of the year, when red tulips grow in the green plains and over the hills surrounding the city. People from all over the country travel to Mazar-i-Sharif to attend the Nauruz festivals. Buzkashi tournaments are held during the Gul-i-Surkh festival in Mazar-i-Sharif, Kabul and other northern Afghan cities.
Jahenda Bala ( ) is celebrated on the first day of the New Year. It is a religious ceremony performed at the Blue Mosque of Mazar-i-Sharif by raising a special banner resembling the Derafsh Kaviani royal standard. It is attended by high-ranking government officials such as the Vice-President, Ministers, and Provincial Governors and is the biggest recorded Nawroz gathering, with up to 200,000 people from all over Afghanistan attending.
In the festival of Dehqān ( ), also celebrated on the first day of the New Year, farmers walk in the cities as a sign of encouragement for the agricultural production. In recent years, this activity only happens in Kabul and other major cities where the mayor and other government officials attend.
During the first two weeks of the New Year, the citizens of Kabul hold family picnics in Istalif, Charikar and other green places where redbuds grow.
During the Taliban regime of 1996–2001, Nauruz was banned as "an ancient pagan holiday centered on fire worship".
Albania
Nevruz is celebrated annually in Albania on 22 March as Sultan Nevruz. In Albania, the festival commemorates the birthday of Ali ibn Abi Talib (died 661 CE) and simultaneously the advent of spring. It is prominent amongst the nations' Bektashis, but adherents of Sunnism, Catholicism, and Orthodoxy also "share in the nevruz festival to respect the ecumenical spirit of Albania".
Armenia
Since the 19th century, Nowruz has not generally been celebrated by Armenians and is not a public holiday in Armenia. However, it is celebrated in Armenia by tens of thousands of Iranian tourists who visit Armenia with relative ease. The influx of tourists from Iran accelerated since around 2010–11. In 2010 alone, around 27,600 Iranians spent Nowruz in capital Yerevan.
In 2015, President Serzh Sargsyan sent a letter of congratulations to Kurds living in Armenia and to the Iranian political leadership on the occasion of Nowruz.
Azerbaijan
In Azerbaijan, Novruz celebrations go on for several days and included festive public dancingfolk music, and sporting competitions. In rural areas, crop holidays are also marked.
Communities of the Azeri diaspora also celebrate Nowruz in the US, Canada, and Israel.
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, Shia Muslims in Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi and Khulna continue to celebrate it regularly. However, tradition goes back to historical East Bengal's link to the Mughal Empire; the empire celebrated the festival for 19 days with pomp and gaiety. Shia Muslims in Bangladesh have been seen spraying water around their home and drinking that water to keep themselves protected from diseases. A congregation to seek divine blessing is also arranged. Members of the Nawab family of Dhaka used to celebrate it amid pomp and grandeur. In the evening, they used to float thousands of candle lights in nearby ponds and water bodies. The National poet Kazi Nazrul Islam portrayed a vivid sketch of the festival highlighting its various aspects. In his poem, he described it as a platform of exposing a youth's physical and mental beauty to another opposite one for conquering his or her heart.
Central Asia
Nowruz widely celebrated on a vast territory of Central Asia and ritual practice acquired its special features. The festival was legitimized by prayers at mosques, and visits to the mazars of Muslim saints and to sacred streams. In the Emirate of Bukhara, a broad official celebration of Nowruz was started by Amir Muzaffar, who sought to strengthen the image of the Manghyt dynasty during the crisis of political legitimacy.
China
Traditionally, Nowruz is celebrated mainly in China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region by the Uyghurs, Chinese Tajik, Salar, and Kazakh ethnicities.
Georgia
Nowruz is not celebrated by Georgians, but it is widely celebrated by the country's large Azerbaijani minority (~7% of the total population) as well as by Iranians living in Georgia. Every year, large festivities are held in the capital Tbilisi, as well as in areas with a significant number of Azerbaijanis, such as the Kvemo Kartli, Kakheti, Shida Kartli, and Mtskheta-Mtianeti regions. Georgian politicians have attended the festivities in the capital over the years, and have congratulated the Nowruz-observing ethnic groups and nationals in Georgia on the day of Nowruz.
India
The Parsi community of India observe the new year using the Shahenshahi calendar which does not account for leap years, meaning this holiday has now moved by 200 days from its original day of the vernal equinox. In India the Parsi New Year is celebrated around August 16–17.
Tradition of Nowruz in Northern India dates back to the Mughal Empire; the festival was celebrated for 19 days with pomp and gaiety in the realm. However, it further goes back to the Parsi Zoroastrian community in Western India, who migrated to the Indian subcontinent from Persia during the Muslim conquest of Persia of 636–651 CE. In the Princely State of Hyderabad, Nowruz (Nauroz) was one of the four holidays where the Nizam would hold a public Darbar, along with the two official Islamic holidays and the sovereign's birthday. Prior to Asaf Jahi rule in Hyderabad, the Qutb Shahi dynasty celebrated Nowruz with a ritual called Panjeri, and the festival was celebrated by all with great grandeur. Kazi Nazrul Islam, during the Bengal renaissance, portrayed the festival with vivid sketch and poems, highlighting its various aspects.
Iran
Nowruz is two-week celebration that marks the beginning of the New Year in Iran's official Solar Hijri calendar. The celebration includes four public holidays from the first to the fourth day of Farvardin, the first month of the Iranian calendar, usually beginning on March 21. On the Eve of Nowruz, the fire festival Chaharshanbe Suri is celebrated. Following the 1979 Revolution, some radical elements from the Islamic government attempted to suppress Nowruz, considering it a pagan holiday and a distraction from Islamic holidays. Nowruz has been politicized, with political leaders making annual Nowruz speeches.
Kurdistan
Newroz is largely considered as a potent symbol of Kurdish identity. The Kurds of Turkey celebrate this feast between March 18 and 21. Kurds gather into fairgrounds mostly outside the cities to welcome spring. Women wear colored dresses and spangled head scarves and young men wave flags of green, yellow and red, the historic colors of Kurdish people. They hold this festival by lighting fire and dancing around it. Newroz has seen many bans in Turkey, as Turkey has a strong and long history of trying to suppress Kurdish history and culture. It has only been celebrated legally since 1992 after the ban on the Kurdish language was lifted. The holiday is now official allowed in Turkey after international pressure on the Turkish government to lift culture bans. The Turkish government renamed the holiday Nevroz in 1995. However, Newroz celebrations are still suppressed and lead to continual confrontations with the Turkish authority. In Cizre, Nusyabin and Şırnak celebrations turned violent as Turkish police forces fired in the celebrating crowds. In recent years, the Newroz celebration gathers around 1 million participants in Diyarbakır, the biggest city of the Kurdish dominated Southeastern Turkey.
In Syria, the Kurds dress up in their national dress and celebrate the New Year. According to Human Rights Watch, the Kurds have had to struggle to celebrate Newroz, and in the past and the celebration has led to violent oppression, leading to several deaths and mass arrests. The Syrian Arab Ba'athist government stated in 2004 that the Newroz celebrations will be tolerated as long as they do not become political demonstrations. During the Newroz celebrations in 2008, three Kurds were shot dead by Syrian security forces. In March 2010, an attack by Syrian police killed two or three people, one of them a 15-year-old girl, and more than 50 people were wounded. The Rojava revolution of 2012 and the subsequent establishment of the de facto Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria saw Kurdish civil rights greatly expand, and Newroz is now celebrated freely in most Kurdish areas of Syria except for Efrin, where the ritual is no longer allowed since the 2018 occupation by Turkish-backed rebel groups.
Kurds in Iraq and Iran have had more freedom to celebrate Newroz than their neighbouring countries of Syria and Turkey.
Kurds in the diaspora also celebrate the New Year; for example, Kurds in Australia celebrate Newroz, not only as the beginning of the new year, but also as the Kurdish National Day. The Kurds in Finland celebrate the new year as a way of demonstrating their support for the Kurdish cause. Also in London, organizers estimated that 25,000 people celebrated Newroz during March 2006. In Canada, the largest Kurdish Newroz festival is held in Ontario. In the States, the city of Nashville, Tennessee includes the largest Kurdish population in the United States. The Kurds celebrate Newroz by having a festival in Nashville, dressing in their traditional clothing, they sing and dance around a fire with their family and friends.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, Nowruz is typically celebrated in parts of Gilgit-Baltistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, especially near the border with Afghanistan, and across Balochistan, with a large celebration held in the capital of Quetta. Recently, the government of Iran has become involved in hosting celebrations in Islamabad to commemorate the holiday. Like in India, the Parsi and Ismaili communities have historically celebrated the holiday, as have some Shi'a Muslims.
Theology
Followers of the Zoroastrian faith include Nowruz in their religious calendar, as do followers of other faiths. Shia literature refers to the merits of the day of Nowruz; the Day of Ghadir took place on Nowruz; and the fatwas of major Shia scholars recommend fasting. Nowruz is also a holy day for Sufis, Bektashis, Ismailis, Alawites, Alevis, Babis and adherents of the Baháʼí Faith.
Baháʼí Faith
Naw-Rúz is one of nine holy days for adherents of the Baháʼí Faith worldwide. It is the first day of the Baháʼí calendar, occurring on the vernal equinox around March 21. The Baháʼí calendar is composed of 19 months, each of 19 days, and each of the months is named after an attribute of God; similarly each of the nineteen days in the month also are named after an attribute of God. The first day and the first month were given the attribute of Bahá, an Arabic word meaning splendour or glory, and thus the first day of the year was the day of Bahá in the month of Bahá. Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, explained that Naw-Rúz was associated with the Most Great Name of God, and was instituted as a festival for those who observed the Nineteen-Day Fast.
The day is also used to symbolize the renewal of time in each religious dispensation. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'u'lláh's son and successor, explained that significance of Naw-Rúz in terms of spring and the new life it brings. He explained that the equinox is a symbol of the messengers of God and the message that they proclaim is like a spiritual springtime, and that Naw-Rúz is used to commemorate it.
As with all Baháʼí holy days, there are few fixed rules for observing Naw-Rúz, and Baháʼís all over the world celebrate it as a festive day, according to local custom. Persian Baháʼís still observe many of the Iranian customs associated with Nowruz such as the Haft-sin, but American Baháʼí communities, for example, may have a potluck dinner, along with prayers and readings from Baháʼí scripture.
Twelver and Ismaʿili Shias
Along with Ismailis, Alawites and Alevis , the Twelver Shia also hold the day of Nowruz in high regard.
It has been said that Musa al-Kadhim, the seventh Twelver Shia imam, has explained Nowruz and said: "In Nowruz God made a covenant with His servants to worship Him and not to allow any partner for Him. To welcome His messengers and obey their rulings. This day is the first day that the fertile wind blew and the flowers on the earth appeared. The archangel Gabriel appeared to the Prophet, and it is the day that Abraham broke the idols. The day Prophet Muhammad held Ali on his shoulders to destroy the Quraishie's idols in the house of God, the Kaaba."
The day upon which Nowruz falls has been recommended as a day of fasting for Twelver Shia Muslims by Shia scholars, including Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei, Ruhollah Khomeini and Ali al-Sistani. The day also assumes special significance for Shias as it has been said that it was on March 16, 632 AD, that the first Shia Imam, Ali, assumed the office of caliphate. Shia Imami Ismaili Muslims around the globe celebrate Nowruz as a religious festival. Special prayers and Majalis are arranged in Jamatkhanas. Special foods are cooked and people share best wishes and prayers with each other.
See also
Akitu
Aroos-Gooleh
Dehwa Rabba, the Mandaean New Year
Dehwa d-Shishlam Rabba, the Mandaean "Little Nowruz"
Ēostre
Holi
Kha b-Nisan
New Year's Day
Pahela Baishakh
Seharane
Sham Ennessim
Vernal Equinox Day, one of the two Kōreisai Japanese holidays
Notes
References
External links
Iranian culture
Festivals in Iran
Ancient Iranian religion
National symbols of Iran
Public holidays in Azerbaijan
Public holidays in Georgia (country)
Festivals in Georgia (country)
Festivals in Turkey
Festivals in Albania
Festivals in Kosovo
Public holidays in Albania
Public holidays in Afghanistan
Public holidays in Iraq
Public holidays in Uzbekistan
Public holidays in Kazakhstan
Public holidays in Kyrgyzstan
Festivals in Iraq
Festivals in Syria
Festivals in Russia
March observances
New Year celebrations
Persian culture
Zoroastrian festivals
Festivals in Azerbaijan
Festivals in Kazakhstan
Festivals in Kyrgyzstan
Festivals in Uzbekistan
Persian words and phrases
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Observances on non-Gregorian calendars
Observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
Persian festivals
Spring (season) events in Iran
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] |
200563
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Bettany
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Paul Bettany
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Paul Bettany (born 27 May 1971) is an English actor. He is best known for portraying Vision and voicing J.A.R.V.I.S. in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Iron Man (2008), Iron Man 2 (2010), The Avengers (2012), Iron Man 3 (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). He also played the character in two Disney+ series: the miniseries WandaVision (2021), where he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie, and the animated series What If...? (2021).
Bettany first came to the attention of mainstream audiences when he starred in the films Gangster No. 1 (2000), A Knight's Tale (2001) and A Beautiful Mind (2001). He was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for playing Stephen Maturin in the film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003). Bettany's other films include Dogville (2003), Wimbledon (2004), The Da Vinci Code (2006), Creation (2009), The Tourist (2010), Margin Call (2011), Legend (2015) and Solo: A Star Wars Story (2018). He made his directorial debut with the film Shelter (2014), which he also wrote and co-produced.
Early life
Bettany was born on 27 May 1971 in London, to of Anne (), a stage singer, theatre teacher, and stage manager, and Thane Bettany, a dancer, actor, drama teacher and godfather to Sophie, Countess of Wessex. Bettany was raised Catholic, although his church attendance drifted after his confirmation. In his youth, he experimented with other Christian denominations among which were Methodist and Church of England congregations with his father. Bettany later became an atheist. While his father taught at the all-girls boarding school Queenswood School, near Hatfield, Hertfordshire, the family lived on the school grounds.
When Bettany was 16, his brother Matthew died at age 8 after falling onto concrete from a tennis pavilion roof at Queenswood. Soon after, Bettany dropped out of school, left home, and became a street performer in London. He lived in a small flat and earned money by playing his guitar in the streets as a busker. His parents later divorced. After two years, he found a new job in a home for the elderly. After working there for a year, Bettany enrolled at the Drama Centre in London. He had dyslexia prior to it being recognised as a learning difficulty.
Career
In 1990, at the age of 19, Bettany began a three-year course at the Drama Centre London in Chalk Farm. He made his stage debut in Stephen Daldry's acclaimed West End revival of An Inspector Calls at the Aldwych Theatre, playing the part of Eric Birling. He also appeared in the Royal Shakespeare Company's productions of Richard III, Romeo and Juliet, and Julius Caesar (for which he received a Charleson Award nomination). When Bettany was 21, he appeared in a BBC production of Oliver Twist, playing Bill Sikes.
After appearing in the finale of Sean Bean's series Sharpe as William II of the Netherlands at the Battle of Waterloo, he made his film debut with a small part in Bent, a Holocaust drama which also featured Clive Owen, Jude Law, and Ian McKellen. He continued doing work in stage and television: these included Joe Penhall's Love and Understanding, which played at London's Bush Theatre and then ran in Connecticut. He had roles in the television productions Killer Net and Coming Home, during which he met and dated Emily Mortimer. His last stage work was in One More Wasted Year and Stranger's House at the Royal Court Theatre. He filmed several more movies, including his first leading role in Gangster No. 1. The British Independent Film Awards nominated him for Best Actor, and the London Film Critics' Circle nominated him for British Newcomer of the Year.
Back in Hollywood, writer/director Brian Helgeland (L.A. Confidential) was planning a new film called The Sin Eater (also known as The Order). He was impressed by Bettany's audition tape, though Helgeland eventually decided to film A Knight's Tale instead. The studio executives were not impressed, but Helgeland was determined to cast him, even writing the part of Chaucer for him. A Knight's Tale would be Bettany's first big Hollywood production. He received critical acclaim for A Knight's Tale, including winning the London Film Critics Circle Award for Best British Supporting Actor. After the movie wrapped, Helgeland, determined that Hollywood should recognize Bettany's talent, showed the audition tape to many of his peers, including Ron Howard, who promptly cast Bettany in A Beautiful Mind alongside Russell Crowe and Jennifer Connelly. After A Beautiful Mind, Bettany was offered the role of serial killer Francis Dolarhyde in Red Dragon, opposite Edward Norton and Anthony Hopkins. He turned down the role due to his commitment to a role in Lars von Trier's Dogville.
Bettany's next major project saw him starring again alongside A Beautiful Mind costar Russell Crowe in Peter Weir's Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World. His portrayal of surgeon and naturalist Stephen Maturin brought him a BAFTA nomination, and he was named British Actor of the Year (London Film Critics' Circle), and Best Actor (Evening Standard).
On 28 June 2004, Bettany and 13 other actors were included in the 2004 invitation to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Dogville and The Reckoning were released in limited cinemas in 2004. In September of that year, Bettany made his leading-man debut in Wimbledon, a romantic comedy with Kirsten Dunst. The film's cast would also introduce him to Jon Favreau, playing his manager, a relationship that would return when Favreau cast him as the voice of J.A.R.V.I.S. in Iron Man. In mid-2005, Bettany filmed Firewall in Vancouver, Canada, a thriller also starring Harrison Ford and Virginia Madsen, which reunited him with Wimbledon director Richard Loncraine. He spent the autumn of 2005 filming The Da Vinci Code, based on Dan Brown's best-selling novel and starring Tom Hanks, Audrey Tautou and Ian McKellen. In the film, he played an Opus Dei monk named Silas.
In 2007, Bettany went to London to star in There For Me, written by his friends Dan Fredenburgh and Doraly Rosen. In 2008, he appeared in the New Line Cinema family fantasy Inkheart, playing the part of a fire-eater named Dustfinger. In 2009, he appeared as Charles Darwin in Creation, starring opposite his own wife Jennifer Connelly. In 2010, Bettany appeared alongside Johnny Depp and Angelina Jolie in The Tourist and portrayed the archangel Michael in Legion, a film depicting divine vengeance upon humanity. He starred in the films Priest and Margin Call, both released in 2011.
Bettany reprised his voice role as J.A.R.V.I.S. in 2010's Iron Man 2, 2012's The Avengers, 2013's Iron Man 3, and Disneyland's Innoventions attraction. In 2014, Bettany starred alongside Johnny Depp and fellow British actor Rebecca Hall in the feature film Transcendence. He was once again paired with Depp in Mortdecai, a 2015 motion picture also starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Ewan McGregor. After voicing J.A.R.V.I.S. for five years, Bettany made his first onscreen appearance in a Marvel Cinematic Universe film in the 2015 film Avengers: Age of Ultron, playing Vision. He reprised the role in the sequels Captain America: Civil War and Avengers: Infinity War.
Bettany portrayed Ted Kaczynski in the Discovery Channel television show, Manhunt: Unabomber. Bettany replaced Michael K. Williams in Solo: A Star Wars Story, after Williams was removed from the final film, as he was unable to return to set during the film's reshoots. Bettany was cast in his place, with the character being reworked from a motion-capture alien to a human. On 20 January 2018, it was reported that Bettany was nearing a deal to play Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on the Netflix series The Crown, succeeding Matt Smith. Days later, on 25 January, it was reported by TVLine that Bettany was ultimately unable to sign on due to scheduling conflicts.
Bettany starred alongside Elizabeth Olsen in the Marvel television miniseries WandaVision, portraying a new version of his Marvel Cinematic Universe character, Vision, with Olsen portraying the titular Wanda. It premiered on Disney+ in January 2021, garnering praise from critics. Reviewing the series, Matt Purslow of IGN wrote Bettany "effortlessly takes to the comedic skits" and that he and Olsen "provide a fantastic amount of life, wit, and emotion". For his performance, Bettany received nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie and Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film.
Bettany is set to play artist Andy Warhol in a production of the play The Collaboration by Anthony McCarten at the Young Vic in London from February to April 2022. He is also slated to reprise the role in a film adaptation of the play. Bettany is attached to portray businessman Alexander Nix in a film about the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal as well as co-write and star in the dramedy film Harvest Moon.
Personal life
On 1 January 2003, Bettany married American actress Jennifer Connelly in Scotland; they met when they starred together in the 2001 film A Beautiful Mind. They did not become a couple until some time after filming, as both were in other relationships at the time. As a teenager, he had developed a crush on her after seeing her in the 1986 film Labyrinth. The September 11 attacks motivated him to act on his feelings for her, and after two days of attempting to contact her, he proposed, despite the fact that they were not in a relationship. Soon after their marriage, they moved to Brooklyn Heights after having lived together in Tribeca. The couple have two children together, a son, born 2003, and a daughter, born 2011. Bettany is the stepfather to Connelly's son from a previous relationship.
In 2020, text messages between Bettany and his friend, Johnny Depp, were used as evidence in Depp’s defamation trial, Depp v News Group Newspapers Ltd, against The Sun for calling him a "wifebeater" in a 2018 article. In 2016, Bettany had defended Depp from accusations that he abused his wife, Amber Heard, stating: "He's the sweetest, kindest, gentlest man that I've ever known".
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Notes
References
External links
1971 births
Living people
20th-century British male actors
21st-century British male actors
Alumni of the Drama Centre London
Audiobook narrators
British buskers
British expatriates in the United States
English atheists
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
English male video game actors
English male voice actors
Male actors from London
People from Harlesden
People from Shepherd's Bush
People from Tribeca
Royal Shakespeare Company members
|
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200565
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Prince%20and%20the%20Pauper
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The Prince and the Pauper
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The Prince and the Pauper is a novel by American author Mark Twain. It was first published in 1881 in Canada, before its 1882 publication in the United States. The novel represents Twain's first attempt at historical fiction. Set in 1547, it tells the story of two young boys who were born on the same day and are identical in appearance: Tom Canty, a pauper who lives with his abusive, alcoholic father in Offal Court off Pudding Lane in London, and Edward VI of England, son of Henry VIII of England.
Plot
Tom Canty, youngest son of a very poor family living in Offal Court located in London, has always had a better life, encouraged by the local priest, who has taught him to read and write. Loitering around the palace gates one day, he meets Edward Tudor, the Prince of Wales. Coming too close in his intense excitement, Tom is caught and nearly beaten by the Royal Guards. However, Edward stops them and invites Tom into his palace chamber. There, the two boys get to know one another. Fascinated by each other's life and their uncanny resemblance to each other and learning they were even born on the same day, they decide to switch places "temporarily". The Prince hides an item, which the reader later learns is the Great Seal of England, then goes outside; however, dressed as Tom, he is not recognized by the guards, who drive him from the palace. He eventually finds his way through the streets to the Canty home. There, he is subjected to the brutality of Tom's alcoholic and abusive father, from whom he manages to escape, and meets Miles Hendon, a soldier and nobleman returning from war. Although Miles does not believe Edward's claims to royalty, he humours him and becomes his protector. Meanwhile, news reaches them that King Henry VIII has died and Edward is now the king.
Tom, dressed as Edward, tries to cope with court customs and manners. His fellow nobles and palace staff think the prince has an illness that has caused memory loss, and fear he will go mad. They repeatedly ask him about the missing Great Seal of England, but he knows nothing about it. However, when Tom is asked to sit in on judgments, his common-sense observations reassure them his mind is sound.
As Edward experiences the brutal life of a London pauper firsthand, he becomes aware of the stark class inequality in England. In particular he sees the harsh, punitive nature of the English judicial system under which people are burned at the stake, pilloried and flogged. He realizes that the accused are convicted on flimsy evidence and branded or hanged for petty offences, and vows to reign with mercy when he regains his rightful place. When Edward declares to a gang of thieves that he is the king and will put an end to unjust laws, they assume he is insane and hold a mock coronation.
After a series of adventures, including a stint in prison, Edward interrupts the coronation as Tom is about to be made king. The nobles are shocked at their resemblance but refuse to believe that Edward is the rightful king wearing Tom's clothes until he produces the Great Seal of England that he hid before leaving the palace.
Edward and Tom switch back to their original places and Edward is crowned King Edward VI of England. Miles is rewarded with the rank of earl and the family right to sit in the king's presence. In gratitude for supporting the new king's claim to the throne, Edward names Tom the "King's Ward", a privileged position that he holds for the rest of his life.
The ending explains that although Edward died at the age of 15, he reigned mercifully due to his experiences, while Tom lived to be a very old man.
Themes
The introductory quote—"The quality of mercy is . . . twice blest; / It blesseth him that gives and him that takes: / 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes / The throned monarch better than his crown"—is part of "The quality of mercy" speech from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice.
While written for children, The Prince and the Pauper is both a critique of social inequality and criticism of judging others by their appearance. Twain wrote of the book, "My idea is to afford a realizing sense of the exceeding severity of the laws of that day by inflicting some of their penalties upon the King himself and allowing him a chance to see the rest of them applied to others..."
History
Having returned from a second European tour—which formed the basis of A Tramp Abroad (1880)—Twain read extensively about English and French history. Initially intended as a play, the book was originally set in Victorian England before Twain decided to set it further back in time. He wrote The Prince and the Pauper having already started Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
The "whipping-boy story", originally meant as a chapter to be part of The Prince and the Pauper, was published in the Hartford Bazar Budget of July 4, 1880, before Twain deleted it from the novel at the suggestion of William Dean Howells.
Ultimately, The Prince and the Pauper was published by subscription by James R. Osgood of Boston, with illustrations by Frank Thayer Merrill and John Harley.
The book bears a dedication to Twain's daughters, Susie and Clara Clemens, and is subtitled "A Tale For Young People of All Ages".
Adaptations
Theater
The Prince and the Pauper was adapted for the stage during Twain's lifetime, an adaptation that involved Twain in litigation with the playwright. In November 1920, a stage adaption by Amélie Rives opened on Broadway under the direction of William Faversham, with Faversham as Miles Hendon and Ruth Findlay playing both Tom Canty and Prince Edward.
An Off-Broadway musical with music by Neil Berg opened at Lamb's Theatre on June 16, 2002. The original cast included Dennis Michael Hall as Prince Edward, Gerard Canonico as Tom Canty, Rob Evan as Miles Hendon, Stephen Zinnato as Hugh Hendon, Rita Harvey as Lady Edith, Michael McCormick as John Canty, Robert Anthony Jones as the Hermit/Dresser, Sally Wilfert as Mary Canty, Allison Fischer as Lady Jane and Aloysius Gigl as Father Andrew. The musical closed on August 31, 2003.
English playwright Jemma Kennedy adapted the story into a musical drama which was performed at the Unicorn Theatre in London 2012–2013, directed by Selina Cartmell and starring twins Danielle Bird and Nichole Bird as the Prince and Pauper and Jake Harders as Miles Hendon.
Comics
In 1946, the story was adapted into comics form by Arnold L. Hicks in Classics Illustrated ("Classic Comics") #29, published by Gilberton.
In 1962, Dell Comics published Walt Disney's The Prince and the Pauper, illustrated by Dan Spiegle, based on the three-part television adaptation produced by Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color.
In 1990, Disney Comics published Disney's The Prince and the Pauper, by Scott Saavedra and Sergio Asteriti, based on the animated featurette starring Mickey Mouse.
Film
The novel has also been the basis of several films. In some versions, Prince Edward carries identification when he assumes Tom's role. While animations such as the Mickey Mouse version retell the story, other cartoons employ parody (including an episode of the animated television show Johnny Bravo in which Twain appears, begging cartoonists to "let this tired story die"). Film critic Roger Ebert suggested that the 1983 comedy film Trading Places (starring Dan Aykroyd and Eddie Murphy) has similarities to Twain's tale due, to the two characters' switching lives (although not by choice).
A much-abridged 1920 silent version was produced (as one of his first films) by Alexander Korda in Austria entitled Der Prinz und der Bettelknabe. The 1937 version starred Errol Flynn (as Hendon) and twins Billy and Bobby Mauch as Tom Canty and Edward Tudor, respectively.
A Telugu film version, Raju Peda, was released in 1954 and directed and produced by B. A. Subba Rao and dubbed in to Tamil as Aandi Petra Selvam in 1957. Later a Hindi film version, Raja Aur Runk, was released in 1968 and directed by Kotayya Pratyagatma. These films "Indianized" many of the episodes in the original story.
1983 Kannada movie Eradu Nakshatragalu was inspired by The Prince and the Pauper.
The Parent Trap has a plot about twins swapping places - a Walt Disney adaptation of a 1949 children's book Lottie and Lisa () by Erich Kästner, in which identical twins separated in early life swap places to reunite their parents. The film starred Hayley Mills as twins Susan and Sharon. The film was then remade in 1998 and starred Lindsay Lohan in her feature film debut as twins Hallie and Annie.
A 1977 film version of the story, starring Oliver Reed as Miles Hendon, starring Rex Harrison (like the Duke of Norfolk), Mark Lester and Raquel Welch and directed by Richard Fleischer, was released in the UK as The Prince and the Pauper and in the US as Crossed Swords.
In 1990 Walt Disney Feature Animation released an animated featurette inspired by the novel and starring Mickey Mouse. In this version, Mickey "plays" both of the title roles, with a cast of other Disney characters.
It Takes Two, starring twins Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, is a loose adaptation of this story, in which two look-alike girls, one the wealthy daughter of a wireless service tycoon and the other an orphan, switch places in order to experience each other's lives.
The 1996 Bollywood film Tere Mere Sapne is loosely based upon this story, in which two boys born on exactly the same date switch places to experience the other's life, whilst learning valuable lessons along the way.
A 2000 film directed by Giles Foster starred Aidan Quinn (as Miles Hendon), Alan Bates, Jonathan Hyde, and identical twins Jonathan and Robert Timmins.
In 2004, The Prince and the Pauper was adapted into an 85-minute CGI-animated musical, Barbie as the Princess and the Pauper, with Barbie playing the blond Princess Anneliese and the brunette pauper Erika. In 2012, a second CGI musical adaptation was released, entitled Barbie: The Princess and the Popstar. In it, Barbie plays a blonde princess named Victoria (Tori) and a brunette pop star named Keira. Both crave the life of another, one day they meet and magically change places.
In 2006, Garfield's second live-action film, entitled Garfield: A Tail of Two Kitties, was another adaptation of the classic story.
A 2007 film, A Modern Twain Story: The Prince and the Pauper starred identical twins Dylan and Cole Sprouse.
Monte Carlo was another loose adaptation released in 2011 by 20th Century Fox and starred Selena Gomez.
Raju Peda, produced for Indian television in 1954, is a Telugu-version adaptation of the novel starring N. T. Rama Rao and directed by B. A. Subba Rao.
Television
A 1962 three-part Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color television adaptation featured Guy Williams as Miles Hendon. Both Prince Edward and Tom Canty were played by Sean Scully, using the split-screen technique which the Disney studios had used in The Parent Trap (1961) with Hayley Mills.
The 21st episode of The Monkees, aired on February 6, 1967, was entitled "The Prince and the Paupers".
The "Josie And The Pussycats" episode "Swap Plot Flop" has Valerie agreeing to pose as a kidnapped princess who looks just like her, only for the plan to backfire.
An episode of "The Osmonds" called "Jimmy And James In London" have Jimmy and Fuji switching places with their doppelgangers.
A 1975 BBC television adaptation starred Nicholas Lyndhurst.
In a 1976 ABC Afterschool Special, Lance Kerwin played the dual role in a modern American-based adaptation of the story entitled P.J. and the President's Son. The BBC produced a television adaptation by writer Richard Harris, consisting of six thirty-minute episodes, in 1976. Nicholas Lyndhurst played both Prince Edward and Tom Canty.
Ringo, a 1978 TV special starring Ringo Starr, involves the former Beatles drummer trading places with a talentless look-alike.
The BBC TV comedy series Blackadder the Third has an episode, "Duel and Duality," where the Prince Regent believes that the Duke of Wellington is after him. The prince swaps clothes with his butler Blackadder and says, "This reminds of that story 'The Prince and the Porpoise'." Blackadder corrects him: "and the Pauper," to which the prince replies "ah yes, the Prince and the Porpoise and the Pauper." Since Blackadder the Third is set during the early 1800s, this is an anachronism.
In 1996, PBS aired a Wishbone adaptation titled "The Prince and the Pooch" with Wishbone playing both Tom Canty and Edward VI.
The BBC produced a six-part dramatization of the story in 1996, adapted by Julian Fellowes, starring James Purefoy, with Keith Michell reprising his role of Henry VIII.
A 2011 episode of Phineas and Ferb ("Make Play", season 2, episode 64) follows a similar storyline, with Candace switching places with Princess Baldegunde of Drusselstein and discovering that royal life is dull.
Starting with the episode "The Shepherd" (premiered on December 4, 2011), the TV series Once Upon a Time introduced a version of the story where a shepherd named David is the Pauper and Prince James is the Prince.
The 2017 Japanese anime series Princess Principal uses a similar story as the background for the characters Ange and Princess Charlotte; their history is revealed by Ange under the guise of a fairy tale named "The Princess and the Pickpocket". Ten years prior to the start of the series, Ange, who was actually the real Princess Charlotte, met Princess, who was actually a common pickpocket named Ange and looked identical to her. They befriended one another and eventually decided to trade places for a day. Soon after the switch, however, a Revolution broke out and divided their country, separating the girls and leaving them trapped in each other's roles.
In The Princess Switch (a Netflix romantic Christmas film released in November 2018 starring Vanessa Hudgens) Margaret, the Duchess of Montenaro, changes place with baker Stacy who she accidentally meets. That plot results in 2 new love stories.
Video games
In 1996, C&E, a Taiwanese software company, released an RPG video game for Sega Genesis entitled 新乞丐王子/Xīn qǐgài wángzǐ ("New Beggar Prince"). Its story was inspired by the book, with the addition of fantastic elements such as magic, monsters, and other RPG themes. The game was ported to PC in 1998. It was eventually licensed in an English translation and released in 2006 as Beggar Prince by independent game publisher Super Fighter Team. This was one of the first new games for the discontinued Sega platform since 1998 and is perhaps the first video game adaptation of the book.
See also
Cultural depictions of Edward VI of England
Man in the Iron Mask
The Prisoner of Zenda
References
External links
1880s children's books
1881 American novels
American children's novels
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into television shows
Children's historical novels
Cultural depictions of Edward VI of England
Fictional duos
Fiction set in the 1540s
Novels about royalty
Novels by Mark Twain
Novels set in England
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0.043135229498147964
] |
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