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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineveh%20Governorate
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Nineveh Governorate
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Nineveh Governorate (, , ) is a governorate in northern Iraq. It has an area of and an estimated population of 2,453,000 people as of 2003. Its largest city and provincial capital is Mosul, which lies across the Tigris river from the ruins of ancient Nineveh. Before 1976, it was called Mosul Province and included the present-day Dohuk Governorate. The second largest city is Tal Afar, which had an almost exclusively Turkmen population.
An ethnically, religiously and culturally diverse region, it was partly conquered by ISIS in 2014. Iraqi government forces retook the city of Mosul in 2017.
Recent history and administration
Its two cities endured the 2003 Invasion of Iraq and emerged unscathed. In 2004, however, Mosul and Tal Afar were the scenes of fierce battles between US-led troops and Iraqi insurgents. The insurgents moved to Nineveh after the Battle of Fallujah in 2004.
After the invasion, the military of the province was led by (then Major General) David Petraeus of the 101st Airborne Division and later by (then Brigadier General) Carter Ham as the multi-national brigade for Iraq. During the time, the American civil head of the local office of the Coalition Provisional Authority was a US Foreign Service Officer and former Kurdish refugee to the States. Mustafa administered her nominees on the provincial council and through members of the Kashmoula family.
In June 2004, Osama Kashmoula became the interim governor of the province and in September of the same year he was assassinated en route to Baghdad. He was succeeded as interim Governor by Duraid Kashmoula, who was elected governor in January 2005. Duraid Kashmoula resigned in 2009. In April 2009, Atheel al-Nujaifi, a hardline Arab nationalist and member of Al-Hadba, became governor. While al-Nujaifi's Arab Muttahidoon bloc lost its majority to the Kurdish Brotherhood and Coexistence Alliance List in the 2013 provincial election, al-Nujaifi was reelected as governor by a larger Sunni Arab coalition that was later formalized as the Nahda Bloc.
In June 2014, insurgents from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (known as ISIS or ISIL) overran the capital Mosul, forcing an estimated 500,000 refugees to flee the area, including governor al-Nujaifi, who was subsequently deposed by the Iraqi Parliament.
While the Kurdish list proposed Hassan al-Allaf, an Arab affiliated with the Islamic Party, the provincial council elected Nofal Hammadi (formerly Loyalty to Nineveh List) with the votes of the Nahdha bloc.
An offensive to retake Mosul from ISIL control began in October 2016, with Iraqi and Kurdish soldiers supported by a U.S.-led coalition of 60 nations.
Provincial elections
Human geography
Borders
The province borders the governorates of Dohuk, Erbil, Kirkuk, Saladin, and Anbar. It also shares a border with Syria, mostly Al-Hasakah Governorate, and Deir ez-Zor Governorate.
Administrative districts
Nineveh Governorate comprises 9 districts, listed below with their areas and populations as estimated in 2018:
Demographics
Nineveh Province is multiethnic. There are significant numbers of Arabs, Turkmens, Assyrians, Kurds as well as Yazidis both in towns and cities, and in their own specific villages and regions. There are also many Armenians, Kawliya, Mandeans and Shabaks.
The majority are Sunni Muslim. 80% of the Arabs are Sunni Muslim, the Turkmens mostly are Sunni Muslim, and the Kurds are mostly Sunni Muslim. About 5–10% of the population is Christian. Generally, Yazidis, Shabaks and Mandeans are followers of their respective heritage religions, Yazidism, Shabakism, and Mandaeism.
The primary spoken language is Arabic. Minority languages include Turkmen, Neo-Aramaic dialects, Kurdish (predominately Kurmanji) and Armenian.
Proposed Assyrian autonomous region
Many Assyrian leaders advocate an autonomous Assyrian homeland within Nineveh Province for the Assyrian population.
See also
2005 Nineveh governorate election
Nineveh Plains
Assyrian homeland
List of Yazidi settlements
List of churches and monasteries in Nineveh
Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL
Genocide of Christians by ISIL
Proposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq
Notes and references
Further reading
Governorates of Iraq
Assyrian geography
Upper Mesopotamia
Yazidis in Iraq
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200570
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo%20Muti
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Riccardo Muti
|
Riccardo Muti, (; born 28 July 1941) is an Italian conductor. He currently holds two music directorships, at the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and at the Orchestra Giovanile Luigi Cherubini. Muti has previously held posts at the Maggio Musicale in Florence, the Philharmonia Orchestra in London, the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Teatro alla Scala in Milan, and the Salzburg Whitsun Festival.
A prolific recording artist, Muti has received numerous honours and awards, including two Grammy Awards. He is especially associated with the music of Giuseppe Verdi. Among the world's leading conductors, in a 2015 Bachtrack poll, he was ranked by music critics as the world's fifth best living conductor.
Childhood and education
Muti was born in Naples but he spent his early childhood in Molfetta, near Bari, in the long region of Apulia on Italy's southern Adriatic coast. His father, Domenico, was a pathologist in Molfetta, as well as an amateur singer and great music lover; his mother, Gilda, a reserved and severe Neapolitan woman with five children.
Muti graduated from Liceo classico (Classical Lyceum) Vittorio Emanuele II in Naples, then studied piano at the Conservatory of San Pietro a Majella under Vincenzo Vitale; here Muti was awarded a diploma cum laude. He was subsequently awarded a diploma in Composition and Conducting by the Giuseppe Verdi Conservatory, Milan, where he studied with the composer Bruno Bettinelli and the conductor Antonino Votto. He has also studied composition with Nino Rota, whom he considers a mentor. He was unanimously awarded first place by the jury of the "Guido Cantelli Competition for Conductors" in Milan in 1967 and became, the next year, principal conductor and music director of the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, a post he held for eleven years.
Career
Early career
Since 1971 he has been a frequent conductor of operas and concerts at the Salzburg Festival, where he is particularly known for his Mozart opera performances. From 1972 Muti regularly conducted the Philharmonia Orchestra in London and in 1973 he was appointed its principal conductor, succeeding Otto Klemperer.
In 1986, Muti became principal conductor of the Filarmonica della Scala, Milan, with which in 1988 he received the Viotti d'Oro and toured Europe. In 1989 he conducted a live performance of Mozart's Don Giovanni that was recorded on a DVD. In 1991, after twelve years as music director, he announced his resignation from the Philadelphia Orchestra, effective at the end of the 1991–1992 season.
In 1995 he was the president of the jury of the International Composing Competition "2 Agosto".
Berlin and Vienna
Muti has been a regular guest of the Berlin Philharmonic and the Vienna Philharmonic. In 1996, he conducted the Vienna Philharmonic during Vienna Festival Week and on tour to Japan, Korea, Hong Kong and Germany; he most recently toured with the Vienna Philharmonic to Japan in 2008. Muti has also led the orchestra's Vienna New Year's Concert on 6 occasions to date: in 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2018, and 2021.
Work in opera
Apart from his work at Milan's Teatro alla Scala, where he was music director for 19 years, Muti has led operatic performances with the Philadelphia Orchestra and productions in the principal opera houses of Rome (from 1969), Ravenna, Vienna, London (from 1977), Munich (from 1979), and, finally, in 2010, New York. His work with the Vienna State Opera has included Aida in 1973, La forza del destino in 1974, Norma in 1977, Rigoletto in 1983, Così fan tutte in 1996 and 2008, Don Giovanni in 1999, and The Marriage of Figaro in 2001.
Appearances in Salzburg
Muti first conducted at the Salzburg Festival in 1971 with Donizetti's Don Pasquale (staged by Ladislav Stros). Muti has subsequently appeared regularly at the Salzburg Festival, conducting both numerous concerts with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra and opera productions, such as Così fan tutte (staged by Michael Hampe) from 1982 to 1985 and from 1990 to 1991, La clemenza di Tito (staged by Peter Brenner) in 1988 and 1989, Don Giovanni (staged by Michael Hampe) in 1990 and 1991, La traviata (staged by Lluis Pasqual, and designed by Luciano Damiani) in 1995, The Magic Flute in 2005 (staged by Graham Vick) and 2006 (staged by Pierre Audi, stage designed by Karel Appel), Otello (staged by Stephen Langridge) in 2008, Moise et Pharaon (staged by Jürgen Flimm) in 2009, and Orfeo ed Euridice (staged by Dieter Dorn) in 2010. In 2011, Muti conducted a new production of Verdi's Macbeth, which was directed by Peter Stein. For the 2017 Salzburg Festival, he conducted Aida, directed by Shirin Neshat. Muti also owns a residence close to Salzburg.
From 2007 to 2011, Muti was the principal conductor at Salzburg's Whitsun Festival. He conducted productions of rare Italian operas from the 18th century, and concerts with his Luigi Cherubini Youth Orchestra.
Riccardo Muti Italian Opera Academy
In July 2015, Riccardo Muti's desire to devote even more to the training of young musicians was realised: the first edition of the Riccardo Muti Italian Opera Academy for young conductors, répétiteurs and singers took place with great acclaim at Teatro Alighieri in Ravenna and talented young musicians, as well as an audience of music-lovers from around the world participated. The Academy has as purpose to pass on to young musicians Riccardo Muti's experience and lessons and to make the audience understand in its full complexity the path to accomplish an opera production.
In the United States
In the United States, from 1980 to 1992 Muti was music director of the Philadelphia Orchestra, which he led on numerous international tours. In 1979, he was appointed its music director and, in 1992, conductor laureate. Muti stated that his approach was to remain faithful to the intent of the composer. This meant a change from applying the lush "Philadelphia Sound," created by his predecessors Eugene Ormandy and Leopold Stokowski, to all repertoire; however, many of his recordings with that orchestra largely seem to do away with its hallmark sound, even in the works of such composers as Tchaikovsky, Brahms, and other high romantics. His sonic changes to the orchestra remain controversial. Some felt he turned it into a generic-sounding institution with a lean sound much favored by modern recording engineers. Others believe Muti uncovered the true intention of the works, which had been covered in a silky sheen by Muti's predecessor. Since his departure from Philadelphia, he has made very few guest conducting appearances with the Philadelphia Orchestra, most recently in 2005.
Muti had been a regular and popular guest conductor with the New York Philharmonic. The orchestra's musicians had reportedly been interested – towards the end of the tenures of Kurt Masur and Lorin Maazel, and before Muti took the Chicago post – in having the conductor as their music director, but Muti stated that he had no wish to take on the position.
Muti had first guest-conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) in 1973 at the Ravinia Festival, but did not return as a guest conductor with the CSO until 2007. In May 2008, the CSO named Muti its next music director, effective with the 2010–2011 season, with an initial contract of five years. His most recent contract extension, announced in January 2018, is through the 2021–2022 season. In January 2020, the CSO confirmed that Muti is to conclude his music directorship of the orchestra at the close of the 2021–2022 season. In September 2021, the CSO announced a revision to Muti's contract as its music director, with a extension of the scheduled closing date of his tenure to the end of the 2022-2023 season.
End of tenure in Milan
In 2003, there were reports of artistic and programming conflicts at La Scala between musical director and principal conductor Muti and general manager Carlo Fontana. Muti did not attend the press conference that announced the 2003–04 season. The appointment in 2003 of Mauro Meli as La Scala's artistic director was intended to calm the conflict between Fontana and Muti.
On 24 February 2005, La Scala governors dismissed Fontana as general manager and named Meli as his successor. The musicians sided with Fontana against Muti at this point in the dispute, and on 13 March, Muti stated that he would refuse to conduct the La Scala orchestra from that point on. On 16 March 2005, the orchestra and staff of La Scala voted overwhelmingly against Muti in a motion of no-confidence. Muti was forced to cancel a concert prior to the vote, and some other productions were disrupted at the theater because of continuing rifts with Fontana's supporters. On 2 April, he resigned from La Scala, citing "hostility" from staff members.
In August 2009, Muti was said to be named the next music director of the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma, effective December 2010, but the news given by the mayor (and therefore president of Opera di Roma) Gianni Alemanno was not true. Alemanno, instead, announced in October 2011 that Muti accepted an invitation by the Orchestra of Opera di Roma to become a "lifetime conductor" of Opera di Roma.
Political intervention
On the night of 12 March 2011, Rome's Teatro dell'Opera staged the first in a series of scheduled performances of Verdi's opera Nabucco, conducted by Muti. After the end of the chorus "Va, pensiero", which contains the lyrics "Oh mia patria, sì bella e perduta" ("Oh my country, so beautiful and so lost"), the audience applauded "heartily." Muti, breaking with opera protocol and the strict conventions of composer Verdi himself, turned to the audience and delivered a small speech, referring to the severe budget cuts announced by the Berlusconi government which would particularly affect the funding of the arts. He spoke of the need to keep culture alive in Italy, prompted, as he later stated, by the belief that "killing culture in a country like Italy is a crime against society. Culture is the spiritual glue that holds a people together." He then invited the audience to participate in an encore of the "Va, pensiero" chorus – the invitation and the encore also a break from tradition for an opera performance. The opera audience stood up and sang along with the on-stage chorus. Muti recalls that "80 percent of the audience knew the lyrics" and sang along, while "some members of the chorus were in tears."
On 18 March, the performance of Nabucco was repeated in front of Italian president Giorgio Napolitano and prime minister Silvio Berlusconi. Muti, who had stated that it had been the first time in his life that he conducted chorus and audience together and also the last, on that occasion conducted the Verdi opera in the "orthodox" manner.
Personal life
Muti is married to Maria Cristina Mazzavillani, the founder and director of the Ravenna Festival. They have two sons, Domenico and Francesco, and a daughter, Chiara.
In 2010, Muti wrote an autobiography. The following year, it was translated and published in English as Riccardo Muti: An Autobiography: First the Music, Then the Words. Music critic John von Rhein of the Chicago Tribune described Muti's memoir as "fascinating."
Repertoire and recordings
With the Philadelphia Orchestra, his recordings include the first Beethoven symphony cycle made for compact disc, the symphonies of Brahms and Scriabin, selected works of Tchaikovsky and Prokofiev, as well as less-known works of composers such as Puccini and Busoni.
Muti is considered one of the world's greatest conductors of the operas of Verdi. He also led a series of annual performances of opera in concerts including the works of Verdi, Puccini, Mozart and Wagner. In 1992, Muti conducted performances of Leoncavallo's Pagliacci with Luciano Pavarotti. A recording was also made of these performances.
At La Scala, Muti was noted for exploring lesser-known works of the Classical- and early Romantic-era repertory such as Lodoiska by Cherubini and La vestale by Spontini.
Recognition
Honours
Muti received several honours from the Italian government: in 1980, he was appointed a Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic and was promoted to a Knight Grand Cross of the same Order in 1990. He was awarded a Golden Medal of the Italian Order of Merit for Culture and Art in 1997.
Muti is an Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music (Hon RAM) since 1981.
Honorary degree, University of Pavia, 1996.
Muti was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 2000.
Muti was awarded a doctorate honoris causa by the Universitat de Barcelona on 13 October 2003.
On 4 June 2010, Muti was appointed a Commander of the Legion of Honour by then French First Lady Carla Bruni-Sarkozy.
In 2011, Muti was made a Member of Russia's Order of Friendship.
In 2012, Muti was made Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Gregory the Great by Pope Benedict XVI.
In 2013, Muti was named Honorary President of EMMA for Peace, a network of music institutions.
On 20 June 2014, Muti received an honorary degree from Northwestern University in Evanston.
On 3 July 2016, Muti was awarded the 2nd Class, Gold and Silver Star of Japan's Order of the Rising Sun.
On 1 July 2018, Muti was awarded the 3rd Class, Order of Merit (Ukraine).
Awards
2010 Grammy Awards (2) for Best Classical Album and Best Choral Performance for Verdi: Requiem
2011 Birgit Nilsson Prize
2011 Prince of Asturias Award for the Arts.
2018 Praemium Imperiale
References
External links
Riccardo Muti Official website
Riccardo Muti biography at Sony BMG Masterworks
1941 births
Italian conductors (music)
20th-century Italian conductors (music)
20th-century Italian male musicians
21st-century Italian conductors (music)
21st-century Italian male musicians
Conductors (music) awarded knighthoods
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Italian male conductors (music)
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Gregory the Great
Living people
Milan Conservatory alumni
Milan Conservatory faculty
Music directors (opera)
Musicians from Naples
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Goodwill Ambassadors
Music directors of the Philadelphia Orchestra
Wolf Prize in Arts laureates
Recipients of the Order of Merit (Ukraine), 3rd class
Recipients of the Praemium Imperiale
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 2nd class
|
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] |
200574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajagoogoo
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Kajagoogoo
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Kajagoogoo were a British new wave band, best known for their 1983 hit single "Too Shy", which reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart, and the Top 10 in numerous other countries.
History
Beginnings (1978–1982)
Formed in Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire, in 1978, the band were originally known as Art Nouveau, a four-piece avant-garde group, with Nick Beggs on bass guitar, Steve Askew on lead guitar, Stuart Croxford Neale on keyboards, and Jez Strode on drums. Art Nouveau released a track called "The Fear Machine", which sold a few hundred copies and enjoyed airtime on John Peel's show. In spite of the song's success, the band failed to secure a record deal during this period.
In 1981, Art Noveau advertised for a new lead singer. They ultimately auditioned and chose Christopher Hamill, who then went under the stage name Limahl (an anagram of his surname). The group renamed themselves Kajagoogoo, a name coined phonetically from the first sounds that many infants make.
Success and decline (1982–1985)
The band signed with EMI Records in July 1982 after Limahl had met keyboardist Nick Rhodes of the group Duran Duran while working as a waiter at London's Embassy Club. Rhodes proceeded to co-produce the band's first single, "Too Shy" with Duran Duran's EMI producer Colin Thurston. The single was released on 10 January 1983 and topped the UK Singles Chart, having done so before any of Duran Duran's singles (as Rhodes himself has lightheartedly noted).
Follow-up singles "Ooh to Be Aah" and "Hang on Now" also both reached the UK Top 20, and the group's debut album White Feathers reached No. 5 in the UK Albums Chart. After being the support act for the Birmingham band Fashion in late 1982, Kajagoogoo embarked on their own headlining White Feathers tour in Spring 1983. Their performance on 31 May at the London Hammersmith Odeon was filmed and released on home video.
As success came, tensions began to rise in the band. These tensions culminated in Limahl being fired by the other band members in mid-1983 and Nick Beggs then taking over as lead singer. In response to his ousting, Limahl accused the others of being envious of him and said "I've been betrayed!" and "I was sacked for making them a success." The other band members countered Limahl's assertions, insisting that he had become egomaniacal and increasingly difficult to work with. Soon after the departure, Beggs commented, "It was a business decision and not one we took lightly. He wanted the band to go in a different direction to the rest of us. Eventually, we realised we were on a different planet to Limahl." Beggs also stated that the band harboured no ill-will towards Limahl, and blamed the press for sensationalising the matter. Guitarist Steve Askew commented "At first ... we did everything possible to make Limahl feel like part of the furniture but, you know, his lifestyle is so different from ours. We're very normal people whereas Limahl likes the bright lights."
The first single by the new four-piece lineup, "Big Apple", was released in September 1983 and reached the UK Top Ten. Their next single, "The Lion's Mouth", was released in February 1984 and made the UK Top 30,. After this, public interest in the group waned, and their next single "Turn Your Back on Me" failed to make the Top 40. The subsequent new album, Islands, was a commercial disappointment, peaking at No. 35 in the UK.
In the U.S., the band first adopted the Kaja moniker at this time, and a different edition of the Islands album was released as Extra Play, peaking at No. 185 on the Billboard charts. However, the single "Turn Your Back on Me" did well on the U.S. Dance Charts, peaking at No. 2 for two weeks. Meanwhile, Limahl went on to equally brief success as a solo artist and Strode left the band.
In an attempt to regain credibility and lose their light-hearted image, the remaining three members relaunched as Kaja in the UK in 1985. Following the name change, the band released the single "Shouldn't Do That" (UK No. 63) in August 1985. The song was featured on their third album, Crazy People's Right to Speak. After this proved unsuccessful, the group disbanded in December 1985.
Reunions (2003–2011)
The original five-piece line-up of the band briefly joined forces again on VH1's Bands Reunited in 2003.
Following the much publicised VH1 reunion, the original group received many offers and incentives to continue to play together, but disagreements continued between the band members and the reunion was short-lived, as Limahl and Strode both departed the band again shortly thereafter, ultimately leading them to dissolve the following year. The group felt that the VH1 feature was unfairly edited to portray simplified reasons as to why Limahl was fired and Strode had left the band in the 1980s.
In 2007, Nick Beggs, Steve Askew, and Stuart Neale decided to continue as Kajagoogoo, releasing the single "Rocket Boy" on 24 June 2007. The single received airplay on Steve Wright's BBC Radio 2 show in the UK, and a new album, Gone to the Moon, was scheduled for release on the Spectra Records label later on that year. However, the album was postponed, and in February 2008, the three Kajagoogoo members announced plans to reunite with original members singer Limahl and drummer Jez Strode. This was due in part to Bradley Snelling, the organiser of the Retrofest event and the band's new manager. Snelling had succeeded in reuniting the band, arranging their first photo shoot together in 25 years.
The band wrote on their official site that the "atmosphere was relaxed, jovial and, after 25 years, Kajagoogoo, in their original five-piece line-up are back". After reforming, the band wrote new material, released an EP, and toured extensively throughout Europe, performing first in Denmark on 14 June 2008 at the Esbjerg Rock Festival, where they performed the 16 tracks off the remastered edition of Islands, including encores and B-sides, such as "Monochromatic" or "The Garden"). Their Gone to the Moon album, recorded as a three-piece outfit prior to the full reunion, was distributed via the live shows and "Kajashop", the band's online store.
In August 2009, while in the middle of a tour, Kajagoogoo again took to the stage to headline the Hobble on the Cobbles music event in Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire. This was followed in September by a compilation CD/DVD, released by the band's original label EMI Records, titled Too Shy – The Best of Kajagoogoo & Limahl. It featured two newly recorded tracks and a promotional video for "Space Cadet", one of the new recordings. Quick to capitalise on the renewed interest in the band, EMI released the White Feathers (Manhattan Clique Remixes) EP in December 2009.
In December 2009, Kajagoogoo performed their last remaining UK concert with a return to The Stables venue in Wavendon, Milton Keynes. In March 2010, dPulse Recordings released the Kajagoogoo track "First Girl on Mars" as a part of the Who Made Your Music? benefit CD, released to raise funds and bring awareness to the rights of marginalised women. On Saturday 17 July 2010, Kajagoogoo performed at the Midlands Music Festival in Tamworth and later performed at the Rewind Festival in Henley-on-Thames in August. Continuing to capitalise on renewed interest in the Kajagoogoo back catalogue, EMI Records released So80s Presents Kajagoogoo as a part of the So Eighties series curated by Blank & Jones. The album contains extended mixes of classic Kajagoogoo tracks and was released on CD and digital download format. Also made available digitally in April 2011, Kajagoogoo's Gone to the Moon album was given a digital release via iTunes.
In June 2011, Kajagoogoo released their first single as a five piece since 1983. The track "Death Defying Headlines" was released as a digital single as both a single edit and an extended dance remix.
In March 2017, bassist Nick Beggs said that Kajagoogoo was no longer active, stating "We did something about nine years ago, and that was good. It was almost like a kind of revisiting of it for old time’s sake and I felt that we did quite a lot of good with that. But in terms of moving forward, there’s no point in revisiting that project."
In an interview with Cherry Red TV in 2018, Beggs talked about the reunion, stating "we reformed and we toured and we recorded an EP and remastered the back catalogue...and at that point I felt that we had done it all. It was a nice way to tie it up, put a bow on it and leave it alone and move on."
Members
Steve Askew – guitars, programming, backing vocals (1978–1985, 2003–2004, 2007–2011)
Nick Beggs – bass guitar, Chapman Stick, guitars, keyboards, programming, percussion, backing vocals (1978–1985, 2003–2004, 2007–2011), lead vocals (1978–1982, 1983–1985, 2003–2004, 2007–2011)
Stuart Neale – keyboards, programming, piano, backing vocals (1978–1985, 2003–2004, 2007–2011)
Jez Strode – acoustic and electronic drums, percussion (1978–1984, 2003, 2008–2011)
Limahl (Chris Hamill) – lead vocals (1982–1983, 2003, 2008–2011)
Discography
Studio albums
White Feathers (1983)
Islands (1984)
Crazy Peoples Right to Speak (1985) as Kaja
Gone to the Moon (2008)
References
Bibliography
Paul Gambaccini (1983), Kajagoogoo
External links
KajaFax - The Officially Approved Kajagoogoo Community & Fan Club
Unofficial Limahl & Kajagoogoo YouTube video archives
English new wave musical groups
English dance music groups
English pop music groups
British synth-pop new wave groups
Musical groups established in 1978
Musical groups established in 1982
Musical groups disestablished in 1985
Musical groups reestablished in 2003
|
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200581
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atabeg
|
Atabeg
|
Atabeg, Atabek, or Atabey is a hereditary title of nobility of Turkic origin, indicating a governor of a nation or province who was subordinate to a monarch and charged with raising the crown prince. The first instance of the title's use was with early Seljuk Turks who bestowed it on the Persian vizier Nizam al-Mulk It was later used in the Kingdom of Georgia, first within the Armeno-Georgian family of Mkhargrdzeli as a military title and then within the house of Jaqeli as princes of Samtskhe.
Title origins and meanings
The word atabeg is a compound of the Turkic word ata, "ancestor", or "father" and the word beg or bey, "lord, leader, prince". Beg is stated in some sources as being of Iranian origin (as in the compound Baghdad from bag/beg and dad, "lord" given). However, according to Gerhard Doerfer, the word beg may have possibly been of Turkic origin – the origin of the word still remains disputed to this day.
The title Atabeg was common during the Seljuk rule of the Near East starting in the 12th century. It was also common in Mesopotamia (Iraq). When a Seljuk prince died, leaving minor heirs, a guardian would be appointed to protect and guide the young princes. These guardians would often marry their wards' widowed mothers, thus assuming a sort of surrogate fatherhood. Amongst the Turkmen tribes, as in Persia, the rank was senior to a khan.
The title Atabeg was also in use for officers in Mamluk Egypt; some of them were proclaimed sultan before the incorporation into the Ottoman Empire. After the end of Seljuk rule, the title was used only intermittently.
When describing the Atabegs of Azerbaijan, the Ildeniz (Ildegoz) dynasty, the title Atabeg-e-Azam (Great Atabeg) was used, to denote their superior standing, power and influence on the Seljuk sultans.
In Persian, the style Atabek-e-Azam was occasionally used as an alternative title for the Shah's Vazir-e-Azam (Grand Vizier), notably in 1834–35 for Mirza Abolghasem Farahani, Gha'em Magham, in 1848–51 for Mirza Mohammed Taghi Khan, Amir-e Kabir, in 1906-07 for Mirza Ali Asghar Khan, Amin-ol Soltan, and finally in 1916 for a Qajar prince, Major-General Shahzadeh Sultan 'Abdu'l Majid Mirza, Eyn-ol Douleh.
List of Atabeg dynasties and other dynasties who used the title
Ahmadilis (Atabegs of Maragha) (of Turkic origin)
Eldiguzids (Atabegs of Azerbaijan) (of Kypchaq Turkic origin)
Salghurids (Atabegs of Fars) (of Turkmen origin)
Hazaraspids (Atabegs of Luristan) (of Iranian origin)
Atabegs of Yazd (of Iranian origin)
Zengids (Atabegs of Mosul) (of Turkmen origin)
Atabeg dynasties
In the Near East
Beginning in the twelfth century the atabegs formed a number of dynasties, and displaced the descendants of the Seljukid emirs in their various principalities. These dynasties were founded by emancipated Mamluks, who had held high office at court and in camp under powerful emirs. When the emirs died, they first became stadtholders for the emirs' descendants, and then usurped the throne of their masters. There was an atabeg dynasty in Damascus founded by Toghtekin (1103–1128).
Other atabeg "kingdoms" sprang up to the north east, founded by Sokman (Sökmen), who established himself at Kaifa in Diyarbakır about 1101, and by his brother Ilghazi. The city of Mosul was under Mawdud ibn Altuntash, and was later ruled by atabegs such as Aksunkur and Zengi. Zengi became Atabeg of Mosul in 1128 and soon established himself as an independent ruler of much of northern Mesopotamia and Syria (including Aleppo).
The northern part of Luristan, formerly known as Lurikuchik ('Little Luristan'), was governed by independent princes of the Khurshidi dynasty, styled atabegs, from the beginning of the 17th century when the last atabeg, Shah Verdi Khan, was removed by Persian Shah Abbas I and the government of the province given to Husain Khan, the chief of a rival tribe. Husain, however, was given the gubernatorial title of vali instead of atabeg. The descendants of Husain Khan retained the title.
Great Luristan, in the southern part of Luristan, was an independent state under the Fazlevieh atabegs from 1160 until 1424. Its capital was Idaj, now only represented by mounds and ruins at Malamir.
In the Caucasus
In the Kingdom of Georgia, atabeg () was one of the highest court titles created by Queen Tamar of Georgia in 1212 for her powerful subjects of the Mkhargrdzeli family. The atabeg of Georgia was a vizier and a Lord High Tutor to Heir Apparent. Not infrequently, the office of atabeg was combined with that of amirspasalar (commander-in-chief). In 1334, the title became hereditary in the Jaqeli family who ruled the Principality of Samtskhe. Therefore, this entity came to be denominated as Samtskhe-Saatabago, the latter element meaning "of the atabags".
Notes
References
Amin Maalouf. Crusades Through Arab Eyes, 1984
ÏNĀNČ ḴĀTUN, Encyclopædia Iranica
ATĀBAK, Encyclopædia Iranica
ATĀBAKĀN-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN, Encyclopædia Iranica
https://web.archive.org/web/20180105151014/http://www.selcuklular.com/?
Heads of government in Asia
Muslim rulers
Executive ministers
Gubernatorial titles
.
Kingdom of Georgia
Noble titles
Noble titles of Georgia (country)
|
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] |
200582
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Carolina%20University
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Western Carolina University
|
Western Carolina University (WCU) is a public university in Cullowhee, North Carolina. It is part of the University of North Carolina system.
The fifth oldest institution of the sixteen four-year universities in the UNC system, WCU was founded to educate the people of the western North Carolina mountains. WCU provides an education to students from 48 states and 35 countries. Enrollment for the Fall 2020 semester was 12,243 students.
History
In 1888, the residents of Cullowhee desired a better school for the community than was offered in public schools of that day, organized a board of trustees
and established a community school that came to be known as Cullowhee Academy. Founded in August 1889 as a semi-public secondary school and chartered as Cullowhee High School in 1891 (also called Cullowhee Academy), it served the Cullowhee community and boarding students from neighboring counties and other states. The founder, Robert Lee Madison, wanted to provide an education for the young people in the region and train teachers to spread education throughout the western part of the state. In 1893, through the efforts of Walter E. Moore,
representative from Jackson County, the North Carolina Legislature authorized an appropriation for the establishment of a normal department at the school "for the purpose of training teachers". This designation became the first publicly funded normal school in North Carolina.
In 1905, the state assumed title to the school's buildings and property and made it a state institution. That same year, the school's name was changed to Cullowhee Normal & Industrial School. In 1925, the school's name was changed to Cullowhee State Normal School. During its years as Cullowhee Normal, the stated purpose of the school was to train teachers for the North Carolina public schools. A coeducational institution, Cullowhee Normal trained over two thousand teachers by the mid-1920s.
Over the next forty years, the school expanded its curriculum and evolved into a junior college, and in 1929 it was chartered by the Legislature as a four-year institution under the name Western Carolina Teachers College. Called "the Cullowhee experiment", Madison's idea became a model for the other regional colleges in the state.
The demand for both liberal arts and other programs led to an expansion of the school's offerings. Postgraduate studies and the Master of Arts in Education degree were added to the curriculum in 1951. In 1953, the name "Western Carolina College" was adopted.
In 1967, the institution was designated a regional university by the North Carolina General Assembly and given its current title, "Western Carolina University." On July 1, 1972, WCU became a member of the University of North Carolina system.
Precis of the university's history
Facilities
General location
Western Carolina University is located in Jackson County, in the unincorporated village of Cullowhee, North Carolina. The university operates learning centers in both Asheville and Cherokee with programs offered online and at various community colleges. The main campus is located in a valley of the Tuckasegee River, between the Blue Ridge and Great Smoky Mountains, west of Asheville, North Carolina and 5 miles south of Sylva, NC. The university lies close to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the Blue Ridge Parkway, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians Reservation (officially known as the Qualla Boundary), and some of the nation's most beautiful national forest lands. At an elevation of , but located in a thermal valley, the campus enjoys the best of all four seasons but is shielded from most extreme temperatures by surrounding peaks. Cullowhee typically enjoys a rather mild winter season. In fact, Cullowhee can go some winters with little to no snowfall.
While winters in the valley are generally mild, snow is not unusual in the higher elevations of Jackson County around Cashiers or Balsam. In nearby Sapphire Valley, snowmaking machines maintain prime snow skiing conditions from mid-December through February. Locations in Jackson County are also within reasonable driving distance to ski slopes at Maggie Valley. The Blue Ridge Parkway is usually closed during winter weather, and has become popular with cross-country skiers during those times.
The many rivers, streams and forests surrounding Cullowhee, combined with the mild climate of Southern Appalachia, offer many opportunities for outdoor activities. Climbing, hiking, biking, rafting, kayaking, and camping are a few of the outdoor activities nearby. Cities within a three-hour drive of campus include Atlanta, Georgia; Charlotte, North Carolina; Knoxville, Tennessee; and Greenville, South Carolina.
Main campus in Cullowhee
The main campus in Cullowhee offers most of the amenities of a small town, including twelve residence halls, two full-service cafeterias, a food court with fast-food outlets, health services, counseling, a bookstore, library, a swimming pool, tennis and basketball courts, movie theater, jogging trail and quarter-mile track, hiking and biking trails and intramural fields.
The campus center is the A.K. Hinds University Center. The UC contains the university post office, a movie theater, video and commuter lounges, student organization HQs including the Student Government Association and Last Minute Productions, meeting rooms and office spaces. Outside of the UC is the "Alumni Tower", built in 1989, on the 100th birthday of the university. Other newly constructed facilities include the Center for Applied Technology (which houses new engineering laboratories); an expanded student life center; new athletic facilities; and a new student support center.
A $13.5 million Student Recreation Center, was completed over the summer of 2008. Harrill Residence Hall was renovated to add 6,000 square feet (557 m2) and bring the 1971 building to LEED standards of environmental friendliness and energy efficiency, and re-opened in fall 2012.
The new $46.2 million Health and Human Sciences Building opened for use at the start of the 2012–13 academic year, also built to LEED standards. This facility is the first project on the Millennial Initiative property and houses WCU's educational and outreach programs in the College of Health and Human Sciences. The four-story facility is home to the undergraduate and graduate programs in social work and communication sciences and disorders; graduate programs in physical therapy and health sciences; and undergraduate programs in athletic training, emergency medical care, environmental health, nutrition and dietetics, nursing and recreational therapy.
Asheville campus
WCU's educational facilities in Asheville focus on professional and graduate degrees for working students.
Cherokee campus
The Western Carolina University Cherokee Center in Cherokee, North Carolina, was established in 1975 in cooperation with the tribal government of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians. The center serves Cherokee and the surrounding communities and is available to all of the people of the region. Their services include the application process, transcript request, scholarships, internships placement, high school recruitment.
Organization and administration
The university is led by Chancellor Kelli R. Brown, the chief administrative officer, along with Interim Provost and Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs Richard Starnes and several advisory groups. The institution operates under the guidance and policies of the Board of Trustees of Western Carolina University. WCU also falls under the administration of University of North Carolina system president Thomas W. Ross. The university moved to a provost and senior vice chancellor model in 2004.
University media
The university produces the following publications and broadcasts:
Western Carolina Magazine]: A seasonal publication primarily for alumni and friends of WCU, Western Carolina Magazine contains features on university people and programs, alumni updates, and news and events.
Inside WCU: A weekly electronic newsletter for the faculty and staff of WCU, The Reporter features news, events and campus community updates.
MountainRise: An open, peer-reviewed, international electronic journal published twice a year by the Coulter Faculty Center for Excellence in Teaching & Learning at Western Carolina University for the purpose of being an international vehicle for the Scholarship of Teaching & Learning (SoTL).
All-Western Carolina: The All-Western Carolina radio program airs during half-time of Catamount Sports Network broadcasts and highlights WCU's academic all-stars and happenings on campus.
WCU students, faculty and staff also contribute to:
WCU on iTunes U Faculty and students are podcasting using WCU on iTunes U service from Apple Inc. This media repository was publicly listed on the iTunes U Colleges and Universities listings in August 2009.
Academics and research
Academic structure
Western Carolina University's academic programs are housed in six colleges: Arts and Sciences, Business, Education and Allied Professions, David Orr Belcher College of Fine and Performing Arts, Health and Human Sciences, and Engineering and Technology. WCU also has an Honors College and Graduate School, and offers several interdisciplinary programs.
Academic programs
With its main campus located on the site of an ancient Cherokee Indian village and adjacent to the Great Smoky and Blue Ridge Mountains, Western Carolina has a commitment to the rich traditions of both the Appalachian and Cherokee cultures. The university's Mountain Heritage Center; Cherokee Center; Craft Revival Project; Cherokee Studies Program and WCU's partnership to preserve the Cherokee language all reflect that influence – and provide educational resources for the region.
Western is classified among "M1: Master's Colleges and Universities – Larger programs" and in the elective "community engagement" category. WCU is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award degrees at the bachelor, masters, intermediate, and doctoral levels. The university holds 21 program accreditations and is a member of more than 30 state and national associations and organizations to which its professional programs are related. In 2009, the Corporation for National and Community Service recognized WCU by awarding the President's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll with Distinction for "exemplary commitment to service and civic engagement" on WCU's campus and beyond.
As the sixth-largest producer of teachers in North Carolina, the College of Education and Allied Professions was the national winner of the Association of Teacher Educators' Distinguished Program in Teacher Education Award in 2006. The college is also the 2007 co-winner of the Christa McAuliffe Excellence in Teacher Education Award presented by the American Association of State Colleges and Universities. The Christa McAuliffe Award nationally recognizes outstanding programs in teacher education at AASCU member institutions.
Western Carolina's Forensic Research Facility (commonly referred to as the "FoREST") is just the second facility of its kind nationally. The decomposition research station is an extremely valuable resource for researchers and forensic anthropology students to study natural decomposition.
The residential Honors College was first of its kind in North Carolina. Newly accepted students are invited to live in one of two exclusive residence halls on campus. The Honors College is one of a few in the state to offer a residential option and among a few nationwide to award graduates with a special honors diploma. The college began in 1998 with 77 students and has grown to approximately 1,400. For entering freshman, the Honor's College average weighted GPA is over 4.00 and the average SAT score is 1380. The college is a member of the National Collegiate Honors Council. In August 2009, Balsam Hall, the first part of a $50.2 million Honors College residential community located at the center of campus opened, housing 426 students. In Fall 2010, Blue Ridge Hall completed the community and add an additional 400 beds for Honors College students and Teaching Fellows.
In the spring of 2000, WCU was officially designated a National Merit sponsoring university, just the fourth institution of higher education in North Carolina, public or private, to receive that distinction The university grants scholarships to students who qualify as National Merit Finalists. The Western Meritorious Award for Finalists provides a four-year scholarship, which covers the equivalent amount of in-state tuition, fees, room, and board, to National Merit Finalists, who also receive a computer.
The 2012 edition of the U.S. News & World Report guide to "America's Best Colleges" ranks Western Carolina University 14th among public universities in the South that offer master's degrees.
In 2015, the North Carolina General Assembly approved the NC Promise Tuition Plan, a tuition reduction plan to make three universities - WCU, Elizabeth City State University, and University of North Carolina at Pembroke - more affordable and accessible. The NC Promise began in the fall semester of 2018 and drastically reduces the tuition cost for students. In-state students pay $500 a semester and out-of-state students pay $2,500 a semester. Attendance has increased for three consecutive years with the total attendance as of Fall 2020 at 12,243 students, being the ninth time in the past ten years record enrollment has been recorded.
Centers, institutes, and affiliates
Community focus, economic development, scholarly research, business development, preservation of the Cherokee & Appalachian Mountain cultures, and the advancement of technology & public policy are the guiding foci of Western Carolina's Centers, Institutes & Affiliates.
Center for Rapid Product Realization
Carolinas MicroOptics Triangle
Carolinas Photonics Consortium
Center for Study of Free Enterprise (CSFE)
Corporation for Entrepreneurship and Innovation (CEI)
Center of Professional Selling and Marketing
Mathematics Tutoring Center
Cherokee Studies
Projects and Initiatives from Cherokee Studies
Cherokee Studies Academic Programs
Cherokee Center
Revitalization of Traditional Cherokee Artisan Resources
John W. Bardo Fine & Performing Arts Center
Center for the Support of Beginning Teachers
Mountain Heritage Center
The Public Policy Institute
Ramsey Regional Activities Center
Small Business & Technology Development Center partner
Writing and Learning Commons
Program for the Study of Developed Shorelines
Speech and Hearing Clinic
Myron L. Coulter Faculty Commons for Excellence in Teaching and Learning
Southern Appalachian Biodiversity and Ecology Center
Center for Service Learning and Community Engagement
Local Government Training Program
Mountain Area Pro Bono Health Care
Student life
Residential life
The main campus at Cullowhee has residential facilities for students. These include twelve residence halls, two full-service cafeterias, and one food court with fast-food outlets. The halls house more than 4,500 WCU students each academic year.
The campus residence buildings include one for graduate students, named Madison Hall, and one for married students. Special residence accommodations include honors residence halls and The Village, home to residential Greek and student organizations. Three new residence facilities were recently completed from a $50.2 million residence hall project. The newest residence hall is called Allen residence hall which opened in 2019 and houses over 700 freshman students taking the place of former Scott and walker residence halls.
Athletics
As a member of the Southern Conference, Western Carolina University participates in NCAA Division I athletics. Intercollegiate athletics include football, men and women's basketball, baseball, softball, women's soccer, men and women's golf, men and women's track and field (Indoor and Outdoor), cross country running, women's volleyball and tennis. Catamount football is a member of Division I FCS and plays at Whitmire Stadium. The Ramsey Center is home to men's and women's basketball, and women's volleyball. Baseball is played at Hennon Stadium, softball is played at the Catamount Softball Complex, and the Catamount Athletic Complex is home to women's soccer, tennis, and track and field.
On November 29, 1980, Western Carolina's Ronnie Carr made the first intercollegiate three-point field goal, in a game against Middle Tennessee State University, a game WCU won 77–70. The ball he used is on display at the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts.
Western Carolina and Appalachian State have a football rivalry in which they once competed in the Battle for the Old Mountain Jug on an annual basis. The Catamounts football team was runner-up in the Division I-AA National Football Championship Game in 1983.
Current NCAA sports at WCU include:
Men - Baseball, Basketball, Cross Country, Football, Golf, Track and Field
Women - Basketball, Cross Country, Golf, Soccer, Softball, Tennis, Track and Field, Volleyball
In 2016 the WCU dance team won third place at the NDA Nationals dance competition, performing in Daytona Beach, Florida.
Music
Concerts and recitals
The Schools of Music and Fine and Performing Arts offer a variety of events featuring students, faculty, and outside performers. These cultural opportunities are typically relatively cheap, and students can often attend them free of charge.
Pride of the Mountains
The Pride of the Mountains is the largest college marching band in the Carolinas and Tennessee. As of Fall 2014, the marching band includes just over 500 members, making it one of the largest marching bands in the United States. The band is open to all Western Carolina students regardless of class or major, with approximately 60% of its members non-music majors.
In 2014, the band performed in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade with 510 band members participating. Announcers described their performance as "This is the largest band this parade has seen in decades", "This is the best of the best", and "They don't mess around at Western Carolina".
The Pride of the Mountains also performed at a Carolina Panthers halftime show in 2011. The band was also the special guest at the Bands of America Grand National Championships in Indianapolis in 1998, 2003, 2008 and 2012, an honor given to only one college band in the United States each year. In addition, the band was also a special guest at the Bands of America Regional's held in Atlanta in 1995, 2006, 2010, and 2011. In 2009, the Pride of the Mountains was selected as one of the five best collegiate marching bands in the nation by the College Band Directors National Association and featured in the book "Marching Bands and Drumlines: Secrets of Success from the Best of the Best" by Paul Buyer.
The band is the 2009 recipient of the Sudler Trophy awarded by the John Philip Sousa Foundation. They participated in the 2011 Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California, and won the most votes in a "best band" in the parade poll hosted by KTLA-TV.
Greek life
WCU is home to a wide range of Greek fraternities and sororities, as well as several councils and societies. The Greek community offers many social opportunities to enrich college life. Greeks get personal guidance in planning their curriculum and choosing classes and instructors, and assistance with registration and financial aid. Chapter study sessions, educational programs, tutoring, and study partners and teams offer support for developing and maintaining study skills. Greeks are recognized for their academic successes through Greek scholarship and awards programs and honor societies such as the Order of Omega. According to 2011–12 figures from U.S. News & World Report, 3.4% of WCU's male undergraduate students are in fraternities, while 3.6% of female undergraduate students are in sororities.
WCU student media
Housed in the Student Media Center (Old Student Union) on the hill area of campus are WCU's Student Media Organizations, which are open to all students and are produced by students.
The following organizations are a part of WCU Student Media:
WWCU-FM: WWCU-FM, Power 90.5, is the broadcast service of WCU and broadcasts 24 hours a day, 7 days a week as Jackson County's only FM radio station.
WCAT: Cable & Internet radio station offering an eclectic mix of music chosen by student DJs, as well as original talk shows and artist interviews. It broadcasts on the campus closed-circuit television station 22.
TV 62: The student-run campus television station, offering original programing to the campus on channel 62. It is WCU's closed-circuit television station with offices located in the A.K. Hinds University Center, an organization offering original programming that allows students to showcase their short films, as well as announce events on campus and highlight recent sporting events.
The Nomad: WCU's Literature & Art magazine, published once a year in the Spring semester. Student staff members work together to produce and distribute WCU's student literary magazine.
The Gadfly: WCU's Journal of Social Criticism and Philosophy. Satirical pieces philosophically critiquing society-at-large in a humorous manner. Published once a semester.
Western Carolinian Newspaper: A bi-weekly newspaper focusing on news and events relevant to the campus and surrounding community. Includes News, Features, Sports, and Arts & Entertainment sections. Available in print in the local area and on-line at www.westerncarolinian.com.
The Western Carolina Journalist: An online newspaper ran by the Communication department covering news about WCU and the surrounding areas
The Tuckasegee Valley Historical Review: The Tuckasegee Valley Historical Review is an annually published graduate history journal. The review publishes articles by WCU graduate students in history with a primarily local focus.
Notable people
Alumni
Gerald Austin – NFL referee
Bobbi Baker – actress, best known for her role as Kiki on the Tyler Perry sitcom House of Payne
James A. Beaty, Jr. – current U.S. District Judge and former nominee to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit
Dean Biasucci – athlete (former placekicker, NFL Indianapolis Colts), actor
Linda L. Bray – first female in the military to lead troops into combat
Sean Bridgers – actor, writer, director, producer
Andrew C. Brock – North Carolina State Senator
Jared Burton – retired MLB pitcher
Keion Crossen - cornerback, Houston Texans
Geoff Collins - head football coach at Georgia Tech
Louis Cooper – NFL linebacker
Jeanelle Coulter Moore – First Lady of North Carolina
Ariana DeBose – actress, singer, and dancer
Louis Ducruet- scout at AS Monaco FC, 12th in line to the Monégesque throne, grandson to Rainier III, Prince of Monaco and American actress Grace Kelly
Carol Fowler Durham – professor of Nursing at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, interprofessional teams expert
Joe Firstman – musician and musical director
Ernest A. Fitzgerald (1947) – bishop of the United Methodist Church
Judy Green – head volleyball coach for the University of Alabama
Mel Gibson – former basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers
Rich Hall – comedian, writer
Greg Holland – MLB pitcher and MLB All-Star
Brad Hoover – former fullback for the NFL Carolina Panthers
Frank Huguelet – retired professional wrestler (as "'Heavy Metal' Ric Savage'"), television host
Sarah Hutchings – Composer
Paul Johnson – head football coach at Georgia Tech
Jeanne Jolly – singer, songwriter
Tony Jones – football player with the Cleveland Browns, Baltimore Ravens, and Denver Broncos
Andrew Jordan – tight end in the NFL
David Joy – author
Keith LeClair – athlete and baseball coach at Western Carolina University
Henry Logan – athlete; in 1964 became North Carolina's first African-American collegiate athlete, and the first to play basketball for a "white" public institution in 1964
Kevin Martin – professional basketball player
Manteo Mitchell – track and field athlete, 2012 London Olympic medalist
Nick McNeil – former NFL player, WWE professional wrestler (as '"Showtime!' Percy Watson")
Mary Cordell Nesbitt – politician
David Patten – NFL wide receiver
Dave Pember – former pitcher for MLB Milwaukee Brewers
J. T. Poston - professional golfer
Rachel Reilly – reality television show contestant, television host
David Sedaris – humorist, comedian, author, and radio contributor
Geno Segers – former professional rugby player, actor.
Clyde Simmons – defensive end for the NFL Philadelphia Eagles
Tim Sinicki – head baseball coach at intercollegiate Binghamton
Drew Starkey - actor
Matt Stillwell – Nashville recording artist
Wayne Tolleson – Major League Baseball player 1981-1990
Hedy West – American folk singer
Willie Williams – NFL defensive back for Pittsburgh Steelers and Seattle Seahawks
John Nelson Schacht: Schacht is a two time Super Bowl Champion when he played for the New York Giants. He was the third string kicker for the Giants between 2005-2015.
Faculty
Robert J. Conley – award-winning author
Terrence Mann – stage actor, director, singer, songwriter, and dancer
Ron Rash – award-winning author
Laura Wright – founder of academic field of vegan studies
References
External links
Western Carolina Athletics website
Educational institutions established in 1889
Education in Jackson County, North Carolina
Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Public universities and colleges in North Carolina
University of North Carolina
Education in Asheville, North Carolina
Education in Swain County, North Carolina
Buildings and structures in Jackson County, North Carolina
1889 establishments in North Carolina
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200585
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zitkala-Sa
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Zitkala-Sa
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Zitkála-Šá (Lakota for Red Bird; February 22, 1876 – January 26, 1938), also known by her missionary and married names Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, was a Yankton Dakota writer, editor, translator, musician, educator, and political activist. She wrote several works chronicling her struggles with cultural identity, and the pull between the majority culture in which she was educated, and the Dakota culture into which she was born and raised. Her later books were among the first works to bring traditional Native American stories to a widespread white English-speaking readership. Zitkála-Šá has been noted as one of the most influential Native American activists of the 20th century.
Working with American musician William F. Hanson, Zitkala-Ša wrote the libretto and songs for The Sun Dance Opera (1913), the first American Indian opera. It was composed in romantic musical style, and based on Sioux and Ute cultural themes.
She was co-founder of the National Council of American Indians in 1926, which was established to lobby for Native people's right to United States citizenship and other civil rights they had long been denied. Zitkala-Ša served as the council's president until her death in 1938.
Early life and education
Zitkála-Šá was born on February 22, 1876, on the Yankton Indian Reservation in South Dakota. She was raised by her mother, Ellen Simmons, whose Dakota name was Thaté Iyóhiwiŋ (Every Wind or Reaches for the Wind). Her father was a Frenchman named Felker, who abandoned the family when Zitkala-Ša was very young.
For her first eight years, Zitkála-Šá lived with her mother on the reservation. She later described those days as ones of freedom and happiness, safe in the care of her mother's people and tribe. In 1884, when Zitkala-Ša was eight, missionaries came to the reservation. They recruited several Yankton children, including Zitkala-Šá, taking them to be educated at the White's Indiana Manual Labor Institute, a Quaker missionary boarding school in Wabash, Indiana. This training school was founded by Josiah White for the education of "poor children, white, colored, and Indian," to help them advance in society.
Zitkála-Šá attended the school for three years until 1887. She later wrote about this period in her work, The School Days of an Indian Girl. She described the deep misery of having her heritage stripped away when she was forced to pray as a Quaker and to cut her traditionally long hair. By contrast, she took joy in learning to read and write, and to play the violin.
In 1887, Zitkála-Šá returned to the Yankton Reservation to live with her mother. She spent three years there. She was dismayed to realize that, while she still longed for the native Yankton traditions, she no longer fully belonged to them. Besides, she thought that many on the reservation were conforming to the dominant white culture.
In 1891, wanting more education, Zitkála-Šá decided at age fifteen to return to the White's Indiana Manual Labor Institute. She planned to gain more through her education than becoming a housekeeper, a role the school anticipated most female students would pursue. She studied piano and violin and started to teach music at White's after the music teacher resigned. In June 1895, when Zitkála-Šá was awarded her diploma, she gave a speech on the inequality of women's rights, which was praised highly by the local newspaper.
Though her mother wanted her to return home after graduation, Zitkála-Šá chose to attend Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, where she had been offered a scholarship. While initially feeling isolated and uncertain among her predominantly white peers, she proved her oratorical talents with a speech titled "Side by Side.” During this time, she began gathering traditional stories from a spectrum of Native tribes, translating them into Latin and English for children to read. In 1897, six weeks before graduation, she was forced to leave Earlham College due to ill health and financial difficulties.
Music and teaching
From 1897 to 1899 Zitkala-Ša studied and played the violin at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston. In 1899, she took a position at Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania, where she taught music to children. She also facilitated debates on the treatment of Native Americans.
At the 1900 Paris Exposition, she played violin with the school's Carlisle Indian Band. In the same year, she began writing articles on Native American life, which were published in national periodicals such as Atlantic Monthly and Harper's Monthly. Her critical appraisal of the American Indian boarding school system and vivid portrayal of Indian deracination contrasted markedly to the more idealistic writings of most of her contemporaries.
In early 1901, she became engaged to Carlos Montezuma, whom she likely met when he served as caretaker of the Carlisle band in 1900 after he had completed medical school. She broke off the relationship by August. He had refused to give up his private medical practice in Chicago and relocate with her to the Yankton Indian Agency, where she wanted to return.
Also in 1900, Zitkala-Ša was sent by Carlisle's founder, Colonel Richard Henry Pratt, to the Yankton Reservation to recruit students. It was her first visit in several years. She was troubled to find her mother's house in disrepair, her brother's family had fallen into poverty, and white settlers were beginning to occupy lands allotted to the Yankton Dakota under the Dawes Act of 1887.
Upon returning to the Carlisle School, Zitkala-Ša came into conflict with Pratt. She resented his rigid program to assimilate Native Americans into dominant white culture and the limitations of the curriculum. It prepared Native American children only for low-level manual work, assuming they would return to rural cultures.
Writing career
In 1901 Zitkala-Ša was dismissed. That year she had published an article in Harper's Monthly describing the profound loss of identity felt by a Native American boy after undergoing the assimilationist education at the school. Zitkála-Šá returned to the Yankton Reservation the same year and cared for her ailing mother. She also gathered material for her collection of traditional Sioux stories
to publish in Old Indian Legends, commissioned by the Boston publisher Ginn and Company.
She took a job as a clerk at the Bureau of Indian Affairs office at Standing Rock Indian Reservation. She would later make a speaking tour across the country for the General Federation of Women's Clubs. She called for the abolition of the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
Marriage and family
In 1902, she met and married Raymond Talephause Bonnin, who was of Yankton-European ancestry and culturally Yankton. Soon after their marriage, Bonnin was assigned by the BIA to the Uintah-Ouray reservation in Utah. The couple lived and worked there with the Ute people for the next fourteen years. During this period, Zitkala-Ša gave birth to the couple's only child, Alfred Ohiya Bonnin.
Also during this period, Zitkála-Šá met American composer William F. Hanson, who was a professor of music at Brigham Young University. Together, in 1910, they started their collaboration on the music for The Sun Dance Opera, for which Zitkala-Sa wrote the libretto and songs. She based it on sacred Sioux rituals, which the federal government prohibited the Ute from performing on the reservation.
The opera premiered in Utah in 1913, with dancing and some parts performed by the Ute, and lead singing roles filled by non-natives. According to historian Tadeusz Lewandowski, it was the first Native opera. It debuted in Vernal, Utah, to high local praise.
Her husband Bonnin enlisted in the US Army in 1917 after the United States declared war against the German Empire during World War I. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1918. He served in the Quarter Master Corps in Washington, D.C., and was honorably discharged with the rank of captain in 1920.
Earlier and later writing career
Zitkála-Šá had a fruitful writing career, with two major periods. The first period was from 1900 to 1904, when she published legends collected from Native American culture, as well as autobiographical narratives. She continued to write during the following years, but she did not publish any of these writings. These unpublished writings, along with others including the libretto of the Sun Dance Opera, were collected and published posthumously in 2001 as Dreams and Thunder: Stories, Poems, and the Sun Dance Opera.
Zitkála-Šá's articles in the Atlantic Monthly were published from 1900 to 1902. They included "An Indian Teacher Among Indians," published in Volume 85 in 1900. Included in the same issue were "Impressions of an Indian Childhood" and "School Days of an Indian Girl".
Zitkála-Šá's other articles were published in Harper's Monthly. "Soft-Hearted Sioux" appeared in the March 1901 issue, Volume 102, and "The Trial Path" in the October 1901 issue, Volume 103. She also wrote "A Warrior's Daughter", published in 1902 in Volume 6 of Everybody's Magazine.
In 1902, Zitkála-Šá published "Why I Am a Pagan" in Atlantic Monthly, volume 90. It was a treatise on her personal spiritual beliefs. She countered the contemporary trend that suggested Native Americans readily adopted and conformed to the Christianity forced on them in schools and public life.
Much of her work is characterized by its liminal nature: tensions between tradition and assimilation, and between literature and politics. This tension has been described as generating much of the dynamism of her work.
The second phase of her writing career was from 1916 to 1924. During this period, Zitkala-Ša concentrated on writing and publishing political works. She and her husband had moved to Washington, D.C., where she became politically active. She published some of her most influential writings, including American Indian Stories (1921) with the Hayworth Publishing House.
She co-authored Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians: An Orgy of Graft and Exploitation of the Five Civilized Tribes, Legalized Robbery (1923), an influential pamphlet, with Charles H. Fabens of the American Indian Defense Association and Matthew K. Sniffen of the Indian Rights Association. Included in the Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians publication was information about Stella Mason, as well as others. She also created the Indian Welfare Committee of the General Federation of Women's Clubs, working as a researcher for it through much of the 1920s.
American Indian Stories
American Indian Stories is a collection of childhood stories, allegorical fiction, and an essay, including several of Zitkála-Šá's articles that were originally published in Harper's Monthly and Atlantic Monthly. First published in 1921, these stories told of the hardships which she and other Native Americans encountered at the missionary and manual labor schools designed to "civilize" them and assimilate them to majority culture. The autobiographical writings described her early life on the Yankton Reservation, her years as a student at White's Manual Labor Institute and Earlham College, and her time teaching at Carlisle Indian Industrial School.
Her autobiography contrasted the charm of her early life on the reservation with the "iron routine" which she found in the assimilation boarding schools. Zitkála-Ša wrote: "Perhaps my Indian nature is the moaning wind which stirs them [schoolteachers] now for their present record. But, however tempestuous this is within me, it comes out as the low voice of a curiously colored seashell, which is only for those ears that are bent with compassion to hear it."
Old Indian Legends
Commissioned by the Boston publisher Ginn and Company, Old Indian Legends (1901) was a collection of stories including some that she learned as a child and others she had gathered from various tribes. Directed primarily at children, the collection was an attempt both to preserve Native American traditions and stories in print and to garner respect and recognition for those from the dominant European-American culture.
"Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians"
One of Zitkála-Šá's most influential pieces of political writing, "Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians,” was published in 1923 by the Indian Rights Association. The article exposed several American corporations that had been working systematically, through such extra-legal means as robbery and even murder, to defraud Native American tribes, particularly the Osage. After oil was discovered on their lands, speculators and criminals tried to acquire their headrights to leasing-fees from development of their oil-rich land in Oklahoma. During the 1920s, numerous Osage were murdered.
The work influenced Congress to pass the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which encouraged tribes to re-establish self-government, including management of their lands. Under this act, the government returned some lands to them as communal property, which it had previously classified as surplus, so they could put together parcels that could be managed.
Articles for American Indian Magazine
Zitkála-Šá was an active member of the Society of American Indians, which published American Indian Magazine. From 1918 to 1919 she served as editor of the magazine, as well as contributing numerous articles. These were her most explicitly political writings, covering topics such as the contribution of Native American soldiers to World War I, issues of land allotment, and corruption within the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the agency within the Department of Interior that oversaw American Indians. Many of her political writings have since been criticized for favoring assimilation. She called for recognition of Native American culture and traditions, while also advocating US citizenship rights to bring Native Americans into mainstream America. She believed this was the way that they could both gain political power and protect their cultures.
Making an opera
In 1910, Zitkala-Ša began collaborating with American composer William F. Hanson, who taught at Brigham Young University, on an opera on American Indian themes. She wrote the libretto and songs. She also played Sioux melodies on the violin, and Hanson used this as the basis of his music composition.
In February 1913, the premiere performance of The Sun Dance Opera was presented at Orpheus Hall in Vernal, Utah. The production featured members of the Ute Nation, who lived on the nearby Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation. It was significant for adapting the Native American oral musical tradition to a written one. Its debut was met with critical acclaim. Few works of Native American opera since have dealt so exclusively with Native American themes.
In 1938, the New York Light Opera Guild premiered The Sun Dance Opera at The Broadway Theatre as its opera of the year. Its publicity credited only William F. Hanson as composer.
Political activism
Zitkála-Šá was politically active throughout most of her adult life. During her time on the Uintah-Ouray reservation in Utah, she was involved with the Society of American Indians (SAI) which was dedicated to preserving the Native American way of life while lobbying for the right to full American citizenship. The letterhead of the council stationery claimed that the overall goals for SAI was to "help Indians help themselves in protecting their rights and properties". Zitkála-Šá served as SAI's secretary beginning in 1916. Since the late 20th century, activists have criticized SAI and Zitkála-Šá as misguided in their strong advocacy of citizenship and employment rights for Native Americans. Such critics believe that Native Americans have lost cultural identity as they have become more part of mainstream American society.
As the secretary for SAI, Zitkála-Šá corresponded with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). She began to criticize practices of the BIA, such as their attempt at the national boarding schools to prohibit Native American children from using their native languages and cultural practices. She reported incidents of abuse resulting from children's refusal to pray in a Christian manner. Her husband was dismissed from his BIA office at the Ute reservation in 1916. The couple and their son relocated to Washington, D.C., where they fought to find allies.
From Washington, Zitkála-Šá began lecturing nationwide on behalf of SAI to promote greater awareness of the cultural and tribal identity of Native Americans. During the 1920s she promoted a pan-Indian movement to unite all of America's tribes in the cause of lobbying for citizenship rights. In 1924 the Indian Citizenship Act was passed, granting US citizenship rights to most indigenous peoples who did not already have it.
While Native Americans now had citizenship, discrimination remained widespread. In some states their right to vote was denied, a situation not fully changed until the Civil rights movement of the 1960s. In 1926 she and her husband founded the National Council of American Indians (NCAI), dedicated to the cause of uniting the tribes throughout the U.S. in the cause of gaining full citizenship rights through suffrage. From 1926 until she died in 1938, Zitkála-Šá would serve as president, major fundraiser, and speaker for the NCAI. Her early work was largely forgotten after the organization was revived in 1944 under male leadership.
Zitkála-Šá was also active in the 1920s in the movement for women's rights, joining the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) in 1921. This grassroots organization was dedicated to diversity in its membership and to maintaining a public voice for women's concerns. Through the GFWC she created the Indian Welfare Committee in 1924. She helped initiate a government investigation into the exploitation of Native Americans in Oklahoma and the attempts being made to defraud them of drilling rights and leasing fees for their oil-rich lands.
In addition to her other organizing, Zitkála-Šá also ran a voter-registration drive among Native Americans. She encouraged them to support the Curtis Bill, which she believed would be favorable for Indians. Though the bill granted Native Americans US citizenship, it did not grant those living on reservations the right to vote in local and state elections. Zitkála-Šá continued to work for civil rights, and better access to health care and education for Native Americans until she died in 1938.
Death and legacy
Zitkála-Šá died on January 26, 1938, in Washington, D.C., at the age of sixty-one. She is buried as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin in Arlington National Cemetery with her husband Raymond. In the late 20th century, the University of Nebraska reissued many of her writings on Native American culture.
She has been recognized by the naming of a Venusian crater "Bonnin" in her honor. In 1997 she was designated a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project. Zitkála-Šá lived part of her life in the Lyon Park neighborhood of Arlington County, Virginia, near Washington, DC. In 2020, a park in that neighborhood that had previously been named for Henry Clay was renamed in her honor.
In 2018, Melodia Women's Choir of New York City performed the world premiere of a commissioned work based on the story of Zitkála-Šá, Red Bird by Cevanne Horrocks-Hopayian.
Zitkála-Šá's legacy lives on as one of the most influential Native American activists of the 20th century. She left an influential theory of Indian resistance and a crucial model for reform. Through her activism, Zitkála-Šá was able to make crucial changes to education, health care, and legal standing for Native American people and the preservation of Indian culture.
Chris Pappan illustrated a Google Doodle that incorporated ledger art for use in the United States on February 22, 2021, to celebrate her 145th birthday.
Writings by Zitkala-Sa
Old Indian Legends. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985.
American Indian Stories. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985.
Zitkála-Šá. "Why I Am a Pagan." Atlantic Monthly, 1902.
Zitkála-Šá, Fabens, Charles H. and Matthew K. Sniffen. Oklahoma's Poor Rich Indians: An Orgy of Graft and Exploitation of the Five Civilized Tribes, Legalized Robbery. Philadelphia: Office of the Indian Rights Association, 1924.
Zitkála-Šá. Dreams and Thunder: Stories, Poems, and The Sun Dance Opera. Edited by P. Jane Hafen. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001. .
Zitkála-Šá: Letters, Speeches, and Unpublished Writings, 1898–1929. Edited by Tadeusz Lewandowski. Leiden, Boston: Brill Press, 2018. .
Scores
Hanson, William F., and Zitkala-Ša. The Sun Dance Opera (romantic American Indian opera, 1913, 1938). Photocopy of the original piano-vocal score, from microfilm (227 pp.). Library of Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.
See also
Old Indian Legends
I Remain Alive: the Sioux Literary Renaissance
References
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External links
Gertrude Simmons Bonnin (Zitkala-Ša) from Voices in the Gaps
National Council of American Indians Records, correspondence of Gertrude and Raymond Bonnin
Portrait of Zitkala-Ša, by Gertrude Käsebier
1876 births
1938 deaths
American people of French descent
People from Charles Mix County, South Dakota
Dakota people
Native American activists
Members of the Society of American Indians
Earlham College alumni
Carlisle Indian Industrial School people
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Native American autobiographers
American autobiographers
Native American essayists
Native Americans' rights activists
Native American women writers
Native American suffragists
Native American musicians
19th-century Native American women
20th-century Native American women
20th-century Native Americans
20th-century American women writers
Writers from South Dakota
Musicians from South Dakota
Activists from South Dakota
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200586
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajdov%C5%A1%C4%8Dina
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Ajdovščina
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Ajdovščina (; , ) is a town in the Vipava Valley (Vipavska dolina), Slovenia. It is the administrative seat of the Municipality of Ajdovščina.
History
The first mentions of Ajdovščina go back to circa 2000 BC. In the Bronze Age and the Iron Age a fortified settlement stood on the nearby hill of Gradišče. In the early period of the Roman Empire, after a road was built from Aquileia towards Emona, a small post and goods station known as mansio Fluvio Frigido stood on the site of today's Ajdovščina.
In the late 3rd century and the early 4th century a fortification system, Claustra Alpium Iuliarum, which run from the Kvarner Gulf to Cividale, was built by the Roman Empire. Its centre was the fortress of Castra or Castrum ad Fluvio Frigido, the remains of which are today still visible in Ajdovščina.
Despite the fact that the Italian border is less than 20 km away and that Ajdovščina was under Italian administration from 1918 to 1947, and from 1927 as a commune of the Province of Gorizia (as Aidussina), during Italian rule (1918–1943, nominally lasted to 1947), the style of the town does not resemble that of a typical Italian town. The strong bora winds would cause damage to the usual Italian house construction. Thus the population adopted and modified the classical Karst architecture for their own needs; for example, by putting stones on roofs to weight down the tiles against the strong winds.
After World War II Ajdovščina became the economic and cultural centre of the upper Vipava Valley. Major industries include textile fabrics, construction, food, beverages, and furniture.
Ajdovščina annexed the formerly independent settlement of Šturje () in 1953.
Geography and climate
The Hubelj River is the dividing line between the two largest parts of Ajdovščina, locally known as Šturje and Ajdovščina. During the pre-World War I years the river was also the border between the Austrian lands of Gorizia and Gradisca and Carniola.
The climate is Mediterranean (minimum temperature in winter , maximum ; in the summer time maximum temperature , minimum . The town is located around 25 km from the Adriatic Sea.
Landmarks
Churches
The parish church in Ajdovščina is dedicated to John the Baptist and belongs to the Diocese of Koper. It is built on the site of a Roman cemetery. Its interior was painted by the local Baroque painter Anton Čebej. A second parish within the urban area of Ajdovščina is the Parish of Šturje, with the parish church dedicated to Saint George. The church in the hamlet of Fužine north of the main town, dedicated to Saint Anthony of Padua, also belongs to this parish.
Notable residents
Ivo Boscarol (born 1957), businessman
Arthur Casagrande (1902–1981), engineer
Anton Čebej (1722–1774), painter
Miša Cigoj (born 1982), dancesport athlete
Milan Klemenčič (1875–1957), puppeteer
Karel Lavrič (1818–1876), politician
Danilo Lokar (1892–1989), author
Julij Mayer (1891–1983), beekeeper
Veno Pilon (1896–1970), painter
Avgust Žigon (1877–1941), literary historian
See also
NK Primorje
References
External links
Ajdovščina municipal page
Ajdovščina on Geopedia
Ajdovščina Tourist Information Centre site
Virtual Ajdovščina by Burger (virtual photos)
Cities and towns in the Slovene Littoral
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200589
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicus%20Tuscus
|
Vicus Tuscus
|
Vicus Tuscus ("Etruscan Street" or "Tuscan Street") was an ancient street in the city of Rome, running southwest out of the Roman Forum between the Basilica Julia and the Temple of Castor and Pollux towards the Forum Boarium and Circus Maximus via the west side of the Palatine Hill and Velabrum.
History
The name of Vicus Tuscus is believed to have originated from Etruscan immigration to Rome. Two distinct historical events are said by ancient authors to have led to the name. Tacitus says the name arose from the Etruscans who had come to aid the Romans against Titus Tatius, a Sabine ruler who invaded Rome in around 750 BC after Romans abducted Sabine women, and later settled down in the neighborhood of the Roman forum. Livy, on the other hand, says the name came from the remnants of the Clusian army who settled in the area following the War between Clusium and Aricia in 508 BC.
Some say the settlement was composed of workers whose task in Rome was to construct the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.
Dionysius indicates that the Roman senate provided Etruscans a place to build houses near Vicus Tuscus.
Background
Though originally a residential area of wealthy families; by the Republican time, the Vicus Tuscus became a hub of Roman commerce where there were many stores (horrea) on both sides, such as booksellers. According to Horace's Epistles, books were on sale in front of the statues of Etruscan god Vertumnus and Janus Geminus in the Tuscan street and inside the Forum. The most influential merchants were expert dealers of incense and perfume (turarii in Latin), giving rise to the street's second name - Vicus Turarius. Propertius recorded that these tradesmen made sacrificial offerings to Vertumnus, whose statue stood on Vicus Tuscus.
Function
Vicus Tuscus was frequently used as an important path of communication between the Roman Forum and the Forum Boarium and Circus Maximus. When Romans conducted a sacrificial rite to their gods, two white cows were led through Vicus Tuscus and Velabrum via the forum Boarium, to arrive at the Temple of Juno Regina on the Aventine Hill.
During the Ludi Romani, the Vicus Tuscus was a route for processions. Statues of gods on wagons were paraded through here from the Capitoline Hill to the Circus Maximus. Plautus also tells us (Curculio, IV 482) that around 193 BCE, this was the spot for male prostitution in Rome.
References
Tuscus
Roman Forum
Rome R. X Campitelli
Rome R. XII Ripa
|
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200590
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20G%C3%B6rres
|
Joseph Görres
|
Johann Joseph Görres, since 1839 von Görres (25 January 1776 – 29 January 1848), was a German writer, philosopher, theologian, historian and journalist.
Early life
Görres was born in Koblenz. His father was moderately well off, and sent his son to a Latin college under the direction of the Roman Catholic clergy. The young Görres' sympathies were initially with the French Revolution, and the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed his beliefs, which would then evolve over time. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted on the unity of interests which would ally all civilized states to one another. He began a republican journal called Das rote Blatt, and afterwards Rübezahl, in which he strongly condemned the administration of the Rhenish provinces by France.
After the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) there was hope that the Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent republic. In 1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of which Görres was a member, to Paris to put their case before the directory. The embassy reached Paris on 20 November 1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed power. After much delay he received the embassy; but the only answer they obtained was "that they might rely on perfect justice, and that the French government would never lose sight of their wants". Görres on his return published a tract called Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris, in which he reviewed the history of the French Revolution.
During the thirteen years of Napoleon's dominion Görres lived a quiet life, devoting himself chiefly to art or science. In 1801 he married Catherine de Lasaulx, and for some years taught at a secondary school in Koblenz; in 1806 he moved to Heidelberg, where he lectured at the university. British lawyer and diarist Henry Crabb Robinson met Görres during this time. A quote from his diary:
Görres has the wildest physiognomy – looks like an overgrown old student. A faun-like nose and lips, fierce eyes, and locks as wild as Caliban’s. Strong sense, with a sort of sulky indifference toward others, are the characteristics of his manner.
Clemens Brentano compared his appearance to that
[...] of an old lion shaking and pulling his mane caught in the bars of his cage.
As a leading member of the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with Brentano and Ludwig Achim von Arnim the Zeitung für Einsiedler (subsequently renamed Trost-Einsamkeit), and in 1807 he published Die deutschen Volksbücher (literally, The Books of the German People).
He returned to Koblenz in 1808, and again found occupation as a teacher in a secondary school, supported by civic funds. He now studied Persian, and in two years published a Mythengeschichte der asiatischen Welt (History of the Myths of the Asiatic World), which was followed ten years later by Das Heldenbuch von Iran (The Book of Heroes of Iran), a translation of part of the Shahnama, the epic of Firdousi.
Editor of the Merkur
In 1813 he again took up the cause of national independence, and in the following year founded Der rheinische Merkur. The outspokenness of its hostility to Napoleon made it influential, and Napoleon himself called it "a fifth power". It campaigned for a united Germany, with a representative government, but under an emperor, Görres having abandoned his earlier advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon was at Elba, Görres wrote an ironic imaginary proclamation issued by him to the people. He criticised the second peace of Paris (1815), declaring that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded back from France.
Stein used the Merkur at the time of the meeting of the congress of Vienna to give expression to his hopes. But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Görres to remember that he was not to arouse hostility against France, but only against Napoleon. There was also in the Merkur an antipathy to Prussia, expression of the desire that an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title, and also a tendency to liberalism—all distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master Friedrich Wilhelm III. Görres disregarded warnings sent to him by the censorship, so that the Merkur was suppressed early in 1816, at the instance of the Prussian government; and soon after Görres was dismissed from his teaching post.
Life as an independent writer
He supported himself by his pen, and he became a political pamphleteer. In the excitement which followed Kotzebue's assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad were framed, and these were the subject of Görres’ pamphlet Teutschland und die Revolution ("Germany and the Revolution", 1820). In this work he reviewed the circumstances which had led to the murder of August von Kotzebue, and, while expressing horror at the deed itself, he urged that it was impossible and undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion. The success of the work was marked, despite a ponderous style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and orders were issued for the arrest of Görres and the seizure of his papers. He escaped to Strasbourg, and thence went to Switzerland. Two more political tracts were Europa und die Revolution ("Europe and the Revolution", 1821) and In Sachen der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit ("In the matter of the Rhine Province and in a matter of my own", 1822). In the former book – read with avidity throughout Germany. – Görres describes the moral, intellectual and political corruption of France in the course of the eighteenth century as the major cause which led to the revolution:
In his pamphlet Die heilige Allianz und die Völker auf dem Congresse von Verona ("The Holy Alliance and the peoples represented at the congress of Verona", 1822) Görres asserted that the princes had met together to crush the liberties of the people, and that the people must look elsewhere for help. The "elsewhere" was to Rome; and from this time Görres became an Ultramontane writer. He was summoned to Munich by King Ludwig of Bavaria as professor of history in the university, and there his writing enjoyed popularity.
Since his sojourn in Strasbourg, Görres had studied the mystic testimonies of various epochs. He went into the mystical writers of the Middle Ages such as María de Ágreda as well as observing, partly in person, the ecstatic young women of his time (Maria von Mörl, and others), and strove to comprehend more thoroughly the nature of Christian mysticism. His Christliche Mystik ("On christian mysticism", 4 vols., 1836–1842; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1879) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together with an exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion was the deposition and imprisonment by the Prussian government of the archbishop Clement Wenceslaus reportedly due to his refusal to sanction in certain instances the marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics.
In his Athanasius (1837), Görres upheld the power of the church, although liberals of later claimed he never insisted on the absolute supremacy of Rome. Athanasius went through several editions, and initiated a long and bitter controversy. In the Historisch-politische Blätter ("Historical-political pages"), a Munich journal, Görres and his son Guido (1805–1852) continued to uphold the claims of the church. On New Year's Day of 1839, Görres received the "Civil Order of Merit" from the king for his services.
Death
He died 29 January 1848, the year of the fall of Metternich, and was buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich.
Publications
Der allgemeine Frieden, ein Ideal (1798).
Aphorismen über Kunst (1802).
Glauben und Wissen (1805).
Die teutschen Volksbücher. Nähere Würdigung der schönen Historien-, Wetter- und Arzneybüchlein […] (1807).
Schriftproben von Peter Hammer (1808).
Über den Fall Teutschlands und die Bedingungen seiner Wiedergeburt (1810).
Mythengeschichte der asiatischen Welt (1810).
Lohengrin, ein altteutsches Gedicht (1813).
Rheinischer Merkur (1814–1816).
Teutschland und die Revolution (1819).
Beantwortung der in den jetzigen Zeiten für jeden Teutschen besonders wichtigen Frage: Was haben wir zu erwarten? (1814).
Europa und die Revolution (1821).
Firdusi (1822).
Die heilige Allianz und die Völker auf dem Congresse von Verona (1822).
Introduction to Melchior von Diepenbrock's Heinrich Susos, genannt Amandus, Leben und Schriften (1829).
Über die Grundlage, Gliederung und Zeitenfolge der Weltgeschichte (1830).
Nachruf auf Achim von Arnim (1831).
Vier Sendschreiben an Herrn Culmann, Sekretär der Ständeversammlung (1831).
Ministerium, Staatszeitung, Rechte und Unrechte Mitte (1831).
Athanasius (1837).
Die Triarier H. Leo, Dr. P. Marheinecke, D. K. Bruno (1838).
Die christliche Mystik (1836–1842).
Kirche und Staat nach Ablauf der Cölner Irrung (1842).
Der Dom von Köln und das Münster von Strasburg (1842).
Introduction to Das Leben Christi, by Johann Nepomuk Sepp (1843).
Die Japhetiden und ihre gemeinsame Heimat Armenien. Akademische Festrede (1844).
Die drei Grundwurzeln des celtischen Stammes und ihre Einwanderung (1845).
Die Wallfahrt nach Trier (1845).
Die Aspecten an der Zeitenwende. Zum neuen Jahre 1848 (last and unfinished article, 1848).
Works in English translation
Germany and the Revolution. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1820.
Influences
Richard Wagner was an avid reader of Görres' Lohengrin introduction, since the 1840s, as well as (less enthusiastically) of the Christliche Mystik (read in 1875).
Carl Jung mentions reading Görres as a young man in his autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (Pantheon Books, 1963, p. 99) .
The Görres Society was founded on 25 January 1876 in honour of Görres to advance Roman Catholic studies.
See also
Guido Görres
References
Further reading
Berger, Martin (1921). Görres als politischer Publizist. Bonn und Leipzig: K. Schroeder.
Coker, F. W. (1910). “The Organismic Analogies of Görres.” In: Organismic Theories of the State. Columbia University Press, pp. 44–47.
Dickerhof, Harald (1999). Görres-Studien. Paderborn: Schöningh.
Heuvel, Jon Vanden (2001). A German Life in the Age of Revolution: Joseph Görres, 1776–1848, Catholic University of America Press.
Menzel, Wolfgang (1840). German Literature, Vol. 2, Vol. 3. Boston: Hilliard, Gray and Company.
Münster, Hans A. (1926). Die öffentliche Meinung in Johann Josef Görres' Politischer Publizistik. Berlin: Staatspolitischer Verlag.
Raab, Heribert (1978). Joseph Görres, ein Leben für Freiheit und Recht. Paderborn: Schöningh.
External links
Biography of Joseph Görres, German and English
Encyclopædia Britannica: Joseph von Görres
Joseph Görres: "Something to Sell," 1798
1776 births
1848 deaths
Politicians from Heidelberg
19th-century German Catholic theologians
Writers from Heidelberg
Writers from Koblenz
Roman Catholic activists
Burials at the Alter Südfriedhof
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren%20Zevon
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Warren Zevon
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Warren William Zevon (; January 24, 1947 – September 7, 2003) was an American rock singer, songwriter, and musician.
Zevon's most famous compositions include "Werewolves of London", "Lawyers, Guns and Money", and "Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner". All three songs are featured on his third album, Excitable Boy (1978), the title track of which is also well-known. He also wrote major hits that were recorded by other artists, including "Poor Poor Pitiful Me", "Accidentally Like a Martyr", "Mohammed's Radio", "Carmelita", and "Hasten Down the Wind". Along with his own work, he recorded or performed occasional covers, including Allen Toussaint's "A Certain Girl", Bob Dylan's "Knockin' on Heaven's Door", Leonard Cohen's "First We Take Manhattan", Steve Winwood's "Back in the High Life Again", and Prince's "Raspberry Beret".
Zevon's early music industry successes were found as a session musician, jingle composer, songwriter, touring musician, musical coordinator and bandleader. Despite all this, Zevon struggled to break through in his solo career until his music was performed by Linda Ronstadt, beginning with her 1976 album Hasten Down the Wind. This launched a cult following that lasted 25 years, with Zevon making occasional returns to album and single charts until his death from mesothelioma in 2003. He briefly found a new audience by teaming up with members of R.E.M. in the blues rock outfit Hindu Love Gods for a 1990 album release, although no tour followed.
Known for his dry wit and acerbic lyrics, he was a guest numerous times on Late Night with David Letterman and the Late Show with David Letterman.
Early life
Zevon was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Beverly Cope (née Simmons) and William Zevon. His father was a Jewish immigrant from Russia, whose original surname was Zivotovsky. William Zevon worked as a bookie who handled volume bets and dice games for the notorious Los Angeles mobster Mickey Cohen. He worked for years in the Cohen crime family, in which he was known as Stumpy Zevon, and was best man at Cohen's first wedding. Warren's mother was from a Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints family and was of English descent. They moved to Fresno, California. By the age of 13, Zevon was an occasional visitor to the home of Igor Stravinsky, where he briefly studied modern classical music alongside Robert Craft. Zevon's parents divorced when he was 16 years old. He soon quit high school and moved from Los Angeles to New York City to become a folk singer.
Zevon turned to a musical career early, forming a musical duo with his high school friend, Violet Santangelo, called lyme and cybelle. Bones Howe produced their first single, the minor hit "Follow Me", which was written by Zevon and Santangelo and reached number 65 on the Billboard pop charts in April 1966. A follow-up single, a cover of Bob Dylan's "If You Gotta Go, Go Now" flopped, and Zevon left the duo.
Zevon spent time as a session musician and jingle composer. He wrote several songs for his White Whale labelmates The Turtles ("Like the Seasons" and "Outside Chance"), though his participation in their recording—if any—is unknown. Another early Zevon composition ("She Quit Me") was included in the soundtrack for the film Midnight Cowboy (1969); to suit its place in the film, the song was re-recorded by Leslie Miller as "He Quit Me".
Zevon's first attempt at a solo album, Wanted Dead or Alive (1969), was spearheaded by 1960s cult figure Kim Fowley but received almost no attention and did not sell well. Though Zevon would continue to play occasional live dates as a solo artist, the next several years of his career were dominated by session work with other musicians.
During the early 1970s, Zevon toured regularly with the Everly Brothers as keyboard player, band leader, and musical coordinator. Later the same decade, he toured with Don Everly and Phil Everly separately, as they tried to launch solo careers after their breakup. He worked particularly closely with Phil, arranging and playing keyboards on his first and third solo albums (Star Spangled Springer (1973) and Mystic Line (1975)) and co-writing tracks on his second and third albums (Phil's Diner (1974) and the aforementioned Mystic Line). Zevon's song "Carmelita" was also recorded by Canadian singer Murray McLauchlan on his self-titled album of 1972.
These small successes were not particularly rewarding financially, and Zevon's dissatisfaction with his career (and a lack of funds) led him to briefly move to Spain in the summer of 1975. There he lived and played in the Dubliner Bar, a small tavern in Sitges, near Barcelona, owned by David Lindell, a former mercenary. Together they composed "Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner".
Return to L.A. and major-label debut
By September 1975, Zevon had returned to Los Angeles, where he roomed with Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham, who had at this time become members of Fleetwood Mac. There he collaborated with Jackson Browne, who produced and promoted Zevon's self-titled major-label debut in 1976. Contributors to the album included Nicks, Buckingham, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, members of the Eagles, Carl Wilson, Linda Ronstadt, and Bonnie Raitt. Ronstadt elected to record many of his songs, including "Hasten Down the Wind", "Carmelita", "Poor Poor Pitiful Me", and "Mohammed's Radio". Zevon's first tour, in 1977, included guest appearances in the middle of Jackson Browne concerts, one of which is documented on a widely circulated bootleg recording of a Dutch radio program under the title The Offender Meets the Pretender.
Produced by Browne, Warren Zevon (1976) was his first album to chart in the United States, peaking at No. 189. The first edition of the Rolling Stone Record Guide (published in 1979) called it "a masterpiece". The guide's latest edition (November 2004) calls it Zevon's "most realized work". Representative tracks include the junkie's lament "Carmelita"; the Copland-esque outlaw ballad "Frank and Jesse James"; "The French Inhaler", a scathing look at life and lust in the L.A. music business (which was actually about his long-time girlfriend and mother of his son, Jordan); and "Desperados Under the Eaves", a chronicle of Zevon's increasing alcoholism.
Success
In 1978, Zevon released Excitable Boy (produced by Jackson Browne and guitarist Waddy Wachtel) to critical acclaim and popular success. The title tune is about a juvenile sociopath's murderous prom night and referred to "Little Susie", the heroine of the song "Wake Up Little Susie" made famous by his former employers the Everly Brothers. Other songs such as "Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner" and "Lawyers, Guns and Money" used deadpan humor to wed geopolitical subtexts to hard-boiled narratives. Tracks from this album received heavy FM airplay, and the single release "Werewolves of London", which featured Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, was a relatively lighthearted work featuring Zevon's signature macabre outlook that reached No. 21 on the charts.
Critic Dave Marsh, in The Rolling Stone Record Guide (1979), called Zevon "one of the toughest rockers ever to come out of Southern California". Rolling Stone record reviews editor Paul Nelson called the album "one of the most significant releases of the 1970s" and placed Zevon alongside Neil Young, Jackson Browne, and Bruce Springsteen as the four most important new artists to emerge in the decade. On May 11, 1980, Zevon and Willie Nile appeared on the King Biscuit Flower Hour.
Zevon followed Excitable Boy with Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School, in 1980. This album was dedicated to Ken Millar, better known under his nom-de-plume as the detective novelist Ross Macdonald. One of Zevon's literary heroes, Millar met the singer for the first time while participating in an intervention organized by Nelson, which helped Zevon temporarily curtail his addictions. Featuring a modest hit with the single "A Certain Girl" (Zevon's cover of an R&B record by Ernie K-Doe) which reached No. 57 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, the album sold briskly but was uneven, and represented a decline rather than commercial and critical consistency. It contained a collaboration with Bruce Springsteen on the song "Jeannie Needs a Shooter" and the ballad "Empty-Handed Heart" featuring a descant sung by Linda Ronstadt, which dealt with Zevon's divorce from his wife, Crystal, the mother of his daughter Ariel; she has been erroneously described in some sources as his "second wife". (Marilyn "Tule" Livingston, the mother of his son, Jordan, and Zevon were in a long-term relationship but never married.) Later in 1980, he released the live album Stand in the Fire (dedicated to Martin Scorsese), recorded over five nights at the Roxy Theatre in Los Angeles.
Personal crisis and first comeback
Zevon's 1982 release The Envoy returned to the high standard of Excitable Boy but was not a commercial success. It was an eclectic but characteristic set that included such compositions as "Ain't That Pretty at All", "Charlie's Medicine" and "Jesus Mentioned", the first of Zevon's two musical reactions to the death of Elvis Presley; the other is the song "Porcelain Monkey" on Life'll Kill Ya in 2000. The album also contains the first of Zevon's writing collaborations with respected writers of fiction: "The Overdraft", co-written with Thomas McGuane. The title track was dedicated to Philip Habib, U.S. special envoy to the Middle East during the early 1980s. In the liner notes for the 1996 anthology I'll Sleep When I'm Dead, Zevon stated that after the song came out, Habib sent him "a very nice letter of appreciation on State Department stationery". The lyrics of another track, "The Hula Hula Boys", were excerpted in Hunter S. Thompson's 1983 book The Curse of Lono.
In 1983, the recently divorced Zevon became engaged to Philadelphia disc jockey Anita Gevinson and moved to the East Coast. After The Envoy was poorly received by critics, Asylum Records ended their business relationship with Zevon, which Zevon discovered only when he read about it in the "Random Notes" column of Rolling Stone. Following these career setbacks, he relapsed into drug and alcohol abuse. In 1984, he voluntarily checked himself into a rehab clinic in Minnesota. His relationship with Gevinson ended shortly thereafter. Zevon retreated from the music business for several years, except for playing live solo shows; during this time he finally overcame severe alcohol and drug addictions.
During this period, Zevon collaborated with Bill Berry, Peter Buck and Mike Mills (of R.E.M.), along with backup vocalist Bryan Cook to form a minor project called Hindu Love Gods. The group released the non-charting single "Narrator" for IRS Records in 1984, then went into abeyance for several years.
Berry, Buck and Mills served as the core of Zevon's next studio band when he re-emerged in 1987 by signing with Virgin Records and recording the album Sentimental Hygiene. The release, hailed as his best since Excitable Boy, featured a thicker rock sound and taut, often humorous songs like "Detox Mansion", "Bad Karma" (which featured R.E.M. lead singer Michael Stipe on backup vocals), and "Reconsider Me". Included were contributions from Neil Young, Bob Dylan, Flea, Brian Setzer, and George Clinton, as well as Berry, Buck, and Mills. Also on hand were Zevon's longtime collaborators Jorge Calderón and Waddy Wachtel.
During the Sentimental Hygiene sessions, Zevon also participated in an all-night jam session with Berry, Buck and Mills, as they worked their way through rock and blues numbers by the likes of Bo Diddley, Muddy Waters, Robert Johnson and Prince. Though the sessions were not initially intended for release, they eventually saw the light of day as a Hindu Love Gods album.
The immediate follow-up to Sentimental Hygiene was 1989's Transverse City, a futuristic concept album inspired by Zevon's interest in the work of cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson. It featured guests including Little Feat drummer Richie Hayward, Jefferson Airplane and Hot Tuna bassist Jack Casady, noted jazz keyboardist Chick Corea and various guitarists, including Wachtel, David Lindley, Jerry Garcia, Jorma Kaukonen, David Gilmour and Neil Young. Key tracks include the title song, "Splendid Isolation", "Run Straight Down" (which had a promotional video that featured Zevon singing in a factory while Gilmour played guitar solos), and "They Moved the Moon" (one of Zevon's eerier ballads).
Later years and second comeback
Transverse City was a commercial disappointment, and Zevon was dropped by Virgin Records soon after the album's release. Zevon, however, contracted almost immediately with Irving Azoff's new label Giant Records, and the first issue under Zevon's contract with his new distributor was the album Hindu Love Gods, recorded during the Sentimental Hygiene sessions. The album included a cover of Prince's "Raspberry Beret", which became a number 23 Modern Rock hit in the United States.
In 1991, Zevon, once again a solo artist, released Mr. Bad Example. This album featured the modest pop hit "Searching for a Heart" and the rocker "Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead", later used as the title of the neo-noir film of the same name, directed by Gary Fleder; after some skirmishing over the unauthorized use of Zevon's song title, the Zevon track was licensed to play over the film's end credits. Zevon also sang lead vocals on the song "Casey Jones" from the Grateful Dead tribute album Deadicated, with regular collaborator David Lindley.
Zevon toured the United States (with the Odds), Europe, Australia and New Zealand during this period. Owing to his reduced circumstances, his performances were often true solo efforts with minimal accompaniment on piano and guitar; the live album Learning to Flinch (1993) documents such a tour. Zevon often played in Colorado to allow for an opportunity to visit with his longtime friend Hunter S. Thompson.
A lifelong fan of hardboiled fiction, Zevon was friendly with several well-known writers, who also collaborated on his songwriting during this period, including Thompson, Carl Hiaasen and Mitch Albom. Zevon also served as musical coordinator and occasional guitarist for an ad-hoc rock music group called the Rock Bottom Remainders, a collection of writers performing rock-and-roll standards at book fairs and other events. The group included Stephen King, Dave Barry, Matt Groening and Amy Tan, among other popular writers, and it has continued to perform one benefit concert per year since Zevon's death.
An affiliated project for which Zevon both played and wrote liner notes is the offbeat 1998 album Stranger Than Fiction, a two-CD set attributed to the Wrockers, containing rock covers and originals by many of the Remainders authors plus such notables as Norman Mailer and Maya Angelou. Zevon oversaw music for the short-lived revival of the NBC series Route 66 (1993), contributing that show's main title theme, "If You Won't Leave Me I'll Find Somebody Who Will". His music was also featured in the four William Shatner TekWar movies in 1994. Zevon is listed as "theme music composer" in the opening credits. His song "Real or Not" was used as the show's end credit theme song. The song appeared on Zevon's 2-CD set, I'll Sleep When I'm Dead (An Anthology). In the accompanying booklet, Zevon wrote, "I wrote this song for the William Shatner TV movies based on his novels. He is Captain Kirk, rest assured. He'd call me at home and demand to hear the song in progress, then he'd say "We need more guitars! More driving guitars!" It was cool. The track reflected my secret fondness for sleazy English techno records."
Occasionally, between 1982 and 2001, Zevon filled in for Paul Shaffer as bandleader on Late Night with David Letterman and later the Late Show with David Letterman.
In 1995, Zevon released the self-produced Mutineer. The title track was frequently covered by Bob Dylan on his U.S. fall tour in 2002. Zevon's cover of cult artist Judee Sill's "Jesus Was a Crossmaker" predated the wider rediscovery of her work a decade later. The album, however, suffered the worst sales of Zevon's career, in part because his label, superagent Irving Azoff's short-lived Giant Records, was in the process of going out of business. Rhino Records released a Zevon "best-of" compilation in 1996, I'll Sleep When I'm Dead. Zevon also appeared on the Larry Sanders Show on HBO, in 1993, playing himself as a guest on the show, promoting Learning to Flinch. Zevon also played himself on two episodes of Suddenly Susan in 1999, along with singer and actor Rick Springfield.
After another five-year layoff, Zevon signed with industry veteran Danny Goldberg's Artemis Records and again rebounded with the mortality-themed 2000 release Life'll Kill Ya, containing the hymn-like "Don't Let Us Get Sick" and an austere version of Steve Winwood's 1980s hit "Back in the High Life Again". With record sales brisk and music critics giving Zevon his best notices since Excitable Boy, Life'll Kill Ya is seen as his second comeback. He followed with the album My Ride's Here (2002), with its morbid prescience of things to come; the album included "Hit Somebody! (The Hockey Song)" (co-written by Mitch Albom, the author of Tuesdays with Morrie, and featuring Paul Shaffer, the Late Night band, and a spoken vocal from TV host David Letterman) and the ballad "Genius"—written with Pulitzer Prize and T.S. Eliot Prize-winning poet, Paul Muldoon—later used as the title of an anthology of Zevon's recordings in 2002.
At about this time, he and the actor Billy Bob Thornton formed a close friendship, catalyzed by their common experiences with obsessive-compulsive disorder and the fact they lived in the same apartment building. One of Zevon's compulsions was buying and hoarding identical gray Calvin Klein T-shirts.
Cancer and The Wind
In interviews, Zevon described a lifelong phobia of doctors and said he seldom consulted one. He had started working out, and he looked physically fit. Shortly before playing at the Edmonton Folk Music Festival in 2002, he started feeling dizzy and developed a chronic cough. After a period of suffering with pain and shortness of breath, Zevon was encouraged by his dentist to see a physician; he was diagnosed with pleural mesothelioma, a cancer (usually caused by exposure to asbestos) that affects the pleura, a thin membrane around the lungs and chest lining. Zevon was deeply shaken by the news and began drinking again after 17 years of sobriety.
Although Zevon never revealed where he may have been exposed to asbestos, his son, Jordan, suggests that it came from Zevon's childhood, playing in the attic of his father's carpet store in Arizona. Refusing treatments he believed might incapacitate him, Zevon instead began recording his final album, The Wind, which includes performances by close friends including Bruce Springsteen, Don Henley, Jackson Browne, Timothy B. Schmit, Joe Walsh, David Lindley, Billy Bob Thornton, Emmylou Harris, Tom Petty, and Dwight Yoakam. At the request of the music television channel VH1, documentarian Nick Read was given access to the sessions and made the television film Inside Out: Warren Zevon.
On October 30, 2002, Zevon was featured on the Late Show with David Letterman as the only guest for the entire hour. The band played "I'll Sleep When I'm Dead" as his introduction. Zevon performed several songs and spoke at length about his illness. Zevon had been a frequent guest and occasional substitute bandleader on Letterman's television shows since Late Night was first broadcast in 1982. He noted, "I might have made a tactical error in not going to a physician for 20 years." It was during this broadcast that, when asked by Letterman if he knew something more about life and death now, he first offered his oft-quoted insight on dying: "Enjoy every sandwich." He also thanked Letterman for his years of support, calling him "the best friend my music's ever had". For his final song of the evening, and his final public performance, Zevon performed "Roland the Headless Thompson Gunner" at Letterman's request. In the green room after the show, Zevon presented Letterman with the guitar that he always used on the show, with a single request: "Here, I want you to have this, take good care of it." The day after Zevon's death, Letterman paid tribute to him by replaying his performance of "Mutineer" from his last appearance. The Late Show band played Zevon's songs throughout the night.
Zevon stated previously that his illness was expected to be terminal within months after diagnosis in late 2002. However, he lived to see the birth of twin grandsons in June 2003 and the release of The Wind on August 26, 2003. Owing in part to the first VH1 broadcasts of Nick Read's documentary Warren Zevon: Keep Me in Your Heart, the album reached number 12 on the U.S. charts, Zevon's highest placement since Excitable Boy. When his diagnosis became public, Zevon told the media that he just hoped to live long enough to see the next James Bond movie (Die Another Day), a goal he accomplished.
Death
Zevon died of mesothelioma on September 7, 2003, aged 56, at his home in Los Angeles. His body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean near Los Angeles.
Posthumous releases and awards
A tribute album titled Enjoy Every Sandwich: The Songs of Warren Zevon was released October 19, 2004. Zevon's son, Jordan Zevon, was the executive producer of the album and performed "Studebaker", a previously unfinished composition by his father. A second tribute album, Hurry Home Early: The Songs of Warren Zevon ("hurry home early" is from the song "Boom Boom Mancini", on the album Sentimental Hygiene) was released by Wampus Multimedia on July 8, 2005.
On February 14, 2006, VH1 Classic premiered a music video from a new compilation, Reconsider Me: The Love Songs. The video, titled "She's Too Good for Me," aired every hour on the hour throughout the day.
First and last issues of the Zevon albums Stand in the Fire and The Envoy were released on March 27, 2007, by Rhino Records, alongside a Rhino re-issue of Excitable Boy, with the three CDs having four unreleased bonus tracks each. Noteworthy rarities include the outtakes "Word of Mouth" and "The Risk" from the Envoy sessions and "Frozen Notes (Strings Version)", a melancholy outtake from Excitable Boy performed on acoustic piano with a string quartet.
On May 1, 2007, Ammal Records, a new label started up as a partnership with New West Records by Zevon's former boss at Artemis, Danny Goldberg, released Preludes: Rare and Unreleased Recordings, a two-disc anthology of Zevon demos and alternate versions culled from 126 pre-1976 recordings that were kept in a suitcase. The album contains five previously unreleased songs: "Empty Hearted Town", "Going All the Way", "Steady Rain", "Stop Rainin' Lord" and "The Rosarita Beach Cafe", along with Zevon's original demo of "Studebaker". Selections from an interview of Zevon by the Austin-based radio personality Jody Denberg are blended with about 40 minutes of music on the collection's second disc.
The Wind was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2003, and Zevon received five posthumous Grammy nominations, including Song of the Year for the ballad "Keep Me in Your Heart". The Wind won two Grammys, with the album itself receiving the award for Best Contemporary Folk Album, while "Disorder in the House", Zevon's duet with Bruce Springsteen, was awarded Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. These posthumous awards were the first Grammys of Zevon's thirty-plus year career.
Personal life
Zevon's daughter, Ariel Zevon, whom he had with his wife, Crystal, in 1976, is a singer-songwriter and former café owner in Vermont. His son, Jordan Zevon, born in 1969 to Marilyn Livingston Dillow, is a singer, musician, and songwriter.
Biographical works
I'll Sleep When I'm Dead: The Dirty Life and Times of Warren Zevon, a biography by his ex-wife, Crystal Zevon, was published in 2007 by Ecco Books. The book consists mostly of interviews with many of Zevon's friends and associates and takes excerpts from his diaries, it's notable for the unvarnished (at his request) portrayal of his life.
George Plasketes, a professor at Auburn University, wrote a critical study of Zevon's music in 2016, Warren Zevon, Desperado of Los Angeles. Zevon was also the subject of Michael Flood's essay "Lord Byron's Luggage: Warren Zevon and the Redefinition of Literature Rock". A collection of short stories by Kelly Lynn Thomas, Miss Gun to a Knife Fight: Stories, is composed of retellings of songs by Zevon.
In 2012, George Gruel, a photographer who worked as Zevon's aide-de-camp from 1978 to 1983, published a book of photos of Zevon, entitled Lawyers, Guns and Photos.
Discography
Wanted Dead or Alive (1969)
Warren Zevon (1976)
Excitable Boy (1978)
Bad Luck Streak in Dancing School (1980)
Stand in the Fire (1980)
The Envoy (1982)
Sentimental Hygiene (1987)
Transverse City (1989)
Hindu Love Gods (1990), with members of R.E.M. (not including Michael Stipe)
Mr. Bad Example (1991)
Learning to Flinch (1993)
Mutineer (1995)
Life'll Kill Ya (2000)
My Ride's Here (2002)
The Wind (2003)
References
Further reading
External links
Warren Zevon semi-official site
Warren Zevon's personal archive at Human Archives
1947 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American keyboardists
21st-century American singers
21st-century American writers
American baritones
American male singer-songwriters
American people of English descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American rock keyboardists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
Artemis Records artists
Asylum Records artists
Deaths from mesothelioma
Giant Records (Warner) artists
Grammy Award winners
Hindu Love Gods (band) members
Imperial Records artists
People with obsessive–compulsive disorder
Reprise Records artists
Rykodisc artists
Singers from Chicago
Virgin Records artists
Writers from Chicago
White Whale Records artists
20th-century American keyboardists
20th-century American male singers
Deaths from cancer in California
Singer-songwriters from Illinois
|
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200594
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Gap%2C%20North%20Carolina
|
Deep Gap, North Carolina
|
Deep Gap is an unincorporated community located in Watauga County, North Carolina, United States. The community is named after the natural gap, called Deep Gap, at Fire Scale Mountain, where the Blue Ridge Parkway crosses over US 421. Influential guitar player Doc Watson was born in Deep Gap and lived there until his death May 29, 2012.
History
In 1887, the Gap Creek Baptist Church was established.
Notable residents
Doc Watson
See also
Powder Horn Mountain
Tomkins Knob
References
Unincorporated communities in Watauga County, North Carolina
Unincorporated communities in North Carolina
|
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] |
200595
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar%20Grove%2C%20North%20Carolina
|
Sugar Grove, North Carolina
|
Sugar Grove is an unincorporated community located in Watauga County, North Carolina, United States. It is named after the sugar maples that grow in the area. The community is located along US 321, west of Vilas and Boone, along the banks of Cove Creek.
History
Sugar Grove was founded in 1837, when John Mast opened the Sugar Grove Post Office; that year he reported a revenue of $14. During the Civil War, Company E of the 37th Confederate Regiment was organized September, 1861. Between 1864 and 1865, the home guard battalion of Watauga was stationed at Camp Mast, nearby Sugar Grove. On February 5, 1865, Camp Mast surrendered, by majority vote, after being surrounded at dawn by a battalion of around 100 Union soldiers, led by Captain James Champion, of Indiana; those who voted for surrender were quickly paroled and discharged. In 1915, the first cheese factory in the area was established in Sugar Grove (unknown when closed).
The Cove Creek High School, Ben Farthing Farm, and Ward Family House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
See also
Crossing Knob
Watauga River
References
Unincorporated communities in Watauga County, North Carolina
Unincorporated communities in North Carolina
Populated places established in 1837
1837 establishments in North Carolina
|
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200596
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valle%20Crucis%2C%20North%20Carolina
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Valle Crucis, North Carolina
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Valle Crucis in an unincorporated community and census-designated place located in Watauga County, North Carolina, United States. The name of the town is Latin for "Vale of the Cross," a reference to a valley in the area where three streams converge to form a shape similar to an archbishop's cross. The community is located along NC 194, between the towns of Banner Elk and Boone.
History
Before the 1840s, there has been scattered settlements in the area but not permanently until the Valle Crucis Episcopal Mission was established. Founded by Levi Silliman Ives, an Episcopal missionary, "Easter Chapel" served as the first Episcopal church in the area. Its successor, the Holy Cross Episcopal Church, was built in 1926 and modeled on a now-defunct medieval monastery in Wales and is noteworthy for its architecture.
Geography and climate
Valle Crucis is located at the banks of Dutch Creek and Watauga River, at an elevation of above sea level. To its north and east is Tester Mountain and to its south and west is Valle Mountain. The community is also within the Pisgah National Forest boundary, which limits some development in the area.
Weather ranges from warm summer days and cool summer evenings to cold or even bitterly cold winter nights. Rainfall is moderate, averaging per year. Severe storms are rare. Snowfall occurs in the winter with some accumulation to be expected several times between December and April. Snowfall averages per year. The area is also known for being one of the lowest and most quickly flooded in the region. The heart of Valle Crucis, including the bulk of the stores, the elementary school, and community park is a particularly low lying and flat in comparison to the mountainous terrain of the surrounding areas. Flooding is not an extremely rare event and can inhibit many functions of the town, such as the well known occasional flooding of the bridge on DeWitt Barnett Road, inhibiting access from that side of the town.
Attractions
The most notable attraction in the area is the original Mast General Store. Also located in the community is the Mast Farm, Valle Crucis Episcopal Mission and Valle Crucis Historic District, all of which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The Valle Crucis Community Park, established in 1983 by a nonprofit organization, is a large park with amenities including picnic shelters, children playgrounds, a paved path and access to the Watauga River for wading and fly-fishing.
References
Census-designated places in Watauga County, North Carolina
Census-designated places in North Carolina
Unincorporated communities in Watauga County, North Carolina
Populated places established in 1842
Unincorporated communities in North Carolina
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200602
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren%20Zevon%20%28album%29
|
Warren Zevon (album)
|
Warren Zevon is the second studio album by American musician Warren Zevon. This album was recorded in 1975 and released on May 10, 1976, by Asylum Records. A remastered version of the album with special bonus tracks was released in 2008 by Rhino Records.
Critical reception
Reviewing in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau wrote: "I am suspicious of singer-songwriters who draw attention to phrases like 'hasten down the wind,' and I would suggest a moratorium on songs about the James Brothers that don't also rhyme 'pollution' and 'solution.' But I like the way Zevon resists pigeonholes like 'country-rock' while avoiding both the banal and the mystagogical, and I like quatrains like: 'And if California slides into the ocean/Like the mystics and statistics say it will/I predict this motel will be standing/Until I pay my bill.'"
Track listing
All songs written by Warren Zevon.
Personnel
Warren Zevon - harmonica, piano, rhythm guitar, string arrangements, vocals
Jackson Browne - harmony vocals on tracks 2, 3 & 11, piano on track 10, slide guitar on track 3
Lindsey Buckingham - guitar on track 3, harmony vocals on tracks 5 & 7
Rosemary Butler - harmony vocals on track 10
Jorge Calderón - harmony vocals on tracks 8 & 11
Marty David - bass guitar on track 3
Ned Doheny - guitar on track 10
Phil Everly - harmony vocals on tracks 1 & 4
Glenn Frey - rhythm guitar on track 9, harmony vocals on tracks 6 & 9
The Gentlemen Boys - background vocals on track 11
Bob Glaub - bass guitar on tracks 1, 2, 4 - 7 & 9 - 11
Don Henley - harmony vocals on track 6
Billy Hinsche - harmony vocals on track 11
Bobby Keys - saxophone on tracks 5, 7 & 10
David Lindley - banjo on track 1, fiddle on tracks 1, 2 & 5, slide guitar on tracks 4 & 7, guitar on track 9
Gary Mallaber - drums on tracks 3 & 8
Roy Marinell - bass guitar on track 8
Stevie Nicks - vocals on track 7 & 10
Bonnie Raitt - harmony vocals on track 10
Fritz Richmond - jug on track 8
Sid Sharp - strings on tracks 4, 6 & 11
J.D. Souther - harmony vocals on tracks 2 & 11
Waddy Wachtel - guitar, vocals
Carl Wilson - harmony vocals on track 11, vocal arrangements
Jai Winding - piano on track 5, organ & synthesizer on track 10, vocals on track 11
Larry Zack - drums on tracks 1, 2, 4 - 7 & 9 - 11
The Gentlemen Boys consisted of: Jackson Browne, Jorge Calderón, Kenny Edwards, J. D. Souther and Waddy Wachtel.
Production
Producer: Jackson Browne
Engineer: Fritz Richmond
Mixing: John Haeny
Arranger: Warren Zevon
Vocal Arrangement: Carl Wilson
Charts
References
Warren Zevon albums
1976 albums
Asylum Records albums
Albums with cover art by Jimmy Wachtel
Albums recorded at Sunset Sound Recorders
|
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200605
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad%20Kissingen%20%28district%29
|
Bad Kissingen (district)
|
Bad Kissingen is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the northwest and clockwise) the district Main-Kinzig and Fulda in Hesse, and the districts of Rhön-Grabfeld, Schweinfurt and Main-Spessart.
History
The district was established in 1972 by merging the former districts of Bad Kissingen, Bad Brückenau and Hammelburg.
Geography
The district is located in the southern portion of the Rhön Mountains. The Fränkische Saale river (an affluent of the Main) enters the district in the north and leaves to the southwest.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
top: three icons symbolising the three spas of the district
left: the eagle as well as the red and white pattern are from the arms of the county of Henneberg, which ruled the territory in the Middle Ages
right: the cross from the arms of Fulda
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
(German)
Districts of Bavaria
|
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200606
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad%20Kreuznach%20%28district%29
|
Bad Kreuznach (district)
|
Bad Kreuznach is a district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Rhein-Hunsrück, Mainz-Bingen, Alzey-Worms, Donnersbergkreis, Kusel and Birkenfeld.
History
The region is full of medieval castles, especially along the Nahe River. Best known is the Kyrburg of Kirn, built in the 12th century and sitting in state above the river. In 1815, the district of Kreuznach was established by the Prussian government. In 1932, it was merged with the district of Meisenheim. The name of the district officially changed from Kreuznach to Bad Kreuznach in 1969.
Geography
The district is located in the hilly country between the mountain chains of the Hunsrück in the north and the North Palatine Uplands in the south. The main axis of the district is the Nahe River, which enters the territory in the west, runs through Kirn, Bad Sobernheim and Bad Kreuznach, and leaves to the northeast.
The region formed by this district and the adjoining Birkenfeld district is known as the Naheland. The banks of the lower Nahe are used for vineyards. Away from the stream, there are sparsely populated forests crisscrossed by the narrow affluents of the Nahe River.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
the heraldic lion of the Palatinate
the blue and golden pattern of the medieval county of Sponheim
Towns and municipalities
Politics
Kreuznach (electoral district) for the Bundestag.
References
External links
(German)
Naheland tourist website (German, English)
www.KH-lokal.de - local community with more than 1.800 links to homepages of Bad Kreuznach (district)
A flickr-group with fotos of Bad Kreuznach (district)
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate
|
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200608
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20August%20von%20Hardenberg
|
Karl August von Hardenberg
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Karl August Fürst von Hardenberg (31 May 1750, in Essenrode-Lehre – 26 November 1822, in Genoa) was a Prussian statesman and Prime Minister of Prussia. While during his late career he acquiesced to reactionary policies, earlier in his career he implemented a variety of Liberal reforms. To him and Baron vom Stein, Prussia was indebted for improvements in its army system, the abolition of serfdom and feudal burdens, the throwing open of the civil service to all classes, and the complete reform of the educational system.
Family
Hardenberg was the eldest son of Christian Ludwig von Hardenberg (1700-1781), a Hanoverian colonel, later to become field marshal and commander-in-chief of the Hanoverian army under King George III from 1776 until his death. The mother was Anna Sophia Ehrengart von Bülow. He was born, one of 8 children, at Essenrode Manor near Hanover, his maternal grandfather's estate. The ancestral home of the knights of Hardenberg is Hardenberg Castle at Nörten-Hardenberg, which the family acquired in 1287 and owns to this day. They were created barons and, in 1778, counts.
Early life
After studying at Leipzig and Göttingen, he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as councillor of the board of domains (Kammerrat); but, finding his advancement slow, he set out, on the advice of George III, on a series of travels. He spent spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg (where he studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), Vienna and Berlin. He also visited France, the Dutch Republic and Great Britain, where he was received kindly by the King. On his return, he married, at his father's suggestion, the Countess Christiane von Reventlow (1759–1793) in 1774. They had a son, Christian Heinrich August Graf von Hardenberg-Reventlow (1775–1841), and a daughter, Lucie von Hardenberg-Reventlow (1776-1854).
In 1778, Hardenberg was raised to the rank of privy councillor and created a graf (or count). He went back to England, in the hope of obtaining the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but his wife began an affair with the Prince of Wales, which created so great a scandal that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian service. In 1782 he entered the service of the Duke of Brunswick, and as president of the board of domains displayed a zeal for reform, in the manner approved by the enlightened despots of the century, which rendered him very unpopular with the orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In Brunswick, too, his position was in the end made untenable by the conduct of his wife, whom he now divorced. He shortly afterwards married a divorced woman.
Administrator of Ansbach and Bayreuth
Fortunately for Hardenberg, this coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and Bayreuth to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, Charles Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be in Berlin at the time, was appointed administrator of the principalities in 1792, on the recommendation of Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg. The position, owing to the singular overlapping of territorial claims in the old Empire, was one of considerable delicacy, and Hardenberg filled it with great skill, doing much to reform traditional anomalies and to develop the country, and at the same time labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in southern Germany.
Prussian envoy
After the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, his diplomatic ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to Prussia's views. Ultimately, when the necessity for making peace with the French Republic had been recognised, he was appointed to succeed Count Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary at Basel (28 February 1795), where he signed the treaty of peace. In 1796, his daughter Lucie married Karl Theodor, count of Pappenheim (whom she divorced in 1817 to become the wife of Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau).
Prussian cabinet
In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III of Prussia, Hardenberg was summoned to Berlin, where he received an important position in the cabinet and was appointed chief of the departments of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, for Westphalia, and for the principality of Neuchâtel. In 1793, Hardenberg had struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the influential minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter went away on leave (August–October), he appointed Hardenberg his locum tenens. It was a critical period since Napoleon had just occupied Hanover, and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the necessity for strong measures and the expediency of a Russian alliance. During Haugwitz's absence, however, the king's irresolution continued, and he clung to the policy of neutrality, which had so far seemed to have served Prussia so well. Hardenberg contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. When Haugwitz had returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon had caused the king to make advances to Russia, but the mutual declarations of 3 and 25 May 1804 pledged both powers to take up arms only in the event of a French attack upon Prussia or of further aggressions in northern Germany. Finally, Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more vigorous policy, resigned, and on 14 April 1804, Hardenberg succeeded him as foreign minister.
Prussian foreign minister
If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the French alliance, the price that Napoleon demanded for the cession of Hanover to Prussia, but the eastern powers would not freely have conceded so great an augmentation of Prussian power. However, he still hoped to gain the coveted prize by diplomacy, backed by the veiled threat of an armed neutrality. Then came Napoleon's contemptuous violation of Prussian territory by marching three French corps through Ansbach. King Frederick William's pride overcame his weakness, and on November 3, he signed with Tsar Alexander I of Russia the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor.
Haugwitz was despatched to Vienna with the document, but before he had arrived, the Battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and the Prussian plenipotentiary had to make terms with Napoleon. Prussia, by the treaty signed at Schönbrunn on 15 December 1805, received Hanover but in return for all her territories in South Germany. One condition of the arrangement was the retirement of Hardenberg, whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a few months after the crisis of 1806 (April–July 1807), but Napoleon's resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions of the terms granted to Prussia by the Treaty of Tilsit was Hardenberg's dismissal.
Prussian chancellor
After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatisfactory interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg was again summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (6 June 1810). The campaign of Jena and its consequences had had a profound effect upon him, and in his mind, the traditions of the old diplomacy had given place to the new sentiment of nationality characteristic of the coming age, which in him found expression in a passionate desire to restore the position of Prussia and crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga, he had worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy on liberal lines, and when he came into power, the circumstances of the time did not admit of his pursuing an independent foreign policy, but he steadily prepared for the struggle with France by carrying out Stein's far-reaching schemes of social and political reorganization.
Reforms
The military system was completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, municipal institutions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open to all classes and great attention was devoted to the educational needs of every section of the community. When at last the time came to put the reforms to the test, after the Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg who persuaded Frederick William to take advantage of General Yorck's loyal disloyalty and to declare against France. He was rightly regarded by German patriots as the statesman who had done most to encourage the spirit of national independence, and immediately after he had signed the first Peace of Paris, he was raised to the rank of prince (3 June 1814) in recognition of the part he had played in the War of Liberation.
Metternich's shadow
Hardenberg now had a position in that close corporation of sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe was governed. He accompanied the allied sovereigns to England and at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) was the chief representative of Prussia. Howecer, the zenith of his influence, if not of his fame, had passed. In diplomacy, he was no match for Metternich, whose influence soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, Germany and ultimately even Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of the powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia. At Paris, after Waterloo, he failed to carry through his views as to the further dismemberment of France and had weakly allowed Metternich to forestall him in making terms with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, which secured to Austria the preponderance in the German federal diet. On the eve of the conference of Carlsbad (1819) he signed a convention with Metternich in which, according the historian Heinrich von Treitschke, 'like a penitent sinner, without any formal quid pro quo, the monarchy of Frederick the Great yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal affairs."
At the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), Troppau, Laibach and Verona, the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich. The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the loosely-knit Prussian monarchy but partly in Hardenberg's character had never been well balanced but had deteriorated with age. He continued amiable, charming and enlightened as ever, but the excesses that had been pardonable in a young diplomat were a scandal in an elderly chancellor and could not but weaken his influence with so pious a Landesvater as Frederick William III.
To overcome the king's terror of liberal experiments would have needed all the powers of an adviser at once wise and in character wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was wise enough and saw the necessity for constitutional reform, but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the sweets of office, and when the tide turned against liberalism, he allowed himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions, he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never saw the light, but Germany, disillusioned, regarded him as an adherent of Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the Carlsbad Decrees and the Troppau Protocol.
In 1814, King Frederick William III vested Hardenberg with the locality of Quilitz, together with the princely title, as a gratification for his merits as Prussian state chancellor. When he received the manor, he renamed the place right away into Neuhardenberg (New Hardenberg). From 1820 on, he had the mansion and the church rebuilt in neoclassical style, according to plans designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, while the gardens were redesigned by his son-in-law, Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau, and Peter-Joseph Lenné.
Hardenberg died at Genoa soon after the closing of the Congress of Verona. Hardenberg's Memoirs, 1801-07 were suppressed for 50 years after which they were edited with a biography by Leopold von Ranke and published as Denkwürdigkeiten des Fürsten von Hardenberg (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877).
Notes
References
External links
1750 births
1822 deaths
People from Helmstedt (district)
German princes
German politicians of the Napoleonic Wars
People from the Electorate of Hanover
Prussian diplomats
Prussian nobility
Prussian politicians
Karl August
Foreign ministers of Prussia
Interior ministers of Prussia
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
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200610
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald
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Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald
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Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald () is a (district) in the southwest of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Fifty towns and municipalities with 133 settlements lie within the district. The district itself belongs to the province of Freiburg with the region of Southern Upper Rhine.
The municipal offices are in the city of Freiburg im Breisgau which is almost entirely surrounded by Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, but is independent of it. In addition, the council has three satellite offices in Müllheim, Titisee-Neustadt and Breisach am Rhein.
Geography
Location
Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald covers areas which are very different in scenic character: in the Upper Rhine Plain are the Markgräflerland and its foothill zone, which is continued north of the Breisgau with the hills of Kaiserstuhl, the Tuniberg and the Nimberg.
Within the district, the Black Forest covers the side valleys opening onto the Rhine Plain - the Glottertal, the valley of the Dreisam, the Höllental and the Münstertal - the High Black Forest with its highest peak, the Feldberg (1493 m), and extends as far as the plateau of Baar.
In the centre of Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald lies the territory of the city of Freiburg, which is almost entirely surrounded by Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. Only on its northern side is there a 3-kilometre-long boundary with the municipality of Vörstetten and the district of Emmendingen.
Neighbouring counties
The neighbouring counties are Emmendingen, Schwarzwald-Baar, Waldshut, Lörrach and the French of the Haut-Rhin and the Bas-Rhin. The independent city of Freiburg is surrounded by the district. The district is named after the Breisgau, a historical territory, and the High Black Forest ().
Climate
The climate in Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald is very varied. Between Ihringen, the place with the highest annual average temperature in Germany, and the summit of the Feldberg, both the warmest and the coldest places in Baden-Württemberg lie in Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. Climatically, the district is one of the warmest regions in Germany: its mean annual temperature in the Rhine valley is , its average rainfall is approximately , and it has about 1,800 hours of sunshine annually. Moreover, the highest temperature ever measured in Germany, , was recorded on 13 August 2003 in the municipality of March. March shares this record with Gärmersdorf near Amberg, Freiburg and Karlsruhe.
History
The County of Breisgau () and County of Baar () were formed on the territory of the present district in the 8th century. Both counties belonged to the Duchy of Alemannia. The eastern part, the upper reaches of the Danube and Neckar, came under the Carolingian dominion of the Ahalolfings. Following the disintegration of the Frankish Empire in 843, the area became part of East Francia and part of it, from 920, the Duchy of Swabia. In 1368, the Breisgau went into the hands of the House of Habsburg (see Anterior Austria). The Swabian princes of Fürstenberg dominated the Baar, while the area south of Freiburg, the Markgräflerland, ended up with the margraves of Baden. In 1805/06, after the end of the Napoleonic wars, the region became part of the Grand Duchy of Baden.
The district of Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald was established as part of the district reform of Baden-Württemberg on 1 Jan 1973, mainly from the former rural districts of Freiburg, Müllheim and Hochschwarzwald (with its head office in Neustadt in the Black Forest). In addition, the municipality of Unadingen from the district of Donaueschingen was incorporated. Other municipalities were integrated into the city of Freiburg. The southern part of the district of Müllheim went to Lörrach and some municipalities were transferred from the old district of Hochschwarzwald to Waldshut.
Later, more municipalities were incorporated into the city of Freiburg: Munzingen on 1 July 1973, Hochdorf on 1 September 1973 and Ebnet and Kappel on 1 July 1974. On 1 September 1973, the municipality of Schönenbach, which belonged to the district of Waldshut, was added. On 1 January 1974 Kiechlinsbergen was ceded to Emmendingen. On 1 April 1974 Leiselheim followed. On 18 March 1975 Grünwald was added from the district of Waldshut was added (moving from Bonndorf im Schwarzwald to Lenzkirch).
The three old districts were formed in 1939 from the of the same name that had been established in the early nineteenth century when large numbers of them were formed as the area became part of Baden. In the course of the history the were changed several times, until in 1936 only those of Freiburg, Müllheim, Neustadt im Schwarzwald and Staufen were left. Staufen was divided between Freiburg and Müllheim. The district of Neustadt, founded in 1939, was renamed Hochschwarzwald in 1956.
Following the completion of the municipal form, the district of Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald comprised 50 municipalities, including ten towns. There are no large county towns. The largest town is Müllheim, the smallest municipality is Heuweiler. The most recent town is Bad Krozingen (from 1 September 2005).
Population growth
The population figures are based on censuses (1987) or official updates by the Baden-Württemberg State Office of Statistics (only main residences).
Economy
The economy is based on tourism, wine, and forestry.
Politics
Politically, the majority of the district parliament () is traditionally conservative (CDU), with higher levels of conservative votes the farther the distance from Freiburg (which has a green-red majority).
Coat of arms
The left half of the coat of arms show the colors of Austria, and the right side the colors of Baden, as parts of the District belonged to both states at various times. In the middle, the coat of arms shows an eagle, taken from the coat of arms of the Princes of Fürstenberg. The coat of arms was granted in 1974, and it is very similar to the coat of arms of the previous Freiburg district.
Cities and municipalities
References
External links
History & Pictures
Freiburg (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg
French-speaking countries and territories
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] |
200612
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive%20aerodynamics
|
Automotive aerodynamics
|
Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road vehicles. Its main goals are reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise emission, and preventing undesired lift forces and other causes of aerodynamic instability at high speeds. Air is also considered a fluid in this case. For some classes of racing vehicles, it may also be important to produce downforce to improve traction and thus cornering abilities.
History
The frictional force of aerodynamic drag increases significantly with vehicle speed. As early as the 1920s engineers began to consider automobile shape in reducing aerodynamic drag at higher speeds. By the 1950s German and British automotive engineers were systematically analyzing the effects of automotive drag for the higher performance vehicles. By the late 1960s scientists also became aware of the significant increase in sound levels emitted by automobiles at high speed. These effects were understood to increase the intensity of sound levels for adjacent land uses at a non-linear rate. Soon highway engineers began to design roadways to consider the speed effects of aerodynamic drag produced sound levels, and automobile manufacturers considered the same factors in vehicle design.
Features of aerodynamic vehicles
An aerodynamic automobile will integrate the wheel arcs and headlights to reduce wind resistance into the overall shape to also reduce drag. It will be streamlined; for example, it does not have sharp edges crossing the wind stream above the windshield and will feature a sort of tail called a fastback or Kammback or liftback.
Note that the Aptera 2e, the Loremo, and the Volkswagen XL1 try to reduce the area of their back.
It will have a flat and smooth floor to support the Venturi effect and produce desirable downwards aerodynamic forces. The air that rams into the engine bay, is used for cooling, combustion, and for passengers, then reaccelerated by a nozzle and then ejected under the floor.
For mid and rear engines air is decelerated and pressurized in a diffuser, loses some pressure as it passes the engine bay, and fills the slipstream. These cars need a seal between the low-pressure region around the wheels and the high pressure around the gearbox.
They all have a closed engine bay floor.
The suspension is either streamlined (Aptera) or retracted.
Door handles, the antenna, and roof rails can have a streamlined shape. The side mirror may only have a round fairing as a nose.
Airflow through the wheel-bays is said to increase drag (German source) though race cars need it for brake cooling and many cars emit the air from the radiator into the wheel bay. Aerodynamics is extremely important to get past that limiting barrier that you go through all the time on the highway. Although spoilers may be desirable and increase handling and downforce, the limiting factor is that spoilers make aerodynamics come to play quicker, but decreases aerodynamic function by the bulky shape moving through the air.
Comparison with aircraft aerodynamics
Automotive aerodynamics differs from aircraft aerodynamics in several ways:
The characteristic shape of a road vehicle is much less streamlined compared to an aircraft.
The vehicle operates very close to the ground, rather than in free air.
The operating speeds are lower (and aerodynamic drag varies as the square of speed).
A ground vehicle has fewer degrees of freedom than an aircraft, and its motion is less affected by aerodynamic forces.
Passenger and commercial ground vehicles have very specific design constraints such as their intended purpose, high safety standards (requiring, for example, more 'dead' structural space to act as crumple zones), and certain regulations.
Methods of studying aerodynamics
Automotive aerodynamics is studied using both computer modelling and wind tunnel testing. For the most accurate results from a wind tunnel test, the tunnel is sometimes equipped with a rolling road. This is a movable floor for the working section, which moves at the same speed as the air flow. This prevents a boundary layer from forming on the floor of the working section and affecting the results.
Drag coefficient and drag area
Drag coefficient (Cd) is a commonly published rating of a car's aerodynamic smoothness, related to the shape of the car. Multiplying Cd by the car's frontal area gives an index of total drag. The result is called drag area, and is listed below for several cars. The width and height of curvy cars lead to gross overestimation of frontal area. These numbers use the manufacturer's frontal area specifications from the Mayfield Company unless noted. Drag area figures that do not reflect drag coefficient and frontal area figures from independent aerodynamic testing (e.g. drag areas based on manufacturer-reported figures or educated speculation) are indicated with an asterisk (*).
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Downforce
Downforce describes the downward pressure created by the aerodynamic characteristics of a car that allows it to travel faster through a corner by holding the car to the track or road surface. Some elements to increase vehicle downforce will also increase drag.
It is very important to produce a good downward aerodynamic force because it affects the car's speed and traction.
See also
Aerodynamic stability
Drafting
Drag reduction system
Downforce
Flight dynamics
Fluid dynamics
Ground effect in cars
Slipstream
Wing
References
External links
One of the first cars to generate downforce - The Prevost analysed in CFD
Automotive engineering
Aerodynamics
Articles containing video clips
Vehicle dynamics
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200614
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liebeck%20v.%20McDonald%27s%20Restaurants
|
Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants
|
Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants, also known as the McDonald's coffee case and the hot coffee lawsuit, was a highly publicized 1994 product liability lawsuit in the United States against the McDonald's restaurant chain.
The plaintiff, Stella Liebeck, a 79-year-old woman, suffered third-degree burns in her pelvic region when she accidentally spilled coffee in her lap after purchasing it from a McDonald's restaurant. She was hospitalized for eight days while undergoing skin grafting, followed by two years of medical treatment. Liebeck sought to settle with McDonald's for $20,000 to cover her medical expenses. When McDonald's refused, Liebeck's attorney filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico, accusing McDonald's of gross negligence.
Lieback's attorneys argued that, at , McDonald's coffee was defective, and more likely to cause serious injury than coffee served at any other establishment. The jury found that McDonald's was 80 percent responsible for the incident. They awarded Liebeck $200,000 in compensatory damages to cover medical expenses, and $2.7 million () in punitive damages, the equivalent of two days of McDonald's coffee sales. The trial judge reduced the punitive damages to three times the amount of the compensatory damages, totalling $640,000. The parties settled for a confidential amount before an appeal was decided.
The Liebeck case became a flashpoint in the debate in the United States over tort reform. It was cited by some as an example of frivolous litigation; ABC News called the case "the poster child of excessive lawsuits", while the legal scholar Jonathan Turley argued that the claim was "a meaningful and worthy lawsuit". Ex-attorney Susan Saladoff sees the portrayal in the media as purposeful misrepresentation due to political and corporate influence. In June 2011, HBO premiered Hot Coffee, a documentary that discussed in depth how the Liebeck case has centered in debates on tort reform.
Plaintiff
Stella May Liebeck was born in Norwich, England, on December 14, 1912 and was 79 at the time of her lawsuit. She died on August 5, 2004 at the age of 91.
Background
Burn incident
On February 27, 1992, Liebeck ordered a 49-cent cup of coffee from the drive-through window of an Albuquerque McDonald's restaurant at 5001 Gibson Boulevard Southeast. Liebeck was in the passenger's seat of a 1989 Ford Probe, which did not have cup holders. Her grandson parked the car so that Liebeck could add cream and sugar to her coffee. Liebeck placed the coffee cup between her knees and pulled the far side of the lid toward her to remove it. In the process, she spilled the entire cup of coffee on her lap. Liebeck was wearing cotton sweatpants; they absorbed the coffee and held it against her skin, scalding her thighs, buttocks, and groin.
Liebeck was taken to the hospital, where it was determined that she had suffered third-degree burns on six percent of her skin and lesser burns over sixteen percent. She remained in the hospital for eight days while she underwent skin grafting. During this period, Liebeck lost (nearly 20 percent of her body weight), reducing her to . After the hospital stay, Liebeck needed care for three weeks, which was provided by her daughter. Liebeck suffered permanent disfigurement after the incident and was partially disabled for two years.
Pre-trial
Liebeck sought to settle with McDonald's for $20,000 to cover her actual and anticipated expenses. Her past medical expenses were $10,500; her anticipated future medical expenses were approximately $2,500; and her daughter's loss of income was approximately $5,000 for a total of approximately $18,000. Instead, the company offered only $800.
When McDonald's refused to raise its offer, Liebeck retained Texas attorney Reed Morgan. Morgan filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico, accusing McDonald's of gross negligence for selling coffee that was "unreasonably dangerous" and "defectively manufactured". McDonald's refused Morgan's offer to settle for $90,000. Morgan offered to settle for $300,000, and a mediator suggested $225,000 just before trial; McDonald's refused both.
Trial and verdict
Trial
The Liebeck case trial took place from August 8 to 17, 1994, before New Mexico District Court Judge Robert H. Scott. During the case, Liebeck's attorneys discovered that McDonald's required franchisees to hold coffee at . Liebeck's attorneys argued that coffee should never be served hotter than , and that a number of other establishments served coffee at a substantially lower temperature than McDonald's. The attorneys presented evidence that coffee they had tested all over the city was served at a temperature at least 20°F (11°C) lower than McDonald's coffee. They also presented the jury with expert testimony that coffee may produce third-degree burns (where skin grafting is necessary) in about three seconds and coffee may produce such burns in about twelve to fifteen seconds. Lowering the temperature to would increase the time for the coffee to produce such a burn to 20 seconds. Liebeck's attorneys argued that these extra seconds could provide adequate time to remove the coffee from exposed skin, thereby preventing many burns.
McDonald's claimed that the reason for serving such hot coffee in its drive-through windows was that those who purchased the coffee typically were commuters who wanted to drive a distance with the coffee; the high initial temperature would keep the coffee hot during the trip. However, it came to light that McDonald's had carried out research finding that customers intend to consume the coffee immediately while driving.
Other documents obtained from McDonald's showed that from 1982 to 1992 the company had received more than 700 reports of people burned by McDonald's coffee to varying degrees of severity, and had settled claims arising from scalding injuries for more than $500,000. McDonald's quality control manager, Christopher Appleton, testified that this number of injuries was insufficient to cause the company to evaluate its practices. He argued that all foods hotter than constituted a burn hazard, and that restaurants had more pressing dangers to worry about. The plaintiffs argued that Appleton conceded that McDonald's coffee would burn the mouth and throat if consumed when served.
Verdict
A twelve-person jury reached its verdict on August 18, 1994. Applying the principles of comparative negligence, the jury found that McDonald's was 80 percent responsible for the incident and Liebeck was 20 percent at fault. Though there was a warning on the coffee cup, the jury decided that the warning was neither large enough nor sufficient. They awarded Liebeck $200,000 in compensatory damages, which was reduced by 20 percent to $160,000. In addition, they awarded her $2.7 million in punitive damages. According to The New York Times, the jurors arrived at this figure from Morgan's suggestion to penalize McDonald's for two days of coffee revenues, about $1.35 million per day.
The judge reduced punitive damages to $480,000, three times the compensatory amount, for a total of $640,000. The decision was appealed by both McDonald's and Liebeck in December 1994, but the parties settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. The Albuquerque Journal ran the first story of the verdict, followed by the Associated Press wire, which was picked up by newspapers around the world.
Aftermath
The Liebeck case is cited by some as an example of frivolous litigation. ABC News called the case "the poster child of excessive lawsuits". Legal commentator Jonathan Turley called it "a meaningful and worthy lawsuit". McDonald's asserts that the outcome of the case was a fluke, and attributed the loss to poor communications and strategy by an unfamiliar insurer representing a franchise. Liebeck's attorney, Reed Morgan, and the Association of Trial Lawyers of America defended the result in Liebeck by claiming that McDonald's reduced the temperature of its coffee after the suit, although it is not clear whether McDonald's in fact had done so.
Detractors have argued that McDonald's refusal to offer more than an $800 settlement for the $10,500 in medical bills indicated that the suit was meritless and highlighted the fact that Liebeck spilled the coffee on herself rather than any wrongdoing on the company's part. They state that the vast majority of judges who consider similar cases dismiss them before they get to a jury.
Liebeck died on August 5, 2004, at age 91. According to her daughter, "the burns and court proceedings (had taken) their toll" and in the years following the settlement Liebeck had "no quality of life". She said the settlement had paid for a live-in nurse.
Similar lawsuits
In McMahon v. Bunn Matic Corporation (1998), Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals Judge Frank Easterbrook wrote a unanimous opinion affirming dismissal of a similar lawsuit against coffeemaker manufacturer Bunn-O-Matic, finding that hot coffee was not "unreasonably dangerous".
In Bogle v. McDonald's Restaurants Ltd. (2002), a similar lawsuit in the United Kingdom failed when the court rejected the claim that McDonald's could have avoided injury by serving coffee at a lower temperature.
Since Liebeck, major vendors of coffee, including Chick-Fil-A, Starbucks, Dunkin' Donuts, Wendy's, Burger King, hospitals, and McDonald's have been defendants in similar lawsuits over coffee-related burns. There have also been lawsuits over injuries from other hot liquids.
Two years prior to Liebeck, a similar lawsuit was settled during the trial for $15 million due to injuries from a sink in a rented apartment.
Coffee temperature
Since Liebeck, McDonald's has not reduced the service temperature of its coffee. McDonald's current policy is to serve coffee at , relying on more sternly worded warnings on cups made of rigid foam to avoid future liability, though it continues to face lawsuits over hot coffee. The Specialty Coffee Association of America supports improved packaging methods rather than lowering the temperature at which coffee is served. The association has successfully aided the defense of subsequent coffee burn cases. Similarly, as of 2004, Starbucks sells coffee at , and the executive director of the Specialty Coffee Association of America reported that the standard serving temperature is .
Hot Coffee documentary
On June 27, 2011, HBO premiered a documentary about tort reform problems titled Hot Coffee. A large portion of the film covered Liebeck's lawsuit. This included news clips, comments from celebrities and politicians about the case, as well as myths and misconceptions, including how many people thought she was driving when the incident occurred and thought that she suffered only minor superficial burns.
The film also discussed in great depth how Liebeck v. McDonald's Restaurants is often used and misused to describe a frivolous lawsuit and referenced in conjunction with tort reform efforts. It contends that corporations have spent millions promoting misconceptions of tort cases in order to promote tort reform. In reality, the majority of damages in the case were punitive due to McDonald's' reckless disregard for the number of burn victims prior to Liebeck.
The New York Times Retro Report
On October 21, 2013, The New York Times published a Retro Report video about the media reaction and an accompanying article about the changes in coffee drinking over 20 years. The New York Times noted how the details of Liebeck's story lost length and context as it was reported worldwide. The report underscored that the narrative of the story was distorted in the media, in which the "condensed telling of the story created its own version of the truth" where McDonald's rather than Liebeck was portrayed as the victim.
An October 25 follow-up article noted that the video had more than one million views and had sparked vigorous debate in the online comments.
See also
McDonald's legal cases
Compensation culture
"The Postponement" and "The Maestro", Seinfeld episodes which include a parody of the case
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
The Stella Liebeck McDonald's Hot Coffee Case FAQ at Abnormal Use
The Full Story Behind the Case and How Corporations Used it to Promote Tort Reform? – video report by Democracy Now!
Thought the McDonald's Hot Coffee Spilling Lawsuit was Frivolous? by David Haynes of The Cochran Firm
Case Study: The True Story Behind the McDonald's Coffee Lawsuit
McDonald's litigation
New Mexico state case law
United States tort case law
1994 in United States case law
1994 in New Mexico
Food safety in the United States
Coffee preparation
History of Albuquerque, New Mexico
|
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200616
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Lobeck
|
Christian Lobeck
|
Christian August Lobeck (; 5 June 1781 – 25 August 1860) was a German classical scholar.
Lobeck was born at Naumburg, in the Electorate of Saxony. After studying at the universities of Jena and Leipzig, he became Privatdozent at the University of Wittenberg in 1802, and in 1810 was appointed to a professorship there. Four years later, he accepted the chair of rhetoric and ancient literature at Königsberg, which he occupied till within two years of his death.
His literary activities were devoted to the history of Greek religion and to the Greek language and literature. His most important work, Aglaophamus (1829), maintains, against the views put forward by G. F. Creuzer in his Symbolik (1810–1823), that the religion of the Greek mysteries (especially those of Eleusis) did not essentially differ from the national religion; that it was not esoteric, and that the priests as such neither taught nor possessed any higher knowledge of God; that the Oriental elements were a later importation.
Lobeck's edition of the Ajax of Sophocles (1809) had gained him a reputation a scholar and critic; his Phrynichus (1820), Paralipomena grammaticae Graecae (vol. I–II; 1837), Pathologiae sermonis Graeci prolegomena (1843), and Pathologiae Graeci sermonis elementa (vol. I–II; 1853–62) reveal his wide acquaintance with Greek grammar. He had little sympathy with comparative philology, holding that it needed a lifetime to acquire a thorough knowledge of a single language.
See the article by L. Friedländer in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; Conrad Bursian's Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883); Lehrs, Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Altertum (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1875); Lüdwich, Ausgewählte Briefe von und an Chr. Aug. Lobeck und K. Lehrs''' (1894); also JE Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship'' (1st ed. 1908).
Notes
References
1781 births
1860 deaths
People from Naumburg (Saale)
People from the Electorate of Saxony
German classical scholars
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
|
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200618
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCck
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Hunsrück
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The Hunsrück () is a long, triangular, pronounced upland in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is bounded by the valleys of the Moselle-Saar (north-to-west), the Nahe (south), and the Rhine (east). It is continued by the Taunus mountains, past the Rhine and by the Eifel past the Moselle. To the south of the Nahe is a lower, hilly country forming the near bulk of the Palatinate region and all of the, smaller, Saarland. Below its north-east corner is Koblenz.
As the Hunsrück proceeds east it acquires north-south width and three notable gaps in its southern ridges. In this zone are multi-branch headwaters including the Simmerbach ending at Simmertal on the southern edge. This interior is therefore rarely higher than above sea level. Peaks and escarpments are principally: the (Black Forest) Hochwald, the Idar Forest, the Soonwald, and the Bingen Forest. The highest mountain is the Erbeskopf (816 m; 2,677 ft), towards the region's south-west.
Notable towns are Simmern, Kirchberg, and Idar-Oberstein, Kastellaun, and Morbach. Frankfurt-Hahn Airport is at the centre of the upland, equidistant between Mainz, Trier and Koblenz, co-named after the village of Hahn.
Slate is still mined in the mountains. Since 2010, the region has become one of Germany's major onshore wind power regions. Large wind farms are near Ellern and Kirchberg. Nature-based tourism is widespread. In 2015, a new national park was inaugurated. The pedestrian Geierlay suspension bridge opened in the same year. The climate sees mists that rise most mornings. More rain than the German average is caused by a combination of an oceanic influence and relief precipitation.
Culturally, the region is best known for its Hunsrückisch dialect and through depictions in the Heimat film series. The region saw great emigration in the mid-19th century, particularly to Brazil.
Geography
Location
The heart of the Hunsrück is formed by the Hunsrück Plateau and the Simmern Bowl. In the northwest the Hunsrück is bounded by the Moselle river and in the east by the Rhine. Its northeasternmost tip is thus formed by the Deutsches Eck. The Nahe – on the edge of the Bingen Forest, the Soonwald and the Lützelsoon – borders the mountains to the south. The Lower Naheland is not part of the Hunsrück, but belongs to the Upper Rhine Plain. The Idar Forest, the Hochwald and the Wildenburger Kopf adjoin the Hunsrück to the southwest. Here the Upper Nahe Hills rise in the shadow of the Hunsrück. The Osburger Hochwald, Schwarzwälder Hochwald and the rivers Saar and Ruwer form the western perimeter. Its southern continuation is formed by the Westrich and the North Palatine Uplands.
The low mountain range is around 100 km long (SW to NE) and an average of 25 to 30 km wide (NW to SE). Its perimeter is a heavily incised peneplain with elongated ridges in the south (the Hochwald, Idar Forest, Soonwald and Bingen Forest). The range, which begins at the Saar in the southwest and, with breaks, reaches as far as the Rhine, climbs to its highest point in the Hochwald at the Erbeskopf (816.32 m), the highest peak in the Hunsrück and in the Rhenish Massif west of the Rhine. It continues to the NE as the Idar Forest with its highest peaks, An den zwei Steinen (766.2 m) and the Idarkopf (745.7 m). Its northeasternmost part is formed by the Soonwald (highest mountain: the Ellerspring, 656.8 m), the Lützelsoon (Womrather Höhe, 599.1 m) and the Bingen Forest (Kandrich, 638.6 m). All these ranges form an almost unbroken belt of forest. – To the east of the Rhine the crest of the Hunsrück is continued by the Taunus.
Geomorphologically the Hunsrück bears great similarities to the Eifel, the Taunus and the Westerwald, which are also part of the Rhenish Massif.
The Hunsrück hill road runs from west to east from Saarburg to Koblenz. A Roman military road, the so-called Via Ausonia also once ran through the mountains in an east-west direction and linked Trier with Bingen.
In many primary schools in the Hunsrück children are taught the boundaries of the Hunsrück using the following rhyme: "Mosel, Nahe, Saar und Rhein schließen unsern Hunsrück ein." ("Moselle, Nahe, Saar and Rhine enclose our Hunsrück")
Mountains and hills
The following table lists the highest mountains and hills of the Hunsrück by sub-range (Osburger and Schwarzwälder Hochwald, Idar Forest, Haardt Forest, Soonwald, Bingen Forest and Lützelsoon) and height in metres above sea level (NN):
Flora and fauna
Despite, in places, intensive agricultural or timber use, the Hunsrück remains a landscape with a biodiversity, because many elements of the landscape can only be extensively utilised or even not used at all.
Flora
The plant world of the Hunsrück is rich and varied. In the Soonwald there are over 850 species of ferns and flowers. The traditional forest monocultures are increasingly giving way, especially as a result of windthrow damage, to mixed woods, supporting a greater variety of plant species.
Fauna
Although the Hunsrück is not classified as a bird reserve, it is home to a wide variety of bird species: woodpeckers, birds of prey and song birds may be seen at all times of the year. Even the rare and shy black stork nests in the forests. The Hunsrück is rich in mammals; red deer, roe deer and wild boar are intensively hunted. Larger predators include a few examples of European wildcat or even the Eurasian lynx. Red fox, European badgers and pine martens are more commonly encountered.
The best known mammal in the Hunsrück has become the barbastelle. It achieved notoriety when the presence of this rare species of bat delayed construction on the runway extension at Hahn Airport.
In the numerous wet areas, amphibians, like the fire salamander, and insects have found ideal habitats. Meanwhile, in areas covered by dry grassland or scree, numerous reptiles like the slowworm and smooth snake have found a home. The viper does not occur in the Hunsrück.
History
Prehistory
Finds such as stone axes indicate that the Hunsrück has been settled since the New Stone Age. Older discoveries, which prove that the area was either settled or crossed during the Old Stone Age, are rare. Middle Palaeolithic (ca. 200,000–400,000 B.C.) surface finds from Weiler bei Bingen are an exception. By contrast the Gravettian (ca. 30,000–20,000 B.C.) sites in Heddesheim (in the municipality of Guldental) and Brey (in the municipality of Rhens) are the first settlements in the area around the Hunsrück. Other significant sites include the rather more recent Old Stone Age site of Nußbaum near Bad Sobernheim and the encampment of Late Palaeolithic deer hunters in Boppard, which was first discovered in 2001 by the ARRATA Archaeology Society. In 2014, Late Palaeolithic rock carvings similar to those from southern France and Spain were found in the Hunsrück. They were portraits of animals, especially horses, about 25,000 years old carved into a 1.2 m² slab of slate.
The oldest witnesses from the New Stone Age are dated to no later than the Middle Neolithic, relics of the so-called Rössen culture (whose sites include Biebernheim and Reckershausen). The majority of finds, especially of stone axes date, however, to the Late Neolithic and belong to the Michelsberg culture. Up to 2007, numerous oval stone axes were discovered, especially in the Fore-Hunsrück (Morshausen, Beulich and Macken). Likewise, finds of flint arrowheads point to a Late Neolithic (inter alia at Bell) and very Late Neolithic (Hirzenach) settlement. Other finds from the Bronze Age prove that there was continual settlement (especially documented by graves and grave goods). A greater process of settlement took place in the Early Iron Age (Hallstatt period) with the Laufeld culture and in the La Tène period (5th– 1st century B.C.) with the Hunsrück-Eifel culture, which has been linked with the Celts. Examples of this culture include the coach grave of Bell, the Waldalgesheim prince's grave, the circular rampart of Otzenhausen, the Pfalzfeld flame column, the upland settlement of Altburg in the Hahnenbach valley and the numerous fields of tumuli. At that time, the Hunsrück was the tribal area of the Treveri.
Roman period
Between about 50 BC and AD 400 the Romans opened up the Hunsrück by building a dense network of roads. The best known relic of this is the Via Ausonia. Numerous finds of Roman farms (Villa Rustica), settlements, like the vicus, Belginum, and military structures point to an almost total settlement of the region by the Romans.
Frankish period
The final years of the 4th century saw the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Franks conquered the Roman territories and began to divide them up. This was the start of the great western and central European empire of Francia. In the mid-8th century this was divided into gaus under Carolingian rule. The northern part of the present Hunsrück foreland belonged to the Trechirgau, the southern part to the Nahegau. The Trechirgau was managed by the so-called Bertholds, the Nahegau by the Emichones. The capital of the Trechirgau, Trigorium, was in Treis.
Middle Ages to French period
The Hundesrucha is mentioned for the first time in a 1074 deed from Ravengiersburg Abbey.
In the Middle Ages, the Hunsrück was territorially fragmented between the counts Palatine of the Rhine, the archbishops of Trier, the counts of Sponheim and the successors of the Emichones (the Wildgraves, the Raugraves and the counts of Veldenz). There were also a number of smaller dominions.
In 1410 the Principality of Simmern emerged as a territory ruled by a side line of the counts Palatine. In the following years, Simmern became the most important residence of a noble family in the Hunsrück. Under Duke John II the town achieved supra-regional importance for a short time.
After the Thirty Years' War, Louis XIV of France made reunification demands on several principalities in the Palatinate, the Hunsrück and the Eifel. He had his troops invade and thus precipitated the Nine Years' War. In 1689 Kirchberg, Kastellaun, Simmern and the town and castle of Stromberg were set on fire. Then came the chaos of war, which led to the War of the Spanish Succession and which ended in 1713.
In the following years, trade and commerce grew. In the Hunsrück the first industry was set up by the families of Hauzeur, Pastert and Stumm. They ran mining, processing and ore smelting businesses. These, in turn, spurred the manufacture of implements for the house, farming and handicrafts: ovens, pans, boilers, weights, spades, nails, hammers, anvils, looms, spinning wheels and ammunition (cannonballs and shells weighing from 2 to 30 pounds). Leaders in the iron processing industry were the family of Stumm. Their progenitor, Christian Stumm, was a blacksmith in Rhaunensulzbach. Two of his sons were important entrepreneurs. Johann Nikolaus Stumm (1668-1743) was a smeltery owner and his sons, Johann Ferdinand, Friedrich Philipp and Christian Philipp Stumm, bought on 22 March 1806, the Neunkirchen ironworks, part of today's Saarstahl AG. Johann Michael Stumm (1683-1747) was the founder of an organ building workshop.
The notorious robbers, Johannes Bückler (known as Schinderhannes) and Johann Peter Petri (Black Peter) brought insecurity to the Hunsrück in the late 18th century.
In 1792, as a result of the French Revolution and the seizure of power by Napoleon, French troops once again invaded the territories west of the Rhine and annexed them during the French period. After the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, most of the Hunsrück was reallocated at the Congress of Vienna to Prussia's Rhine Province. Parts of today's Birkenfeld and the northern Saarland belonged to the Oldenburg Principality of Birkenfeld until 1937.
Prussia era and emigration
The economic situation in the Hunsrück became serious during the years 1815-1845. A poor harvest in 1815 was followed by the year without a summer in 1816; grain prices rose rapidly and 1817 became a year of famine.
In September 1822, the Brazilian government sent Georg Anton Schäffer to Germany to recruit mercenaries and colonists. He arrived in 1823, as a representative of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil, and visited the Hanseatic cities, Frankfurt and many of the German courts. This mission sparked the first major wave of German emigrants to Brazil. Many of them were recruited by Schäffer from the Hunsrück, the northern and western parts of present-day Saarland and the Western Palatinate.
The first immigrants from the Hunsrück settled in 1824 in what is now the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, near the city of São Leopoldo. Not until 1830 did the number of emigrants to Brazil begin to fall.
The 1840s in Europe were marked by inflation, crop failures and a degree of social unrest, so that again (especially in 1846 and 1861) many people in Hunsrück decided to leave in two more waves of emigration, especially to North America and Brazil.
In August 1846, it was announced in Dunkirk, that free passage to Brazil would no longer be possible. At this time there were over 800 people waiting there. Prussia refused to give any assistance to the impoverished and helpless emigrants. They were transported from France in three warships to Algeria and settled in the villages of Stidia and Sainte-Léonie. Most of their descendants returned to France after the Algerian War in 1962.
As a result of the increasing neglect and deprivation of parts of the population in Germany during the era of industrialization, an Inner Mission association was founded at the initiative of the Simmern pastor, and later superintendent, Julius Reuss, in Simmern, with the aim of building a rescue centre in the Hunsrück for children living in poverty. In 1851, an area between Simmern and Nannhausen, the Schmiedel, was acquired. There, the first building was erected as a "mother house" (Mutterhaus or domus materna), which opened on 13 September 1851 with a householder and twelve boys. Even today, the head offices of the Schmiedel organization remain on the site.
German Reich
After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/1871 and the foundation of the German Reich under Prussia's leadership, the so-called Gründerzeit began. Its success did not impact the Hunsrück until later, which is why many job seekers and even entire families went looking for work in the Ruhr area and migrated there.
The Protestant pastor, later Prussian Landtag MP, Richard Oertel, founder of the Hunsrück Farmers' Union in 1892, and Albert Hackenberg, acting pastor in Hottenbach from 1879 to 1912, successfully worked to improve the economic, social and technological conditions in the Hunsrück region. They achieved this through the creation of dairy cooperatives, postal agencies and, in particular, through adult education.
First and Second World War
The First World War, the Occupation Period and inflation also had a serious impact on the economy of the Hunsrück and its inhabitants, but there were not the political tensions that arose in many places in the German Reich.
A pioneer of industrialisation in the Hunsrück was entrepreneur, Michael Felke. In 1919 he founded the Felke Möbelwerke, a company that produced and sold furniture in Central Europe until the late 1990s. It was one of the first major employer in the region.
In 1938 and 1939, the German army became interested in the Hunsrück region as a strategic deployment route to the German-French border and the Siegfried Line, building the Hunsrück Highway, 140 kilometres long, in just 100 days. Supply depots and airfields were built in the woods on both sides of the road. In the Second World War and post-war period, two places in the Hunsrück rose to notoriety: Hinzert concentration camp and Bretzenheim POW camp, the so-called "Field of Misery".
Cold War to the present
In 1946, most of the Hunsrück became part of the new state of Rhineland-Palatinate, with small elements around Nonnweiler going to the Saarland.
During the Cold War until the early 1990s, the Hunsrück was home to numerous military airfields, ammunition dumps, command positions and missile sites. The most famous were Hahn Air Base, Pferdsfeld Air Base, the Börfink Command Bunker and the Pydna Missile Base.
In 1986/87, as a result of the NATO Double-Track Decision, 96 cruise missiles, fitted with nuclear warheads, were to be stored at Pydna. On 11 Oct 1986, on the market place in Bell, what was probably the largest demonstration in the Hunsrück's history took place. Around 200,000 people, 95% of whom were not from the Hunsrück, peacefully protested against the deployment of the missiles. At the end of the day the "Hunsrück Declaration" was read out which called for a reversal of the security policy. This did not happen, however, the Cold War ended two years later anyway, and the missile based was closed on 31 August 1993, the land being acquired by the Kastellaun garrison authority.
Likewise the US airbase at Hahn was transferred in 1993 to the German authorities and became a civilian facility, Frankfurt-Hahn Airport. The airport has expanded steadily since that time.
In the early 1980s, the film director Edgar Reitz shot the first part of his trilogy Heimat in the Hunsrück, a large part of it in Woppenroth, also known as Schabbach. In 2012, Reitz returned to the Hunsrück for the shooting of his film Die andere Heimat - Chronik einer Sehnsucht in the village of Gehlweiler. The film focuses on the pre-March era in the mid-19th century and the waves of emigration from the Hunsrück to Brazil.
Sights and attractions
Baybach valley and Waldeck Castle
Birkenfeld: museum of the local history society; Birkenfeld Castle was the residenz of the Wittelsbach line of Palatinate-Birkenfeld; residenz schloss of the grand dukes of Oldenburg
Bundenbach: Herrenberg roofing slate pit, Celtic settlement
Dhaun Castle: medieval knight's castle
Dickenschied: where the martyr, Paul Schneider, worked and is buried
Dill: ruins of one of the Sponheim family castles; church with ceiling murals by Johann Georg Engisch
Emmelshausen: Ehrbach Gorge, Baybach valley, Hunsrück Railway
Erbeskopf (part of Deuselbach): Hunsrückhaus Museum, highest mountain in the Hunsrück
Feilbingert: Schmittenstollen show mine
Fischbach (Nahe): Historic copper mine (open to visitors)
Gemünden: Gemünden Castle, Koppenstein Castle
Hattgenstein: observation tower
Hermeskeil: steam engine museum, Firefighting Museum and aviation museum
Herrstein: historic town centre
Hinzert: memorial to the victims of Nazism at Hinzert concentration camp
Idar-Oberstein: German Gemstone Museum, Rock church, Gemstone show mine and much more.
Kastellaun: castle ruins and old US nuclear missile base of Pydna
Kempfeld: Wildenburg Castle and wildlife park on the Wildenburger Kopf
Kirchberg: market place, St. Michael's Market (Thursday after St. Michael's Day)
Krummenau: refuge of the famous Schinderhannes
Leisel: Heiligenbösch church and Roman baths
Morbach: telephone museum, Hinzerath: Baldenau Castle, Wederath: Belginum archaeological park, Weiperath: timber museum and Hunolstein: Hunolstein Castle
Neuerkirch: Cultural History Museum, agricultural implements and machines, old handicraft skills, their products and village life and culture of bygone times
Otzenhausen: Hunnenring, a Celtic fortification
Pfalzfeld: Flammensäule
Ravengiersburg: "Hunsrück Cathedral" from the 12th/13th century
Rhaunen: Protestant church with the oldest surviving Stumm organ dating to 1723, village with historic buildings from various style periods
Sargenroth: the Nunkirche with fresco in the tower, Nunkircher Market (early September)
Schneppenbach: Schmidtburg, extensive castle ruins above the Hahnenbach stream
Schwollen: Sauerbrunnen (fountain)
Seesbach: Gateway to the Soonwald, Semendis Chapel (murals by Bishop Willigis) Rock formation in the centre of the village dating to the last ice age, RC parish church, Schinderhannes' Cave
Siesbach: Roman gravesite
Simmern: Schinderhannes Tower, local history museum in Simmern Castle, Hunsrück Museum, Simmern
Spabrücken: RC church with the "Black Mother of God of the Soon" (Schwarzer Mutter Gottes vom Soon), active monastery, Gräfenbacher Hütte with remains of a free-standing furnace for Soonwald ore
Stipshausen: "Hunsrück Baroque" church and Stumm organ
Stromberg: Stromburg Castle, home of the deutschen Michel
Sulzbach: home of the Stumm organ-building family with a large Stumm organ, the last one made by Johann Michael Stumm
Trollbach valley: rock landscape between Rümmelsheim Castle Layen and Münster-Sarmsheim along the Trollbach
Woppenroth: the village which was one of the main locations for the films Heimat and Heimat 3 by Edgar Reitz. From Woppenroth one can reach the Hahnenbach valley and the Hellkirch
Züsch: Züscher Hammer Mill, a former hammer mill once driven by water power
In popular culture
The German television drama series Heimat, directed by Edgar Reitz, examined the 20th-century life of a small fictional village in the Hunsrück.
The electronic music festival Nature One is held at the Pydna missile base in Kastellaun.
Gallery
References
External links
Photos of HEIMAT- und HEIMAT3 - film locations at Hunsrück/Germany
Landscapes of Rhineland-Palatinate
Rhineland
Rhenish Massif
Mountain ranges of Rhineland-Palatinate
Central Uplands
Natural regions of the Central Uplands
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] |
200626
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation%20%28film%29
|
Adaptation (film)
|
Adaptation (stylized Adaptation.) is a 2002 American meta comedy-drama film directed by Spike Jonze and written by Charlie Kaufman. The film stars Nicolas Cage, Meryl Streep, and Chris Cooper with Cara Seymour, Brian Cox, Tilda Swinton, Ron Livingston, and Maggie Gyllenhaal in supporting roles.
Kaufman based Adaptation on his struggles to adapt Susan Orlean's 1998 nonfiction book The Orchid Thief while suffering from writer's block. It involves elements adapted from the book, plus fictitious elements, including Kaufman's twin brother (also credited as a writer for the film) and a romance between Orlean and Laroche. It culminates in completely invented elements, including versions of Orlean and Laroche three years after the events of The Orchid Thief.
Adaptation was praised for its direction, screenplay, humor, and the performances of Cage, Cooper and Streep. It received awards at the 75th Academy Awards, 60th Golden Globe Awards, and 56th British Academy Film Awards, with Cooper winning the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and Kaufman winning the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. A British Film Institute poll ranked it one of the thirty best films of the 2000s.
Plot
Self-loathing screenwriter Charlie Kaufman is hired to write the screenplay adaptation of Susan Orlean's The Orchid Thief. He struggles with anxiety, social phobia, depression, and low self-esteem. His twin brother, Donald, has moved into his house and is freeloading there. Donald decides to become a screenwriter like Charlie and attends seminars by screenwriting guru Robert McKee.
Charlie, who rejects formulaic scriptwriting, wants to ensure that his script is a faithful adaptation of The Orchid Thief but comes to feel that the book does not have a usable narrative and is impossible to turn into a film, which leaves him with a serious case of writer's block. Already well past his deadline with Columbia Pictures and despairing of writing his script with self-reference, Charlie travels to New York City to discuss the screenplay with Orlean directly. Too shy and socially awkward to speak with her upon arriving at her office and after he received the surprising news that Donald's spec script for a clichéd psychological thriller, The 3, is selling for six or seven figures, Charlie resorts to attending McKee's seminar in New York and asks him for advice. Charlie ends up asking Donald to join him in New York to assist with the story structure.
Donald, who is confident socially, pretends to be Charlie and interviews Orlean but finds her responses suspicious. He and Charlie follow Orlean to Florida, where she meets John Laroche, the orchid-stealing protagonist of her book and her secret lover. It is revealed that the Seminole wanted the ghost orchid to manufacture a mind-altering drug that causes fascination. Laroche introduces the drug to Orlean. After Laroche and Orlean catch Charlie observing them taking the drug and having sex, Orlean decides that Charlie must be killed to prevent him from exposing her adultery and drug use.
Orlean forces Charlie to drive to the swamp at gunpoint, intending to kill him. Charlie and Donald escape and hide in the swamp, where they resolve their differences. Laroche accidentally shoots Donald. Charlie and Donald drive off but collide head-on with a ranger's truck. Donald is ejected through the windshield and dies moments later, but Charlie is saved by the airbag and runs into the swamp to hide. There he is spotted by Laroche, who is killed by an alligator before he can kill Charlie.
Orlean is arrested. Charlie reconciles with his mother as he calls to inform her of Donald's death. He later tells his former love interest, Amelia, that he loves her. She responds that she loves him too. Charlie finishes the script, which ends with him announcing in a voice-over that the script is finished and that for the first time, he is filled with hope.
Cast
Nicolas Cage as Charlie Kaufman and Donald Kaufman
Meryl Streep as Susan Orlean
Chris Cooper as John Laroche
Cara Seymour as Amelia Kavan
Brian Cox as Robert McKee
Tilda Swinton as Valerie Thomas
Ron Livingston as Marty Bowen
Maggie Gyllenhaal as Caroline Cunningham
Judy Greer as Alice
Bob Yerkes as Charles Darwin
Jim Beaver as Ranger Tony
Litefoot as Russell
Jay Tavare as Matthew Osceola
Doug Jones as Augustus Margary
Peter Jason as Defense Attorney
Tom Hanks was originally set for the double role of Charlie and Donald Kaufman. Cage took the role for a $5 million salary, and wore a fatsuit during filming.
Streep expressed strong interest in the role of Susan Orlean before being cast, and took a salary cut in recognition of the film's budget. John Turturro was approached to portray John Laroche. Cooper strongly considered turning down Laroche, but accepted it after his wife urged him to. Albert Finney, Christopher Plummer, Terence Stamp and Michael Caine were considered for the role of Robert McKee, but McKee personally suggested Brian Cox to filmmakers.
Litefoot and Jay Tavare have small roles as Seminole. John Cusack, Catherine Keener, John Malkovich, Lance Acord and Spike Jonze have uncredited cameos as themselves in scenes where Charlie Kaufman is on the set of Being John Malkovich, which he also wrote. Additional cameos include Doug Jones as explorer Augustus Margary, director Curtis Hanson as Orlean's husband, and David O. Russell as a New Yorker journalist.
Production
The idea to do a film adaptation of Susan Orlean's The Orchid Thief dates back to 1994. Fox 2000 purchased the film rights in 1997, eventually selling them to Jonathan Demme, who set the project at Columbia Pictures. Charlie Kaufman was hired to write the script, but struggled with the adaptation and writer's block. Kaufman eventually created a script of his experience in adaptation, exaggerating events and creating a fictional twin brother. He put Donald Kaufman's name on the script and dedicated the film to him. By September 1999, Kaufman had written two drafts of the script; he turned in a third draft in November 2000.
Kaufman said, "The idea of how to write the film didn't come to me until quite late. It was the only idea I had, I liked it, and I knew there was no way it would be approved if I pitched it. So I just wrote it and never told the people I was writing it for. I only told Spike Jonze, as we were making Being John Malkovich and he saw how frustrated I was. Had he said I was crazy, I don't know what I would have done". He also said, "I really thought I was ending my career by turning that in!"
Adaptation went on fast track in April 2000, with Kaufman making some revisions. Scott Brake of IGN gave the script a positive review in June 2000, as did Drew McWeeny of Ain't It Cool News in October. Columbia Pictures committed to North America distribution only after Intermedia came aboard to finance the film in exchange for international distribution rights. Filming started in late March 2001 in Los Angeles and finished by June. The "evolution" fantasy sequence was created by Digital Domain, while Skywalker Sound handled audio post production services.
The makeup effects (the Nicolas Cage double, Chris Cooper's teeth, and the alligator attack) are by makeup effects designer Tony Gardner and his effects company Alterian, Inc.
Release
Columbia Pictures at one point announced a late 2001 theatrical release date, but Adaptation opened on December 6, 2002, in the United States for a limited release. The film was released nationwide on February 14, 2003, earning $1,130,480 in its opening weekend in 672 theaters. It went on to gross $22.5 million in North America and $10.3 million in foreign countries, for a total of $32.8 million.
Home media
Adaptation was released on DVD and VHS by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment in May 2003. Image Entertainment released a bare-bones Blu-ray in 2012, which was followed in 2020 by another release through Shout! Factory.
Reception
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91% based on 211 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Dizzyingly original, the loopy, multi-layered Adaptation is both funny and thought-provoking." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "universal acclaim." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four out of four stars, writing that it "leaves you breathless with curiosity, as it teases itself with the directions it might take. To watch the film is to be actively involved in the challenge of its creation." He later added the film to his "Great Movies" collection. At the end of 2009, Ebert named the film one of the best of the decade. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also gave the film a four-star rating, writing, "Screenwriting this smart, inventive, passionate and rip-roaringly funny is a rare species. So all praise to Charlie Kaufman, working with director Spike Jonze to create the most original and outrageous film comedy since the two first teamed on Being John Malkovich, in 1999." Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe wrote, "This is epic, funny, tragic, demanding, strange, original, boldly sincere filmmaking. And the climax, the portion that either sinks the entire movie or self-critically explains how so many others derail, is bananas." David Ansen of Newsweek wrote that Meryl Streep had not "been this much fun to watch in years", while Mike Clark of USA Today gave a largely negative review, mainly criticizing the ending: "Too smart to ignore but a little too smugly superior to like, this could be a movie that ends up slapping its target audience in the face by shooting itself in the foot." Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic wrote, "Adaptation is almost juvenile showing off—daring to make a film that is in search of a script".
Accolades
In a 2005 survey, the Writers Guild of America named Adaptation the 77th best movie screenplay ever written.
Response from Susan Orlean
Having been submitted the screenplay for approval, Susan Orlean was strongly opposed to the making of the film; she ended up reluctantly approving its production and was ultimately very impressed with the final result. In 2012, she said, "[reading the screenplay] was a complete shock. My first reaction was 'Absolutely not!' They had to get my permission and I just said: 'No! Are you kidding? This is going to ruin my career!' Very wisely, they didn't really pressure me. They told me that everybody else had agreed and I somehow got emboldened. It was certainly scary to see the movie for the first time. It took a while for me to get over the idea that I had been insane to agree to it, but I love the movie now."
Orlean called Streep's portrayal of her "one of my favorite performances by her" and appreciated that her version of the character was based not on the real Orlean but on how Streep imagined Orlean based on The Orchid Thief. Despite the film's fictional parts, Orlean praised its fidelity to the book's spirit: "What I admire the most is that it's very true to the book's themes of life and obsession, and there are also insights into things which are much more subtle in the book about longing, and about disappointment."
See also
Films
Identity (2003), a film starring John Cusack containing plot elements similar to The 3, the fictional script by Donald Kaufman's character.
Three (2006), a film (based on Ted Dekker's eponymous novel), which bears a distinct resemblance to the plot of The 3.
List of films featuring fictional films
Literature
Notes
References
External links
Adaptation at BeingCharlieKaufman.com
Susan Orlean's original article for The New Yorker
Adaptation, Shooting Script, by Charlie Kaufman, Spike Jonze. Nick Hern Books, 2002. .
2002 comedy-drama films
2002 films
American comedy-drama films
American films
American satirical films
American black comedy films
BAFTA winners (films)
Columbia Pictures films
2000s English-language films
Cultural depictions of American men
Cultural depictions of film directors
Cultural depictions of writers
Films about Hollywood
Films about screenwriters
Films about twin brothers
Drama films based on actual events
Films based on non-fiction books
Films directed by Spike Jonze
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films set in the 1990s
Films set in the United States
American nonlinear narrative films
Films with screenplays by Charlie Kaufman
Self-reflexive films
Metafictional works
Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award
Films scored by Carter Burwell
Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize winners
Biographical films about writers
Films about writers
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] |
200638
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Hastenbeck
|
Battle of Hastenbeck
|
The Battle of Hastenbeck (26 July 1757) was fought as part of the Invasion of Hanover during the Seven Years' War between the allied forces of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) and Brunswick, and the French. The allies were defeated by the French army near Hamelin in the Electorate of Hanover.
Prelude
The French, who were allied with Austria, Russia, Sweden and Saxony during the Seven Years' War, invaded Germany in April 1757 with two armies, altogether about 100,000 soldiers. The French hoped to draw the attention of the Kingdom of Prussia, which was allied with Britain and Hanover, away from the Bohemian theatre where Prussia and Austria fought several battles (Lobositz, Prague, Kolin).
One of the two French armies under command of Prince de Soubise marched through central Germany. It joined the Imperial Army, or "Reichsarmee", commanded by Prinz von Hildburghausen. This coalition army later met a Prussian army at the Battle of Rossbach on 5 November 1757 with disaster.
The other French army commanded by Marshal Louis Charles d'Estrées consisted of about 50,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 68 cannons. The army advanced towards the Electorate of Hanover. Prussia was heavily involved with its enemies Austria, Russia and Sweden and therefore was not able to help on the western front. This task was given to the Hanoverian Army of Observation which had little support from Prussia, namely six Prussian battalions. The main part of the "Hanoverian Army of Observation" came from Hanover (about 60%) and Hesse (about 25%), smaller additional forces from Brunswick and Prussia. The total strength of the Hanoverian Army of Observation consisted of about 30,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry and 28 guns. The army was commanded by William Augustus the Duke of Cumberland who was a son of King George II of Great Britain.
Hanover refused to defend the Rhine which is west of the Weser. This left the Prussians no choice but to abandon their fortress in Wesel and to give up the line of the Lippe in April. Cumberland's main objective was preventing the occupation of Hanover. He first concentrated his army at Bielefeld, and then after a brief stand in Brackwede, Cumberland decided to cross the Weser south of Minden. The main idea was to use the Weser as a natural defense line and to make it impossible for the French troops to cross the river. The Duke of Cumberland deployed his main forces at Hamelin which is a couple of kilometers to the northwest of Hastenbeck and left the Prussian battalions as garrison forces in Minden. He also deployed small patrols all along the Weser. Meanwhile, the French sent a detachment to the north to capture Emden, which was an important access point for Britain to Europe, on 3 July. Later they sent another detachment to the south, which took Kassel on 15 July.
During the night of 7 July, a strong French advance guard crossed the river Weser close to the town Beverungen. While the river Weser normally cannot easily be forded, during the summer the water level drops down to a low of 80 cm (~3 feet) between Münden and Hameln, making it possible for infantry and cavalry to cross. The French advance troops then marched to the north and established a bridgehead at Höxter. The main army crossed the Weser on 16 July, leaving the Duke of Cumberland no choice but to deploy his troops south of Hamelin and to engage d'Estrées. The Prussian battalions were then recalled by Frederick the Great, after losing the Battle of Kolin against Austria.
The battle
The armies finally met on the morning of 25 July at the village of Hastenbeck. The commander of the French right flank, general François de Chevert, was ordered to engage Hanoverian troops at the village of Voremberg, but failed to drive them out. As the French left under general Duc de Broglie was still crossing the Weser near Hameln, d'Estrées decided to postpone the battle until all his troops were up.
The next day saw the Hanoverian army holding on a line from Hamelin to Voremberg. Their right flank was anchored on the Hamel river and Hastenbach creek. The center of the Hanoverian front was deployed north of the town of Hastenbeck, and an artillery battery was situated on high ground behind the town. The Hanoverian left consisted of two entrenched batteries, with grenadier battalions protecting the guns. The left flank was anchored on the Obensburg. Cumberland made the mistake of assuming the hill to be impassable to formed troops and deployed a meagre three Jäger companies on its summit, effectively leaving the Hanoverian left flank in the air.
General Chevert was ordered to flank the Hanoverian position with four brigades of troops from Picardy, la Marine, Navarre, and Eu. At 9 AM, this force advanced toward the Obensburg in three battalion columns and quickly overwhelmed the Jäger (German light infantry - derived from hunters) . The Duke of Cumberland, seeing his position threatened from the rear, ordered his reserves and the grenadier battalions protecting the guns to recapture the Obensburg. The use of these grenadier battalions in the counterattack on the Obensburg meant that they were no longer available in the center when the main French attacks went in against the Hanoverian center.
The French main attack consisted of general d'Armentieres's attack against Voremberg with five brigades of infantry plus four regiments of dismounted dragoons. At the same time, the French center assaulted the battery immediately north of it. The Hanoverian grand battery was able to repulse several of the French attacks, but eventually the guns were overrun. When the Hanoverian reserve infantry arrived on the Obensburg, they were able to turn the tide momentarily, but as the Duke of Cumberland had begun to withdraw his army, they were unable to maintain the now-isolated position for long.
Outcome
The Battle of Hastenbeck is one of the most curious battles in history since both commanders-in-chief thought that they lost the battle and were already starting to withdraw from the battlefield. The battle eventually resulted in the Convention of Klosterzeven on September 18 and the occupation of Hanover. During the battle, Hastenbeck was almost completely destroyed: only the church, the manse and the farmhouse were not destroyed.
Notes
References
Marquis de Valfons. "Souvenirs" Mercure de France, 2003.
Marston, Daniel. The Seven Years' War. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001.
Battle of Hastenbeck
Battles of the Seven Years' War
Battles involving Great Britain
Battles involving France
Battles involving Hesse-Kassel
Electorate of Hanover
1757 in the Holy Roman Empire
Battles in Lower Saxony
|
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200643
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Tillman
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Benjamin Tillman
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Benjamin Ryan Tillman (August 11, 1847 – July 3, 1918) was an American politician of the Democratic Party who served as Governor of South Carolina from 1890 to 1894, and as a United States Senator from 1895 until his death in 1918. A white supremacist who opposed civil rights for black Americans, Tillman led a paramilitary group of Red Shirts during South Carolina's violent 1876 election. On the floor of the U.S. Senate, he defended lynching, and frequently ridiculed black Americans in his speeches, boasting of having helped kill them during that campaign.
In the 1880s, Tillman, a wealthy landowner, became dissatisfied with the Democratic leadership and led a movement of white farmers calling for reform. He was initially unsuccessful, though he was instrumental in the founding of Clemson University as an agricultural land-grant college. In 1890, Tillman took control of the state Democratic Party, and was elected governor. During his four years in office, 18 black Americans were lynched in South Carolina; in the 1890s, the state had its highest number of lynchings of any decade. Tillman tried to prevent lynchings as governor but also spoke in support of the lynch mobs, alleging his own willingness to lead one. In 1894, at the end of his second two-year term, he was elected to the U.S. Senate by vote of the state legislature, who elected senators at the time.
Tillman was known as "Pitchfork Ben" because of his aggressive language, as when he threatened to use a pitchfork to prod that "bag of beef", President Grover Cleveland. Considered a possible candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1896, Tillman lost any chance after giving a disastrous speech at the convention. He became known for his virulent oratoryespecially against black Americansbut also for his effectiveness as a legislator. The first federal campaign finance law, banning corporate contributions, is commonly called the Tillman Act. Tillman was repeatedly re-elected, serving in the Senate for the rest of his life. One of his legacies was South Carolina's 1895 constitution, which disenfranchised most of the black majority and many poor whites, and ensured white Democratic Party rule for more than six decades into the 20th century.
Early life and education
Benjamin Ryan Tillman Jr. was born on August 11, 1847, on the family plantation "Chester", near Trenton, in the Edgefield District, sometimes considered part of upcountry South Carolina. His parents, Benjamin Ryan Tillman Sr. and the former Sophia Hancock, were of English descent. In addition to being planters with 86 slaves, the Tillmans operated an inn. They owned 2500 acres of land and were among the largest slaveholders in the district. Benjamin Jr. was the last-born of seven sons and four daughters.
The Edgefield District was known as a violent place, even by the standards of antebellum South Carolina, where matters of personal honor might be addressed with a killing or duel. Before Tillman Sr.'s death from typhoid fever in 1849, he had killed a man and been convicted of rioting by an Edgefield jury. One of his sons died in a duel; another was killed in a domestic dispute. A third died in the Mexican–American War; a fourth at the age of 15 from disease. Of Benjamin Jr.'s two surviving brothers, one died of Civil War wounds after returning home, and the other, George, killed a man who accused him of cheating at gambling. Convicted of manslaughter, George continued to practice law from his jail cell during his two-year sentence, and was elected to the state senate while still incarcerated. He later served several terms in Congress.
From an early age, Ben showed a developed vocabulary. In 1860, he was sent to Bethany, a boarding school in Edgefield where he became a star student, and he remained there after the American Civil War began. In 1863, he came home for a year to help his mother pay off debts. He returned to Bethany in 1864, intending a final year of study prior to entering the South Carolina College (today, the University of South Carolina). The South's desperate need for soldiers ended this plan. In June 1864, not yet 17, Tillman withdrew from the academy, making arrangements to join a coastal artillery unit. These plans were scuttled as well when he fell ill at home. A cranial tumor required the removal of his left eye. It was not until 1866, months after Confederate forces had disbanded, that Ben Tillman was again healthy.
After the war, Ben Tillman, his mother, and his wounded brother James (who died in 1866) worked to rebuild Chester plantation. They signed the plantation's freedmen as workers. They were confronted with the circumstance of several men refusing to work for them and legally leaving the plantation. From 1866 to 1868, Ben Tillman went with several workers from the plantation to Florida, where a new cotton cultivation belt had been established. The Tillmans purchased land there. Tillman was unsuccessful in Florida: after two marginal years, the 1868 crop was destroyed by caterpillars.
During his convalescence, Tillman had met Sallie Starke, a refugee from Fairfield District. They married in January 1868 and she joined him in Florida. The Tillmans returned to South Carolina, where the following year they settled on of Tillman family land, given to him by his mother. They would have seven children together: Adeline, Benjamin Ryan, Henry Cummings, Margaret Malona, Sophia Oliver, Samuel Starke, and Sallie Mae.
Though he was not very religious, Tillman was a frequent churchgoer as a young adult. He was a Christian, but did not identify with a particular sect; as a result, he never formally joined a church. His religious skepticism also led to his avoidance of any further churchgoing almost immediately following his becoming a politician.
Tillman proved an adept farmer, who experimented with crop diversification and took his crops to market each Saturday in nearby Augusta, Georgia. In 1878, Tillman inherited from Sophia Tillman, and purchased at Ninety Six, some from his Edgefield holdings. Having inherited a large library from his uncle John Tillman, he spent part of his days reading.
Although his workers were no longer slaves, Tillman continued to apply the whip to them. By 1876, Tillman was the largest landowner in Edgefield County. He rode through his fields on horseback like an antebellum overseer, and stated at the time that it was necessary that he do so to "drive the slovenly Negroes to work".
Red Shirts and Reconstruction
Resistance to Republican rule
With the Confederacy defeated, South Carolina ratified a new constitution in 1865 that recognized the end of slavery, but basically left the pre-war elites in charge. African-American freedmen, who were the majority of South Carolina's population, were given no vote, and their new freedom was soon restricted by Black Codes that limited their civil rights and required black farm laborers to bind themselves with annual labor contracts. Congress was dissatisfied with this minimal change and required a new constitutional convention and elections with universal male suffrage. As African Americans generally favored the Republican Party at the time, their votes resulted in that party controlling the biracial state legislature beginning with the 1868 elections. That campaign was marked by violence; 19 Republican and Union League activists were killed in South Carolina's 3rd congressional district alone.
In 1873, two Edgefield lawyers and former Confederate generals, Martin Gary and Matthew C. Butler, began to advocate what became known as the "Edgefield Plan" or "Straightout Plan". They believed that the previous five years had shown it was not possible to outvote African Americans. Gary and Butler deemed compromises with black leaders to be misguided; they believed that white men must be restored to their antebellum position of preeminent political power in the state. They proposed that white men form clandestine paramilitary organizations—known as "rifle clubs"—and use force and intimidation to drive African Americans from power. Members of the new white groups became known as Red Shirts. Tillman was an early and enthusiastic recruit for his local organization, dubbed the Sweetwater Sabre Club. He became a devoted protégé of Gary.
From 1873 to 1876, Tillman served as a member of the Sweetwater club, members of which assaulted and intimidated black would-be voters, killed black political figures, and skirmished with the African-American-dominated state militia. Economic coercion was used as well as physical force: most Edgefield planters would not employ black militiamen or allow them to rent land, and ostracized whites who did.
Hamburg massacre; campaign of 1876
In 1874, a moderate Republican, Daniel Henry Chamberlain, was elected South Carolina's governor, attracting even some Democratic votes. When Chamberlain sought re-election in 1876, Gary recruited Wade Hampton III, a Confederate war hero who had moved out of state, to return and run for governor as a Democrat. That election campaign of 1876 was marked by violence, of which the most notorious occurrence was what became known as the Hamburg massacre. It occurred in Hamburg, a mostly black town across the Savannah River from Augusta, in Aiken County, bordering Edgefield County. The incident grew out of a confrontation on July 4 when a black militia marched in Hamburg and two white farmers in a buggy tried to ride through its ranks. Both sides filed criminal charges against the other, and dozens of armed out-of-uniform Red Shirts, led by Butler, traveled to Hamburg on the day of the hearing, July 8. Tillman was present, and the subsequent events were among his proudest memories.
The hearing never occurred, as the black militiamen, outnumbered and outgunned, refused to attend court. This upset the white mob, which expected an apology. Butler demanded that the militiamen give one, and as part of the apology, surrender their arms. Those who attempted to mediate found that neither Butler nor the armed men who backed him were interested in compromise. If the militiamen surrendered their arms, they would be helpless before the mob; if they did not, Butler and his men would use force. Butler brought additional men in from Georgia, and the augmented armed mob, including Tillman, went to confront the militiamen, who were barricaded in their drill room, above a local store. Shots were fired, and after one white man was killed, the rest stormed the room and captured about thirty of the militia. Five were murdered as having white enemies; among the dead was a town constable who had arrested white men. The rest were allowed to flee, with shots fired after them. At least seven black militiamen were killed in the incident. On the way home to Edgefield, Tillman and others had a meal to celebrate the events at the home of the man who had pointed out which African Americans should be shot.
Tillman later recalled that "the leading white men of Edgefield" had decided "to seize the first opportunity that the Negroes might offer them to provoke a riot and teach the Negroes a lesson" by "having the whites demonstrate their superiority by killing as many of them as was justifiable". Hamburg was their first such opportunity. Ninety-four white men, including Tillman, were indicted by a coroner's jury, but none was prosecuted for the killings. Butler blamed the deaths on intoxicated factory workers and Irish-Americans who had come across the bridge from Augusta, and over whom he had no control.
Tillman raised his profile in state politics by attending the 1876 state Democratic convention, which nominated Hampton as the party's candidate for governor. While Hampton presented a fatherly image, urging support from South Carolinians, black and white, Tillman led fifty men to Ellenton, intending to join more than one thousand rifle club members who slaughtered thirty militiamen, with the survivors saved only by the arrival of federal authorities. Although Tillman and his men arrived too late to participate in those killings, two of his men murdered Simon Coker, a black state senator who had come to investigate reports of violence. They shot him as he knelt in final prayer.
On Election Day in November 1876, Tillman served as an election official at a local poll, as did two black Republicans. One arrived late and was scared off by Tillman. As there was as yet no secret ballot in South Carolina, Tillman threatened to remember any votes cast for the Republicans. That precinct gave 211 votes for the Democrats and 2 for the Republicans. Although almost two-thirds of those eligible to vote in Edgefield were African Americans, the Democrats were able to suppress the (Republican) African-American vote, reporting a win for Hampton in Edgefield County with over 60 percent of the vote. Bolstered by this result, Hampton gained a narrow victory statewide, at least according to the official returns. The Red Shirts used violence and fraud to create Democratic majorities that did not exist, and give Hampton the election.
Tillman biographer Stephen Kantrowitz wrote that the unrest in 1876 "marked a turning point in Ben Tillman's life, establishing him as a member of the political and military leadership". Historian Orville Vernon Burton stated that the violence "secured his prominence among the state's white political elite and proved to be the deathblow to South Carolina's Republican Reconstruction government." The takeover, by fraud and terror, of South Carolina's government became known to whites as the state's "Redemption".
In 1909, Tillman addressed a reunion of Red Shirts in Anderson, South Carolina, and recounted the events of 1876:
"Agricultural Moses"
Starting with the election of Hampton as governor in 1876, South Carolina was ruled primarily by the wealthy "Bourbon" or "Conservative" planter class that had controlled the state before the Civil War. In the 1880s, though, the Bourbon class was neither as strong nor as populous as before. The agenda of the Conservatives had little to offer the farmer, and in the hard economic times of the early 1880s, there was discontent in South Carolina that led to some electoral success for the short-lived Greenback Party.
Having risen to the rank of captain in the rifle club before the end of the 1876 campaign, Tillman spent the next several years managing his plantations. He played a modest role in Edgefield's political and social life, and in 1881 was elected second in command of the Edgefield Hussars, a rifle club that had been made part of the state militia. He supported Gary's unsuccessful candidacy for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1880, and after Gary's death in 1881, as a delegate to the 1882 Democratic state convention Tillman backed former Confederate general John Bratton for the nomination, again unsuccessfully. By then, Tillman was dissatisfied with the Conservative leaders he had helped gain power; he believed they were ignoring the interests of farmers and of poor mill workers, and had been responsible for denying office to Gary—the former Red Shirt leader had twice sought to be senator, and once governor, and was each time denied. Tillman never forgot what he deemed the "betrayal" of Gary.
Struggle for the farmer
In an attempt to better conditions for the farmer (by which Tillman always meant white males only), in 1884 he founded the Edgefield Agricultural Club. It died for lack of members. Undeterred, Tillman tried again in January 1885, beginning the Edgefield County Agricultural Society. Its membership also dwindled, but Tillman was elected one of three delegates to the August joint meeting of the state Grange and the state Agricultural and Mechanical Society at Bennettsville, and was invited to be one of the speakers.
When Tillman spoke at Bennettsville, he was not widely known except as the brother of Congressman George Tillman. Ben Tillman called for the state government to do more for farmers, and blamed politicians and lawyers in the pay of financial interests for agricultural problems, including the crop lien system that left many farmers struggling to pay bills. He assailed his listeners for letting themselves be duped by hostile interests, and told of the farmer who was elected to the legislature, only to be dazzled and seduced by the elite. According to an account the next day in the Columbia Daily Register, Tillman's speech "electrified the assembly and was the sensation of the meeting". Lindsey Perkins, in his journal article on Tillman's oratory, wrote that "Tillman's losses in the agricultural depression of 1883–1898 forced him to begin thinking and planning economic reforms. The result was Bennettsville." Tillman later stated that he began his advocacy after a few bad years in the early 1880s forced him to sell some of his land. The speech was printed in several newspapers, and Tillman began to receive more invitations to speak. According to Zach McGhee in his 1906 article on Tillman, "from that day to this he has been the most conspicuous figure in South Carolina".
Within two months of the Bennettsville speech, Tillman was being talked of as a candidate for governor in 1886. He continued to speak to audiences, and was dubbed the "Agricultural Moses". He made political demands, such as primary elections to determine who would get the Democratic nomination (then tantamount to election) rather than the leaving the decision to the Bourbon-dominated state nominating convention. He principally promoted the establishment of a state college for the education of farmers, where young men could learn the latest techniques. Kantrowitz pointed out that the term "farmer" is flexible in meaning, allowing Tillman to overlook distinctions of class and unite most white men in predominantly rural South Carolina under a single banner. During these years, cartoonists began depicting Tillman with pitchfork in hand, symbolizing his agriculture-based roots and tendency to take jabs at opponents. This was a source of his nickname, "Pitchfork Ben".
Historian H. Wayne Morgan noted that "Ben Tillman's venom was not typical, but his general feeling represented that of southern dirt farmers." According to E. Culpepper Clark in his journal article on Tillman,
Tillman spoke widely in the state in 1885 and after, and soon attracted allies, including a number of Red Shirt comrades, such as Martin Gary's nephews Eugene B. Gary and John Gary Evans. He sought to mold local farmers' groups into a statewide organization to be a voice for agriculturalists. In April 1886, a convention called by Tillman met in Columbia, the state capital. The goal of what became known as the Farmer's Association or Farmer's Movement was to control the state Democratic Party from within, and to gain reforms such as the agricultural college. He initially was unsuccessful, though he came within thirty votes of controlling the 1886 state Democratic convention. The lack of success caused Tillman, in late 1887, to announce his retirement from politics, though there was widespread speculation he would soon be back.
Tillman had met, in 1886, with Thomas G. Clemson, son-in-law of the late John C. Calhoun, to discuss a bequest to underwrite the cost of the new agricultural school. Clemson died in 1888, and his will not only left money and land for the college, but made Tillman one of seven trustees for life, who had the power to appoint their successors. Tillman stated that this provision, which made the lifetime trustees a majority of the board, was intended to forestall any attempt by a future Republican government to admit African Americans. Clemson College (later Clemson University) was authorized by the legislature in December 1888.
The Clemson bequest helped revitalize Tillman's movement. The targets of Tillman's oratory were again politicians in Columbia and the Conservative elements based in Charleston and elsewhere in the lowcountry of South Carolina. Through letters to newspapers and stump speeches, he decried the state government as a pit of corruption, stating that officials displayed "ignorance, extravagance and laziness" and that Charleston's The Citadel was a "military dude factory" that might profitably be repurposed as a school for women.
Governor John P. Richardson had been elected in 1886; in 1888 he sought re-nomination, to be met with opposition from Tillman's farmers. As had been done to Republican rallies in 1876, Tillman and his followers attended campaign events and demanded that he be allowed equal time to speak. Tillman was a highly talented stump speaker, and when given the opportunity to debate, accused Richardson of being irreligious, a gambler and a drunkard. Even so, Richardson was easily re-nominated by the state Democratic convention, which turned down Tillman's demand for a primary election. Tillman proposed the customary gracious motion that Richardson's nomination be made unanimous.
1890 gubernatorial campaign
One factor that helped Tillman and his movement in the 1890 campaign was the organization of many South Carolina farmers under the auspices of the Farmers' Alliance. The Alliance, which had spread through much of the agricultural South and West since its origin in Texas, sought to get farmers to work together cooperatively and seek reform. From that organization would come the People's Party (better known as the Populists). Although the Populist Party played a significant role in the politics of the 1890s, it did not do so in South Carolina, where Tillman had already channeled agricultural discontent into an attempt to take over the Democratic Party. The Alliance in South Carolina generally backed Tillman, and its many local farmers' organizations gave Tillman new venues for his speeches.
In January 1890, Tillmanite leader George Washington Shell published what came to be known as the "Shell Manifesto" in a Charleston newspaper, setting forth the woes of farmers under the Conservative government, and calling for them to elect delegates to meet in March to recommend a candidate for governor. Both Tillman supporters and Conservatives realized the purpose was to pre-empt the Democratic convention's choice, and fresh, acrimonious debate over the merits of Tillman and his methods began. He and his supporters were often attacked in the newspapers by the Conservatives, but such invective by the hated elites only tended to endear Tillman the more to the farmers who saw him as their champion. Conservatives were certain that once Tillman's voters understood how wealthy he was while speaking for debt-ridden farmers, they would abandon him; they did not.
At the "Shell Convention", state Representative John L. M. Irby nominated Tillman, stating "shame on the [Democratic] party for stabbing Gary, a man who had saved us in '76 ... we could now make the amends honorable and choose B. R. Tillman". Although many delegates voted to make no endorsement, Tillman gained a narrow victory for the convention's recommendation. Tillman spent the summer of 1890 making speeches and debating two rivals (former general Bratton and state Attorney General Joseph H. Earle) for the nomination, as the Democratic leadership watched with increasing consternation. Given Tillman's strength at the grassroots level, he was likely to be the choice of the Democratic convention in September. Accordingly, the party's Bourbon-controlled state executive committee tried to use the brief August convention (called to set the rules for the September one) to change the nomination method to a primary, in which the anti-Tillman forces would unite behind a single candidate. When the August convention was held, the Tillmanites had a large majority, which they used to oust the executive committee and install one loyal to Tillman. The convention also passed a new party constitution calling for a primary, beginning in 1892. Tillman was duly nominated in September as the Democratic candidate for governor, with Eugene Gary as his running mate for lieutenant governor.
After the convention many Conservative Democrats, though not happy at Tillman's victory, acknowledged him as head of the state party. Those who submitted to Tillman's rule included Hampton and Butler, the state's two U.S. senators. In his campaign, Tillman promoted support for Clemson, establishment of a state women's college, reapportionment of the state legislature (then dominated by the lowcountry counties), and ending the influence of corporation lawyers in that body.
Those Democrats who could not abide Tillman's candidacy held an October meeting with 20 of South Carolina's 35 counties represented, and nominated Alexander Haskell for governor. The announcement that Haskell would run caused a closing of Democratic ranks against him, lest white unity be sundered. The Charleston News and Courier, not always a friend to Tillman, urged, "stand by the ticket, not for the ticket's sake, but for the party and the State". Even most Conservatives would not support a bolt from the party, and Kantrowitz suggested that Haskell and his supporters hated Tillman so much that his nomination caused them to commit political suicide. The Haskell campaign reached out to black voters, pledging that he would not disturb the limited political role played by African Americans in the state, a promise Tillman was unlikely to make.
During Tillman's five years of agricultural advocacy, he had rarely discussed the question of the African American. With blacks given control of one of South Carolina's seven congressional districts, the question of black influence in state politics seemed settled and did not play a significant role in the campaign for the Democratic nomination for governor. Haskell's appeals for support, added to speculation that Tillman was trying to form a biracial coalition through the Farmers' Alliance (which, though segregated, had a parallel organization for black farmers) made race an issue. Tillman boasted of his deeds at Hamburg and Ellenton, but it was Gary who made race the focus of his campaign. Urging segregation of railroad cars, Gary asked, "what white man wants his wife or sister sandwiched between a big bully buck and a saucy wench"?
Although Tillman fully expected to win, he warned that should he be defeated by ballot-box stuffing, there would be war. On Election Day, November 4, 1890, Tillman was elected governor with 59,159 votes to 14,828 for Haskell. With no Republican to support (none had run for governor since 1878), black leaders had been divided as to whether to endorse Haskell; in the end the only two counties won by him were in the lowcountry and heavily African-American. The losing candidate and his white supporters were quickly consigned to political oblivion, with some mocking them as "white Negroes".
Governor (1890–1894)
Inauguration and legislative control
Tillman was sworn in as governor in Columbia on December 4, 1890, before a crowd of jubilant supporters, the largest to see South Carolina's governor inaugurated since Hampton's swearing-in. In his inaugural address, Tillman celebrated his victory, "the citizens of this great commonwealth have for the first time in its history demanded and obtained for themselves the right to choose her Governor; and I, as the exponent and leader of the revolution which brought about the change, am here to take the solemn oath of office ... the triumph of democracy and white supremacy over mongrelism and anarchy, of civilization over barbarism, has been most complete."
Tillman made it clear he was not content that African Americans were allowed even a limited role in the political life of South Carolina:
The legislature, at Tillman's recommendation, reapportioned itself, costing Charleston County four of its twelve seats, and other lowcountry counties one each, with the seats going to the upcountry. Although Tillman sought to reduce public expenditures, he was not successful in doing so as his reform program required spending, and the legislature could find few savings to make. Construction of Clemson College was slowed, and subsidies for fairs were cut.
Among the matters before the new, Tillman-controlled legislature was who should fill the Senate seat held by Hampton, whose term expired in March 1891—until 1913, state legislatures elected senators. There was a call from many in the South Carolina Democratic Party to re-elect Hampton, who had played a major role in the state for the past thirty years, in war and peace. Tillman was embittered against Hampton for a number of slights, including the senator's neutrality in the race against Haskell. The legislature retired Hampton, who received only 43 of 157 votes, and sent Irby to Washington in his place. The ouster of Hampton was controversial, and remained so for decades afterwards; according to Simkins (writing in 1944), "to future generations of South Carolinians, Tillman's act was a ruthless violation of cherished traditions of which Hampton was a living symbol".
Policies and events as governor
Lynching and race
Tillman as governor initially took a strong stand against lynching. The Shell Manifesto, in reciting the ills of Conservative government, had blamed the Bourbons for encouraging lynching through bad laws and poor administration. Although Governor Richardson, Tillman's predecessor, had taken action to prevent such murders, they still occurred, with no one being prosecuted for them. In about half of the lynchings in South Carolina between 1881 and 1895, there were claims that the black victim had raped or tried to rape a white woman, though studies have shown that lynchings were tied instead to economic and social issues. More lynchings took place in South Carolina in the 1890s than in any other decade, and in Edgefield and several other counties, such killings outnumbered lawful executions.
During Tillman's first year in office there were no lynchings, compared with 12 in Richardson's last year, which Simkins attributed to Tillman's "vigorous attitude towards law enforcement". Tillman called out the militia multiple times to prevent lynchings, and corresponded with sheriffs, passing along information and rumors of contemplated lynchings. The governor pressed for a law requiring the segregation of railroad cars: opposed by railroad companies and the few black legislators, the bill passed the state House of Representatives but failed in the Senate. Tillman's calls to redistrict away the one congressional district dominated by African Americans, and for a constitutional convention to disenfranchise them also fell in the Senate, where the convention proposal failed to attract the necessary two-thirds majority. The only enactment that struck at the African American in Tillman's first term imposed a prohibitive tax on labor agents, who were recruiting local farm hands to move out of state.
In December 1891, soon after the first anniversary of Tillman's taking office, a black Edgefield man named Dick Lundy was charged with murdering the sheriff's son, and was taken from the jail and lynched. Tillman sent the state solicitor to Edgefield to investigate the matter, and ridiculed the coroner's jury verdict. As usual in cases of lynching, it stated the deceased had been killed by persons unknown. Tillman said, "the law received a wound for every bullet shot into Dick Lundy's body." The News and Courier opined that had he been present "with true Edgefield instinct, [Tillman] would probably have been hanging around on the edge of the mob".
In April 1893, Mamie Baxter, a fourteen-year-old girl in Denmark, Barnwell County, alleged that an African American unknown to her had attempted to attack her. About twenty black men were detained and paraded before her; she stated that Henry Williams looked something like the man she had seen. Placed on what passed for a trial by the mob that took him from the jail, Williams produced several respected white men to support his alibi. A majority of the mob voted against killing him, and Williams was returned to jail. More searches were made for Baxter's attacker. A suspect in the case, John Peterson, appealed to Tillman for protection, fearing he would be lynched if taken to Denmark, and stating he could prove his innocence. Tillman sent Peterson to Denmark with a single guard. He was taken by the mob, put on "trial", and after the mob found him guilty, was murdered. There was widespread outrage among both races across the country, both at the actions of the lynchers and at what Tillman had done. The governor said, in response, that he had assumed that, as the mob had been convinced by Williams' defense, it would allow Peterson to prove his innocence as well. He thereafter ignored the issue of the Denmark lynching.
There were five lynchings in South Carolina during Tillman's first term, and thirteen during his second. Tillman had to walk a narrow line in the debates over lynching, since most of his supporters believed in the collective right of white men in a community to dispense mob justice, especially in cases of alleged rape. Yet as governor, he was sworn to uphold the rule of law. He attempted to finesse the matter by seeking to appeal to both sides, demanding that the law be followed, but that he would, as he stated in 1892, "willingly lead a mob in lynching a Negro who had committed an assault on a white woman". Under criticism, he amended this to a willingness to lead the lynching of "a man of any color who assaults a virtuous woman of any color"—the adjective "virtuous" limiting the commitment, in Tillman's view, to assaults on white women.
During Tillman's second term, he had the legislature pass a bill to abolish elected local government, in favor of gubernatorial appointment of municipal and county officials. Tillman used this law to oust black officials even where that race held a voting majority. In September 1893, South Carolina was hit by storms. Tillman discouraged northerners from sending aid to African Americans, fearing it would result in "lazy, idle crowds [wanting to] draw rations, as in the days of the Freedmen's Bureau ... They cannot be treated as we would white people."
During the 1895 South Carolina state constitutional convention, however, Tillman supported a provision that permitted the removal from office of sheriffs who through negligence or connivance permitted a lynching. He also supported a provision that held the county where the lynching occurred liable for damages of $2,000 or more to be paid to the heirs of the victim.
Alcohol and the dispensary
The question of prohibition of alcohol was a major issue in South Carolina during Tillman's governorship. Tillman opposed banning alcohol, but was careful to speak well of temperance advocates, many of whom were women. The concern Tillman had with alcohol issues was that they divided the white community, leaving openings for black Republicans to exploit.
In the 1892 election, South Carolinians passed a non-binding referendum calling for prohibition. Bills were introduced into both houses of the state legislature that December to accomplish this, and passed the House of Representatives. Before the House bill could be passed by the Senate, Tillman sent a proposal in the form of an amendment, with instructions to pass the amended bill, and enact nothing else on the subject. Based on a system that had been successful in Athens, Georgia, the bill banned the private sale of alcohol, setting up a system of dispensaries that would sell alcohol in sealed containers—sale by the drink, and consumption on the premises, would not be permitted. Both houses passed Tillman's amendment, though there was opposition both within and outside the legislature. The dispensary system went into effect on July 1, 1893.
The new law was met with considerable resistance, especially in the towns and cities, where Tillman had less support. Dozens of clandestine saloons opened, fueled by barrels of illicit liquor, often transported by railroad. Tillman appointed dispensary constables, who tried to seize such shipments, to be frustrated by the fact that the South Carolina Railroad was in federal receivership, and state authorities could not confiscate goods entrusted to it. All of Tillman's constables were white, placing him at a disadvantage in dealing with the alcohol trade among African Americans. Some of the constables tried going undercover by blacking their faces like minstrels; later, Tillman hired an African-American detective from Georgia.
The small city of Darlington became a center of the bootlegging trade, with many illegal saloons. Tillman repeatedly warned the local mayor to crack down; when this did not occur, in April 1894, Tillman sent a train full of constables and other enforcement personnel to Darlington. They were repelled by gunfire, with dead on both sides. Tillman called out the state militia, which put down the unrest, though some units refused to serve. After the incident, Tillman disbanded the units of the militia that had refused his orders, and organized new companies to serve in their place. The Darlington riot divided the state politically as Tillman prepared to seek Butler's seat in the Senate, which would be filled by the legislature in December 1894.
Only weeks after the Darlington affair, the South Carolina Supreme Court declared the act creating the dispensary system in violation of the state constitution on the grounds that the government had no right to run a profit-making business. The vote was 2–1, with Justice Samuel McGowan in the majority. McGowan was a lame duck in office; Lieutenant Governor Gary had been elected to fill his seat effective August 1, 1894. Tillman closed the dispensaries temporarily, resulting in prohibition in South Carolina, and fired the constables. He had taken the precaution, once the court agreed to take the dispensary case, of having the 1893 legislature pass a revised dispensary law. When Gary took the bench, the Tillmanites would have a majority on the state Supreme Court, and Tillman instructed trial justices not to hear challenges to the 1893 law until after August 1. Tillman kept the law suspended until then, afterwards reopening the dispensaries under that statute. The high court declared the 1893 act constitutional on October 8, 1894, 2–1, with Gary voting in the majority.
Agriculture and higher education
Elected with support from the Farmers' Alliance and as a result of agricultural protest, Tillman was thought likely to join the Populists in their challenge to the established parties. Tillman refused, and generally opposed Populist positions that went beyond his program of increasing access to higher education and reform of the Democratic Party (white supremacy was not a Populist position). The Alliance (and Populists) demanded a system of subtreasuries under the federal government, that could accept farmers' crops and advance them 80 percent of the value interest-free. Tillman, not wanting more federal officeholders in the state (that in Republican administrations might be filled by African Americans), initially opposed the proposal. Many farmers felt strongly about this issue, and in 1891, Tillman was censured by the state Alliance for his opposition. Attuned to political necessities, Tillman gradually came to support the subtreasuries in time for his re-election campaign in 1892, though he was never an active proponent.
Tillman spoke at the opening of Clemson College on July 6, 1893. He fulfilled his campaign promise to start a women's college. In 1891, the legislature passed a bill creating the South Carolina Industrial and Winthrop Normal College (today Winthrop University). He took a personal interest in the bidding by various towns around the state for the new school, and supported the successful candidate, the progressive town of Rock Hill, on the state's northern border. Rock Hill officials had offered land, cash, and building materials. The school, then admitting only white women, opened in October 1895, after Tillman had become a senator.
Re-election in 1892
Tillman sought election to a second two-year term in 1892, presenting himself as a reforming alternative to the Conservatives. In the campaign, Tillman was a strong supporter of free silver or bimetallism, making silver legal tender at the historic ratio to gold of 16:1. Such a policy would inflate the currency, and Tillman felt that would make it easier for the farmer to repay debts. The rhetoric of free silver suited Tillman as well, as he could make himself appear the champion of the farmer against the powerful interests that had committed the "Crime of '73" (as silver supporters termed the act ending bimetallism in the United States).
Announcing that a primary for 1892, as had been prescribed two years before, was anti-reform, Tillman put off the first Democratic gubernatorial primary in the state until 1894. Thus, the nominee would be chosen by a convention, and mid-1892 saw a lengthy series of debates between Tillman and his challenger, former governor John C. Sheppard. The bitter campaign was marked by violence, often set off by provocative language from the candidates. According to Kantrowitz, Tillman "sought to prolong the confrontation, to take the crowd up to the edge of violence, demonstrating his identification with his farmers without quite provoking them to murder". When former senator Hampton attempted to speak on Sheppard's behalf, he was shouted down by Tillman partisans; opponents complained that Tillman's supporters had formed a mob, and that the governor was a true son of violent Edgefield.
As the likely Democratic presidential candidate for 1892, former president Grover Cleveland, was a staunch opponent of free silver, Tillman attacked Cleveland. Most of the South Carolina delegation, including Tillman, voted against Cleveland at the convention, but when the former president was nominated, the governor worked to deliver South Carolina for Cleveland by an overwhelming margin. Cleveland was elected, but the new president was offended by Tillman's earlier attacks, and denied the governor any role in patronage in South Carolina, entrusting it to Senator Matthew Butler and other remaining Conservatives. Tillman's inability to provide federal jobs for supporters made it more difficult for him to hold his coalition together. Tillman continued his verbal assaults, stating that Cleveland "is an old bag of beef and I am going to Washington with a pitchfork and prod him in his old fat ribs"—thus popularizing Tillman as "Pitchfork Ben".
During the 1892 campaign, Tillman called for the defeat in the Democratic primary for the legislature of most of the men elected as his supporters, urging the selection of more loyal men. Tillman urged the voters, "turn out this cattle, these driftwood legislators, and send me a legislature that will do what I say, and I'll show you reform." South Carolinians dutifully voted out their representatives as Tillman requested. Although no primary for governor was permitted, the delegates to the nominating convention were elected by the Democratic voters, and Tillman won an overwhelming victory over Sheppard, who took only 4 of 35 counties. The convention was mostly Tillmanite, and gave the governor an easy triumph. The Conservatives had agreed not to bolt the party, and Tillman won uncontested re-election.
Senate election of 1894
Tillman had long seen a Senate seat as a logical next step once he concluded his time as governor. Senator Butler, whose term expired in March 1895, had soon after the 1890 election begun to shift his positions towards Tillman's, hoping to retain Conservative backing while appealing to the governor's supporters. The senator signed on to most demands of the Farmers' Alliance, and did not support the forces trying to prevent Tillman's re-nomination in 1892. Butler's seeming apostasy disheartened Conservatives, who did not bother to run candidates for the legislature in many counties in 1894, abandoning the field (and Butler's Senate seat) to the Tillmanites. The governor took nothing for granted, seeing to it that popular candidates, loyal to him, ran for the legislature. In addition to electing Tillman to the Senate, these legislators could help preserve his gubernatorial legacy, including the dispensary.
Butler was aware of the uphill struggle he faced, and called for a primary for senator, with all Democratic legislators committed to vote to elect the winner. Tillman, who had already finalized his plans to win in the legislature, refused. The series of debates that marked a campaign summer in South Carolina began on June 18, 1894. Butler believed he could still win by appealing to the electorate in the same manner as Tillman; the senator thought he understood the lessons of 1876 as well as anyone. In the debates, Butler and Tillman matched slander for slander, with Butler claiming that at Hamburg, when the shooting started, Tillman was "nowhere to be found". Tillman shot back that when Butler had testified before Congress about Hamburg, he had downplayed his role in the events. According to Kantrowitz, "their struggle over the legacy of 1876 was in part over who could more legitimately claim to have murdered" African Americans. Tillman's partisans shouted down Butler when he tried to speak at some debates. Although this tactic had been used by Butler and other Democrats against the Republicans in 1876, Butler now decried it as "not Christian civilization to howl anyone down".
Balked again, Butler attempted to turn the campaign personal, calling Tillman a liar and trying to strike him. Tillman warned that Butler's tactics risked sundering white unity, stating to a questioner who asked why he did not meet Butler's insults with violence, "Yes, I tell you, you cowardly hound, why I took them [the insults], and I'll meet you wherever you want to. I took them because I, as governor of the State, could not afford to create a row at a public meeting and have our people murder each other like dogs."
By early July, Butler had realized the futility of his race, and took to ignoring Tillman in his speeches, which the governor reciprocated, taking much of the drama from the debates. The two men even rode in the same carriage on July 4. Nevertheless, Butler refused to surrender, even after the primary for the legislature was overwhelmingly won by the Tillmanites, threatening action in the courts and an election contest before the Senate. On December 11, 1894, Benjamin Tillman was elected to the Senate by the new legislature with 131 votes. Butler received 21 and three votes were scattered.
Senator (1895–1918)
Disenfranchising the African American: 1895 state constitutional convention
Throughout his time as governor, Tillman had sought a convention to rewrite South Carolina's Reconstruction-era constitution. His main purpose in doing so was to disenfranchise African Americans. They opposed Tillman's proposal, as did others, who had seen previous efforts to restrict the franchise rebound against white voters. Tillman was successful in getting the legislature to place a referendum for a constitutional convention on the November 1894 general election ballot. It passed by 2,000 votes statewide, the narrow margin gained, according to Kantrowitz, most likely through fraud. John Gary Evans was elected Tillman's successor as governor.
Opponents sued in the courts to overturn the referendum result; they were unsuccessful. During the convention, Tillman hailed it as "a fitting capstone to the triumphal arch which the common people have erected to liberty, progress, and Anglo-Saxon civilization since 1890". To assure white unity, Tillman allowed the election of Conservatives as about a third of delegates. The convention assembled in Columbia in September 1895, consisting of 112 Tillmanites, 42 Conservatives, and six African Americans. Tillman called black disenfranchisement "the sole cause of our being here".
Tillman was the dominant figure of the convention, chairing the Committee on the Rights of Suffrage, which was to craft language to accomplish the disenfranchisement. Constrained by the requirement of the federal Fifteenth Amendment that men of all races be allowed to vote, the committee sought language that though superficially nondiscriminatory would operate or could be used to take the vote from most African Americans.
Tillman spoke to the convention on October 31. In addition to supporting the provisions of the draft document, he recalled 1876:
The adopted provisions, which came into force after the new constitution was ratified by the convention in December 1895, set a maze of obstacles before prospective voters. Voters had to be a resident of the state two years, the county one year, and the precinct for four months. Many African Americans were itinerant laborers, and this provision disproportionately affected them. A poll tax had to be paid six months in advance of the election, in May when laborers had the least cash. Each registrant had to prove to the satisfaction of the county board of elections that he could read or write a section of the state constitution (in a literacy or comprehension test), or that he paid taxes on property valued at $300 or more. This allowed white registrars ample discretion to disenfranchise African Americans. Illiterate whites were shielded by the "understanding" clause, that allowed, until 1898, permanent registration to citizens who could "understand" the constitution when read to them. This also allowed officials great leeway to discriminate. Even if an African American maneuvered past all of these blocks, he still faced the manager of the polling place, who could demand proof he had paid all taxes owed—something difficult to show conclusively. Conviction of any of a long list of crimes that whites believed prevalent among African Americans was made the cause of permanent disenfranchisement, including bigamy, adultery, burglary, and arson. Convicted murderers not in prison had their franchise undisturbed.
Tillman defended this on the floor of the Senate:
In my State there were 135,000 negro voters, or negroes of voting age, and some 90,000 or 95,000 white voters.... Now, I want to ask you, with a free vote and a fair count, how are you going to beat 135,000 by 95,000? How are you going to do it? You had set us an impossible task.We did not disfranchise the negroes until 1895. Then we had a constitutional convention convened which took the matter up calmly, deliberately, and avowedly with the purpose of disfranchising as many of them as we could under the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. We adopted the educational qualification as the only means left to us, and the negro is as contented and as prosperous and as well protected in South Carolina to-day as in any State of the Union south of the Potomac. He is not meddling with politics, for he found that the more he meddled with them the worse off he got. As to his "rights"—I will not discuss them now. We of the South have never recognized the right of the negro to govern white men, and we never will.... I would to God the last one of them was in Africa and that none of them had ever been brought to our shores.
1896 presidential bid
By early 1896, many in the Democratic Party were bitterly opposed to President Cleveland and his policies. The United States was by then in the third year of a deep recession, the Panic of 1893. Cleveland was a firm supporter of the gold standard, and soon after the recession began forced through repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which he believed had helped cause it. Sherman's act, although not restoring bimetallism, had required the government to purchase and coin large quantities of silver bullion, and its repeal outraged supporters of free silver. Other Cleveland policies, such as his forcible suppression of the Pullman strike, led to the Democrats losing control of both houses of Congress in the 1894 midterm elections, and to a revolt against him by silver supporters within his party.
From the time of his swearing-in in December 1895 (when Congress began its annual session), Tillman was seen as the voice of the dissatisfied in the nation; the New York Press stated Tillman would voice the concerns of "the masses of the people of South Carolina far more faithfully than did the Bourbon politician Butler". He shocked the Senate with dramatic attacks on Cleveland, calling the president "the most gigantic failure of any man who ever occupied the White House, all because of his vanity and obstinacy". The New York Times deemed Tillman "a filthy baboon, accidentally seated in the Senate chamber".
Tillman believed that the nation was on the verge of major political change, and that he could be elected president in 1896, uniting the silver supporters of the South and West. He was willing to consider a third party bid if Cleveland kept control of the Democratic Party, but felt the Populists, by allowing African Americans to seek office, had destroyed their credibility among southern whites. The stinging oratory of the South Carolina senator brought him national prominence, and with the 1896 Democratic National Convention in Chicago likely to be controlled by silver supporters, Tillman was spoken of as a possible presidential candidate along with others, such as former Missouri representative Richard P. Bland, Texas Governor Jim Hogg, and former Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan.
Tillman was his state's favorite son candidate, and its representative on the Committee on Resolutions (often called "the Platform Committee"). The platform had the support of the pro-silver majority of the committee, but the gold minority, led by New York Senator David B. Hill, opposed its support of free silver, and wanted to take the disagreement to the convention floor. With one hour and fifteen minutes allocated to each side, Tillman and Bryan were selected as the speakers in favor of the draft platform. Bryan asked Tillman if he wanted to open or close the debate; the senator wanted to close, but sought fifty minutes to do so. The Nebraskan replied that Hill would oppose such a long closing address, and Tillman agreed to open the debate, with Bryan to close it.
When the platform debate began in the Chicago Coliseum on the morning of July 9, 1896, Tillman was the opening speaker. Although met with applause and shouts of his name, he "spoke in the same manner that had won him success in South Carolina, cursing, haranguing his enemies, and raising the specter of sectionalism. He, however, thoroughly alienated the national audience". According to Richard Bensel in his study of the 1896 convention, Tillman gave "by far, the most divisive speech of the convention, an address that embarrassed the silver wing of the party as much as it enraged the hard-money faction". He deemed silver a sectional issue, pitting the wealthy East against the oppressed South and West. This upset delegates, who wished to view silver as a patriotic, national issue, and some voiced their dissent, disagreeing with Tillman. The senator alternately offended, confused, and bored the delegates, who shouted for Tillman to stop even though less than half of his time had expired. Beset by shouting delegates and one of the convention bands, which unexpectedly appeared and began to play, Tillman nevertheless pressed on, "the audience might just as well understand that I am going to have my say if I stand here until sundown." By the time he had his say, he had "effectively destroyed his chances to become a national candidate". With Tillman's candidacy stillborn (only his home state voted for him), Bryan seized the opportunity to deliver an address in support of silver that did not rely on sectionalism. His Cross of Gold speech won him the presidential nomination.
After Tillman returned from Chicago to South Carolina, he suggested he had delivered an intentionally radical speech so as to allow Bryan to look statesmanlike by comparison. This interpretation was mocked by his enemies. Tillman is not known to have otherwise discussed his feelings at the failure of his presidential bid, and the political grief was likely overwhelmed by personal sadness a week after the convention when his beloved daughter Addie died, struck by lightning on a North Carolina mountain. Tillman campaigned for Bryan, but was a favorite target of cartoonists denigrating the Democratic candidate and supporting the Republican, former Ohio governor William McKinley. Bryan had also been nominated by the Populists, who selected their own vice presidential candidate, Georgia's Thomas E. Watson. Tillman was active in efforts to get Watson to withdraw, having a 12-hour meeting with the candidate, apparently without result. Tillman traveled widely to speak on Bryan's behalf, and drew large crowds, but his speeches were of little significance. Despite undertaking an arduous campaign, Bryan lost the election. Simkins suggested that Tillman, by helping forge an image of the Democratic Party as anarchic, contributed to Bryan's defeat.
Wild man of the Senate: Tillman-McLaurin fistfight
Kantrowitz deemed Tillman "the Senate's wild man", who applied the same techniques of accusation and insinuation that had served him well in South Carolina. In 1897, Tillman accused the Republicans, "I certainly do not want to attack any member of the committee who does not deserve to be attacked [but] nobody denies that there have been rooms occupied for two months by the Republicans on the Senate Finance Committee at the Arlington Hotel ... in easy reach of the sugar trust". Simkins, though, opined that Tillman's speeches in the Senate were only inflammatory because of his injection of personalities, and if that is disregarded, his speeches, when read, come across as well-reasoned and even conservative.
In 1902, Tillman accused his junior colleague from South Carolina, John L. McLaurin, of corruption in a speech to the Senate. McLaurin, who had been a Tillmanite before breaking from him after being elected to the Senate, called him a liar, whereupon Tillman rushed across the Senate floor and punched McLaurin in the face; McLaurin responded by punching Tillman in the nose before the Sergeant at Arms and other Senators intervened. The body immediately went into closed session, and held both men in contempt.
The Senate considered suspending them, but Tillman argued that it was unfair to deprive South Carolina of her representation, though the body could have also expelled the two men, knowing he had enough Democratic votes to prevent this. In the end, both men were censured, and later that year, Tillman arranged for McLaurin, whose term ended in 1903, to not be re-elected.
The fracas with McLaurin caused President Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded the assassinated McKinley in 1901, to withdraw an invitation to dinner at the White House. Tillman never forgave this slight, and became a bitter enemy of Roosevelt.
Tillman was inclined to oppose Roosevelt anyway, who soon after becoming president, dined at the White House with Booker T. Washington, an African American. Tillman responded by saying "the action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they learn their place again."
Race relations
Tillman believed, and often stated as senator, that blacks must submit to either white domination or extermination. He was reluctant to undertake the latter, fearing hundreds of whites would die accomplishing it. He campaigned in the violent 1898 North Carolina elections, in which white Democrats were determined to take back control from a biracial Populist-Republican coalition elected in 1894 and 1896 on a fusion ticket. He spoke widely in North Carolina in late 1898, often to crowds wearing red shirts, disheartening his Populist supporters. On October 20, 1898, Tillman was the featured speaker at the Democratic Party's Great White Man's Rally and Basket Picnic in Fayetteville. Tillman spoke furiously to the crowd of white men, asking them why North Carolina had not rid itself of black office holders as South Carolina had in 1876. He chastized the audience for not lynching Alex Manly, the black editor of the Wilmington Daily Record. Tillman was one of many prominent Democrats advocating use of violence to win the 1898 election. The resulting coup expelled opposition black and white political leaders from Wilmington, destroyed the property and businesses of black citizens built up since the Civil War, including the only black newspaper in the city, and killed an estimated 60 to more than 300 people. Terror and intimidation again won the day for the Democrats, who were elected statewide. South Carolina saw violence as well: an effort to register black voters in Phoenix led whites to provoke a confrontation, after which a number of African Americans were murdered. Tillman warned African Americans and those who might combine with them that black political activism would provoke a murderous response from whites.
Beginning in 1901, Tillman joined the Chautauqua circuit, giving well-paid speeches throughout the nation. Tillman's reputation, both for his views and his oratory, attracted large crowds. Tillman informed them that African Americans were inferior to the white man, but were not baboons, though some were "so near akin to the monkey that scientists are yet looking for the missing link". Given that in Africa, they were an "ignorant and debased and debauched race" with a record of "barbarism, savagery, cannibalism and everything that is low and degrading", it was the "quintessence of folly" to believe that the black man should be placed on an equal footing with his white counterpart. Tillman "embraced segregation as divinely imperative".
Tillman told the Senate, "as governor of South Carolina, I proclaimed that, although I had taken the oath of office to support the law and enforce it, I would lead a mob to lynch any man, black or white, who ravished a woman, black or white." He told his colleagues, "I have three daughters, but, so help me God, I had rather find either one of them killed by a tiger or a bear [and die a virgin] than to have her crawl to me and tell me the horrid story that she had been robbed of the jewel of her womanhood by a black fiend." In 1907, he told the senators about the Ellenton riot of 1876, "it was then that we shot them; it was then that we killed them; it was then that we stuffed the ballot-boxes."
As South Carolina's economy changed in the early 20th century, with textile mills being built, Tillman complained that some African Americans were evading the supervision they would have on the farm, fearing the threat to white women. He admitted that it would be unjust to kill all of these workers, "because we might kill some innocent men, but we can keep them on the chain gang".
Legislative activities and re-elections
Tillman was an early and fervent backer of war with Spain in 1898. However, he opposed taking the Spanish colonies such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines, both because he considered it wrong to annex people to the United States without their consent, and out of opposition to adding territories with large numbers of non-whites. Tillman mocked the Republicans, most of whom supported annexation rather than self-determination, stating that it was that party that since 1860 had claimed "that all men, including the Negro, are free and equal," and was annoyed when they refused to admit their positions were inconsistent.
In 1906, Roosevelt backed the Hepburn Bill, imposing railroad regulation. Many Republicans initially wanted nothing to do with the bill, and Senate Republican leader Nelson Aldrich entrusted management of the bill to Tillman. Aldrich hoped the outspoken South Carolinian would cause the defeat of the bill. To Aldrich's surprise, Tillman soberly and competently conducted the bill through much of the legislative process. Tillman withdrew from the bill (though he voted for it) after Roosevelt got a provision for federal court review of agency decisions included, which Tillman opposed. The president and the southern senator ended on worse terms than before, but there was great public attention on the Hepburn Bill, and Tillman gained considerable respect for his role.
This activity caused a public reassessment of Tillman, who was best known for giving speeches that shocked the North and made even southerners cringe. Writers suggested he was merely presenting an image as "Pitchfork Ben", that he could turn on and off as needed. He came to be regarded in the North as acceptable and even respectable, with some suggesting he had matured during his time in the Senate. The Saturday Evening Post compared Tillman with a coconut; hard, rough, and shaggy on the outside, but within, "the milk of human kindness".
Tillman was the primary sponsor of the Tillman Act, the first federal campaign finance reform law, which was passed in 1907 and which banned corporate contributions in federal political campaigns. Justice Clarence Thomas has suggested that Tillman's motivation in introducing this legislation was to reduce the power of corporations which tended to favor Republicans and African Americans.
When Tillman entered the Senate in 1895, he was opposed to expansion of the United States Navy, fearing the expenditure would cause the issuance of bonds by the president, which he felt would only enrich the wealthy. Tillman sat on the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, and soon came to understand that South Carolina could benefit from naval appropriations steered towards her. A flow of federal funds to his home state resulted, beginning in 1900, followed by the establishment, in 1909, of the Charleston Naval Shipyard. Once Democrats took control of the Senate for the first time in Tillman's tenure, in 1913, he became chairman of the committee and allied with others from the southeast (such as Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels, a North Carolinian) to see that the bulk of naval appropriations would be spent there. In 1912 Tillman requested the US Navy determine the maximum size of battleship that could be produced. Over the next four years the Navy developed a series of designs, called the Tillman Battleship or Maximum battleship, that were significantly larger and more powerful than any battleship in service in the world. The Navy submitted the Tillman IV-2 design to Congress, but the US entry into World War I and the Washington Naval Treaty afterward put an end to such fantastic designs.
Tillman also served as chairman of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims (57th through 59th Congresses) and on the Committee on Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (61st and 62nd Congresses). Strokes in 1908 and 1910 decreased his influence and ability in the Senate; his seniority entitled him to become Senate Appropriations Committee chairman in 1913, but his health did not permit it.
President Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated in 1913, the first Democrat to hold the office since Cleveland. Tillman supported Wilson's legislation in the Senate, except on women's suffrage, where he was a strong opponent. He was uneasy when Wilson's Secretary of State, Bryan, tried to prevent war through treaty-making, describing the former presidential candidate as the "evangel of peace at any price". When the United States entered World War I, Tillman was a strong supporter, seeing the conflict as democratic nations against German "slaves ... and not free men at all". Although he urged vigilance against spies, once he was satisfied that the accusations against German-born Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken, president of the Federal Land Bank at Columbia, were unfounded, he spoke in support of the man.
Tillman had been re-elected in 1901 and 1907. By 1912, the Democratic nominee, who would be elected by the overwhelming Democratic majority in the legislature, was determined by a primary. A primary was also used for governor, and Tillman ran at the same time as Governor Cole Blease, who also sought re-election. Blease, also an outspoken white supremacist, had entered politics as a Tillmanite legislator in 1890, and breaking from him, adopted similar techniques to Tillman's to appeal to poor farm workers and mill hands. Tillman faced two opponents in his re-nomination bid—his control over South Carolina politics had deteriorated over the years, and he had moved towards the Conservatives. He had not endorsed Blease in 1910. The two men reached an agreement that Tillman would remain neutral in the governor's race in 1912, but Tillman became convinced Blease could not win against former state chief justice Ira B. Jones. Both sides claimed to have letters from Tillman endorsing their candidate, but three days before the primary, Tillman condemned Blease and endorsed Jones. Blease, outraged, alleged betrayal, accused Tillman of "insane jealousy", and said of the senator, "possibly his mind has become more diseased of late than it was when I had my last talk with his confidential physician". Both men were re-elected.
Final years and death
The Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, gave the people the right to elect senators, but this made little difference in South Carolina, where the Democratic primary remained decisive. Tillman in 1914 announced plans to retire when his term expired in 1919, but the war and the threat that Blease would win the open seat caused him to announce his candidacy for a fifth term in March 1918. Tillman remained for the most part in Washington, and did not campaign, but came to Columbia for the state Democratic convention in May to discredit rumors about his health, which was indeed poor. He got Wilson to persuade one of his rivals, Congressman Asbury F. Lever, to abandon the race, and considered how to do the same to Blease. These plans had not yet come to fruition when Tillman was stricken by a cerebral hemorrhage at the end of June, and died July 3, 1918, in Washington, D.C. He is buried in Ebenezer Cemetery, Trenton, South Carolina.
Tillman's death generated a large number of tributes to him in the Senate, which were afterwards collected in book form. One copy came into the hands of Blease, who was angry that Tillman was being lauded, and stated that the late senator was not what he had seemed. He wrote in front of the volume, "Don't believe me, but look up his life & see." When Manly, who had barely escaped the Wilmington Insurrection, read of his death in 1918, he said to his wife, "I wonder who is making hash out of him in hell tonight."
Legacy and historical view
According to Orville Burton, "Tillman's legacy for South Carolina and the nation is controversial and disturbing. White and black South Carolinians interpret Tillman's accomplishments in contradictory ways." A national hero to white supremacists, according to an article on Tillman for The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, "for African Americans, he was the 'devil incarnate. No African American was elected to Congress under the 1895 constitution until the Civil Rights Movement, nor were any elected to statewide or county office after 1900.
Simkins, a son of Edgefield, while recognizing faults in Tillman's racial policies, stated that "no South Carolinian, with the single exception of Calhoun, has ever made a profounder impression on his generation than Tillman." The late senator's supporters and protégés remained long in South Carolina, encouraging a view of Tillman as a great man in state and national history. James F. Byrnes, for example, repeated Tillman's themes of race war on the floor of the House of Representatives in 1919. In 1940, Byrnes, by then a senator and soon to sit on the U.S. Supreme Court, dedicated a statue of Tillman outside the South Carolina State House and called him the state's "first New Dealer". Protestors have since asked for that statue to be removed. Others who knew and at one time admired Tillman included Strom Thurmond, son of Tillman's Edgefield attorney, who saw and was inspired by Tillman's campaigning style as a boy. Other Southerners were highly negative: Lyndon B. Johnson said of Tillman, "He might have been president. I'd like to sit down with him and ask how it was to throw it away for the sake of hating."
Simkins noted that Tillman "rose above the handicap of his radical views, his obstreperousness, and the insularity of his issues to become a considerable force in national politics". Historian I. M. Newby deemed Tillmanism the closest thing to a mass movement in the history of white South Carolinians, and one that dominated the state for a generation. "To students of black history and racial equality its most striking features are the extent to which it expressed the desire of white Carolinians to dominate blacks and the fact that much of its unity and force derived from its antiblack racial policies." Tillman's movement took power from the Bourbon Democrats in South Carolina, but a greater price was paid, electorally and in lives, by African Americans.
In 1962, Main Building on the campus of Winthrop College was renamed Tillman Hall in his honor. On June 19, 2020, Winthrop University's Board of Trustees passed unanimously a resolution requesting South Carolina state legislators to consider amending the Heritage Act of 2000 to "allow Winthrop to restore Tillman Hall to its original name of Main Building." Clemson University also has a Tillman Hall, though efforts have been made to change the name, and on June 12, 2020, the university's board of trustees requested the legislature to authorize a name change back to "Main Building". Kantrowitz argued that Tillman deserves little credit for what have become important Southern schools, integrated and coeducational:
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
New social history; online edition
Krause, Kevin Michael. "A Different State of Mind: Ben Tillman and the Transformation of State Government in South Carolina, 1885–1895" (PhD. Diss. University of Georgia, 2014.) online
This is an expanded edition of Logan's 1954 book The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir, 1877–1901.
online edition
External links
"Their own Hotheadedness": Tillman speech in Senate advocating disenfranchisement of blacks and lynching of those who protested
1847 births
1918 deaths
Governors of South Carolina
United States senators from South Carolina
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Democratic Party United States senators
South Carolina Democrats
American people of English descent
Censured or reprimanded United States senators
19th-century American politicians
American politicians with physical disabilities
American white supremacists
American lynching defenders
Political violence in the United States
History of racism in the United States
People of the Reconstruction Era
People of the Philippine–American War
Clemson University trustees
University of South Carolina trustees
Wilmington insurrection of 1898
People from Trenton, South Carolina
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200644
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum%20battleship
|
Maximum battleship
|
The "Maximum Battleships", also known as the "Tillman Battleships", were a series of World War I-era design studies for extremely large battleships, prepared in late 1916 and early 1917 upon the order of Senator "Pitchfork" Benjamin Tillman by the Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R) of the United States Navy. The Navy was not interested in the designs and drew them up to win support from the Committee on Naval Affairs, on which Tillman sat. Nevertheless, they helped influence design work on the and first South Dakota classes of battleships. The plans prepared for the senator were preserved by C&R in the first of its "Spring Styles" books, where it kept various warship designs conceptualized between 1911 and 1925.
Context
During the years leading up to World War I, some members of the U.S. Congress were growing frustrated with what they perceived to be chronic overspending by the U.S. Navy on battleships. Senator Tillman had grown impatient with the U.S. Navy's requests for larger battleships every year as well as the Navy's habit of building battleships significantly larger than Congress authorized. He accordingly instructed the Navy to design "maximum battleships", the largest battleships that they could use.
The only limits on the potential size of an American battleship were the dimensions of the locks of the Panama Canal. The locks measure roughly , and so the "maximum battleships" were . The Panamax draft limit during the designing of these battleships was , however the Department of the Navy required that all designs be limited to only in draft.
Designs
Tillman's first request for designs of so-called "maximum battleship" in 1912–1913 was never completed. Though the studies resulting from that initial request had some influence on the design of the Pennsylvania class of battleships, that class was essentially just an enlargement of the preceding . In 1916, he repeated his request, and this time the Bureau of Construction and Repair produced a series of design studies, which again had some influence on the design of the next class of battleships: in this case the s, an enlargement of the previous .
4 design blueprints were then drawn up by the Bureau of Construction and Repair, with all four ships having varying characteristics despite being built on the same hull:
After the first four design studies were complete, Design IV was chosen for further development and three additional studies. Based upon Design IV, three additional designs were prepared: IV-1, IV-2, and IV-3. At the request of Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, these designs used guns instead of the 50-caliber guns used in the earlier studies. The navy decided that design IV-2 was the most practical (or perhaps the least impractical) and presented it to Congress early in 1917.
Comparisons to other US Navy Battleships
These designs differed from the battleships being built in two significant ways beyond just their size. Firstly, unlike preceding classes, the "maximum battleships" were designed with a continuous flush main deck. Most battleships in this era had a long forecastle deck. Secondly, the Tillman designs all included five casemate guns mounted aft, two on each side and one at the tip of the stern. Similar "stern chasers" had been previously mounted in Nevada, but were omitted from the . These casemates were a return to an older design idea; American battleship designers had abandoned hull-mounted casemates after the . They had transpired to be too "wet" – heavy seas rendered them unusable—and they had been removed from all earlier classes. However, the casemates on the "maximum battleships" would have been higher above the waterline than they had been on earlier designs, so it is possible that their huge size and flush decks would have provided enough freeboard astern to keep the casemates dry.
Fate of the Designed Battleships
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 limited naval armaments, causing the cancellation of the South Dakotas and halting all consideration of the "maximum battleships."
See also
Gavrilo battleship - Russian project (1914 year, 265/34,4/9,15 m, 16x406/45, 24x152/55, 30 knots)
References
External links
An extensive article about the Tillman battleships, including a look at possible designs for "Tillman battlecruisers.". Retrieved 5 May 2012
Tillman battleships entry at Global Security
Design for 80,000-ton battleship prepared by C&R for Senator Tillman, dated 29 December 1916, from U.S. Naval Historical Center. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
"Construction of battleships", includes the 1912 resolution
The Shipscribe article on the Bureau of Ships' "Spring Styles" Book # 1 (1911-1925). This specific webpage publicly preserves, among other things, the "maximum battleship" designs as digital photographs from the first "Spring Styles" US Navy catalog, and describes how they were presented therein. Quoting Shipscribe's About page: "The "Spring Styles" drawings were added on 26 April 2015... following the deletion of the Online Library of Selected Images from the web site of the Naval History and Heritage Command."
World War I battleships of the United States
Battleships
Battleships of the United States Navy
Benjamin Tillman
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective%20breeding
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Selective breeding
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Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant males and females will sexually reproduce and have offspring together. Domesticated animals are known as breeds, normally bred by a professional breeder, while domesticated plants are known as varieties, cultigens, cultivars, or breeds. Two purebred animals of different breeds produce a crossbreed, and crossbred plants are called hybrids. Flowers, vegetables and fruit-trees may be bred by amateurs and commercial or non-commercial professionals: major crops are usually the provenance of the professionals.
In animal breeding, techniques such as inbreeding, linebreeding, and outcrossing are utilized. In plant breeding, similar methods are used. Charles Darwin discussed how selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time in his 1859 book, On the Origin of Species. Its first chapter discusses selective breeding and domestication of such animals as pigeons, cats, cattle, and dogs. Darwin used artificial selection as a springboard to introduce and support the theory of natural selection.
The deliberate exploitation of selective breeding to produce desired results has become very common in agriculture and experimental biology.
Selective breeding can be unintentional, e.g., resulting from the process of human cultivation; and it may also produce unintended – desirable or undesirable – results. For example, in some grains, an increase in seed size may have resulted from certain ploughing practices rather than from the intentional selection of larger seeds. Most likely, there has been an interdependence between natural and artificial factors that have resulted in plant domestication.
History
Selective breeding of both plants and animals has been practiced since early prehistory; key species such as wheat, rice, and dogs have been significantly different from their wild ancestors for millennia, and maize, which required especially large changes from teosinte, its wild form, was selectively bred in Mesoamerica. Selective breeding was practiced by the Romans. Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, and these ancient works cite still older authorities, such as Mago the Carthaginian. The notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the Persian Muslim polymath Abu Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled India, which included various examples.
Selective breeding was established as a scientific practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. Arguably, his most important breeding program was with sheep. Using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool was improved by Bakewell, and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New (or Dishley) Leicester. It was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines.
These sheep were exported widely, including to Australia and North America, and have contributed to numerous modern breeds, despite the fact that they fell quickly out of favor as market preferences in meat and textiles changed. Bloodlines of these original New Leicesters survive today as the English Leicester (or Leicester Longwool), which is primarily kept for wool production.
Bakewell was also the first to breed cattle to be used primarily for beef. Previously, cattle were first and foremost kept for pulling ploughs as oxen, but he crossed long-horned heifers and a Westmoreland bull to eventually create the Dishley Longhorn. As more and more farmers followed his lead, farm animals increased dramatically in size and quality. In 1700, the average weight of a bull sold for slaughter was 370 pounds (168 kg). By 1786, that weight had more than doubled to 840 pounds (381 kg). However, after his death, the Dishley Longhorn was replaced with short-horn versions.
He also bred the Improved Black Cart horse, which later became the Shire horse.
Charles Darwin coined the term 'selective breeding'; he was interested in the process as an illustration of his proposed wider process of natural selection. Darwin noted that many domesticated animals and plants had special properties that were developed by intentional animal and plant breeding from individuals that showed desirable characteristics, and discouraging the breeding of individuals with less desirable characteristics.
Darwin used the term "artificial selection" twice in the 1859 first edition of his work On the Origin of Species, in Chapter IV: Natural Selection, and in Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory:
Animal breeding
Animals with homogeneous appearance, behavior, and other characteristics are known as particular breeds or pure breeds, and they are bred through culling animals with particular traits and selecting for further breeding those with other traits. Purebred animals have a single, recognizable breed, and purebreds with recorded lineage are called pedigreed. Crossbreeds are a mix of two purebreds, whereas mixed breeds are a mix of several breeds, often unknown. Animal breeding begins with breeding stock, a group of animals used for the purpose of planned breeding. When individuals are looking to breed animals, they look for certain valuable traits in purebred stock for a certain purpose, or may intend to use some type of crossbreeding to produce a new type of stock with different, and, it is presumed, superior abilities in a given area of endeavor. For example, to breed chickens, a breeder typically intends to receive eggs, meat, and new, young birds for further reproduction. Thus, the breeder has to study different breeds and types of chickens and analyze what can be expected from a certain set of characteristics before he or she starts breeding them. Therefore, when purchasing initial breeding stock, the breeder seeks a group of birds that will most closely fit the purpose intended.
Purebred breeding aims to establish and maintain stable traits, that animals will pass to the next generation. By "breeding the best to the best," employing a certain degree of inbreeding, considerable culling, and selection for "superior" qualities, one could develop a bloodline superior in certain respects to the original base stock. Such animals can be recorded with a breed registry, the organization that maintains pedigrees and/or stud books. However, single-trait breeding, breeding for only one trait over all others, can be problematic. In one case mentioned by animal behaviorist Temple Grandin, roosters bred for fast growth or heavy muscles did not know how to perform typical rooster courtship dances, which alienated the roosters from hens and led the roosters to kill the hens after mating with them. A Soviet attempt to breed lab rats with higher intelligence led to cases of neurosis severe enough to make the animals incapable of any problem solving unless drugs like phenazepam were used.
The observable phenomenon of hybrid vigor stands in contrast to the notion of breed purity. However, on the other hand, indiscriminate breeding of crossbred or hybrid animals may also result in degradation of quality. Studies in evolutionary physiology, behavioral genetics, and other areas of organismal biology have also made use of deliberate selective breeding, though longer generation times and greater difficulty in breeding can make these projects challenging in such vertebrates as house mice.
Plant breeding
Plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of wild plants into uniform and predictable agricultural cultigens. High-yielding varieties have been particularly important in agriculture.
Selective plant breeding is also used in research to produce transgenic animals that breed "true" (i.e., are homozygous) for artificially inserted or deleted genes.
Selective breeding in aquaculture
Selective breeding in aquaculture holds high potential for the genetic improvement of fish and shellfish. Unlike terrestrial livestock, the potential benefits of selective breeding in aquaculture were not realized until recently. This is because high mortality led to the selection of only a few broodstock, causing inbreeding depression, which then forced the use of wild broodstock. This was evident in selective breeding programs for growth rate, which resulted in slow growth and high mortality.
Control of the reproduction cycle was one of the main reasons as it is a requisite for selective breeding programs. Artificial reproduction was not achieved because of the difficulties in hatching or feeding some farmed species such as eel and yellowtail farming.
A suspected reason associated with the late realisation of success in selective breeding programs in aquaculture was the education of the concerned people – researchers, advisory personnel and fish farmers. The education of fish biologists paid less attention to quantitative genetics and breeding plans.
Another was the failure of documentation of the genetic gains in successive generations. This in turn led to failure in quantifying economic benefits that successful selective breeding programs produce. Documentation of the genetic changes was considered important as they help in fine tuning further selection schemes.
Quality traits in aquaculture
Aquaculture species are reared for particular traits such as growth rate, survival rate, meat quality, resistance to diseases, age at sexual maturation, fecundity, shell traits like shell size, shell colour, etc.
Growth rate – growth rate is normally measured as either body weight or body length. This trait is of great economic importance for all aquaculture species as faster growth rate speeds up the turnover of production. Improved growth rates show that farmed animals utilize their feed more efficiently through a positive correlated response.
Survival rate – survival rate may take into account the degrees of resistance to diseases. This may also see the stress response as fish under stress are highly vulnerable to diseases. The stress fish experience could be of biological, chemical or environmental influence.
Meat quality – the quality of fish is of great economic importance in the market. Fish quality usually takes into account size, meatiness, and percentage of fat, colour of flesh, taste, shape of the body, ideal oil and omega-3 content.
Age at sexual maturation – The age of maturity in aquaculture species is another very important attribute for farmers as during early maturation the species divert all their energy to gonad production affecting growth and meat production and are more susceptible to health problems (Gjerde 1986).
Fecundity – As the fecundity in fish and shellfish is usually high it is not considered as a major trait for improvement. However, selective breeding practices may consider the size of the egg and correlate it with survival and early growth rate.
Finfish response to selection
Salmonids
Gjedrem (1979) showed that selection of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) led to an increase in body weight by 30% per generation. A comparative study on the performance of select Atlantic salmon with wild fish was conducted by AKVAFORSK Genetics Centre in Norway. The traits, for which the selection was done included growth rate, feed consumption, protein retention, energy retention, and feed conversion efficiency. Selected fish had a twice better growth rate, a 40% higher feed intake, and an increased protein and energy retention. This led to an overall 20% better Fed Conversion Efficiency as compared to the wild stock. Atlantic salmon have also been selected for resistance to bacterial and viral diseases. Selection was done to check resistance to Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV). The results showed 66.6% mortality for low-resistant species whereas the high-resistant species showed 29.3% mortality compared to wild species.
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) was reported to show large improvements in growth rate after 7–10 generations of selection. Kincaid et al. (1977) showed that growth gains by 30% could be achieved by selectively breeding rainbow trout for three generations. A 7% increase in growth was recorded per generation for rainbow trout by Kause et al. (2005).
In Japan, high resistance to IPNV in rainbow trout has been achieved by selectively breeding the stock. Resistant strains were found to have an average mortality of 4.3% whereas 96.1% mortality was observed in a highly sensitive strain.
Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) increase in weight was found to be more than 60% after four generations of selective breeding. In Chile, Neira et al. (2006) conducted experiments on early spawning dates in coho salmon. After selectively breeding the fish for four generations, spawning dates were 13–15 days earlier.
Cyprinids
Selective breeding programs for the Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) include improvement in growth, shape and resistance to disease. Experiments carried out in the USSR used crossings of broodstocks to increase genetic diversity and then selected the species for traits like growth rate, exterior traits and viability, and/or adaptation to environmental conditions like variations in temperature. Kirpichnikov et al. (1974) and Babouchkine (1987) selected carp for fast growth and tolerance to cold, the Ropsha carp. The results showed a 30–40% to 77.4% improvement of cold tolerance but did not provide any data for growth rate. An increase in growth rate was observed in the second generation in Vietnam. Moav and Wohlfarth (1976) showed positive results when selecting for slower growth for three generations compared to selecting for faster growth. Schaperclaus (1962) showed resistance to the dropsy disease wherein selected lines suffered low mortality (11.5%) compared to unselected (57%).
Channel Catfish
Growth was seen to increase by 12–20% in selectively bred Iictalurus punctatus. More recently, the response of the Channel Catfish to selection for improved growth rate was found to be approximately 80%, i.e., an average of 13% per generation.
Shellfish response to selection
Oysters
Selection for live weight of Pacific oysters showed improvements ranging from 0.4% to 25.6% compared to the wild stock. Sydney-rock oysters (Saccostrea commercialis) showed a 4% increase after one generation and a 15% increase after two generations. Chilean oysters (Ostrea chilensis), selected for improvement in live weight and shell length showed a 10–13% gain in one generation.
Bonamia ostrea is a protistan parasite that causes catastrophic losses (nearly 98%) in European flat oyster Ostrea edulis L. This protistan parasite is endemic to three oyster-regions in Europe. Selective breeding programs show that O. edulis susceptibility to the infection differs across oyster strains in Europe. A study carried out by Culloty et al. showed that ‘Rossmore' oysters in Cork harbour, Ireland had better resistance compared to other Irish strains. A selective breeding program at Cork harbour uses broodstock from 3– to 4-year-old survivors and is further controlled until a viable percentage reaches market size.
Over the years ‘Rossmore' oysters have shown to develop lower prevalence of B. ostreae infection and percentage mortality. Ragone Calvo et al. (2003) selectively bred the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, for resistance against co-occurring parasites Haplosporidium nelson (MSX) and Perkinsus marinus (Dermo). They achieved dual resistance to the disease in four generations of selective breeding. The oysters showed higher growth and survival rates and low susceptibility to the infections. At the end of the experiment, artificially selected C. virginica showed a 34–48% higher survival rate.
Penaeid shrimps
Selection for growth in Penaeid shrimps yielded successful results. A selective breeding program for Litopenaeus stylirostris saw an 18% increase in growth after the fourth generation and 21% growth after the fifth generation. Marsupenaeus japonicas showed a 10.7% increase in growth after the first generation. Argue et al. (2002) conducted a selective breeding program on the Pacific White Shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei at The Oceanic Institute, Waimanalo, USA from 1995 to 1998. They reported significant responses to selection compared to the unselected control shrimps. After one generation, a 21% increase was observed in growth and 18.4% increase in survival to TSV. The Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV) causes mortalities of 70% or more in shrimps. C.I. Oceanos S.A. in Colombia selected the survivors of the disease from infected ponds and used them as parents for the next generation. They achieved satisfying results in two or three generations wherein survival rates approached levels before the outbreak of the disease. The resulting heavy losses (up to 90%) caused by Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) caused a number of shrimp farming industries started to selectively breed shrimps resistant to this disease. Successful outcomes led to development of Super Shrimp, a selected line of L. stylirostris that is resistant to IHHNV infection. Tang et al. (2000) confirmed this by showing no mortalities in IHHNV- challenged Super Shrimp post larvae and juveniles.
Aquatic species versus terrestrial livestock
Selective breeding programs for aquatic species provide better outcomes compared to terrestrial livestock. This higher response to selection of aquatic farmed species can be attributed to the following:
High fecundity in both sexes fish and shellfish enabling higher selection intensity.
Large phenotypic and genetic variation in the selected traits.
Selective breeding in aquaculture provide remarkable economic benefits to the industry, the primary one being that it reduces production costs due to faster turnover rates. This is because of faster growth rates, decreased maintenance rates, increased energy and protein retention, and better feed efficiency. Applying such genetic improvement program to aquaculture species will increase productivity to meet the increasing demands of growing populations.
Advantages and disadvantages
Selective breeding is a direct way to determine if a specific trait can evolve in response to selection. A single-generation method of breeding is not as accurate or direct. The process is also more practical and easier to understand than sibling analysis. Selective breeding is better for traits such as physiology and behavior that are hard to measure because it requires fewer individuals to test than single-generation testing.
However, there are disadvantages to this process. Because a single experiment done in selective breeding cannot be used to assess an entire group of genetic variances, individual experiments must be done for every individual trait. Also, because of the necessity of selective breeding experiments to require maintaining the organisms tested in a lab or greenhouse, it is impractical to use this breeding method on many organisms. Controlled mating instances are difficult to carry out in this case and this is a necessary component of selective breeding.
See also
Animal breeding
Animal husbandry
Breed registry
Breeding back
Captive breeding
Culling
Eugenics
Experimental evolution
Gene pool
Genetic engineering
Genomics of domestication
Inbreeding
Marker-assisted selection
Mutation breeding
Natural selection
Plant breeding
Serial passage
Quantitative genetics
Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction
Smart breeding
References
Bibliography
Further reading
FAO. 2007. The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources and the Interlaken Declaration. Rome.
FAO. 2015. The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome.
External links
The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources
Biotechnology
Selection
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200655
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight-four%20engine
|
Straight-four engine
|
A straight-four engine (also called an inline-four) is a four-cylinder piston engine where cylinders are arranged in a line along a common crankshaft.
The vast majority of automotive four-cylinder engines use a straight-four layout (with the exceptions of the flat-four engines produced by Subaru and Porsche) and the layout is also very common in motorcycles and other machinery. Therefore the term "four-cylinder engine" is usually synonymous with straight-four engines. Most examples use liquid coolant to manage heat accumulation while air-cooled examples are also manufactured.
Between 2005 and 2008, the proportion of new vehicles sold in the United States with four-cylinder engines rose from 30% to 47%. By the 2020 model year, the share for light-duty vehicles had risen to 59%.
Design
A four-stroke straight-four engine always has a cylinder on its power stroke, unlike engines with fewer cylinders where there is no power stroke occurring at certain times. Compared with a V4 engine or a flat-four engine, a straight-four engine only has one cylinder head, which reduces complexity and production cost.
When a straight-four engine is installed at an inclined angle (instead of with the cylinders oriented vertically), it is sometimes called a slant-four.
Displacement
Petrol straight-four engines used in modern production cars typically have a displacement of , however larger engines have been used in the past, for example the 1927-1931 Bentley 4½ Litre.
Diesel engines have been produced in larger displacements, such as a 3.2 L turbocharged Mitsubishi engine (used the Pajero/Shogun/Montero SUV) and a 3.0 L Toyota engine. European and Asian trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes typically use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 litres. Larger displacements are found in locomotive, marine and stationary engines.
Displacement can also be very small, as found in kei cars sold in Japan. Several of these engines had four cylinders at a time when regulations dictated a maximum displacement of 550 cc; the maximum size is currently at 660 cc.
Primary and secondary balance
Straight-four engines with the preferred crankshaft configuration have perfect primary balance. This is because the pistons are moving in pairs, and one pair of pistons is always moving up at the same time as the other pair is moving down.
However, straight-four engines have a secondary imbalance. This is caused by the acceleration/deceleration of the pistons during the top half of the crankshaft rotation being greater than that of the pistons in the bottom half of the crankshaft rotation (because the connecting rods are not infinitely long). As a result, two pistons are always accelerating faster in one direction, while the other two are accelerating more slowly in the other direction, which leads to a secondary dynamic imbalance that causes an up-and-down vibration at twice crankshaft speed. This imbalance is common among all piston engines, but the effect is particularly strong on inline-four because of the two pistons always moving together.
The strength of this imbalance is determined by the reciprocating mass, the ratio of connecting rod length to stroke, and the peak piston velocity. Therefore, small displacement engines with light pistons show little effect, and racing engines use long connecting rods. However, the effect grows exponentially with engine speed (rpm).
Pulsations in power delivery
Four-stroke engines with five or more cylinders are able to have at least one cylinder performing its power stroke at any given point in time. However, four-cylinder engines have gaps in the power delivery, since each cylinder completes its power stroke before the next piston starts a new power stroke. This pulsating delivery of power results in more vibrations than engines with more than four cylinders.
Usage of balance shafts
A balance shaft system is sometimes used to reduce the vibrations created by a straight-four engine, most often in engines with larger displacements. The balance shaft system was invented in 1911 and consists of two shafts carrying identical eccentric weights that rotate in opposite directions at twice the crankshaft's speed. This system was patented by Mitsubishi Motors in the 1970s and has since been used under licence by several other companies.
Not all large displacement straight-four engines have used balance shafts, however. Examples of relatively large engines without balance shafts include the 2.4 litre Citroën DS engine, the 2.6 litre Austin-Healey 100 engine, the 3.3 L Ford Model A (1927) engine and the 2.5 L GM Iron Duke engine. Soviet/Russian GAZ Volga and UAZ engines with displacements of up to 2.9 litres were produced without balance shafts from the 1950s to the 1990s, however these were relatively low-revving engines which reduces the need for a balance shaft system.
Usage in production cars
Most modern straight-four engines used in cars have a displacement of . The smallest automotive straight-four engine was used in the 1963–1967 Honda T360 kei truck and has a displacement of , while the largest mass-produced straight-four car engine is the 1999–2019 Mitsubishi 4M41 diesel engine which was used in the Mitsubishi Pajero and has a displacement of .
Significant straight-four car engines include:
1954–1994 Alfa Romeo Twin Cam engine: one of the first mass-produced twin-cam engines. In 1990, it became the first production engine with variable valve timing.
1908–1941 Ford Model T engine: one of the most widely produced engines in the world.
1951–2000 BMC A-Series engine: the first engine to be used in a mass-production transverse-engined front-wheel drive car.
1966–2000 Fiat Twin Cam engine: one of the first mass-produced twin-cam engines, produced from 1959.
1968–1981 Triumph Slant-4 engine: an early multi-valve engine which formed the basis of Saab's first turbocharged engines.
2000–2009 Honda F20C engine: produced the highest specific output for a naturally aspirated engine of its time.
Usage in racing cars
Many early racing cars used straight-four engines, however the Peugeot engine which won the 1913 Indianapolis 500 was a highly influential engine. Designed by Ernest Henry, this engine had double overhead camshafts (DOHC) with four valves per cylinder, a layout that would become the standard until today for racing inline-four engines.
Amongst the engines inspired by the Peugeot design was the Miller engine, which was a successful racing engine through the 1920s and early 1930s. The Miller engine evolved into the Offenhauser engine which had a highly successful spanning from the 1933 until 1981, including five straight victories at the Indianapolis 500 from 1971 to 1976.
Many cars produced for the pre-WWII voiturette Grand Prix motor racing category used inline-four engine designs. 1.5 L supercharged engines found their way into cars such as the Maserati 4CL and various English Racing Automobiles (ERA) models. These were resurrected after the war, and formed the foundation of what was later to become Formula One, although the straight-eight supercharged Alfettas would dominate the early years of F1.
Another engine that played an important role in racing history is the straight-four Ferrari engine designed by Aurelio Lampredi. This engine was originally designed as a 2 L Formula 2 engine for the Ferrari 500, but evolved to 2.5 L to compete in Formula One in the Ferrari 625. For sports car racing, capacity was increased up to 3.4 L for the Ferrari 860 Monza.
The Coventry Climax straight-four engine was also a very successful racing engine, which began life as a 1.5 litre Formula 2 engine. Enlarged to 2.0 litres for Formula One in 1958, it evolved into the large 2,495 cc FPF that won the Formula One championship in Cooper's chassis in 1959 and 1960.
In Formula One, the 1980s were dominated by the 1,500 cc turbocharged cars. The BMW M12/13 engine was notable for the era for its high boost pressures and performance. The cast iron block was based on a standard road car block and powered the F1 cars of Brabham, Arrows and Benetton and won the world championship in 1983. The 1986 version of the engine was said to produce about in qualifying trim.
Usage in motorcycles
Belgian arms manufacturer FN Herstal, which had been making motorcycles since 1901, began producing the first motorcycles with inline-fours in 1905. The FN Four had its engine mounted upright with the crankshaft longitudinal. Other manufacturers that used this layout included Pierce, Henderson, Ace, Cleveland, and Indian in the United States, Nimbus in Denmark, Windhoff in Germany, and Wilkinson in the United Kingdom.
The first across-the-frame 4-cylinder motorcycle was the 1939 racer Gilera 500 Rondine, it also had double-over-head camshafts, forced-inducting supercharger and was liquid-cooled. Modern inline-four motorcycle engines first became popular with Honda's SOHC CB750 introduced in 1969, and others followed in the 1970s. Since then, the inline-four has become one of the most common engine configurations in street bikes. Outside of the cruiser category, the inline-four is the most common configuration because of its relatively high performance-to-cost ratio. All major Japanese motorcycle manufacturers offer motorcycles with inline-four engines, as do MV Agusta and BMW. BMW's earlier inline-four motorcycles were mounted horizontally along the frame, but all current four-cylinder BMW motorcycles have transverse engines. The modern Triumph company has offered inline-four-powered motorcycles, though they were discontinued in favour of triples.
The 2009 Yamaha R1 has an inline-four engine that does not fire at even intervals of 180°. Instead, it uses a crossplane crankshaft that prevents the pistons from simultaneously reaching top dead centre. This results in better secondary balance, which is particularly beneficial in the higher rpm range, and "big-bang firing order" theory says the irregular delivery of torque to the rear tire makes sliding in the corners at racing speeds easier to control.
Inline-four engines are also used in MotoGP by the Suzuki (since 2015) and Yamaha (since 2002) teams. In 2010, when the four-stroke Moto2 class was introduced, the engines for the class were a inline-four engine made by Honda based on the CBR600RR with a maximum power output of . Starting in 2019, the engines were replaced by a Triumph triple engine.
See also
Flat-four engine
V4 engine
References
External links
4
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight-six%20engine
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Straight-six engine
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The straight-six engine (also referred to as an inline-six engine; abbreviated I6 or L6) is an internal combustion engine, with six cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft (straight engine).
The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined away from the vertical, the engine is sometimes called a slant-six (although this is also a Chrysler-specific design). The straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders.
Design
Displacement range
In automobiles, the straight-six design is used for engine displacements ranging from approximately . It is also sometimes used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running, tend to be rather expensive to manufacture in terms of cost-to-power ratio. Since the length of an engine is roughly proportional to the number of cylinders in one bank, the straight-six is necessarily longer than alternative layouts such as I4, V4, V6, or V8.
One of the smallest production straight-sixes was found in the Benelli 750 Sei motorcycle, displacing . Honda and Mike Hailwood raced in the 1960s with the RC166 six-cylinder, 24-valve motorcycle engine. Pre-World War II engines could be quite large by modern standards – such as the Rolls Royce Silver Ghost's engine and the of the 1910s Peerless, Pierce, and Fageol. In 1910, the Oldsmobile Limited was introduced with a T-head engine that displaced , and in 1911 the displacement was increased to . In 1911 the Renault 40CV installed a engine that was upgraded in 1920 to and remained in production until 1928.
The largest modern passenger-car straight-sixes include the VAM version of AMC's engines, the powerplants found in several Jaguars and AMCs, 4.0 TVR Speed Six, 4.0 Ford Barra, Chevrolet 250, Chevrolet Vortec 4200, 4.3 Chrysler Hemi Six, 4.2 Toyota Land Cruiser (both diesel and petrol), 4.5, and 4.8 Nissan, 4.8 Chevrolet, 4.9 Ford, and the 5.0 L of Hudson H-145 (produced until 1957). As of 2009, the Cummins B Series engine used in Dodge Ram pickup trucks displaced up to
The Gipsy Six and Gipsy Queen, made by the de Havilland Engine Company from 1935 until 1950, were inverted straight-six engines displacing . They were used in a variety of aircraft including the de Havilland Dragon Rapide and the Cierva W.9 experimental helicopter. The standard straight-six configuration World War I aviation engines used by the German Empire's Luftstreitkräfte aircraft possessed even larger displacements, with the most-used Mercedes D.III family of liquid-cooled, dual ignition, SOHC-valvetrain inline-six engines having a massive .
Because it is a fully balanced configuration, the straight-six can be scaled up to very large sizes for heavy trucks, locomotives, industrial and marine use, such as the Volvo diesel engine and the Cummins ISX used in heavy vehicles. The largest are used to power ships, and use fuel oil. The straight-six can also be viewed as a scalable modular component of larger motors which stack several straight-sixes together, e.g. flat- or V-12s, W-18s, etc.
Balance and smoothness
An inline six engine is in practically perfect primary and secondary mechanical balance, without the use of a balance shaft. The engine is in primary couple balance because the front and rear trio of cylinders are mirror images, and the pistons move in pairs (but of course, 360° out of phase and on different strokes of the 4-stroke cycle). That is, piston #1 mirrors #6, #2 mirrors #5, and #3 mirrors #4, largely eliminating the polar rocking motion that would otherwise result.
Secondary imbalance is largely avoided because the crankshaft has six crank throws arranged in three planes offset at 120°. The result is that the bulk of the secondary forces that are caused by the pistons' deviation from purely sinusoidal motion sum to zero. Specifically, the second-order (twice crank speed) and fourth-order inertial free forces (see engine balance article) sum to zero, but the sixth-order and up are non-zero. This is typically a tiny contribution in most applications, but may be significant with very large displacements, despite the usual and advantageous use of long connecting rods reducing the secondary (second-order and up) oscillation in the piston motion in those applications.
An inline four cylinder, or even a V6 engine with a crank-speed balance shaft, will experience significant secondary dynamic imbalance, resulting in engine vibration. As a general rule, the forces arising from any dynamic imbalance increase as the square of the engine speed – for example, if the speed doubles, vibration will increase by a factor of four. In contrast, inline six engines have no primary or (significant) secondary imbalances, and with carefully designed crankshaft vibration dampers to absorb torsional vibration, will run more smoothly at the same crankshaft speed (rpm). This characteristic has made the straight-six popular in some European sports-luxury cars, where smooth high-speed performance is very desirable. As engine reciprocating forces increase with the cube of piston bore, the straight-six is a preferred configuration for large truck engines.
Inertial torque
One other aspect that affects drivetrain smoothness is the variation in rotational speed arising from the sharing of piston kinetic energy amongst the different phases. There are only three piston phases in a four stroke inline six and, whilst the nature of the piston motion can never result in a 3rd-order imbalance (the pistons have no oscillation at that rate), it does appear in the kinetic energy exchange between the pistons and crankshaft (mathematically because of the squaring of velocity resulting in a specific intermodulation of frequencies). This means that a constant kinetic energy level for the rotating and reciprocating masses will result in the flywheel rotation speeding up and slowing down three times per revolution. This will in turn result in a cyclic so-called inertial torque being overlaid onto the combustion torque output from the crankshaft, which also has three pulses per revolution.
It is still a marked improvement on the inline four, whose pistons stop and start all at the same time, and is an improvement the inline-six shares with the inline-three it is also the motivation for Yamaha's adoption of the cross-plane crank in its YZF-R1 motorcycle, with four unique piston phases. Inertial torque is typically of concern only in extreme situations, i.e. high reciprocating mass and / or high engine speed. It can however affect low-speed running and flywheel sizing in any case.
Two-stroke engines
An even-firing six cylinder two-stroke engine requires ignitions at 60° intervals or else it would run with simultaneous ignitions and be no smoother than a triple in power delivery. As such, it also requires crank throws at 60° such designs appear to have been limited to Diesels such as the Detroit 71 series and some marine engines, as well as outboard motors.
Some of the 120 possible crankshaft configurations have useful properties, but all of them have a rocking imbalance of some kind which may or may not require a balance shaft, depending on the application. This is because the six pistons with six unique phases cannot be "paired" as in the four-stroke case. The Detroit engines used a configuration that, once the primary rocking couple was balanced out, was also perfectly balanced at all other rocking couples until 6th-order. Mercury came to use a configuration that canceled only the primary rocking couple and was run without a balancer.
The reciprocating masses of all configurations are still imbalanced at only 6th-order and up in their plane of motion, but the balance of kinetic energy exchange between pistons has improved to a residual 6th-order-and-up inertial torque oscillation compared with the four-stroke design being imbalanced at 3rd-order and up.
Crankshaft
Crankshafts on six-cylinder engines generally have either four or seven main bearings. Larger engines and diesels tend to use seven bearings because of high loadings and to avoid crankshaft flex. Because of the six-cylinder engine's smooth characteristic, there is a tendency for a driver to load the engine at low engine speeds. This can produce crankshaft flex in four main bearing designs where the crank spans the distance of two cylinders between main bearings. This distance is longer than the distance between two adjacent main bearings on a V6 with four mains, because the V6 has cylinder bores on opposite banks which overlap significantly; the overlap may be as high as 100%, minus the width of one connecting rod (1.00" or so). In addition, modern high-compression engines subject the crankshaft to greater bending loads from higher peak gas pressures, requiring the crankthrows to have greater support from adjacent bearings, so it is now customary to design straight-sixes with seven main bearings.
Many of the more sporty high-performance engines use the four bearing design because of better torsional stiffness (e.g., BMW small straight 6, Ford's Zephyr 6). The accumulated length of main bearing journals gives a relatively torsionally flexible crankshaft. The four main bearing design has only six crank throws and four main journals, so is much stiffer in the torsional domain. At high engine speeds, the lack of torsional stiffness can make the seven main bearing design susceptible to torsional flex and potential breakage. Another factor affecting large straight-six engines is the end-mounted timing chain which connects any camshafts to the crankshaft. The camshafts are also quite long and subject to torsional flex as they in turn operate valves alternately near the front of the engine and near the rear. At high engine speeds, camshafts can flex torsionally in addition to the crankshaft, contributing to valve timing for the cylinders furthest from the cam drive becoming inaccurate and erratic, losing power, and in extreme cases resulting in mechanical interference between valve and piston – with catastrophic results. Some designers have experimented with installing the timing chain/gears in the middle of the engine (between cylinders 3 and 4) or adding a second timing chain at the rear of the engine. Either method can solve the problem at the cost of additional complexity.
Another factor reducing the ability of the large six-cylinder engines to achieve high speed is the simple geometric reality of a relatively long stroke (undersquare) design. A straight-six is a long engine, and the designer is usually encouraged to make it as short as possible, while height is not usually a problem. Hence, the tendency to use a longer stroke and smaller bore than in a V engine to achieve a given capacity. By contrast, a long-stroke V engine tends to become too wide, which encourages increasing the bore rather than the stroke to increase displacement. The typically longer stroke of the straight-six increases crank throw and piston speed, and so tends to reduce the rpm rating of the engine.
Usage in cars
The first inline six was produced by Spyker in 1903. By 1909, there were about eighty manufacturers using it, 62 in Britain alone, including Darracq, Delaunay-Bellville, Vertex, MMC, White and Poppe, Mutel, and Ford.
Straight-six engines were introduced much earlier than V6 engines. While the first straight-six was manufactured in 1903 by Spyker, it was not until 1950 that a production V6 was introduced. V6s (unlike crossplane V8 engines) had intrinsic vibration problems not present in the straight-six.
The length of the straight-six was not a major concern in the older front-engine/rear-wheel drive vehicles, but the modern move to the more space-efficient front-engine/front-wheel drive and transverse engine (left-to-right versus front-to-back) in smaller cars made the length of the V6 a major advantage. The overall length of an engine may be approximated by adding the bore pitch times the number of cylinders in one bank, plus the width of one connecting rod. As a result, in recent decades automobile manufacturers have replaced most of their straight-six engines (and many of their V8s) with V6 engines; Nissan have replaced their earlier turbocharged inline-6 models with larger displacement naturally aspirated V6 engines while maintaining the FR setup.
Exceptions to the shift to V engines include BMW, which specializes in high-performance straight-sixes used in a lineup of front-engine/rear-wheel-drive vehicles, all of BMW's current 6-cylinder model line-up use the straight configuration, Volvo, which designed a compact straight-six engine/transmission package to fit transversely in its larger cars, and the Australian Ford Falcon, which still used a straight-six configuration prior to its demise in 2016. TVR used a straight-six configuration exclusively in their final cars before their demise. In a reversal of previous trends, Mercedes-Benz announced a return to inline-6 engines in October 2016.
Daewoo used a transverse I6 in the Magnus and Tosca midsize sedans, the former being sold in the United States as the Suzuki Verona and in Canada as the Chevrolet Epica.
Manufacturers began to replace V8 engines with straight-6 engines and V6 engines with straight-4 engines, while V8 engines became smaller. This was a part of a trend toward higher efficiency engines with fewer cylinders, but the same power output as previous larger engines as fuel economy standards became more stringent. A result of modular engine designs was that straight-6 engines could be built on the same assembly lines as straight-4 engines, while V8 engines smaller than previous V8s could be built with the same components as straight-4 engines in the same family.
Increasingly straight-six engines are also being replaced by turbocharged in-line four cylinder engines that offer comparable top-end power output and reduced low-end torque but with better fuel efficiency, due to smaller displacements and lower friction from the reduced number of cylinders. The poor secondary harmonic balance of straight four-cylinder engines is sometimes addressed with the use of balance shafts, but they are not inherently as smooth as an inline-6.
Europe
Alfa Romeo produced possibly the first European straight-six engine for the 1921-1923 Alfa Romeo G1 luxury car, which was powered by a 6.3 litre flathead engine. Alfa's straight-six engines evolved into the overhead valve design used by the 1922-1927 Alfa Romeo RL and the overhead camshaft engines used in various Alfa Romeo 6C road cars and racing cars 1927-1954. The last Alfa Romeo model using a straight-six was the 1961-1969 Alfa Romeo 2600 (1961–1969), before the company switched to V6 engines due to their shorter length and the torsional problems experienced in the long crankshafts of the Alfa straight-six engines.
Opel began production of automotive straight-six engines in 1927 with a 1.8 litre flathead engine used by the Opel 8/40 PS. The displacement of this engine was expanded as it was used in later models such as the Opel Kapitän and Opel Admiral, with later versions switching to an overhead valve (pushrod) design. In 1968, the straight-six versions of the Opel CIH engine were introduced, initially using a single overhead camshaft (SOHC) with some later versions using double overhead camshafts (DOHC). Production of the Opel CIH engine continued until 1993, when it was replaced by a V6 engine.
Mercedes-Benz's history of straight-six engines began with the 1913 Mercedes D.I aircraft engine. The first automotive straight-six engine was the 1924-2929 Daimler M836 3.9 litre engine. Following World War 2, Mercedes resumed production of straight-six engines with the Mercedes-Benz M180 SOHC engine, which was produced from 1951 to 1985. Following that introduction, the company produced two lines of petrol straight-six engines; one smaller version and one larger version. In 1985, the Mercedes-Benz OM603 diesel straight-six engine was introduced. a diesel in 1985. In 1996, the company replaced its petrol straight-sixes with a series of 90° M112 V6s, although it continued to produce diesel straight-six engines. Production of petrol straight-six engines resumed in 2017 with the introduction of the Mercedes-Benz M256 turbocharged DOHC engine.
BMW's first product was the 1917 BMW IIIa straight-six aircraft engine. Following the company's entry into automotive production in 1928 (producing licensed copies of the straight-four engined Austin 7), BMW's first in-house model used the 1933 BMW M78engine, an overhead valve design with a displacement of 1.2 litres. This design was upgraded over the years, with the final version being the 2.1 litre BMW M337 engine produced until 1958. Production of straight-six engines resumed in 1968 with the BMW M30 single overhead camshaft (SOHC) engine, which was produced for 27 years and used in many models. The 1978-1989 BMW M88 engine was a double overhead comshaft (DOHC) design which was used in several sports models. In 1990, the regular engines were upgraded to DOHC and the first mass-produced turbocharged version was the 2006 BMW N54. Production of naturally aspirated engines ceased in 2015 and, as of 2020, the BMW B58 turbocharged straight-six engine remains in production.
Volvo began production of straight-six engines with the 1929-1958 Penta DB flathead engines. The company resumed production in 1969 with the Volvo B30 overhead valve petrol engine, followed by the straight-six versions of the Volvo Modular Engine introduced in 1995 and then the Volvo SI6 engine introduced in 2006. As Volvo switched to transverse engined platforms in the 1990s (due to the adoption of front-wheel drive), models such as the 1998-2006 Volvo S80 used the uncommon design of a transversely-mounted straight-six engine. The length of the engine/transmission was minimised by using a short transaxle package and relocating engine ancilleries from the front and rear of the engine. Production of Volvo straight-six engines ceased in 2015.
United Kingdom
The straight-six was the archetypal British engine for sports and luxury cars for many years. Rolls-Royce used straight-six engines until changes in their design made the shorter V8 engine layout more suitable. Jaguar and other manufacturers built straight-six engines from 1935 until the 1990s.
The most prominent of these was the Jaguar XK6 engine, which reportedly was developed over long nights during World War II when Jaguar founder William Lyons and his staff were on fire watch duty in the Jaguar factory in Coventry, and made use of the time to design a new engine. The result was displayed in the Jaguar XK120 at the London Motor Show in 1948. The twin overhead camshaft XK6 engine was highly advanced compared to previous British engines. The Jaguar XK120 and the XK-powered Jaguar C-Type and Jaguar D-type, went on to score victories in races and rallies in the UK, Europe and North America. They dominated the 24 Hours of Le Mans during the 1950s, where Jaguar C-Types won in 1951 and 1953, and the D-Types had three more wins in 1955, 1956 and 1957. Subsequently, fitted to Lister Cars Lister-Jaguar, the D-type engine contributed to their success in international sportscar-racing in the late-1950s. The engine design, enlarged to , reached its apogee in the Jaguar E-type introduced in 1961, which was capable of . In 1964, the XK engine was again enlarged to , which was considered the most powerful and refined of the series. The last XK-engined Jaguar went out of production in 1986, but some XK-engined cars such as the Daimler DS420 limousine were still available into the 1990s. A variant of the 4.2 L engine powered some Scorpion light tanks. The XK6 engine was followed by the AJ6 and AJ16 engines. After Jaguar was acquired by Ford, these engines were replaced with the Ford Duratec-derived Jaguar AJ-V6 engine.
Aston Martin used a straight-six for many years, as did Austin-Healey in their Austin-Healey 3000. The latter used an engine originally built for the Austin Motor Company A105 saloon. Jensen also used Austin straight-six engines in their post-World War II cars until 1962, re-engineering the Austin Sheerline's DS range to increase the power output. MG also used a straight-six in some pre-war cars (examples: MG K-type and MG N-type) and more recently in the MGC.
Bristol produced a straight-six until 1961, based on a BMW design, that was also used by many small automakers such as AC Cars and Frazer Nash. The Bristol engine had a distinctive valvegear arrangement. The hemispherical combustion chambers meant that the inlet and exhaust valves had to be mounted on separate rocker shafts, giving the engine the appearance of having double overhead camshafts. In fact the engine used a variation on the overhead valve layout, with a camshaft mounted in the engine block driving the inlet rocker arms via traditional vertical pushrods. The inlet rocker shaft had additional cams which drove horizontal pushrods acting on the exhaust rockers on the opposite shaft. The result was an engine with very efficient gas flow due to the placement of the valves and the shape of the combustion chamber but the numerous interfaces between cams, pushrods, rockers and valves required dedicated maintenance to maintain and the engine made a lot of noise when the clearances were allowed to become excessive.
Prior to World War II, Riley built a number of models fitted with straight-six engines, including the Kestrel 12/6 saloon and the MPH roadster.
The compact Triumph straight-six powered their high-end saloon and sports cars from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s. It was available in , , and capacities. Triumph claimed that their TR5 model was the first car in the UK to come with fuel injection as standard; the TR5 has a 2.5 L Triumph straight-six. Other Triumph vehicles that use the Triumph straight-six are:
GT6 1966–1973
Vitesse 1962–71
The 2000 Range 1963–1977
TR6 1969–1976
The Austin 1800 range was expanded in 1972 when a 2.2 L six-cylinder version of the BMC E-Series engine was installed transversely. The Austin and Morris models were called 2200 and the Wolseley version was called the Wolseley Six. Although this engine was originally designed by BMC in the 1960s it was British Leyland who completed the planned upgrade to the 1800 range when they fitted this motor. This motor then went on to be used in the same configuration on the Princess which superseded the 1800 in 1975. This motor was designed to be as short as possible so the six-cylinder would fit transversely, no water bores were between cylinders and the cylinders were too close together to allow boring; the only way to gain extra capacity was by lengthening the stroke.
The Rover SD1 saloon used straight-sixes of capacities, designed by Triumph, as its base and mid-range engines.
British sports car company TVR designed its own straight-six, known as the Speed Six, which was also used in a number of models, including the Cerbera, Tuscan, Tamora, T350C/T, Sagaris and the prototype Typhon. It ranged from , with its largest capacity of used in the Tuscan and Sagaris. At , it is the most powerful naturally aspirated straight-6 ever fitted to a regular production car.
The Rover Company used straight-sixes in many of its saloon cars. A family of straight-4 and straight-6 engines with an unusual 'Inlet-Over-Exhaust' layout were developed. Introduced in the 1930s, these engines were used with great success in Rover's post war cars (the 'P3', 'P4' and 'P5' models). The sixes were available in a variety of capacities- , , , and . In 1968, Rover began offering the engine as an option in long-wheelbase variants of its Land Rover 4x4. The engine remained available in the Land Rover until 1980, long after production of the other versions of the Rover IOE straight-six had stopped.
Ford UK produced a straight-six engine for the Zephyr and Zodiac range of passenger cars from the Mk1 of 1951 () through the Mk2 () and Mk3 until 1966. The straight-six was a four main bearing 12 overhead valve design with a short stroke. Rated output grew from just in the Mk1 to in the Mk3 Zodiac.
United States
Engines of this type were popular before 1930s in large-side cars, specially between 1910s and 1920s. Most manufacturers started building straight-six engines when cars grew too large for the inline-four engine. One of the longest-in-production inline-six automotive engines in the United States was the OHV Chevrolet Stovebolt engine, which replaced Chevy's previous inline-four engine in 1929, and remained in continuous use in the US for powering Chevy vehicles until 1962, in displacements ranging from . General Motors divisions each built their own proprietary straight-six; the Oldsmobile Straight 6 and the Pontiac Straight 6 were flatheads, while the Buick Straight 6 was OHV.
Between 1930s to 1950s, larger cars required larger engines, and buyers of larger cars tended to prefer V8s; performance sixes such as the Hudson Hornet engine were exceptions to the rule, and were not often top sellers although it became one of the hottest cars on the road and dominated stock car racing (NASCAR) in the early 1950s.
After Chevrolet introduced its V8 in 1955, the straight-six became almost exclusively a base engine model pitched to economy-minded customers. Trucks (both light and heavy duty) also incorporated the straight-six until the mid-1950s, and they are still used in light trucks available today. The new wave of compact cars that started in the late 1950s provided a suitable home for straight-six designs.
The Chrysler Slant-6 engines used in the Plymouth Valiant and Dodge Dart A-body models of the 1960s and 1970s featured a 30° inclined design to achieve a lower overall height. Originally designed to be built of aluminum, but after encountering problems in manufacturing the engines in aluminum, they were built in cast iron without changing the design to compensate for the stronger metal. Although it had only four crankshaft main bearings instead of the seven used by its competitors, they were the same size as those on the Hemi V8. The Slant-6 achieved some success in racing when engineers utilized the slant of the engine for very long intake manifold passages to boost horsepower by tuning the intake system. After 30 years of production, it was discontinued in favor of V6 engines because it was too long to mount transversely in front-wheel-drive cars.
Kaiser Jeep introduced the Tornado straight-6 for 1963. It was the first U.S. designed mass-produced overhead cam (OHC) automobile engine. It was robust and built for heavy-duty performance, as well as featuring the lowest specific fuel consumption of all production gasoline engines in the market at the time. However, it was complex (by 1960s standards) for civilian vehicles in the U.S., but continued to be installed in military Jeeps and was also produced through 1982 by IKA in Argentina.
A "modern era" straight-six engine family was introduced by American Motors (AMC) in 1964. These lighter in weight engines were used in a variety of AMC passenger and Jeep utility vehicles. American Motors also sold their straight-sixes to International Harvester for powering International's "Light Line" of trucks: Scouts, pickups, and Travelalls. These engines were also assembled and marketed internationally. Some markets (such as Vehiculos Automotores Mexicanos [VAM] in Mexico) built their own specialized versions. This engine is considered to be one of the best ever made, and it received modifications and upgrades as engine control technology improved. This engine was produced continuously for 42 years (even after Chrysler's buyout of AMC in 1987) all the way through 2006. It featured a durable design with a cast-iron block and cylinder head, hydraulic lifters (with non-adjustable rockers), and seven main bearings. Since AMC cars were designed to take the weight of an optional V8, AMC was able to make their straight-sixes much stronger and heavier than they needed to be. As a result, the engine blocks were so sturdy that some were used in race cars in the Indianapolis 500. In the 1978 race, an AMC engine built by Navarro produced at 8500 rpm with () of manifold pressure.
Ford and General Motors straight-sixes of the 1960s and 1970s were generally nondescript, except for the unusual (for the United States) OHC Pontiac six of the late-1960s. Although it was one of the few American straight-sixes of its era to be advertised as exceeding , it wooed few performance buyers away from V8s during the muscle car era, and was eventually discontinued in favor of a less costly but less powerful pushrod design.
American automakers found it more profitable to sell slow-speed straight-sixes as "economy" engines, and V8s as "performance" engines regardless of their horsepower potential, since big, unsophisticated, overhead valve engines were relatively cheap to manufacture, and fuel economy was not a concern prior to the 1973 oil crisis.
The trend after the fuel crises in the 1970s was towards smaller cars with better fuel economy. Despite this, straight-six engines became rare in American cars, although they continued to be used in trucks and vans. The decline of the straight-six was in response to the more compact size of the V6 layout. The straight-six required a longer engine compartment that was more appropriate to a larger car. The shorter V6 could be used in a shorter engine compartment and therefore fit better in a more compact car. It was also relatively easy to cut two cylinders off a V8 design to produce a V6 e.g. Buick 3800, Chevrolet 90-degree V6 that could be manufactured on the same assembly line as the V8, which was convenient for American manufacturers.
Jeeps were an exception to the trend to V6s, and began offering AMC's , known as "High Torque," straight-sixes as a common engine option in 1972. These engines continued to receive upgrades that were advanced for their time, including the fuel-injected, high-performance version for the 1987 model-year Cherokee, Wagoneer, and Comanche. In 1988, the engine received higher flowing fuel injectors, raising output to and thus producing more power than some configurations of the Ford 302, Chevrolet 305, and Chrysler 318 V8 engines, and more than any of the Japanese 6-cylinder truck engines, but with comparable or superior fuel efficiency. By 1991, Chrysler was no longer bound by legacy AMC contracts to use engine management systems from Renix and started installing Chrysler computers for the . The 1991 model year also saw the introduction of the in the Jeep Wrangler YJ. In 1993, when the Wagoneer was succeeded by the Grand Cherokee (ZJ), the engine was made the base option. The five millionth was produced in Kenosha, Wisconsin by Chrysler on 15 June 2001, autographed by the assembly workers, and donated to the Rambler Legacy Gallery at the Kenosha History Center. The is regarded as probably one of the best ever Jeep engines and has earned a reputation for its durability. Usage of the AMC 4.0 declined in Jeep vehicles after the Jeep Cherokee (in North America) was replaced by the Liberty in 2002, which featured Chrysler's V6 instead. It declined further after the 2005 introduction of the third generation Jeep Grand Cherokee, which also used the V6. The last application of AMC's straight-six was in the 2006 Jeep Wrangler; for the 2007 model year, the legacy engine was replaced with a V6.
Ford used a straight-six in baseline Mustangs and in its other models for many decades. They were also found in F-series pickups, E-series vans, and Broncos (most notably the venerable Ford 300 inline six) until 1997 when they were replaced with a V6.
In 1989, Chrysler introduced the Cummins B Series engine as an option on its Dodge pickup trucks. Displacing nearly per cylinder, this straight-six turbocharged diesel engine was an attractive alternative to the big gasoline V8s normally used on full-sized pickups, because of its better fuel economy and nearly twice as much low-speed torque.
In 2001, General Motors introduced a new family of straight engines, the Atlas, for use in the Chevrolet TrailBlazer/GMC Envoy. The straight-six was chosen for development because of the desirable operating characteristics of its self-balanced design.
Large gasoline fueled inline sixes were also made for large truck and industrial use by Continental, Hall-Scott, Hercules, Waukesha, Mack, White, Climax, and International Harvester, in sizes ranging up to nearly .
In 2018, Chevrolet introduced a 2019 Chevrolet Silverado with a straight six Duramax diesel engine
Asia
Japanese automakers have used the straight-six since the 1960s in a wide range of vehicles. More recently though, Nissan (the 1984 300ZX switched to V6) and Toyota have changed to V6s, saying the straight-sixes were too expensive to manufacture and too long for the engine compartments in their newer vehicles. In Japan, straight sixes add to the overall expense of automobile ownership due to Japanese Government dimension regulations and incur higher road tax obligations.
Toyota started with their F-series engine in 1949, and later the M, FZ, G, and JZ engines, In the 1990s, Toyota offered straight-sixes in all their lines: the G in the Altezza (and others); the M and its part-replacement, the JZ, in the Toyota Supra (and others); and the F and its replacement, the FZ, in the Land Cruiser. Up until about 2006, Toyota still offered the FZ-series, G-series, and the JZ-series engines.
Nissan started with their H-series, and later the L-series (up until 1986) of the early Nissan Z-cars, also known as Fairlady Zs, as well as the RB engine series engines (in the R31-R34 Skyline). They also made the P-series and TB-series straight six, of which the latter is still currently made and is fitted inside the Patrol/Safari. Nissan also benefited from acquisition of previous manufacturers called Prince Motor Company who manufactured a six cylinder called the Prince G engine, and Tokyu Kogyo Kurogane who helped develop Nissan's current engines.
The first generation of the Mitsubishi Debonair used the KE64 and later the Saturn 6 straight-six engines.
Honda built the Honda CBX motorcycle from 1978 to 1981.
In Korea, GM Daewoo's FWD Magnus (sold abroad as the Chevrolet Evanda, Chevrolet Epica, Holden Epica or Suzuki Verona) comes with a Daewoo-designed straight-six. The Daewoo engine is one of the few straight-sixes designed to be installed transversely in front-wheel drive cars, and it is an extremely short engine in its configuration.
Australia
All major manufacturers in Australia have used straight configuration for their six-cylinder engines.
BMC developed a straight-six engine based on the B-series engine in the late 1950s. It appeared in the Austin Freeway and Wolseley 24/80. Although successful in Australia, and tried successfully in the prototype MGC, the cost of retooling meant that the engine remained indigenous to Australia. In 1971, Leyland Australia replaced the Austin 1800 with the Austin X6 range, marketed as the Austin Tasman and Austin Kimberley. This car was based on the 1800s platform but had different front and rear styling and a new interior. It introduced a 2.2 L six-cylinder version of the E-series engine four years ahead of the UK market. It has the distinction of being the first car with a transverse front-wheel-drive straight six. The car was supposed to offer more competition to the Australian big six market but it achieved fewer sales than the superseded four-cylinder 1800. The E series six-cylinder in 2.6 L form (achieved using a longer stroke) went on to be used in the Leyland P76 and the Marina.
Chrysler manufactured the Slant 6 in Australia. It developed the unique to Australia Chrysler Hemi-6 Engine that was promoted as "the most advanced six-cylinder in the world" when it was launched in 1972. These engines, made in , , and capacity, were used in the Chrysler Valiant and the Valiant Charger producing up to . Chrysler no longer owns any factories in Australia.
Holden up until 1986 built their own straight-sixes, adapted from a Chevrolet design. A unit (known as the grey motor) was used until 1963, with a minor increase in displacement in 1960 to when it was replaced by a newer Chevrolet based design (known as the red engine) which was offered in different capacities. Holden engine sizes included the , , (1964–1966), , (1971–1984), (1968–1971), and (1971–1986, the largest and most popular of the series). This motor was firstly replaced by an imported RB20/30 Nissan straight-six, offered in (in New Zealand) and forms, until Holden's Buick designed V6 replaced it outright in 1988. Holden now make and use the new global HFV6 in their local and export passenger cars.
Ford Australia produced straight-sixes between 1960 and 2016, and was the last manufacturer in Australia to build a straight-six. Ford has built , , , , , , and engines, with the 240 being called the , or and the 200 being called the . They were used in the Falcon (1960–2016), Cortina (1972–1981) and the Ford Territory (2004–2016). The last straight-six engines in the Falcon and Territory are called the Barra and have a displacement.
The high-performance division of Ford Australia, Ford Performance Vehicles, produced vehicles equipped with the 24-valve dual overhead camshaft (DOHC) turbocharged straight-six with variable cam timing, which produces at and at — the highest level of torque in a six-cylinder powered Australian production car.
Usage in motorcycles
Honda raced a number of straight-six engines in the Honda RC series of motorcycles, starting with the 3RC164 in 1964, with a bore of 39 mm, and a stroke of 34.8 mm. This became the RC165 in 1965. For 1966, bore and stroke became 41 mm and 31 mm in the RC166, continuing with the RC167 in 1967. Also in 1967, Honda raced the straight-six RC174 in the 350 class, with bore and stroke of 41 mm and 37.5 mm.
For road use, Honda introduced the Honda CBX in 1978. Kawasaki introduced the KZ1300 in 1979. Benelli introduced the first production motorcycle with a 6-cylinder engine the 750 Sei in 1972, which was later enlarged to to become the 900 Sei.
BMW has developed a straight-six engine for motorcycle use, debuting in a concept bike in 2009, which features on the K1600GT and K1600GTL motorcycles that were launched in 2011. The engine is mounted transversely across the chassis.
Usage in trucks
Straight-sixes continue to be used in medium to large trucks. Ford is one notable exception using a V8 in medium duty trucks. GM pickup trucks abandoned the straight-six in 1984 for the 4.3 V6, Ford dropped the straight-six in favour of the Essex V6 in 1996. In 2002, General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-four, straight-five and straight-six GM Atlas engine line. It was used in their small sport utility vehicles. Jeep abandoned the straight-six in 2006 with the 2006 Jeep Wrangler being the last vehicle. Ram Trucks continues to offer straight-six engines in its heavy duty pickup truck and chassis cab models, although only V6 and V8 engines are available in the smaller versions. Although it has lower horsepower than the alternative V8 Chrysler Hemi engine, the higher torque and better fuel economy of the Cummins 6.7-litre turbocharged diesel straight six engine makes it more suitable for towing heavy loads for long distances. The 6.7 L Cummins turbo-diesel is currently the largest straight-six engine offered in a pickup truck.
Straight-six diesel engines
Straight-six diesel engines with much larger displacements are commonly used for industrial applications. These include various types of heavy equipment, power generation, locomotives and transit buses or coaches. Virtually every heavy duty over-the-road truck employs an inline-six diesel engine, as well as most medium duty and many light duty diesel trucks. Its virtues are superior low-end torque, very long service life, smooth operation and dependability. On-highway vehicle operators look for straight-six diesels, which are smooth-operating and quiet. Likewise, off-highway applications such as tractors, marine engines, and electric generators need an engine that is rugged and powerful. Unlike passenger cars, compactness is not an important criterion for these applications, while the additional reliability and maintainability of a straight-six diesel engines is.
As with everyday passenger vehicles, the smooth running characteristics of the straight-six engine are what make it desirable for industrial use. The straight-six is a simple engine that is in both primary and secondary balance. This means it can be scaled up to very large sizes without causing excessive vibration. Most of the engine components and accessories can be located along both sides, rather than on top of or underneath the cylinder banks, meaning that access and maintenance is easier than on a V engine in a truck or industrial configuration. In addition, a straight-six engine is mechanically simpler than a V6 or V8 since it has only one cylinder head and the overhead camshaft configuration has half as many camshafts.
Manufacturers
Diesel straight-sixes are available in passenger cars.
A 2.4l VW diesel was available in the Volvo 240 from 1978.
Mercedes-Benz debuted the OM603 diesel in 1985.
The twin-turbo BMW M57 and N57 engines produce up to and from their capacities respectively.
Japanese passenger car diesels include the Nissan RD engine, Nissan LD engine, and the Nissan TD engine, which have similar characteristics to the RB engines.
The 5.9 and 6.7 L straight-six Cummins found in school buses, Dennis Dart buses and Dodge Ram trucks. The DT series medium-duty diesels by Navistar International are also widely used in the North American truck market.
Caterpillar makes straight-six diesel engines for automotive, industrial, and marine applications.
Toyota introduced a straight-six truck diesel engine in 1956, named the 1D, displacing and its next iteration, the 2D displacing . The H series of straight-six diesel engines were built for nearly 23 years. In 1990, the naturally aspirated engine 1HZ and the turbocharged 1HD-T engine were introduced. The 1HD-T engine was initially used in the Toyota Land Cruiser 80 series and culminated with the EFI equipped, 24 valve, single-camshaft 1HD-FTE, found among others in the Toyota Land Cruiser HDJ100. The 1HZ engine has a single overhead camshaft, 12 valves and produces from its capacity. The engine was offered for Land Cruisers in the 70, 80, and 100 series, as well as in Coaster buses. In production for more than 23 years with only minor modifications, the 1HZ is still used today in the 70 series and Coaster buses and sold mainly in Australia, Africa, and South America. The Yanmar 6LPA-STP marine engine is based on the Toyota 1HD-FT engine.
Yuchai makes straight-six diesel engines for automotive, industrial, and marine applications.
MAN produces straight-six diesel and natural gas engines for trucks, buses, off-road, marine, agricultural and industrial applications up to 16.2 litres in capacity.
Scania produces straight-six diesel and natural gas engines for trucks, buses, off-road, marine and industrial applications up to 13 litres in capacity.
See also
Flat-six engine
V6 engine
VR6 engine
Notes
References
Books
External links
6
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] |
200660
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight-five%20engine
|
Straight-five engine
|
The straight-five engine or inline-five engine is an internal combustion engine with five cylinders aligned in one row or plane, sharing a single engine block and crankcase. The justification for a five-cylinder engine is that it is almost as compact as an inline-four, and almost as smooth as a straight-six engine.
A variation of the inline-five is the narrow-angle V5 (such as the Volkswagen V5 engine) which has a single cylinder head and cylinder block but uses the narrow-angle cylinder offset to reduce the overall length compared to a conventional inline-five. It was not available within North America.
History
Henry Ford had an inline-five engine developed in the late 1930s to early 1940s for a compact economy car design, which never saw production due to lack of demand for small cars in the United States. Lancia of Italy developed a 5-cylinder diesel engine in the late 1930s for use in their RO truck series to replace the earlier 2-cylinder diesel and 3-cylinder petrol engines used. The subsequent model became known as the 3RO and was used by both Italian and German armed forces during WW2. This truck remained in production until 1950.
A straight-five engine did not see production for passenger cars until Mercedes-Benz introduced the OM617 diesel in 1974. The first production petrol straight-five was the 2.1 R5 introduced by Volkswagen Group in the Audi 100 towards the end of the 1970s, developments of which powered the Audi Quattro rally car. They were often used by middle-market brands seeking to extend their engine ranges into higher capacities without going for the six-cylinder option. In recent years the engine has been falling out of favour, with Volvo announcing in 2014 it would discontinue building them, for example.
Characteristics
Smoothness
The five-cylinder engine's advantage over a comparable four-cylinder engine is best understood by considering power strokes and their frequency. In a four-stroke cycle the engine fires every cylinder once every 720 degrees — each piston fires for every two rotations of the crankshaft. Assuming an even firing engine, divide 720 degrees by the number of cylinders to determine how often a power stroke occurs. For a four-cylinder engine, 720° ÷ 4 = 180° so there is a power stroke every 180 degrees, which is two power strokes per revolution of the crankshaft. A crossplane V8 engine gets a power stroke every 90 degrees: 720° ÷ 8 = 90°, which is four power strokes for each revolution of the crankshaft.
A given power stroke can last no more than 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation, so the power strokes of a four-cylinder engine are sequential, with no overlap. At the end of one cylinder's power stroke another cylinder fires.
In a one-, two-, or three-cylinder engine there are times when no power stroke is occurring. In a three-cylinder engine a power stroke occurs every 240 degrees (720° ÷ 3 = 240°). Since a power stroke cannot last longer than 180 degrees, this means that a three-cylinder engine has 60 degrees of "silence" when no power stroke takes place.
Five-cylinder engines have a crank with 72 degree angles (except for the VW V5, which has an offset in the crank that corresponds to the angle between the cylinders; despite the V configuration the engine has even firing intervals). Most (Audi 2.5, VW 2.5 R5) five-cylinder engines have the firing order 1-2-4-5-3. Firing of one cylinder after another (e.g. 1-2-3-4-5 in case of a five-cylinder engine) is never used except in 3-cylinder engines where there is no alternative and in some V6 engines. The reason for this is that the resulting engine will have a strong tendency to rock from end to end, and will have generally poor balance.
A five-cylinder engine gets a power stroke every 144 degrees (720° ÷ 5 = 144°). Since due to camshaft timing each power stroke lasts approximately 120 degrees [ending when the exhaust valve opens], this means that there is a very short period of about 24 degrees when the crankshaft receives no torque. Because of uneven levels of torque during the expansion strokes divided among the five cylinders, there are increased second-order vibrations. At higher engine speeds, there is an uneven third-order vibration from the crankshaft which occurs every 144 degrees. Because the power strokes have less downtime, a five-cylinder engine may run more smoothly than a four-cylinder engine, but only at limited mid-range speeds where second and third-order vibrations are lower.
Every cylinder added beyond five increases the overlap of firing strokes and makes for less primary order vibration. An inline-six gets a power stroke every 120 degrees, so there is usually no overlap of power strokes. However, this increase in smoothness of a six-cylinder engine over a five-cylinder engine is not as pronounced as that of a five-cylinder engine over a four-cylinder engine. The inline-five loses less power to friction as compared to an inline-six. It also uses fewer parts, and it is physically shorter, so it requires less room in the engine bay, allowing for transverse mounting.
Packaging and performance
A five-cylinder engine is longer and more expensive to manufacture than a comparable four-cylinder engine, but some manufacturers like Volvo feel these costs are outweighed by its greater capacity in a smaller space than a six-cylinder.
Five-cylinder turbos have been used on more than one occasion in sport and racing applications for their balance of performance qualities. The Volvo S60 R has a 2.5 litre turbocharged inline-five–cylinder engine which is capable of generating and of torque across a large amount of its rpm ranges. The Ford Focus RS Mk2 performance car uses the same Volvo 5-cylinder engine, developed (by Ford) to very similar power levels, and is one of the most powerful FWD production cars ever created. Another example of a high-power 5-cylinder car is the Audi RS2, with its 2.2 turbocharged engine making 311 hp.
Balance
A disadvantage of a straight-five over a straight-six engine is that a straight-five engine is not inherently balanced. Any even-firing straight-five design has free moments (vibrations) of the first and second order, while a straight-six has effectively no imbalance in the first or second order. This means that no additional balance shafts are needed in a straight-six. By comparison an inline-four engine has no free moments of the first or second order, but it does have a large free force of the second order which contributes to the vibration found in unbalanced straight-four designs.
Honda's RC149 GP motorcycle of 1966 used a 125 cc straight-5 engine which was configured like a straight-six with one of the middle cylinders missing; this eliminated any rocking couple (and reduced crank torsion due to piston inertia, ideal at the high engine speeds it would be run at) whilst leaving free forces equivalent to a 25 cc single cylinder of similar construction.
Fueling
The use of straight-five petrol engines in mass production cars only became truly viable with the advent of reliable fuel injection. A five-cylinder engine using a carburetor fuel system has an unavoidable problem in that the length of the inlet manifold between the carburetor varies too greatly between cylinders at the ends of the engine and those nearer the carburetor for reliable and consistent fuel delivery. Using multiple carburetors (two or three) always results in one carburetor feeding more cylinders than the other, which also produces running and tuning problems. In theory individual carburetors could be used for each cylinder, but this approach is expensive and still brings with it the attendant difficulties in balancing the multiple carbs. Multi-point fuel injection circumvents all the above problems by fueling each cylinder individually. This fueling issue was never present in diesel engines (except the Volvo D5) which, like all diesel engines, used fuel injection from the very start, which is why large five-cylinder diesels were commonly seen decades before the type's adoption for automotive use.
Firing order
Common firing orders for inline-fives are 1-2-4-5-3 (pictured) and 1-5-2-3-4, or their reverses.
Considering even-firing engines only, unlike a four-stroke straight-four, -six or -eight cylinder engine, each five-cylinder crank configuration will support only a single firing order (plus reverse).
By contrast, the standard straight-six crankshaft design, on account of its six throws being distributed at only three unique angles, or phases, can be run on any of four different firing orders, assuming the necessary changes to valve, ignition and fueling (where appropriate) timing systems have been made. That said, very few deviate from 1-5-3-6-2-4 because of the tidy intake and exhaust packaging it offers (see the fueling section above).
A four-stroke inline-five cannot have shared piston phases amongst its cylinders without also being uneven firing, because 720 degrees (4 piston strokes) divided by 5 is 144 which is not a divisor of 360, so it must always have five crankpin phases. In this way, the balance of an inline-five engine is especially and intrinsically linked to its firing order, and vice versa, in that they cannot be chosen separately.
In the case of two-stroke engines, all inline engines are similarly limited in having a single firing order for a given crank configuration; because a complete cycle occurs every 360 degrees, there is no chance to share piston phases without having simultaneous ignitions, so the inline-five is at no disadvantage in this case.
To calculate the total number of firing orders possible requires only simple combinatorics; specifically: circular permutations. Firing orders are cyclic, or circular; so 1-2-3 is the same as 2-3-1 and 3-1-2 etc. This means the total number of permutations can be reduced by a factor of the number of cylinders; five in this case.
The total number of potential firing orders is therefore:
Where 5! means the factorial of 5.
This also corresponds in a sense to the 24 unique orderings of crank pin phases {0°, 72°, 144°, 216°, 288°} along the crankshaft's length. Remembering that the crankshaft is free to rotate, these phase figures are only relative; using one as a datum, there are only four possible other phases, yielding the same result of 24 permutations.
With no intuitive sense as to which of the possible 24 crankshaft configurations will yield optimal results in terms of balance or crankshaft torsion etc. it was left for engineers to consider each one in turn, at least at the initial theoretical level. However, the possibility space of 24 firing orders has effectively been reduced to just two in practical use.
For four-strokes:
1-2-4-5-3 results in the minimal primary (crank speed) rocking couple, and so is the one chosen for inline-fives destined for road cars such as those made by Volvo (also used by Renault), VW / Audi, GM and Honda.
1-5-2-3-4 results in the maximal primary rocking couple, but minimal secondary imbalance, and rarely finds use in inline-fives. However, it is the order sometimes used for each bank of some V10s e.g. the odd-firing Dodge Viper, Audi R8 and BMW E60/61 M5 and E63/64 M6.
The 1-5-2-3-4 has also found use in two-stroke outboard engines, e.g. Mercury's Force 150.
Note that a given crankshaft configuration begets a different firing order for a two-stroke application from that which it dictates in the four-stroke case, and vice versa. The crankshaft for a firing order of 1-2-4-5-3 in a four-stroke would yield a firing order of 1-5-2-3-4 as a two-stroke. So the crankshaft would have crankpin phases of {0°, 144°, 216°, 288°, 72°} in both cases. Reverse firing orders require a different, mirror-image crankshaft (unless the engine can be permitted to spin backwards).
See the balance section for more.
Sound
The four-stroke inline-five's 5 firing pulses for every two crank rotations generates a distinctive sound, which can be represented by the musical interval 5:2. Engine sounds (even single cylinders), being periodic in nature, occupy a spread of frequencies that can be represented as ascending multiples, as in a Fourier series; this starts with the fundamental frequency (half crank speed) and rises in integer multiples, with each multiple being present in differing amounts in the final sound. Taking the octave of one pitch in an interval results in a related interval (i.e. through inversion); this is like selecting a higher multiple in the previously described series of frequencies. Such an inverted interval might be 5:4, via 5:2; i.e. a major third of the just kind. This is purely harmonic, but it is not too far removed from the 12-tone-equal-tempered major third found in much of western music.
Other intervals for other even-firing engines of differing cylinder counts can similarly be discovered. E.g. triples and derivatives (6, 12 cylinders etc.): 3:2; inline-four and derivatives: 2:1; inline-seven: 7:4; and so on.
Automobile use
Diesel
The first production inline-five engine for a passenger vehicle was the Mercedes-Benz OM617, a 3.0 L diesel engine introduced in 1974 and used in the Mercedes-Benz 300D, considered to be one of the most reliable engines ever produced, often exceeding 400,000 miles without being rebuilt. It was first turbocharged in 1978. Its successor, the OM602, used in the Mercedes-Benz W124, G-Klasse and Sprinter is also known for exceeding 500,000 miles in some cases. The 5-cylinder OM602 was succeeded by the four-valve engine OM605 (E250D 20V) and later the OM612 and OM647 with turbocharger and common rail direct injection (C/E/ML 270CDI). Mercedes-Benz continued to use 5-cylinder diesel engines until 2006, when the OM612 and OM647 engines ended production, however SsangYong Motor Company continues to use them in their SUVs.
Audi produced a number of five-cylinder diesel engines for the Audi 100 and Audi A6 from 1978 to 1997. This engine is used in several Volvos and Volkswagen vans.
Volvo designed their own D5 engine which has been available in most of their vehicle line since 2001. In 2015 however it was dropped in favour of smaller, 4-cylinder engines, which replaced most of the D5 engines. Currently, there are no other Volvo 5 cylinder Diesel engines being made.
The Jeep Grand Cherokee was available with inline-five diesels in Europe. From 1999 till 2001 with a 3.1l VM Motori engine and from 2002 till 2004 with a 2.7 liter Mercedes-Benz engine.
In the late 1990s, Rover Group developed an in-house inline-five diesel engine, the Td5, for the Land Rover Discovery and Defender.
Since 2006, Ford has produced a turbocharged 3.2 L five-cylinder engine under the Duratorq name for the Ford Transit, Ford Ranger, and Mazda BT-50. The same engine will be sold in the North American Transit under the Power Stroke name.
Fiat produced a turbocharged 2.4 L inline-five diesel engine in the 90's. This engine was used in the Fiat Marea, Lancia Kappa, Lancia Lybra, Lancia Thesis, Alfa Romeo 156, Alfa Romeo 166 and Alfa Romeo 159.
Petrol
The first moves towards a petrol inline 5 were made by Rover, which developed a 2.5-litre five-cylinder engine in 1966 as a means of supplying more power for the Rover P6 saloon. However the design, fuelled by three carburettors (one of a different size to the other pair), suffered fuelling problems and did not proceed past the prototype stage.
Audi unveiled the first production petrol inline-five, a 2.1 L DOHC engine, in the 1976 Audi 100. In 1981, the Audi 100 also became available with the smallest production inline-five, a 1.9 L variant. Audi used 2.2L straight-five engines in many of their cars between 1976 and the early 1990s, including the 305 hp Audi Sport Quattro and the Audi RS2 Avant with 315 hp.
Audi Inline 5 engine is used extensively in motorsport, particularly in rally in the famous Group B with 600 hp Audi S1 Sport Quattro E2 and in IMSA GT Championship with 2.1 20V inline 5
720 hp Audi 90 quattro IMSA GTO.
For the year 1987 factory team tested a 1000 hp version of the inline-5 powered Audi S1 Sport Quattro, but that prototype was never used in racing followed by abolition of Group B.
An Audi five-cylinder engine as a power choice is very popular in European Drag Racing Championship, particularly in Scandinavian countries.
With extreme modification for Drag Racing, the Audi produced 2.2 20V Inline 5 engines (like 3B, AAN, ABY, ADU) is shown to be capable of power in excess of 1 megawatt (1,340 hp).
An Audi five-cylinder engine was also used in the Italdesign Aztec concept car. In 2009, Audi began using a new turbocharged five-cylinder engine in the Audi TT RS and later the Audi RS3 and the Audi quattro concept.
Since Volvo introduced their Volvo 850 in 1991, much of their line-up has switched to their five-cylinder Modular engine, with their engines also being used in Ford's Focus ST and RS models. All of the inline-5 petrol engines used by Volvo and Ford were built at the Volvo Skövde engine plant in Skövde, Sweden, until their discontinuation in 2016.
Honda produced the G series five-cylinder engine beginning in 1989 and used it in the Vigor, Inspire, Ascot, Rafaga, and Acura TL.
Volkswagen used inline-five engines in their Eurovan, and developed a different inline-five engine which was used in the Jetta, Passat, Golf, Rabbit, and New Beetle in North America until the early 2010s. In South Africa, the well known VW Microbus/Caravelle (a passenger carrier) was later equipped with an Audi 5-cylinder 2.5 L (1991-1994) and still later a 2.6 L (1995-2002) water cooled engine, replacing the old air-cooled Volkswagen 1,800 and 2,100 cc power plants that gave substandard performance to the large family bus. The tall straight-five Audi engine had to be slanted to fit below a rear engine deck, employing an extra electric cooling blower on shut-down, so as to prevent warping of the hot aluminium head and inlet manifold.
Fiat also makes use of its own inline-fives petrol engines in European Fiat Marea (2.0 L, 20v, 155 hp), Fiat Bravo, Fiat Coupé (2.0 L, 20v, turbocharged, 220 hp) and Fiat Stilo (2.4 L, 20v, 170 hp) and in Brazilian Fiat Marea with 3 variants: 2.0L, 20v, N/A, 142 hp; 2.0L, 20v, turbocharged, 182 hp and 2.4 L, 20v, N/A, 162 hp.
Lancia also uses the straight-five Fiat engines in late Lancia Kappa, Lancia Lybra and Lancia Thesis.
General Motors's Atlas family of inline engines included two inline-fives, a 3.5 and a 3.7 L, used in their GMT 355 mid-size truck family (including the Chevrolet Colorado and the Hummer H3) from 2004 to 2012.
Motorcycle use
The smallest straight-five was found on the Honda racing motorcycle, the 125-cc-class RC148 of 1965 and the RC149, raced in 1966. The five-cylinder configuration was used because it shared components (and hence simultaneous development) with the two-cylinder engine, 50 cc, RC116. However, this was unusual as far as inline fives go in the sense that it was rather cleverly configured as an inline-six with one of the middle cylinders removed. It is worth noting that Honda had experience with inline-sixes already (RC165, RC166), whereas by contrast a high-revving even-firing inline-five (and its multiplicity of potential configurations) would have been quite the engineering challenge from a vibration point of view.
References
Straight-05
5
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200662
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suiyuan
|
Suiyuan
|
Suiyuan () is a de jure province of the Republic of China according to the ROC law, as the ROC government formally claims to be the legitimate government of China, with its capital located Guisui (now Hohhot). The abbreviation was (pinyin: ). The area Suiyuan covered is approximated today by the prefecture-level cities of Hohhot, Baotou, Wuhai, Ordos, Bayan Nur, and parts of Ulanqab, all today part of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Suiyuan was named after a district in the capital established in the Qing Dynasty.
In the early 1930s Suiyuan was occupied by the Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan, who mined Suiyuan's iron, reorganized the province's finances, and brought over of land under cultivation for the first time. Most of the work and settlement of Suiyuan at this time was done by Shanxi farmer-soldiers under the direction of retired officers from Yan's army. Yan's control of Suiyuan was sufficient to cause one visiting reporter to refer to Suiyuan as a "colony" of Shanxi.
The Suiyuan campaign took place in Suiyuan during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It became a part of the puppet state of Mengjiang from 1937 to 1945 under Japanese rule.
During the Chinese Civil War in 1935, Communist leader Mao Zedong promised Mongol leaders a "unified autonomous" administration which would include all "historic" Mongol lands within China, in exchange for Mongol support against the Kuomintang. This promise included the declaration that, "Under no circumstances should other [non-Mongol ethnic groups] be allowed to occupy the land of the Inner Mongolian nation". However, following the communist victory in 1949, the administrators of the soon-to-be "Mongolian" territories with Han Chinese majorities, the biggest of which was Suiyuan with a population of over 2 million, resisted annexation by the new Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. In 1954, Mao reached a compromise with Suiyuan, which involved the Mongols' taking over the administration of Suiyuan, but stipulated that the Han natives not be expelled from the territory. Uradyn Bulag thus notes that "ironically", the Mongols' territorial ambitions against Suiyuan resulted in their becoming a "small minority within their own [enlarged] autonomous region". The ROC does not recognize the changes of administrative divisions made by PRC, official maps of the ROC government shows Suiyuan Province in its pre-1949 borders.
In popular culture
W. Douglas Burden references Suiyuan in his book Look to the Wilderness, in the chapter "On the Sino-Mongolian Frontier".
References
Provinces of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
Former provinces of China
Geography of Inner Mongolia
History of Inner Mongolia
1954 disestablishments in China
Territorial disputes of the Republic of China
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] |
200663
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chahars
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Chahars
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The Chahars (Khalkha Mongolian: Цахар, Tsahar; ) are a subgroup of Mongols that speak Chakhar Mongolian and predominantly live in southeastern Inner Mongolia, China.
The Chahars were originally one of estates of Kublai Khan located around Jingzhao (now Xi'an). They moved from Shaanxi to southeastern region controlled by the Northern Yuan dynasty based in the Mongolia Plateau in the 15th century. The Chahar became a tumen of six tumen Mongols under Dayan Khan and were led by his successors, thus becoming personal appanage of the Northern Yuan monarchs.
Oppressed by Altan Khan, the Chahars, led by Daraisung Guden Khan, moved eastward onto the Liao River in the middle of the 16th century. In the early 17th century Ligdan Khan made an expedition to the west because of pressure from the Manchu people. When he died in Gansu on his way to Tibet, his son, Ejei, surrendered to the Manchus in 1635 and was given the title of Prince () and Inner Mongolian nobility became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1641 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai.
The Chahar royal family kept favorable relations with the Qing imperial family until Makata gege, who was a daughter of Hong Taiji and married to the Chahar Mongol prince, died in 1663. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrested in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt.
The revolt was put down within two months; the Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on April 20, 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. As a result of the rebellion, the Chahar Mongols were reorganized into Banners and moved to around Zhangjiakou. The Chahar Mongols did not belong to a league but were directly controlled by the Emperor. The Qing authorities resettled some of their population from the suburbs of Hohhot and Dolon Nor to the Ili River after the fall of the Dzungar Khanate in c. 1758. They were largely mixed with the Dzungar people and Torghut of the region.
When Outer Mongolia declared its independence from the Qing in 1911, 100 households under former vice-governor Sumya fled from Xinjiang via the Russian border to Mongolia. They were resettled by the Khalkha in the west of Kyakhta. Sumiya and his Tsahars contributed to the revolution of 1921. They are known as the Selenge's Tsahar since settled in Selenge.
Many of the Chinese troops during the occupation of Mongolia in 1919 were Chahar Mongols, which has been a major cause for animosity between Khalkhas and Inner Mongols.
See also
Chahar Province, one of the provinces of China from 1912 to 1936.
Mongols in China
Northern Yuan dynasty
Administrative divisions of Mongolia during Qing dynasty
References
Mongol peoples
Southern Mongols
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200666
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Marriage%20of%20Heaven%20and%20Hell
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The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
|
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a book by the English poet and printmaker William Blake. It is a series of texts written in imitation of biblical prophecy but expressing Blake's own intensely personal Romantic and revolutionary beliefs. Like his other books, it was published as printed sheets from etched plates containing prose, poetry, and illustrations. The plates were then coloured by Blake and his wife Catherine.
It opens with an introduction of a short poem entitled "Rintrah roars and shakes his fires in the burden'd air".
William Blake claims that John Milton was a true poet and his epic poem Paradise Lost was "of the Devil's party without knowing it." He also claims that Milton's Satan was truly his Messiah.
The work was composed between 1790 and 1793, in the period of radical ferment and political conflict during the French Revolution. The title is an ironic reference to Emanuel Swedenborg's theological work Heaven and Hell, published in Latin 33 years earlier. Swedenborg is directly cited and criticized by Blake in several places in the Marriage. Though Blake was influenced by his grand and mystical cosmic conception, Swedenborg's conventional moral strictures and his Manichaean view of good and evil led Blake to express a deliberately depolarized and unified vision of the cosmos in which the material world and physical desire are equally part of the divine order; hence, a marriage of heaven and hell. The book is written in prose, except for the opening "Argument" and the "Song of Liberty". The book describes the poet's visit to Hell, a device adopted by Blake from Dante's Divine Comedy and Milton's Paradise Lost.
Proverbs of Hell
Unlike those of Milton and Dante, Blake's conception of Hell begins not as a place of punishment, but as a source of unrepressed, somewhat Dionysian energy, opposed to the authoritarian and regulated perception of Heaven. Blake's purpose is to create what he called a "memorable fancy" in order to reveal the repressive nature of conventional morality and institutional religion, which he describes thus:
In the most famous part of the book, Blake reveals the Proverbs of Hell. These display a very different kind of wisdom from the Biblical Book of Proverbs. The diabolical proverbs are provocative and paradoxical. Their purpose is to energise thought. Several of Blake's proverbs have become famous:
Blake explains that,
Interpretation
Blake's theory of contraries was not a belief in opposites but rather a belief that each person reflects the contrary nature of God, and that progression in life is impossible without contraries. Moreover, he explores the contrary nature of reason and of energy, believing that two types of people existed: the "energetic creators" and the "rational organizers", or, as he calls them in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, the "devils" and "angels". Both are necessary to life according to Blake.
Blake's text has been interpreted in many ways. It certainly forms part of the revolutionary culture of the period. The references to the printing-house suggest the underground radical printers producing revolutionary pamphlets at the time. Ink-blackened printworkers were comically referred to as a "printer's devil", and revolutionary publications were regularly denounced from the pulpits as the work of the devil.
Doors of Perception
The book includes "If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, Infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thro' narrow chinks of his cavern". This has similarities with Huxley's concept of "Mind at Large".
Influence
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is probably the most influential of Blake's works. Its vision of a dynamic relationship between a stable "Heaven" and an energized "Hell" has fascinated theologians, aestheticians and psychologists.
Aldous Huxley took the name of one of his most famous works, The Doors of Perception, from this work. The Doors of Perception, in turn, inspired the name of the American rock band The Doors. Huxley's contemporary C. S. Lewis wrote The Great Divorce about the divorce of Heaven and Hell, in response to Blake's Marriage.
According to Michel Surya, French writer Georges Bataille threw pages of Blake's book into the casket of his friend and lover Colette Peignot on her death in 1938.
An allusion from The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, depicting Aristotle's skeleton, is present in Wallace Stevens's poem "Less and Less Human, O Savage Spirit".
Benjamin Britten included several of the Proverbs of Hell in his 1965 song cycle Songs and Proverbs of William Blake.
Infinite Jest by David Foster Wallace features in it an avant-garde film called The Pre-Nuptial Agreement of Heaven and Hell.
Drive Your Plow Over the Bones of the Dead by Olga Tokarczuk takes its title from one of the Proverbs of Hell.
Allusions to the work have often been made within aspects of popular culture, notably in the counterculture of the 1960s. The Norwegian experimental band Ulver released an album that was a musical setting of Blake's book, titled Themes from William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. The American black metal band Judas Iscariot extensively quotes parts of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell in their song "Portions of Eternity Too Great for the Eye of Man" (whose title itself was taken from a quote from Blake's work). The American power metal band Virgin Steele released two albums based on Blake's work, 1995's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell Part I and 1996's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell Part II. "The road of excess leads to the palace of wisdom" is also seen printed out and displayed in one of the scenes of David Cronenberg's 1975 film Shivers.
Citations
General sources
Nurmi, Martin (1979). "On The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. In Blake's Poetry and Designs. Mary Lynn Johnson and John E. Grant, eds. New York: Norton.
Further reading
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. in Blake's Poetry and Designs. eds, Mary Lynn Johnson, John E. Grant. New York: Norton. 1979; 2nd ed. 2008.
External links
Digital Copies of Extant version of Marriage of Heaven and Hell at the William Blake Archive
1790s books
English philosophical novels
William Blake's mythology
18th-century etchings
Art by William Blake
Poetry by William Blake
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200669
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy%20%28Looney%20Tunes%29
|
Buddy (Looney Tunes)
|
Buddy is an animated cartoon character in the Looney Tunes series by Leon Schlesinger Productions. He was the second star of the series, after Bosko.
Looney Tunes
Buddy has his origins in the chaos that followed after animators Hugh Harman and Rudy Ising severed their relations with producer Leon Schlesinger. Without his animators and Bosko the Talk-Ink Kid, the star character they had taken with them, Schlesinger was desperate to build his own cartoon studio and maintain his contract with Warner Bros. He lured in several animators from other studios, among them Earl Duvall from Disney. Schlesinger told his new employees to create a star character for the studio, and Duvall created Buddy in 1933, with his first film Buddy's Day Out released on September 9.
The character had a troubled beginning, as Warner Bros. refused to accept his first two cartoons, resulting in Friz Freleng being called in to re-edit and condense them into a single short. In the book Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons, animator Bob Clampett is quoted as describing Buddy as "Bosko in whiteface". Despite these initial problems, Buddy would go on to be the studio's linchpin character for the next two years.
Music dominates in Buddy's world. The characters add visuals to the soundtrack and participate in gags. Buddy is usually accompanied in his films by his flapper girlfriend, Cookie, and his dog, Towser. The character would go on to star in 23 short films from 1933 to 1935, before he was retired to make way for a new character called Beans the Cat. Beans became the third Looney Tunes star, though later on replaced by the more popular Porky Pig. Buddy's voice was most of the time performed by animator Jack Carr.
Buddy had various designs throughout the course of his career. In Buddy's Beer Garden, he wore a jacket with a small bow tie and long pants. After Warner Bros. rejected the short, animator Tom Palmer redesigned the character into a younger boy with trousers, a polo shirt, and a large cap, as seen in Buddy's Day Out. Because Tom Palmer was fired, the early design of Buddy was reused for Buddy's Showboat. Friz Freleng gave the character another design, which was nearly identical to Earl Duvall's except he is smaller and does not wear a jacket. Ben Hardaway later redesigned Buddy to look more like his predecessor, Bosko.
Reception
In That's All, Folks! The Art of Warner Bros. Animation, Steve Schlesinger describes Buddy as "a creature of limitless blandness," and calls Buddy's Day Out "a nondescript adventure spree." Schlesinger says that "probably the best of the run is his farewell film, Buddy the Gee Man", but "about the most that can be said for Buddy is that he is distinctly forgettable."
Filmography
Mr. and Mrs. Is the Name
The 1935 Merrie Melodies cartoon Mr. and Mrs. Is the Name, in which mermaid characters resembling Buddy and Cookie find a treasure trove, was Buddy's first color appearance; however, whether the short should be considered official is in doubt, as the characters are not named.
Modern appearances
Buddy's first (and so far only) new appearance after his original series ended came in the 1993 animated series Animaniacs, where he appeared in the episode "The Warners' 65th Anniversary Special" as the main antagonist of that episode. It was broadcast on May 23, 1994. In this episode, it was revealed (in the series' fictional history) that Yakko, Wakko, and Dot were created to spice up Buddy's dull cartoons; these series of Buddy-Warner shorts mainly consisted of the Warners smashing Buddy on the head with mallets. After Buddy was dropped by the studio in favor of the Warners, Buddy retired to become a nut farmer in Ojai, California, but hated the Warners for ruining his career, and made a failed attempt at the Anniversary Special to enact revenge on the Warner Siblings for ruining his career 65 years ago. Jim Cummings provided Buddy's voice here. The cartoons he starred in with the Warners shown were Outback Buddy, Postman Buddy, Gardening Buddy, Baker Buddy, and Busdriver Buddy (all were dated from the main Bosko until the early Buddy years).
On the PBS series History Detectives, a collection of Buddy cels from Buddy's first appearance Buddy's Day Out is the focus of a 2010 episode.
References
External links
Too Looney!: Buddy Profile
Animated human characters
Looney Tunes characters
Film characters introduced in 1933
|
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] |
200670
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huperzioideae
|
Huperzioideae
|
Huperzioideae is a subfamily of lycopsids in the family Lycopodiaceae. It has sometimes been recognized as a separate family, Huperziaceae. The Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) recognizes three extant genera:
Huperzia (temperate firmosses); about 25 species; terrestrial.
Phlegmariurus (tropical firmosses); about 250 species; previously included in Huperzia; mainly epiphytes.
Phylloglossum (pygmy clubmoss); formerly thought to be only distantly related to Huperzia. This is a terrestrial, grass-like plant with basal, 2–5 cm long, fleshy leaves. The only accepted species is Phylloglossum drummondii.
The plants are distinct from those of other members of the Lycopodiaceae in having erect (not creeping) growth; and in their spore-bearing structures being produced in the axils of unmodified leaves, rather than in terminal club-like structures. The subfamily also has a basal chromosome count of n=67, versus counts of n=23, 34 in the Lycopodiaceae.
References
External links
Flora of North America: Huperzia
Flora of North America: Phlegmariurus
Lycopodiaceae
Plant subfamilies
|
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200672
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycopodiaceae
|
Lycopodiaceae
|
The Lycopodiaceae (class Lycopodiopsida, order Lycopodiales) are an old family of vascular plants, including all of the core clubmosses and firmosses, comprising 16 accepted genera and about 400 known species. This family originated about 380 million years ago in the early Devonian, though the diversity within the family has been much more recent. "Wolf foot" is another common name for this family due to the resemblance of either the roots or branch tips to a wolf's paw.
Description
Members of Lycopodiaceae are not spermatophytes and so do not produce seeds. Instead they produce spores, which are oily and flammable, and are the most economically important aspects of these plants. The spores are of one size (i.e. the plants are isosporous) and are borne on a specialized structure at the apex of a shoot called a strobilus (plural: strobili), which resembles a tiny battle club, from which the common name derives. Members of the family share the common feature of having a microphyll, which is a "small leaf with a single vein, and not associated with a leaf gap in the central vascular system." In Lycopodiaceae, the microphylls often densely cover the stem in a linear, scale-like, or appressed fashion to the stem, and the leaves are either opposite or spirally arranged. The club mosses commonly grow to be 5–20 cm tall. The gametophytes
in most species are non-photosynthetic and myco-heterotrophic, but the subfamily Lycopodielloideae and a few species in the subfamily Huperzioideae have gametophytes with an upper green and photosynthetic part, and a colorless lower part in contact with fungal hyphae.
Taxonomy
The family Lycopodiaceae is considered to be basal within the Lycopodiopsida (lycophytes). One hypothesis for the evolutionary relationships involved is shown in the cladogram below.
Within the family, there is support for three subgroups. In 2016, Field et al. proposed that the primary division is between Lycopodielloideae plus Lycopodioideae and the Huperzioideae (names sensu PPG I).
There are about 400 known species in the family Lycopodiaceae. Sources differ in how they group these into genera. Field et al. (2016) say "Most Lycopodiaceae species have been re-classified into different genera several times, leading to uncertainty about their most appropriate generic identification." In the PPG I system, the family has 16 accepted genera, grouped into three subfamilies, Lycopodielloideae, Lycopodioideae and Huperzioideae, based in part on molecular phylogenetic studies. The Huperzioideae differ in producing spores in small lateral structures in the leaf axils, and it has been suggested that they be recognized as a separate family. Other sources use fewer genera; for example, the three genera placed in the subfamily Huperzioideae in PPG I, Huperzia, Phlegmariurus and Phylloglossum, have also all been treated within a broadly defined Huperzia.
The species within this family generally have chromosome counts of n=34. A notable exception are the species in Diphasiastrum, which have counts of n=23.
Genera
The Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I) accepts the following genera, grouped into three subfamilies:
Subfamily Lycopodielloideae Wagner & Beitel 1992 ex Øllgaard
Lateristachys Holub
Lycopodiella Holub
Palhinhaea Franco & Vasconcellos nom. cons.
Pseudolycopodiella Holub
Subfamily Lycopodioideae Eaton sensu Wagner & Beitel ex Øllgaard
Austrolycopodium Holub
Dendrolycopodium Haines
Diphasiastrum Holub
Diphasium Presl ex Rothmaler
Lycopodiastrum Holub ex Dixit
Lycopodium Linnaeus
Pseudodiphasium Holub
Pseudolycopodium Holub
Spinulum Haines
Subfamily Huperzioideae Rothmaler sensu Wagner & Beitel ex Øllgaard
Huperzia Bernhardi
Phlegmariurus Holub
Phylloglossum Kunze
Distribution and habitat
The members of Lycopodiaceae are terrestrial or epiphytic in habit and are most prevalent in tropical mountain and alpine environments. Though Lycopodiaceae are most abundant in these regions, they are cosmopolitan, excluding arid environments.
Uses
The running clubmosses (Diphasiastrum) have long been used as greenery for Christmas decoration.
The spores have long been used as a flash powder. See Lycopodium powder.
The spores have been used by violin makers for centuries as a pore filler.
In Cornwall, club mosses gathered during certain lunar phases were historically used as a remedy for eye disease.
References
External links
Lycopodiaceae in Flora of North America
Plant families
|
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200679
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Casablanca
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USS Casablanca
|
USS Casablanca (AVG/ACV/CVE-55) was the first of fifty s built for the United States Navy during World War II. She was named after the Naval Battle of Casablanca, conducted as a part of the wider Operation Torch, which pitted the United States Navy against the remnants of the French Navy controlled by Vichy France. The American victory cleared the way for the seizure of the port of Casablanca as well as the Allied occupation of French Morocco. The ship was launched in April 1943, commissioned in July, and served as a training and transport carrier throughout the war. Postwar, she participated in Operation Magic Carpet, repatriating U.S. servicemen from throughout the Pacific. She was decommissioned in June 1946, when she was mothballed in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet. She was sold for scrap in April 1947.
Design and description
Casablanca was the lead ship of the Casablanca-class escort carriers, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was long overall; at the waterline, she was long. She had a beam of , at her widest point, this was . She also had a draft of . She displaced standard, with a full load. She had a long hangar deck and a long flight deck. She was powered with two Skinner Unaflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing , thus enabling her to make . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . Power was provided by four Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers. Her compact size necessitated the installation of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft.
One /38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight Bofors anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as 12 Oerlikon cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty 20 mm cannons, and the amount of 40 mm guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Although Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to function with a crew of 860 and an embarked squadron of 50 to 56, the exigencies of wartime often necessitated the inflation of the crew count. Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more, which was often necessary during transport or especially training missions, due to the constant turnover of pilots and aircraft.
Construction
Her construction was awarded to Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington under a Maritime Commission contract, on 18 June 1942, with the classification symbol AVG-55, indicating that she would be the 55th escort carrier, AVG representing an aircraft escort vessel, numbered in the same series as the escort carriers. On 20 August, the future carrier was reclassified as ACV-55, the hull symbol representing an auxiliary aircraft carrier. The escort carrier was laid down on 3 November 1942 under the name Ameer, with the original plans calling for her transfer to the Royal Navy under the lend-lease program. She was laid down as MC hull 1092, the first of a series of fifty Casablanca-class escort carriers.
On 23 February 1943, it was determined that her sister ship , the second Casablanca-class carrier to be constructed would be transferred under lend-lease in Casablancas place. Therefore, she was renamed Alazon Bay, a misspelling of Alazan Bay, located in Kleberg County, Texas, as part of a tradition which named escort carriers after bays or sounds. She was then further renamed to Casablanca on 3 April, with her previous name later being assigned to the hull of her sister . She was launched on 5 April; sponsored by the First Lady Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt; transferred to the Navy on 8 July, commissioned and reclassified as CVE-55 on 15 July, with Commander Steven Ward Callaway in command.
Service history
Upon being commissioned, it was discovered that Casablanca had a propeller defect, handicapping her speed and handling, which rendered her completely unsuitable for frontline or even transport service. Therefore, the Navy used her as a training vessel, operating in the Strait of Juan de Fuca to provide pilot certifications. For the next year, until August 1944, a steady stream of carrier squadrons were trained onboard Casablanca, rotating off for service on a frontline carrier once they had finished qualifications. In addition, she was used as a training vessel for crews bound for the other Casablanca-class carriers prior to commissioning, with crews typically spending two weeks learning how to operate the equipment and how to maneuver the ship. These crews would therefore report for service on their newly commissioned Casablanca-class carriers with a modicum of experience. The Navy also used Casablanca as a ship to gather data on how the escort carriers fared during prolonged periods at sea, measuring her material readiness and the ability of her equipment. Lessons learned on Casablanca were therefore implemented on Casablanca-class carriers to come.
In the summer of 1944, Casablanca was put into dry dock, and her propeller defect was corrected. Hence, she was certified to begin transport missions. On 24 August, after taking on a load of personnel, airplanes, and aviation gasoline at Naval Air Station Alameda, she put through the Golden Gate Bridge, and passed San Francisco en route to Manus Island in the Admiralty Islands. She returned to Seattle on 8 October, and immediately continued her previous duties in Puget Sound as a training carrier, carrying out much of the same activities, this time preparing the pre-commissioning crews of s. During this period, she was damaged by a storm, and proceeded into San Diego harbor on 22 January 1945 for repairs. On 12 February, Captain John Lewis Murphy raised his flag over the vessel.
Casablanca returned to sea on 13 March, and with her repairs completed, she proceeded westwards for another transport mission. Stopping at Pearl Harbor, she headed to Guam, where she unloaded some of her cargo. She then carried out transport runs between Samar in the Philippines, Manus, and Palau until 12 May, when she proceeded back to the West Coast for overhaul, carrying onboard a load of medically unfit personnel. Upon arrival, she replenished and was sent west again, delivering passengers to Pearl Harbor on 24 June. She spent the summer making transport runs from the West Coast to Pearl Harbor and Guam. During one of these transport missions, whilst arriving at Guam, the Surrender of Japan was announced.
After a brief period in which Casablanca yet again served as a training carrier providing pilot qualifications off of Saipan in August, she was retrofitted into a troopship, and joined the Operation Magic Carpet fleet, which repatriated U.S. servicemen from around the Pacific. Her first run concluded in San Francisco on 24 September. She then ferried some personnel to Pearl Harbor in September and October. At Pearl Harbor, she made her second run, stopping at Espiritu Santo and Nouméa, repatriating servicemen to the West Coast. Her third and final run, which ran from 8 December to 16 January 1946, was a run from San Francisco to Yokohama, occupied Japan.
Casablanca left San Francisco harbor on 23 January, proceeding to Norfolk, Virginia, arriving on 10 February. There, she was mothballed in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet on 30 May. She was decommissioned on 10 June, and struck from the Navy list on 3 July. She was sold on 23 April 1947 for scrapping, ultimately being broken up in Chester, Pennsylvania throughout the latter half of 1947.
Notes
References
Sources
Online sources
Bibliography
External links
Casablanca-class escort carriers
World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Vancouver, Washington
1943 ships
S4-S2-BB3 ships
|
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] |
200680
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengjiang
|
Mengjiang
|
Mengjiang (Mengkiang), also known in English as Mongol Border Land or the Mengjiang United Autonomous Government, was an autonomous area in Inner Mongolia, formed in 1939 as a puppet state of the Empire of Japan, then from 1940 being under the nominal sovereignty of the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China (which was itself also a puppet state). It consisted of the previously Chinese provinces of Chahar and Suiyuan, corresponding to the central part of modern Inner Mongolia. It has also been called Mongukuo or Mengguguo (or Mengkukuo; ) (in analogy to Manchukuo, another Japanese puppet state in Manchuria). The capital was Kalgan, from where it was under the nominal rule of Mongol nobleman Demchugdongrub. The territory returned to Chinese control after the defeat of the Japanese Empire in 1945.
Background
Following Japan's occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and the establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo, Japan sought to expand its influence in Mongolia and North China. In a series of actions, starting in 1933, the armies of Manchukuo and Japan occupied Chahar and in 1936 proclaimed itself the independent Mongol Military Government, allied with Japan under Prince Demchugdongrub.
In 1936 and 1937, similar operations in Suiyuan saw the occupation and absorption of that province also.
History
Formed on May 12, 1936, the Mongol Military Government (蒙古軍政府) had Prince Yondonwangchug of Ulanqab as its first chairman. It was renamed in October 1937 as the Mongol United Autonomous Government (蒙古聯盟自治政府). On September 1, 1939, the predominantly Han Chinese governments of South Chahar and North Shanxi were merged with the Mongol United Autonomous Government, creating the new Mengjiang United Autonomous Government (蒙疆聯合自治政府). The capital was established at Zhangbei (Changpei), near Kalgan (Zhangjiakou), with the government's control extending around Hohhot. On August 4, 1941, it was again renamed: the Mongolian Autonomous Federation (蒙古自治邦).
In 1939 Wang Jingwei reorganized the remnants of the occupied Chinese government for a Japanese puppet state, commonly referred to as the Wang Jingwei Regime, or the Reorganized National Government, with its capital in Nanjing. Mengjiang was nominally incorporated into the regime in 1940, though it remained autonomous from Nanjing.
Mengjiang capitulated in 1945 when it was invaded by the Soviet Red Army and Mongol Red Army as part of the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Most of the area, with the notable exception of Kalgan, is now part of Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China.
Politics
Institutions
Mongolian Royal Family
Japanese Central Academy of Kalgan
Directorate General of Communications
Bank of Mengjiang
Mongolian Military Command Headquarters
Mengjiang National Army
United Autonomous Mongolian Aimags
Autonomous Government of Northern Shanxi
Autonomous Government of Southern Chahar
The United Autonomous Government of Mengjiang
Government Mongol administrative uls
People’s Autonomous Government of Eastern Mongolia
Inner Mongolia Pailingmiao Autonomous Political Council (Mongolian political movement)
People
Demchugdongrub: Khungtayji Head of State; Commander of the Mongolian Military Command Headquarters
Li Shouxin: Chahar warlord, Chief of Staff of the Inner Mongolian Army (1937-1945)
Yondonwangchug: First Chairman of Mengjiang (1936-1938)
Altanochir: Minister of Communications, Head of the Mongolian Cultural Centre, Rector of the Mongolian Academy
Altanochir (1882-1949): Deputy Head of Ordos City, General commander of the Ordos army
Wu Heling: Director of the Counseling Bureau and Sub-General, Chairman of the House, President of the Preparatory School for Studying in Japan
Jodbajab: Commander of the Mongol Militia, Deputy commander of the Pao An Tui
Xia Gong: Supreme Member of the Northern Shanxi Autonomous Government, Vice-Chairman of the Mongolian United Autonomous Government
Cui Xiaoqian: Director of the Department of Finance (1937-1939), Member of the Mengjiang Bank Committee
Yu Pinqing: Supreme Member of the Southern Chahar Autonomous Government, Vice-Chairman of the Mongolian Autonomous Federation
Wang Ying (ROC): Commander of the Grand Han Righteous Army, Chinese bandit and Warlord
Gen Sugiyama: Commanding General of the Mongolia Garrison Army
Sadamu Shimomura: Commander of Mongolia Garrison Army
Hideki Tōjō: Commander of the 1st Independent Mixed Brigade, Chahar Expeditionary Force
Kitsuju Ayabe: Colonel, engaged in Chahar area operation as Staff Officer, Kwantung Army, North China Detachment
Torashirō Kawabe: Military advisor
Name
Mengjiang, meaning "Mongol Territories", came from the acceptance speech of chairmanship by Demchugdongrub:
To recover the territories originally owned by the Mongols
(收復蒙古固有疆土)
Economy
The Japanese established the Bank of Mengjiang that printed its own currency without years on it. Some traditional local money shops also made currency with the Chinese year numbering system, such as the Jiachen Year (甲辰年), on it.
The Japanese had mineral interests in their created state of Mengjiang. In one example the Japanese put the iron mine in Xuanhua Longyan into production, with a reserve of 91,645,000 tonnes in 1941; and analyzed the reserves of coal in land, one was 504 tonnes, and another with a potential production of 202,000 of tonnes (1934).
The Mengjiang iron deposits were exported directly to Japan. At the same time, the Japanese sought the coal reserves of Suiyuan (another Mengjiang occupied sector), including one of 417 million tonnes, and one with a potential extraction of 58,000 tonnes in 1940.
Military
The Mengjiang National Army was the Japanese-created native army organized in Mengjiang; not to be confused with the Mongol Army. It was a Kwantung Army special force group under direct command, having native commanders alongside Japanese commanding officers, as in other auxiliary outer sections of the Kwantung Army.
The purpose of the army was to support any eventual Japanese operations against Outer Mongolia (Mongolian People's Republic), or the north China areas, and to act as a local security force, with the local police forces. It also had the duty of protecting Prince De Wang, the head of state, and the Mengjiang native establishment and local government properties.
The army was equipped with rifles, pistols, light and medium machine guns, mortars and some artillery and anti-aircraft guns. It was organised as a mobile cavalry and light infantry force with little artillery support and no tanks or aircraft.
History
In 1936, the Inner Mongolian Army was armed with Mauser rifles and they had 200 machine guns: mostly the Czechoslovak ZB-26 and a few Swiss Sig. Model 1930 submachine gun for Teh Wang's 1,000 bodyguard troops. They had 70 artillery pieces, mostly mortars and a few captured Chinese mountain and field guns of a variety of types (making ammo and spare parts a problem). The few tanks and armored cars were captured Chinese vehicles crewed by Japanese.
After the Suiyuan Campaign, the Mengjiang National Army was rebuilt from the defeated remnants of the Inner Mongolian Army, the new eight Mongol cavalry Divisions were 1,500 men strong, in three regiments of 500 men. Each regiment were to have three Saber companies and a machine gun company of 120 men. However these divisions actually ranged in size from 1,000 men to 2,000 men (8th Division).
In 1939, the ethnic Chinese troops in the Mongol Divisions were brigaded together in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Divisions and turned into the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Ch'ing An Tui Brigades of the "Mongolian Pacification Force" and used against various guerrilla groups.
In 1943, the Mongol 4th and 5th Divisions were combined to form a new 8th Division and the old 7th and 8th Divisions formed the new 9th Division. Strength of the army was between 4,000–10,000 men, all cavalry at this time and had little heavy equipment.
The Mengjiang state also had 5 Defense Divisions in 1943, made up of local militia and other security forces, nominally of three regiments. Apparently only one of these regiments in each division was capable of operations. In 1944, the Japanese reorganized them along with the Chahar garrisons into four Divisions of 2,000 men each.
At the end of the war, a total of six divisions (two Cavalry and four Infantry), three Independent Ch'ing An Tui Brigades and a "Pao An Tui" Security Force Regiment made up the Army.
The sole secondary language which could be taught in schools was Japanese while students were forced to pay respect to the Emperor of Japan and Shintoism. The government and army of Mengjiang were complete puppets of the Japanese.
See also
Collaborationist Chinese Army
Inner Mongolian Army
Inner Mongolian People's Party
List of East Asian leaders in the Japanese sphere of influence (1931-1945)
Manchukuo
Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet
Wang Jingwei Government
Japanese imperialism
References
Sources
Jowett, Phillip S. Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan's Asian Allies 1931–45. Volume I: China & Manchuria. Solihull: Helion, 2004.
Lattimore, Owen. "The Phantom of Mengkukuo." Pacific Affairs 10, no. 4 (1937): 420–27.
External links
Mengjiang flag
Mongolian education under the Japanese regime
States and territories disestablished in 1945
Client states of the Empire of Japan
Former countries in Chinese history
Former countries in East Asia
States and territories established in 1939
Axis powers
Japan–Mongolia relations
Collaboration with the Axis Powers
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200681
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20protected%20areas%20of%20Ohio
|
List of protected areas of Ohio
|
This list of protected areas of Ohio includes national forest lands, Army Corps of Engineers areas, state parks, state forests, state nature preserves, state wildlife management areas, and other areas.
Federal lands
National Park Service, Department of the Interior
Cuyahoga Valley National Park
Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
U.S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture
Wayne National Forest
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior
Ottawa National Wildlife Refuge Complex
Cedar Point National Wildlife Refuge
Ottawa National Wildlife Refuge
West Sister Island National Wildlife Refuge
Army Corps of Engineers, Department of Defense
Belleville Locks and Dam
Caesar Creek Dam (at Caesar Creek State Park)
Tom Jenkins Dam (at Burr Oak State Park)
State lands
State parks
State memorials
Adena State Memorial
Buckeye Furnace State Memorial
Campbell Mound State Memorial
Flint Ridge State Memorial
Friends Meeting House State Memorial
Fort Ancient State Memorial, Warren County
Fort Hill State Memorial
Glendower State Memorial, Warren County
Leo Petroglyph State Memorial
Miamisburg Mound State Memorial, Montgomery County
Serpent Mound State Memorial
Tarleton Cross Mound State Memorial
State forests
Blue Rock State Forest - 4,572 acres (19 km2)
Brush Creek State Forest - ca. 12,000 acres (49 km2)
Dean State Forest - 2,745 acres (10 km2)
Fernwood State Forest - 2,107 acres (9 km2)
Gifford State Forest - 320 acres (1.3 km2); Athens County
Harrison State Forest - 1,345 acres (5 km2)
Hocking State Forest - 9,374 acres (38 km2)
Maumee State Forest - 3,068 acres (12 km2)
Mohican-Memorial State Forest - 4,192 acres (17 km2); Ashland County
Perry State Forest - 4,567 acres (18 km2); Perry County
Pike State Forest - 11,621 acres (47 km2)
Richland Furnace State Forest - 2,343 acres (9 km2)
Scioto Trail State Forest - 9,371 acres (38 km2)
Shade River State Forest - 2,601 acres (11 km2); Meigs County
Shawnee State Forest - 59,603 acres (241 km2); Scioto and Adams Counties
Sunfish Creek State Forest - 637 acres (2.6 km2)
Tar Hollow State Forest - 16,126 acres (65 km2)
Vinton Furnace State Experimental Forest -
Waterloo State Forest (administered by Zaleski State Forest); Athens County
Yellow Creek State Forest - 756 acres (3.1 km2)
Zaleski State Forest - 26,313 acres (107 km2); Athens and Vinton Counties
State wildlife management areas
Fox Lake Wildlife Management Area (Athens County)
Highlandtown Wildlife Area (Columbiana County, Washington Township)
Milan State Wildlife Area
Sunday Creek Wildlife Management Area (Athens County)
Tiffin River Wildlife Area (Fulton County)
Trimble Wildlife Management Area (Athens County)
Turkey Ridge Wildlife Area (Vinton County)
Waterloo Wildlife Research Station (Athens County)
Wolf Creek Wildlife Management Area (Morgan County)
State nature preserves
Acadia Cliffs State Nature Preserve
Adams Lake Prairie State Nature Preserve
Audubon Islands State Nature Preserve
Aurora Sanctuary State Nature Preserve
Baker Woods State Nature Preserve
Bigelow Cemetery Prairie State Nature Preserve
Blackhand Gorge State Nature Preserve
Boord State Nature Preserve
Brown's Lake Bog State Nature Preserve
Burton Wetlands State Nature Preserve
Caesar Creek Gorge State Nature Preserve
Carmean Woods State Nature Preserve
Cedar Bog State Nature Preserve
Chaparral Prairie State Nature Preserve
Clear Creek State Nature Preserve
Clear Fork Gorge State Nature Preserve
Clifton Gorge State Nature Preserve
Collier State Nature Preserve
Compass Plant Prairie State Nature Preserve
Conkle's Hollow State Nature Preserve
Conneaut Swamp State Nature Preserve
Cranberry Bog State Nature Preserve
Crooked Run State Nature Preserve
Culberson Woods State Nature Preserve
Davey Woods State Nature Preserve
Davis Memorial State Nature Preserve
Drew Woods State Nature Preserve
Dupont Marsh State Nature Preserve
Eagle Creek State Nature Preserve
Erie Sand Barrens State Nature Preserve
Fowler Woods State Nature Preserve
Gahanna Woods State Nature Preserve
Goll Woods State Nature Preserve
Goode Prairie State Nature Preserve
Greenville Falls State Nature Preserve
Gross Woods State Nature Preserve
Hach-Otis State Nature Preserve
Halls Creek Woods State Nature Preserve
Headlands Dunes State Nature Preserve
Herrick Fen State Nature Preserve
Hueston Woods State Nature Preserve
Hutchins (Highbanks) State Nature Preserve
Irwin Prairie State Nature Preserve
Jackson Bog State Nature Preserve
Johnson Ridge State Nature Preserve
Johnson Woods State Nature Preserve
Kendrick Woods State Nature Preserve
Kent (Cooperrider) Bog State Nature Preserve
Kessler Swamp State Nature Preserve
Kiser Lake Wetlands State Nature Preserve
Kitty Todd State Nature Preserve
Knox Woods State Nature Preserve
Kyle Woods State Nature Preserve
Lake Katharine State Nature Preserve
Lakeside Daisy State Nature Preserve
Lawrence Woods State Nature Preserve
Lou Campbell State Nature Preserve
Mantua Bog State Nature Preserve
Marie J. Desonier State Nature Preserve
Marsh Wetlands State Nature Preserve
Mentor Marsh State Nature Preserve
Milford Center Prairie State Nature Preserve
Morris Woods State Nature Preserve
North Pond State Nature Preserve
North Shore Alvar State Nature Preserve
Novak State Nature Preserve
Old Woman Creek State Nature Preserve
Olsen (Augusta-Anne) State Nature Preserve
Pickerington Ponds State Nature Preserve
Portage Lakes Wetland State Nature Preserve
Riddle State Nature Preserve
Rockbridge State Nature Preserve
Sears Woods State Nature Preserve
Seymour Woods State Nature Preserve
Shallenberger State Nature Preserve
Sharon Woods Gorge State Nature Preserve
Sheepskin Hollow State Nature Preserve
Sheldon Marsh State Nature Preserve
Shoemaker State Nature Preserve
Siegenthaler-Kaestner Esker State Nature Preserve
Smith Cemetery Prairie State Nature Preserve
Springville Marsh State Nature Preserve
Stage's Pond State Nature Preserve
Stratford Woods State Nature Preserve
Swamp Cottonwood State Nature Preserve
Thomas (Sharon Woods) State Nature Preserve
Tinker's Creek State Nature Preserve
Triangle Lake Bog State Nature Preserve
Tucker (Blacklick) State Nature Preserve
Tummonds State Nature Preserve
Wahkeena State Nature Preserve
Whipple State Nature Preserve
Zimmerman Prairie State Nature Preserve
Metroparks
A number of regional park districts have been organized in Ohio:
Cleveland Metroparks
Columbus and Franklin County Metropolitan Park District
Erie MetroParks
Five Rivers Metroparks (Dayton)
Geauga County Park District
Johnny Appleseed Metropolitan Park District
Lake Metroparks
Stark County Park District
Tuscarawas County Park Department
Lorain County Metro Parks
Metro Parks, Serving Summit County
Metroparks of Butler County
Metroparks of the Toledo Area
Mill Creek MetroParks
Great Parks of Hamilton County
Other significant local areas
Arc of Appalachia
Athens Conservancy preserves, in Athens County, Ohio
Crane Hollow Nature Preserve, Hocking County, Ohio
Highlands Sanctuary, centered in Highland County, Ohio
Moonville Rail-Trail, a rail-trail in Athens and Vinton Counties
Strouds Ridge Preserve, City of Athens, Ohio
Trimble Community Forest in Athens County, Ohio
The Wilds (Muskingum County, Ohio)
References
Art Weber. Ohio State Parks. Saginaw, Michigan: Glovebox Guidebooks, 1995. .
External links
Ohio State Parks
List of parks
Protected areas
Ohio
|
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] |
200683
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea%20Clinton
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Chelsea Clinton
|
Chelsea Victoria Clinton (born February 27, 1980) is an American writer and global health advocate. She is the only child of former U.S. President Bill Clinton and former U.S. Secretary of State and 2016 presidential candidate Hillary Clinton. She was a special correspondent for NBC News from 2011 to 2014 and now works with the Clinton Foundation and Clinton Global Initiative, including taking a prominent role at the foundation with a seat on its board.
Clinton was born in Little Rock, Arkansas, during her father's first term as governor. She attended public schools there until he was elected president and the family moved to the White House, where she began attending the private Sidwell Friends School. She received an undergraduate degree at Stanford University and later earned master's degrees from University of Oxford and Columbia University, and a Doctor of Philosophy in international relations from the University of Oxford in 2014. Clinton married investment banker Marc Mezvinsky in 2010. They have a daughter and two sons.
In 2007 and 2008, Clinton campaigned extensively on American college campuses for her mother's Democratic presidential nomination bid and introduced her at the 2008 Democratic National Convention. She assumed a similar role in her mother's 2016 presidential campaign, making more than 200 public appearances as her surrogate and again introducing her at the 2016 Democratic National Convention.
Clinton has authored and co-authored best-selling children's non-fiction books and co-authored a scholarly book for adults on global health policy, as well as articles and opinion pieces published in major media outlets. She has received numerous awards and honors.
Clinton has worked for McKinsey & Company, Avenue Capital Group, and New York University and serves on several boards, including those of the School of American Ballet, Clinton Foundation, Clinton Global Initiative, Common Sense Media, Weill Cornell Medical College, and IAC/InterActiveCorp.
Early years
Clinton was born in Little Rock, Arkansas, on February 27, 1980, the only child of Hillary and Bill Clinton. Her name was inspired by a visit to the Chelsea neighborhood of London during a Christmas 1978 vacation. Hillary said that upon hearing the 1969 Judy Collins recording of the Joni Mitchell song "Chelsea Morning", Bill remarked, "If we ever have a daughter, her name should be Chelsea."
When Clinton was two years old, she accompanied her parents as they campaigned throughout Arkansas for her father's gubernatorial race. She learned to read and write at a very young age. Clinton claims that she started reading the newspaper by the age of three and also wrote a letter to President Ronald Reagan when she was only five. In the letter, which was photocopied and preserved by her father, she asked President Reagan not to visit a military cemetery in West Germany, which includes graves of Nazi soldiers. Clinton attended Forest Park Elementary School, Booker Arts and Science Magnet Elementary School and Horace Mann Junior High School, both Little Rock public schools. She skipped the third grade.
As a young child, Clinton was raised in her father's Southern Baptist faith, and later attended her mother's United Methodist church.
White House years
On January 20, 1993, the day of her father's first inauguration, Chelsea moved into the White House with her parents and was given the Secret Service codename "Energy". The Clintons wanted their daughter to have a normal childhood, and they hoped to shield her from the media spotlight.
Hillary Clinton followed the advice of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis on raising children in the White House, and asked the press to limit coverage of Chelsea to her participation in public events such as state visits. Margaret Truman, daughter of former president Harry S. Truman, supported the Clintons, and in March 1993 wrote a letter to the editor of The New York Times about the damage that could be done if the press made Chelsea a subject of intense coverage.
Journalists debated the issue of allowing Clinton to retain her privacy. Most media outlets concluded that she should be off-limits due to her age, although Rush Limbaugh and Saturday Night Live both broadcast material mocking her appearance. During this phase of her life, her father said, "We really work hard on making sure that Chelsea doesn't let other people define her sense of her own self-worth ... It's tough when you are an adolescent ... but I think she'll be ok."
The Clintons' decision to remove Chelsea from public school and send her to Sidwell Friends School, a private school in Washington, D.C., drew criticism. While several children of sitting presidents have attended Sidwell, the most recent prior child, Amy Carter, had gone to D.C. public schools. In a 1993 CBS This Morning town meeting, Bill defended the choice, saying Chelsea did not like "getting a lot of publicity" and would have "more control over her destiny" at Sidwell. Bill explained that they made their decision in an effort to protect Chelsea's privacy; they did not "reject the public schools". Sidwell's students and staff remained silent regarding Chelsea, declining to discuss her publicly. A veteran of Model United Nations, Clinton was a 1997 National Merit Scholarship semifinalist. She graduated from Sidwell Friends in 1997; her father spoke at the graduation ceremony.
Following Chelsea's high school graduation, media speculation regarding her choice of college resulted in heavy press coverage. She ultimately chose to attend Stanford University. During her father's eight years in office, there were 32 stories in The New York Times and 87 network news stories about Chelsea. Of all presidential children preceding her, she received the most television coverage.
Although her father was a Southern Baptist, Clinton was raised in and adheres to her mother's Methodist faith. She attended Foundry United Methodist Church in Washington and met with other teens on Sunday mornings to examine questions of faith, philosophy, and issues of concern to her age group. Her parents joined her at the youth group's parent-teen round tables. An adult group leader thought Clinton to be "a terrific kid" and observed that she was treated as an equal in the group. Away from church, her social activities included visits to a Planet Hollywood restaurant with friends and sleep-overs in and out of the White House. President Clinton sometimes joined her and her sleep-over friends for breakfast.
At age four, Clinton had begun taking dance classes in Arkansas, and she continued her dance training at the Washington School of Ballet for several years. In her book, It Takes a Village, Hillary wrote that Bill was disappointed when Chelsea quit softball and soccer to concentrate on ballet, but he was nonetheless supportive, regularly attending her performances. She was cast in the role of the Favorite Aunt in the 1993 Washington Ballet production of Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker.
In early 1999, the Clintons learned of an article being planned by People that examined the First Family's relationships in the wake of scandals and the impending vote on President Clinton's impeachment. The Secret Service told the magazine they had concerns that the story could compromise Chelsea's security. People decided to run the story anyway, and Bill and Hillary issued a statement expressing their regret and sadness. Carol Wallace, Peoples managing editor, affirmed the magazine's sensitivity to the Clintons' concerns but felt 19-year-old Chelsea was "an eyewitness to family drama and historical events" and thus "a valid journalistic subject". The article, entitled "Grace Under Fire", was published in February 1999 with a cover photo of Chelsea and Hillary.
During the last year of her father's presidency, Chelsea assumed some White House hostess responsibilities when her mother was campaigning for the U.S. Senate, traveling with her father on several overseas trips and attending state dinners with him.
Education and academic life
Stanford University
Clinton entered Stanford University in the fall of 1997 and majored in history.
The week before she arrived on campus, her mother published an open letter in her syndicated column asking journalists to leave her daughter alone. Chelsea arrived at Stanford in a motorcade with her parents, Secret Service agents, and almost 250 journalists. For her security, bullet-proof glass was installed in her dorm windows and surveillance cameras were placed in hallways. Secret Service agents in plain clothes lived in her dorm. With the exception of an occasional tabloid story written about her, Chelsea's four years at Stanford remained out of public view.
Clinton obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in history, with highest honors, at Stanford in 2001. The topic of her 167-page senior thesis was the 1998 Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland, advised by Jack Rakove. At the time of Chelsea's graduation, her father issued a statement: "Hillary and I are grateful for the friendships and great learning experiences Chelsea had at Stanford, and we are very proud of her on this special day."
University of Oxford
Starting on 2001, Chelsea pursued a master's degree at University College of the University of Oxford where her father had studied politics as a Rhodes Scholar. Lord Butler of Brockwell, the Master of University College, said: "Her record at Stanford shows that she is a very well-qualified and able student. The college is also pleased to extend its link with the Clinton family." Upon the recommendation of British and American advisers, the university implemented security measures, and fellow students were asked not to discuss her with the press.
Arriving at Oxford just after the September 11 attacks, Clinton was drawn to other American students who were also feeling the emotional after-effects of the trauma. She told Talk magazine:Every day I encounter some sort of anti-American feeling. Over the summer, I thought I would seek out non-Americans as friends, just for diversity's sake. Now I find that I want to be around Americans—people who I know are thinking about our country as much as I am.
Clinton was criticized for those remarks in the London press and by the newspaper Oxford Student, whose editorial attacking her angered the university. However, people who met Clinton at that time described her as charming, poised and unaffected, as she adjusted successfully to life abroad.
At Oxford University in 2003, Clinton completed a Master of Philosophy degree in international relations. Her 132-page thesis was titled The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB and Malaria: A Response to Global Threats, a Part of a Global Future, supervised by Jennifer Welsh and Ngaire Woods. Following her graduation, she returned to the United States.
In 2011, Clinton transferred back to University College, Oxford, from the Wagner School of Public Service at New York University to complete her Doctor of Philosophy degree in International Relations. She stated this was to be under her preferred doctoral advisor, Ngaire Woods. She finished her dissertation in New York City and was awarded the degree in May 2014. Her dissertation was titled The Global Fund: An Experiment in Global Governance.
Columbia University
In the spring of 2010, Clinton completed a Master of Public Health degree at the Mailman School of Public Health of Columbia University. She began teaching graduate classes there in 2012.
New York University
Starting in 2010, Clinton began serving as Assistant Vice-Provost for the Global Network University of New York University, working on international recruitment strategies. She is the co-founder of the Of Many Institute for Multifaith Leadership at NYU and serves as its co-chair. By 2010, she was also pursuing Doctor of Philosophy coursework at New York University's Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service, but later transferred back to the University of Oxford in 2011 to complete her dissertation.
In 2012, Clinton received an award from the Temple of Understanding for her "work in advancing a new model of integrating interfaith and cross-cultural education into campus life", together with Imam Khalid Latif and Rabbi Yehuda Sarna.
Professional life
In 2003, Clinton joined the consulting firm McKinsey & Company in New York City, and she went to work for Avenue Capital Group in late 2006. She served as co-chair for a fund-raising week for the Clinton Foundation, and subsequently became Vice Chair for the foundation. She serves on the board of the School of American Ballet and on IAC's board of directors. In March 2017, Clinton was named to the board of directors of Expedia Group.
In November 2011, NBC hired Clinton as a special correspondent. One of her roles was reporting stories about "Making a Difference" for NBC Nightly News and Rock Center with Brian Williams. It was a three-month contract and allowed her to concurrently continue working for the Clinton Foundation and pursue her education. Clinton's first appearance was on the December 12, 2011, episode of Rock Center. Although she received some critical reviews for her work, Clinton's contract with NBC was renewed in February 2012. Rock Center ended in May 2013, and she left the network in August 2014. Clinton reportedly earned an annual salary of $600,000 for her work at NBC.
Clinton is the author of five children's picture books, two of which were best sellers, and she co-authored a scholarly book about global health policy. She has also written numerous articles and opinion pieces, published in major media outlets, such as CNN, Time magazine, Huffington Post, Refinery 29 and others.
In April 2021, Clinton launched a podcast on iHeartMedia's iHeartPodcast network titled “In Fact with Chelsea Clinton".
Clinton Foundation
Since 2011, Clinton has taken a prominent role at the family's Clinton Foundation, and has had a seat on its board. As part of her work, she gives paid speeches to raise money with her fees going directly to the foundation, whose goals relate to improving global health, creating opportunities for women, and promoting economic growth. A spokesperson for the foundation told The New York Times in 2014 that her speeches "are on behalf of the Clinton Foundation, and 100 percent of the fees are remitted directly to the foundation".
Author
Children's non-fiction
In September 2015, Clinton's first children's book, It's Your World: Get Informed, Get Inspired and Get Going!, was published by Philomel Books. The 400-page book is aimed at middle school students (ages 10 to 14) and introduces them to a range of social issues, encouraging them to take action to make the world a better place. The paperback edition was published by Puffin Books in 2017.
In May 2017, her second children's book, She Persisted: 13 American Women Who Changed the World , illustrated by Alexandra Boiger, was published by Philomel Books. Upon its release, the book became a bestseller, reaching No.1 on The New York Times Children's Picture Books Best Sellers list on July 30, 2017. In 2019, she worked with the Berkeley, California's Bay Area Children's Theater in adapting the book into a musical play, She Persisted: The Musical, which ran from January to March. The book was inspired by the feminist expression and social media phenomenon Nevertheless, she persisted and is written for a young audience of four- to eight-year-olds.
In 2018, Clinton wrote a companion book featuring women around the world, also published by Philomel and illustrated by Boiger, entitled She Persisted Around the World: 13 Women Who Changed History which debuted at No.2 on the Times''' Children's Picture Books Best Sellers list and remained on the list for 40 weeks.
Clinton's fourth children's book, Start Now!: You Can Make a Difference, was published by Philomel in 2018. It is aimed at empowering young would-be activists aged seven to ten, addressing themes ranging from bullying to climate change to endangered species. In interviews, she talked about how she drew on her personal experiences and strategies for dealing with bullies growing up and as an adult.
In 2019, Clinton published her fifth children's book, Don't Let Them Disappear: 12 Endangered Species Across the Globe. The book, illustrated by Gianna Marino, is about endangered animals and is aimed at teaching children aged four to eight about species in need of protection, an interest of hers for 20 years.
Clinton continued her children's "She Persisted" series in 2020 with She Persisted in Sports: American Olympians Who Changed the Game, also published by Philomel. Again illustrated by Alexandra Boiger, this chapter book celebrates women in sports who broke records and smashed barriers with their persistence.
Co-authored with Hillary Clinton
In 2019, she co-wrote a book with her mother, Hillary Clinton, titled The Book of Gutsy Women: Favorite Stories of Courage and Resilience and they embarked on a multi-city book tour together.
The mother-daughter writing duo followed in 2020 with Grandma's Gardens, a children's book inspired by Hillary's mother Dorothy Rodham, who had a passion for gardening that the authors describe as a loving inter-generational activity.
Scholarly work
Clinton co-authored a highly praised scholarly work on global health policy with Devi Sridhar, entitled Governing Global Health: Who Runs the World and Why?, published in 2017 by Oxford University Press. The book examines the role of partnerships between public and private entities in addressing global health issues.
Political activities
Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign
In December 2007, Clinton began campaigning in Iowa in support of her mother's bid for the Democratic presidential nomination. She appeared across the country, largely on college campuses. By early April 2008, she had spoken at 100 colleges on behalf of her mother's candidacy.
While campaigning, Clinton answered audience questions but did not give interviews or respond to press questions, including one from a nine-year-old Scholastic News reporter asking whether her father would be a good "first man". She replied, "I'm sorry, I don't talk to the press and that applies to you, unfortunately. Even though I think you're cute." Philippe Reines, her mother's press secretary, intervened when the press attempted to approach Chelsea directly.
When MSNBC reporter David Shuster characterized Clinton's participation in her mother's campaign as "sort of being pimped out", the Clinton campaign objected. Shuster subsequently apologized on-air and was suspended for two weeks.
The first time she was asked about her mother's handling of the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal at a campaign stop Clinton responded, "I do not think that is any of your business." As she became a more experienced campaigner, she refined her responses and deflected questions on the issue with comments such as, "If that's what you want to vote on, that's what you should vote on. But I think there are other people [who are] going to vote on things like healthcare and economics."
At the 2008 Democratic National Convention, Chelsea called Hillary "my hero and my mother" and introduced her with a long video tribute.
Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign
As she did in 2008, Clinton again took an active part in her mother's presidential campaign in 2016, expanding her role as surrogate at more than 200 public events across the country, including and beyond college campuses. In July 2016, she introduced her mother at the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia, in a personal, emotional tribute recalling her own upbringing and describing her mother's commitment to issues and to public service.
Throughout the primary and general election campaigns, Clinton spoke about her mother's lifelong work on behalf of women, families, and children, highlighting her positions on healthcare, affordable college tuition and reduction of student debt, climate change, women's reproductive rights, immigration reform, gun violence, and the importance of voter turnout. Clinton gave birth to her second child during the campaign, five weeks before the convention, and she frequently spoke about motherhood and the issues women face in balancing work and home, including the challenges of breastfeeding.
Even prior to her mother's receiving the nomination, Clinton frequently spoke out against candidate Donald Trump's positions and rhetoric, explaining to reporters in Indianapolis in April that she does so because "I think it's important [for] all of us who feel like Mr. Trump's rhetoric of sexism and racism and Islamophobia and anti-immigrant hatred and stance has no place in our country." Later, at a September general election campaign stop in Arizona, she further said, "I never thought I would see in my lifetime the almost daily diet of hate speech coming out of Donald Trump... that too often goes unanswered and unrepudiated by the Republicans. The racism, the sexism, the Islamophobia, the homophobia, the jingoism, the demeaning rhetoric against Americans with disabilities, the disrespect for our veterans, the disrespect for a Gold Star family"; additionally, she also called his stand against Constitutionally guaranteed birthright citizenship "un-American". At one appearance in September 2016, while answering a question about her mother's position supporting medical marijuana research, Clinton got some attention for an inaccurate comment she made regarding drug interactions with marijuana; she walked back the comment a few days later, acknowledging that she misspoke.
Personal life
On July 31, 2010, Clinton and investment banker Marc Mezvinsky were married in an interfaith ceremony at the Astor Courts estate in Rhinebeck, New York. He is Jewish, but Clinton remained a Methodist and did not convert to Judaism. Mezvinsky's parents are both former members of Congress, Marjorie Margolies-Mezvinsky and Edward Mezvinsky, who were raised in the Conservative Jewish tradition. The senior Clintons and Mezvinskys were friends in the 1990s and their children met on a Renaissance Weekend retreat in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina. They first were reported to be a couple in 2005, and became engaged over Thanksgiving weekend in 2009.
Following their wedding, the couple lived in New York City's Gramercy Park neighborhood for three years and later purchased a $10.5 million condominium in the NoMad district of Manhattan. Their first child, a daughter named Charlotte, was born on September 26, 2014. Their second child and first son, named Aidan, was born on June 18, 2016. Shortly after Aidan was born, the family moved to the nearby Flatiron District. Their third child and second son, Jasper, was born on July 22, 2019.
In popular culture
Clinton is portrayed in the 1996 film Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, where Butt-Head flirts with her at the White House; she responds by tossing him out a window.
In Zenon: Girl of the 21st Century, a Disney Channel Original Movie set in the year 2049, Clinton is the President of the United States.
In Clarissa Explains It All, the title character repeatedly imagines Clinton becoming President of the United States.
Clinton is the direct inspiration for the 2004 film Chasing Liberty, starring Mandy Moore and Matthew Goode.
In January 2015, Chelsea Clinton appeared in a Sesame Street'' skit with Elmo, advocating the importance of reading to young children.
Awards and recognitions
Clinton has received awards and honors, including:
Children's Defense Fund Children's Champion Award, 2019
Ida. S. Scudder Centennial Woman's Empowerment Award, 2018
Mother's Day Council Outstanding Mother Award, 2018
BlogHer Voices of the Year Call to Action Award, 2018
Variety Impact Award, 2017
City Harvest Award for Commitment, 2017
Virginia A. Hodgkinson Research Book Prize, 2017
Treatment Action Group Research in Action Award, 2015
Glamour Woman of the Year, 2014
Riverkeeper Honoree, 2014
AJC Interfaith Leadership Award, 2014
Harvard School of Public Health Next Generation Award, 2013
Emery S. Hetrick Award, 2013
New York Observer 20 Most Important Philanthropists, 2013
Published works
Books
(co-author Devi Sridhar)
(by Bryan Rafanelli, foreword by Chelsea Clinton)
(co-author Hillary Clinton)
(co-author Hillary Clinton)
References
External links
1980 births
Living people
20th-century American women
20th-century Baptists
20th-century Methodists
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesswomen
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American women writers
21st-century Methodists
Activists from Little Rock, Arkansas
Activists from New York (state)
Alumni of University College, Oxford
American consulting businesspeople
American financial businesspeople
American health activists
American nonprofit businesspeople
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American people of French-Canadian descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American people of Scottish descent
American people of Welsh descent
American television reporters and correspondents
American United Methodists
American women activists
American women non-fiction writers
American women television journalists
Arkansas Democrats
BBC 100 Women
Businesspeople from Little Rock, Arkansas
Businesspeople from New York City
Children of presidents of the United States
Clinton Foundation people
Columbia University faculty
Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health alumni
Family of Bill and Hillary Clinton
Former Baptists
McKinsey & Company people
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations
Mezvinsky family
New York University staff
People from the Flatiron District, Manhattan
People from Gramercy Park
Rodham family
Sidwell Friends School alumni
Stanford University alumni
Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service alumni
|
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200685
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Munda
|
USS Munda
|
USS Munda (CVE-104) was the last of fifty United States Navy built for service during World War II. She was named after the Battle of Munda Point, which occurred on the island New Georgia, a part of the Solomon Islands in 1943. The ship was launched in May 1944, and commissioned in July, and served as an aircraft transport and as a replenishment escort carrier in the Pacific Theatre. Postwar, she participated in Operation Magic Carpet, the repatriation of U.S. forces from bases scattered around the Pacific. She was decommissioned in April 1946, when she was mothballed in the Pacific Reserve Fleet. Ultimately, she was sold for scrapping in June 1960.
Design and description
Munda was a Casablanca-class escort carrier, the most numerous type of aircraft carriers ever built, and designed specifically to be mass-produced using prefabricated sections, in order to replace heavy early war losses. Standardized with her sister ships, she was long overall, with a length at the waterline, she had a beam of , at her widest point, this was , and a draft of . She displaced standard, with a full load. She had a long hangar deck and a long flight deck. She was powered with two Uniflow reciprocating steam engines, which drove two shafts, providing , thus enabling her to make . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . Her compact size necessitated the installation of an aircraft catapult at her bow, and there were two aircraft elevators to facilitate movement of aircraft between the flight and hangar deck: one each fore and aft.
One /38 caliber dual-purpose gun was mounted on the stern. Anti-aircraft defense was provided by eight Bofors anti-aircraft guns in single mounts, as well as twelve Oerlikon cannons, which were mounted around the perimeter of the deck. By the end of the war, Casablanca-class carriers had been modified to carry thirty 20 mm cannons, and the amount of 40 mm guns had been doubled to sixteen, by putting them into twin mounts. These modifications were in response to increasing casualties due to kamikaze attacks. Casablanca-class escort carriers were designed to carry 27 aircraft, but the hangar deck could accommodate more.
Construction
She was laid down on 29 March 1944, under a Maritime Commission contract, MC hull 1141, by the Kaiser Shipbuilding Company, Vancouver, Washington. The vessel was originally designated ACV-104, but was redesignated CVE-104 on 15 July 1943. She was initially named after Tonowek Bay, located within Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, 23 September 1943, and renamed Munda on 6 November 1943, in honor of the Battle of Munda Point, in the Solomon Islands, which was fought in July and August of that year. Munda was launched on 27 May 1944, sponsored by Mrs. James E. Dyer, to be accepted and commissioned on 8 July 1944, under the command of Captain L. A. Pope.
Service history
World War II
Upon being commissioned, Munda underwent a shakedown cruise down the West Coast. She was then assigned to Carrier Transport Squadron Pacific, which shuttled aircraft and crew to bases in the West Pacific. On 16 August, she departed the West Coast, carrying 71 aircraft and 251 military passengers. She steamed for the island of Espiritu Santo, in the New Hebrides, arriving on 1 September. She then stopped at Finschhafen and Manus Island, both part of the Territory of New Guinea, before heading back to the West Coast. She proceeded to Alameda, California, where she made a brief layover. She then made another transport run, arriving back on 5 December, before making a third run on 12 December. She made three more runs until mid-1945, for six transport missions in total. During one of these runs, Captain Welton Dana Rowley took over command of the vessel on 13 May 1945. On 3 July, she sailed for Eniwetok, of the Marshall Islands, where she was assigned to become a replenishment escort carrier, supporting the Third Fleet's frontline Fast Carrier Task Force as part of Task Group 30.8, the Fleet Oiler and Transport Carrier Group. Replenishment escort carriers such as Munda enabled the frontline carriers to replace battle losses, and to stay at sea for longer durations.
Munda met Task Group 30.8 on 20 July, and began to provide aircraft to replace losses sustained in raids against the Japanese home islands. The replenishment escort carrier fleet would meet with the Fast Carrier Task Force on designated rendezvous days, during which supplies, munitions, and aircraft would be transferred. During this time, she was anchored off Guam, where she received aircraft, munitions, and other supplies. She stopped at Guam on 26 July, before rejoining her task group on 3 August. She met with, and resupplied the Third Fleet on 3 August, 7 August, and 11 August. She departed her formation on 13 August, to head back to Guam and was en route, when the Japanese surrender was announced. After rejoining her task group, she supported the landings of Allied forces in the occupation of Japan, remaining on station through the first week of the occupation. On 10 September, she steamed into Tokyo Bay, shortly after the signing of the official surrender document.
Munda departed Tokyo Bay on 2 October, whereupon she joined the Operation Magic Carpet fleet, which repatriated U.S. servicemen from around the Pacific. She took part in several Magic Carpet runs until 1946, when she was released from the fleet. She proceeded to Port Angeles, Washington, arriving on 18 January 1946. There, inactivation work was conducted, and she was subsequently decommissioned on 13 September, and mothballed as part of the Pacific Reserve Fleet. She was redesignated as a utility aircraft carrier, CVU-104, on 12 June 1955. She was transferred to Bremerton, Washington on 29 April 1958. There, she was struck from the Navy list on 1 September, and sold for scrapping on 17 June 1960 to General Ore Co., New York. She was ultimately broken up in Japan throughout October 1960. She received one battle star for her World War II service.
See also
References
Sources
Online sources
Bibliography
External links
Photo gallery at navsource.org
Casablanca-class escort carriers
World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Vancouver, Washington
1944 ships
Pacific Reserve Fleet, Bremerton Group
S4-S2-BB3 ships
|
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200686
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Winterton
|
George Winterton
|
George Graham Winterton (15 December 1946 – 6 November 2008) was an Australian academic specialising in Australian constitutional law. Winterton taught for 28 years at the University of New South Wales before taking up an appointment of Professor of Constitutional Law at the University of Sydney in 2004.
Winterton served as a member of the Executive Government Advisory Committee of the Constitutional Commission from 1985 to 1987.
Early life
Winterton was born in Hong Kong on 15 December 1946. His parents, Rita and Walter, had married in Hong Kong after fleeing Austria shortly after the 1938 Nazi invasion. His father practised medicine in Japanese-occupied Hong Kong and, in May 1947, he and his family sailed to London on the MV Lorenz. Walter having gained an English medical qualification, the Wintertons left Britain in 1948, arriving in Australia in November where Walter became a general practitioner in Western Australia, first at Pingelly, then Mount Hawthorn (North Perth) and then, after the birth of George's only sibling, Peter, at Tuart Hill from 1953. George attended the local primary schools until 1958 when he started at Hale, then in West Perth.
Education and early legal practice
In 1968, George graduated with first class honours in law from the University of Western Australia. He had won four prizes, and was placed first in his final year. Winterton later completed a master's degree by research in 1970, on the topic of the appropriations power under the Australian Constitution.
On graduation, Winterton became an articled clerk with the firm of Robinson Cox (now Clayton Utz) and was admitted to practice in Western Australia in 1970. From 1971 to 1973 he practised with the firm Frank Unmack and Cullen in Fremantle.
Winterton's academic career began in 1968 when he served as a visiting tutor at the University of Western Australia.
Foundation of the Aboriginal Legal Service in Western Australia
The Chief Justice of Australia, Robert French, wrote of the early 1970s "when we were involved with other Perth lawyers in establishing an Aboriginal Legal Service for Western Australia":
"George played a leading role, and in 1972 was chairman of the committee that became the service. In that year he sent a letter to the then Coalition government asking for a modest grant to establish a duty counsel service. The election intervened."
"The response, when it came, was astonishing. Gordon Bryant, the new minister for Aboriginal affairs, asked how much money we would need to provide representation for Aboriginal people throughout the state."
Also involved with George were "a future federal minister, Fred Chaney; High Court judge Ron Wilson; the present Chief Justice of the High Court, Robert French; future state premier Peter Dowding; and others...."
Marriage and family
In 1976, George met Rosalind Julian who, at that time, was studying arts at the University of New South Wales. They married in 1979, and four children followed: David (LLB UNSW, 2004 Rhodes scholar), Philip (completing a law degree at the University of Technology, Sydney), Madeleine (BA Sydney) and Julia (enrolled in economics/social science, Sydney University).
Academic career
In 1973 Winterton won a Fulbright scholarship to study law at Columbia University in New York City, where he served as an associate-in-law, teaching legal research and writing, and international law.
While at Columbia, Winterton was interviewed for a position at the Law Faculty of the University of New South Wales, and he returned to Australia in 1975 to take up an appointment as a Senior Lecturer.
In 1983, Winterton completed his Doctorate of Juridical Science (JSD) at Columbia. His thesis on the executive power of the Commonwealth of Australia became the core of Parliament, the Executive and the Governor-General, which was published by Melbourne University Press in 1983, and which is still regarded as the leading text on the subject. In 1998, Winterton founded the Constitutional Law and Policy Review, remaining its general editor until his death.
At UNSW, Winterton taught Public Law, Succession and Advanced Equity, Advanced Administrative Law, International Law and, ultimately, Federal Constitutional Law, the High Court of Australia, Comparative Law, Legal History and Comparative Constitutional Law. He was promoted to professor of law, and was awarded a Jubilee Medallion in 1999.
In 2004 Winterton took up a position of Professor of Constitutional Law at the University of Sydney, where he taught Federal Constitutional Law, High Court of Australia, and Comparative Constitutional Law. Winterton did not sever his ties with UNSW, where he had several colleagues in his field, and the university recognised his service by appointing him Emeritus Professor in 2004.
The University of Western Australia awarded him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws in 2007.
Illness and death
In 1998 Winterton developed a rare sarcoma in his left leg, and in 2001 he was diagnosed with bowel cancer. "He continued to write, teach, and publish, interrupted by operations, chemotherapy and countless investigations and procedures." Only in the last months did he cease to attend his Sydney Law School office where he would arrive around noon, and work late, often until 2:00 am. George Winterton died in Sydney on 6 November 2008, aged 61. He was survived by his mother Rita, wife Ros, four children and his brother.
Public affairs and constitutional reform
Winterton provided legal advice to Commonwealth and state governments, other public bodies and law firms.
Winterton criticised Sir Garfield Barwick and Sir John Kerr for not having paid closer attention to the constitution before Kerr, the governor-general, sacked the Whitlam government in 1975, with Barwick's advice. Winterton said Barwick had invented a convention that "a prime minister who cannot obtain supply ... must either advise a general election or resign", pointing out that, although section 83 of the constitution forbids the expenditure of unappropriated funds, appropriated funds had not been exhausted. The sacking, he said, diminished respect for conventions.
He served as a member of the Executive Government Advisory Committee for the Constitutional Commission in 1986 and 1987, chaired by Sir Zelman Cowen.
His Monarchy to Republic helped reignite debate over the issue of Australian republicanism. In 1993, he served as a member of the Republic Advisory Committee. He was appointed as a delegate to the 1998 Constitutional Convention. He wrote the original bi-partisan appointment model.
Chief Justice Robert French has written:
He also proposed a new preamble for the Constitution and amendments necessary to reflect a minimalist Republican model. George spelt out certain principles which should guide the formulation of a new constitutional preamble. They were reflective of his own personality and approach to legal issues. Shortly they were:
1. A conservative principle -- the existing preamble should be retained as far as possible for constitutional continuity and social harmony.
2. The preamble should be honest. It should not make promises about rights which the Constitution itself would not deliver.
3. The prose should be pithy, avoiding jargon and platitude.
4. It should embody only the most fundamental, uncontroversial and universally acceptable values.
5. It should avoid provisions likely to have legal effect. They should be found in the body of the Constitution.
His proposed preamble was founded upon the notion of popular sovereignty and ended with the words: "We, the people of Australia, do hereby enact and give to ourselves this Constitution."
Legacy
A Gedenkschrift in celebration of his life and learning has been published: H. P. Lee and Peter Gerangelos (eds), Constitutional Advancement in a Frozen Continent: Essays in Honour of George Winterton (2009).
The inaugural George Winterton Lecture was delivered by Chief Justice Robert French, of the High Court of Australia, on 18 February 2010 at the Sydney Law School on the topic of the Executive Power under the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia.
Winterton's textbook Australian Federal Constitutional Law: Commentary and Materials, first published in 1999, with a second edition in 2007, appeared in a third edition in 2013 with his pupil Peter Gerangelos as general editor.
Bibliography
Notes
External links
Obituary, Sydney Morning Herald
Profile, University of Sydney
Professor Winterton Video
Winterton Republican Constitution
Obituary, The Australian
Obituary, UNSW Law School
1946 births
2008 deaths
Australian lawyers
Australian legal scholars
Australian republicans
Columbia Law School alumni
Quadrant (magazine) people
Republic Advisory Committee
University of New South Wales faculty
University of Sydney faculty
20th-century lawyers
|
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] |
200690
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web%20container
|
Web container
|
A web container (also known as a servlet container;
and compare "webcontainer") is the component of a web server that interacts with Jakarta Servlets. A web container is responsible for managing the lifecycle of servlets, mapping a URL to a particular servlet and ensuring that the URL requester has the correct access-rights. A web container handles requests to servlets, Jakarta Server Pages (JSP) files, and other types of files that include server-side code. The Web container creates servlet instances, loads and unloads servlets, creates and manages request and response objects, and performs other servlet-management tasks. A web container implements the web component contract of the Jakarta EE architecture. This architecture specifies a runtime environment for additional web components, including security, concurrency, lifecycle management, transaction, deployment, and other services.
List of Servlet containers
The following is a list of applications which implement the Jakarta Servlet specification from Eclipse Foundation, divided depending on whether they are directly sold or not.
Open source Web containers
Apache Tomcat (formerly Jakarta Tomcat) is an open source web container available under the Apache Software License.
Apache Tomcat 6 and above are operable as general application container (prior versions were web containers only)
Apache Geronimo is a full Java EE 6 implementation by Apache Software Foundation.
Enhydra, from Lutris Technologies.
GlassFish from Oracle (an application server, but includes a web container).
Jaminid contains a higher abstraction than servlets.
Jetty, from the Eclipse Foundation. Also supports SPDY and WebSocket protocols.
Payara is another application server, derived from Glassfish.
Winstone supports specification v2.5 as of 0.9, has a focus on minimal configuration and the ability to strip the container down to only what you need.
Tiny Java Web Server (TJWS) 2.5 , small footprint, modular design.
Virgo from Eclipse Foundation provides modular, OSGi based web containers implemented using embedded Tomcat and Jetty. Virgo is available under the Eclipse Public License.
WildFly (formerly JBoss Application Server) is a full Java EE implementation by Red Hat, division JBoss.
Commercial Web containers
iPlanet Web Server, from Oracle.
JBoss Enterprise Application Platform from Red Hat, division JBoss is subscription-based/open-source Jakarta EE-based application server.
JRun, from Adobe Systems (formerly developed by Allaire Corporation).
WebLogic Application Server, from Oracle Corporation (formerly developed by BEA Systems).
Orion Application Server, from IronFlare.
Resin Pro, from Caucho Technology.
ServletExec, from New Atlanta Communications.
IBM WebSphere Application Server.
SAP NetWeaver.
tc Server, from SpringSource Inc.
References
Computer networking
Java platform
Software architecture
Web applications
Web development
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariq%20Aziz
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Tariq Aziz
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Tariq Aziz ( , 28 April 1936 – 5 June 2015) was an Iraqi politician who served as Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs and a close advisor of President Saddam Hussein. Their association began in the 1950s when both were activists for the then-banned Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. A Christian Assyrian, he was both an Arab nationalist and a member of the Chaldean Catholic Church.
Because of security concerns, Saddam rarely left Iraq, so Aziz would often represent Iraq at high-level diplomatic summits. What the United States wanted, he averred, was not "regime change" in Iraq but rather "region change". He said that the Bush Administration's reasons for war were "oil and Israel."
After surrendering to American forces on 24 April 2003, Aziz was held in prison, first by American forces and subsequently by the Iraqi government, in Camp Cropper in western Baghdad. He was acquitted of some charges on 1 March 2009 following a trial, but was sentenced to 15 years on 11 March 2009 for the executions of 42 merchants found guilty of profiteering in 1992 and another 7 years for relocating Kurds.
On 26 October 2010, he was sentenced to death by the Iraqi High Tribunal, which sparked regional and international condemnation from Iraqi bishops and other Iraqis, the Vatican, the United Nations, the European Union and the human rights organization Amnesty International, as well as various governments around the world, such as Russia. On 28 October 2010, it was reported that Aziz, as well as 25 fellow prison inmates, had begun a hunger strike to protest the fact that they could not receive their once-monthly visit from friends and relatives, which was normally set for the last Friday of each month.
Iraqi President Jalal Talabani declared that he would not sign Aziz's execution order, thus commuting his sentence to indefinite imprisonment. Aziz remained in custody the rest of his life and died of a heart attack in the city of Nasiriyah on 5 June 2015, aged 79.
Early life and education
Mikhail Yuhanna ( ) was born on 28 April 1936, in Tel Keppe, northern Iraq, to an ethnic Assyrian family. He studied English at Baghdad University and later worked as a journalist, before joining the Ba'ath Party in 1957. He changed his distinctly Christian name in Syriac to the more Arabic sounding Tariq Aziz to gain acceptance by the Arab and Muslim majority. In 1963, he was editor of the newspaper Al-Jamahir and Al-Thawra, the newspaper of the Ba'ath party.
Political career
He began to rise through the ranks of Iraqi politics after the Ba'ath party came to power in 1968. Aziz became close to Saddam Hussein who heavily promoted him. He served as a member of the Regional Command, the Ba'ath Party's highest governing organization from 1974 to 1977, and in 1977 became a member of Saddam's Revolutionary Command Council.
In 1979, Aziz became Deputy Prime Minister of Iraq, and worked as a diplomat to explain Iraq's policies to the world. In April 1980 he survived an Iranian-backed assassination attempt carried out by members of the Islamic Dawa Party. In the attack, members of Islamic Dawa Party threw a grenade at Aziz in central Baghdad. The attack killed several people. It was part of the casus belli of the Iran–Iraq War.
When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, Aziz served as the international spokesman in support of the military action. He claimed the invasion was justified because Kuwait's increased oil production was harming Iraqi oil revenues. He condemned Arab states for "subservience to the United States' hegemony in the Middle East and their support for punitive sanctions." On 9 January 1991, Aziz was involved in the Geneva Peace Conference which included the United States Secretary of State, James Baker. The goal of the meeting was to discuss a possible resolution to the occupation of Kuwait.
Iraq war
In October 2000, the then-junior Minister for Foreign Affairs from Britain, Peter Hain, set up a secret war avoidance team to carry messages back and forth between himself and Aziz. After initial cooperation, Aziz rebuffed the delegations.
On 14 February 2003, Aziz reportedly had an audience with Pope John Paul II and other officials in Vatican City, where, according to a Vatican statement, he communicated "the wish of the Iraqi government to co-operate with the international community, notably on disarmament". The same statement said that the Pope "insisted on the necessity for Iraq to faithfully respect and give concrete commitments to resolutions of the United Nations Security Council, which is the guarantor of international law".
Weapons of mass destruction
Shortly after the invasion of Iraq, President George W. Bush claimed Aziz as one of the Iraqi regime who was responsible for hiding Iraqi WMD:
Detention
He voluntarily surrendered to American forces on 24 April 2003, after negotiations had been mediated by his son. His chief concern at the time was for the welfare of his family. At the time of his surrender, Aziz was ranked number 43 out of 55 in the American list of most-wanted Iraqis despite a belief "he probably would not know answers to questions like where weapons of mass destruction may be hidden and where Saddam Hussein might be."
Before the war, Aziz claimed he would rather die than be a U.S. prisoner of war: "Do you expect me, after all my history as a militant and as one of the Iraqi leaders, to go to an American prison – to go to Guantanamo? I would rather die", he told Britain's ITV.
Defense witness
On 24 May 2006, Aziz testified in Baghdad as a defence witness for Ibrahim Barzan and Mukhabarat employees, claiming that they did not have any role in the 1982 Dujail crackdown. He stated that the arrests were in response to the assassination attempt on Saddam Hussein, which was carried out by the Shiite Dawa Party. "If the head of state comes under attack, the state is required by law to take action. If the suspects are caught with weapons, it's only natural they should be arrested and put on trial".
He further testified that the Dujail attack was "part of a series of attacks and assassination attempts by this group, including against me." He said that in 1980, Dawa Party insurgents threw a grenade at him as he visited a Baghdad university, killing civilians around him. "I'm a victim of a criminal act conducted by this party, which is in power right now. So put it on trial. Its leader was the prime minister and his deputy is the prime minister right now and they killed innocent Iraqis in 1980," he said. The Dawa Party is now a party in the Shiite coalition that dominates the Iraqi government. The party's leader, Ibrahim al-Jaafari, was prime minister until mid-May, when another leading Dawa Party figure, Nouri al-Maliki, was picked and he was able to form a new government before the end of May 2006.
In his closing remarks, he stated that "Saddam is my colleague and comrade for decades, and Barzan is my brother and my friend and he is not responsible for Dujail's events."
Imprisonment
On 29 May 2005, the British newspaper The Observer published letters (in Arabic and English) from Aziz written in April and May 2005, while he was in American custody, addressed to "world public opinion" pleading for international help to end "his dire situation":
In August 2005, Aziz's family was allowed to visit him. At the time the location of Aziz's prison was undisclosed; his family was brought in a bus with blackened out windows.
For security reasons he was later moved to Camp Cropper, part of the huge US base surrounding Baghdad airport. His son said that while his father was in poor health, he was being well treated by prison officials. He could make 30 minutes of telephone calls monthly and had access to US Arabic-language radio and television stations. Every two months his family could send a parcel containing clothes, cigarettes, chocolate, coffee and magazines.
The spiritual leader of Iraq's Chaldean Catholic community, Emmanuel III Delly, called for Aziz's release in his 2007 Christmas message. Aziz was acquitted of crimes against humanity.
On 17 January 2010, Aziz suffered a stroke and was transferred from prison to hospital. On 5 August 2010, The Guardian released his first face-to-face interview since his surrender. On 22 September 2010, documents were released that he had given an interview about how he had told the FBI that the dictator Hussein was "delighted" in the 1998 terrorist bombings of two U.S. embassies in East Africa but had no interest in partnering with Osama bin Laden.
Trial
Aziz was set to appear before the Iraqi High Tribunal set up by the Iraq Interim Government, but not until April 2008 was he brought up on any charges. This changed when, on 29 April 2008, Aziz went on trial over the deaths of a group of 42 merchants who were executed by the Iraqi regime in 1992, after the merchants had been charged by the Iraqi regime with manipulating food prices when Iraq was under international sanctions.
The charges brought against Aziz were reported by The Independent to be "surprising" as the deaths of the 42 merchants had always previously been attributed to Saddam Hussein. Nevertheless, on 11 March 2009 the Iraqi High Tribunal ruled that Aziz was guilty of crimes against humanity, and he was sentenced to 15 years in prison. On 2 August 2009, Aziz was convicted by the Iraqi High Tribunal of helping to plan the forced displacement of Kurds from northeastern Iraq and sentenced to seven years in jail. After these judgments had been passed, BBC News stated that "there was no evidence that a Western court would regard as compelling that he had anything like final responsibility for the carrying out of the executions" of the 42 merchants and "there was no real evidence of his personal involvement and guilt" with regards to the displacement of Kurds. That same year, he was acquitted in a separate trial which concerned the suppression of an uprising in Baghdad during the 1990s.
On 26 October 2010, the Iraqi High Tribunal handed down a death sentence against Aziz for the offense of "persecution of Islamic parties," amongst them the serving Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki's Islamic Dawa Party, following a crackdown on a Shia uprising after the 1991 Gulf War. The Associated Press reports that "the judge gave no details of Aziz's specific role" in the crackdown. His lawyer stated that Aziz's role in the former Iraqi government was in the arena of "Iraq's diplomatic and political relations only, and had nothing to do with the executions and purges carried during Hussein's reign." His lawyer further stated that the death sentence itself was politically motivated and that timing of the death sentence may have been aimed at diverting international attention away from documents released by WikiLeaks, which detailed crimes in which Maliki government officials have been implicated. His lawyers had 30 days to lodge an appeal, following which the court would have another 30 days to look into the appeal; if the appeal is turned down the sentence would be carried out after another 30 days. On 26 October 2010 the Vatican urged the Iraqi government not to carry out his execution, and European Union foreign policy chief Catherine Ashton stated that Aziz's execution would be "unacceptable and the EU will seek to commute his sentence." That same day, the human rights organization Amnesty International issued a statement condemning the use of the death penalty in this case, as well as for the cases of two other former Iraqi officials; the statement also expressed concern regarding the manner in which trials may have been conducted by the Iraqi High Tribunal. On 27 October 2010, Greek President Karolos Papoulias and the Russian Foreign Ministry both released statements urging the Iraqi government not to carry out the death penalty against Aziz. Also on 27 October 2010, a spokesperson for United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon was reported to have "stressed that the UN is against the death sentence and in this case, as in all others, it is calling for the verdict to be cancelled." On 28 October 2010, it was reported that some Iraqi Bishops and many ordinary Iraqis also condemned the death penalty for Aziz. Furthermore, according to The Wall Street Journal, "several international human-rights groups have criticised the procedures and questioned the impartiality of the court."
According to Agence France-Presse (AFP), his family stated that Aziz, along with 25 fellow inmates, had been on a hunger strike following the sentence to protest the denial of their once-monthly visits with family and friends, but an Iraqi court official has denied this. According to AFP, Aziz and the other prisoners were "still at the site of the court in Baghdad’s Green Zone and had not been transferred back to prison where they could have received their monthly visit."
On 17 November 2010, it was reported that Iraqi President Jalal Talabani had declared that he would not sign Aziz's execution order. On 5 December 2011, Saad Yousif al-Muttalibi, an adviser to the Prime Minister, had claimed the execution of Aziz would "definitely take place" after the withdrawal of American forces.
Family
In 2001, his son Ziad was arrested for corruption. In January 1999, Ziad was accused by his former mistress of using the official position of his father (mostly his cars) to facilitate smooth crossing of the Jordanian border with contraband, attempted murder of her husband and family, as well as for corruption involving French and Indonesian companies. He was arrested and sentenced to 22 years in prison. Aziz resigned from his post but Saddam did not accept his resignation. Ziad was eventually released from prison when Saddam decided that Aziz had paid enough for his mistakes.
Ziad Aziz now lives in Jordan with his wife, four children, and Tariq Aziz's two sisters. Tariq Aziz's wife and another son live in Jordan.
Death
Tariq Aziz died on 5 June 2015 in al-Hussein hospital in the city of Nasiriyah, at the age of 79. According to his lawyer, he was being treated well in prison but suffered from ill health and simply wanted an end to his "misery". The incarcerated Aziz suffered from depression, diabetes, heart disease, and ulcers. Aziz's daughter, Zeinab, claimed his body was stolen at Baghdad International Airport en route to Jordan by unidentified men on 11 June, but it was recovered the day after. Jordanian authorities said the body had not been stolen, but merely delayed until the relevant paperwork was filled out. Aziz was buried in Madaba.
References
External links
Tariq Aziz faces US questions, bbc.co.uk, 25 April 2003
Tariq Aziz Profile, bbc.co.uk, 11 October 2002
Interview with PBS
1936 births
2015 deaths
Members of the Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
Disease-related deaths in Iraq
Foreign ministers of Iraq
Iraqi Arab nationalists
Chaldean Catholics
Iraqi diplomats
Iraqi Eastern Catholics
Iraqi people of the Iran–Iraq War
People from Tel Keppe
People of the 1991 uprisings in Iraq
University of Baghdad alumni
Iraqi prisoners sentenced to death
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerks%20%28film%29
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Clerks (film)
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Clerks is a 1994 American black-and-white comedy buddy film written, produced and directed by Kevin Smith. The film stars Brian O'Halloran and Jeff Anderson. It presents a day in the lives of titular store clerks Dante Hicks (O'Halloran) and Randal Graves (Anderson), along with their acquaintances. Clerks is the first of Smith's View Askewniverse films, and introduces several recurring characters, notably Jay and Silent Bob (Jason Mewes and Smith).
Clerks was shot for $27,575 in the convenience and video stores where director Smith worked in real life. Upon its theatrical release, the film received generally positive reviews and grossed over $3 million in theaters, launching Smith's career. The film is considered a landmark in independent filmmaking and, in 2019, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, who deemed it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Plot
Dante Hicks, a young man who works as a retail clerk at Quick Stop Groceries in Leonardo, New Jersey, is called into work on his day off to cover another employee's morning shift. Arriving at the store, he finds that the locks to the security shutters are jammed closed with chewing gum, so he hangs a sheet over them with a message written in shoe polish: "I ASSURE YOU; WE'RE OPEN!". Soon after opening, Dante's best friend, wisecracking slacker Randal Graves, arrives for his own workday at the video rental store next door.
The two prepare for another ordinary day immersed in their tedious customer service jobs. Dante repeatedly laments that he is "not even supposed to be here today," while Randal neglects his job at the video store to keep Dante company at the Quick Stop. They pass the time engaging in philosophical discussions on a wide variety of topics, including movies, sex, relationships, and difficult customers. Some of the customers they encounter during the day are angry and demanding; others, clueless and impolite; still others prove unexpectedly wise. After several hours, Dante discovers that his boss has left on a trip to Vermont, leaving him to run the store alone for the rest of the day. Dante and Randal find a number of reasons to leave the store and slack off, from a rooftop hockey game with Dante's friends to an ill-fated wake for one of Dante's ex-lovers.
Dante is torn between two women: his current girlfriend Veronica Loughran and his ex-girlfriend Caitlin Bree, with whom he still secretly communicates. Dante is distressed when he learns Veronica has given oral sex to 36 other men before him, and engaged in snowballing with at least one. Despite Veronica's doting on him, Dante chooses to rekindle his relationship with Caitlin. However, Caitlin is traumatized by an incident in the Quick Stop bathroom; in the dark, she has sex with a person that she thought was Dante, but who was actually a customer who had died of a heart attack while masturbating to a pornographic magazine Dante provided him. Caitlin leaves catatonic in an ambulance.
Jay and Silent Bob, a pair of drug dealers who have spent the day loitering outside the store, invite Dante to party with them after hours, but Dante declines, considering the various seedy characters the two have been attracting all day. Aware of Dante's problems, Silent Bob tersely convinces him that he really loves Veronica, but Randal has already confessed the previous events to her, prompting Veronica to dramatically dump Dante. Dante fights with Randal, trashing the Quick Stop.
Dante and Randal have a crucial moment of clarity after their fight. Randal hears Dante repeat his refrain that he's "not even supposed to be here today" and points out that Dante could have left at any time and prevented the day's events; furthermore, he says they are not as "advanced" as they think they are, or else they would not be stuck in such lowly jobs.
After the two make amends, Dante plans to visit Caitlin in the hospital and try to reconcile with Veronica. Randal leaves, but not before tossing Dante's shoe-polish sign in his face and declaring, "You're closed!"
Cast
Production
The MPAA originally gave Clerks an NC-17 rating, based purely on the film's explicit dialogue, as it contains no real violence and no clearly depicted nudity. This would have serious financial implications for the film, as very few cinemas in the United States screen NC-17 films. Miramax hired civil liberties lawyer Alan Dershowitz to appeal the decision and the MPAA relented and re-rated the film with the more commercially viable "R" rating, without alteration.
The film was shot in black-and-white and roughly edited due to a very modest budget of $27,575. To acquire the funds for the film, Kevin Smith sold a large portion of his extensive comic book collection in 1993, maxed out eight to ten credit cards with $2,000 limits, dipped into a portion of funds set aside for his college education, and spent insurance money awarded for a car he lost in a flood. The film was shot in 21 straight days (with two "pick-up" days). Smith based the character of Dante Hicks on himself, and Randal Graves on his friend Bryan Johnson who appeared in Smith's subsequent films.
The Quick Stop convenience store (located at 58 Leonard Avenue in Leonardo, New Jersey), where Smith worked, was the primary setting for the film. He was only allowed to film in the store at night while it was closed (from 10:30 pm to 5:30 am), hence the plot point of the shutters being closed due to a vandal having jammed gum in the padlocks. Because Smith was working at Quick Stop during the day and shooting the film at night, he frequently slept no more than an hour a day. By the end of the 21-day shoot, Smith was unable to stay awake while some of the most climactic scenes of the film were shot.
The lost scene
The events of Julie Dwyer's wake were scripted by Smith but were not filmed due to the prohibitive cost of producing the scene. For the tenth anniversary Clerks X DVD release, the scene was produced in color using an animation style similar to that of Clerks: The Animated Series. The "lost scene" was also presented in comic-book form of the Clerks comic book series, with the title of "The Lost Scene".
Original ending
The original ending for the film was meant to continue from when Randal throws the "I Assure You We're Open" sign to Dante. After Randal leaves, Dante proceeds to count out the register and does not notice another person entering the store. Upon Dante's informing the latecomer that the store is no longer open, the customer shoots Dante, killing him. Afterward, the killer makes off with all the money from the cash register. The sequence ends with Dante's dead face looking off past the camera; after the credits roll – the soundtrack over it being a cash register making noises – a customer (played by Smith with his beard shaved off) wearing glasses and in a ponytail and a baseball jersey comes into the store, sees no one around (as Dante is lying dead behind the counter) and steals some cigarettes.
The depressing ending was criticized by Bob Hawk and John Pierson after its first screening at the Independent Feature Film Market, and under Pierson's advice, Smith cut the ending short, ending with Randal's departure and deleting Dante's death. Fans have since analyzed the death of Dante as an homage to the ending of The Empire Strikes Back, which is discussed earlier in the film as Dante's favorite Star Wars movie because "it ended on such a down note". Deleted scenes from the film's extended cut also implied that the killer would never be caught, as Randal disconnected the security cameras earlier in the day.
Kevin Smith has since claimed he concluded Clerks this way for three reasons. The primary reason was irony, the ending would be the payoff for Dante's repeated claims of "I'm not even supposed to be here today!" Smith also stated that the ending was an homage to Spike Lee's ending to Do The Right Thing, a comedic film with a dark ending. Lee's name can even be seen in the "special thanks" portion of the credits. Smith also stated that he ended Clerks with Dante's death because he "didn't know how to end a film". Both versions are available in Clerks X, the 10th-anniversary special edition; the lost ending itself was among the extras on the 1995 LaserDisc and the 1999 DVD release; Smith states in his commentary on the 1999 DVD that had he kept the original ending, likely no further View Askewniverse films would have been made. The culprit in question was played by Smith's cousin John Willyung, who went on to appear in later films (most notably as Cohee Lunden in Chasing Amy). On their movie review show, Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert (both of whom had given thumbs-up reviews to the film in 1994), had a special segment on a November 1995 show that presented and discussed this original ending. Gene said that having that kind of ending could have worked but would have needed much more tension and dread-infused material to suggest that something like this could happen, while Roger said he understood Kevin Smith's desire to do something memorable/shocking but concluded "ultimately, I'm glad Smith decided to spare Dante."
Reception
Box office
Clerks became a surprising success after it was taken by Miramax Films and grossed over $3 million in the United States, despite never playing on more than 50 theater screens in the United States at the same time.
Critical response
Clerks was well received by critics and developed a cult following. On Rotten Tomatoes, it currently has an 89% "Certified Fresh" rating based on 57 reviews, with an average rating of 7.50/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "With its quirky characters and clever, quotable dialogue, Clerks is the ultimate clarion call for slackers everywhere to unite, and, uh, do something, we guess?" On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 70 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". In his 1994 review of Clerks, Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of a possible four. Ebert praised the film for interestingly depicting a full day of "utterly authentic" middle-class life, adding: "Within the limitations of his bare-bones production, Smith shows great invention, a natural feel for human comedy, and a knack for writing weird, sometimes brilliant, dialogue." Peter Travers gave the film four out of four stars, calling attention to Anderson's "deadpan comic brilliance" and writing that "Smith nails the obsessive verbal wrangling of smart, stalled twentysomethings who can't figure out how to get their ideas into motion."
Year-end lists
8th – Yardena Arar, Los Angeles Daily News
10th – Todd Anthony, Miami New Times
11th – Peter Travers, Rolling Stone
Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Bob Ross, The Tampa Tribune
Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Jeff Simon, The Buffalo News
Top 10 (not ranked) – Betsy Pickle, Knoxville News-Sentinel
Top 10 runners-up (not ranked) – Janet Maslin, The New York Times
Honorable mention – Dan Webster, The Spokesman-Review
Honorable mention – Michael MacCambridge, Austin American-Statesman
Legacy
When released, the film was noted for its realism and memorable characters. Clerks won the "Award of the Youth" and the "Mercedes-Benz Award" at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival, tied with Fresh for the "Filmmakers Trophy" at the Sundance Film Festival and was nominated for three Independent Spirit Awards (Best First Feature, Best First Screenplay and Jeff Anderson for Best Debut Performance). In 2000, readers of Total Film magazine voted Clerks the 16th-greatest comedy film of all time and in 2006, British film magazine Empire listed Clerks as the 4th greatest independent film. The film is also No. 33 on Bravo's 100 Funniest Movies. In 2008, Entertainment Weekly ranked it 13th on "The Cult 25: The Essential Left-Field Movie Hits Since '83" and 21st on "The Comedy 25: The Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years". Also in 2008, Empire named it one of their "500 Greatest Movies of All-Time", placing it 361st on the list. The film was also one of the 500 films nominated for a spot on AFI's 100 Years…100 Laughs but failed to make the top 100. The film was also included in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die.
In 2019, Clerks was among 25 films chosen to be added to the Library of Congress' National Film Registry.
Home media
Clerks was first released on VHS on May 23, 1995. On August 30, 1995, a LaserDisc version was issued. This version features the original letterboxed version of the film, audio commentary by Smith and various cast and crew members, seven deleted scenes from the film, a theatrical trailer, and a music video for "Can't Even Tell" performed by Soul Asylum.
The first DVD incarnation of the film appeared on June 29, 1999. The special features for the DVD do not vary from the LaserDisc features. It was then released as a three-disc, 10th-anniversary edition set in 2004.
The film was released on UMD (playable on PlayStation Portable) on November 15, 2005. Special features include "Clerks: The Lost Scene", "The Flying Car", and original cast auditions. In the fall of 2006, a new edition of the Clerks DVD appeared in Canada, dubbed the Clerks: Snowball Edition. The new release included a photo of a bikini-clad model on the cover and some of the extra features from the 1999 edition. It appears Smith was not involved in this release, as he indicated on his official message forum in August 2006 that he was not aware of its release.
Clerks was released on Blu-ray on November 17, 2009, as a "15th Anniversary Edition". It has the same special features as Clerks X, below, along with a new documentary, Oh, What a Lovely Tea Party, as well as an introduction to the documentary by Kevin Smith.
In the UK, Clerks was released by Fox Video through Fox Guild Home Entertainment in 1995 and then on DVD and Blu-Ray by Paramount Home Entertainment in 2020, since ViacomCBS's acquisition of Miramax.
Clerks X
On September 7, 2004, a tenth anniversary edition of Clerks was released. The 3-disc set is commonly known as Clerks X as part of Miramax Films' Collector's Series. The features for this version of the DVD include:
A 24-page color booklet featuring thoughts on the film from Kevin Smith and Scott Mosier ten years after making it. The booklet also features various reprints of reviews and images of posters and memorabilia from the film's release. Smith states in the booklet that Clerks II would be filmed in 2005.
Disc 1 – Theatrical Feature
The original theatrical cut of the film in Dolby Digital 5.1 surround.
The original 1995 laser disc commentary track.
An "enhanced playback track" featuring trivia subtitles and title card descriptions.
"Clerks: The Lost Scene" animated short. This scene was originally written in the screenplay for the film but was never shot. For the DVD, the scene was animated in the same style as Clerks: The Animated Series. The scene can be presented in two different ways.
The scene can be viewed separately from the film with an introduction by Smith and Mosier.
The DVD also presents the owner with the ability to play the theatrical cut of the film with the animated scene as if it were part of the feature.
The Flying Car, a short film featuring Dante and Randal. The short was shot in 2001 for The Tonight Show and features the two main characters from Clerks stuck in traffic having a somewhat similar conversation as the one in Clerks where the two are driving to a funeral and discussing sexual curiosity. On the DVD, the short is presented in its original cut with an introduction from Smith.
A series of short television ads that MTV commissioned from Kevin Smith featuring Jay and Silent Bob. Eight of them appear on the DVD, two of which have edited soundtracks (MTV also aired a special that Smith hosted but it could not be secured for the DVD for clearance reasons). The spots are introduced by Kevin Smith and Scott Mosier.
An original film trailer for the film edited by Matthew Cohen with a brief introduction from Kevin Smith.
The original music video for "Can't Even Tell" performed by Soul Asylum directed by Kevin Smith. The music video is introduced by Smith and Scott Mosier.
Three short featurettes about the restoration process used to recreate the feature film for the Clerks X DVD. In the first featurette, Scott Mosier describes the sound restoration process. In the second, David Klein explains the visual restoration process. The third featurette is hosted by Kevin Smith and Scott Mosier as a general introduction to the restored version of the film.
Original auditions for the film featuring Brian O'Halloran, Jeff Anderson, Marilyn Ghigliotti, and Ernest O'Donnell. The auditions are introduced by Kevin Smith and Scott Mosier.
DVD-ROM features.
Disc 2 – Clerks: The First Cut
The very first cut of the film before it was edited for theaters. It features additional scenes and the original ending intact, less sound production, and the original soundtrack which featured music by Love Among Freaks exclusively. This version replicates what Smith showed to film critics and journalists before taking the film to Sundance and selling it to Miramax. It was taken from a Super-VHS tape and unlike the theatrical release underwent no apparent restoration. It is included in the 10th anniversary set in lieu of the collection of deleted scenes that had appeared in the previous DVD issue.
Audio and video commentary for the first cut of the film. The commentary was recorded in 2004 with Kevin Smith, Scott Mosier, Brian O'Halloran, Jeff Anderson and Jason Mewes.
Disc 3 – Bonus Features
"Snowball Effect", a 90-minute retrospective documentary for Clerks that focuses on Smith's early inception of the film, the process of making and distributing and finally, the reaction and response to the film from critics and fans.
Mae Day: The Crumbling of a Documentary, a short student film that Kevin Smith and Scott Mosier made during their time at film school. It comes with an introduction by Smith and Mosier.
10th Anniversary Q&A session with Kevin Smith, David Klein, Scott Mosier, Marilyn Ghigliotti, Jason Mewes, Jeff Anderson and Brian O'Halloran.
13 deleted scenes and outtakes from Snowball Effect
A still photo gallery of over 50 photographs and production images from Clerks as well as early photos of crew and cast members.
Two collections of journal entries written by Smith. The first entries were written before finishing Clerks and the second were written while Smith took the film to Sundance Film Festival.
Eight articles and reviews about the film.
Soundtrack
The soundtrack was released on October 11, 1994. It was composed of various new and previously released songs by alternative rock, grunge and punk rock artists such as Bad Religion, Love Among Freaks, Alice in Chains, and Soul Asylum. The soundtrack also featured various sound clips from the film. It has been noted that Clerks is one of the very few films in which the cost of obtaining the rights to the music used was a great portion of the production costs for the entire film.
The Soul Asylum song "Can't Even Tell", which was played over the film's end credits and featured on the soundtrack, peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart in 1994. The music video for the song was directed by Smith and was filmed in the same locations as the film. The video featured Smith, Jason Mewes, Jeff Anderson and Brian O'Halloran reprising their roles from Clerks.
Another song which appeared on the soundtrack was "Got Me Wrong" by Alice in Chains, which had previously been released on the band's extended play Sap (1992). The song was issued as a single in late 1994, due to renewed radio interest from the song's appearance in Clerks. The song peaked at #7 on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks and #22 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks in early 1995.
Sequels
Although not direct sequels in terms of addressing the original film's storyline, characters from the original Clerks – primarily Jay and Silent Bob – appeared in the films Mallrats (1995), Chasing Amy (1997), Dogma (1999), Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back (2001), and Jay and Silent Bob Reboot (2019), all of which take place in the same continuity as Clerks. Dante and Randal also reprised their roles in Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, which was originally promoted as the finale to the series, but an official sequel to Clerks was announced a few years later.
Clerks II
The live-action, feature film sequel to Clerks was released on July 21, 2006. The working title was The Passion of the Clerks, though the film was released under the title Clerks II. The credits for Dogma stated "Jay and Silent Bob will return in Clerks 2: Hardly Clerkin "; however, that project "evolved" into Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back. The sequel features Jeff Anderson and Brian O'Halloran reprising their roles as Dante Hicks and Randal Graves. The two now work at a Mooby's restaurant after Graves' incompetence resulted in the destruction of the Quick Stop and RST Video.
Clerks III
During interviews for Clerks II, Smith briefly discussed the possibility of a Clerks III. Stating that "if there's ever gonna be a Clerks III, it would be somewhere down the road in my 40s or 50s, when it might be interesting to check back in on Dante and Randal. But I don't know about Jay and Bob so much, 'cause at 45, leaning on a wall in front of a convenience store might be a little sad." Smith repeated this sentiment on one of the audio commentary tracks on the Clerks II DVD, to which Jeff Anderson jokingly replied, "Oh, don't get me started", referring to Anderson's well known doubts about making Clerks II when first approached by Smith.
On March 29, 2012, Smith expressed his interest in producing Clerks III as a Broadway play after seeing the Theresa Rebeck comedy Seminar starring Alan Rickman, with whom Smith had previously worked on Dogma.
On December 10, 2012, Smith released a special Hollywood Babble-On episode, Hollywood Babble-On #000: GIANT SIZED ANNUAL # 1: CLERKS III, AUDIENCE 0, in which he revealed greater details on his plans for Clerks III. Smith stated that an ongoing audit over residuals from Clerks II with The Weinstein Company was causing a delay in several key Clerks III cast and crew members, including Anderson and Scott Mosier, from coming on board until the audit was resolved. Smith also revealed that he would like to crowdsource Clerks III, either through Kickstarter or Indiegogo, with contributors receiving anything from DVDs, posters, and even roles as extras in the film. On June 5, 2013, he changed his mind on crowdsourcing, stating "I've got access to money. And worst-case scenario, I can put up my house."
Smith worked on a script for Clerks III from March to May 2013, stating when he completed it that it was "The Empire Strikes Back" of the series. In July 2013, Mewes stated that they were now just waiting to hear back from The Weinstein Company about funding.
On September 26, 2014, Smith stated on his Hollywood Babble-On podcast, that he was glad that he made Tusk, stating, "Everything in my life would suck right now if I hadn't made that movie. I'm back in movies now. I've got three lined up, and this is the fucking grand news. Tusk was the absolute bridge to Clerks III. Because of Tusk, I got my financing for Clerks III". Smith continued: "A year and change ago, I was trying to fucking desperately get Clerks III made for the 20th anniversary. And that desperation, I must have reeked of it, because I couldn't fucking find money and shit. But it was Tusk, it was people going 'Holy fuck! What else do you have?' And I was like, Clerks III, done. So everybody that's like, 'He failed, he failed', thank you – I failed into Clerks III. So, never trust anybody when they tell you how your story goes, man. You know your story. You write your own story.”
There were plans to start shooting Clerks III in May 2015, but these were put on hold to film another sequel, Mallrats 2. However, by June 2016 the plans for a Mallrats sequel had been turned into plans for a Mallrats TV series.
In July 2019, Smith announced that he would do a live reading of Clerks III at the First Avenue Playhouse in Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey. The reading was held on August 3, 2019. That same month, Smith revealed at San Diego Comic Con that he was writing a new script for Clerks III and promises to make the film.
On October 1, 2019, Smith confirmed on Instagram that Clerks III was happening and that Jeff Anderson agreed to reprise his role as Randal. "It'll be a movie that concludes a saga. It'll be a movie about how you're never too old to completely change your life. It’ll be a movie about how a decades-spanning friendship finally confronts the future. It'll be a movie that brings us back to the beginning—a return to the cradle of civilization in the great state of #newjersey. It’ll be a movie that stars Jeff and @briancohalloran, with me and Jay in supporting roles. And it'll be a movie called CLERKS III!" The new script will follow Randal, after surviving a heart attack, and Dante making a movie about their lives at the store, a plot initially conceived as a film adaptation of Clerks: The Animated Series titled Clerks: Sell Out.
Principal photography began on August 2, 2021 in Red Bank, New Jersey. Filming wrapped on August 31, 2021. The film is scheduled to be released in 2022, by Lionsgate.
Related projects
Following Clerks, Smith set several more films in the same "world", which he calls the View Askewniverse of overlapping characters and stories. Of all of Smith's films, however, Clerks is the one with the most direct spin-off products.
Clerks: The TV Show
A pilot for a live-action TV series was produced in 1995. It was produced by Touchstone Television and was to be developed by Richard Day. The pilot only referenced the character names and starred none of the cast from the original film, contained no foul language (except words suitable enough for a TV-PG rating), and did not feature Silent Bob. The character of Jay was featured, prompting Smith to point out that he owned the character rights to both Jay and Silent Bob (for the purposes of featuring them in separate films). The producers' solution was to change the character's name to Ray. Kevin Smith was unaware of the production of the series until casting was underway. Smith had been in production with Mallrats at the time and attempted to become involved in the series but became disheartened quickly as an episode he had written for the series was shot down to be used as a potential B-plot. He would later use the script for an episode of Clerks: The Animated Series.
O'Halloran and Anderson both auditioned for the role of Dante Hicks (as Anderson's part of Randal Graves from the film had already been filled by future SNL performer Jim Breuer). After seeing the result, Smith said that it was terrible, and O'Halloran and Anderson said they were both glad they did not get the part.
Clerks: The Animated Series
Touchstone Television (with Miramax Films) also produced Clerks: The Animated Series a short-lived six-episode animated television series featuring the same characters and cast of the original film. Two episodes aired on the ABC network in late May/early June 2000 before being pulled from the lineup. The full six episodes were released on DVD in 2001 before being run on Comedy Central in 2004 and Adult Swim in 2008–10. In a trailer for (but not in) Smith's 2001 film Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Randal remarks on the series, saying to Dante: "If you were funnier than that, ABC would've never cancelled us."
Clerks: The Comics
Clerks. is a series of comics written by Kevin Smith featuring characters from the film. In the series are Clerks: The Comic Book, Clerks: Holiday Special, and Clerks: The Lost Scene. Smith has discussed plans for Clerks 1.5, a comic that would bridge the gap between the original film and its sequel, to be included in a reprint of the Clerks. trade paperback. The story ultimately was printed in the 2006 Tales from the Clerks collection, which also included the other Clerks comics with additional View Askewniverse material. Smith received the Harvey Award for Best New Talent in 1999.
Shooting Clerks
Shooting Clerks is a 2021 biographical comedy-drama film about the making of Clerks. The film stars many of the original film's stars, including Brian O'Halloran, Marilyn Ghigliotti, and Jason Mewes, as well as Kevin Smith himself. The film had a special fine cut screening at San Diego Comic-Con on July 20, 2019, in celebration of the 25th anniversary of the original film's release.
References
Bibliography
Muir, John Kenneth (2002). An Askew View : The Films of Kevin Smith. Applause Books.
Smith, Kevin (1997). Clerks and Chasing Amy : Two Screenplays. Miramax Books.
External links
1994 films
1994 comedy films
1994 directorial debut films
1990s black comedy films
1990s buddy comedy films
American films
American black-and-white films
American black comedy films
American buddy comedy films
English-language films
Films about criticism and refusal of work
Rating controversies in film
Films about friendship
Films adapted into comics
Films adapted into television shows
Films directed by Kevin Smith
Films produced by Scott Mosier
Films set in 1993
Films set in New Jersey
Films with screenplays by Kevin Smith
Miramax films
Necrophilia in film
Sundance Film Festival award winners
United States National Film Registry films
View Askewniverse films
View Askew Productions films
Workplace comedy films
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200698
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache%20Tomcat
|
Apache Tomcat
|
Apache Tomcat (called "Tomcat" for short) is a free and open-source implementation of the Jakarta Servlet, Jakarta Expression Language, and WebSocket technologies. Tomcat provides a "pure Java" HTTP web server environment in which Java code can run.
Tomcat is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation, released under the Apache License 2.0 license.
Components
Tomcat 4.x was released with Catalina (a servlet container), Coyote (an HTTP connector) and Jasper (a JSP engine).
Catalina
Catalina is Tomcat's servlet container. Catalina implements Sun Microsystems' specifications for servlet and JavaServer Pages (JSP). In Tomcat, a Realm element represents a "database" of usernames, passwords, and roles (similar to Unix groups) assigned to those users. Different implementations of Realm allow Catalina to be integrated into environments where such authentication information is already being created and maintained, and then use that information to implement Container Managed Security as described in the Servlet Specification.
Coyote
Coyote is a Connector component for Tomcat that supports the HTTP 1.1 and 2 protocol as a web server. This allows Catalina, nominally a Java Servlet or JSP container, to also act as a plain web server that serves local files as HTTP documents. Coyote listens for incoming connections to the server on a specific TCP port and forwards the request to the Tomcat Engine to process the request and send back a response to the requesting client. Another Coyote Connector, Coyote JK, listens similarly but instead forwards its requests to another web server, such as Apache, using the JK Protocol. This usually offers better performance.
Jasper
Jasper is Tomcat's JSP Engine. Jasper parses JSP files to compile them into Java code as servlets (that can be handled by Catalina). At runtime, Jasper detects changes to JSP files and recompiles them.
As of version 5, Tomcat uses Jasper 2, which is an implementation of the Sun Microsystems' JSP 2.0 specification. From Jasper to Jasper 2, important features were added:
JSP Tag library pooling – Each tag markup in JSP file is handled by a tag handler class. Tag handler class objects can be pooled and reused in the whole JSP servlet.
Background JSP compilation – While recompiling modified JSP Java code, the older version is still available for server requests. The older JSP servlet is deleted once the new JSP servlet has finished being recompiled.
Recompile JSP when included page changes – pages can be inserted and included into a JSP at runtime. The JSP will not only be recompiled with JSP file changes but also with included page changes.
JDT Java compiler – Jasper 2 can use the Eclipse JDT (Java Development Tools) Java compiler instead of Ant and javac.
Three new components were added with the release of Tomcat 7:
Cluster
This component has been added to manage large applications. It is used for load balancing that can be achieved through many techniques. Clustering support currently requires the JDK version 1.5 or higher.
High availability
A high-availability feature has been added to facilitate the scheduling of system upgrades (e.g. new releases, change requests) without affecting the live environment. This is done by dispatching live traffic requests to a temporary server on a different port while the main server is upgraded on the main port. It is very useful in handling user requests on high-traffic web applications.
Web application
It has also added user- as well as system-based web applications enhancement to add support for deployment across the variety of environments. It also tries to manage sessions as well as applications across the network.
Tomcat is building additional components. A number of additional components may be used with Apache Tomcat. These components may be built by users should they need them or they can be downloaded from one of the mirrors.
Features
Tomcat 8.x implements the Servlet 3.1 and JSP 2.3 Specifications. Apache Tomcat 8.5.x is intended to replace 8.0.x and includes new features pulled forward from Tomcat 9.0.x. The minimum Java version and implemented specification versions remain unchanged.
Tomcat 9.x implements the Servlet 4.0 and JSP 2.3 Specifications.
Tomcat 10.x implements the Servlet 5.0 and JSP 3.0 Specifications.
History
Tomcat started off as a servlet reference implementation by James Duncan Davidson, a software architect at Sun Microsystems. He later helped make the project open-source and played a key role in its donation by Sun Microsystems to the Apache Software Foundation. The Apache Ant software build automation tool was developed as a side-effect of the creation of Tomcat as an open source project.
Davidson had initially hoped that the project would become open-sourced and, since many open-source projects had O'Reilly books associated with them featuring an animal on the cover, he wanted to name the project after an animal. He came up with Tomcat since he reasoned the animal represented something that could fend for itself. Although the tomcat was already in use for another O'Reilly title, his wish to see an animal cover eventually came true when O'Reilly published their Tomcat book with a snow leopard on the cover in 2003.
Releases
Apache TomEE
Apache TomEE (pronounced "Tommy") is the Java Enterprise Edition of Apache Tomcat (Tomcat + Java EE = TomEE) that combines several Java enterprise projects including Apache OpenEJB, Apache OpenWebBeans, Apache OpenJPA, Apache MyFaces and others. In October 2011, the project obtained certification by Oracle Corporation as a compatible implementation of the Java EE 6 Web Profile.
See also
MuleSoft, producer of Tcat, an enterprise Tomcat server
Apache Geronimo, an application server that can use Tomcat as its web container
Resin (software) – application server from Caucho Technology
WildFly, formerly known as JBoss Application Server
Jetty (web server)
JOnAS, application server that can use Tomcat as its web container
Apache OpenEJB, can be added to Tomcat to turn it into a JavaEE server
GlassFish, the reference implementation of Java EE, supporting EJB, JPA, JSF, JMS, Java RMI, JSP, servlets etc.
Comparison of web server software
References
Bibliography
External links
Tomcat
Java enterprise platform
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Free web server software
Cross-platform free software
Software using the Apache license
Web server software programmed in Java
|
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] |
200701
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenocide
|
Xenocide
|
Xenocide (1991) is a science fiction novel by American writer Orson Scott Card, the third book in the Ender's Game series. It was nominated for both the Hugo and Locus Awards for Best Novel in 1992. The title is a combination of 'xeno-', meaning alien, and '-cide', referring to the act of killing, together meaning the act of killing populations of aliens; comparable to genocide.
Plot summary
On Lusitania, Ender finds a world where humans and pequeninos and the Hive Queen could all live together. However, Lusitania also harbors the descolada, a virus that kills all humans it infects, but which the pequeninos require in order to become adults. The Starways Congress so fears the effects of the descolada, should it escape from Lusitania, that they have ordered the destruction of the entire planet, and all who live there. With the Fleet on its way, a second xenocide seems inevitable.
Lusitania
Following the events of Speaker for the Dead, a group of characters are depicted living as members of a Brazilian Catholic human colony on Lusitania, a unique planet inhabited by the only other two known species of sentient alien life: the Pequeninos "little ones" and the Hive Queen. The pequeninos are native to the planet, while the Hive Queen was transplanted to this world by Ender, partly in penance for his near-total destruction of her Formic species in Ender's Game.
After the rebellion of the small human colony on Lusitania in Speaker for the Dead to protect the future of the intelligent alien species, Starways Congress sends a fleet to Lusitania to regain control, which will take several decades to reach its destination. Valentine Wiggin, under her pseudonym Demosthenes, publishes a series of articles revealing the presence of the "Little Doctor" planet-annihilating weapon on the Fleet. Demosthenes calls it the "Second Xenocide," as using the weapon will result in the obliteration of the only known intelligent alien life. She also claims it to be a brutal crackdown of any colony world striving for autonomy from Starways Congress. Public anger spreads through humanity, and rebellions nearly ensue on several colonies.
After quelling much public discontent, Starways Congress finishes their analysis of the situation while the fleet is en route. Fearing the Descolada virus, further rebellions by colony worlds, and other possible unknown political motives, Starways Congress attempts to relay an order to the fleet to annihilate Lusitania upon arrival. After conferring with friends on whether a cause is worth dying for, Jane (a compassionate AI living in the interstellar ansible communication network) shuts off transmissions to the fleet to block the order. As a consequence of this action, she risks her eventual discovery and death, should the government shut down and wipe the interplanetary network. No known smaller computer system can house her consciousness.
On Lusitania itself, Ender attempts to find solutions to the looming catastrophes of the Congressional fleet, Descolada virus, and conflicts among the humans and intelligent alien species. Much on Lusitania centers around the Ribeira family, including Ender's wife Novinha and her children. Novinha and Elanora, the mother-daughter team responsible for most of the biological advances countering the complex Descolada virus, are unsure if they can manufacture a harmless replacement virus. Conflicts arise on whether they should even do so, since the Descolada is intrinsically tied in with the life cycles of all Lusitanian organisms and may even be sentient itself. In addition, to try to devise methods to escape the planet, Lusitania's leading, troublemaking physicist Grego is persuaded by Ender to research faster-than-light travel, despite Grego scoffing at the idea. The third biologista of the family, Quara, is convinced that the Descolada is an intelligent, self-aware species, and deserves attempts from the humans for communication and preservation. An additional sibling and Catholic priest, Quim (Father Estevão), is determined to use faith and theology to head off another form of xenocide: a group of warmongering Pequenino who wish to wipe out all Earthborn life via starship, carrying the deadly Descolada within them.
World of Path
Starways Congress wants its fleet back. After all else fails, it sends the dilemma of the fleet's impossible disappearance to several citizens of the world of Path, a cultural planetary enclave modeled on early China. Path's culture centers on the godspoken – those who hear the voices of the gods in the form of irresistible compulsions, and are capable of significantly superior intelligence. It later becomes clear that the godspoken of Path are victims of a cruel government project: granted great intelligence by genetic modification, they were also shackled with a form of obsessive-compulsive disorder to control their loyalty. The experiment is set in a culture bound by five dictates – obey the gods, honor the ancestors, love the people, serve the rulers, then serve your self. This is a further safeguard against rebellion. The superintelligent godspoken are considered the most devout and holy of all citizens, and any disloyal thoughts in a godspoken's mind are immediately suppressed by overwhelming obsessive-compulsive behavior, believed to be a sign from the gods the thoughts are wrong. The most respected godspoken on Path is Han Fei-Tzu, for devising a treaty to prevent the rebellion of several colony worlds after the articles published by Demosthenes. Great things are expected of his daughter and potential successor Han Qing-jao, "Gloriously Bright". While doubting the existence of the gods himself, Han Fei-Tzu promised his dying wife he would raise Qing-jao with an unwavering belief in the godspoken. The two of them are tasked by Starways Congress with deciphering the disappearance of the Lusitania Fleet. Han Qing-jao's secret maid, Si Wang-mu, aids her in this task, her intelligence (partially) unfettered by the rigid caste system.
The young and naive Qing-jao eventually traces the identity of Demosthenes. Discovering that Demosthenes is Valentine Wiggin, Ender's sister – but that Valentine has been on a starship en route to Lusitania for the last thirty years – Qing-Jao concludes that the only possible explanation is advanced computer software closely tied to the communication network. This software must be hiding Demosthenes and publishing her work, while also causing the disappearance of the Fleet. All but discovered, Jane reveals herself to Han Fei-tzu, Han Qing-jao and Si Wang-mu, telling them about their genetic slavery and begging forbearance on their report to Starways Congress.
Already harboring suspicions about the godspoken's condition, Han Fei-tzu accepts the news of Congress's atrocity, as does Si Wang-mu, but his daughter Han Qing-jao clings to her belief that Demosthenes and Jane are enemies of the gods. Feeling betrayed by her father, who is violently incapacitated by OCD from the disloyal thoughts, Qing-jao argues with Jane. Jane threatens shutting off all communications from Path, but Si Wang-mu realizes this would eventually lead to the planet's destruction by Starways Congress. Understanding Jane to be truly alive and compassionate, through tears Si Wang-mu states Jane will not block the report. However, Qing-jao compares Jane to the servants in Path's caste system, merely a computer program designed to serve humans, containing neither autonomy nor awareness.
Knowing she has exhausted her last possibilities of stopping Qing-jao, Jane sacrifices her future and life, unwilling to bring harm to Qing-jao or the people of Path. A triumphant Qing-jao reports the knowledge of Demosthenes, Jane, and the fate of the Fleet to Starways Congress. Qing-jao recommends a coordinated date set several months from the present, to prepare the massive undertaking of setting up clean computers across the interplanetary network, after which the transition to a new system will kill Jane and allow Congress full control again. Allowing the message to be sent, Jane restores communication with the Fleet, and Congress re-issues the order for the Fleet to obliterate Lusitania.
Han Fei-tzu recovers from the incapacitation of his OCD, despairing over his daughter's actions, and his unwitting aid in deeply brainwashing her to serve Congress. He and Si Wang-mu assist Jane and those on Lusitania in finding solutions to their impending catastrophes. Planter, a Pequenino on Lusitania, offers his life for an experiment to determine whether the Descolada gives Pequeninos sentience, or if they have the ability innately. Eventually, Elanora Ribeira is able to come up with a possible model for a "recolada": a refit of the Descolada that allows the native life to survive and retain self-awareness, but doesn't seek to kill all other life forms. With the available equipment, however, the recolada is impossible to make, and they are running out of time against the soon-to-arrive Fleet.
Outside
While this research takes place, tragedies occur on Lusitania. Father Estevão Ribeira, the priest attempting to sway a distant warmongering sect of the Pequeninos from their goal of attacking humanity, is killed by the Fathertree Warmaker, who took Quim hostage and denied him the food with the anti-descolada chemicals, so the descolada infected and killed him on the 7th day of being hostage. Grego Ribeira spurs a riot of humans to burn down the warmaker's forest, but the violent mob gets out of his control, and rampages through the neighboring Pequenino forest instead, massacring many of its inhabitants – the original friends and allies of humanity. Under the terms of the treaty with Pequeninos, the Hive Queen is brought in to hold the peace, setting a perimeter guard of hive drones around the human colony and preventing further escalation of violence between the two groups. Grego is locked in jail, despite eventually stepping between the surviving Pequeninos and his own riot. The town realizes their horrific rage, and constructs a chapel surrounding the fallen priest's grave, trying to find penance for their actions.
Finally, a breakthrough is made. Knowing the Ansible communication network allows instantaneous transfer of information, and through knowledge of how the Hive Queen gives sentience to child queens, Jane, Grego, and Olhado discover the "Outside". The Outside is a spacetime plane where aiúas initially exist. (Aiúa is the term given to the pattern defining any specific structure of the universe, whether a particular atom, a star, or a sentient consciousness.) Formic hive queens are called from Outside after birth, giving awareness to the new body. Jane is able to contain within her vast computing power the pattern defining the billions of atoms and overall structure comprising a simple "starship" (little more than a room), with passengers included, and take them Outside. By bringing them Outside, where relative location is nonexistent, then back "Inside" at a different spot in the physical universe, instantaneous travel has been achieved, finally matching the instantaneous communication of the Ansibles and Formics. They quickly arrange to take Ender, Ela, and Miro to Outside. While Ela is Outside, she is able to create the recolada virus, which is a safe replacement of the descolada, and a cure to the godspoken genetic defect. Miro envisions his body as it was before he was crippled by paralysis, and upon arrival in the Outside, his consciousness is contained within a new, restored body. Ender discovers, however, the surreal unwitting creation of a new "Valentine" and new "Peter Wiggin" from his subconscious, who embody idealized forms of his altruistic and power-hungry sides.
The recolada begins its spread across Lusitania, converting the formerly lethal virus into a harmless aid to native life. The cure to the people of Path's genetic-controlling defect is distributed, yet Han Fei-tzu is tragically unable to convince his daughter Qing-jao this was the true course of action. Confronted with the possibility of being lied to all her life and dooming many sentient species to destruction, or an alternative of believing all she ever loved and trusted has betrayed her – Demosthenes, her father, her friend, her world. Qing-jao instead continues her godspoken rite of woodgrain tracing until her death and is honored by those on Path who still believe in the gods as the last true godspoken. She is elevated to god status after her death. Si Wang-mu sets off with Peter to take control over Starways Congress to stop the Fleet closing in on Lusitania. The new Valentine-persona journeys to find a planet to which the population of Lusitania can evacuate. The stage is set for the final book of the four-part series, Children of the Mind.
Reception
Xenocide was nominated for the 1992 Hugo Award for best novel. As of 2022 it has a rating of 3.8 out of 5 on Goodreads with nearly 150,000 votes.
Connection to "Gloriously Bright"
Parts of "Gloriously Bright" from the January 1991 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact are republished in Xenocide as parts of Chapters 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.
See also
List of Ender's Game characters
List of works by Orson Scott Card
References
External links
About the novel Xenocide from Card's website
1991 American novels
1991 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Ender's Game series books
Tor Books books
Fiction set in the 6th millennium
Novels about obsessive–compulsive disorder
|
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200703
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest%20Peoples%20Programme
|
Forest Peoples Programme
|
Forest Peoples Programme (FPP) advocates an alternative vision of how forests should be managed and controlled, based on respect for the rights of the peoples who know them best. FPP works with forest peoples in South America, Africa, and Asia, to help them secure their rights, build up their own organisations and negotiate with governments and companies as to how economic development and conservation are best achieved on their lands.
Forests cover 31% of total land area of the planet. Of that, 12% are designated for the conservation of biological diversity and nearly all are inhabited. Many of the peoples, who live in and have customary rights to their forests, have developed ways of life and traditional knowledge that are attuned to their forest environments. Yet, forest policies commonly treat forests as empty lands controlled by the state and available for ‘development’ – colonisation, logging, plantations, dams, mines, oil wells, gas pipelines and agribusiness. These encroachments often force forest peoples out of their forest homes. Many conservation schemes to establish wilderness reserves also deny forest peoples’ rights.
History
Forest Peoples Programme (FPP) was founded in 1990 in response to the forest crisis, specifically to support indigenous forest peoples’ struggles to defend their lands and livelihoods. It registered as a non-governmental human rights Dutch Stichting in 1997, and then later, in 2000, as a UK charity, No. 1082158 and a company limited by guarantee (England & Wales) Reg. No. 3868836, with a registered office in the UK.
FPP's focus, in the beginning, came from the expertise and relationships that the small founding team had with specific communities, primarily in the Guyanas and in South and South East Asia. Forest Peoples Programme has grown into a respected and successful organisation that now operates right around the tropical forest belt where it serves to bridge the gap between policy makers and forest peoples. Through advocacy, practical projects and capacity building, FPP supports forest peoples to deal directly with the outside powers, regionally, nationally, and internationally that shape their lives and futures. Forest Peoples Programme has contributed to, and continues supporting, the growing indigenous peoples' movement whose voice is gaining influence and attention on the world-wide stage.
Publications
Forest Peoples Programme produces a wide range of publications, including reports, briefings, training manuals, papers, submissions to human rights bodies, statements, letters, urgent action requests, as well as news articles.
See also
FERN
World Rainforest Movement
Indigenous rights
UNFCCC
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
References
External links
Official website
Forest Peoples Programme at UK Central Register of Charities
Indigenous rights
Organizations established in 1990
Environmental organisations based in the United Kingdom
Indigenous rights organizations
Charities based in Gloucestershire
International forestry organizations
Forest conservation organizations
|
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200706
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20Babbitt
|
Art Babbitt
|
Arthur Harold Babitsky (October 8, 1907 – March 4, 1992), better known as Art Babbitt, was an American animator, best known for his work at Walt Disney Animation Studios. He received over 80 awards as an animation director and animator, and also developed the character of Goofy. Babbitt worked as an animator or animation director on films such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Pinocchio, Fantasia and Dumbo, among others. Outside of Disney, he also animated The Wise Quacking Duck for Leon Schlesinger Productions.
Early life
Babbitt was born to a Jewish family in the Little Bohemia section of Omaha, Nebraska, but moved to Sioux City, Iowa after he finished kindergarten. When his hard-working father had an accident on duty and became paralyzed as a result, Art decided to move to New York to take on the role of breadwinner.
Career
Art Babbitt began his career in New York City working for Paul Terry's Terrytoons Studio. But in the early 1930s he moved to Los Angeles followed by his fellow Terrytoon colleague Bill Tytla, and secured a job animating for the Walt Disney Studio, which was expanding at the time.
Disney Studio
Babbitt began his career at Disney as an assistant animator, but his talent was spotted and he was soon promoted to animator. His first important work was a drunken mouse in the short The Country Cousin (1936), which won an Academy Award for the studio.
At the Disney Studio, Babbitt animated the Wicked Queen in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, a job described by Disney animator Andreas Deja as "one of the toughest assignments" on the film. While he was working on Snow White, he met his first wife, Marjorie Belcher, a dance model whose live-action performance was used as reference material by the animators for the role of Snow White.
On the film Pinocchio, Babbitt animated the character of Geppetto, and became a directing animator. Of all Disney's films, Pinocchio was the feature which Babbitt most admired, and which he regarded as the finest achievement of the studio during the "Golden Age" of animation. Babbitt also animated the characters of the Dancing Mushrooms, Dancing Thistles, Dancing Orchids, Zeus, Vulcan, and Boreas in Fantasia. On the feature film Dumbo, Babbitt was again made a directing animator, and animated the character of the stork. When animating the stork, he made him resemble his voice actor, Sterling Holloway. Babbitt is also credited with developing the character of Goofy, a character which he later described in the 1987 documentary film "Animating Art":
Goofy was someone who never really knew how stupid he was. He thought long and carefully before he did anything, and then he did it wrong.
During the 1930s Babbitt rose to become one of Disney's best-paid artists, and enjoyed a lavish lifestyle despite the austerity of the Great Depression:
I was living the Life of Riley. I didn't realize how fortunate I was. I was earning a very good salary. I had two servants, a large house, and three cars. You know, what in the world was I going to do with three cars?
However, despite this prosperity, in 1940 he and his wife Marjorie were divorced.
Cartoonist strike
Despite being one of the highest paid animators at Disney, Babbitt was sympathetic to the cause of lower echelon Disney artists seeking to form a union. Most of the strikers were in-betweeners, cel painters, and other less-well paid employees, who in 1941 began industrial action in pursuit of better working conditions. As a top animator, Babbitt was one of relatively few well-paid artists to join the strike, and he became one of the strike leaders. One morning, as Disney drove through picketing workers on his way to the studio, Babbitt heckled him through a bullhorn. Disney exited his car to confront him, and a fistfight was only prevented by the intervention of others.
For his part in the strike, Babbitt earned Walt Disney's enmity. Disney was forced to re-hire Babbitt after the strike was over, along with many other strikers, but by then the two men disliked one another. Babbitt worked with director Jack Kinney, another "Goofy man" (meaning that they worked together on the Goofy shorts), as Disney began to look for ways to be rid of Babbitt. "If he gets in your way, let me know", Disney said to Kinney. Babbitt was fired more than once but was re-instated, taking his case successfully all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States, and winning a handsome settlement.
WWII
After serving with the Marines in the Pacific in World War II, Babbitt returned to Disney for a time, following an "unfair labor practices" suit brought by Babbitt against Disney. Disney was forced to rehire him after the war, but Babbitt did not stay long.
Career after Disney
Along with some other former Disney strikers, Babbitt left Disney and went to join the United Productions of America (UPA), a new studio which pioneered a modern, simplified form of animation. He worked on many of their famous award-winning shorts, including the lead character Frankie in "Rooty Toot-Toot" (1951), and won many awards. In the 1950s he was part owner of Quartet Films, where he worked on television commercials, including the Cleo winning "John & Marsha" spot for Parkay Margarine. Later he was part of Hanna-Barbera's commercial wing.
Known in the animation world as one of the art's most accomplished teachers, in 1973 Canadian animator Richard Williams brought Babbitt to his London studio in Soho Square to deliver a series of lectures on animation acting and technique that subsequently became famous among animators. Some of Babbitt's final work was on the characters King Nod and Phido, the vulture, in Williams' film The Thief and the Cobbler. He also animated the Camel with Wrinkled Knees in William's Raggedy Ann and Andy: A Musical Adventure.
In 1991 Disney Company chief Roy E. Disney, the nephew of Walt, contacted Babbitt and they ended the long feud. Babbitt's former rivals, the pro-Walt animators Frank Thomas and Ollie Johnston, gave Babbitt a warm and moving eulogy at his funeral service. He was interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills).
Family life and legacy
His first wife (1937–1940) was Marge Champion, a dance model in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. His second wife was Dina Babbitt, an artist and a Holocaust survivor. He had two daughters with Dina, L. Michele Babbitt and Karin Wendy Babbitt. His third wife until his death was actress Barbara Perry. His step-daughter from Barbara is Laurel James. Babbitt died of kidney failure on March 4, 1992. In the late 1980s, a British television documentary titled Animating Art was broadcast, celebrating Babbitt's life and work. The documentary was produced and directed by Imogen Sutton (Richard Williams' wife), and features extensive interviews with Babbitt and his then employer, Williams. Babbitt was posthumously named a Disney Legend in 2007.
The Academy Film Archive holds a small collection of personal films belonging to Babbitt. The archive has preserved a number of Babbitt's home movies from this collection, including one of the 1938 Academy Awards.
Filmography
Notes
References
Kinney, Jack, Walt Disney and other assorted characters - An unauthorised account of the early years at Disney's, Harmony Books, New York, 1988
External links
Dina Babbitt - Daily Telegraph obituary. Retrieved January 2010
Retrieved July 2012
Art Babbitt remembered at FLIP animation magazine Retrieved February 2013
1907 births
1992 deaths
Animators from Nebraska
Jewish American artists
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
Deaths from kidney failure
Artists from Omaha, Nebraska
Military personnel from Omaha, Nebraska
Warner Bros. Cartoons people
Terrytoons people
Disney controversies
Animation controversies
Animation controversies in film
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
|
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] |
200711
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Orientale
|
Mare Orientale
|
Mare Orientale (Latin orientāle, the "eastern sea") is a lunar mare. It is located on the western border of the near side and far side of the Moon, and is difficult to see from an Earthbound perspective. Images from spacecraft have revealed it to be one of the most striking large scale lunar features, resembling a target ring bullseye.
Geology
During the 1960s, rectified images of Mare Orientale by Gerard Kuiper at the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory gave rise to the notion of it being an impact crater. The structure, with the flat plain of the mare in the center, is about across and was formed by the impact of an asteroid-sized object, possibly in diameter and travelling at . Compared with most other lunar basins, Mare Orientale is less flooded by mare basalts, so that much of the basin structure is visible. The basalt in the central portion of the Orientale basin is probably less than in thickness which is much less than mare basins on the Earth-facing side of the Moon. The collision caused ripples in the lunar crust, resulting in the three concentric circular features. The innermost rings of this vast, multi-ringed crater are the inner and outer Montes Rook, and the outermost ring are the Montes Cordillera, in diameter. Outward from here, ejecta extend some from the foot of the mountains and form a rough surface with hummocks and with features radially aligned towards the center.
The Apollo program did not sample rocks from Mare Orientale so its precise age is not known. However, it is the Moon's most recent impact basin, probably rather younger than the Imbrium Basin, which is about 3.85 billion years old. The surrounding basin material is of the Lower Imbrian epoch with the mare material being of the Upper Imbrian epoch.
Located at the antipode of Mare Orientale is Mare Marginis.
A mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, was identified in the center of Mare Orientale from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The mascon was confirmed and mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL.
Discovery and name
Mare Orientale is difficult to observe from Earth, as it lies at the extreme western edge of the near side. All that can be seen are the rough mountain ranges—the Montes Rook and the Montes Cordillera—and some glimpses of the dark mare material beyond them. However, the Moon's libration means that on rare occasions Mare Orientale is turned slightly more toward the Earth, and becomes a little more discernible.
Although various astronomers had observed hints of the mare, it was first fully described by the German astronomer Julius Franz in his 1906 book Der Mond ("The Moon"). Franz also gave the mare its name, the "Eastern Sea", as it was located on what the convention at the time considered was the eastern side of the Moon as viewed from Earth, though it is the western side as viewed by an astronaut walking on the Moon. In 1961, however, the International Astronomical Union adopted the astronautic convention for East and West on the Moon and this limb became the western edge.
The first detailed study of the Mare Orientale was by Hugh Percy Wilkins, who called it "Lunar Mare X". Franz's discoveries were not well known, and in the 1976 edition of his book Guide to the Moon, Patrick Moore claims that he and Wilkins discovered and named Mare Orientale in 1946. However, Moore credits Franz as discoverer in his 2009 Yearbook of Astronomy (p. 133-135).
Gallery
References
Bibliography
Orientale, Mare
Orientale
|
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] |
200713
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare%20Humorum
|
Mare Humorum
|
Mare Humorum (Latin hūmōrum, the "Sea of Moisture") is a lunar mare. The impact basin it is located in is 425 kilometers across.
Geology
It was not sampled by the Apollo program, so a precise age has not been determined. However, geological mapping indicates that it is intermediate in age between the Imbrium and Nectaris Basins, suggesting an age of about 3.9 billion years. Humorum Basin is filled with a thick layer of mare basalt, believed to exceed 3 kilometers in thickness at the center of the basin.
A mass concentration (mascon), or gravitational high, was identified in the center of Mare Humorum from Doppler tracking of the five Lunar Orbiter spacecraft in 1968. The mascon was confirmed and mapped at higher resolution with later orbiters such as Lunar Prospector and GRAIL.
On the north edge of Mare Humorum is the large crater Gassendi, which was considered as a possible landing site for Apollo 17. To the south are the floor-fractured Vitello crater, the partially flooded Doppelmayer, and the smaller Puiseux. To the east are Hippalus crater and Promontorium Kelvin. To the west are the Rimae Doppelmayer and the Rupes Liebig, which are cliffs near Liebig itself which is just west of the mare.
Names
Like most of the other maria on the Moon, Mare Humorum was named by Giovanni Riccioli, whose 1651 nomenclature system has become standardized. Previously, the 17th century astronomer Pierre Gassendi had named it Anticaspia ('opposite to the Caspian', referring to Mare Crisium, which he had named after the Caspian Sea), and Michael Van Langren had labelled it the Mare Venetum ("Venetian Sea") in his 1645 map. Johannes Hevelius called it Sinus Sirbonis ("Bay of Serbonis", after the lake of Serbonis, now Lake Bardawil, in Egypt) in his 1647 map.
References
External links
Humorum
|
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200714
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward%20Kimball
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Ward Kimball
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Ward Walrath Kimball (March 4, 1914 – July 8, 2002) was an American animator employed by Walt Disney Animation Studios. He was part of Walt Disney's main team of animators, known collectively as Disney's Nine Old Men. His films have been honored with two Academy Awards for Best Animated Short Film.
Outside of his job as an animator, Kimball was a railroad enthusiast as well as a talented jazz trombonist. He founded and led the seven-piece Dixieland band Firehouse Five Plus Two, in which he played the trombone.
Early life
Kimball was born on March 4, 1914, in Minneapolis. His father was a salesman who traveled widely. He grew up in the Midwest, often residing with his grandparents.
Career
While Kimball was a brilliant draftsman, he preferred to work on comical characters rather than realistic human designs. Animating came easily to him and he was constantly looking to do things differently. Because of this, Walt Disney called Ward a genius in the book The Story of Walt Disney. While there were many talented animators at Disney, Ward's efforts stand out as unique.
According to Jeff Lenburg's assessment of him, Kimball was a pioneer animator and a great innovator of his time. He instilled life to diverse Disney characters, such as Mickey Mouse, Jiminy Cricket, the Cheshire Cat, the Mad Hatter, and Tweedledee and Tweedledum.
Kimball attended the Santa Barbara School of the Arts in order to become a painter and illustrator. Kimball's instructor at the school suggested to him that his work should be submitted to Walt Disney Productions (later known as the Walt Disney Animation Studios), and that he should pursue a career in animation. In March 1934, a 20-year-old Kimball applied for a job at the Disney studio. In April 1934, he was hired as an inbetweener. He was then promoted to an assistant animator. He served as an assistant to animator Hamilton Luske. Kimball worked primarily in the Silly Symphony series, where his film credits include the animated short films The Wise Little Hen (1934), The Goddess of Spring (1934), and The Tortoise and the Hare (1935). He also worked on Mickey Mouse shorts, where his film credits include the short film Orphan's Benefit (1934).
In 1936, Kimball was promoted to an animator in his own right. He continued to work in the Silly Symphony series. Some of his memorable credits in this position include the animated short films Toby Tortoise Returns (1936), More Kittens (1936), and Mother Goose Goes Hollywood (1938). His first solo effort as an animator was animating a grasshopper turned musician in Woodland Café (1937).
As one of Disney's Nine Old Men, Kimball was tasked with animating on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). The film was the first feature-length animated film by the Disney studio. Kimball spent months working on the scene where the Seven Dwarfs are eating soup, prepared for them by Snow White. This scene, however, was ultimately cut to shorten the length of the film.
Following the release of Snow White, Kimball was promoted to a supervising or directing animator. He would remain in this position until his retirement in the 1970s. His employer Walt Disney was sufficiently satisfied with Kimball's work that he entrusted him with designing the new character Jiminy Cricket in the Disney Studio's next feature film, Pinocchio. It took Kimball 12 or 14 drafts before completing his final design of Jiminy. Kimball told one interviewer that he "hated" animating Jiminy Cricket: "I got sick of drawing that oval head looking in every direction.") Kimball's next major task was designing the sympathetic Crows in Dumbo (1941). Following the example of the Seven Dwarfs from Snow White, Kimball had to give each crow a distinct appearance and character.
Kimball supervised or directed the animation of several Disney animated feature films. Among them were Fantasia (1940), The Reluctant Dragon (1941), and The Three Caballeros (1944). The last film mentioned featured the trio of Donald Duck, José Carioca, and Panchito Pistoles. According to animation historian Jeff Lenburg, The Three Caballeros is considered to have a place among the finest work of Kimball's career. The film was reportedly successful in the American box office, earning about 3 to 4 million dollars.
Kimball directed the character animation and sequences of the Pecos Bill segment in Melody Time (1948). He also worked as a senior animator for The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad (1949). In Cinderella (1950), Kimball was responsible for the characters Jaq and Gus and Lucifer the Cat. In Alice in Wonderland (1951), Kimball was responsible for Tweedledee and Tweedledum, the Walrus and the Carpenter, the Hatter and his mad tea party, and the Cheshire Cat. His other film credits include the feature films Peter Pan (1953), Mary Poppins (1964), and Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971).
Kimball spent much of his career animating theatrical animated short films. However, he also served as a director for some of them. He and Charles August Nichols co-directed the animated short films Melody (1953) and Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom (1953). Melody was the Disney studio's first animated 3D film; Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom won the 1954 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film and was the Disney studio's first widescreen CinemaScope animated film. Kimball also directed the short films It's Tough to Be a Bird (1969) and Dad, Can I Borrow the Car? (1970). It's Tough to Be a Bird won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.
Kimball served as a screenwriter for the featurette Eyes In Outer Space (1959). The film combined live action and animation. It depicted weather satellites and explained how the weather is predicted. The film was originally theatrically released. Around 1962, it started being shown in Disneyland.
During the 1950s, the Disney studio shifted its focus from theatrical animation to television. Kimball wrote and directed three hour-long television shows about space exploration. They were Man in Space (1955), Man and the Moon (1955), and Mars and Beyond (1957). The consultants for these shows included pioneers of the Space Age, such as aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun. According to animation historian Jeff Lenburg, the three shows helped in sparking popular interest in spaceflight. Kimball was also responsible for the science-fiction two-reel cartoon Cosmic Capers (1957).
Kimball also worked (as a writer) on the live-action film Babes in Toyland (1961), a musical film. He later returned to television and directed 43 episodes of The Mouse Factory (1972–1973).
According to Jeff Lenburg, Kimball retired in 1973 and left the Disney studio. He continued, however, to serve as a consultant on special assignments. He worked on the World of Motion attraction for Disney's EPCOT Center.
Other activities
Kimball was profiled by producer Jerry Fairbanks in his Paramount Pictures film short series Unusual Occupations. This 35mm Magnacolor film short was released theatrically in 1944; it focused on Kimball's backyard railroad and full-sized locomotive.
Kimball was also a jazz trombonist. He founded and led the seven-piece Dixieland band Firehouse Five Plus Two, in which he played trombone. The band made at least 13 LP records and toured clubs, college campuses and jazz festivals from the 1940s to early 1970s. Kimball once said that Walt Disney permitted the second career as long as it did not interfere with his animation work. Kimball appeared on the March 17, 1954, episode of You Bet Your Life, where Groucho Marx coaxed him into playing his trombone with the house band. He and his partner won $75 in their quiz portion of the show, including one Disney animation question that Kimball answered easily.
Kimball continued to work at Disney until 1974, working on the Disney anthology television series, being one of the writers for Babes in Toyland, creating animation for Mary Poppins, directing the animation for Bedknobs and Broomsticks, and working on titles for feature films such as The Adventures Of Bullwhip Griffin and Million Dollar Duck. His last staff work for Disney was producing and directing the Disney TV show The Mouse Factory, which ran from 1972 to 1974. He continued to do various projects on his own, even returning to do some publicity tours for the Disney corporation. He also worked on the World of Motion attraction for Disney's EPCOT Center.
Kimball also produced two editions of a volume titled Art Afterpieces, in which he revised various well-known works of art, such as putting Mona Lisa'''s hair up in curlers, showing Whistler's Mother watching TV, and adding a Communist flag and Russian boots to Pinkie. These masterpiece remixes are thought to have been appropriated by the street artist Banksy.
His three acting appearances on film were an uncredited role as a jazz musician (with his Firehouse Five Plus Two) in Hit Parade of 1951, an IRS Chief in Mike Jittlov's The Wizard of Speed and Time, and voicing and giving his likeness to half of the vaudeville duo "Ward and Fred" in the Mickey Mouse short The Nifty Nineties (with fellow Disney animator Fred Moore). Kimball served as host of the "Man in Space" and "Man and the Moon" episodes of Disneyland in 1955 and 1956 respectively. He hosted the second season of the 1992 PBS series Tracks Ahead. That season has since been repackaged to feature current host Spencer Christian.
As recounted in Neal Gabler's biography of Walt Disney, Ward Kimball was a key figure in spreading the urban legend that Disney had left instructions for his body to be preserved by cryonics after his death.
Amid Amidi wrote a biography of Kimball, Full Steam Ahead: The Life and Art of Ward Kimball that was projected for publication in the fall of 2012. However, publication of the biography was canceled in February 2013, which Amidi believed was due to pressure from the Disney corporation.
Filmography
Note: At the time these films were produced it was common for one animator to animate every single character in the shot.
Railfan
Along with his employer and friend Walt Disney, and friend Ollie Johnston, Kimball collected old railroad ephemera. He was also an avid collector of model trains.
Kimball was an avid railway enthusiast and donated his narrow gauge collection to the Southern California Railway Museum (formerly the Orange Empire Railway Museum) in Perris, California. A full-size steam locomotive, which Kimball ran on his private backyard railroad known as Grizzly Flats Railroad in San Gabriel, California, bears some of his original artwork on the headlamp and cab, and is on permanent display at the museum.Steam Passenger Service Directory, 1967, p. 18, Empire State Railway Museum, Inc., New York, New York, 1967. Kimball's roundhouse also included two small steam engines that had been used on sugar cane plantations, one of which was his and the other was owned by his friend, noted railroad historian Gerald M. Best. In recognition of his love of railroading and support of the Southern California Railway Museum, the Perris Transit Center, where the museum's historic trains travel, is dedicated to Mr. Kimball. In a rare deviation from its usually tight copyright policy, the Disney corporation allowed the city to decorate the transit center with Kimball's artwork. The center is currently served by Riverside Transit Agency buses, with train service as part of the Metrolink Perris Valley Line.
Kimball is credited with helping Walt Disney for the inspiration to install the Disneyland Railroad at Disneyland. The inspiration for the Disneyland Railroad also partly came from Disney's personal gauge, live steam backyard Carolwood Pacific Railroad, which Kimball had partially constructed. Kimball's Grizzly Flats train station served as the model for the Disneyland Frontierland Train Station. As a tribute to Kimball, Engine No. 5 of the Disneyland Railroad is named the Ward Kimball.
In addition, Kimball also designed the logo for the Wildcat Railroad in Los Gatos, California, owned by Billy Jones, a friend of Walt Disney who was an engineer for the Disneyland Railroad during its first week of operation.
Kimball's talents are also evident in the reproduction steam locomotives built for the National Park Service at the Golden Spike National Historic Site at Promontory, Utah. Kimball helped match colors with an engine at the Smithsonian Institution and painted the artwork for the replicas of the Union Pacific No. 119 and Central Pacific Jupiter built by O'Connor Engineering Laboratories for the Park Service.
Escalation
In 1968, Kimball directed a two-minute animated short called Escalation, which criticized Lyndon B. Johnson's Vietnam War policy. The short is unique for being the only animated cartoon made independently from the Disney Studios by one of Disney's Nine Old Men. The short is further noticeable for its satirical edge and political and erotic content.
Death
Kimball died in 2002 in Los Angeles, California of complications from pneumonia at age 88. In 2005, the Disneyland Railroad named its newly acquired locomotive No. 5 "Ward Kimball''" in his memory.
Archive
The Academy Film Archive houses the Kimball Family Collection which includes over 60 home movie reels, as well as short films, TV spots, and jazz band performances, serving to document Ward's personal interests and moments in his extraordinary career. The collection also includes home movies and shorts by his son, filmmaker and animator John Kimball. The archive has preserved several of the Kimball family home movies, including family vacations to Death Valley and Disneyland.
See also
Rail transport in Walt Disney Parks and Resorts
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Disney Legends
Animation Blast: Remembering Ward Kimball
View Escalation on Youtube
Official Southern California Railway Museum website and Grizzly Flats Railroad Page
1914 births
2002 deaths
Animators from Minnesota
American jazz bandleaders
American television directors
American animated film directors
Artists from Minneapolis
Directors of Best Animated Short Academy Award winners
Disney imagineers
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
Dixieland trombonists
Deaths from pneumonia in California
Perris, California
Firehouse Five Plus Two members
Jazz musicians from Minnesota
20th-century trombonists
Producers who won the Best Animated Short Academy Award
|
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200716
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barycenter
|
Barycenter
|
In astronomy, the barycenter (or barycentre; from the Ancient Greek heavy center) is the center of mass of two or more bodies that orbit one another and is the point about which the bodies orbit. A barycenter is a dynamical point, not a physical object. It is an important concept in fields such as astronomy and astrophysics. The distance from a body's center of mass to the barycenter can be calculated as a two-body problem.
If one of the two orbiting bodies is much more massive than the other and the bodies are relatively close to one another, the barycenter will typically be located within the more massive object. In this case, rather than the two bodies appearing to orbit a point between them, the less massive body will appear to orbit about the more massive body, while the more massive body might be observed to wobble slightly. This is the case for the Earth–Moon system, in which the barycenter is located on average from Earth's center, 75% of Earth's radius of . When the two bodies are of similar masses, the barycenter will generally be located between them and both bodies will orbit around it. This is the case for Pluto and Charon, one of Pluto's natural satellites, as well as for many binary asteroids and binary stars. When the less massive object is far away, the barycenter can be located outside the more massive object. This is the case for Jupiter and the Sun; despite the Sun being a thousandfold more massive than Jupiter, their barycenter is slightly outside the Sun due to the relatively large distance between them.
In astronomy, barycentric coordinates are non-rotating coordinates with the origin at the barycenter of two or more bodies. The International Celestial Reference System (ICRS) is a barycentric coordinate system centered on the Solar System's barycenter.
Two-body problem
The barycenter is one of the foci of the elliptical orbit of each body. This is an important concept in the fields of astronomy and astrophysics. If a is the semi-major axis of the system, r1 is the semi-major axis of the primary's orbit around the barycenter, and is the semi-major axis of the secondary's orbit. When the barycenter is located within the more massive body, that body will appear to "wobble" rather than to follow a discernible orbit. In a simple two-body case, the distance from the center of the primary to the barycenter, r1, is given by:
where :
r1 is the distance from body 1 to the barycenter
a is the distance between the centers of the two bodies
m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies.
Primary–secondary examples
The following table sets out some examples from the Solar System. Figures are given rounded to three significant figures. The terms "primary" and "secondary" are used to distinguish between involved participants, with the larger being the primary and the smaller being the secondary.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 5px auto;"
|+ Primary–secondary examples
! Primary
! m1()
! Secondary
! m2()
! a(km)
! r1(km)
! R1(km)
!
|-
| Earth
| 1
| Moon
| 0.0123
| 384,000
| 4,670
| 6,380
| 0.732
|-
| Pluto
| 0.0021
| Charon
|
| 19,600
| 2,110
| 1,150
| 1.83
|-
| Sun
| 333,000
| Earth
| 1
|
| 449
| 696,000
| 0.000646
|-
| Sun
| 333,000
| Jupiter
|
|
| 742,000
| 696,000
| 1.07
|-
| Sun
| 333,000
| Saturn
| 95.2
|
| 409,000
| 696,000
| 0.588
|}
The Earth has a perceptible "wobble". Also see tides.
Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because their barycenter does not lie within either body.
The Sun's wobble is barely perceptible.
The Sun orbits a barycenter just above its surface.
Inside or outside the Sun?
If — which is true for the Sun and any planet — then the ratio approximates to:
Hence, the barycenter of the Sun–planet system will lie outside the Sun only if:
—that is, where the planet is massive and far from the Sun.
If Jupiter had Mercury's orbit (), the Sun–Jupiter barycenter would be approximately 55,000 km from the center of the Sun (). But even if the Earth had Eris' orbit (), the Sun–Earth barycenter would still be within the Sun (just over 30,000 km from the center).
To calculate the actual motion of the Sun, only the motions of the four giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) need to be considered. The contributions of all other planets, dwarf planets, etc. are negligible. If the four giant planets were on a straight line on the same side of the Sun, the combined center of mass would lie about 1.17 solar radii or just over 810,000 km above the Sun's surface.
The calculations above are based on the mean distance between the bodies and yield the mean value r1. But all celestial orbits are elliptical, and the distance between the bodies varies between the apses, depending on the eccentricity, e. Hence, the position of the barycenter varies too, and it is possible in some systems for the barycenter to be sometimes inside and sometimes outside the more massive body. This occurs where
The Sun–Jupiter system, with eJupiter = 0.0484, just fails to qualify: .
Gallery
Images are representative (made by hand), not simulated.
Relativistic corrections
In classical mechanics, this definition simplifies calculations and introduces no known problems. In general relativity, problems arise because, while it is possible, within reasonable approximations, to define the barycenter, the associated coordinate system does not fully reflect the inequality of clock rates at different locations. Brumberg explains how to set up barycentric coordinates in general relativity.
The coordinate systems involve a world-time, i.e. a global time coordinate that could be set up by telemetry. Individual clocks of similar construction will not agree with this standard, because they are subject to differing gravitational potentials or move at various velocities, so the world-time must be synchronized with some ideal clock that is assumed to be very far from the whole self-gravitating system. This time standard is called Barycentric Coordinate Time, or TCB.
Selected barycentric orbital elements
Barycentric osculating orbital elements for some objects in the Solar System are as follows:
For objects at such high eccentricity, barycentric coordinates are more stable than heliocentric coordinates for a given epoch because the barycentric osculating orbit is not as greatly affected by where Jupiter is on its 11.8 year orbit.
See also
Barycentric Dynamical Time
Centers of gravity in non-uniform fields
Center of mass
Center of mass (relativistic)
Lagrangian point
Mass point geometry
Roll center
Weight distribution
References
Astronomical coordinate systems
Celestial mechanics
Mass
|
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] |
200719
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KREEP
|
KREEP
|
KREEP, an acronym built from the letters K (the atomic symbol for potassium), REE (rare-earth elements) and P (for phosphorus), is a geochemical component of some lunar impact breccia and basaltic rocks. Its most significant feature is somewhat enhanced concentration of a majority of so-called "incompatible" elements (those that are concentrated in the liquid phase during magma crystallization) and the heat-producing elements, namely radioactive uranium, thorium, and potassium (due to presence of the radioactive 40K).
Typical composition
The typical composition of KREEP includes about one percent, by mass, of potassium and phosphorus oxides, 20 to 25 parts per million of rubidium, and a concentration of the element lanthanum that is 300 to 350 times the concentrations found in carbonaceous chondrites. Most of potassium, phosphorus and rare-earth elements in KREEP basalts are incorporated in the grains of the phosphate minerals apatite and merrillite.
Possible origin
Indirectly, it has been deduced that the origin of KREEP is contained in the origin of the Moon. This is now commonly thought to be the result of a rocky object the size of Mars that struck the Earth about 4.5 billion (4.5×109) years ago. This collision threw a large amount of broken rock into orbit around the Earth. This ultimately gathered together to form the Moon.
Given the high energy such a collision would involve, it has been deduced that a large portion of the Moon would have been liquified, and this
formed a lunar magma ocean. As the crystallization of this liquid rock proceeded, minerals such as olivine and pyroxene precipitated and sank to the bottom to form the lunar mantle.
After the solidification was about 75% complete, the material anorthositic plagioclase began to crystallize, and because of its low density, it floated, forming a solid crust. Hence, elements that are usually incompatible (i.e., those that usually partition in the liquid phase) would have been progressively concentrated into the magma. Thus a KREEP-rich magma was formed that was sandwiched at first between the crust and mantle. The evidence for these processes comes from the highly anorthositic composition of the crust of the lunar highlands, as well as the presence of the rocks rich in KREEP.
Lunar Prospector measurements
Before the mission of Lunar Prospector lunar satellite, it was commonly thought that these KREEP materials had been formed in a widespread layer beneath the crust. However, the measurements from the gamma-ray spectrometer on-board this satellite showed that the KREEP-containing rocks are primarily concentrated underneath the Oceanus Procellarum and the Mare Imbrium. This is a unique lunar geological province that is now known as the Procellarum KREEP Terrane.
Basins far from this province that dug deeply into the crust (and possibly the mantle), such as the Mare Crisium, the Mare Orientale, and the South Pole–Aitken basin, show only little or no enhancements of KREEP within their rims or ejecta. The enhancement of heat-producing radioactive elements within the crust (and/or the mantle) of the Procellarum KREEP Terrane is almost certainly responsible for the longevity and intensity of mare volcanism on the nearside of the Moon.
See also
Geology of the Moon
Lunar mare
Lunar Prospector
Moon
References
External links
Moon articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries, including articles about KREEP
Lunar science
Mineralogy
Geochemistry
|
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] |
200721
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Orlando%20Darby
|
William Orlando Darby
|
William O. Darby (February 8, 1911 – April 30, 1945) was a career United States Army officer who fought in World War II, where he was killed in action in Italy. He was posthumously promoted to brigadier general. Darby led the famous Darby's Rangers, which evolved into the United States Army Rangers.
Early military career
Darby's first assignment was as assistant executive and supply officer with the 82nd Field Artillery at Fort Bliss, Texas. In July 1934, he transferred to Cloudcroft, New Mexico, where he commanded the 1st Cavalry Division detachment. He received intensive artillery training from September 1937 to June 1938 while attending Field Artillery School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma.
On September 9, 1940, Darby was promoted to captain and subsequently served with the 80th Division at Camp Jackson, South Carolina; Fort Benning, Georgia; Camp Beauregard, Louisiana; and Fort Des Moines, Iowa.
World War II
Army Rangers
As World War II progressed, Darby saw rapid promotion to the grade of lieutenant colonel. He was with the first United States troops sent to Northern Ireland after the United States entry into World War II, and during his stay there he became interested in the British Commandos. On June 19, 1942, the 1st Ranger Battalion was sanctioned, recruited, and began training in Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland. When the United States Army decided to establish its Ranger units, Darby gained a desired assignment to direct their organization and training. Many of the original Rangers were volunteers from the Red Bull, the 34th Infantry Division, a National Guard division and the first ground combat troops to arrive in Europe.
"Darby's Rangers" trained with their British counterparts in Scotland. In 1943, the 1st Ranger Battalion made its first assault at Arzew, Algeria. Darby was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions on March 21–25 during that operation. The citation stated:
The 1st Ranger Battalion saw further action in the Italian Campaign. Darby received an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in July 1943, in Sicily:
Darby was also awarded the Silver Star for his actions in North Africa on February 12, 1943:
Promotions and death
Darby took part in the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 and was promoted to full colonel on December 11. He commanded the 179th Infantry Regiment, part of the 45th "Thunderbirds" Infantry Division during the Rome-Arno and Anzio campaigns in the Italian Campaign from February 18 to April 2, 1944.
Darby was ordered to Washington, D.C. for duty with the Army Ground Forces and later with the War Department General Staff at The Pentagon. In March 1945, he returned to Italy for an observation tour with General Henry H. Arnold.
On April 23, 1945, Brigadier General Robinson E. Duff, Assistant Division Commander of the 10th Mountain Division, was wounded; Darby took over for Duff. "Task Force Darby" spearheaded the breakout of the Fifth United States Army from the Po River valley bridgehead during the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy and reached Torbole at the head of Lake Garda.
On April 30, 1945, while Darby was issuing orders for the attack on Trento to cut off a German retreat, an artillery shell burst in the middle of the assembled officers and NCOs, killing Darby and a regimental Sergeant Major, John "Tim" Evans, and wounding several others. "Task Force Darby" continued with their mission. Two days later, on May 2, 1945, all German forces in Italy surrendered.
Darby, aged 34 at the time of his death, was posthumously promoted to brigadier general on May 15, 1945. He was buried in Cisterna, Italy. He was reinterred at Fort Smith National Cemetery in Fort Smith, Arkansas on March 11, 1949.
Legacy
Darby's medals, military records, and uniforms are on display at the Fort Smith Museum of History in Fort Smith, and his boyhood home is open for tours.
Camp Darby, near Fort Benning, which is home to the first phase of Ranger School, is named after him.
Two U.S. Army installations in Europe were named after Darby; W.O. Darby Kaserne, Fürth, Germany (closed in 1995); and the operational Camp Darby, near Livorno, Italy.
The town of Cisterna, Italy, dedicated its high school to Darby.
A book entitled Onward We Charge: The Heroic Story of Darby's Rangers in World War II by H. Paul Jeffers was published in 2007.
An Admiral Benson Class transport ship, the USS Admiral W. S. Sims (AP-127), was renamed USAT General William O. Darby in the 1940s.
In 1955, the name of Fort Smith Junior High School was changed to William O. Darby Junior High School. In 1958, the name of the school's athletic teams was changed from Cubs to Rangers after the famous Darby's Rangers.
In 1958, the motion picture Darby's Rangers, starring James Garner dramatized Darby's military exploits. Wayde Preston also played a character role based on Darby in the 1968 film Anzio.
In 1992, Darby was inducted into the Ranger Hall of Fame.
Every year in Italy on April 30, there is the Col. Darby 40 Mile March from Peschiera del Garda to the Darby monument in Torbole sul Garda.
Awards and decorations
Darby's military awards include:
Badges:
Awards:
Dates of rank
References
External links
Generals of World War II
1911 births
1945 deaths
United States Army generals of World War II
United States Army generals
Colonels of the 75th Ranger Regiment
People from Fort Smith, Arkansas
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Order of Kutuzov, 3rd class
Recipients of the Silver Star
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
United States Army Rangers
United States Military Academy alumni
Burials at Fort Smith National Cemetery
United States Army personnel killed in World War II
|
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] |
200723
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimae%20Sirsalis
|
Rimae Sirsalis
|
Rimae Sirsalis is a lunar rille. It is located at and is 426 km long. It was formed by extension of the surface, possibly due to dike propagation in the subsurface.
Rimae Sirsalis cuts across highlands almost exclusively. It starts at the edge of Oceanus Procellarum near the modest crater Sirsalis from which it gets its name and proceeds directly away from the mare, eventually ending up among the cracks in the floor of the crater Darwin. Along the way it passes through craters, ranges of hills, and other small rilles.
References
Sirsalis, Rimae
Volcanic landforms
|
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] |
200727
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophical%20Society%20Pasadena
|
Theosophical Society Pasadena
|
The Theosophical Society (Pasadena) is a branch of Theosophy based in Pasadena, California. It claims to be the successor organization to the original Theosophical Society founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and others in 1875 in New York City. Currently is the second largest Theosophical group in members and international reach after the Theosophical Society Adyar.
It traces its roots to the line of William Quan Judge established Leader in 1895 was recognized by a portion of The Society after Blavatsky's death due to a dispute surrounding Annie Besant regarding the existence of The Masters. The juxtaposed positions are put as this: he was either "faithful to the teachings of the Mahatmas" (the stance of the modern Pasadena organization) or as Besant claimed, had forged the letters claiming them to be from the Mahatmas (the stance of the modern Adyar organization). The corresponding faction led by Henry Steel Olcott and Annie Besant, whose organization, based in India, is known today as the Theosophical Society - Adyar.
Judge led the American group for nearly a year prior to his sudden death in 1896 while traveling across India, at which time Katherine Tingley became Leader. Although initially supported by Ernest Temple Hargorve, he and a group of roughly 200 members disputed Tingley's leadership chose to secede and formed a new faction of the Brotherhood, dubbed the Theosophical Society in America (Hargrove). In 1900 Tingley moved the Theosophical Society's headquarters from New York City to Lomaland at Point Loma, San Diego located in Southern California. It later moved to Covina in Los Angeles County in 1942, and finally found a home in Altadena, California in 1945.
Max Heindel was vice president during 1904 and 1905. Leaders of The Theosophical Society Pasadena have included Gottfried de Purucker, 1929–42; Arthur L. Conger, 1945-51; James A. Long (1951-1971); Grace Knoche (1971-2006); and Randell Grubb (since 2006).
The Theosophical Society of Pasadena devotes the majority of their time in the furthering of the realization of the Divine Wisdom. Making available the majority of Theosophical texts available online via their online location
See also
Halcyon, California — The Temple of the People.
Theosophical Society Point Loma - Blavatskyhouse
United Lodge of Theosophists
References
Greenwalt, Emmett A. (1978). California Utopia: Point Loma, 1897 to 1942. San Diego: Point Loma Publications. .
Theosophical Society (Pasadena)
Theosophical Society
Organizations based in Pasadena, California
Religious organizations based in the United States
Spiritual organizations
Religious organizations established in 1945
1945 establishments in California
de:Theosophische Gesellschaft in Amerika#Theosophische Gesellschaft Pasadena
|
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200730
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Lodge%20of%20Theosophists
|
United Lodge of Theosophists
|
The United Lodge of Theosophists or ULT is an informal and wholly voluntary association of students of Theosophy. It was founded in 1909, mainly through the efforts of Robert Crosbie. The first parent lodge of the ULT was started in Los Angeles by Robert Crosbie and seven other associates through the adoption of its Declaration on February 18, 1909. Owing largely to the revival efforts of B.P. Wadia after Crosbie's death, there are currently about twenty active lodges spread all over the world. The ULT is considered to be part of the second generation or the third section of the Theosophical Movement started in 1875 by H.P. Blavatsky in New York. Presently, it is also one of the existing four main "branches" of the original Theosophical Movement. The following founding principles when taken as a whole, sets apart the ULT from the other Theosophical Organizations:
ULT Los Angeles publishes the Theosophy Magazine which was started by Robert Crosbie in 1912. It was the revival of an earlier periodical called The Path that was edited by W.Q. Judge. ULT India publishes the Theosophical Movement Magazine, founded under B.P. Wadia in 1930 in Mumbai. ULT Santa Barbara publishes a quarterly periodical called Vidya, and uses Concord Grove Press to publish theosophical texts including a pamphlet series on themes from The Secret Doctrine. The Theosophy Company was registered in 1925 on behalf of ULT as a fiduciary agent and an eleemosynary, non-profit corporation to publish photographic facsimile of the Original Editions of books by H.P. Blavatsky and W.Q. Judge.
History
The history of ULT began with Robert Crosbie coming in contact with H.P. Blavatsky in 1887 and his subsequent association with the Theosophical Society or TS in Boston. Based on H.P. Blavatsky's instructions, he placed himself under the direct guidance of W.Q. Judge. Following the death of the original founders of the movement, Robert Crosbie was witness to the ensuing rivalries around "leadership", "authority" and "succession" surrounding Katherine Tingley, who headed the American section and Annie Besant, who headed the international section from India. Initially, Robert Crosbie gave his support to Katherine Tingley and went to Point Loma in 1900 to be of assistance there. However, by 1904, he felt the original teachings of Theosophy were almost completely eclipsed by Katherine Tingley's sensational programs. Convinced that further effort was futile, he quietly left Point Loma and moved to Los Angeles. By February 1909, he had gathered around him seven individuals as part of a study group, four of whom were new to Theosophy. This nucleus, under Robert Crosbie's guidance, set to the task of restoring Theosophy along the original lines of its founders without organizational distractions. In the meantime, the original 1888 version of The Secret Doctrine was out of print and replaced by Annie Besant's "Third and Revised Edition". This edition was found to contain tens of thousands of alterations and major distortions. This and other material that diverged significantly from H.P. Blavatsky's original presentation was denominated Neo-Theosophy. Robert Crosbie denounced Neo-Theosophy and considered it along with other leadership claims and rivalries in the Theosophical Society to be the result of the accentuation of personality, in the Theosophical sense of the lower or illusionary self. Hence the Declaration of the ULT was drawn to emphasize an impersonal, self-reliant, non-hierarchical, non-organizational spirit and loyalty to the original founders and their unaltered message.
In November 1919, five months after Robert Crosbie's death, B.P Wadia, a predominant member of the Theosophical Society Adyar visited America and happened to come across ULT Los Angeles. There he discovered the works of W.Q. Judge who was considered a renegade by the Theosophical Society under Annie Besant and Col. Olcott. Furthermore, he found the reformation he was seeking of the Theosophical Society in ULT's Declaration of purpose and its mission of "pure Theosophy" without organizational distractions. He then went back to India with the hope of changing the attitude of the leaders of the Theosophical Society, to return to the original teachings, set right the wrong that was done to W.Q. Judge and mend the schism in the Theosophical Movement. Finding that his efforts were unsuccessful, he resigned from the Theosophical Society on 18 July 1922 and joined the ULT. Between 1922 and 1928, he stayed in America and founded ULT lodges in New York, Washington D.C., and Philadelphia. And on his return trip to India via Europe, he established ULT lodges in Antwerp, Amsterdam, London, and Paris. Back in India, he started ULT lodges in Mumbai and Bengaluru.
Active Centers
The first ULT lodge founded in 1909 by Robert Crosbie :
245 West 33rd Street, LOS ANGELES, CALIF., 90007, USA (Los Angeles, CA)
Founded between 1923 and 1928 under the guidance of B.P Wadia during his stay in America :
347 East 72nd Street, NEW YORK, N.Y., 10021, USA (New York, New York)
1917 Walnut Street, PHILADELPHIA, PENN., 19103, USA (Philadelphia, PA)
4865 Cordell Ave., Suite 230, Bethesda, (WASHINGTON D.C.) MARYLAND 20814, USA (Washington D.C.)
Established in 1928 during B.P Wadia's journey from America back to India via Europe:
Robert Crosbie House, 62 Queen's Gardens, LONDON W2 3AH, ENGLAND (London, England)
Frans van Heymbeecklaan 6, DEURNE-ANTWERP B-2100, BELGIUM
11 bis, Rue Kepler, PARIS 75116, FRANCE (Paris, France)
First ULT lodge in India, opened on November 17, 1929 under B.P Wadia's leadership:
Theosophy Hall, 40 NewMarine Lines, MUMBAI 400020, INDIA (ULT India)
A sister lodge of the Mumbai center started in 1938 under B.P Wadia:
Nalini Kunj, Sri Marubai Gamdevi Mandir Rd., MATUNGA, MUMBAI 400019, INDIA (ULT India)
Named "Maitri Bhavan", this lodge was started on the 12th of August 1942 by B.P Wadia:
4 M.N Krishna Rao Road, Basavangudi, BANGALORE 560004, INDIA (ULT India)
Study centers started organically by students:
Charilaou Trikoupi 60, 3rd floor, Athens 10680, GREECE (Athens, Greece)
Köpenhamnsvägen 13 C, 217 55 MALMÖ, SWEDEN (Malmo, Sweden)
77 West Encanto Blvd., PHOENIX, ARIZONA, 85003, USA (Phoenix, AZ)
3766 El Cajon Blvd., SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA, 92105, USA (San Diego, CA)
326 West Sola Street, SANTA BARBARA, CALIFORNIA, 93101, USA (Santa Barbara, CA)
References
Sources
Unaffiliated
Affiliated
Theosophy
Theosophical Society
Religious organizations established in 1909
|
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200731
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen%20harrier
|
Hen harrier
|
The hen harrier (Circus cyaneus) is a bird of prey. The genus name Circus is derived , referring to a bird of prey named for its circling flight. The specific cyaneus is Latin, meaning "dark-blue".
While many taxonomic authorities split the northern harrier and the hen harrier into distinct species, others consider them conspecific.
It breeds in Eurasia. The term "hen harrier" refers to its former habit of preying on free-ranging fowl.
It migrates to more southerly areas in winter. Eurasian birds move to southern Europe and southern temperate Asia. In the mildest regions, such as France and Great Britain, hen harriers may be present all year, but the higher ground is largely deserted in winter.
Description
The hen harrier is long with a wingspan. It resembles other harriers in having distinct male and female plumages. The sexes also differ in weight, with males weighing , with an average of , and females weighing , with an average of . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is and the tarsus is . It is relatively long winged and long tailed.
The male is mainly grey above and white below except for the upper breast, which is grey like the upperparts, and the rump, which is white; the wings are grey with black wingtips. The female is brown above with white upper tail coverts, hence females, and the similar juveniles, are often called "ringtails". Their underparts are buff streaked with brown. Immatures look like females but with less distinct barring, dark brown secondaries dark brown and less-streaked belly.
The female gives a whistled piih-eh when receiving food from the male, and her alarm call is chit-it-it-it-it-et-it. The male calls chek-chek-chek, with a more bouncing chuk-uk-uk-uk during his display flight.
Behaviour
This medium-sized raptor breeds on moorland, bogs, prairies, farmland coastal prairies, marshes, grasslands, swamps and other assorted open areas. A male will maintain a territory averaging , though male territories have ranged from .
These, are the one of the few raptorial birds known to practice polygyny – one male mates with several females. Up to five females have been known to mate with one male in a season. A supplementary feeding experiment on the Orkney islands showed that rates of polygyny were influenced by food levels; males provided with extra food had more breeding females than 'control' males that received no extra food.
The nest is built on the ground or on a mound of dirt or vegetation. Nests are made of sticks and are lined inside with grass and leaves. Four to eight (exceptionally 2 to 10) whitish eggs are laid. The eggs measure approximately . The eggs are incubated mostly by the female for 31 to 32 days. When incubating eggs, the female sits on the nest while the male hunts and brings food to her and the chicks. The male will help feed chicks after they hatch, but does not usually watch them for a greater period of time than around 5 minutes. The male usually passes off food to the female, which she then feeds to the young, although later the female will capture food and simply drop into the nest for her nestlings to eat. The chicks fledge at around 36 days old, though breeding maturity is not reached until 2 years in females and 3 years in males.
In winter, the hen harrier is a bird of open country, and will then roost communally, often with merlins and marsh harriers. There is now an accepted record of transatlantic vagrancy by the northern harrier, with a juvenile being recorded in Scilly, Great Britain from October 1982 to June 1983.
Hunting behavior
This is a typical harrier, which hunts on long wings held in a shallow V in its low flight during which the bird closely hugs the contours of the land below it. Northern or hen harriers hunt primarily small mammals, as do most harriers. Up to 95% of the diet comprises small mammals. However, birds are hunted with some regularity as well, especially by males. Preferred avian prey include passerines of open country (i.e. sparrows, larks, pipits), small shorebirds and the young of waterfowl and galliforms. Supplementing the diet occasionally are amphibians (especially frogs), reptiles and insects (especially orthopterans). The species has been observed to hunt bats if these are available. Larger prey, such as rabbits and adult ducks are taken sometimes and harriers have been known to subdue these by drowning them in water. Harriers hunt by surprising prey while flying low to the ground in open areas, as they drift low over fields and moors. The harriers circle an area several times listening and looking for prey. Harriers use hearing regularly to find prey, as they have exceptionally good hearing for diurnal raptors, this being the function of their owl-like facial disc. This harrier tends to be a very vocal bird while it glides over its hunting ground.
Mortality and competition
Little information is available on longevity in hen harriers. The longest-lived known bird is 16 years and 5 months. However, adults rarely live more than 8 years. Early mortality mainly results from predation. Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons, skunks, badgers, foxes, crows and ravens, dogs and owls. Both parents attack potential predators with alarm calls and striking with talons. Short-eared owls are natural competitors of this species that favor the same prey and habitat, as well as having a similarly broad distribution. Occasionally, both harriers and short-eared owls will harass each other until the victim drops its prey and it can be stolen, a practice known as kleptoparasitism. Most commonly, the harriers are the aggressors pirating prey from owls.
Status
This species has a large range. There is evidence of a population decline, but the species is not believed to be approaching the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). It is therefore classified as "least concern". In the United Kingdom, however, hen harrier populations are in a critical condition, due to habitat loss and illegal killing on grouse moors. In 2012 only 617 pairs remained, representing a fall of 20% from 2004.
Relationship with humans
In some parts of Europe people believed that seeing a harrier perched on a house was a sign that three people would die. Unlike many raptors, hen harriers have historically been favorably regarded by farmers because they eat predators of quail eggs and mice that damage crops. Harriers are sometimes called "good hawks" because they pose no threat to poultry as some hawks do.
Forestry and hen harriers
The hen harrier is a bird of open habitats such as heather moorland and extensive agriculture. However, much of its range, particularly in Ireland and parts of western Britain, has been (and continues to be) afforested, predominantly with non-native conifers such as Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) from North America. Hen harriers nest and forage in commercial forestry when it is young, before the canopy closes (typically at between 9–12 and years old), but do not make much use of thicket and subsequent growth stages, which typically comprise between and of the commercial growth cycle. Where forests replace habitats that were used by hen harriers they will therefore tend to reduce overall habitat availability. However, where afforestation takes place in areas that were previously underutilised by hen harriers, it may increase the value of such areas to this species in the long-term. Areas dominated by forestry may remain suitable to hen harriers provided that a mosaic of age classes is maintained within the forest, such that areas of young, pre-thicket forest are always available.
References
External links
The Langholm Moor Demonstration Project
Field Guide Page on Flickr
Range in Iran (in Persian)
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.3 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
RSPB Skydancer website
hen harrier
Birds of prey of Eurasia
hen harrier
hen harrier
|
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200732
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritualism
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Spiritualism
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Spiritualism is a new religious movement based on the belief that the spirits of the dead exist and have both the ability and the inclination to communicate with the living. The afterlife, or the "spirit world", is seen by spiritualists, not as a static place, but as one in which spirits continue to evolve. These two beliefs—that contact with spirits is possible, and that spirits are more advanced than humans—lead spiritualists to a third belief: that spirits are capable of providing useful knowledge about moral and ethical issues, as well as about the nature of God. Some spiritualists will speak of a concept which they refer to as "spirit guides"—specific spirits, often contacted, who are relied upon for spiritual guidance. Emanuel Swedenborg has some claim to be the father of Spiritualism. Spiritism, a branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec and today practiced mostly in Continental Europe and Latin America, especially in Brazil, emphasizes reincarnation.
Spiritualism developed and reached its peak growth in membership from the 1840s to the 1920s, especially in English-speaking countries. By 1897, spiritualism was said to have more than eight million followers in the United States and Europe, mostly drawn from the middle and upper classes.
Spiritualism flourished for a half century without canonical texts or formal organization, attaining cohesion through periodicals, tours by trance lecturers, camp meetings, and the missionary activities of accomplished mediums. Many prominent spiritualists were women, and like most spiritualists, supported causes such as the abolition of slavery and women's suffrage. By the late 1880s the credibility of the informal movement had weakened due to accusations of fraud perpetrated by mediums, and formal spiritualist organizations began to appear. Spiritualism is currently practiced primarily through various denominational spiritualist churches in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.
Beliefs
Spiritualism and its belief system became protected characteristics under Law in the U.K. in 2009 by Alan Power at the UKEAT (Appeal Court), London, England.
Mediumship and spirits
Spiritualists believe in the possibility of communication with the spirits of dead people, whom they regard as "discarnate humans". They believe that spirit mediums are gifted to carry on such communication, but that anyone may become a medium through study and practice. They believe that spirits are capable of growth and perfection, progressing through higher spheres or planes, and that the afterlife is not a static state, but one in which spirits evolve. The two beliefs—that contact with spirits is possible, and that spirits may dwell on a higher plane—lead to a third belief, that spirits can provide knowledge about moral and ethical issues, as well as about God and the afterlife. Many believers therefore speak of "spirit guides"—specific spirits, often contacted, and relied upon for worldly and spiritual guidance.
According to Spiritualists, anyone may receive spirit messages, but formal communication sessions (séances) are held by mediums, who claim thereby to receive information about the afterlife.
Religious views
Declaration of Principles
As an informal movement, Spiritualism does not have a defined set of rules, but various Spiritualist organizations within the USA have adopted variations on some or all of a "Declaration of Principles" developed between 1899 and 1944 and revised as recently as 2004. In October 1899, a six article "Declaration of Principles" was adopted by the National Spiritualist Association (NSA) at a convention in Chicago, Illinois. An additional two principles were added by the NSA in October 1909, at a convention in Rochester, New York. Finally, in October 1944, a ninth principle was adopted by the National Spiritualist Association of Churches, at a convention in St. Louis, Missouri.
In the UK, the main organization representing Spiritualism is the Spiritualists' National Union (SNU), whose teachings are based on the Seven Principles.
Origins
Spiritualism first appeared in the 1840s in the "Burned-over District" of upstate New York, where earlier religious movements such as Millerism and Mormonism had emerged during the Second Great Awakening, although Millerism and Mormonism did not associate themselves with Spiritualism.
This region of New York State was an environment in which many thought direct communication with God or angels was possible, and that God would not behave harshly—for example, that God would not condemn unbaptised infants to an eternity in Hell.
Swedenborg and Mesmer
In this environment, the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) and the teachings of Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) provided an example for those seeking direct personal knowledge of the afterlife. Swedenborg, who claimed to communicate with spirits while awake, described the structure of the spirit world. Two features of his view particularly resonated with the early Spiritualists: first, that there is not a single Hell and a single Heaven, but rather a series of higher and lower heavens and hells; second, that spirits are intermediates between God and humans, so that the divine sometimes uses them as a means of communication. Although Swedenborg warned against seeking out spirit contact, his works seem to have inspired in others the desire to do so.
Swedenborg was formerly a highly regarded inventor and scientist, achieving several engineering innovations and studying physiology and anatomy. Then, “in 1741, he also began to have a series of intense mystical experiences, dreams, and visions, claiming that he had been called by God to reform Christianity and introduce a new church."
Mesmer did not contribute religious beliefs, but he brought a technique, later known as hypnotism, that it was claimed could induce trances and cause subjects to report contact with supernatural beings. There was a great deal of professional showmanship inherent to demonstrations of Mesmerism, and the practitioners who lectured in mid-19th-century North America sought to entertain their audiences as well as to demonstrate methods for personal contact with the divine.
Perhaps the best known of those who combined Swedenborg and Mesmer in a peculiarly North American synthesis was Andrew Jackson Davis, who called his system the "harmonial philosophy". Davis was a practising Mesmerist, faith healer and clairvoyant from Blooming Grove, New York. He was also strongly influenced by the socialist theories of Fourierism. His 1847 book, The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to Mankind, dictated to a friend while in a trance state, eventually became the nearest thing to a canonical work in a Spiritualist movement whose extreme individualism precluded the development of a single coherent worldview.
Reform-movement links
Spiritualists often set March 31, 1848, as the beginning of their movement. On that date, Kate and Margaret Fox, of Hydesville, New York, reported that they had made contact with a spirit that was later claimed to be the spirit of a murdered peddler whose body was found in the house, though no record of such a person was ever found. The spirit was said to have communicated through rapping noises, audible to onlookers. The evidence of the senses appealed to practically minded Americans, and the Fox sisters became a sensation. As the first celebrity mediums, the sisters quickly became famous for their public séances in New York. However, in 1888 the Fox sisters admitted that this "contact" with the spirit was a hoax, though shortly afterward they recanted that admission.
Amy and Isaac Post, Hicksite Quakers from Rochester, New York, had long been acquainted with the Fox family, and took the two girls into their home in the late spring of 1848. Immediately convinced of the veracity of the sisters' communications, they became early converts and introduced the young mediums to their circle of radical Quaker friends.
Consequently, many early participants in Spiritualism were radical Quakers and others involved in the mid-nineteenth-century reforming movement. These reformers were uncomfortable with more prominent churches because those churches did little to fight slavery and even less to advance the cause of women's rights.
Such links with reform movements, often radically socialist, had already been prepared in the 1840s, as the example of Andrew Jackson Davis shows. After 1848, many socialists became ardent spiritualists or occultists. Socialist ideas, especially in the Fourierist vein, exerted a decisive influence on Kardec and other Spiritists.
The most popular trance lecturer prior to the American Civil War was Cora L. V. Scott (1840–1923). Young and beautiful, her appearance on stage fascinated men. Her audiences were struck by the contrast between her physical girlishness and the eloquence with which she spoke of spiritual matters, and found in that contrast support for the notion that spirits were speaking through her. Cora married four times, and on each occasion adopted her husband's last name. During her period of greatest activity, she was known as Cora Hatch.
Another famous woman Spiritualist was Achsa W. Sprague, who was born November 17, 1827, in Plymouth Notch, Vermont. At the age of 20, she became ill with rheumatic fever and credited her eventual recovery to intercession by spirits. An extremely popular trance lecturer, she traveled about the United States until her death in 1861. Sprague was an abolitionist and an advocate of women's rights.
Yet another prominent Spiritualist and trance medium prior to the Civil War was Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825–1875), a man of mixed race, who also played a part in the abolitionist movement. Nevertheless, many abolitionists and reformers held themselves aloof from the Spiritualist movement; among the skeptics was the famous abolitionist Frederick Douglass.
Another social reform movement with significant Spiritualist involvement was the effort to improve conditions of Native Americans. As Kathryn Troy notes in a study of Indian ghosts in seances:
<blockquote>Undoubtedly, on some level Spiritualists recognized the Indian spectres that appeared at seances as a symbol of the sins and subsequent guilt of the United States in its dealings with Native Americans. Spiritualists were literally haunted by the presence of Indians. But for many that guilt was not assuaged: rather, in order to confront the haunting and rectify it, they were galvanized into action. The political activism of Spiritualists on behalf of Indians was thus the result of combining white guilt and fear of divine judgment with a new sense of purpose and responsibility.<ref>Kathryn Troy, The Specter of the Indian. SUNY 2017. p.151.</ref></blockquote>
Believers and skeptics
In the years following the sensation that greeted the Fox sisters, demonstrations of mediumship (séances and automatic writing, for example) proved to be a profitable venture, and soon became popular forms of entertainment and spiritual catharsis. The Fox sisters were to earn a living this way and others would follow their lead. Showmanship became an increasingly important part of spiritualism, and the visible, audible, and tangible evidence of spirits escalated as mediums competed for paying audiences. As independent investigating commissions repeatedly established, most notably the 1887 report of the Seybert Commission, fraud was widespread, and some of these cases were prosecuted in the courts.
Despite numerous instances of chicanery, the appeal of Spiritualism was strong. Prominent in the ranks of its adherents were those grieving the death of a loved one. Many families during the time of the American Civil War had seen their men go off and never return, and images of the battlefield, produced through the new medium of photography, demonstrated that their loved ones had not only died in overwhelmingly huge numbers, but horribly as well. One well known case is that of Mary Todd Lincoln who, grieving the loss of her son, organized séances in the White House which were attended by her husband, President Abraham Lincoln. The surge of Spiritualism during this time, and later during World War I, was a direct response to those massive battlefield casualties.
In addition, the movement appealed to reformers, who fortuitously found that the spirits favoured such causes du jour as abolition of slavery, and equal rights for women. It also appealed to some who had a materialist orientation and rejected organized religion. In 1854 the utopian socialist Robert Owen was converted to Spiritualism after "sittings" with the American medium Maria B. Hayden (credited with introducing Spiritualism to England); Owen made a public profession of his new faith in his publication The Rational quarterly review and later wrote a pamphlet, The future of the Human race; or great glorious and future revolution to be effected through the agency of departed spirits of good and superior men and women.
A number of scientists who investigated the phenomenon also became converts. They included chemist and physicist William Crookes (1832–1919), evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) and physicist Sir Oliver Lodge. Nobel laureate Pierre Curie was impressed by the mediumistic performances of Eusapia Palladino and advocated their scientific study. Other prominent adherents included journalist and pacifist William T. Stead (1849–1912) and physician and author Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930).
Doyle, who lost his son Kingsley in World War I, was also a member of the Ghost Club. Founded in London in 1862, its focus was the scientific study of alleged paranormal activities in order to prove (or refute) the existence of paranormal phenomena. Famous members of the club included Charles Dickens, Sir William Crookes, Sir William F. Barrett, and Harry Price. The Paris séances of Eusapia Palladino were attended by an enthusiastic Pierre Curie and a dubious Marie Curie. The celebrated New York City physician, John Franklin Gray, was a prominent spiritualist. Thomas Edison wanted to develop a "spirit phone", an ethereal device that would summon to the living the voices of the dead and record them for posterity.
The claims of Spiritualists and others as to the reality of spirits were investigated by the Society for Psychical Research, founded in London in 1882. The society set up a Committee on Haunted Houses.
Prominent investigators who exposed cases of fraud came from a variety of backgrounds, including professional researchers such as Frank Podmore of the Society for Psychical Research and Harry Price of the National Laboratory of Psychical Research, and professional conjurers such as John Nevil Maskelyne. Maskelyne exposed the Davenport brothers by appearing in the audience during their shows and explaining how the trick was done.
The psychical researcher Hereward Carrington exposed fraudulent mediums' tricks, such as those used in slate-writing, table-turning, trumpet mediumship, materializations, sealed-letter reading, and spirit photography. The skeptic Joseph McCabe, in his book Is Spiritualism Based on Fraud? (1920), documented many fraudulent mediums and their tricks.
Magicians and writers on magic have a long history of exposing the fraudulent methods of mediumship. During the 1920s, professional magician Harry Houdini undertook a well-publicised campaign to expose fraudulent mediums; he was adamant that "Up to the present time everything that I have investigated has been the result of deluded brains." Other magician or magic-author debunkers of spiritualist mediumship have included Chung Ling Soo, Henry Evans, Julien Proskauer, Fulton Oursler, Joseph Dunninger, and Joseph Rinn.
In February 1921 Thomas Lynn Bradford, in an experiment designed to ascertain the existence of an afterlife, committed suicide in his apartment by blowing out the pilot light on his heater and turning on the gas. After that date, no further communication from him was received by an associate whom he had recruited for the purpose.
Unorganized movement
The movement quickly spread throughout the world; though only in the United Kingdom did it become as widespread as in the United States.
Spiritualist organizations were formed in America and Europe, such as the London Spiritualist Alliance, which published a newspaper called The Light, featuring articles such as "Evenings at Home in Spiritual Séance", "Ghosts in Africa" and "Chronicles of Spirit Photography", advertisements for "Mesmerists" and patent medicines, and letters from readers about personal contact with ghosts.
In Britain, by 1853, invitations to tea among the prosperous and fashionable often included table-turning, a type of séance in which spirits were said to communicate with people seated around a table by tilting and rotating the table. One prominent convert was the French pedagogist Allan Kardec (1804–1869), who made the first attempt to systematise the movement's practices and ideas into a consistent philosophical system. Kardec's books, written in the last 15 years of his life, became the textual basis of spiritism, which became widespread in Latin countries. In Brazil, Kardec's ideas are embraced by many followers today. In Puerto Rico, Kardec's books were widely read by the upper classes, and eventually gave birth to a movement known as mesa blanca (white table).
Spiritualism was mainly a middle- and upper-class movement, and especially popular with women. American Spiritualists would meet in private homes for séances, at lecture halls for trance lectures, at state or national conventions, and at summer camps attended by thousands. Among the most significant of the camp meetings were Camp Etna, in Etna, Maine; Onset Bay Grove, in Onset, Massachusetts; Lily Dale, in western New York State; Camp Chesterfield, in Indiana; the Wonewoc Spiritualist Camp, in Wonewoc, Wisconsin; and Lake Pleasant, in Montague, Massachusetts. In founding camp meetings, the Spiritualists appropriated a form developed by U.S. Protestant denominations in the early nineteenth century. Spiritualist camp meetings were located most densely in New England, but were also established across the upper Midwest. Cassadaga, Florida, is the most notable Spiritualist camp meeting in the southern states.
A number of Spiritualist periodicals appeared in the nineteenth century, and these did much to hold the movement together. Among the most important were the weeklies the Banner of Light (Boston), the Religio-Philosophical Journal (Chicago), Mind and Matter (Philadelphia), the Spiritualist (London), and the Medium (London). Other influential periodicals were the Revue Spirite (France), Le Messager (Belgium), Annali dello Spiritismo (Italy), El Criterio Espiritista (Spain), and the Harbinger of Light (Australia). By 1880, there were about three dozen monthly Spiritualist periodicals published around the world. These periodicals differed a great deal from one another, reflecting the great differences among Spiritualists. Some, such as the British Spiritual Magazine were Christian and conservative, openly rejecting the reform currents so strong within Spiritualism. Others, such as Human Nature, were pointedly non-Christian and supportive of socialism and reform efforts. Still others, such as the Spiritualist, attempted to view Spiritualist phenomena from a scientific perspective, eschewing discussion on both theological and reform issues.
Books on the supernatural were published for the growing middle class, such as 1852's Mysteries, by Charles Elliott, which contains "sketches of spirits and spiritual things", including accounts of the Salem witch trials, the Lane ghost, and the Rochester rappings.
The Night Side of Nature, by Catherine Crowe, published in 1853, provided definitions and accounts of wraiths, doppelgängers, apparitions and haunted houses.
Mainstream newspapers treated stories of ghosts and haunting as they would any other news story. An account in the Chicago Daily Tribune in 1891, "sufficiently bloody to suit the most fastidious taste", tells of a house believed to be haunted by the ghosts of three murder victims seeking revenge against their killer's son, who was eventually driven insane.
Many families, "having no faith in ghosts", thereafter moved into the house, but all soon moved out again.
In the 1920s many "psychic" books were published of varied quality. Such books were often based on excursions initiated by the use of Ouija boards. A few of these popular books displayed unorganized Spiritualism, though most were less insightful.
The movement was extremely individualistic, with each person relying on his or her own experiences and reading to discern the nature of the afterlife. Organisation was therefore slow to appear, and when it did it was resisted by mediums and trance lecturers. Most members were content to attend Christian churches, and particularly universalist churches harboured many Spiritualists.
As the Spiritualism movement began to fade, partly through the publicity of fraud accusations and partly through the appeal of religious movements such as Christian science, the Spiritualist Church was organised. This church can claim to be the main vestige of the movement left today in the United States.
Other mediums
London-born Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–99) moved to the United States in 1855 and was active in Spiritualist circles as a trance lecturer and organiser. She is best known as a chronicler of the movement's spread, especially in her 1884 Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits and Their Work in Every Country of the Earth, and her 1870 Modern American Spiritualism, a detailed account of claims and investigations of mediumship beginning with the earliest days of the movement.
William Stainton Moses (1839–92) was an Anglican clergyman who, in the period from 1872 to 1883, filled 24 notebooks with automatic writing, much of which was said to describe conditions in the spirit world. However, Frank Podmore was skeptical of his alleged ability to communicate with spirits and Joseph McCabe described Moses as a "deliberate impostor", suggesting his apports and all of his feats were the result of trickery.
Adelma Vay (1840–1925), Hungarian (by origin) spiritistic medium, homeopath and clairvoyant, authored many books about spiritism, written in German and translated into English.
Eusapia Palladino (1854–1918) was an Italian Spiritualist medium from the slums of Naples who made a career touring Italy, France, Germany, Britain, the United States, Russia and Poland. Palladino was said by believers to perform spiritualist phenomena in the dark: levitating tables, producing apports, and materializing spirits. On investigation, all these things were found to be products of trickery.
The British medium William Eglinton (1857–1933) claimed to perform spiritualist phenomena such as movement of objects and materializations. All of his feats were exposed as tricks.
The Bangs Sisters, Mary "May" E. Bangs (1862–1917) and Elizabeth "Lizzie" Snow Bangs (1859–1920), were two Spiritualist mediums based in Chicago, who made a career out of painting the dead or "Spirit Portraits".
Mina Crandon (1888–1941), a spiritualist medium in the 1920s, was known for producing an ectoplasm hand during her séances. The hand was later exposed as a trick when biologists found it to be made from a piece of carved animal liver. In 1934, the psychical researcher Walter Franklin Prince described the Crandon case as "the most ingenious, persistent, and fantastic complex of fraud in the history of psychic research."
The American voice medium Etta Wriedt (1859–1942) was exposed as a fraud by the physicist Kristian Birkeland when he discovered that the noises produced by her trumpet were caused by chemical explosions induced by potassium and water and in other cases by lycopodium powder.
Another well-known medium was the Scottish materialization medium Helen Duncan (1897–1956). In 1928 photographer Harvey Metcalfe attended a series of séances at Duncan's house and took flash photographs of Duncan and her alleged "materialization" spirits, including her spirit guide "Peggy". The photographs revealed the "spirits" to have been fraudulently produced, using dolls made from painted papier-mâché masks, draped in old sheets. Duncan was later tested by Harry Price at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research; photographs revealed Duncan's ectoplasm to be made from cheesecloth, rubber gloves, and cut-out heads from magazine covers.
Evolution
Spiritualists reacted with an uncertainty to the theories of evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century. Broadly speaking the concept of evolution fitted the spiritualist thought of the progressive development of humanity. At the same time, however, the belief in the animal origins of humanity threatened the foundation of the immortality of the spirit, for if humans had not been created by God, it was scarcely plausible that they would be specially endowed with spirits. This led to Spiritualists embracing spiritual evolution.
The Spiritualists' view of evolution did not stop at death. Spiritualism taught that after death spirits progressed to spiritual states in new spheres of existence. According to Spiritualists evolution occurred in the spirit world "at a rate more rapid and under conditions more favourable to growth" than encountered on earth.
In a talk at the London Spiritualist Alliance, John Page Hopps (1834–1911) supported both evolution and Spiritualism. Hopps claimed humanity had started off imperfect "out of the animal's darkness" but would rise into the "angel's marvellous light". Hopps claimed humans were not fallen but rising creatures and that after death they would evolve on a number of spheres of existence to perfection.
Theosophy is in opposition to the spiritualist interpretation of evolution. Theosophy teaches a metaphysical theory of evolution mixed with human devolution. Spiritualists do not accept the devolution of the theosophists. To theosophy humanity starts in a state of perfection (see Golden age) and falls into a process of progressive materialization (devolution), developing the mind and losing the spiritual consciousness. After the gathering of experience and growth through repeated reincarnations humanity will regain the original spiritual state, which is now one of self-conscious perfection.
Theosophy and Spiritualism were both very popular metaphysical schools of thought especially in the early 20th century and thus were always clashing in their different beliefs. Madame Blavatsky was critical of Spiritualism; she distanced theosophy from Spiritualism as far as she could and allied herself with eastern occultism.
The Spiritualist Gerald Massey claimed that Darwin's theory of evolution was incomplete:
The theory contains only one half the explanation of man's origins and needs spiritualism to carry it through and complete it. For while this ascent on the physical side has been progressing through myriads of ages, the Divine descent has also been going on—man being spiritually an incarnation from the Divine as well as a human development from the animal creation. The cause of the development is spiritual. Mr. Darwin's theory does not in the least militate against ours—we think it necessitates it; he simply does not deal with our side of the subject. He can not go lower than the dust of the earth for the matter of life; and for us, the main interest of our origin must lie in the spiritual domain.
Spiritualists believed that without Spiritualism "the doctrine of Darwin is a broken link". Gerald Massey said "Spiritualism will accept evolution, and carry it out and make both ends meet in the perfect circle".
A famous medium who rejected evolution was Cora L. V. Scott; she dismissed evolution in her lectures and instead supported a type of pantheistic Spiritualism.
Alfred Russel Wallace believed qualitative novelties could arise through the process of spiritual evolution, in particular the phenomena of life and mind. Wallace attributed these novelties to a supernatural agency. Later in his life, Wallace was an advocate of Spiritualism and believed in an immaterial origin for the higher mental faculties of humans; he believed that evolution suggested that the universe had a purpose, and that certain aspects of living organisms are not explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes, in a 1909 magazine article entitled "The World of Life", which he later expanded into a book of the same name. Wallace argued in his 1911 book World of Life for a spiritual approach to evolution and described evolution as "creative power, directive mind and ultimate purpose". Wallace believed natural selection could not explain intelligence or morality in the human being so suggested that non-material spiritual forces accounted for these. Wallace believed the spiritual nature of humanity could not have come about by natural selection alone, the origins of the spiritual nature must originate "in the unseen universe of spirit".
Oliver Lodge also promoted a version of spiritual evolution in his books Man and the Universe (1908), Making of Man (1924) and Evolution and Creation (1926). The spiritualist element in the synthesis was most prominent in Lodge's 1916 book Raymond, or Life and Death which revived a large interest for the public in the paranormal.
After the 1920s
After the 1920s, Spiritualism evolved in three different directions, all of which exist today.
Syncretism
The first of these continued the tradition of individual practitioners, organised in circles centered on a medium and clients, without any hierarchy or dogma. Already by the late 19th century Spiritualism had become increasingly syncretic, a natural development in a movement without central authority or dogma. Today, among these unorganised circles, Spiritualism is similar to the new age movement. However, theosophy with its inclusion of Eastern religion, astrology, ritual magic and reincarnation is an example of a closer precursor of the 20th century new age movement. Today's syncretic Spiritualists are quite heterogeneous in their beliefs regarding issues such as reincarnation or the existence of God. Some appropriate new age and neo-pagan beliefs, while others call themselves "Christian spiritualists", continuing with the tradition of cautiously incorporating spiritualist experiences into their Christian faith.
Spiritualist art
Spiritualism also influenced art, having a pervasive influence on artistic consciousness, with spiritualist art having a huge impact on what became modernism and therefore art today.
Spiritualism also inspired the pioneering abstract art of Vasily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, Kasimir Malevich, Hilma af Klint, Georigiana Houghton, and František Kupka.
Spiritualist church
The second direction taken has been to adopt formal organization, patterned after Christian denominations, with established liturgies and a set of seven principles, and training requirements for mediums. In the United States the spiritualist churches are primarily affiliated either with the National Spiritualist Association of Churches or the loosely allied group of denominations known as the spiritual church movement; in the U.K. the predominant organization is the Spiritualists' National Union, founded in 1890.
Formal education in spiritualist practice emerged in 1920s, with organizations like the William T. Stead Center in Chicago, Illinois, and continue today with the Arthur Findlay College at Stansted Hall in England, and the Morris Pratt Institute in Wisconsin, United States.
Diversity of belief among organized Spiritualists has led to a few schisms, the most notable occurring in the U.K. in 1957 between those who held the movement to be a religion sui generis (of its own with unique characteristics), and a minority who held it to be a denomination within Christianity. In the United States, this distinction can be seen between the less Christian organization, the National Spiritualist Association of Churches, and the more Christian spiritual church movement.
The practice of organized Spiritualism today resembles that of any other religion, having discarded most showmanship, particularly those elements resembling the conjurer's art. There is thus a much greater emphasis on "mental" mediumship and an almost complete avoidance of the apparently miraculous "materializing" mediumship that so fascinated early believers such as Arthur Conan Doyle. The first Spiritualist church in Australia was the United Stanmore & Enmore Spiritualist Church established in 1913. In 1921, Conan Doyle gave a farewell to Australia speech there.
Psychical research
Already as early as 1882, with the founding of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), parapsychologists emerged to investigate spiritualist claims. The SPR's investigations into Spiritualism exposed many fraudulent mediums which contributed to the decline of interest in physical mediumship.
See also
Camp Chesterfield
List of Spiritualist organizations
Spiritism
Spiritism
Spiritualism in fiction
Notes
References
Albanese, Catherine L. (2007). A Republic of Mind and Spirit: A Cultural History of American Metaphysical Religion. New Haven/London: Yale University Press. .
Chapin, David. Exploring Other Worlds: Margaret Fox, Elisha Kent Kane, and the Antebellum Culture of Curiosity, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004.
Harrison, W.H. 1880. Psychic Facts, a Selection from Various Authors. London: Ballantyne Press.
Kardec, Allan, The Spirits' Book, Containing the Principles of Spiritist Doctrine... according to the Teachings of Spirits of High Degree, Transmitted through Various Mediums, Collected and Set in Order by Allan Kardec, translated by Anna Blackwell, São Paulo, Brasil, Federação Espírita Brasileira, 1996, .
Natale, Simone (2016) Supernatural Entertainments: Victorian Spiritualism and the Rise of Modern Media Culture. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. .
Podmore, Frank, Mediums of the 19th Century, 2 vols., University Books, 1963.
Salter, William H., Zoar; or the Evidence of Psychical Research Concerning Survival, Sidgwick, 1961.
Strube, Julian (2016). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France." Religion. .
Strube, Julian (2016). Sozialismus, Katholizisimus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. .
Telegrams from the Dead (a PBS television documentary in the "American Experience" series, first aired October 19, 1994).
Further reading
Clodd, Edward (1917). The question: "If a man die, shall he live again?" a brief history and examination of modern spiritualism The Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism]. Grant Richards, London.
Doyle, Arthur Conan (1975) The History of Spiritualism. Arno Press. New York.
Kurtz, Paul (1985). "Spiritualists, Mediums and Psychics: Some Evidence of Fraud". In Paul Kurtz (ed.). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 177–223. .
Mann, Walter (1919). The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co.
McCabe, Joseph. (1920). Is Spiritualism Based on Fraud? The Evidence Given by Sir A. C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co.
Mercier, Charles Arthur (1917). Spiritualism and Sir Oliver Lodge. London: Mental Culture Enterprise.
Podmore, Frank (1911). The newer spiritualism The Newer Spiritualism]. Henry Holt and Company.
Price, Harry; Dingwall, Eric (1975). Revelations of a Spirit Medium. Arno Press. Reprint of 1891 edition by Charles F. Pidgeon. This rare, overlooked, and forgotten, book gives the "insider's knowledge" of 19th century deceptions.
Richet, Charles (1924). Thirty Years of Psychical Research being a Treatise on Metaphysics. The Macmillan Company. New York. .
Rinn, Joseph (1950). Sixty Years Of Psychical Research: Houdini and I Among the Spiritualists. Truth Seeker.
External links
"American Spirit: A History of the Supernatural"—An hour-long history public radio program exploring American spiritualism.
Open Directory Project page for "Spiritualism"
Video and Images of the original Fox Family historic home site.
"Investigating Spirit Communications"—Joe Nickell
"Spiritualism Exposed: Margaret Fox Kane Confesses Fraud"—Skeptic Report
New religious movements
Religious belief systems founded in the United States
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200734
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%20hooks
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Bell hooks
|
Gloria Jean Watkins (September 25, 1952December 15, 2021), better known by her pen name bell hooks, was an American author, professor, feminist, and social activist. The name "bell hooks" is borrowed from her maternal great-grandmother, Bell Blair Hooks.
The focus of hooks's writing was to explore the intersectionality of race, capitalism, gender, and what she described as their ability to produce and perpetuate systems of oppression and class domination. She published around 40 books, including works that ranged from essays and poetry to children's books. She published numerous scholarly articles, appeared in documentary films, and participated in public lectures. Her work addressed love, race, class, gender, art, history, sexuality, mass media, and feminism.
Also an academic, she taught at institutions including Stanford University, Yale University, and The City College of New York, before joining Berea College in Berea, Kentucky, in 2004, where a decade later she founded the bell hooks Institute.
Early life
Gloria Jean Watkins was born on September 25, 1952, in Hopkinsville, a small, segregated town in Kentucky, to a working-class African-American family. Watkins was one of six children born to Rosa Bell Watkins (née Oldham) and Veodis Watkins. Her father worked as a janitor and her mother worked as a maid in the homes of white families. In her memoir Bone Black: Memories of Girlhood (1996), Watkins would write of her "struggle to create self and identity" while growing up in "a rich magical world of southern black culture that was sometimes paradisiacal and at other times terrifying."
An avid reader (with poets William Wordsworth, Langston Hughes, Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Gwendolyn Brooks among her favorites), Watkins was educated in racially segregated public schools, later moving to an integrated school in the late 1960s. She graduated from Hopkinsville High School before obtaining her BA in English from Stanford University in 1973, and her MA in English from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1976. During this time, Watkins was writing her book Ain't I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism, which she began at the age of 19 (ca. 1971) and then published in 1981.
In 1983, after several years of teaching and writing, she completed her doctorate in English at the University of California, Santa Cruz, with a dissertation on author Toni Morrison entitled "Keeping a Hold on Life: Reading Toni Morrison's Fiction".
Teaching and writing
She began her academic career in 1976 as an English professor and senior lecturer in ethnic studies at the University of Southern California. During her three years there, Golemics, a Los Angeles publisher, released her first published work, a chapbook of poems titled And There We Wept (1978), written under the name "bell hooks". She had adopted her maternal great-grandmother's name as her pen name because, as she later put it, her great-grandmother "was known for her snappy and bold tongue, which I greatly admired,". She also said she put the name in lowercase letters both to honor her great-grandmother and to convey that what is most important to focus upon is her works, not her personal qualities: the "substance of books, not who I am." About the unconventional lowercasing of her pen name, hooks added that, “When the feminist movement was at its zenith in the late ‘60s and early '70s, there was a lot of moving away from the idea of the person. It was: Let’s talk about the ideas behind the work, and the people matter less... It was kind of a gimmicky thing, but lots of feminist women were doing it.”
In the early 1980s and 1990s, hooks taught at several post-secondary institutions, including the University of California, Santa Cruz, San Francisco State University, Yale (1985 to 1988, as assistant professor of African and Afro-American studies and English), Oberlin College (1988 to 1994, as associate professor of American literature and women's studies), and, beginning in 1994, as distinguished professor of English at City College of New York.
South End Press published her first major work, Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism, in 1981, though she had written it years earlier while still an undergraduate. In the decades since its publication, Ain't I a Woman? has been recognized for its contribution to feminist thought, with Publishers Weekly in 1992 naming it "One of the twenty most influential women's books in the last 20 years." Writing in The New York Times in 2019, Min Jin Lee said that Ain't I a Woman "remains a radical and relevant work of political theory. hooks lays the groundwork of her feminist theory by giving historical evidence of the specific sexism that black female slaves endured and how that legacy affects black womanhood today." Ain't I a Woman? examines themes including the historical impact of sexism and racism on black women, devaluation of black womanhood, media roles and portrayal, the education system, the idea of a white-supremacist-capitalist-patriarchy and the marginalization of black women.
At the same time, hooks became significant as a leftist and postmodern political thinker and cultural critic. She published more than 30 books, ranging in topics from black men, patriarchy, and masculinity to self-help; engaged pedagogy to personal memoirs; and sexuality (in regards to feminism and politics of aesthetics and visual culture). Reel to Real: race, sex, and class at the movies (1996) collects film essays, reviews, and interviews with film directors. In The New Yorker, Hua Hsu said these interviews displayed the facet of hooks's work that was "curious, empathetic, searching for comrades".
In Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (1984), hooks develops a critique of white feminist racism in second-wave feminism, which she argued undermined the possibility of feminist solidarity across racial lines.
As hooks argued, communication and literacy (the ability to read, write, and think critically) are necessary for the feminist movement because without them people may not grow to recognize gender inequalities in society.
In 2002, hooks gave a commencement speech at Southwestern University. Eschewing the congratulatory mode of traditional commencement speeches, she spoke against what she saw as government-sanctioned violence and oppression, and admonished students who she believed went along with such practices. The Austin Chronicle reported that many in the audience booed the speech, though "several graduates passed over the provost to shake her hand or give her a hug."
In 2004, she joined Berea College as Distinguished Professor in Residence. Her 2008 book, belonging: a culture of place, includes an interview with author Wendell Berry as well as a discussion of her move back to Kentucky. She was a scholar in residence at The New School on three occasions, the last time in 2014. Also in 2014, the bell hooks Institute was founded at Berea College, where she donated her papers in 2017.
She was inducted into the Kentucky Writers Hall of Fame in 2018.
Personal life
Regarding her sexual identity, hooks described herself as "queer-pas-gay".
Death
On December 15, 2021, hooks died from kidney failure at her home in Berea, Kentucky, aged 69.
Filmography
Black Is... Black Ain't (1994)
Give a Damn Again (1995)
Cultural Criticism and Transformation (1997)
My Feminism (1997)
Voices of Power (1999)
BaadAsssss Cinema (2002)
I Am a Man: Black Masculinity in America (2004)
Happy to Be Nappy and Other Stories of Me (2004)
Is Feminism Dead? (2004)
Fierce Light: When Spirit Meets Action (2008)
Occupy Love (2012)
Hillbilly (2018)
Awards and nominations
Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural Politics: The American Book Awards/ Before Columbus Foundation Award (1991)
bell hooks: The Writer's Award from the Lila Wallace–Reader's Digest Fund (1994)
Happy to Be Nappy: NAACP Image Award nominee (2001)
Homemade Love: The Bank Street College Children's Book of the Year (2002)
Salvation: Black People and Love: Hurston/Wright Legacy Award nominee (2002)
bell hooks: Utne Readers "100 Visionaries Who Could Change Your Life"
bell hooks: The Atlantic Monthlys "One of our nation's leading public intellectuals"
bell hooks: TIME 100 Women of the Year, 2020
Select bibliography
Books
Excerpted in
With Cornel West,
With Amalia Mesa-Bains,
With Stuart Hall, Uncut Funk: A Contemplative Dialogue, Foreword by Paul Gilroy. New York, NY: Routledge. 2018. .
Children's books
Book chapters
Pdf.
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
Cited sources
Further reading
Leitch et al., eds. "bell hooks". The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001. pp. 2475–2484.
External links
bell hooks articles published in Lion's Roar magazine.
South End Press (books by hooks published by South End Press)
University of California, Santa Barbara (biographical sketch of hooks)
"Postmodern Blackness" (article by hooks)
Whole Terrain (articles by hooks published in Whole Terrain)
Challenging Capitalism & Patriarchy (interviews with hooks by Third World Viewpoint)
Ingredients of Love (an interview with Ascent magazine)
In Depth interview with hooks, May 5, 2002
Interview in BOMB magazine
"bell hooks remembered: 'She embodied everything I wanted to be'", The Guardian, December 16, 2021.
"For bell hooks", Media Diversified, December 16, 2021.
"Remembering bell hooks & Her Critique of 'Imperialist White Supremacist Heteropatriarchy'". Democracy Now!
"bell hooks - Are You Still a Slave? Liberating the Black Female Body | Eugene Lang College", The New School (via YouTube), May 6, 2014.
1952 births
2021 deaths
Deaths from kidney failure
History of women in the United States
People from Berea, Kentucky
People from Hopkinsville, Kentucky
20th-century African-American activists
20th-century African-American writers
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
20th-century pseudonymous writers
21st-century African-American activists
21st-century African-American writers
21st-century American essayists
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American philosophers
21st-century American poets
21st-century American women writers
21st-century pseudonymous writers
African-American children's writers
African-American memoirists
African-American non-fiction writers
African-American philosophers
African-American poets
African-American studies scholars
African-American women writers
American children's writers
American cultural critics
American educators
American ethicists
American memoirists
American philosophy academics
American social commentators
American women essayists
American women memoirists
American women non-fiction writers
American women philosophers
American women poets
Analytic philosophers
Communication theorists
Contemporary philosophers
Critical race theory
Critical theorists
Film theorists
LGBT philosophers
Literacy and society theorists
Mass media theorists
Moral philosophers
Philosophers of art
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of education
Philosophers of ethics and morality
Philosophers of history
Philosophers of literature
Philosophers of sexuality
Philosophers of social science
Philosophy teachers
Philosophy writers
Political philosophers
Postmodern writers
Poststructuralists
Pseudonymous women writers
Social critics
Social philosophers
Theorists on Western civilization
Trope theorists
Writers about activism and social change
Writers about globalization
African-American feminists
American feminist writers
American socialist feminists
Feminist studies scholars
Feminist theorists
Postmodern feminists
Radical feminism
American anti-capitalists
American human rights activists
American social activists
American socialists
American women activists
Anti-poverty advocates
Free speech activists
City University of New York faculty
San Francisco State University faculty
University of Southern California faculty
Yale University faculty
Academics from Kentucky
American Book Award winners
Appalachian writers
Kentucky women writers
LGBT African Americans
LGBT people from Kentucky
Queer women
Queer writers
Stanford University alumni
University of California, Santa Cruz alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
Writers from Kentucky
20th-century African-American women
|
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200737
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braintree%2C%20Massachusetts
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Braintree, Massachusetts
|
Braintree (), officially the Town of Braintree, is a municipality in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. Although officially known as a town, Braintree is a city, with a mayor-council form of government, and is considered a city under Massachusetts law. The population was 39,143 at the 2020 census. The city is part of the Greater Boston area with access to the MBTA Red Line, and is a member of the Metropolitan Area Planning Council's South Shore Coalition. The first mayor of Braintree was Joe Sullivan who served until January 2020. The current mayor of Braintree is Charles Kokoros.
Braintree, Massachusetts, is named after Braintree, Essex, in England. The town was first chartered in 1640. Later, some sections of Braintree formed separate municipalities: Quincy (1792), Randolph (1793), and Holbrook (1872).
History
Various Native American tribes inhabited the area prior to the arrival of European settlers in 1625. Subsequent to their arrival, the town was colonized in 1635, and ultimately incorporated in 1640. The town is named after the Essex town of Braintree. In addition to its present boundaries, it comprised land that was later split off into the separate municipalities of Quincy (incorporated in 1792), Randolph (1793), and Holbrook (1872). Braintree was part of Suffolk County until the formation of Norfolk County in 1793.
The town of Braintree is the birthplace of several prominent figures in American history: Abigail Adams, founding father and 2nd president John Adams and president John Quincy Adams, statesman John Hancock, and General Sylvanus Thayer, an early superintendent of the United States Military Academy located at West Point, New York.
In 1920, Braintree was the site of the murders that led to the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti. During that same decade, the town's population grew by more than 50%.
In January 2008, Braintree converted from a representative town meeting form of government to a mayor-council government.
Geography
Braintree shares borders with Quincy to the north, Randolph to the west (separated by the Cochato River), Holbrook to the south, and Weymouth to the east.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 14.5 square miles (37.6 km2), of which 13.9 square miles (36.0 km2) is land and 0.6 sq mi (1.6 km2) is water. The total area is 4.34% water
Park and recreation locations in Braintree include Pond Meadow Park, Sunset Lake, and Blue Hills Reservation.
Climate
Braintree has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with some maritime influence. Summers are typically warm to hot, rainy, and humid, while winters oscillate between periods of cold rain and snow, with cold temperatures. Spring and fall are usually mild, with varying conditions dependent on wind direction and jet stream positioning. Prevailing wind patterns that blow offshore minimize the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.
The hottest month is July, with a mean temperature of . The coldest month is January, with a mean of . Periods exceeding in summer and below freezing in winter are not uncommon but are rarely extended, with about 13 and 25 days per year seeing each, respectively. The city's average window for freezing temperatures is November 9 through April 5. Official temperature records have ranged from in February 1934, up to in August 1949 and 1974.
Braintree's coastal location on the North Atlantic moderates its temperature, but makes the city very prone to nor'easter weather systems that can produce much snow and rain. The city averages of precipitation a year, with of snowfall per season. Snowfall increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city (especially north and west of the city)—away from the moderating influence of the ocean.
Most snowfall occurs from December through March, as most years see no measurable snow in April and November, and snow is rare in May and October. There is also high year-to-year variability in snowfall; for instance, the winter of 2011−12 saw only of accumulating snow, but in the winter of 2014–15, the figure was .
Fog is fairly common, particularly in spring and early summer, and the occasional tropical storm or hurricane can threaten the region, especially in late summer and early autumn. The last such storm to impact the city was Hurricane Sandy in October 2012. Due to its situation along the North Atlantic, the city is often subjected to sea breezes, especially in the late spring, when water temperatures are still quite cold and temperatures at the coast can be more than colder than locations a few miles inland, sometimes dropping by that amount near midday.
Thunderstorms occur from May to September and are occasionally severe, with large hail, damaging winds and heavy downpours. Although Braintree has never been struck by a violent tornado, the city has experienced many tornado warnings. Damaging storms are more common in areas north, west, and northwest of the city.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 33,828 people, 12,652 households, and 8,907 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,434.4 people per square mile (939.6/km2). There were 12,973 housing units at an average density of 933.6 per square mile (360.4/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 93.96% White, 1.18% Black or African American, 0.11% Native American, 3.14% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.64% from other races, and 0.95% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.16% of the population. More than 46% of town residents had Irish ancestry. As of 2014 Braintree had the 2nd highest concentration of Irish Americans in the entire country, slightly behind Scituate, Massachusetts.
There were 12,652 households, out of which 29.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.4% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.6% were non-families. 24.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.16.
In the town the population was spread out, with 22.5% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 18.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.4 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $85,590, and the median income for a family was $90,590 as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $89,607 versus $36,034 for females. The per capita income for the town was $28,683. About 2.1% of families and 3.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.6% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over.
Sports
Braintree High School participates in the Bay State Conference, a Division 1 conference in the Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association. The girls' basketball team has won back-to-back state championships and finished 2014 undefeated. The Braintree High dance team competes at the regional and national stage. The Wamps baseball team won the Super Eight Baseball Tournament in 2015 over St. John's Preparatory School in their second-straight finals appearance.
Braintree American Little League plays at Michael F. Dunn Little League Complex located at Hollingsworth Park. East Braintree Little League plays at Watson Park.
The Braintree Athletic Complex is scheduled to be located at Braintree High School and will feature two ice hockey rinks, a basketball court, a multi-use court, a swimming pool and an indoor baseball diamond.
Education
Braintree is home to various educational institutions, both private and public.
Public primary and secondary education
Public education at the primary and secondary levels is managed by Braintree Public Schools (BPS), a system that includes one kindergarten center, six elementary schools, two middle schools and one high school.
Public high school
Braintree High School
Public middle schools
East Middle School
South Middle School
Public elementary schools
Flaherty Elementary School
Highlands Elementary School
Hollis Elementary School
Liberty Elementary School
Morrison Elementary School
Ross Elementary School
Private and alternative education
Private and alternative education institutions in Braintree include Thayer Academy, Archbishop Williams High School, and CATS Academy.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Braintree is situated in the Greater Boston Area, which has rail, air, and highway facilities. State Route 128 and Interstate 95 divide the region into inner and outer zones, which are connected by numerous "spokes" providing direct access to the airport, port, and intermodal facilities of Boston.
Principal highways in Braintree are Interstate 93 (which runs concurrently with U.S. 1) and Route 3, as well as 37, and 53. Entering Braintree from the north, I-93, Route 1, and Route 3 all run concurrently as the Southeast Expressway from Boston; in Braintree they diverge, with Route 3 heading south toward Cape Cod as the Pilgrims Highway, and I-93 and Route 1 heading west toward Route 128.
Commuter rail service to South Station, Boston, is available on the Middleboro & Plymouth lines from the Braintree Red Line/Commuter Rail Station located on Union Street. The CapeFLYER rail service from Boston to Hyannis as well as Buzzards Bay stations also stops at Braintree Station. The MBTA Red Line is accessible at the same location. Weekday rail service on the Greenbush Line started in late 2007 and is accessible from the Weymouth Landing/East Braintree station on Quincy Avenue. In July 2017, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker and other Baker administration transportation officials visited a construction project in the city to highlight $2.8 billion spent during Baker's administration on highway construction projects and improvements to bridges, intersections, and sidewalks. Freight Rail service is provided by Fore River Transportation Corporation, and CSX Transportation.
From 1948 to 1968, the town was the home of Braintree Airport, a general aviation airport located near Great Pond that was used by civil defense officials and private pilots. The airport featured a dirt runway and offered flight training. Residential development, proximity to the town's water supply, and a number of accidents led to its closure in 1968.
Water and Sewer
In 2020, Braintree, together with Randolph, and Holbrook, formed a regional drinking water supply agency, which is called the Tri-Town Water Board. Braintree operates its own water treatment plant while a second treatment plant serves the Randolph-Holbrook Joint Water Board.
Commerce
Braintree is home to several large companies, including Altra Industrial Motion, Greater Media, Haemonetics, and TopSource LLC.
From 1964 to 1991 Braintree was the home of a Valle's Steak House restaurant. The chain was an East Coast landmark that stretched from Maine to Florida. The Braintree restaurant was the largest in the chain when it opened, and featured a dining room that sat 600 customers, banquet rooms that accommodated 1,000, parking for 700 cars, and two kitchens, one used exclusively for banquets. The restaurant had over 150 employees. Max Bodner of Quincy was the original manager. One of the chain's busiest locations, it was capable of serving over 5,000 customers per day. The restaurant changed names several times after the Valle's corporation closed in 1991 and was eventually razed to make way for a Toyota dealership. Among the notable moments in the restaurant's history occurred in 1980 when then presidential candidate Ronald Reagan made a campaign speech at a South Shore Chamber of Commerce luncheon.
Points of interest
Blue Hills Reservation
General Sylvanus Thayer Birthplace
Hollingsworth Park
Monatiquot River
Pond Meadow Park
South Shore Plaza
Sunset Lake
Notable people
Abigail Adams, wife of President John Adams; mother of John Quincy Adams
Henry Adams, original emigrant to the Americas
Jeremy Adams, original emigrant to the Americas
John Adams, second President of the United States; first Vice President of the United States; signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
John Quincy Adams, diplomat, sixth President of the United States; member of the United States House of Representatives
Joe Amorosino, reporter and sports director for WHDH-TV
Amy Bishop, perpetrator of the University of Alabama in Huntsville shooting
Oscar Florianus Bluemner, German-born American Modernist painter
Jim Calhoun, former head coach of University of Connecticut men's basketball team
Priscilla Chan, philanthropist and pediatrician; wife of Mark Zuckerberg
Chris Doherty, musician and recording artist from the band Gang Green
Adam Gaudette, NHL player
Brian Gibbons, NHL player
John Hancock, signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence; fourth President of the Continental Congress; first and third Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts; diplomat and statesman
Tiffany Kelly, beauty pageant winner, Miss Massachusetts of 2006
Peter Kormann, gymnast and winner of the bronze medal in men's floor competition at the 1976 Olympics
Don McKenney, hockey center; captain of the Boston Bruins, 1954–1963
Rufus Putnam, American Revolutionary War military officer
Jose Offerman, baseball player for the Boston Red Sox
American rock band A Rocket to the Moon
William Rosenberg, creator of the Dunkin' Donuts restaurant chain
Butch Stearns, sports anchorman; Chief Content Officer for the Pulse Network
Sylvanus Thayer, superintendent of the U.S. Military Academy; called "the father of West Point"
Mo Vaughn, baseball player for the Boston Red Sox
Donnie Wahlberg, record producer, songwriter, singer, actor; founding member of the musical group New Kids on the Block
Mark Wahlberg, film and television producer; Academy Award-nominated actor; former lead singer of Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch
Thomas A. Watson, primary assistant of Alexander Graham Bell; assisted in invention of the telephone; founder of Fore River Shipyard
Filming locations
June 1969: Tell Me That You Love Me, Junie Moon, directed by Otto Preminger (sequence filmed at 710 West Street)
October 2006: The Departed, directed by Martin Scorsese (sequence filmed in the Fore River Shipyard)
April 2008: Paul Blart: Mall Cop, directed by Steve Carr (sequence filmed in the South Shore Plaza)
September 2009: What Doesn't Kill You, directed by Brian Goodman (sequence filmed at the Mobil station on Elm Street)
April 2016: Stronger, directed by David Gordon Green (sequence filmed at the Skyline Drive apartment complex)
References
Dennehy, John A. "Images of America: Braintree." Arcadia Publishing, 2010.
External links
Town of Braintree
Braintree Historical Society
1625 establishments in Massachusetts
Cities in Massachusetts
Cities in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Populated places established in 1625
|
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] |
200740
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Dace%20%28SS-247%29
|
USS Dace (SS-247)
|
, a Gato-class submarine, was the first submarine of the United States Navy to be named for any of several small North American fresh-water fishes of the carp family.
Her keel was laid down by Electric Boat Company of Groton, Connecticut, 22 July 1942. She was launched on 25 April 1943 (sponsored by Mrs O. P. Robertson), and commissioned on 23 July 1943, Lieutenant Commander Joseph F. Enright in command.
Service history
United States Navy
World War II
1943
Departing New London, Connecticut on 7 September 1943, Dace arrived at Pearl Harbor on 3 October, and 17 days later sailed on her first war patrol, bound for the southeast coast of Honshū and the approaches to Nagoya. On 7 November, she made her first contact with the enemy, damaging a freighter with torpedoes. Alert action by patrol craft prevented Dace from continuing her attack. She returned to Midway Island to refit from 11 December – 7 January 1944.
1944
On her second war patrol, Dace cruised the shipping lanes south of Truk. On the night of 26 January, she contacted a large tanker, guarded by two escorts. She fired a spread of torpedoes, heard five explosions, and broke off the contact to avoid the pursuit of the escort. The cause of the explosion is unknown as Japanese records show no ship damaged in that area on that date. After refueling at Tulagi on 2–3 February, Dace continued her patrol close to Truk during carrier air raids there on 16–17 February. On 25 February, she arrived at Milne Bay, New Guinea, for refit.
Dace put to sea on her third war patrol on 18 March, and two days later embarked a group of commandos at Langemak Bay. For the next week, she scouted the coast around Hollandia (currently known as Jayapura), New Guinea, landing the commando parties and taking them back on board at night. She refueled at Manus Island on 27–28 March, and sailed on for her assigned patrol area. This patrol was interrupted from 10 to 16 April, when Dace made rendezvous at sea with and escorted her into Manus. On 13 May, Dace put into Brisbane, Australia, for refit.
Daces fourth war patrol – from 13 June – 12 August – found her refueling at Manus on 20–21 June, and sailing on to patrol the Mindanao coast in Davao Gulf. Enemy contacts were made, but were too small to be worthwhile targets. On 9 July, Dace scored at least three hits on a large transport whose two escorts dropped a total of 43 depth charges, badly shaking the submarine but causing little physical damage. A reconnaissance mission took her into Sarangani Bay on 16 July, and ten days later, she pursued a smoke contact visible on the horizon for a full day, eight times being forced down to avoid detection by patrolling aircraft. That night, she reestablished contact and just after midnight on 27 July, Dace launched an attack, firing ten torpedoes into a convoy of three merchantmen, sinking the tanker Kyoei Maru No. 2 (1,157 tons) before being forced to dive when one of the escorts tried to ram and began a depth charge attack. On 31 July, Dace sank a small freighter and the next day received another depth charging after an attack on a well escorted freighter. With all torpedoes expended, Dace put in at Manus on 6 August, and sailed on to Brisbane, arriving on 12 August.
Dace cleared Brisbane on 1 September on her fifth and most successful war patrol. She topped up her fuel tanks at Darwin, Australia on 10 September, and sailed for the exacting task of sweeping mines in Palawan Passage and Balabac Strait. From 27 September – 3 October, she put in at Mios Woendi to repair her gyrocompass, returning to her patrol area on 10 October. Four days later, she attacked a convoy of seven ships, sinking two and heavily damaging a third.
She now joined in an action which brought both submarines the Navy Unit Commendation. On 23 October, they contacted the Japanese Center Force approaching Palawan Passage for the attack on the Leyte landings. Since the location of this Japanese force had been unknown for several days, the contact report reported by Dace and Darter was significant. The two submarines closed the task force, and Darter attacked first, sinking and damaging . Dace followed with a torpedo attack that sank , then went deep to avoid counterattacking destroyers. Continuing to track their target, hoping for a chance to finish off Takao, the two submarines worked through the Palawan Passage. Darter ran aground. With the area full of searching enemy ships, Dace took Darters men off, then fired torpedoes at her to destroy her. Before diving to avoid a patrolling Japanese aircraft, which had bombed Darter. Dace sailed on for Fremantle, Western Australia, arriving on 6 November.
Dace cleared Fremantle on 2 December on her sixth war patrol. She scouted along the Singapore-Hong Kong shipping lane, then sailed on to mine the channel between Palau Gambir and the mainland. Finishing that task on 16 December, Dace heard loud explosions from the mined area late in the afternoon. Three days later, while preparing to attack an eight-ship convoy, Dace was violently shaken by four depth charges or bombs. She went deep, hitting bottom, and while waiting there for the escorts to break off their attack, she was bumped, turned, scraped, and clanked along the bottom by the strong current. Somehow the enemy did not detect her and the sub was able to surface later, repair minor damage, and sail on to patrol farther north. On 28 December, she sank Nosaki and damaged a freighter in the same convoy. She put in at Saipan for fuel on 17 January 1945, and reached Pearl Harbor on 28 January.
1945
After a West Coast overhaul, Dace sailed from Pearl Harbor on 25 May 1945 on her seventh war patrol. She fueled at Midway on 29 May, and entered her patrol area in the Kurile Islands on 7 June. Battle Stations Surfaced on two Japanese ships both sunk through gun action. 1 Luger and 1 Sea truck on 8 June. Again, the next day two Japanese ships were taken out, a freighter and a destroyer. Here, she sank two sailing ships by gunfire, then headed into the Sea of Okhotsk. On 10 June, she detected a large freighter and a small tanker sailing through the fog. Coming into attacking position, Dace saw the convoy also included three escorts, but continued to close the freighter, firing her first spread at only . She swung to fire at the tanker as the freighter, Hakuyo Maru (1,391 GRT), exploded and sank, then was confronted by an escort apparently planning to ram. Dace launched a torpedo "down the throat" of the escort, and plunged deep. A severe depth charging followed, after which Dace fired again at the escort. She returned to Midway on 25 July, and sailed on to Saipan on 13 August, preparing for her eighth war patrol. She was there when the war ended.
Post-war
With the end of hostilities, Dace was ordered back to Pearl Harbor, and on 5 October 1945 arrived at New London. She was placed in commission in reserve at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard on 15 January 1946, and was towed to New London, where she was placed out of commission in reserve on 12 February 1947.
Recommissioned on 8 August 1951, Dace operated from New London along the Eastern Seaboard and in the Caribbean Sea until placed in commission in reserve at New London on 31 December 1953. She was placed out of commission in reserve at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard on 15 January 1954 for extensive modernization, then was recommissioned on 22 October 1954. After training men of the Marina Militare, she was decommissioned at New London on 31 January 1955, and transferred the same day to Italy under the Military Assistance Program.
Leonardo da Vinci (S 510)
Ex-Dace was commissioned in the Marina Militare Italiana (Italian Navy) as Leonardo da Vinci (S 510). Originally to be lent to Italy for five years, this arrangement was extended by five years in 1959 and extended for yet another five years, twice. Together with (ex-USS Barb), Leonardo da Vinci formed the backbone of Italian submarine strength in the late 1950s and 1960s. Dace was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 October 1972 and returned to the United States Navy; Leonardo da Vinci was deleted from the Italian Navy the following year.
Fate
Ex-Dace was sold for scrapping on 1 April 1975.
Awards
In addition to the Navy Unit Commendation, Dace received seven battle stars during her seven war patrols, the last five of which were designated as "successful." She is credited with having sunk 28,689 tons of Japanese shipping.
References
External links
Kill record: USS Dace
Gato-class submarines
Ships built in Groton, Connecticut
1943 ships
World War II submarines of the United States
Cold War submarines of the United States
Gato-class submarines of the Italian Navy
|
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200741
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Dace%20%28SSN-607%29
|
USS Dace (SSN-607)
|
USS Dace (SSN-607), a submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the dace, any of several small North American fresh-water fishes of the carp family. The contract to build her was awarded to Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi on 3 March 1959 and her keel was laid down on 6 June 1960. She was launched on 18 August 1962, sponsored by Betty Ford, wife of future President of the United States Gerald Ford, and commissioned on 4 April 1964, with Commander John A. Walsh in command.
History from 1964 to 1988 needed.
Dace was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 2 December 1988. Ex-Dace entered the Nuclear Powered Ship and Submarine Recycling Program in Bremerton, Washington and on 1 January 1997 ceased to exist.
See also
Admiral Kinnaird R. McKee, USN, who commanded USS Dace.
During portions of the 1960s and 1970s, Dace conducted classified operations in several oceans. Read Blind Man's Bluff (The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage), Sontag and Drew, 1998 for examples of these types of operations and the men who served.
References
Navsource.org: USS Dace
Navysite.de: USS Dace
Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
Permit-class submarines
Cold War submarines of the United States
Nuclear submarines of the United States Navy
1962 ships
|
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200742
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20Diels
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Rudolf Diels
|
Rudolf Diels (16 December 1900 – 18 November 1957) was a German civil servant and head of the Gestapo in 1933–34. He obtained the rank of SS-Oberführer and was a protégé of Hermann Göring.
Early life
Diels was born in Berghausen in the Taunus, the son of a farmer. He went to school in Wiesbaden. He served in the army towards the end of World War I and was posted in Haguenau, Alsace in an intelligence role. After the war, he studied law at the University of Marburg from 1919. At university he had a reputation as a drinker and philanderer. While there he also received a number of dueling scars resulting from the academic fencing once practised by young upper-class Austrians and Germans.
Gestapo chief
He joined the Prussian interior ministry in 1930 and was promoted to an advisory position in the Prussian police in 1932, targeting political radicals, both Communists and Nazis. He was head of the Prussian Political Police when Adolf Hitler came to power. Göring was made minister president for Prussia in 1933, replacing Carl Severing, and was impressed with Diels' work and new-found commitment to the Nazi Party. Diels became a protégé of Göring. In April 1933, Göring appointed him as chief of the new Prussian state police department 1A, concerned with political crimes. Department 1A was soon renamed the Geheime Staatspolizei (Secret State Police), or Gestapo. During this time, he had a romantic relationship with Martha Dodd, the daughter of the US ambassador to Germany.
On 27 February 1933 the Reichstag fire occurred and Diels was the main interrogator of the principal accused, Marinus van der Lubbe. He told Hitler he thought that the fire was set by this single man. However, Hitler was convinced it was the Communists. Diels also ordered Arthur Nebe to arrange the killing of Gregor Strasser in October 1933; Strasser was later killed during the Night of the Long Knives in which Diels himself was almost killed.
Diels attracted the attention of political rivals, including SS chief Heinrich Himmler and his deputy, Reinhard Heydrich. In 1933 and 1934, Himmler and Heydrich took over the political police of state after state. Soon only Prussia was left outside their control. Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to effectively counteract the power of the Sturmabteilung (SA), Göring handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934. Also on that date, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia. Heydrich, named chief of the Gestapo by Himmler on 22 April 1934, also continued as head of the SS Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst, SD). Effectively smeared, but with Göring's aid, Diels narrowly avoided execution during the Night of the Long Knives in the summer of 1934, fleeing his post for five weeks. Thereafter, he was briefly Deputy Police President of Berlin before being appointed Regierungspräsident (administrative president) of the local government of Cologne.
He maintained his association with Göring, marrying his cousin, Ilse Göring. Göring saved him from prison notably in 1940 when he declined to order the arrest of Jews. He was later arrested by the Gestapo in 1944 after the 20 July Plot to assassinate Hitler and imprisoned, but survived.
Post-war
Diels presented an affidavit for the prosecution at the Nuremberg trials but was also summoned to testify by Göring's defense lawyer. After 1950 he served in the post-war government of Lower Saxony and then in the Ministry of the Interior, until his retirement in 1953.
Published works
Diels' memoirs, Lucifer Ante Portas: Von Severing bis Heydrich, were published in 1950. It was pre-released in Der Spiegel between May and July 1949 in nine episodes. A less cautious work was published after his retirement, Der Fall Otto John ("The Case of Otto John") (1954).
Death
Diels died on 18 November 1957 when his rifle accidentally discharged while he was hunting.
References
Sources
1900 births
1957 deaths
Nazi Party politicians
German police chiefs
Gestapo personnel
Hunting accident deaths
SS-Oberführer
German military personnel of World War I
Accidental deaths in Germany
Firearm accident victims
Deaths by firearm in Germany
|
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200748
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Anderson%20%28writer%29
|
Barbara Anderson (writer)
|
Barbara Lillias Romaine Anderson, Lady Anderson (, 14 April 1926 – 24 March 2013) was a New Zealand fiction writer who became internationally recognised and a best-selling author after her first book was published in her sixties.
Career
Born Barbara Lillias Romaine Wright in Hastings, she was educated at the University of Otago where she graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in 1947. In 1951, she married Neil Anderson, a Royal New Zealand Navy officer later to become Chief of New Zealand Defence Staff. They had two sons. After a career as a medical technologist and as a teacher, she went back to university in Wellington, New Zealand, where she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from the Victoria University of Wellington in 1984.
Anderson took Bill Manhire's creative writing course at Victoria University in 1983, after which she began her writing career. Her short stories were published in journals and magazines such as Landfall, Sport and the New Zealand Listener. Her first book was a collection of short stories, I Think We Should Go Into the Jungle. Her third book, the novel Portrait of the Artist's Wife (1992), received first prize at the Goodman Fielder Wattie Book Awards in 1992. It was a bestseller and received critical acclaim in New Zealand and overseas.
Her husband was knighted in 1982, and she was subsequently styled Lady Anderson. In 2009 she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Literature from the University of Otago, and in 2011 she received the prestigious Arts Foundation Icon Award.
She died in Auckland on 24 March 2013.
Works
I Think We Should Go Into the Jungle : Short Stories. Wellington : Victoria University Press, 1989; London: Secker & Warburg, 1993.
Girls' High. Wellington : Victoria University Press, 1990, 1999; London: Secker & Warburg, 1991.
Portrait of the Artist's Wife. Wellington : Victoria University Press, 1992; London: Secker & Warburg, 1992; New York: Norton, 1993; London: Minerva, 1993.
All the Nice Girls. Wellington : Victoria University Press, 1993, 1999; London: Cape, 1994; London: Vintage, 1995.
The House Guest. Wellington : Victoria University Press, 1995; London: Cape, 1995; London: Vintage, 1997.
Proud Garments. Wellington : Victoria University Press, 1996.
The Peacocks : and Other Stories. Wellington : Victoria University Press, 1997.
Glorious things, and other stories. London: Cape, 1999.
Long Hot Summer. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1999; London: Cape, 2000.
The Swing Around. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2001.
Getting There: An Autobiography, 2008
See also
New Zealand literature
References
External links
Biography and links on Read NZ Te Pou Muramura
1926 births
2013 deaths
New Zealand women novelists
University of Otago alumni
Victoria University of Wellington alumni
People from Hastings, New Zealand
20th-century New Zealand novelists
20th-century New Zealand women writers
|
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200749
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration%20of%20Breda
|
Declaration of Breda
|
The Declaration of Breda (dated 4 April 1660) was a proclamation by Charles II of England in which he promised a general pardon for crimes committed during the English Civil War and the Interregnum for all those who recognised Charles as the lawful king; the retention by the current owners of property purchased during the same period; religious toleration; and the payment of arrears to members of the army, and that the army would be recommissioned into service under the crown. Further, regarding the two latter points, the parliament was given the authority to judge property disputes and responsibility for the payment of the army. The first three pledges were all subject to amendment by acts of parliament.
Backgrounds
The declaration was written in response to a secret message sent by General George Monck, who was then in effective control of England. On 1 May 1660, the contents of the declaration and accompanying letters were made public. The next day Parliament passed a resolution that "government ought to be by King, Lords and Commons" and Charles was invited to England to receive his crown. On 8 May Charles was proclaimed King. On the advice of Monck, the commons rejected a resolution put forward by jurist Matthew Hale (a member for Gloucestershire) for a committee to be formed to look into the concessions offered by Charles and to negotiate conditions with the King such as those put forward to his father in the treaty of Newport.
The declaration was named after the city of Breda in the Netherlands. It was actually written in the Spanish Netherlands, where Charles had been residing since March 1656; however, at the time of writing, England had been at war with Spain since 1655. To overcome the difficulties, both practical and in terms of public relations, of a prospective King of England addressing his subjects from enemy territory, Monck advised Charles to relocate himself to the United Netherlands, and to date his letters as if they were posted from Breda. Charles left Brussels, his last residence in the Spanish Netherlands, and passing through Antwerp arrived in Breda on 4 April, and resided there until 14 May. Then he travelled to The Hague, where he was received by the States General of the Netherlands as a ruling King of England and grandiosely entertained, and departed for England on 2 June from Scheveningen on , the former Naseby which was renamed on arrival at the Dutch coast. The declaration, however (actually several letters, addressed to Monck, the Houses of Parliament, and the City of London), was despatched as soon as Charles had crossed the border of the Dutch Republic, and was dated 4 April (OS)/14 April (NS).
Contents
The declaration was drawn up by Charles and his three chief advisors, Edward Hyde, James Butler, and Nicholas Monck, in order to state the terms by which Charles hoped to take up "the possession of that right which God and Nature hath made our due".
The declaration promised a "free and general pardon" to any old enemies of Charles and of his father who recognised Charles II as their lawful monarch, "excepting only such persons as shall hereafter be excepted by parliament". However it had always been Charles's expectation, or at least that of his chancellor, Edward Hyde (later Earl of Clarendon), that all who had been immediately concerned in his father's death should be punished, and even while at a disadvantage, while professing pardon and favour to many, he had constantly excepted the regicides. Once Charles was restored to the throne, on his behalf Hyde steered the Indemnity and Oblivion Act through parliament. The act pardoned most who had sided with Parliament during the Civil War, but excepted the regicides, two prominent unrepentant republicans, John Lambert and Henry Vane the Younger, and around another twenty were forbidden to take any public office or sit in Parliament.
In the declaration Charles promised religious toleration in areas where it did not disturb the peace of the kingdom, and an act of parliament for the "granting of that indulgence". However parliament chose to interpret the threat of peace to the kingdom to include the holding of public office by non-Anglicans. Between 1660 and 1665 the Cavalier Parliament passed four statutes that became known as the Clarendon Code. These severely limited the rights of Roman Catholics and nonconformists, such as the Puritans who had reached the zenith of their influence under the Commonwealth, effectively excluding them from national and local politics.
The declaration undertook to settle the back-pay of General Monck's soldiers. The landed classes were reassured that establishing the justice of contested grants and purchases of estates that had been made "in the continued distractions of so many years and so many and great revolutions" was to be determined in Parliament. Charles II appeared to have "offered something to everyone in his terms for resuming government".
Copies of the Declaration were delivered to both houses of the Convention Parliament by John Grenville. Other copies with separate covering letters were delivered to Lord General George Monck to be communicated to the Lord President of the Council of State and to the Officers of the Army under his command, and to the Generals of the "Navy at Sea" and to the Lord Mayor of London.
Commemoration
Several warships of the Royal Navy would later be named HMS Breda after the declaration.
Notes
Citations
References
External links
April 4, 1660. Old Parliamentary History, xxii. 238. See Masson's Life of Milton, v. 697
The Declaration of Breda, as printed in the Journals of the House of Lords, Volume 11, p. 7–8
The Parliamentary Archives holds the original of this historic record
17th-century documents
1660 in politics
1660 in the Dutch Republic
1660 in England
Political charters
Political history of England
English Civil War
Charles II of England
History of Breda
|
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200750
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrien%20Brody
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Adrien Brody
|
Adrien Nicholas Brody (born April 14, 1973) is an American actor and producer. He received widespread recognition and acclaim after starring as Władysław Szpilman in Roman Polanski's The Pianist (2002), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor at age 29, becoming the youngest actor to win in that category. Brody is the second male American actor (after Christopher Lambert) to receive the César Award for Best Actor.
Other successful films that Brody has starred in are The Thin Red Line (1998), The Village (2004), King Kong (2005), Predators (2010) and Midnight in Paris (2011). He is a frequent collaborator of Wes Anderson's, having starred in four of Anderson's films, The Darjeeling Limited (2007), Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009), The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014), and The French Dispatch (2021). In 2017, he portrayed Luca Changretta in the fourth season of the BBC series Peaky Blinders. He will star in the upcoming Marilyn Monroe biopic Blonde.
Early life
Brody was born in Woodhaven, Queens, New York City, the son of Sylvia Plachy, a photographer, and Elliot Brody, a retired history professor and painter. Brody's father is of Polish-Jewish descent; Brody's mother, who was raised Catholic, was born in Budapest, Hungary, and is the daughter of a Catholic Hungarian aristocrat father and a Czech-Jewish mother,although Brody says he was raised "without a strong connection" to either Judaism or Christianity.
As a child, Brody performed magic shows at children's birthday parties as "The Amazing Adrien". He attended I.S. 145 Joseph Pulitzer Middle School and New York's Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts. His parents enrolled him in acting classes to distance him from the dangerous children with whom he associated. He attended summer camp at Long Lake Camp for the Arts in the Adirondacks in upstate New York. Brody attended Stony Brook University before transferring to Queens College for a semester.
Career
Taking acting classes as a child, by age thirteen, he appeared in an Off-Broadway play and a PBS television film. After appearing in Bullet in 1996 with Tupac Shakur and Mickey Rourke, Brody hovered on the brink of stardom, receiving an Independent Spirit Award nomination for his role in the 1998 film Restaurant, and later praise for his roles in Spike Lee's Summer of Sam and Terrence Malick's The Thin Red Line. He received widespread recognition when he was cast as the lead in Roman Polanski's The Pianist (2002). To prepare for the role, Brody withdrew for months, gave up his apartment and his car, broke up with his then-girlfriend, learned how to play Chopin on the piano; at 6'1" (1.85m) tall, he lost thirty pounds (13.6 kg), dropping him to 130 lbs (59 kg). The role won him an Academy Award for Best Actor, making him, at age twenty nine, the youngest actor ever to win the award, and, to date, the only winner under the age of thirty. He also won a César Award for his performance.
Brody appeared on Saturday Night Live on May 10, 2003, his first TV work. During this appearance, he controversially gave an improvised introduction for Jamaican reggae musical guest Sean Paul, while wearing faux dreadlocks and using a Jamaican accent. Brody did so without permission of producer Lorne Michaels, causing him to be banned from Saturday Night Live. Other TV appearances include NBC's The Today Show, and on MTV's Punk'd after being tricked by Ashton Kutcher.
After The Pianist, Brody appeared in four very different films. In Dummy (released in 2003, but originally shot in 2000, just prior to his work in The Pianist), he portrayed Steven Schoichet, a socially awkward aspiring ventriloquist in pursuit of a love interest (his employment counsellor). He learned ventriloquism and puppetry for the role (under the tutelage of actor/ventriloquist Alan Semok) convincingly enough to perform all of the voice stunts and puppet manipulation live on set in real time, with no subsequent post dubbing. He played Noah Percy, a mentally disabled young man, in the film The Village, by M. Night Shyamalan, shell-shocked war veteran Jack Starks in The Jacket, writer Jack Driscoll in the 2005 King Kong remake, and father-to-be Peter Whitman in The Darjeeling Limited by Wes Anderson. King Kong was both a critical and box office success—it grossed $550 million worldwide, and is Brody's most successful film to date, financially. He reprised his role voicing Driscoll in the video game adaptation of the film. Additionally, Brody played a detective in Hollywoodland. He has also appeared in Diet Coke and Schweppes commercials, as well as Tori Amos' music video for "A Sorta Fairytale".
On January 5, 2006, Brody confirmed speculation that he was interested in playing the role of The Joker in 2008's The Dark Knight. However, Christopher Nolan and Warner Bros. decided instead to cast Heath Ledger in the role. He was also in talks with Paramount to play Spock in J. J. Abrams' Star Trek, but it ultimately went to Zachary Quinto. In 2009, he starred in Splice, a science-fiction film written and directed by Vincenzo Natali. Originally a Sundance film, Splice was adopted by Dark Castle Entertainment and distributed by Warner Bros. In 2010, he played the star role of Royce in Predators (a sequel to the original Predator), directed by Nimród Antal and produced by Robert Rodriguez.
In 2011, Brody starred in a Stella Artois beer ad called "Crying Jean" that premiered right after half-time of Super Bowl XLV as part of Stella's "She Is a Thing of Beauty" campaign. He appeared in Woody Allen's 2011 Academy Award-winning comedy, Midnight in Paris as Salvador Dalí. On January 16, 2012, Brody made his debut as a runway model for Prada Men Fall/Winter 2012 show.
In 2014, Brody collaborated again with Wes Anderson in the Academy Award-winning The Grand Budapest Hotel, where he played Dmitri. He received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or in a Movie for portraying the title character in Houdini a History miniseries. The same year Brody was cast as the title role of Lee Tamahori's action epic Emperor, about a young woman seeking revenge for the execution of her father by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, opposite Sophie Cookson. The movie was finished and screened at Cannes in 2017 but its release has been by legal challenges.
In 2015, he starred as Tiberius in the Chinese film Dragon Blade, which grossed $54.8 million in its opening week in China. He also received the Cinema Vanguard award at the San Diego Film Festival the same year.
In 2017, it was announced that he would join the cast of the fourth season of the BBC crime drama Peaky Blinders.
On August 4, 2017, he received the Leopard Club Award at the Locarno Festival. The Leopard Club Award pays homage to a major film personality whose work has made a lasting impact on the collective imagination.
In 2019, Brody left Paradigm to sign with CAA Creative Artists Agency.
In 2021, he will receive the Vanguard Award at the SCAD Savannah Film Festival.
Personal life
In 1992, Brody was seriously hurt in a motorcycle accident in which he flew over a car and crashed head-first into a crosswalk. He spent months recuperating. He has broken his nose three times doing stunts; the most recent was during the filming of Summer of Sam.
He dated Michelle Dupont, a music industry personal assistant, from 2003 to 2006.
Brody began dating Spanish actress and model Elsa Pataky in 2006. For Pataky's 31st birthday in July 2007, Brody purchased for her a 19th-century farm in Central New York state that was remodeled to look like a castle. Brody and Pataky were featured at their New York home in a 35-page spread for HELLO! magazine in October 2008. The pair broke up in 2009.
In 2009, Brody signed a petition which called for the release of Roman Polanski, during his arrest in Switzerland for his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl.
In 2010, Brody sued makers of the film Giallo, alleging they failed to pay his full salary.
In February 2020, it was reported that he was dating English fashion designer and actress Georgina Chapman.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Music videos
References
External links
1973 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
American male child actors
American people of Hungarian descent
American people of Czech-Jewish descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Best Actor Academy Award winners
Best Actor César Award winners
Male actors from New York City
People from Woodhaven, Queens
American expatriates in England
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
Queens College, City University of New York alumni
Stony Brook University alumni
Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School alumni
Method actors
|
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200753
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Thin%20Red%20Line
|
The Thin Red Line
|
The Thin Red Line may refer to:
Entertainment
The Thin Red Line (painting), an 1881 painting of the battle by Robert Gibb
The Thin Red Line (novel), a 1962 novel by James Jones
The Thin Red Line (1964 film), a film by Andrew Marton based on Jones's novel
The Thin Red Line (1998 film), a film by Terrence Malick based on Jones's novel
The Thin Red Line (soundtrack), a soundtrack album from the 1998 film
The Thin Red Line (album), a 1986 album by Glass Tiger, or the title track
"The Thin Red Line" (The Mentalist), a television episode
"The Thin Red Line", 1966 episode of the British television show Gideon's Way
Military
The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava), an 1854 military action during the Crimean War
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, a military unit nicknamed the Thin Red Line
Regimental marches of the British Army, of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Other uses
The Thin Red Line, an emblem representing the camaraderie of firefighters. A similar emblem used for law enforcement, see The Thin Blue Line
"The Thin Red Line", a song by Saxon from Unleash the Beast
See also
Red Line (disambiguation)
The Thin Blue Line (disambiguation)
The Thin Yellow Line, a 2015 Mexican film
|
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200760
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Colangelo
|
Jerry Colangelo
|
Jerry Colangelo (born November 20, 1939) is an American businessman and sports executive. He formerly owned the Phoenix Suns of the NBA, the Phoenix Mercury of the WNBA, the Arizona Sandsharks of the Continental Indoor Soccer League, the Arizona Rattlers of the Arena Football League, and the Arizona Diamondbacks of Major League Baseball. He was also instrumental in the relocation of the original Winnipeg Jets team in the NHL to Phoenix to become the Phoenix Coyotes (now the Arizona Coyotes). In 2014, Grand Canyon University renamed its Christian based school of business after Jerry Colangelo, replacing Ken Blanchard's namesake. From December 2015 to April 2016, Colangelo served as Chairman of Basketball Operations for the Philadelphia 76ers, before serving as a special advisor to the team until December 2018.
He became the youngest general manager in professional sports in 1968 after being hired as general manager for the Phoenix Suns. He has the second longest tenure running the same NBA franchise, exceeded only by Red Auerbach of the Boston Celtics.
In the summer of 2005, Colangelo was named director of USA Basketball whose team represented the United States in the 2008 Beijing Olympics and 2010 FIBA World Championship. Since 2009, he has served as Chairman of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Colangelo also serves as Chairman of the National Italian American Foundation (NIAF), a nonprofit nonpartisan educational foundation that promotes Italian American culture and heritage.
Early life
Colangelo was born and raised in Chicago Heights, Illinois, to an Italian-American working class family. He played basketball and baseball for Bloom Township High School. Colangelo enrolled at the University of Kansas, but transferred to the University of Illinois after prospective teammate Wilt Chamberlain left. He played basketball for the Illinois Fighting Illini, earned All-Big Ten honors, and captained the Illini as a senior. He was later inducted into the Illinois Basketball Hall of Fame. Colangelo also played two years of baseball at Illinois. In 1962, he graduated from the University of Illinois with a degree in physical education.
In his autobiography, How You Play the Game, Colangelo tells of working after graduating college at the House of Charles, a tuxedo rental shop in Chicago Heights.
Basketball
Colangelo began his sports career in 1966 in professional basketball with the Chicago Bulls. He worked as a marketing director, scout, and assistant to the president of the team. In 1968, he left the Bulls and was hired as the first general manager of the expansion team, the Phoenix Suns. He was the youngest general manager in professional sports. When he and his family left for Arizona, he had $200 in his wallet.
Colangelo got off to an unlucky start, losing a 1969 coin flip to the Milwaukee Bucks for the rights to UCLA phenom Lew Alcindor (who became Kareem Abdul-Jabbar). The Suns were competitive during most of the 1970s, making it to the NBA Finals in 1976, but losing to the Boston Celtics in six games. Colangelo had two stints as head coach during that decade, compiling a record of 59 wins and 60 losses.
Throughout most of the 1980s, Colangelo's Suns faced difficulties. Some players, including 1976 NBA Finals player Garfield Heard, were involved in an infamous drug scandal, young center Nick Vanos died in a 1987 plane crash, and, from 1985 through 1988, the Suns failed to qualify for the playoffs. Colangelo assembled a group of investors that bought the Suns in late 1987, in the wake of the drug scandal. He subsequently made a trade for Kevin Johnson in 1987.
The Suns made one of the biggest turnarounds in NBA history in 1988–89, nearly doubling their win total (from 28 wins to 55) and making the first of 13 straight playoff appearances. In 1989, Colangelo was an essential part of the group that provided financial backing to build America West Arena (renamed Talking Stick Resort Arena). In 1992, Colangelo traded Jeff Hornacek, Tim Perry, and Andrew Lang to the Philadelphia 76ers for Charles Barkley. The trade proved to be productive for the Suns, and they reached the NBA Finals for the second time in 1993, this time losing to the Chicago Bulls starring Michael Jordan in six games. Barkley's relationship with Colangelo, however, grew sour over the years, and in 1996, he was traded to the Houston Rockets.
Throughout his time with the Suns, Colangelo would win four different NBA Executive of the Year honors with the team. It would stand to be the most honors for an executive of one team in the NBA. He eventually turned over the Suns' presidency to his son Bryan, who later left the organization to become general manager of the Toronto Raptors. Bryan ended up winning two NBA Executive of the Year honors: one with Phoenix, and one with Toronto only two seasons later.
On December 7, 2015, Colangelo decided to return to the NBA to become the new chairman of basketball operations for the Philadelphia 76ers, as well as special adviser to the team's managing partner. On April 7, 2016, Colangelo's son, Bryan, took on the role of general manager and president of basketball operations for the 76ers after their former president and general manager, Sam Hinkie, resigned from his position before end of the 2015–16 season due to irreconcilable differences with Jerry. The move reunited the Colangelos for the first time since 2004 with the Phoenix Suns. Colangelo stepped down as Chairman of Basketball Operations following the hiring of his son, but he retained his role as special adviser to the managing partner. Just before his son's later resignation from the position of general manager, Colangelo attempted to save Bryan's job by threatening to damage the team's NBA relationships. On July 30, 2018, it was revealed that he would retire as of 2019.
Additional sports activities
Colangelo has been involved in many professional sports teams in Arizona.
Baseball
While in Chicago for a Suns game, Colangelo attended a Chicago Cubs baseball game at Wrigley Field. Soon thereafter he decided to inquire to Major League Baseball about bringing an expansion team to Arizona. He assembled a group of investors in 1994 to buy a franchise, a year ahead of MLB's proposed expansion selection meetings. In 1995, Colangelo's group was granted an expansion team, the Arizona Diamondbacks.
The Diamondbacks began playing in 1998. For his new baseball club, Colangelo hired Joe Garagiola, Jr. as general manager. He next brought in Buck Showalter coming off a successful stint as manager of the New York Yankees. Showalter and Yankees owner George Steinbrenner did not agree to a contract extension, so Colangelo quickly hired Showalter as future manager of the Diamondbacks. These hirings proved to be instrumental to the expansion franchise's quick success. Key acquisitions made by Garagiola included the signing of Randy Johnson in 1999 and a trade for Curt Schilling in 2000 from the Philadelphia Phillies. They were co-MVPs of the 2001 World Series when the Diamondbacks beat the Yankees in seven games. This is, , the only major professional sports championship for the Phoenix area.
The Diamondbacks had gone into significant debt to build the 2001 champions. For example, he asked 12 of the highest-paid players to defer their salaries for four years and repay them over eight years. The ensuing debt came back to haunt the Diamondbacks in 2004. Only three years after winning the World Series and two years after winning a third division title in three years, the Diamondbacks never recovered from a slow start. They ultimately finished 51–111, the worst record in baseball and the worst in franchise history.
By then, Colangelo was gone. He was forced to resign as Managing General Partner in the summer of 2004, and subsequently sold his interest. Ken Kendrick succeeded him as managing general partner, while Jeff Moorad became CEO and operating head of the franchise.
In an interview with USA Today, Colangelo defended his approach to building the Diamondbacks, saying that he was only trying to build a winning team. He contrasted his approach with that of the Diamondbacks' expansion brethren, the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, who at the time had finished in either last or next-to-last every season (and would not have a winning season until 2008). He claimed that the plan only backfired when the economy went sour and he didn't get as much from baseball's central fund as anticipated.
Women's basketball
In 1997, Colangelo's team in the Women's National Basketball Association, the Phoenix Mercury, began playing. The following year, the Mercury reached the WNBA Finals but lost to the Houston Comets.
Arena football
In 1992, Colangelo founded the Arena Football League's Arizona Rattlers and owned them until 2005. Under Colangelo's guidance, the Rattlers won Arena Bowl championships in 1994 and 1997. They were also one of the AFL's model franchises and were a perennial playoff team. According to published reports, the Rattlers struggled to stay afloat as a franchise after Colangelo sold the team.
Hockey
Following the demise of the proposed move of the Winnipeg Jets to Minneapolis, Colangelo was involved in bringing the National Hockey League (NHL) to Arizona, successfully convincing the team's ownership to relocate the franchise to the area as the Phoenix Coyotes in 1996. The move made Phoenix one of 13 metropolitan areas with franchises in all four major North American professional sports leagues). The team plays in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale.
Exit from sports
In April 2004, Colangelo sold the Suns, Mercury and Rattlers to an investment group headed by San Diego, California businessman, Tucson, Arizona native Robert Sarver for $401 million.
Late in the 2004 baseball season, Colangelo sold his controlling interest in the Arizona Diamondbacks to a group of investors led by Jeff Moorad.
Other interests
Jerry Colangelo was part of an investment group planning development in Buckeye, Arizona. They planned a 300,000+ residence development called Douglas Ranch and a smaller development called Trillium.
Colangelo purchased the bankrupt Wigwam Resort in Litchfield Park, Arizona.
In 2011, Jerry Colangelo assisted in creating Grand Canyon University's Colangelo School of Sports Business and served as an advisor. On September 25, 2014, Grand Canyon University announced their college of business would be renamed Colangelo College of Business.
Awards
Colangelo has been named the NBA's Executive of the Year four times (1976, 1981, 1989, 1993). He is an honorary member of the Marchegiana Society of his hometown, Chicago Heights, Illinois. A street in that city bears his name.
In 1994, Colangelo received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
On May 9, 2002, Colangelo was awarded an honorary degree from Arizona State University.
On April 4, 2004, Colangelo was elected to the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame.
On November 4, 2007, Colangelo was inducted into the Phoenix Suns Ring of Honor at the halftime of a Suns game against the Cleveland Cavaliers.
He is the National Leadership Director of the National Italian American Sports Hall of Fame and is also a Hall of Fame inductee. It is located in the Colangelo Building on Taylor Street in Little Italy, Chicago.
On Saturday, May 18, 2019, The Lincoln Academy of Illinois granted Colangelo the Order of Lincoln award, the highest honor bestowed by the State of Illinois.
Personal life
Colangelo is a Christian and has spoken about his faith saying, "The first priority in life is to have that relationship with Jesus Christ. So your faith is number one. ... God [has] a plan for my life. You know, the way I've tried to live my life is I have this platform, it was given to me by the Lord. And He's blessed me with a lot of things. And someday I'm going to be held accountable with what I did with those things."
Colangelo is married to Joan, whom he met on a blind date while at college. They have four children: Kathy Holcombe, Kristen Young, Mandie Colangelo, and Bryan Colangelo. Bryan had been president of the Phoenix Suns when his father was part of the ownership group, and rejoined his father with the Philadelphia 76ers from 2016 to 2018.
Works
References
External links
1939 births
Living people
American autobiographers
American men's basketball players
American sports businesspeople
American writers of Italian descent
Arena Football League executives
Arizona Coyotes owners
Arizona Diamondbacks owners
Arizona Rattlers
Basketball coaches from Illinois
Basketball players from Illinois
Businesspeople from Arizona
Businesspeople from Illinois
Guards (basketball)
Illinois Fighting Illini baseball players
Illinois Fighting Illini men's basketball players
Major League Baseball executives
Major League Baseball owners
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Hockey League executives
People from Chicago Heights, Illinois
Philadelphia 76ers executives
Phoenix Mercury owners
Phoenix Suns executives
Phoenix Suns head coaches
Phoenix Suns owners
Sportspeople from Cook County, Illinois
University of Kansas alumni
Women's National Basketball Association executives
|
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200761
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montagu%27s%20harrier
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Montagu's harrier
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Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) is a migratory bird of prey of the harrier family. Its common name commemorates the British naturalist George Montagu.
Taxonomy
The first formal description of Montagu's harrier was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Falco pygargus. The genus Circus was introduced by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799. The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek. Circus is from kirkos, referring to a bird of prey named for its circling flight (kirkos, "circle"), probably the hen harrier, and pygargus is Modern Latin derived from Greek pugargos, from puge,"rump" and argos, "shining white". The species name was formerly used for the hen harrier before Montagu's was identified as a different species.
Identification
Plumage
Sexual dimorphism is particularly apparent in the plumage of this species. Adult males are characterized by their overall pale grey plumage contrasting with black wingtips. Compared with other harriers this species has characteristic black bands along the secondaries, both above and below the wing and rusty streaks on belly and flanks. Adult females have a broadly similar plumage to that of pallid and hen harriers. The underparts are mostly pale yellow-brown, the belly with longitudinal stripes and the wing coverts spotted. The upper parts are uniform dark brown except for the white upper tail coverts ("rump"), and the sightly paler central wing coverts.
The juvenile plumage resembles that of the female, but differs by the belly and under wing coverts which are not spotted, but uniformly red brown in colour.
A melanistic form occurs regularly in this species. In this form the male is much darker than usual, with a black head, brownish black above and grey underparts. The melanistic female is entirely chocolate brown except for grey flight feathers. Partially melanistic morphs can also be found.
Flight
The Montagu's harrier has a particularly graceful flight, with powerful and elegant wingbeats which give an impression of buoyancy and ease. In true harrier fashion it searches the countryside, flying low, and generally holds its wings with a marked positive dihedral.
Dimensions
The Montagu's harrier is a deceptively small raptor, though it appears larger because of its large wing surface compared to small body weight, which gives it a typically buoyant flight. The female is larger than the male because the female needs to produce eggs, however this is not apparent in the field.
Wingspan:
Length: (tail: )
Weight (average):
Male:
Female:
Risk of confusion
The Montagu's harrier can be confused with several species that exist within the same range. The most similar are the hen harrier and the pallid harrier. The male is easily distinguished from other species as its plumage is distinctly darker and more mottled than in the males of hen or pallid harriers. However, distinguishing females and juveniles is more difficult. Usually the Montagu's harrier appears more slender in flight than the hen harrier with a longer tail, longer and narrower wings and more pointed "hands". Also its flight is more elegant than the hen harrier, with more elastic, almost tern-like wingbeats. The distinction between female pallid and Montagu's harriers is the most delicate and can only be made in good conditions as the proportions are similar. The best recognition character is the pale collar around the neck of female and juvenile pallid harriers which is not present in the Montagu's.
Habitat
This species can be found in a middle-latitude band of predominantly temperate climates, but also in Mediterranean, and boreal zones. Although it has been found nesting up to , it is essentially a lowland species, and nests mostly in broad river valleys, plains, and levels bordering lakes and the sea. It can breed in wetlands, though these are often smaller and drier than those used by the marsh harrier. It also utilizes heaths, dunes, moors, and can be found in the steppe. It adapts to shrublands in gorse or heather and to areas planted with young conifers.
When no other suitable habitat is available this harrier will nest in agricultural farmlands where it is vulnerable to early harvesting. Amongst these it chooses especially grasslands and cereal crops such as wheat, barley, oats and colza. In western Europe, up to 70% of the population breeds in artificial habitats.
In short, for breeding the Montagu's harrier requires a large open area, with sufficiently tall ground vegetation to afford cover without being overgrown. It favours posts on which both male and female can rest and survey the breeding area: these can be fenceposts, small trees, or rocky outcrops. When hunting, in any season, it prefers areas of low or sparse vegetation where prey is more visible. Densely settled areas are generally avoided and it is highly susceptible to disturbance.
Food and foraging methods
The diet consists mainly of small rodents, small birds, bird eggs, reptiles (including snakes) and large insects (mainly Orthoptera, which are numerically the most common).
As this bird has a wide distribution, it will take whatever prey is available in the area where it nests; in the northern range it will mainly take ground squirrels and rabbits, whereas in southern Europe, it mostly takes small reptiles and large insects. In areas where the food supply is composed almost exclusively of rodents, the breeding success depends greatly on the cyclic fluctuations of vole populations. At times they regurgitate.
Prey is caught while flying along fixed routes at low heights and constant low speeds (c. ), as is typical of harriers. The flight is considered lighter and more dexterous than other harriers enabling it to take more agile prey. When possible it often follows the edges of various vegetation to catch its prey by surprise. This is taken after a short stoop, though fast running animals and flying birds can be chased over a short distance.
During the breeding season, the male will provision the female and later the young with food. The rate of provisioning increases from 5 to 6 times per day during incubation to 7 to 10 times per day when young have hatched, though the male can be handicapped by wet, foggy or windy weather. In a manner typical of harriers, prey is passed between partners in the air: The female flies underneath the male, who drops the prey for her to catch. The male hunts over a large area up to away from the nest. The female hunts closer to the nest, up to away, and only after the young have hatched.
Status and distribution
This species can still be found throughout most of the Western Palearctic. In most European countries there is at least a small population, except in Norway where it is not present. The breeding range extends as far east as the Urals, whereas the most western population is that of Portugal. Breeding also occurs in northern Africa, mostly in Morocco. In Great Britain, the species is limited to southern England. In Ireland the species is rarely seen, and mainly in the South, although there are a number of breeding records, the most recent from 1971. Despite having a wide distribution, this bird is not common in many areas and has strong populations only in France, Spain, Russia, Belarus and Poland where the greater part of the European population can be found. Breeding sites frequently change, with some sporadic nesting occurring outside known breeding areas, however clear signs of reduced range are apparent and are associated with population decline.
Status in Britain
Montagu's harrier is a rare breeding bird in Britain. There are two breeding areas – the area surrounding The Wash, and downland areas of southern England, from Dorset and Hampshire north to Oxfordshire. Away from these areas it occurs only as a scarce migrant. One site, Estuary Farm, near North Wootton in west Norfolk, a special observation area was negotiated with local landowners, so that pressure could be taken off other nesting pairs. In 2005, a pair bred on the Holkham estate. In 2015, it was reported that some Montagu's harrier were nesting at Blacktoft Sands, East Riding of Yorkshire.
Population trends
The population for the western Palearctic is estimated at 35,000–50,000 pairs. The global population is unknown and could be anything between 150,000 and 200,000 individuals(Birdlife International, 2004). This uncertainty is due to the fact that most of the world's population is situated in Russia and former Soviet republics where it is not quantified.
The evolution has been paradoxical throughout the 20th century. In the beginning of the century up to the 1940s, during a period when other raptors greatly decreased because of human persecution, the Montagu's harrier actually increased its population and breeding range, breeding for the first time in Denmark in the 1900s, and greatly increasing elsewhere. However, from the 1940s onwards it has decreased rapidly. This is due to several negative factors: first, the massive use of agricultural pesticides such as DDT and other environmental poisons was extremely detrimental to the harriers themselves, as well as rarefying their prey, in particular large insects. The modification of agricultural practises, with an evolution towards more intensive farming also puts pressure on harriers, with faster growing crops preventing those birds that nest in farmlands from finishing their nidification before their clutches are destroyed by harvesting machines. Despite a generally negative trend there are local cases when the population has increased, such as in Sweden or in Germany in the 1990s. These local trends show that while they have access to suitable habitats and food supply there can still be positive developments.
Social behaviour and breeding
It can be both solitary and gregarious at times, both during the breeding season and in winter quarters. A breeding pair may associate with others to form loose colonies, with as many as 30 nests in the same area, sometimes as close as apart. Semi-colonial nesting is not due to a shortage of nesting sites, but arises rather from the need to provide a better defence against predators. The actual area defended by both partners covers only around the nest, and in case of colonial nesting the response to predators may be communal. Other species attacked and mobbed include large raptors, corvids, and foxes.
Reproduction begins with the return of both partners to the nesting site, at which point both male and female will start displaying. The display consists of various sky-dances and aerobatic figures that vary according to each individual. Both sexes will display, crying loudly, though the males' displays are more frequent and spectacular. Montagu's harriers breed for the first time when two or three years old, but occasionally one-year-old females may attempt to nest. Pairs form on the territory, when returning from migration. As the birds are tied to their former nesting sites, they probably mate with the same partner every year. The nest is built by the female, always in tall vegetation. It is a simple construction made of grass, used only for one season. The female lays 3 to 5 eggs which are incubated for 27–40 days. The young leave the nest after 28–42 days and are independent two weeks later.
The males may be polygamous, then having to feed two females and later two broods, either simultaneously or consecutively.
Migration
The Montagu's harrier is a long distance migrant. Birds from Eurasia spend the winter in sub-Saharan Africa, while those from the eastern part of the range migrate to the Indian subcontinent. In Europe, the first birds start to move at the beginning of August and most have left by mid-October. They travel over a broad front, crossing the Mediterranean at various points, and only a small number are observed at migration choke points. Western birds don't go further south than the gulf of Guinea, but some eastern birds travel as far as South Africa. In Africa, their diet is composed mostly of insects and birds, and it is possible that they follow locust swarms.
Spring return peaks in April, and most birds have arrived by May though there is evidence that first-year juveniles spend their first summer in the winter quarters
Conservation issues
In western Europe, an estimated 70% of breeding pairs nest in agricultural farmlands, especially cereal crops. This makes the Montagu's harrier a very vulnerable species, and very dependent on nest protection. Bird protection non-governmental organizations participate in their protection, in collaboration with concerned landowners. Once a nest is spotted in a field, it can be safeguarded either by relocating it to a safer area or by creating a protected space which will not be harvested. In France and in the Iberian Peninsula, an average 60% of nestlings are saved by this kind of measures.
References
Further reading
Clarke, Roger (1996), Montagu's Harrier (book)
Werkman, Elvira (2021), The Amazing Story of Montagu's Harrier - How birds show us the way to agriculture and nature in balance (book) ISBN 978-90-9034857-5
External links
Montagu's harrier species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Website of the Harrier Conservation International
Satellite tracking map - Migration and breeding ecology of Montagu's harriers (Spain)
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.9 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Montagu's harrier
Birds of Europe
Birds of Central Asia
Montagu's harrier
Montagu's harrier
Birds of prey of Africa
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] |
200764
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportivo%20de%20La%20Coru%C3%B1a
|
Deportivo de La Coruña
|
Real Club Deportivo de La Coruña (), commonly known as Deportivo La Coruña (), Deportivo or simply Dépor, is a professional football club based in the city of A Coruña, Galicia, Spain. They currently play in the Primera División RFEF – Group 1, the third tier of the football league pyramid in Spain.
Founded in 1906 as Club Deportivo de la Sala Calvet by Federico Fernández-Amor Calvet, Deportivo have won the league title once, in the 1999–2000 season, and finished as runner-up on five occasions. The club have also won the Spanish Cup twice (1994–95 and 2001–02), and three Spanish Super Cups. The Blue and Whites were a regular fixture in the top positions of La Liga for the best part of 20 years, from 1991 to 2010, finishing in the top half of the table in 16 out of 19 seasons, and are ranked 12th in the all-time La Liga table. As a result, the club was a regular participant in European competitions, playing in the UEFA Champions League for five consecutive seasons between 2000–01 and 2004–05, reaching the quarterfinals twice and reaching the semi-finals in the 2003–04 season.
Deportivo have played their home games at the 32,660-capacity Riazor since 1944, when the stadium was built. Their traditional home kit consists of blue and white striped shirts with blue shorts and socks. The club has a long-standing rivalry with Celta Vigo, and matches between the two sides are known as the Galician derby.
History
Foundation and first steps
In 1902, José María Abalo, a youngster who had returned to his hometown after studying in England, introduced football to A Coruña. The game gained rapid popularity and several teams were formed on an informal basis.
In December 1906, members of Sala Calvet gymnasium formed Deportivo de La Coruña, naming Luis Cornide as the first president. In May 1907, Alfonso XIII of Spain granted the club the "Real" ("royal") denomination. Dépor started playing at Corral de la Gaiteira ("Piper's Yard"), but soon moved to Old Riazor, a new ground near the Riazor beach.
The team played friendly matches regularly and competed in local leagues, but failed to achieve success in the Copa del Rey in its early years.
In 1920, the Olympics in Antwerp saw the debut of the Spanish national team. A good run for the Spanish side increased football's popularity, and as a result many teams gained professional status, and a league competition was formed and planned for the 1928–29 season.
1928–1948: Segunda División and the top flight
In 1928, Dépor failed to qualify for the first ever Primera División, instead competing in the Segunda División, where it finished eighth out of ten. The team kept battling over the next few years in a division that was soon to undergo many structural and geographical changes. In 1932, in the Cup, Dépor defeated Real Madrid, which had gone unbeaten through the entire season in the league.
In 1936, the Spanish Civil War broke out, forcing the abandonment of all official competitions until the 1939–40 season. That year, The Herculeans qualified for the promotion stage. The final game was against archrivals Celta de Vigo, who were fighting to avoid relegation. Celta won 1–0 and remained in the top flight as Depor's hopes of promotion were denied. The following season, however, the club reached the promotion play-offs again, this time beating Murcia 2–1 to earn promotion to La Liga for the first time in the team's history.
The first season in the top flight saw the club finish fourth. However, the club declined in the next few seasons, finishing ninth, 12th and, in 1944–45, 14th, resulting in relegation. Instant promotion was achieved the following year, but Dépor were relegated again at the end of the 1946–47 season. Nonetheless, the team gained instant promotion in 1947–48.
This decade saw Depor's entrance to the top flight, so the club decided to build a new ground, Riazor, which remains their home today. It was opened on 28 October 1944 with a league game against Valencia. In this era, the key player of the team was Juan Acuña, the club's goalkeeper. "Xanetas", as he was known by locals, earned four Zamora Trophies between 1942 and 1951, making him the second-most decorated keeper in the Spanish league.
1948–1957: The "Golden Decade"
The club ended the 1948–49 season in tenth place. The next season would see their first major achievement in the league—Dépor finished as runners-up just one point behind Atlético Madrid under the management of Argentinian Alejandro Scopelli, who brought to the club a group of South American players such as Julio Corcuera, Oswaldo García, Rafael Franco and Dagoberto Moll, a group that made the team more competitive and able to remain top flight status for nine consecutive seasons until 1957. It was a great period for the club, as honoured managers like Helenio Herrera and players as Pahiño and local Luis Suárez (the only Spanish player to receive the Golden Ball honour) played at the Riazor.
1957–1973: "Elevator Team"
After nine seasons of first-tier football in Spain, the team was relegated to the Segunda División in 1957 and stayed there for five seasons until 1962, when they were promoted into the top flight. This started a yo-yo era that led the club to be known as the "elevator team"—promotions were achieved in 1962, 1964, 1966, 1968 and 1971, yet subsequent relegations occurred during 1963, 1965, 1967, 1970 and 1973.
Dépor had one of the best youth systems at the time in Spain, as youngsters including Amancio Amaro, Severino Reija, José Luis Veloso and Jaime Blanco began their careers at the Riazor, in the future to become regular fixtures on the Spanish national team. Still more, including Luis Suárez, went on to play for larger clubs in Spain and Europe. However, the difficult financial situation of the club led to the forced sales of these players, and the team could not consolidate themselves in the top flight. This "yo-yo era" ended with relegation from the Primera División in 1973.
1973–1988: Dark times
After being relegated in 1973, the team struggled in the Second División, failing to avoid another relegation and falling to the third tier (Tercera División) for the first time in their history. However, Dépor gained instant promotion and established themselves in the second tier for the rest of the decade. In 1980, Dépor were again relegated to the newly created Segunda División B, the third tier, again for the second time in their history. Again, however, the drop was short-lived as the team gained promotion the following season. Notably, Dépor were relegated and promoted along with arch-rivals Celta de Vigo, who played during the 1980–81 season the most attended games ever in Spain's third tier.
The club continued to play in the Second División, showing little chance of being promoted back to the top flight. In the 1987–88 season, Dépor struggled and only avoided relegation after Vicente Celeiro scored a goal during added time against Racing de Santander in the last game of the season. This is often regarded as the end of club's dark times and the beginning of a new era.
During this period, the club was heavily affected by financial difficulties and internal troubles with managers being sacked almost every year. In the summer of 1988, an open and popular club assembly chose a new board of directors headed by Augusto César Lendoiro. Deportivo had a debt estimated at 600 million pesetas, had been out of the top flight for 15 years and lacked established structures at economic and sporting level.
1988–1999: Resurgence and "Súper Dépor"
Arsenio Iglesias, a former Deportivo player and manager, was again appointed as manager in the 1988–89 season. Dépor had a lengthy run in the Copa del Rey, though ultimately falling in the semi-finals to Real Valladolid. The next year, the team competed well in the league and qualified for the promotion play-offs, but expectations were denied again, this time by Tenerife. The 1990–91 season saw Dépor finishing as runners-up, finally achieving promotion to La Liga after an 18-year absence. Additionally, the club's finances began to improve and social support increased, especially to youth groups.
The 1991–92 season, the team's first back in the top flight, saw Dépor struggle, and they were forced to take part in the relegation play-off, beating Real Betis in a two-legged round. With Arsenio Iglesias in his fourth spell as manager and experienced players added to the side, including López Rekarte, Paco Liaño, Claudio Barragán, José Luis Ribera, Adolfo Aldana, Donato (most of them veterans being former players of great teams like Real Madrid, Barcelona or Atlético Madrid), along with promising youngsters such as local player Fran and Brazilians Bebeto and Mauro Silva, upgraded the team's level.
The 1992–93 Deportivo squad experienced a resurgent season, placing in top positions all season and ultimately finishing third after champions Barcelona and runners-up Real Madrid, respectively, thus qualifying for European competition for the first time in their history. That year, the club also provided La Liga's Pichichi Trophy winner, Bebeto, and its Zamora Trophy winner, Paco Liaño. Additionally, Dépor made a historic comeback against Real Madrid at Riazor, trailing 0–2 at half-time but winning the game 3–2 and starting a run of 18 seasons to Los Blancos without a win at A Coruña.
In 1993–94, Dépor had another fantastic season, leading the table for the majority of the year and coming to the last matchday in first to face mid-table Valencia, knowing a win would ensure the first league title in club history. The game was very close, but near its end, Valencia's Serer conceded a penalty on Nando. Regular penalty-taker Donato had been substituted, so Serbian defender Miroslav Đukić took it, but Valencia keeper González caught the ball; Deportivo saw their possible league title denied. After the frustration passed, the fans nonetheless recognised the impressive season the club had: Paco Liaño earned his second Zamora Trophy after conceding just 18 goals in 38 games, and Dépor made its debut in European competitions, beating Aalborg BK and Aston Villa but losing to Eintracht Frankfurt in the round of 16.
The 1994–95 season began with manager Arsenio Iglesias stating he would leave the club after the end of the year, though Dépor made another great campaign finishing again as runners-up, this time to Real Madrid. That season's UEFA Cup led Deportivo to be beaten again by Borussia Dortmund in the round of 16, though nonetheless the season still hid a great surprise for the club. Dépor made a fantastic run in Copa del Rey and reached the final for the first time club history, against Valencia. On 24 June 1995, in Madrid's Santiago Bernabéu, the final was levelled 1–1 when on 83rd minute referee García-Aranda suspended the game due to water collapsing the pitch after a strong storm. It was decided that the game would resume three days later. Seven minutes of magic for Depor, because a header from Alfredo Santaelena, gave the club their first ever major title.
2000: Deportivo wins the Spanish League and "El Centenariazo"
1999–2000:
Managed by Javier Irureta, and with players like Noureddine Naybet, Diego Tristán, Djalminha, Francisco Javier González Pérez, Roy Makaay and Mauro Silva, the team finally earned their first La Liga title, five points ahead of Barcelona and Valencia. With this title, La Coruña became the second-smallest Spanish city with a population of approximately 250,000, behind San Sebastián (home of Real Sociedad), which has a population of approximately 180,000, to have ever won La Liga.
During the 12-season period lasting from 1992–93 to 2003–04, apart from winning the title in 1999–2000, Deportivo ended the season four times in second place and another four times in third place, contesting the UEFA Champions League five years in a row and reaching the semi-finals once, in 2004, where they lost to eventual winners Porto.
On 8 September 2001, Deportivo played its 1,000th game in La Liga. In 2002, they won the Copa del Rey for a second time with a superb 2–1 win against Real Madrid. This match is commonly known in Spain as the Centenariazo. Deportivo's illustrious opponents were expected to win the final comfortably as they were nicknamed the Galácticos and were among the strongest teams in Europe at the time. Additionally, the final was being played at their home ground, the Santiago Bernabéu.
Everything was prepared so that after the expected victory, Madrid could celebrate their 100th anniversary on the 100th anniversary of the Copa del Rey by lifting the trophy in front of their own fans. Real Madrid were indeed founded exactly 100 years to the day on 6 March 1902, though Deportivo spoiled the party with a 1–2 win with goals from Sergio and Diego Tristán.
2010: Decline
Deportivo's period in the top flight came to an end as they were relegated after finishing 18th in 2010–11. In July 2015, however, it was suspected that in the final round of matches for that season, Levante and Real Zaragoza were involved in a match-fixing scandal which ensured that the latter won 2–1 at the Estadi Ciutat de València and remained in the division at the expense of Deportivo, who lost 2–0 at home to Valencia. The case was in Courts until December 2020, when the match fixing was discarded by the Provincial Court.
In the 2011–12 season, Deportivo made an immediate return to the top flight, spending half of the season top of the league. Lassad Nouioui was the top scorer with 14 goals, Andrés Guardado the top assistant and Álex Bergantiños the only player to participate in all league matches. They amassed a Segunda División record haul of 91 points and finished in first position.
In the 2012–13 season, Deportivo finished 19th after a turbulent campaign under three managers, and once again were relegated to the Segunda División. Deportivo, however, finished second in the 2013–14 season, guaranteeing promotion to the top-flight for the second time in three years. A less-than-impressive 2014–15 campaign back in the top division with a disjointed squad featured some very poor performances on the pitch under new manager Víctor Fernández, including a humiliating 2–8 reverse at home to Real Madrid. This was especially disappointing considering the impressive 18-match unbeaten home run between 1992–93 and 2010–11 at the Riazor against Madrid, a feat which no other team has managed to achieve in the history of Spanish football. Deportivo ultimately finished the season in 16th place and avoided relegation after appointing former player Víctor Sánchez as manager for the remaining eight matches of the season, on 9 April 2015.
2015–present: "New Dépor" and double relegation
With Víctor Sánchez as their new manager, Deportivo made changes for the new season. With the addition of new players Alejandro Arribas, Fernando Navarro, Pedro Mosquera and Fayçal Fajr, Deportivo began the season with a 0–0 draw against Real Sociedad. On 28 November 2015, with a 2–0 victory against Las Palmas, Deportivo were in fifth place after an impressive start. However, after a disastrous second half of the season, which was precipitated by a 3–0 home defeat to CD Mirandés in the Copa del Rey, Deportivo won only two matches out of the next 22 and only secured their safety in La Liga in the penultimate game of the season. Victor Sánchez was sacked on 29 May 2016 after several incidents of player unrest within the squad.
The team continued in a negative spiral in the following seasons. At the end of the 2017–18 season, Deportivo was relegated following a 4–2 home defeat to Barcelona, which also secured the Blaugrana the La Liga title. The next season the club played in Segunda División and finished sixth. In the promotion play-offs, Deportivo lost to Mallorca 3–2 on aggregate and remained in Segunda División. In the following campaign Deportivo was relegated once again, falling down into Segunda División B for the first time in 39 years. They were not able to win the promotion back the following season, finding themselves remaining in the third-tier, in the newly-formed Primera División RFEF, for the 2021–22 season.
Honours
Men's section
Domestic
European
Regional
*Galician Federation Football Cup. **Galiza Cup.
Friendly
Teresa Herrera Trophy
Winners (23): 1955, 1962, 1964, 1969, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020
Runners-up (11): 1966, 1971, 1987, 1991, 1994, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2018, 2021
Women's section
Women's Spanish Cup (unofficial) (2): 1981, 1982
Women's Spanish Cup (3): 1983, 1984, 1985
Individual trophies
Pichichi (3):
1992–93 – Bebeto (29 goals)
2001–02 – Diego Tristán (21 goals)
2002–03 – Roy Makaay (29 goals) (European Golden Shoe)
Zamora (8):
1941–42 – Juan Acuña
1942–43 – Juan Acuña
1949–50 – Juan Acuña
1950–51 – Juan Acuña
1953–54 – Juan Otero
1992–93 – Francisco Liaño (tied with Santiago Cañizares)
1993–94 – Francisco Liaño
1996–97 – Jacques Songo'o
Identity
Crest
Deportivo's crest contains cues to predecessor Sala Calvet's crest, with a gentlemen's belt encircling the purple and white banner of the gymnasium. The banner itself features a sky blue diagonal band which represents the maritime flag of A Coruña and the Galician flag. In addition, it features a crown which represents its royal patronage (granted in 1909 by Alfonso XIII). During the Spanish Republic (1931–1936) the honorific real (royal) and the crown were removed from the club crest; this was to return under Francoist Spain.
Kit
Deportivo have always played in their famous blue and white stripes, but it was not until 1912 that the club made these colours official for matches. Deportivo continues to wear blue and white striped shirts with blue shorts and socks, yet their second and third kits change annually according to commercial interests. Their current shirt sponsors are local brewery Hijos de Rivera, with Kappa manufacturing the kits. In 2015, Deportivo and Estrella Galicia extended their sponsorship deal throughout the 2015–16 La Liga season with an option of a further year.
Supporters
Deportivo's supporters are known as deportivistas. Despite playing in the third tier, the club had 20,070 season ticket holders in the 2020–21 season. The supporters organise themselves around 200 supporter groups known as peñas; the most well-known being the "Riazor Blues". The interests of the supporters are represented by the Federación de Peñas RC Deportivo.
Stadium information
Name – Abanca-Riazor
City – A Coruña
Capacity – 32,912
Inauguration – 1944
Pitch size – 105 x 68 m
Players
Current squad
Reserve team
Out on loan
Current technical staff
Coaches
Presidents
Statistics
Season-by-season
46 seasons in Primera División
41 seasons in Segunda División
1 season in Primera División RFEF
2 seasons in Segunda División B
1 season in Tercera División
Latest seasons
Ke
Div. = Division
Pos. = Position
PL = Games played
W = Games won
D = Games drawn
L = Games lost
GS = Goals scored
GA = Goals against
P = Points
European record
Accurate as of 8 August 2017
Source: UEFA.comPld = Matches played; W = Matches won; D = Matches drawn; L = Matches lost; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; GD = Goal Difference.
Player records
Most appearances
Most goals
Former international players
Fabricio Coloccini
Aldo Duscher
Jonás Gutiérrez
Germán Lux
Lionel Scaloni
Haris Medunjanin
Bebeto
Djalminha
Flávio Conceição
Filipe Luís
Mauro Silva
Rivaldo
Ilian Kiriakov
Emil Kostadinov
Jacques Songo'o
Julian de Guzman
Stipe Pletikosa
Bryan Rabello
Abel Aguilar
Marlos Moreno
Celso Borges
Petr Kouba
Rodolfo Bodipo
Dudu Aouate
Gaku Shibasaki
Naoki Matsuda
Omar Bravo
Andrés Guardado
Salaheddine Bassir
Fayçal Fajr
Mustapha Hadji
Noureddine Naybet
Ryan Babel
Ola John
Roy Makaay
Peter Rufai
Knut Olav Rindarøy
Roberto Acuña
Claudio Morel Rodríguez
Jorge Andrade
Ivan Cavaleiro
Zé Castro
Hélder Cristóvão
Hélder Postiga
Nélson Oliveira
Pizzi
Pauleta
Sílvio
Cezary Wilk
Przemysław Tytoń
Florin Andone
Dmitri Radchenko
Amancio Amaro
Juan Acuña
Adolfo Aldana
Álvaro Arbeloa
Ángel Arizmendi
Armando Álvarez
Daniel Aranzubia
Joan Capdevila
Pahiño
Chacho
Claudio Barragán
Donato
Fran
Alberto Lopo
Albert Luque
Javier Manjarín
Pedro Munitis
Fernando Navarro
Álex Bergantiños
Juanfran Moreno
Manolete
Manuel Pablo
José Francisco Molina
Nando
Luis Otero
Pahiño
Pedrito
Enrique Romero
Pedro Mosquera
Sergio
Diego Tristán
Juan Carlos Valerón
José Luis Veloso
Víctor Sánchez
Voro
Christian Wilhelmsson
Lassad
Emre Çolak
Fabián Estoyanoff
Gustavo Munúa
Walter Pandiani
Jonathan Rodríguez
Miroslav Đukić
Slaviša Jokanović
Borče Sredojević
Deportivo de La Coruña Femenino
Real Club Deportivo de La Coruña Femenino is the women's football section of Deportivo which plays in Spain's top division.
Deportivo de La Coruña B
Real Club Deportivo Fabril is the filial team of Deportivo de La Coruña. Founded in 1914 with the name of Fabril Sociedad Deportiva, it plays in Segunda División B. Its stadium is called Cidade Deportiva de Abegondo, with a capacity of 1,000 seats.
In 1993 the team was officially renamed Deportivo B, although most locals still called it "Fabril". In 2017 it was renamed back to Real Club Deportivo Fabril.
See also
Teresa Herrera Trophy
References
External links
Official website
Deportivo de La Coruña at La Liga
Deportivo de La Coruña at UEFA
Football clubs in Galicia (Spain)
Copa del Rey winners
Organisations based in Spain with royal patronage
Association football clubs established in 1906
1906 establishments in Spain
La Liga clubs
Segunda División clubs
Primera División RFEF clubs
|
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200783
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallid%20harrier
|
Pallid harrier
|
The pale or pallid harrier (Circus macrourus) is a migratory bird of prey of the harrier subfamily. The scientific name is derived from the Ancient Greek. Circus is from kirkos, referring to a bird of prey named for its circling flight (kirkos, "circle"), probably the hen harrier and macrourus is "long-tailed", from makros, "long" and -ouros "-tailed".
It breeds in southern parts of eastern Europe and central Asia and Iran and winters mainly in India and southeast Asia. It is a very rare vagrant to Great Britain and western Europe, although remarkably a juvenile wintered in Norfolk in the winter of 2002/2003. In 2017 a pair of pallid harriers nested in a barley field in the Netherlands; they raised four chicks.
This medium-sized raptor breeds on open plains, bogs and heathland. In winter it is a bird of open country.
Description
This is a typical harrier, with long wings held in a shallow V in its low flight. It also resembles other harriers in having distinct male and female plumages. Adults measure long with a wingspan of . Males weigh while the slightly larger females weigh . The male is whitish grey above and white below, with narrow black wingtips. It differs from the hen harrier in its smaller size, narrower wings, paler colour, and different wing tip pattern. The female is brown above with white upper tail coverts, hence females and the similar juveniles are often called "ringtails". Her underparts are buff streaked with brown. It is best distinguished from the female hen harrier on structure. It is very similar to the female Montagu's harrier, but has darker and more uniform secondaries from below.
Behaviour and ecology
Pallid harriers hunt small mammals, lizards and birds, surprising them as they drift low over fields and moors.
The nest of this species is on the ground. Four to six whitish eggs are laid.
References
Further reading
External links
Pallid harrier species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Iran's Birds - Pallid Harrier (in Persian)
Website of Harrier Conservation International
pallid harrier
Birds of prey of Eurasia
Birds of Africa
pallid harrier
|
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200791
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Goldman
|
James Goldman
|
James Goldman (June 30, 1927 – October 28, 1998) was an American playwright and screenwriter. He won an Academy Award for his screenplay The Lion in Winter (1968). His younger brother was novelist and screenwriter William Goldman.
Biography
The first son of a Jewish family in Chicago, Illinois, Goldman grew up primarily in Highland Park, Illinois, a Chicago suburb. He is most noted as the author of the screenplay for The Lion in Winter (1968), for which he received an Academy Award. He also wrote the 'book' for the Broadway musical Follies (1971), which was nominated for a Tony Award.
Goldman died in 1998 from a heart attack in New York City. He had lived there for many years.
Works
Plays
Blood, Sweat and Stanley Poole (1961), with William Goldman
They Might Be Giants (1961), London
A Family Affair (1962), musical, book only (lyrics was by William Goldman, music by John Kander)
The Lion in Winter (1966, revived 1999)
Follies (1971, revived 2001 and 2011), musical, book only (lyrics and music by Stephen Sondheim), Tony Nomination for Best Book of a Musical
Oliver Twist (1982)
Anna Karenina (1985)
Anastasia: The Mystery of Anna (1986)
Follies in Concert (1986), musical
Tolstoy (1996)
Screenplays
The Lion in Winter (1968)
They Might Be Giants (1971)
Nicholas and Alexandra (1971)
Robin and Marian (1976)
White Nights (1985)
Television
Evening Primrose (1966), book only (music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim)
Novels
Waldorf (1965)
The Man From Greek and Roman (1974)
Myself as Witness (1979)
Fulton County (1989)
References
External links
1927 births
1998 deaths
American male screenwriters
American musical theatre librettists
People from Highland Park, Illinois
Writers from Chicago
Jewish American screenwriters
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award winners
American male novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages
American male dramatists and playwrights
Novelists from Illinois
Screenwriters from Illinois
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
20th-century American Jews
|
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200793
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh%20harrier
|
Marsh harrier
|
The marsh harriers are birds of prey of the harrier subfamily. They are medium-sized raptors and the largest and broadest-winged harriers. Most of them are associated with marshland and dense reedbeds. They are found almost worldwide, excluding only the Americas.
Until recently two species were generally recognized: the marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and the African marsh harrier (C. ranivorus). The marsh harrier is now usually split into several species, sometimes as many as six. These are the western marsh harrier (C. aeruginosus), eastern marsh harrier (C. spilonotus), Papuan harrier (C. spilonotus spilothorax or C. spilothorax), swamp harrier (C. approximans), Réunion harrier (C. maillardi maillardi or C. maillardi) and Madagascar marsh harrier (C. maillardi macrosceles or C. macrosceles).
At the beginning of the 20th century, the marsh harrier was hunted to extinction in the United Kingdom. After being reintroduced from other regions, its population steadily increased until DDT threatened it, along with other raptors, in the 1950s and 1960s. Since, the population has slowly and steadily increased.
Species
The western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus), often simply called the marsh harrier, breeds widely across Europe and Asia. It is migratory except in the mildest regions, and winters mainly in Africa. It hunts small mammals, frogs, fish, insects and birds, surprising them as it drifts low over fields and reedbeds. Its long legs allow it to pluck frogs and fish from the water mid-swoop.
The western marsh harrier is a typical harrier, with long wings held in a shallow V in its low flight. It also resembles other harriers in having distinct male and female plumages, but its plumages are quite different from those of its relatives. The male has wings with grey and brown sections and black wingtips. Its head, tail and underparts are greyish, except for the chestnut belly. The female is mainly brown with a cream crown and cream leading edge to her wings. It is 19-22 inches long and weighs 1-2 lbs.
The eastern marsh harrier (C. spilonotus) breeds in the grasslands and wetlands of southern Siberia, northern Mongolia, north-east China, Manchuria and Japan, and migrates for the northern winter to South-east Asia, the Philippines and northern Borneo.
Like all marsh harriers, it favours open, wet environments, and is frequently seen drifting low over rice fields, interspersing long, watchful circling glides with two or three slow, powerful wingbeats. Two subspecies are recognised: C. s. spilonotus of east Asia, and C. s. spilothorax, of New Guinea and the islands nearby, which is sometimes thought to be a separate species and is often called the Papuan harrier.
The swamp harrier (C. approximans) at about 50 to 58 cm is slightly larger than C. spilonotus, often a little darker, and has less heavily barred wings and tail. It is commonly found in suitable habitat anywhere in Australasia, particularly in the higher rainfall areas to the east, south-east, and south-west, of Australia and throughout New Zealand, but also in the tropical north of Australia and the island groups of New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga and the Society Islands. It is also known as the Australasian harrier or Pacific marsh harrier.
The Madagascar marsh harrier or Madagascar harrier (C. maillardi) is found on the Indian Ocean islands of Madagascar, Réunion and the Comoros. It is sometimes split into two species: Madagascar harrier (Circus macrosceles) and Réunion harrier (C. maillardi).
The African marsh harrier (C. ranivorus) is a distinct non-migratory species that has not usually been included as a subspecies of C. aeruginosus. It inhabits southern and eastern Africa.
Gallery
References
Roger Clarke (1995) The Marsh Harrier, Hamlyn, London.
James Ferguson-Lees (2001) Raptors of the World'', Christopher Helm.
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta
Harriers (birds)
Bird common names
|
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200801
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade%20Mustafa
|
Şehzade Mustafa
|
Şehzade Mustafa (Ottoman Turkish: شهزاده مصطفى; 6 August 1515 – 6 October 1553) was an Ottoman prince and the son of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and his consort Mahidevran Sultan. He was the prince-governor of Manisa from 1532 to 1542, of Amasya from 1542 to 1549, and of Konya from 1549 to 1553. Şehzade Mustafa was the heir apparent to the Ottoman throne and an immensely popular prince among the army and the populace prior to his execution, by the order of his father Suleiman.
Life
Şehzade Mustafa was born on 6 August 1515 in Manisa to Şehzade Suleiman (the future sultan) and Mahidevran.
Mustafa's relationship with his father was problematic. Though he was the first of Suleiman's sons to survive childhood and the most likely heir, his father preferred Mustafa's younger half-brother, Şehzade Mehmed, the eldest son of Hürrem Sultan, the most prominent of Suleiman's consorts and later his legal wife.
It is difficult to discern what sort of relationship Mustafa had with his half-brothers Mehmed (born 1521), Selim (born 1524), Bayezid (born 1525), and Cihangir (born 1531). While it is true that Selim treated Mahidevran like his own mother by giving her back her wealth and helping to build Mustafa's türbe in Bursa, Mustafa was raised primarily apart from his half-brothers having left for his sanjak with his mother when they were still young. This, along with the rules of fratricide, would have made it difficult for them to have a close relationship. So the true scale of their relationship is not completely known.
In 1541, he faced a second shock after being sent to Amasya from the more prominent Manisa; the rule of Manisa was given to Mehmed, while Şehzade Selim and Şehzade Bayezid were sent to Konya and Kütahya for their sanjak assignments. However, after he was sent to Amasya, Mustafa got the news of an edict written by Suleiman: he had sent him to Amasya not because he did not want him to be his heir, but to defend the eastern part of Anatolia and learn how to manage a large empire. This relieved the Ottoman army and the people of Anatolia, as Şehzade Mustafa was the popular successor to the throne.
In Amasya, he got the news of the death of his brother Mehmed on 6 November 1543. It seemed like all barriers between the throne and Mustafa were gone, but he still faced another challenge. Selim was sent from Konya to Manisa in 1544, while Şehzade Bayezid remained in Kütahya. It was a critical decision, as they were Hürrem's sons, the mother of the late Mehmed. Hürrem's support of her own sons made Mustafa's political career difficult, but he successfully ruled Amasya for 8 years.
In 1547, during Suleiman's Elkas Campaign, the sultan met with his sons Selim, Bayezid, and Mustafa in different locations to discuss the political situation. It was well after the death of Mehmed, but the competition between the three princes was still going on.
In 1549, as a reward for his excellent participation in the Ottoman-Safavid War, Mustafa moved to Konya for his sanjak assignment. The rumours and speculations say that Mustafa's life was now in danger, as Hürrem and Rüstem Pasha had made a court alliance against him in favor of Hürrem's sons, Selim and Bayezid.
Execution
During Suleiman's Persian campaign, his army halted in Ereğli for a while. While Suleiman's army was in Ereğli, Rüstem Pasha made an offer to Mustafa to join his father's army. At the same time he warned Suleiman and persuaded him that Mustafa was coming to kill him.
Mustafa accepted Rüstem Pasha's offer and assembled his army to join his father's. Suleiman saw this as a threat and ordered the execution of his son. When Mustafa entered his father's tent to meet with him, Suleiman's guards attacked Mustafa, who after a long struggle was killed by Mahmut Ağa, Rüstem Pasha's right hand.
After the death of the prince, the Janissaries and Anatolian soldiers of Mustafa rebelled against Suleiman's decision. The Janissaries supported Mustafa because of Ottoman traditions about succession and the success of Mustafa as a warrior.
The people blamed Suleiman's wife Hürrem and his son-in-law Rüstem, and even the Sultan himself for this unfair execution. After the protests of the army, Suleiman dismissed Rüstem from his position as grand vizier and sent him back to Istanbul. Hürrem is usually held at least partly responsible for the intrigues in nominating a successor to the throne, though there is no evidence to support this.
Suleiman ordered that Mustafa be given a state funeral in Istanbul. After a week lying in state at Hagia Sophia, Mustafa was laid to rest in a large mausoleum in Bursa. Mustafa's execution caused unrest in Anatolia, especially in Amasya, Manisa and Konya, because the people saw him as the next sultan and because of his generosity and braveness. The poet Taşlıcalı Yahya composed an elegy for the dead prince. His story was similar to the story of Sultan Cem.
Family
His only known consort was of Crimean origin and born in 1525, though her name is not known. It is also not certain which of his four children she gave birth to.
Children
Nergisşah Sultan (1536-?1592) She married Dâmâd Cenâbî Ahmed Paşa and was widowed in 1562. Her husband was Governor of Kütahya for 20 years.
Şehzade Mehmed (1546, Amasya - 1553, Bursa) Died shortly after his father and is buried next to him. Believed to be assassinated as well.
Şehzade Orhan (died c. 1552 in Konya)
Şah Sultan (c. 1547, Konya – 2.10.1577) Married Damat Abdülkerim Pasha, Amasya's governor.
Depictions in literature and popular culture
In 1561, eight years after Mustafa's death, the French author Gabriel Bounin wrote a tragedy titled La Soltane about the role of Hürrem Sultan in Mustafa's death. This tragedy marks the first time the Ottomans were introduced on stage in France. In 1739 a British play Mustapha by David Mallet was performed at Drury Lane.
In the television series Muhteşem Yüzyıl, Mustafa is played by Turkish actor Mehmet Günsür.
References
External links
1515 births
1553 deaths
16th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
Suleiman the Magnificent
Executed people of the Ottoman Empire
Sons of Ottoman sultans
People from Manisa
16th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire
Executed royalty
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Heirs apparent who never acceded
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200803
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%2C%20Grand%20Cond%C3%A9
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Louis, Grand Condé
|
Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condé (8 September 1621 – 11 December 1686), known as the Great Condé (French: Le Grand Condé) for his military exploits, was a French general and the most illustrious representative of the Condé branch of the House of Bourbon. He was one of Louis XIV's most pre-eminent generals.
Condé is particularly celebrated for his triumphs in the Thirty Years' War, notably at Rocroi, and his campaigns against the Grand Alliance in the Franco-Dutch War. He rebelled against Louis XIV as the leader of the last Fronde in 1651, leading to his exile from France until 1659.
Biography
Louis was born in Paris, the son of Henri II de Bourbon, Prince of Condé and Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency; the infant was immediately endowed with the title of Duke of Enghien. His father was a first cousin-once-removed of Henry IV, the King of France, and his mother was an heiress of one of France's leading ducal families.
Condé's father saw to it that his son received a thorough education – Louis studied history, law, and mathematics during six years at the Jesuits' school at Bourges. After that he entered the Royal Academy at Paris. At seventeen, in the absence of his father, he governed Burgundy.
His father betrothed him to Claire-Clémence de Maillé-Brézé, niece of Cardinal Richelieu, before he joined the army in 1640. Despite being in love with Marthe du Vigean, daughter of the king's gentleman of the bedchamber, François Poussard, he was compelled by his father to marry his fiancée who was thirteen. Although she bore her husband three children, Enghien later claimed she committed adultery with different men in order to justify locking her away at Châteauroux, but the charge was widely disbelieved: Saint-Simon, while admitting that she was homely and dull, praised her virtue, piety, and gentleness in the face of relentless abuse.
Enghien took part with distinction in the siege of Arras. He also won Richelieu's favor when he was present with the Cardinal during the plot of Cinq Mars and afterwards fought in the Siege of Perpignan (1642).
Thirty Years' War
In 1643 Enghien was appointed to command against the Spanish in northern France. He was opposed by Francisco de Melo, and the tercios of the Spanish army who were held to be the toughest soldiers in Europe. At the Battle of Rocroi, Enghien himself conceived and directed the decisive victory.
After a campaign of uninterrupted success, Enghien returned to Paris in triumph, and tried to forget his enforced and hateful marriage with a series of affairs (after Richelieu's death in 1642, he would unsuccessfully seek annulment of his marriage in hopes of marrying Mlle du Vigean, until she joined the order of the Carmelites in 1647). In 1644 he was sent with reinforcements into Germany to the assistance of Turenne, who was hard pressed, and took command of the whole army.
The Battle of Freiburg was desperately fought, but after Rocroi, numerous fortresses opened their gates to the Duke.
Enghien spent the next winter, as every winter during the war, amid the gaieties of Paris. The summer campaign of 1645 opened with the defeat of Turenne by Franz von Mercy at Mergentheim, but this was retrieved in the victory of Nördlingen, in which Mercy was killed, and Enghien himself received several serious wounds. The capture of Philippsburg was the most important of his other achievements during this campaign. In 1646 Enghien served under Gaston, Duke of Orléans in Flanders, and when, after the capture of Mardyck, Orléans returned to Paris, Enghien, left in command, captured Dunkirk (11 October).
The Fronde
When he succeeded in 1646 as 'Prince of Condé,' his combination of military ability, noble status, and enormous wealth inspired considerable apprehension in Anne of Austria, regent for the young Louis XIV, and her prime minister, Mazarin. Condé's vast domains included Burgundy and Berry, while the Prince de Conti, his brother, held Champagne, and his brother-in-law, Longueville, controlled Normandy. In 1641, Louis XIII had granted him Clermont-en-Argonne, ceded to France by the Duchy of Lorraine; in 1648, this was converted to an appanage, effectively making it independent of royal authority.
To remove Condé from Paris, Mazarin arranged for him to lead anti-Habsburg forces in the Catalan revolt known as the Reapers' War. By 1648, this had become an increasingly bitter, multi-sided conflict between the Spanish, the Catalan nobility supported by France, and the Catalan peasantry. As Mazarin had intended, Condé could achieve little; however, a Spanish revival in the Low Countries led to his recall and victory at Lens in August 1648.
When the aristocracy took up arms against new taxes in the Fronde rebellion, Condé was recalled to Court by Anne of Austria. He quickly subdued the Parlement of Paris, and the Parliamentary Fronde ended with the March 1649 Peace of Rueil. The resulting uncertain balance of power between crown and nobility inspired Condé to himself rebel, starting the far more serious Fronde des nobles. In January 1650, he was arrested, along with Conti and Longueville; imprisoned at Vincennes, and when asked if he needed reading material, he allegedly replied 'The Memoirs of M de Beaufort,' who had made a dramatic escape from the same prison two years earlier.
Turenne and his brother, the Duke of Bouillon, were among those who had escaped arrest; they now demanded the prisoners' freedom, leading to a short-lived alliance between the Fronde des nobles and the Fronde des parlements. Shortly after their release in February 1651, the diverging interests of the two rebellious parties led to a shift of alliances, with the crown and Parlements against Condé's party of the high nobility. The royal forces under Turenne defeated Condé at the Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine in July 1652, ending the Fronde as a serious military threat.
Condé only escaped when the Duchess of Montpensier persuaded the Parisians to open the gates; in September, he and a few loyalists defected to Spain. Despite victory over Turenne at Valenciennes in 1656, defeat at the Battle of the Dunes in June 1658 led to the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Bending his knee to the rising Sun King, Condé was pardoned and restored to his previous titles, but his power as an independent prince was broken.
Rehabilitation
Condé became a loyal supporter of Louis XIV, living quietly at the Château de Chantilly, an estate inherited from his uncle, Henri II de Montmorency. Here he assembled a brilliant circle of literary men, including Molière, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Nicole, Bourdaloue, and Bossuet.
About this time, convoluted negotiations between the Poles were carried on with a view to the royal elections in Poland, at first by Condé's son, Henri Jules de Bourbon, and afterwards by Condé himself. These were finally closed later in 1674 by the veto of King Louis XIV and the election of John Sobieski. The Prince's retirement, which was only broken by the Polish question and by his personal intercession on behalf of Fouquet in 1664, ended in 1668.
During the 1666 to 1667 War of Devolution, Condé proposed to the Marquis de Louvois, the Minister of War, a plan for seizing Franche-Comté, the execution of which was entrusted to him and successfully carried out. He was now completely re-established in the favour of King Louis XIV, and with Turenne, was appointed the principal French commander in the celebrated campaign of 1672 against the Dutch. At the forcing of the Rhine passage at Tolhuis (12 June), he received a severe wound, after which he commanded in Alsace against the Imperials.
In 1673, he was again engaged in the Low Countries, and in 1674, he fought his last great battle, the Battle of Seneffe, against William III of Orange. This battle, fought on 11 August, was one of the hardest of the century, and Condé, who displayed the reckless bravery of his youth, had three horses killed under him. His last campaign was that of 1675 on the Rhine, where the army had been deprived of its general by the death of Turenne; and where, by his careful and methodical strategy, he repelled the invasion of the Imperial army of Raimondo Montecuccoli.
After this campaign, prematurely worn out by toils and excesses, and tortured by gout, Condé returned to the Château de Chantilly, where he spent his last eleven years in quiet retirement. At the end of his life, Condé sought the companionship of Bourdaloue, Pierre Nicole, and Bossuet, and devoted himself to religious exercises.
In 1685, his only surviving grandson, Louis de Bourbon, married Louise Françoise, eldest surviving daughter of Louis and his mistress Madame de Montespan. In mid-1686, Louise Françoise, later known as 'Madame la Duchesse', contracted smallpox while at Fontainebleau; Condé helped nurse her back to health, and prevented Louis from seeing her for his own safety. Although Louise Françoise survived, Condé became ill, allegedly from worry over her health. He died at Fontainebleau on 11 November 1686 at the age of sixty-five and was buried at Vallery, the traditional resting place of the Princes of Condé. Bourdaloue attended him at his death-bed, and Bossuet pronounced his elegy.
Although his youthful marriage to Claire Clémence de Maillé had brought him a dowry of 600,000 livres and many lands, Condé's lifelong resentment of his forced marriage to a social inferior persisted. In his last letter to Louis, he asked that his estranged wife never be released from her exile to the countryside. She survived until 1694.
Ancestry
Issue
Louis married Claire Clémence de Maillé, daughter of Urbain de Maillé, Marquis of Brézé and Nicole du Plessis de Richelieu, at the Palais Royal in Paris, in February 1641, in the presence of King Louis XIII of France, Anne of Austria, and Gaston of France. Their children were:
Henri Jules de Bourbon, Duke of Enghien (29 July 1643, Paris – 1 April 1709, Paris), who later succeeded as Prince of Condé, married Princess Anne of the Palatinate "Princess Palatine" and had children.
Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Bourbon (20 September 1652, Bordeaux – 11 April 1653, Bordeaux), died in infancy.
X de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Bourbon (1657, Breda – 28 September 1660, Paris), also died in infancy.
Legacy
That he was capable of waging a methodical war of positions may be assumed from his campaigns against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals opposing him. But it was in his eagerness for battle, his quick decision in action, and the stern will which sent his regiments to face the heaviest losses, that Condé earned the right to be compared to the great generals of his time. Upon the Grand Condé’s death, Louis XIV pronounced that he had lost "the greatest man in my kingdom."
In 1643 his success at the Battle of Rocroi, in which he led the French army to an unexpected and decisive victory over the Spanish, established him as a great general and popular hero in France. Together with the Marshal de Turenne he led the French to a favorable peace in the Thirty Years' War.
During the Fronde, he was courted by both sides, initially supporting Mazarin; he later became a leader of the princely opposition. After the defeat of the Fronde, he entered Spanish service and led their armies against France, notably at Arras, Valenciennes, and Dunkirk. He returned to France only after the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 but soon received military commands again.
Condé conquered the Franche-Comté during the War of Devolution and led the French armies in the Franco-Dutch War together with Turenne. His last campaign was in 1675, taking command after Turenne had been killed, repelling an invasion of an imperial army.
Conde is regarded as an excellent tactician, a fine strategist, and one of the greatest French generals. His masterpiece, the Battle of Rocroi, is still studied by students of military strategy.
His descendants include the present-day pretenders to the throne of France and Italy and the kings of Spain and Belgium.
He was portrayed in the film Vatel by Julian Glover.
Notes
References
Sources
Katia Béguin, Les Princes de Condé (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 1999)
Candidates for the Polish elective throne
French generals
Princes of France (Bourbon)
Princes of Condé
Dukes of Montmorency
Dukes of Enghien
House of Bourbon-Condé
Nobility from Paris
1621 births
1686 deaths
Military personnel from Paris
Grand Masters of France
French military personnel of the Franco-Dutch War
French military personnel of the Thirty Years' War
Military personnel of the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)
17th-century peers of France
People of the Fronde
|
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] |
200807
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20presidents%20of%20Iraq
|
List of presidents of Iraq
|
This is a list of presidents of Iraq since the formation of the Iraqi Republic in 1958.
List of officeholders
Timeline
See also
List of kings of Iraq
President of Iraq
Vice President of Iraq
Prime Minister of Iraq
List of prime ministers of Iraq
Government of Iraq
Iraq, List of presidents of
Presidents
|
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200808
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazarin
|
Mazarin
|
Mazarin may refer to:
Jules Mazarin (1602–1661), Italian Cardinal and chief minister to the French king, 1642–1661
Mazarin River, a tributary of the Ashuapmushuan River, in Lac-Ashuapmushuan, Quebec, Canada.
Mazarin (album)
See also
"The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone", one of 12 Sherlock Holmes short stories by Arthur Conan Doyle in The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes
Bureau Mazarin, a 17th-century desk form named in memory of Cardinal Mazarin
|
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200809
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cond%C3%A9
|
Condé
|
Condé is a French place name and personal name. It is ultimately derived from a Celtic word, "Condate", meaning "confluence" (of two rivers) - from which was derived the Romanised form "Condatum", in use during the Roman period, and thence to the French "Condé" found at various locations.
It may refer to:
People with this surname
Alpha Condé (born 1938), Guinean politician
J. M. Condé, early 20th century illustrator
Maryse Condé (born 1937), Guadeloupean author
Miguel Condé (born 1939), Mexican painter
Sékou Condé (born 1993), Guinean footballer
People with this first name
Condé Montrose Nast, American publisher
Places
Château de Condé, a private estate in Condé-en-Brie, Aisne, France
Places in France that contain the element Condé
Condé, Indre, in the Indre département
Condé-en-Brie, in the Aisne département
Condé-Folie, in the Somme département
Condé-lès-Autry, in the Ardennes département
Condé-lès-Herpy, in the Ardennes département
Condé-Northen, in the Moselle département
Condé-Sainte-Libiaire, in the Seine-et-Marne département
Condé-sur-Aisne, in the Aisne département
Condé-sur-Huisne, in the Orne département
Condé-sur-Ifs, in the Calvados département
Condé-sur-Iton, in the Eure département
Condé-sur-l'Escaut, in the Nord département
Siege of Condé (1793)
Condé-sur-Marne, in the Marne département
Condé-sur-Noireau, in the Calvados département
Condé-sur-Risle, in the Eure département
Condé-sur-Sarthe, in the Orne département
Condé-sur-Seulles, in the Calvados département
Condé-sur-Suippe, in the Aisne département
Condé-sur-Vesgre, in the Yvelines département
Condé-sur-Vire, in the Manche département
Celles-lès-Condé, in the Aisne département
La Celle-Condé, in the Cher département
Montigny-lès-Condé, in the Aisne département
Rochy-Condé, in the Oise département
Saint-Christophe-sur-Condé, in the Eure département
Vieux-Condé, in the Nord département
Titles
Louis, Grand Condé (1621-1686), French general
Prince of Condé, a title in the peerage of France, including:
Henri, Prince of Condé (1588–1646)
Louis, Prince of Condé (1530–1569)
Louis, Prince of Condé (1668–1710)
Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé
Princess of Condé, a title in the peerage of France
Other
Army of Condé, opposing the French Revolution
Condé Nast Publications, an American publisher of periodicals
Condé Nast Traveler, a lifestyle magazine
See also
Conde is a title of Spanish and Portuguese nobility
|
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200811
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princes%20of%20Cond%C3%A9
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Princes of Condé
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The Most Serene House of Bourbon-Condé (), named after Condé-en-Brie now in the Aisne , was a French princely house and a cadet branch of the House of Bourbon. The name of the house was derived from the title of Prince of Condé (French: prince de Condé) that was originally assumed around 1557 by the French Protestant leader, Louis de Bourbon (1530–1569), uncle of King Henry IV of France, and borne by his male-line descendants.
This line became extinct in 1830 when his eighth-generation descendant, Louis Henri Joseph de Bourbon, died without surviving male issue. The princely title was held for one last time by Louis d'Orléans, Prince of Condé, who died in 1866.
History
The Princes of Condé descend from the Vendôme family – the progenitors of the modern House of Bourbon. There was never a principality, sovereign or vassal, of Condé. The name merely served as the territorial source of a title adopted by Louis, who inherited from his father, Charles IV de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme (1489–1537), the lordship of Condé-en-Brie in Champagne, consisting of the Château of Condé and a dozen villages some fifty miles east of Paris.
It had passed from the sires of Avesnes, to the Counts of St. Pol. When Marie de Luxembourg-St. Pol wed François, Count of Vendôme (1470–1495) in 1487, Condé-en-Brie became part of the Bourbon-Vendôme patrimony.
Duc de Bourbon
After the extinction in 1527 of the Dukes of Bourbon, François's son Charles (1489–1537) became head of the House of Bourbon, which traces its male-line descent from Robert, Count of Clermont (1256–1318), a younger son of France's Saint-King Louis IX. Of the sons of Charles of Vendôme, the eldest, Antoine, became jure uxoris King of Navarre and fathered Henry IV.
The youngest son, Louis, inherited the lordships of Meaux, Nogent, Condé, and Soissons as his appanage. Louis was titled Prince of Condé in a parliamentary document on 15 January 1557 and, without any legal authority beyond their dignity as princes of the Blood Royal, they continued to bear it for the next three centuries. He was succeeded by his son Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé.
Louis, the first Prince, actually gave the Condé property to his youngest son, Charles (1566–1612), Count of Soissons. Charles' only son Louis (1604–1641) left Condé and Soissons to female heirs in 1624, who married into the Savoy and Orléans-Longueville dynasties.
Monsieur le Prince
Upon the accession to France's throne of Henry IV of Bourbon in 1589, his first cousin-once-removed Henry, Prince of Condé (1588–1646), was heir presumptive to the crown until 1601. Although Henry's own descendants thereafter held the senior positions within the royal family of dauphin, Fils de France, and petits-fils de France, from 1589 to 1709 the Princes of Condé coincidentally held the rank at court of premier prince du sang royal (First Prince of the Blood Royal), to which was attached income, precedence, and ceremonial privilege (such as the exclusive right to be addressed as Monsieur le prince at court).
However, the position of premier prince devolved upon the ducs d'Orléans in 1710, so the seventh Prince, Louis III (1668–1710) declined to make use of the title, preferring instead to be known by his hereditary peerage of Duke of Bourbon, which still afforded him the right to be known as Monsieur le Duc. Subsequent heirs likewise preferred the ducal to the princely title.
Later
After the death of Henry III Jules de Bourbon, prince de Condé in 1709, the family were in regular attendance at court. Louis de Bourbon-Condé (at that point known as the Duke of Bourbon) had in 1685 married Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, the legitimated daughter of Louis XIV of France and Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan.
The couple had many children and produced an heir to the Condé titles and lands. Their son was Louis Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc de Bourbon.
He led a quiet life and was known at court as Monsieur le Duc after the loss of the rank of premier prince du sang in 1723. After his death the family retreated from court life but Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Condé was vital in the forming of the Army of Condé - formed to support his cousin Louis XVI during his imprisonment during the revolution. He was the longest holder of the title, being known as the prince de Condé for seventy-eight years.
His son married the sister of Louis Philippe II d'Orléans better known as Philippe Égalité. She was called Louise Marie Thérèse Bathilde d'Orléans. She was the last princesse de Condé and mother of Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé - titled duc d'Enghien. He was executed by Napoleon I of France at the Château de Vincennes. With the death of the duc d'Enghien, the heir to the Condé name, his father was the last holder of the title.
After his death in 1830 the Condé lands passed to the last prince's cousin Henri Eugène Philippe Louis d'Orléans, duc d'Aumale whose eldest son Louis was later a prince de Condé after gaining the title from his father.
Family tree
Cadet branches
House of Bourbon-Conti
The House of Bourbon-Conti was formed in 1581 by François de Bourbon, prince de Conti. He was the son of Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé. The house became extinct in 1814 upon the death of Louis François II de Bourbon, prince de Conti.
The Princes of Conti were as follows:
1558–1614: marquis, then from 1581 onwards 1st prince François de Bourbon.
At his death, the title became extinct because the prince died without issue. The title was assumed in 1629 by:
1629–1666: 2nd prince Armand de Bourbon-Conti
1666–1685: 3rd prince Louis Armand I de Bourbon-Conti
1685–1709: 4th prince Francis Louis de Bourbon-Conti
1709–1727: 5th prince Louis Armand II de Bourbon-Conti
1727–1776: 6th prince Louis Francis I de Bourbon-Conti
1776–1814: 7th prince Louis Francis II de Bourbon-Conti
House of Bourbon-Soissons
The first prince de Conti was also the brother of the founder of the House of Bourbon-Soissons, Charles de Bourbon-Soissons. The comtes de Soissons were addressed at court as Monsieur le Comte and their wives as Madame la Comtesse. The members of the house were:
1487–1495: François de Bourbon-Vendôme (1470–1495);
1495–1537: Charles de Bourbon-Vendôme (1489–1537), comte (jure matris), son of the preceding;
1547–1557: Jean de Bourbon-Soissons (1528–1557), son of the preceding;
1557–1569: Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé (1535–1569), brother of the preceding;
1569–1612: Charles de Bourbon, comte de Soissons (1566–1612), son of the preceding;
1612–1641: Louis de Bourbon, comte de Soissons (1604–1641), son of the preceding;
1641–1656: Marie de Bourbon-Soissons (1606–1692), sister of the preceding.
The line started in 1566 when the title of Count of Soissons was given to Charles de Bourbon-Condé, the second son of Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé, the first Prince of Condé. The Soissons title had been acquired by the first Prince of Condé in 1557 and was held by his descendants for two more generations with Charles de Bourbon-Condé, 1st comte de Soissons, and Louis de Bourbon-Condé, 2nd comte de Soissons.
The 2nd comte de Soissons died without an heir, so the Soissons estates passed to his younger sister, Marie de Bourbon-Condé, the wife of Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano, a younger brother of the sovereign Duke of Savoy. Although she received 400,000 livres in annual revenues from the Soissons estates, lived in the Hôtel de Soissons where, according to Saint-Simon, she "maintained the traditions of the Soissons", she continued to be known as the princesse de Carignan. On her death, the Soissons countship passed first to her second son, Prince Joseph-Emmanuel of Savoy-Carignano (1631–1656), and then to her third son, Prince Eugène-Maurice of Savoy-Carignano. He married Olympia Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. She was known as Madame la Comtesse de Soissons. On his death, the title went to his eldest son, Prince Louis Thomas of Savoy-Carignano, who was the older brother of the famous Austrian general, Prince Eugene of Savoy. The Soissons countship became extinct upon the death of Prince Eugène-Jean-François of Savoy-Carignano in 1734.
Princes of Condé
First creation: 1546–1830 – House of Bourbon
Second creation: 1845 –1866 – House of Orléans
Addresses
The eldest sons of the Princes of Condé used the title of Duke of Enghien, and were addressed as Monsieur le Duc until that style came to be pre-empted by their fathers, as Dukes of Bourbon, after 1709. The Princes of Condé were also the male-line ancestors of the branches of the Princes of Conti, which flourished 1629–1814, and of the Counts of Soissons, 1566–1641.
Although both the sons and daughters of these branches of the House of Bourbon held the rank of princes and princesses du sang, it never became the custom in France for them to use prince or princess as a prefix to their Christian names. Rather, sons took a title of French nobility, count or duke, suffixed with their appanage (e.g. Count of Charolais), while unmarried daughters used one of their fathers' subsidiary properties to form a courtesy style, e.g. "mademoiselle de Clermont".
Condé residences
The Hôtel de Condé became the Parisian base of the Condé family in 1610, in what is now the 6th district of Paris. In 1722 Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, wife of Louis III of Condé, started building the Palais Bourbon which in 1764 became the Condé family's main Parisian residence. They sold the former Hôtel de Condé to the King in 1770, and it was demolished around 1780 to be replaced by a new neighborhood around the theater that later became known as the Odéon. Another Parisian property, still known as the Hôtel de Bourbon-Condé (12 rue Monsieur), was built and inhabited between 1780 and 1789 by Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon-Condé.
The family had several residences outside Paris: the Château de Condé in Condé-en-Brie, Picardy, which they ceased to own by 1624; the Château de Vallery, built from 1548 for the Marshal of Saint André, acquired by Louis I de Condé in 1564 and kept by the family until 1747; and the Château de Chantilly, previously a Montmorency property from 1484 to 1632 and a Condé estate from then. The latter was the home of the Grand Condé during his exile from court, and the host château of a party given in honour of King Louis XIV of France in 1671. It was confiscated during the French Revolution and eventually came into the possession of King Louis Philippe of France, who gave it to his youngest son, Henri d'Orléans, duc d'Aumale.
References
Conde
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200821
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20Nygaardsvold
|
Johan Nygaardsvold
|
Johan Nygaardsvold (; 6 September 1879 – 13 March 1952) was a Norwegian politician from the Labour Party who served as the 21st prime minister of Norway from 1935 to 1945. From June 1940 until May 1945, he oversaw the Norwegian Government-in-exile from London as head of the Nygaardsvold cabinet during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany.
Background
Nygaardsvold was born in Hommelvik, the main centre of the municipality of Malvik in the county of Sør-Trøndelag, Norway. His parents were Anders Nygaardsvold (1839–1897) and Andrea Ratvold (1845–1929). His father was a tenant farmer and a founding member of the first labour union in the area. Johan took his first job as a lumber mill worker when he was 12 years old. On 6 June 1901, he married Albine Regine Brandslet (1878–1961).
Nygaardsvold and his wife emigrated to Canada in 1902 where he took jobs in British Columbia, and in the US in Kalispell, Montana and Spokane, Washington. He and his wife returned to Norway in 1907 after he had followed a career including as an Industrial Workers of the World agitator. In 1909 he found a job at Hommelvik Sawmill.
Political career
In 1910, Nygaardsvold was elected to the board of education for the Labour Party, and rose quickly through the ranks in local politics. In 1916, he was elected to the Norwegian parliament for the first time, serving continuously until 1949. He worked as a labourer in the Swedish lumber industry during the summers in the first few years. From 1920 to 1922 he served as the mayor for his home town of Malvik.
In 1928, Nygaardsvold was appointed minister of agriculture in the short-lived Christopher Hornsrud cabinet. From 11 January 1934 to 20 March 1935 he served as President of the Storting. In 1935, Nygaardsvold was asked to form a government as Prime Minister of Norway.
He was serving as Prime Minister when Nazi Germany attacked on Norway 9 April 1940. Following the German occupation of Norway, German officials demanded that the Government headed by Nygaardsvold capitulate and that the King appoint a government headed by Nazi sympathiser Vidkun Quisling. King Haakon VII stated that he could not comply with the German ultimatum and would rather abdicate than appoint Quisling prime minister. On 7 June 1940, the Norwegian Government-in-exile relocated to London. Nygaardsvold continued as prime minister in exile until the government returned to Norway on 31 May 1945. He resigned on 25 June 1945 when King Haakon appointed Einar Gerhardsen to head an interim government composed of all political parties.
A number of progressive reforms were instituted during Nygaardsvold's time as prime minister. The Old Age Insurance Law of July 1936, for instance, introduced national pension insurance, while the Unemployment Insurance Law of June 1938 introduced compulsory unemployment insurance for all employees and workers outside the primary sector “who were compulsorily insured under the sickness insurance scheme; means-tested benefits; those with incomes above or below certain levels not entitled to benefits.”
Nygaardsvold was elected to the Storting for the last time in the autumn of 1945. At the end of the Storting term in 1949, he retired from politics. That same year, he was awarded the Medal for Outstanding Civic Service (Borgerdådsmedaljen). He returned to Hommelvik and died of cancer in Trondheim in 1952. He was buried at Hommelvik Church in Malvik.
Historical legacy
During his time in office, Nygaardsvold had immense popular appeal and was given credit for the Labour Party's election results in 1933. Nygaardsvold was the prime minister in the second Labour Party cabinet in Norway, after he helped formulate the so-called "crisis accord" with the Farmers' Party. His government's domestic policy was largely dedicated to recovering from the Great Depression but is most noted for its foreign and military policy in the years leading up to the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany and his administration in exile from 1940 to 1945. The investigative commission that issued a report after the liberation of Norway found that he could not be absolved from responsibility for the lack of operational readiness for the German invasion but gave him credit for his management of a unity government in exile. He was awarded an honorary salary for his service in exile but refused to accept it.
References
Other sources
Berntsen, Harald (1991) I malstrømmen : Johan Nygaardsvold 1879–1952 (Oslo: Aschehoug) .
Related reading
Andenaes, Johs; Riste, Olav; Skodvin, Magne (1966) Norway and the Second World War (Oslo: Johan Grundt Tanum Forlag).
1879 births
1952 deaths
People from Malvik
Ministers of Agriculture and Food of Norway
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Norwegian people of World War II
World War II political leaders
Presidents of the Storting
Members of the Storting
Industrial Workers of the World members
20th-century Norwegian politicians
Prime Ministers of Norway
|
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] |
200822
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20West
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Fred West
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Frederick Walter Stephen West (29 September 1941 – 1 January 1995) was an English serial killer who committed at least twelve murders between 1967 and 1987 in Gloucestershire, the majority with his second wife, Rosemary West.
All the victims were young women. At least eight of these murders involved the Wests' sexual gratification and included rape, bondage, torture and mutilation; the victims' dismembered bodies were typically buried in the cellar or garden of the Wests' Cromwell Street home in Gloucester, which became known as the "House of Horrors". Fred is known to have committed at least two murders on his own, while Rose is known to have murdered Fred's stepdaughter, Charmaine. The couple were arrested and charged in 1994.
Fred fatally asphyxiated himself while detained on remand at HM Prison Birmingham on 1 January 1995, at which time he and Rose were jointly charged with nine murders, and he with three further murders. In November 1995, Rose was convicted of ten murders and sentenced to ten life terms with a whole life order.
Early life
Childhood
Frederick Walter Stephen West was born on 29 September 1941 at Bickerton Cottage, Much Marcle, Herefordshire, the first surviving child born to Walter Stephen West (1914–1992) and Daisy Hannah Hill (1922–1968). Fred was from a poor family of farm workers, close-knit and mutually protective; his father was a disciplinarian and his mother overprotective.
In 1946, the family moved to Moorcourt Cottage at Moorcourt Farm, where Fred's father worked as a milking herdsman and harvest hand. The cottage had no electricity and was heated by a log fireplace. By 1951, Fred's mother had given birth to eight children, six of whom survived, but Fred was always his mother's favourite. He was seen as a mother's boy and relied mostly on his siblings for companionship.
The West children were expected to perform assigned chores and all six did seasonal work, the three girls picking hops and strawberries, the three boys harvesting wheat and hunting rabbits. The necessity of working to earn a living, or even just to survive, instilled a strong work ethic in Fred, who also developed a lifelong habit of petty theft.
Classmates recall Fred as scruffy, dim, lethargic, and regularly in trouble. Throughout his life, he remained barely literate, yet displayed an aptitude for woodwork and artwork. He left school in December 1956 at age 15, initially working as a labourer at Moorcourt Farm.
Fred claimed he was introduced to sex by his mother at 12, to have engaged in acts of bestiality with animals in his early teens, and that his belief in incest being normal stemmed from his father's incest with Fred's sisters. Fred's youngest brother, Doug, dismissed these claims as fantasy on Fred's part.
Adolescence
By 1957, Fred and his brother John frequently socialised at a youth club in nearby Ledbury, where his distinct and guttural Herefordshire accent marked him as a "country bumpkin". He aggressively pestered women and girls, whom he objectified as sources of pleasure to be used as he saw fit, and would abruptly approach and fondle them. When a girl accepted his advances, she would find his sexual performance unsatisfying, as his primary objective was his own gratification.
Shortly after his 17th birthday, Fred bought a motorcycle, and two months later suffered a fractured skull, a broken arm, and a broken leg in an accident. He was unconscious for seven days and walked with braces for several months; because of this incident, he developed an extreme fear of hospitals and became prone to fits of rage. Two years later, Fred suffered a further head injury when a girl he groped on a fire escape outside the Ledbury Youth Club punched him, sending him falling two floors.
In June 1961, Fred's 13-year-old sister, Kitty, told her mother that Fred had been raping her since the previous December, and had impregnated her. Arrested the same month, Fred freely admitted to police he had been molesting young girls since his early teens and asked, "Doesn't everybody do it?" He was tried on 9 November at Herefordshire Assizes. Though disgusted by her son's actions, Fred's mother had been prepared to testify in his defence. Kitty refused to testify, and the case collapsed. Much of Fred's family effectively disowned him, his mother banished him from the household, and he moved into the Much Marcle house of his aunt Violet. By mid-1962, he had reconciled with his parents, but his relationship with most of his family remained fraught.
Catherine "Rena" Costello
Marriage
Fred became re-acquainted with Catherine Bernadette Costello in September 1962, when he was 21. He had first met Costello, who came from Coatbridge, Lanarkshire, at a Much Marcle dance hall in 1960, and dated her for several months before she returned to Scotland. Costello was pregnant by an Asian bus driver at the time of her marriage to Fred, and may have relocated from Glasgow to England due to members of her family expressing their displeasure at her being pregnant with a mixed-race child. She married Fred in Ledbury on 17 November, the sole guest being Fred's younger brother John. The couple initially lived in Fred's aunt's home, then moved to Coatbridge, where Fred worked as an ice cream van driver. Rena's daughter, Charmaine, was born in March 1963; to explain the child's mixed ancestry, Rena and Fred claimed that she had suffered a miscarriage and that Charmaine was adopted. Shortly thereafter, the couple relocated to Savoy Street, in the Bridgeton district of Glasgow.
In July 1964, Rena bore Fred a daughter, Anna Marie. The child was born at the couple's Savoy Street home. The family nanny, Isa McNeill, and neighbours of the Wests, recall Rena as a considerate mother "struggling to bring up two children"; Fred treated the children harshly. He kept the girls in the bottom of a bunk bed with bars fitted to the space between the bunks, effectively caging them; they were allowed out only when he was at work.
Via McNeill, the Wests became acquainted with her friend, 16-year-old Anne McFall, who was despondent over the death of her boyfriend in a workplace accident. McFall spent a great deal of time at the Wests' flat.
Fred later admitted to having engaged in numerous affairs in the early years of his marriage, and fathered one illegitimate child with a woman from the Gorbals. When Rena discovered her husband's infidelity, she began an affair with a man named John McLachlan. On one occasion, Fred discovered the pair in an embrace. He punched Rena, making her scream. In response, McLachlan punched Fred, who drew a knife and grazed McLachlan's abdomen. When punched by McLachlan a second time, Fred stopped defending himself. Years later, McLachlan recollected this incident: "He couldn't tackle a man, but he wasn't so slow in attacking women." He and Rena continued their affair, and McLachlan became increasingly aghast at Rena's bruises and black eyes. On each occasion it became apparent Fred had beaten his wife, McLachlan extensively beat Fred. Another time, McLachlan witnessed Charmaine—little older than a toddler—ask Fred for an ice cream from his van; in response, Fred struck her across the head, triggering another beating from McLachlan.
On 4 November 1965, Fred accidentally ran over and killed a small boy in Glasgow with his van. Fred was cleared of any wrongdoing by police, but feared the hostile reaction and potential reprisals for the accident from the locals, whom he relied upon to make his living. In December, he returned to Gloucester with Charmaine and Anna Marie, renting a caravan at the Timberland Caravan Park in Bishop's Cleeve. Rena joined him in February 1966, accompanied by Isa McNeill and Anne McFall, who also moved into Fred's caravan. (McNeill and McFall both came from impoverished backgrounds; both hoped to find work in England.) Shortly after the move south, Fred found employment driving a lorry for a local abattoir.
By early 1966, Fred had begun to exhibit dominance and control over all three women. He was also prone to violent mood swings, and Rena and McNeill typically bore the brunt of his fury; Fred also physically attacked his stepdaughter more than once. He is also reported to have begun sexually abusing Charmaine, and to have encouraged Rena to turn to prostitution to supplement his meagre income.
To escape Fred's domestic abuse and increasingly sadistic sexual demands, Rena phoned McLachlan, begging him to rescue her, McNeill and her children. Together, McLachlan, Rena, and McNeill devised a plan; he and McNeill's boyfriend, John Trotter, would secretly drive to Bishop's Cleeve in McLachlan's Mini and discreetly take Rena, her children and McNeill back to Scotland. McFall had by this stage become infatuated with Fred, who had promised to marry her. It is likely she informed Fred of the plan, as he arrived at the meeting time, and McFall was "oddly calm" as she informed McNeill she intended to remain with Fred to work as the children's nanny. An altercation ensued between Fred and McLachlan, resulting in Fred being struck several times as he clutched onto Charmaine and Anna Marie. Police were called and McLachlan, Trotter, McNeill, and Rena left, with Fred threatening to kill Rena should he ever see her again.
To ensure her daughters' well-being, Rena frequently travelled to England to visit Charmaine and Anna Marie while they lived with Fred at Bishop's Cleeve. Despite initially maintaining her friendship with McFall, Rena soon began to resent her matriarchal presence around her daughters. On 11 October, in an act of resentment, Rena stole some belongings from Fred's caravan and returned to Glasgow. She was arrested the following month and returned to Gloucester to face trial. On 29 November, Rena was sentenced to three years' probation. Fred testified at the hearing, admitting he and McFall were living together, but falsely claiming McFall intended to return to Scotland imminently.
After the trial, McFall moved into a caravan at the Timberland Caravan Park; Rena alternated between living with Fred and returning to Glasgow. Letters McFall posted to her family and McNeill in Glasgow between 1966 and 1967 indicate she believed a relationship with Fred could offer her a better life than that she had experienced in Scotland, and she tried to persuade Fred to divorce his wife in order that he could marry her.
Murder of Anne McFall
In July 1967, McFall, aged 18 and eight months pregnant with Fred's child, vanished. She was never reported missing, but her dismembered remains were found buried at the edge of a cornfield between Much Marcle and Kempley in June 1994. Her limbs had been carefully disarticulated, and many phalange bones were missing from her body—likely to have been retained as keepsakes; her unborn child may also have been cut from her womb. Fred initially denied he had killed McFall, but confided to one visitor following his arrest that he had stabbed her to death following an argument. This explanation is inconsistent with the fact that her wrists were found with sections of dressing gown cord wrapped around them, suggesting she had been restrained prior to her murder.
The following month, Rena returned to live with Fred, and the couple relocated to the Lake House Caravan Park. Their relationship initially improved, but Rena left the following year, again leaving the children in his care. On these occasions when Fred had no woman to supervise and care for the girls, he temporarily placed them in the care of Gloucestershire social services.
Rosemary Letts
Fred first encountered Rosemary Letts in early 1969, shortly after her 15th birthday. The pair first met at Cheltenham bus station. Initially, Rose was repulsed by Fred's unkempt appearance and deduced he was a tramp, but she quickly became flattered by the attention Fred continued to lavish on her over the following days as he invariably sat alongside her at the same bus stop. Rose twice refused to go on a date with Fred, but allowed him to accompany her home. In their initial conversations, Fred quickly discovered that although Rose had never had a boyfriend, she was overtly promiscuous. He also extracted a degree of sympathy from her by claiming he and his two daughters had been abandoned by his wife, and that he wished for more children.
Having discovered Rose worked in a nearby bread shop, a few days after their first encounter, Fred persuaded an unknown woman to enter the premises and present her with a gift accompanied by the explanation that a "man outside" had asked her to present this gift to her. Minutes later, Fred entered the premises and asked Rose to accompany him on a date that evening; an offer she accepted. Shortly thereafter, Rose began a relationship with Fred, becoming a frequent visitor at the Lake House Caravan Park and a willing childminder to Charmaine and Anna Marie, whom she noted were neglected and whom she initially treated with care and affection. On several occasions in the early days of their courtship, Rose insisted she and Fred take the girls on excursions to gather wildflowers.
Within weeks of her first meeting Fred, Rose left her job at the bread shop in order to become the nanny to Charmaine and Anna Marie; this decision was made with the agreement that Fred would provide her with sufficient money to give to her parents on Fridays to convince them she was still obtaining a salary at the bread shop. Several months later, Rose introduced Fred to her family, who were aghast at their daughter's choice of partner. Rose's mother, Daisy Letts, was unimpressed with Fred's braggadocio, and correctly concluded he was a pathological liar; her father, Bill Letts—a diagnosed schizophrenic who is believed to have molested his daughter—vehemently disapproved of the relationship, threatening Fred directly and promising to call social services if he continued to date Rose.
Relationship
Rose's parents forbade their daughter from continuing to date Fred, but she defied their wishes, prompting them to visit Gloucestershire social services to explain that their 15-year-old daughter was dating an older man, and that they had heard rumours that she had begun to engage in prostitution at his caravan. In response, Rose was placed in a home for troubled teenagers in Cheltenham in August 1969, and only allowed to leave under controlled conditions. When allowed to return home to visit her parents at weekends, Rose almost invariably took the opportunity to visit Fred.
On her 16th birthday, Rose left the home for troubled teenagers to return to her parents (Fred at the time serving a 30-day sentence for theft and unpaid fines). Upon Fred's release, Rose left her parents' home to move into the Cheltenham flat Fred then lived in. Shortly thereafter, Fred collected Charmaine and Anna Marie from social services. Bill Letts made one final effort to prevent his daughter from seeing Fred, and Rose was examined by a police surgeon in February 1970, who confirmed she was pregnant. In response, Rose was again placed into care, but was discharged on 6 March on the understanding she would terminate her pregnancy and return to her family. Instead, Rose opted to live with Fred, resulting in her father forbidding his daughter from ever again setting foot in his household.
Three months later, the couple vacated the Cheltenham flat and relocated to the ground floor flat of a two-story house in Midland Road, Gloucester. On 17 October 1970, Rose gave birth to their first child: a daughter they named Heather Ann (speculation remains that Heather may have been sired by Rose's own father). Two months later, Fred was imprisoned for the theft of car tyres and a vehicle tax disc. He remained imprisoned until 24 June 1971. As he served this six-and-a-half-month sentence, Rose, having just turned 17, looked after the three girls, with Charmaine and Anna Marie being told to refer to Rose as their mother.
According to Anna Marie, she and Charmaine were frequently subjected to criticism, beatings, and other forms of punishment throughout the time they lived under Rose's care at Midland Road. Although Anna Marie was generally submissive and prone to display emotion in response to the physical and mental hardships she and her sister endured, Charmaine repeatedly infuriated Rose by her stoic refusal to either cry or display any sign of grief or servitude no matter how severely she was physically punished. Despite the years of neglect and abuse, Charmaine's spirit had not been broken, and she talked wistfully to Anna Marie of the belief she held that her "mummy will come and save me". Anna Marie later recollected her sister repeatedly antagonised Rose by making statements such as: "My real mummy wouldn't swear or shout at us" in response to Rose's scathing language. A childhood friend of Charmaine's named Tracey Giles, who had lived in the upper flat of 25 Midland Road, would later recollect an incident in which she had entered the Wests' flat, unannounced, only to see Charmaine, naked and standing upon a chair, gagged and with her hands bound behind her back with a belt, as Rose stood alongside the child with a large wooden spoon in her hand. According to Giles, Charmaine had been "calm and unconcerned", while Anna Marie had been standing by the door with a blank expression on her face.
Hospital records reveal Charmaine had received treatment for a severe puncture wound to her left ankle in the casualty unit of the Gloucester Royal Hospital on 28 March 1971. This incident was explained by Rose to have resulted from a household accident.
Murder of Charmaine West
Rose is believed to have killed Charmaine shortly before Fred's prison release date of 24 June 1971. She is known to have taken Charmaine, Anna Marie and Heather to visit Fred on 15 June. It is believed to be on or very shortly after this date that Charmaine was murdered. As well as forensic odontology confirmation that Charmaine had died while Fred was still incarcerated, further testimony from Tracey Giles' mother, Shirley, corroborated the fact that Charmaine had been murdered before Fred had been released on 24 June. In her later testimony at Rose's trial, Shirley stated she and her family had lived in the upper flat of Midland Road in 1971 and that her two daughters had been playmates of Charmaine and Anna Marie. She stated that after her family had vacated the upper flat of Midland Road in April 1971, on one day in June, she had brought Tracey to visit Charmaine, only for Tracey to be told by Rose: "She's gone to live with her mother, and bloody good riddance!" before Tracey began to weep. Giles was adamant Fred was still in prison on this occasion.
As with the Giles family, Rose explained Charmaine's disappearance to others who enquired about her whereabouts by claiming that Rena had called and taken her eldest daughter to live with her in Bristol; she informed staff at Charmaine's primary school that the child had moved with her mother to London. When Fred was released from prison on 24 June, he allayed Anna Marie's concerns for her sister's whereabouts by claiming her mother had collected Charmaine and returned to Scotland. In her autobiography, Out of the Shadows, Anna Marie recollected that when she asked why her mother had collected Charmaine but not her, Fred callously replied: "She wouldn't want you, love. You're the wrong colour."
Charmaine's body was initially stowed in the coal cellar of Midland Road until Fred was released from prison. He later buried her naked body in the yard close to the back door of the flat, and he remained adamant he had not dismembered her. A subsequent autopsy suggested the body had been severed at the hip; this damage may have been caused by building work Fred conducted at the property in 1976. Several bones—particularly patellae, finger, wrist, toe and ankle bones—were missing from her skeleton, leading to the speculation the missing parts had been retained as keepsakes (this proved to be a distinctive discovery in all the autopsies of the victims exhumed in 1994).
Murder of Catherine "Rena" West
Rena maintained sporadic contact with her children on each occasion she and Fred separated. She is also known to have visited Moorcourt Cottage to enquire as to her children's whereabouts and welfare in the latter half of August 1971. Fred's sister-in-law, Christine, later recollected Rena was depressed and extremely anxious about her children's welfare. Being provided with Fred's Midland Road address, Rena sought to confront him—likely to discuss or demand custody of her daughters. This was the final time Rena was seen alive. She is believed to have been murdered by strangulation, possibly in the back seat of Fred's Ford Popular and likely while intoxicated. When her body was discovered, a short length of metal tubing was found with her remains, leaving an equal possibility she had been restrained and subjected to a sexual assault prior to her murder. Rena's body was extensively dismembered, placed into plastic bags, and buried close to a cluster of trees known as Yewtree Coppice at Letterbox Field, about from Much Marcle.
Marriage to Letts
On 29 January 1972, Fred and Rosemary married. The ceremony took place at Gloucester Register Office, with Fred incorrectly describing himself as a bachelor upon the marriage certificate. No family or friends were invited apart from Fred's brother John, who acted as best man. Several months later, with Rose pregnant with her second child, the couple moved from Midland Road to an address nearby: 25 Cromwell Street. Initially, the three-storey home was rented from the council; Fred later purchased the property from the council for £7,000. To facilitate the Wests' purchasing the property from the council, many of the upper floor rooms were initially converted into bedsits to supplement the household income. To maintain a degree of privacy for his own family, Fred installed a cooker and a washbasin on the first-floor landing in order that their lodgers need not enter the ground floor where the West family lived, and only he and his family were permitted access to the garden of the property. On 1 June, Rose gave birth to a second daughter. The date of her birth led Fred and Rose to name the child Mae June.
Prostitution
Shortly after giving birth to her second child, Rose began to work as a prostitute, operating from an upstairs room at their residence and advertising her services in a local contact magazine. Fred encouraged Rose to seek clients in Gloucester's West Indian community through these advertisements. In addition to her prostitution, Rose engaged in casual sex with both male and female lodgers within their household, and individuals Fred encountered via his work; she also bragged to several people that no man or woman could completely satisfy her. When engaging in sexual relations with women, Rose would gradually increase the level of brutality to which she subjected her partner with acts such as partially suffocating her partner, or inserting increasingly large dildos into her partner's body. If the woman resisted or expressed any pain or fear, this would greatly excite Rose, who would typically ask: "Aren't you woman enough to take it?"
To many of these women, it became apparent Rose and her husband (who regularly participated in threesomes with his wife and her lovers) took a particular pleasure from seeking to take women beyond their sexual limits—typically via sessions involving bondage, as the Wests openly admitted to taking a particular pleasure from any form of sex involving a strong measure of dominance, pain and violence. To cater to these fetishes, they amassed a large collection of bondage and restraining devices, magazines and photographs—later expanding this collection to include videos depicting bestiality and graphic child sexual abuse.
Rose controlled the West family finances, Fred giving her his pay packets. The room Rose used for prostitution was known throughout the West household as "Rose's Room", and had several hidden peepholes allowing Fred—a longtime voyeur—to watch her entertain her clients. He also installed a baby monitor in the room, allowing him to listen from elsewhere in the house. The room included a private bar, and a red light outside the door warned when Rose was not to be disturbed. Rose carried the sole key to this room around her neck, and Fred installed a separate doorbell to the household which Rose's clients were instructed to ring whenever they visited the household. Much of the money earned from Rose's prostitution was spent on home improvements.
By 1977, Rose's father had come to tolerate his daughter's marriage, and to develop a grudging respect for Fred. Together, he and Fred opened a café they named The Green Lantern, which was soon insolvent. When Bill Letts discovered Rose's prostitution, he would also visit to have sex with his daughter. By 1983, she had given birth to eight children, at least three of whom were conceived by clients. Fred willingly accepted these children as his own, and falsely informed them the reason their skin was darker than that of their siblings was because his great-grandmother was a black woman.
Domestic violence
When each of the West children reached the age of seven, they were assigned numerous daily chores to perform in the house; they were rarely allowed to socialise outside the household perimeters unless either of their parents were present, and had to follow strict guidelines imposed by their parents, with severe punishment—almost always physical—being the penalty for not conforming to the household rules. The children feared being the recipients of violence from their parents, the vast majority inflicted by Rose, occasionally by Fred. The violence was sometimes irrational, indiscreet or just inflicted for Rose's gratification; she always took great care not to mark the children's faces or hands in these assaults. Heather, then her younger brother Stephen (born 1973), ran away from home; both returned to Cromwell Street after several weeks of alternately sleeping rough or staying with friends, and both were beaten when they returned home. Between 1972 and 1992, the West children were admitted to the Accident and Emergency department of local hospitals 31 times; the injuries were explained as accidents and never reported to social services.
On one occasion, as Stephen was mopping the kitchen floor with a cloth, Rose accidentally stepped into the bowl of water he had been using. In response, Rose hit the boy over the head with the bowl, then repeatedly kicked him in the head and chest as she shouted: "You did that on purpose, you little swine!" On another occasion, Rose became furious about a missing kitchen utensil, then grabbed a knife she had been using to cut a slab of meat, repeatedly inflicting light scour marks to Mae's chest until her rib cage was covered with light knife wounds. All the while, Mae screamed, "No, Mum! No, Mum!" as Stephen and Heather stood by, helplessly sobbing.
Even Fred occasionally became the recipient of his wife's violence. On one occasion in August 1974, Rose chased after Fred with a carving knife in her hand; Fred was able to slam shut the door of the room into which he had run as Rose lunged at him with the knife, resulting in the knife embedding itself in the door, and three of Rose's fingers sliding down the blade, almost severing them from her hand. In response, Rose calmly wrapped her hand in a towel and said: "Look what you done, fella. You've got to take me to the hospital now."
Initial sexual assaults
Anna Marie West
In September 1972, the Wests led eight-year-old Anna Marie to the cellar at 25 Cromwell Street, where the child was ordered to undress, with Rose tearing her dress from her body upon noting the child's hesitation. She was then stripped naked, bound to a mattress and gagged before Fred raped her with Rose's active encouragement. After the rape, Rose followed Anna Marie to the bathroom—laughing as she observed Anna Marie struggling to walk. She then handed her a sanitary towel, explaining to the child: "I'm sorry. Everybody does it to every girl. It's a father's job. Don't worry, and don't say anything to anybody." Making clear these sexual assaults would continue, Fred and Rose then threatened the child with severe beatings if they ever received word she had divulged the sexual abuse she endured at their hands.
Rose occasionally sexually abused Anna Marie herself, and later took extreme gratification in degrading her with acts such as binding Anna Marie to various items of furniture before encouraging Fred to rape her, and forcing her to perform household chores while wearing sexual devices and a mini-skirt. From the age of 13, Fred and Rose forced Anna Marie to prostitute herself within the household, with her clients being informed Anna Marie was 16. Rose was always present in the room when these acts occurred, to ensure Anna Marie did not reveal her true age. On one occasion when Anna Marie was aged 13 or 14, Rose took her to a local pub, insisting she drink several glasses of barley wine. Several hours later, Fred arrived at the pub to collect Rose and Anna Marie. Once they had left the premises, Anna Marie was bundled into her father's van and beaten by Rose, who asked her: "Do you think you could be my friend?" before she was sexually abused by her father and stepmother.
Caroline Owens
In October 1972, the Wests hired 17-year-old Caroline Owens as their children's nanny. They had picked her up one night on a secluded country road as she hitchhiked from Tewkesbury to her Cinderford home, having visited her boyfriend. Learning that Owens disliked her stepfather and was looking for a job, the Wests offered her part-time employment as a nanny to the three children then in their household, with a promise she would be driven home each Tuesday. Several days later, Owens moved into 25 Cromwell Street, sharing a room with Anna Marie, who Owens noted was "very withdrawn".
Rose, who had begun to engage in prostitution by this time, explained to Owens that she worked as a masseuse when the younger woman enquired about the steady stream of men visiting her. According to Owens, Fred also said he was a skilled abortionist, who was available should she ever need such a service. Owens also noted Fred talked about sex almost incessantly; her suspicions as to his sexual overtones were further heightened when Fred boasted that many of the women he claimed to have performed abortions upon were so overjoyed that they would offer him their sexual services as a reward. When Owens herself became the recipient of the Wests' overt sexual advances, she announced her intentions to leave Cromwell Street and return home.
Knowing Owens' habits of hitchhiking along the A40 between Cinderford and Tewkesbury, the Wests formulated a plan to abduct her for their shared gratification. Fred later admitted that the specific intent of this abduction was the rape and likely murder of Owens, but that his initial incentive was to determine whether his wife would be willing to at least assist him in an abduction. On 6 December 1972, the couple lured Owens into their vehicle with an apology for their conduct and the offer of a lift home. Initially, Owens believed the Wests had been sincere in their apologies to her and obliged, believing she had simply mistaken their earlier intentions. Rose joined her in the back seat, with the explanation she wanted a "girls' chat" as Fred drove.
Shortly thereafter, Rose began to fondle her, as Fred questioned whether she had had sex with her boyfriend that evening. When Owens began to protest, Fred stopped the car, referred to Owens as a "bitch", and punched her into unconsciousness before he and Rose bound and gagged her with a scarf and duct tape. In her subsequent statement to police, Owens stated that, at Cromwell Street, she was given a drugged cup of tea to drink, then again gagged and subjected to a prolonged sexual assault from Fred and Rose. At one stage, Fred remarked that Owens' clitoris was unusual then lashed her genitals with a leather belt. When Owens screamed, Rose again smothered her with a pillow and further restrained her about the neck, and performed cunnilingus on her. Quickly realising the gravity of her situation, Owens ceased resisting their sexual assaults.
The following morning, having noted Owens' screaming when one of his children had knocked on the door of the room in which she was restrained, Fred threatened that he and his wife would keep her locked up in the cellar and allow his "black friends" to abuse her, and that when they had finished, he would bury her body beneath "the paving stones of Gloucester". Fred then claimed he had killed hundreds of young girls, adding that Owens had primarily been brought to the house for "Rose's pleasure". He and Rose then calmly asked Owens whether she would consider returning to work as their nanny. Seeing her escape avenue, Owens agreed, and vacuumed the house to indicate her belief in becoming an extended member of the family. Later that day, Owens escaped from a launderette she and Rose had entered and returned home. Although initially too ashamed to divulge to her mother what had happened, when her mother noted the welts, bruises and exposed subcutaneous tissues on her daughter's body, Owens burst into tears and confided what had happened.
Owens' mother immediately reported her daughter's ordeal to the police, and the Wests were arrested and charged with assault, indecent assault, actual bodily harm, and rape. The case was tried at Gloucester Magistrates Court on 12 January 1973, but by this date, Owens had decided she could not face the ordeal of testifying in court. All charges pertaining to her sexual abuse were dropped, and the Wests agreed to plead guilty to the reduced charges of indecent assault and causing actual bodily harm; each was fined £50, and the couple were allowed to walk free from court. When Owens heard this news, she attempted suicide.
Murders
Three months after the Wests' assault trial, the couple committed their first known murder. The victim was a 19-year-old named Lynda Gough, with whom Fred and Rose became acquainted through a male lodger in early 1973. Gough regularly visited Cromwell Street, and engaged in affairs with two male lodgers. On 19 April, she moved into their home on Cromwell Street. On or about 20 April, other tenants were told that she had been told to leave the household after she had hit one of their children. This story was repeated to Gough's mother when she contacted the Wests to enquire about her whereabouts.
When Gough's dismembered body was found, the jaw was completely wrapped in adhesive and surgical tape to silence her screams, and two small tubes had likely been inserted into her nasal cavities to allow breathing. Long sections of string and sections of knotted fabric were also discovered with her remains. Gough had likely been suspended from holes carved into the wooden beams supporting the ceiling of the cellar Fred later admitted he had devised for the purpose of suspending his victims' bodies, and likely died of either strangulation or suffocation. Her dismembered body, missing five cervical vertebrae, the patellae and numerous finger bones, was buried in an inspection pit beneath the garage.
From their later investigations, police and forensic experts concluded all the victims found in the cellar at 25 Cromwell Street had been murdered in this location, and that, like Gough, each had been dismembered in this location. Five victims were murdered and buried in the cellar at Cromwell Street between November 1973 and April 1975. The first of these victims, 15-year-old Carol Ann Cooper, was abducted on 10 November 1973. Cooper lived in the Pines Children's Home in Worcester, and was abducted after spending the evening at a cinema with her boyfriend. She had been waiting for a bus in Warndon when she vanished, and was likely dragged into Fred's car, where her face was bound with surgical tape and her arms bound with braiding cloth before she was driven to Cromwell Street. At the Wests' address, Cooper was suspended from the wooden beams of the cellar ceiling before her abuse and murder. As had been the case with Lynda, Cooper died from strangulation or asphyxiation, before her body was dismembered and buried in a shallow, cubical grave in the cellar.
Over the following 17 months, four further victims between the ages of 15 and 21 suffered a similar fate to that endured by Gough and Cooper, although the disarticulation conducted upon each successive victim, plus the paraphernalia discovered in each shallow grave, suggests each victim was likely subjected to greater abuse and torture than those previously murdered.
Following the murder of 18-year-old Juanita Mott in April 1975, Fred concreted over the floor of the entire cellar. He later converted this section of the household into a bedroom for his oldest children, and he and his wife are not known to have committed any further murders until May 1978, when Fred—either with or without Rose's participation but certainly with her knowledge—murdered an 18-year-old lodger named Shirley Robinson. Robinson had first met Fred at The Green Lantern café in April 1977, and had taken lodgings with the Wests the same month. She was heavily pregnant at the time of her murder. Although Rose—herself pregnant at the time—initially boasted to neighbours the child Robinson was carrying was her husband's; she soon developed a deep resentment of Robinson, and the motive for her murder is likely to have been the removal of a threat to the stability of the Wests' relationship. Her body was buried in the garden of 25 Cromwell Street. It was extensively dismembered, but no restraining devices were found with these remains, making a sexual motive for this murder unlikely. The unborn baby had been removed and had several bones missing. Shortly thereafter, Rose unsuccessfully submitted a claim for maternity benefit in Robinson's name with Gloucester social services. As had earlier been the case with Charmaine and Lynda, Fred and Rose allayed the suspicions of anyone who asked about Robinson's whereabouts by claiming she had relocated to live with her father in West Germany.
The final murder Fred and Rose are known to have committed with a definite sexual motive occurred on 5 August 1979. The victim was a 16-year-old named Alison Chambers, who had run away from a local children's home to become the Wests' live-in nanny in the middle of 1979. Chambers is believed to have lived within their household for several weeks before her murder, and Rose promised Chambers she could live at a rural "peaceful farm" she claimed she and her husband owned. Her body was also buried in the garden of Cromwell Street, close to the bathroom wall, and although Chambers was likely dismembered, her skeleton was not marked by striations as the earlier victims' bodies had been. In an effort to allay any concerns from Chambers' family (with whom she maintained regular correspondence), Fred and Rose later posted a letter written by Chambers to her mother prior to her murder from a Northamptonshire post box.
Abuse
Heather and Mae West became the focus of Fred's incestuous sexual attentions after Anna Marie ran away from home in 1979 after enduring a particularly severe beating from Rose to her stomach just days after being discharged from hospital for treatment of an ectopic pregnancy. The frequency of the abuse endured by Heather and Mae increased when both girls reached puberty. Fred was overt and unapologetic in his conduct, and would justify his actions with the simple explanation: "I made you; I can do what I like with you." He further referred to his intentions to impregnate both his daughters on at least one occasion, and would occasionally force all his children to watch pornography with him. As Heather, Mae and their younger brother Stephen were very close in age, the trio resolved that if their father asked either of the two girls to be alone in a room with him, they would only do so if at least one other member of the trio were present to avoid either girl being raped. Both girls also developed a regime whereby they would only shower or undress when their father was either out of the house, or as her sister stood guard at the door. Stephen was also informed by his father that he would have to have sex with his mother by the age of 17 (in the event, his parents evicted him from their home when he was 16).
Although the girls were repulsed by their father's behaviour, Mae—having once endured Fred's throwing a vacuum cleaner at her when she remonstrated against his fondling her—developed a mechanism whereby she would tolerate Fred's sexually fondling her, then jokingly brush aside any efforts he made to take the molestation further, whereas in her autobiography, Mae recollected that Heather "was affected quite badly by all of this. Even more than me." A strong suspicion remains that, by 1985 or 1986, Heather had been forced to engage in intercourse with her father, as by the mid-1980s, she developed classic symptoms of the distress felt by victims of child abuse: these included habits of her biting her nails until they bled; drinking alcohol; of warily watching her father through the corner of her eye wherever she was sitting or standing; expressing nervous fragility whenever in the presence of males; her sleep being repeatedly broken by nightmares; and her repeatedly bouncing back and forth as she sat on any chair. This distressful behaviour led to Fred and Rose suspecting Heather had lesbian inclinations, and also resulted in her becoming the increasing recipient of taunts from her father (who had never particularly liked Heather) that she was "ugly" and a "bitch". On the occasions Heather remonstrated about the abuse to her mother, Rose would simply laugh at her distress.
Heather also expressed to Mae and Stephen her desire to run away from home and live a nomadic lifestyle in the Forest of Dean, and to never again see any human beings.
Murder of Heather West
Heather did complain to friends about the abuse she and her siblings endured, and her external signs of psychological distress were noted by several of them. Staff at the Hucclecote Secondary School, which Heather and her siblings attended, are also known to have expressed concern as to why Heather—a studious and obedient pupil—refused to obey orders either to change her clothing for, or shower after, sporting activities. On one occasion, she was forced to take a shower, resulting in her peers and staff noting her arms, legs and torso were covered in welts and bruises in various stages of healing. Heather attempted to excuse these injuries as having been obtained in fights with her siblings, but confided in one close friend that they had been inflicted by her parents, adding that her mother considered her a "little bitch" who deserved her beatings.
By the mid-1980s, rumours of Rose's sex life had reached several of the children's classmates, and although the West children had been instructed never to divulge details of their home lives to their peers, Heather confided to her friends that many of these rumours were true. The father of one of these classmates was a friend of the Wests; as such, word soon reached Fred and Rose that Heather had divulged details of her home life—including details of her mother's promiscuity—to her classmates. Fred was so concerned by these revelations that he began to escort Heather to and from school.
After Heather left school in 1986, she applied for numerous jobs in an effort to leave Cromwell Street. By June of the following year, she had pinned her hopes on escaping the household via obtaining a job as a chalet cleaner at a holiday camp in the seaside town of Torquay; she received notification that this application had been unsuccessful on 18 June. In response, she crumpled into tears before her siblings Mae and Stephen. That same evening, her whole family heard Heather sobbing aloud as she attempted to sleep, and according to Mae, she "cried all the way through the night." The following morning, on 19 June, Heather was "back to her usual self, looking miserable, biting her nails and sitting on the couch bouncing back and forth as she sat" as her siblings left the house to go to school.
When Heather's siblings returned home, they were informed Heather had left to accept the job she had previously been refused in Torquay, although Rose told an enquiring neighbour that she and Heather had had a "hell of a row", and that Heather had run away from home. Later, to answer their children's questions about why Heather failed to contact or visit her siblings, the parents claimed that Heather had eloped with a lesbian lover. When Mae and Stephen suggested they report Heather's disappearance to police, Fred changed his story yet again, saying it would be unwise to initiate a search for Heather as she was involved in credit card fraud. On more than one occasion, Fred and Rose persuaded an unknown acquaintance to fake a phone call from Heather to her parents.
In the years following Heather's disappearance, Fred occasionally jokingly threatened the children that they would "end up under the patio like Heather" if they either misbehaved or divulged the mistreatment they endured to anyone outside the household. With Rose's approval, he later constructed a barbecue pit immediately opposite where Heather had been buried, and placed a pine table on her grave for the children of the family to sit upon whenever the Wests held family gatherings in their garden.
Heather's disappearance, Fred and Rose's constantly changing stories about their daughter's whereabouts, plus their allusions to foul play, ultimately led to police enquiries as to Heather's whereabouts. These enquiries culminated in a search warrant being issued to excavate the Wests' garden in February 1994.
Arrest
In May 1992, Fred asked his 13-year-old daughter, Louise, to bring some bottles to a room on the first floor of their home. Rose was not present in the home at the time. Shortly thereafter, the girl's siblings heard her scream, "No, don't!" Later, Fred returned downstairs. Louise was found by her siblings writhing in pain, sobbing that her father had raped and sodomised her, at one stage partially strangling her. When Rose returned home, Louise confided in her mother that she had been raped by Fred; Rose replied, "Oh well. You were asking for it." Over the following weeks, Louise was raped on three further occasions, with Rose personally witnessing one of these rapes before following her distressed and bleeding daughter into the bathroom and asking the child, "Well, what did you expect?" Fred also filmed one of these rapes. Several weeks later, Louise garnered the courage to confide in a close friend what her father had done; this friend told her own mother what had happened on 4 August. In response, the friend's mother anonymously informed the police.
On 6 August 1992, the police searched the West household on the pretext of searching for stolen property. Although numerous objects of sexual paraphernalia—including 99 pornographic videos of both home-made and commercial nature—were discovered, police did not find the video depicting the rape of Fred's daughter. The 13-year-old made a full statement through a specially-trained solicitor, describing her father's actions, the fact the sexual abuse had begun when she was 11, and that her mother had been casually indifferent to her plight. All the children in the household were placed in foster care the following day. Medical examinations revealed evidence of physical and sexual abuse.
The West children also divulged their mother had inflicted most of the physical abuse and that their father frequently said that if they told anyone about the goings-on in the household they would be "buried under the patio" like their sister Heather.
Investigation
Police began a full-scale investigation, eventually leading to Fred being charged with three counts of rape, and one of buggery, with Rose as an accomplice. She was also charged with child cruelty, inciting her husband to engage in sex with their daughter, and obstructing the police. The Wests were questioned as to the whereabouts of their eldest daughter, and although Fred claimed Heather was "alive and well" and supporting herself via prostitution, Rose initially claimed to have no knowledge of Heather's whereabouts, or why she had left home. She claimed on 11 August that she could "remember now" that her daughter had left home at her own persuasion due to Rose's concerns her other children may discover Heather's supposed lesbian inclinations. Rose then added she had also given her daughter £600 to incentivise her to leave the household, before further claiming to have maintained sporadic telephone contact with her daughter over the years. The following day, Rose was granted bail on the condition she did not maintain contact with her children, her stepdaughter, or her husband prior to her upcoming trial.
As Fred awaited trial, he was held on remand in Birmingham. Learning that her father had denied any wrongdoing, Anna Marie also contacted police to offer a full statement detailing her experiences as a child. In a statement given to Detective Constable Hazel Savage, Anna Marie recounted the extensive physical, mental and sexual abuse she had endured as a child at the hands of her father and stepmother, before agreeing to testify against both parents at their upcoming trial. Anna Marie also added she had, for several years, been unsuccessfully attempting to trace her mother Rena and half-sisters Charmaine and Heather. Further enquiries conducted with Anna Marie's husband, Chris Davis, revealed that Heather had confided in him just how unhappy she was shortly before her disappearance, and of her desire to leave home. Davis elaborated that although Heather had not divulged any details about her enduring any sexual abuse, he had been so concerned for her welfare he had offered to confront her parents, and Heather had dissuaded him from doing so, blurting: "For Christ's sake don't, because they'll kill us both!" Davis then suggested they might wish to speak with Heather to garner further details of her abuse.
In their efforts to gather further evidence, police and social services also spoke with Mae, who, having spoken with her 13-year-old sister and learned Louise did not wish to see her father charged, initially denied she had endured any molestation as an adolescent. Police then focused their attentions on tracing Heather in efforts to corroborate Anna Marie's claims of sexual abuse, but enquiries to the Inland Revenue and the Social Security department held no records attesting to her being alive. Two months later, Gloucester social services also contacted police to stress their concern over the whereabouts of Heather.
This case against the Wests collapsed when Anna Marie and her 13-year-old half-sister Louise declined to testify at the court case on 7 June 1993, with the child rape victim expressing her desire to return to her family, and Anna Marie choosing to withdraw her statement because of her noting the misery of her younger siblings, and her fear of Rose's vindictiveness. Shortly thereafter, Anna Marie spoke further with DC Savage, further emphasising that her mother Rena and half-sister Charmaine were also missing.
Search warrant
Although the Wests were acquitted of all charges, all their younger children remained in foster care, albeit with permitted supervised visitations to Cromwell Street. Despite the Wests claiming to the few relatives from whom they were not already estranged by 1993 that the charges had been fabricated by police, almost all of their remaining family members severed contact with them. Meanwhile, police continued investigating the disappearance of Heather, noting no records existed indicating she was still alive. When Anna Marie was questioned as to the colloquial "family joke" regarding Heather being buried beneath the patio, she confirmed that the sole time she had heard her father recite this claim, he had immediately burst into laughter, leading to her refusing to take this claim seriously.
In retracing Fred's history, police also discovered that although Rena and Charmaine had disappeared in 1971, no missing person report had ever been filed on either of them. DC Savage and her colleagues were convinced Heather was dead, and that Fred's repeated statement to his children that her body lay beneath the family patio might be true. On 23 February 1994, Gloucester police successfully applied for a search warrant authorising the search of 25 Cromwell Street to locate Heather's remains.
When police visited the address on 24 February and showed the warrant to Rose, she turned pale, before becoming hysterical and shouting over her shoulder to her eldest son, Stephen, "Get Fred!" Rose became contradictory in her informal questioning as to the circumstances surrounding Heather's disappearance. When reminded of these contradictions, she became distraught and abusive, shouting at the officers: "I can't fucking remember! It's a bloody long time ago! What do you think I am? A bloody computer?"
Fred had been working in Stroud at the time; upon hearing of the police's intentions, he assured Stephen he would be home immediately. When Fred arrived three hours later, he informed his family of his intention to voluntarily offer a witness statement to police regarding his daughter's whereabouts. Despite Fred's insistence in this statement that Heather had been "alive and well", albeit involved in a drugs cartel, and that the claims he and his wife had made as to Heather being buried beneath the family patio were simply "rubbish", police were unassuaged. In response, Fred abruptly changed tactics, claiming they simply held a grudge against him due to his 1993 acquittal of the rape of his daughter.
That evening, with the search team having left their premises and a uniformed officer remaining at Cromwell Street to guard the excavation site, Mae and Stephen observed their parents talking in hushed tones as they repeatedly glanced towards the garden from their kitchen window.
In the early hours of the following morning, as his son Stephen was about to leave for work, Fred informed him: "Look son, look after mum and sell the house [...] I've done something really bad. I want you to go to the papers and make as much money as you can." Shortly thereafter, police returned to Cromwell Street to continue their search for Heather's body. Upon their arrival, Fred indicated his wish to be arrested for Heather's murder and to be taken to Bearland police station to provide a full confession; he was then arrested and formally cautioned.
Discoveries
At 11:15 that morning, Fred formally admitted to police he had indeed killed his daughter, albeit in an act of manslaughter. He confessed to strangling Heather in a fit of rage, then dismembering her body in the ground floor bathroom with a heavy serrated knife he normally used for cutting slabs of frozen meat. Her remains had been stored in a dustbin as he waited for an opportunity to dig her grave. Fred was insistent his wife had no knowledge of her daughter's murder, claiming he had committed this murder as Rose was preoccupied with one of her clients, adding the fact the search team had not yet unearthed Heather's remains was because they had been excavating the wrong section of his garden. He then volunteered to accompany police to the house to pinpoint the precise location of Heather's body. Upon receipt of this confession, Fred's solicitor, Howard Ogden, and Janet Leach, his appointed appropriate adult, informed Mae and Stephen their father had confessed to their sister's murder. In response, Stephen slumped against a wall and began sobbing; Mae entered a state of shock, before stammering that her father had not killed her sister.
The following day (26 February), police began excavating the section of the garden at Cromwell Street where Fred indicated he had buried his daughter's body. Shortly after 4 p.m., police found a human thigh bone protruding from a section of the garden Fred had insisted police need not look in. Excavating the section of the garden where Fred had indicated he had buried his daughter's body, investigators discovered a mass of jumbled human remains encased in the remnants of a bin bag and intertwined with two lengths of rope. These dismembered remains were taken to the police headquarters for further examination, where they were determined to be those of a young woman, with one kneecap and several phalanges missing. The decedent's fingernails were discovered in a pile, suggesting they may have been torn from her fingers as a means of torture. Several hours later, the body was identified via dental records as being that of Heather West.
That evening, having been formally charged with his daughter's murder and questioned as to why police had also discovered a third thigh bone, Fred confessed there were two further sets of human remains in his garden, and agreed to return to Cromwell Street to reveal the locations of both graves; one of whom he named as Shirley Robinson, whom he described as being a former tenant and a lesbian who had been heavily pregnant with his child at the time of her 1978 murder; the other victim he described (incorrectly) as being "Shirley's mate", but either could not or would not elaborate as to her identity. Both sets of remains were discovered on 28 February, and Fred was charged with both murders two days later.
Having discovered three sets of human remains in the garden, a decision was made to thoroughly search the entire property. Rose was placed into a safe house in the nearby town of Dursley as police commenced their search inside 25 Cromwell Street. Informed of this fact, and with the formal interviews conducted by the investigative team lasting up to 16 hours each day and including persistent questioning as to the whereabouts of his first wife Rena and stepdaughter Charmaine, Fred authorised his solicitor to pass a note he had written to the leader of the murder investigation: Superintendent John Bennett of the Gloucestershire Police. This note—dated 4 March—read: "I, Frederick West, authorise my solicitor, Howard Ogden, to advise Superintendent Bennett that I wish to admit a further (approx) nine killings, expressly Charmaine, Rena, Lynda Gough and others to be identified. F. West."
Questioned further as to his claims, Fred calmly explained there were a further five bodies buried in his cellar, and a sixth body beneath the ground-floor bathroom. Most of these victims, Fred claimed, had been hitchhikers or girls he had murdered in the 1970s after picking them up at bus stops. Initially, Fred claimed these six victims had been killed when they had threatened to inform Rose of his infidelity with women, and that he had transported their bodies to Cromwell Street to abuse, dismember, and then bury in shallow graves. The dismemberment, Fred claimed, had made it easier to bury the remains in shallow, cubical graves, and he agreed to return to Cromwell Street to indicate precisely where he had buried each victim.
Between 5 and 8 March, police found six further bodies of young females at 25 Cromwell Street. Each victim had been extensively mutilated, and each body bore evidence of having been subjected to extreme sexual abuse prior to the act of murder. For example, the third set of remains discovered in the cellar was found with a length of cloth wrapped around the skull, and an oval of adhesive tape 16 inches in circumference found with the remains had likely been used to gag this victim, whose ankles and wrists were also bound with a large section of rope. Also found in this grave was a large, serrated knife. The second set of remains was found with a section of tubing twisted into a U-shape alongside her severed limbs, and her skull was found encased in adhesive tape which had been wrapped around the section where her face had been 11 or 12 times, with a narrow plastic tube inserted where the nasal cavities had been in an effort to allow her to breathe prior to her murder. Each set of remains was missing numerous bones, particularly phalanges; when questioned, Fred refused to divulge the whereabouts of the bones missing from each set of remains, or the reason for their absence.
Arrest of Rose West
Despite Fred's insistence that his wife held no knowledge of any of the murders, investigators suspected otherwise. Rose was arrested on 20 April 1994, initially on offences relating to the rape of an 11-year-old girl, and the physical assault of an eight-year-old boy—both charges dating from the mid-1970s. The following day, she was refused bail, and transferred to Pucklechurch Prison to be held in the maximum security wing. Here, she was questioned more closely about the murders, in particular those of her daughter Heather and Lynda Gough, and on 25 April she was formally charged with Gough's murder.
By 6 May, Fred and Rose were jointly charged with five counts of murder, with Rose simply replying, "I'm innocent" upon hearing each formal charge - a response that proved to be a theme throughout each of the 46 interviews investigators held with Rose prior to her trial.
As well as the murders of the victims exhumed from Cromwell Street, Fred had confessed to the murders of his first wife and stepdaughter, and to knowing the location of Anne McFall's remains (although he always denied killing her). Fred agreed to identify each burial location, and the remains were unearthed between 10 April and 7 June. He was then transferred to Birmingham's HM Prison Birmingham, where a strict suicide watch called for his cell to be checked every 15 minutes.
Formal charges
Fred and Rose West were brought before a magistrates' court in Gloucester on 30 June 1994; he was charged with 12 murders and she with nine. This was the first time the couple had seen each other since Fred's February arrest. Prior to hearing the formal charges against them, Fred leaned toward his wife and gently placed his hand upon her shoulder; in response, Rose—having ignored her husband's presence—visibly winced in discomfort. Both were ordered held on remand.
As police attempted to lead Fred from the hearing, he resisted their efforts, and again attempted to move towards Rose, who again winced and attempted to writhe away from his grasp.
Immediately after this court appearance, Fred was re-arrested on suspicion of murdering Anne McFall, whose body had been found on 7 June but had not been officially identified until this date; he was formally charged with McFall's murder on 3 July, appearing in court the following morning.
Diversion of culpability
As he was held on remand at HM Prison Birmingham in the months following his arrest, Fred became increasingly depressed. This became worse after Rose's public rejection of him at Gloucester Magistrates Court on 30 June, her refusal to reply to letters he sent her, and reports leaked to the press in which she (Rose) had assumed the role of a grieving mother who had lost a daughter and stepdaughter to her husband and in which she declared both her innocence of murder, and her hatred of him.
Fred pleaded with Stephen and Anna Marie (the only children to visit their father while on remand) to convey to Rose that he loved her, but Rose never acknowledged these overtures. In response, Fred withdrew his earlier confessions to having acted alone in the murders, and instead accused his wife of almost total culpability in all the murders to which he had been charged, excluding that of Anne McFall, which he claimed had been committed by his first wife.
Death
The initially strict suicide watch having been relaxed, on 1 January 1995 Fred West asphyxiated himself in his cell by wrapping an improvised rope he had constructed from a blanket and tags he had stolen from prison laundry bags around his neck, then binding this device to a door handle and window catchment, and sinking to his knees.
At the bottom of the suicide note found in his cell was a drawing of a gravestone, within which was written: "In loving memory. Fred West. Rose West. Rest in peace where no shadow falls. In perfect peace he waits for Rose, his wife."
Trial of Rose West
At pretrial proceedings in February, Rose pleaded not guilty to ten charges of murder (the murder of Charmaine West having been added to the original nine after Fred's suicide, and two counts of rape and indecent assault of young girls having been dropped with a view for later resubmission), though her counsel conceded that circumstantial evidence indicated Rose's willingness to subject young girls to sadistic physical and sexual abuse.
Her trial at Winchester Crown Court began on 3 October 1995.
An important early decision by the judge was to admit testimony related to the sexual mistreatment of three women by Fred and Rose, accepting the prosecution's argument that it established a pattern of behaviour repeated in the murders.
Prosecution
In his opening statement, prosecutor Brian Leveson portrayed the Wests as sex-obsessed sadistic murderers, terming the bodies discovered at Cromwell Street and Midland Road "secrets more terrible than words can express... [The victims'] last moments on Earth were as objects of the depravity of this woman and her husband".
He pointed out that Fred was incarcerated when Charmaine West was killed; claimed that the Wests had each learned from their mistake in allowing Caroline Owens to live (they "would never be so trusting again"); and said that the gag on victim Thérèse Siegenthaler had a "feminine" toucha scarf tied in a bow.
He promised to demonstrate Rose's controlling and sexually sadistic character and her efforts to deflect suspicion about the disappearance of their victims.
Prosecution witnesses included Cromwell Street lodgers; victims' relatives; Rose's mother Daisy and sister Glenys; and surviving victims including Anna Marie West, Kathryn Halliday (a former lover of the Wests), Caroline Owens, and a "Miss A" (who had been sexually assaulted at 14 by Fred and Rose in 1977, and who described Rose as the more aggressive perpetrator of the two). Neighbours described Charmaine's 1971 disappearance while Fred was imprisoned, and Rose's casual indifference to Heather's disappearance.
Rosemary's counsel, Richard Ferguson, tried to discredit prosecution witnesses as either having financially exploited their connection to the case, or motivated by grudges. Owens, though admitting to receiving £20,000 for her story, described her extreme survivor's guilt: "I only want to get justice for the girls who didn't make it. I feel like it was my fault."
Defence testimony
Ferguson emphasised that Fred, before meeting Rose, had committed at least one murder strikingly similar to those at issue in the present trial, and that the prosecution's case was largely circumstantial. He contended that Rose was unaware of the extent of Fred's sadism, and urged the jury to not be prejudiced by her promiscuity and domineering manner.
Against the advice of her counsel, Rose herself testified; her manner sometimes morose and tearful, sometimes upbeat and humorous. She wept while describing herself as a victim of child abuse and rape who naively married a violent and domineering man, but joked about issues such as her "always being pregnant", and laughed while describing one victim's "grandfather glasses". She also claimed never to have met six of the victims buried at Cromwell Street, and to recall very little of her assault on Caroline Owens. When shown photographs of the victims buried in the cellar and victim Alison Chambers and asked by Brian Leveson whether she recognised any of their faces, Rose's face turned bright red, and she repeatedly stuttered as she replied, "No, sir."
When questioned as to life at Cromwell Street, Rose claimed she and Fred had lived separate lives, which was inconsistent with the earlier testimony of witnesses who had visited or lodged at their address. In reference to her relationship with her eldest child, Rose admitted her relations with Heather were strained, before claiming to the court that her daughter was a lesbian who had physically and psychologically abused her siblings. Despite these allegations, Rose stated she had loved her daughter, and held no knowledge of her murder. Further questioned as to the contradictory explanations she and her husband had given as to Heather's disappearance, Rose claimed these discrepancies had stemmed from telephone conversations she had had with Heather after she had left home.
The defence next called a succession of women who claimed to have been attacked or assaulted by a lone male whose physical description matched that of Fred West between 1966 and 1975. These seven women each testified they had recognised their attacker as Fred West when his photograph appeared in the media in 1994. The intention of this testimony was to illustrate to the jury that Fred was capable of abducting, assaulting or attempting to attack women without Rose, which the prosecution had never disputed. The physical recollections of several of these women varied greatly.
The final witness to testify at Rose's trial was Fred's appointed appropriate adult, Janet Leach, whom the prosecution had called to testify on 7 November in rebuttal to the tape recordings of Fred's confession which had been played to the court on 3 November and in which he had stressed Rose had "known nothing at all" about any of the murders. Leach testified that through this role, Fred had gradually begun to view her as a confidante, and had confided in her that on the evening prior to his 25 February arrest, he and Rose had formed a pact whereby he would take full responsibility for all the murders, many of which he had privately described to her as being "some of Rose's mistakes". He had further divulged that Rose had indeed murdered Charmaine while he had been incarcerated, and had also murdered Shirley Robinson. Fred had also confided that he had dismembered the victims, and Rose had participated in the mutilation and dismemberment of Shirley Robinson, having personally removed Robinson's unborn child from her womb after her death. In reference to the remaining eight murders for which Rose was charged, Leach testified that Fred had confided Rose had "played a major part" in these murders.
Upon cross examination, Leach did concede to Richard Ferguson she had earlier lied under oath about having sold her story to a national newspaper for £100,000, although she was adamant as to the sincerity of her testimony. While delivering this testimony, Leach collapsed, and the trial was adjourned for six days. She returned to complete her cross examination on 13 November.
Conviction
After seven weeks of evidence the judge instructed the jury, emphasising that circumstantial evidence can be sufficient for a finding of guilt, and that if two people take part in a murder, the law considers them equally guilty regardless of which of them did the deed.
On 21 and 22 November, the jury returned unanimous guilty verdicts for all ten murders. Terming her crimes "appalling and depraved", the judge sentenced Rosemary to life in prison, emphasising that she should never be paroled.
Initially, Rose was incarcerated at HMP Bronzefield as a Category A prisoner; she was later transferred to HM Prison Low Newton before, in 2019, being transferred to HM Prison New Hall, where she continues to protest her innocence.
Victims
Fred and Rose West are known to have committed at least 12 murders between 1967 and 1987; many of those connected to the case believe there are several other victims whose bodies have never been found. Prior to his suicide, police had recorded over 108 hours of tape-recorded interviews with Fred, both when he had claimed to have acted alone in the commission of the murders, and when he had attempted to portray Rose as being the more culpable participant. On several occasions, Fred made cryptic hints he had claimed several other victims, but refused to divulge any further information beyond that he had murdered 15-year-old Mary Bastholm in 1968 and buried the body on farmland near Bishop's Cleeve. He also claimed to have killed one victim while working on a construction project in Birmingham, and that other bodies had been buried in Scotland and Herefordshire.
To his appropriate adult, Fred claimed there were up to 20 further victims he and his wife had killed, "not in one place but spread around", and he intended to reveal the location of one body per year to investigators.
While on remand, Fred made several admissions as to the fate of the victims buried at Cromwell Street to his son Stephen. Much of this information was disjointed or told in a third party manner; Fred claimed that he had extensively tortured the victims prior to their murder, but had not raped them, instead engaging in acts of necrophilia with their bodies at or shortly after the point of death. He also claimed the reason many phalange bones had been missing from the victims' bodies was because the removal of their fingers and toes had been one of the forms of torture the victims had endured, with other torture methods including the extraction of their nails, acts of mutilation, and cigarettes being stubbed out on their bodies. Furthermore, the locations of almost all the burial sites of victims—both discovered and undiscovered—was symbolic to Fred, as each had been buried at or very close to the location he had lived in or worked at the time of the victim's murder.
1967
July: Anne McFall, (18). McFall's remains were found on 7 June 1994 in Fingerpost Field, Much Marcle. Her body had been placed in a rectangular pit and covered with loose topsoil. She had been pregnant with a daughter, and her pregnancy had been in its eighth month.
1968
6 January: Mary Bastholm, (15). A teenage waitress at a café Fred frequented. Bastholm was abducted from a bus stop on Bristol Road, Gloucester. Fred confessed to police he had killed Bastholm after raping her in his car. She is believed to have been buried in Bishop's Cleeve. Police were unable to charge Fred with this crime as they had no evidence. Her body has never been found.
1971
c. 20 June: Charmaine West, (8). Fred's stepdaughter. Charmaine was killed by Rose shortly before Fred's release from Leyhill Prison on 24 June, likely in a fit of domestic violence. Her remains were initially stored in the cellar at Midland Road before Fred buried the child's body in the rear garden of the flat.
August: Catherine "Rena" Costello, (27). Rena is believed to have travelled to the Wests at 25 Midland Road to either enquire about or obtain custody of her two daughters in mid- to late-August 1971. It is believed Fred killed Rena to avoid any investigation into Charmaine's whereabouts. She is believed to have been strangled to death by Fred before her extensively mutilated body was buried in Letterbox Field.
1973
c. 20 April: Lynda Gough, (19). The first sexually motivated killing the Wests are known to have committed together. Gough was a lodger at 25 Cromwell Street, and shared sex partners with Rose. Following her disappearance, Gough's mother travelled to Cromwell Street to enquire as to her daughter's whereabouts, and saw Rose wearing her daughter's clothes and slippers. She was informed that Lynda had moved to find work in Weston-super-Mare. Lynda Gough's remains were buried in an inspection pit beneath the garage, which was later converted into a bathroom.
10 November: Carol Ann Cooper, (15). Cooper had been placed into care following her mother's death in 1966. She was last seen alive by her boyfriend in the suburb of Warndon boarding a bus to her grandmother's home. Fred referred to Cooper as "Scar Hand" in reference to a recent firework burn she had sustained. Cooper was the final victim unearthed from the cellar. Her skull was bound with surgical tape and her dismembered limbs bound with cord and braiding cloth.
27 December: Lucy Partington, (21). Partington was an Exeter University student and the cousin of novelist Martin Amis. She was abducted from a bus stop along the A435. Her precise date of death may have been one week after her disappearance, as Fred admitted himself into the casualty unit of the Gloucester Royal Hospital with a serious laceration of his right hand on 3 January, possibly sustained as he dismembered Partington's body. Her body was discovered in the Cromwell Street cellar on 6 March 1994.
1974
16 April: Thérèse Siegenthaler, (21). A sociology student at Greenwich Community College. Siegenthaler was abducted by the Wests as she hitchhiked from South London to Holyhead. Fred mistook her Swiss accent to be a Dutch one, and always referred to her as either "the Dutch girl" or "Tulip". She was reported missing to Scotland Yard by her family in Switzerland when communication from their daughter ceased. Fred later further concealed Siegenthaler's remains by building a false chimney breast on her grave.
15 November: Shirley Hubbard, (15). A foster child abducted from a Droitwich bus stop close to the River Severn as she travelled home from a date. Aged 15 when murdered, Hubbard had been attending work experience in Worcester, and was last seen by her boyfriend, having promised to meet him the next day. Hubbard's dismembered remains were found in a section of the cellar known to the family as the "Marilyn Monroe area". Her head had been completely covered in tape, with a one-eighth-of-an-inch diameter rubber tube inserted three inches into her nasal cavity to enable her to breathe.
1975
12 April: Juanita Mott, (18). Mott had been a former lodger at 25 Cromwell Street, but was living with a family friend in Newent when she disappeared. Mott is believed to have been abducted by the Wests as she hitchhiked along the B4215. In his subsequent confessions to police, Fred would refer to Mott as "the girl from Newent".
1978
10 May: Shirley Robinson, (18). Another former lodger at 25 Cromwell Street, Robinson was bisexual and engaged in casual sex with Fred and Rose. At the time of her disappearance, she had been eight months pregnant with Fred's child, and her baby boy had been due to be born on 11 June. No sexual motive existed for this murder, and the prosecution contended at Rose's trial that Robinson had been murdered as her pregnancy threatened the stability of the Wests' relationship. Fred had originally planned to sell their baby to a childless couple and had photographs taken with Robinson for this purpose.
1979
5 August: Alison Chambers, (16). Chambers had been placed into foster care at the age of 14, and had repeatedly absconded from Jordan's Brook House. She became acquainted with the Wests in mid-1979, and Fred later claimed to his solicitor that Chambers had died as a result of Rose becoming "too bloody vicious" with her. Her dismembered body, missing several bones and with a leather belt looped beneath her jaw and tied at the top of her head, was buried in the garden of Cromwell Street. This was the final murder where a definite sexual motive was established.
1987
19 June: Heather West, (16). Heather was likely to have been murdered because Fred and Rose considered her efforts to leave the household as a threat, as she divulged to her classmates the extensive physical and sexual abuse which occurred at Cromwell Street. Fred claimed he had not intended to kill his daughter, but carpet fibres found on two lengths of rope, discovered with her remains, suggested that she had been restrained and subjected to a sexual assault prior to her murder. Her body was dismembered with a heavy serrated knife and later buried in a hole in the garden which Fred had his son dig, under the pretence of installing a fish pond. The 1994 police investigation into Heather's disappearance led to the discovery of her body, and the arrest of both her parents.
Footnotes
As well as the 12 confirmed victims, police firmly believe Fred is also responsible for the 1968 disappearance of 15-year-old Mary Bastholm, but to date no body has been found. West's son, Stephen, has said he firmly believes the missing teenager was an early victim of his father, as Fred had openly boasted of having committed Bastholm's murder while on remand.
In May 2021, police announced their intentions to excavate the grounds of a café in Gloucester after receiving information that the body of Mary Bastholm may have been buried at this location. This search yielded no human remains. At the time of her disappearance, Bastholm worked at this café and Fred is known to have frequented the premises. Furthermore, he is known to have conducted repair work on the drains of this café in late 1967.
No forensic evidence linked Fred to the murder of Anne McFall, and he always denied killing her. However, her body had been extensively dismembered, and was missing several phalange bones. Furthermore, the cubic dimensions of the grave in which her body was buried match the modus operandi of Fred's later murders.
Possible additional victims
Police firmly believe the Wests were responsible for further unsolved murders and disappearances. They believed they committed ten murders between 1971 and 1979, at least seven of which were for sexual purposes. Following the rash of murders between 1973 and 1975, Fred and Rose are not known to have committed any murders until 1978. They committed one further murder in 1979, followed by an eight-year lull until they murdered their daughter in 1987. Police do not know of any further murders they committed before their 1994 arrest.
During interview, Fred confessed to murdering up to 30 people, indicating up to 18 other undiscovered victims.
Fred's remarkably relaxed, emotionally sterile attitude towards all aspects of his crimes startled many members of the enquiry team. This prompted Superintendent John Bennett to seek the assistance of a criminal psychologist for an expert opinion on Fred's state of mind. After analysing Fred's behaviour throughout the extensive 1994 interviews, psychologist Paul Britton advised Superintendent Bennett that Fred's blasé manner indicated he had committed so many offences over such a long period that he was now indifferent to the acts of torture, mutilation and murder. Britton added that although an offender of this nature may come to offend less frequently, he would be unlikely to cease killing altogether.
One theory which may explain the sudden lull in the frequency of their murders is the fact that by the mid-1970s, the Wests had begun a practice of befriending teenage girls from nearby care homes, many of whom they sexually abused, with others encouraged to engage in prostitution within their home. The Wests established acquaintances—including several of their lodgers—willing to partake in their shared fetishes, which may have satiated the couple to a degree.
Caroline Owens, Anna Marie West, and several other survivors of sexual assaults at the Wests' hands each testified at Rose's trial that she had been by far the more calculating, aggressive and controlling of the two. Owens stated that, at one stage in her ordeal, Fred said that they had abducted Owens primarily for Rose's gratification. It is possible Rose's increasing family size, plus the fact she and her husband had, by the mid-1970s, begun seeking avenues to exploit girls from care homes in addition to acquiring contacts—willing or unwilling—to submit to their fetishes, may have led Fred and Rose to decide that these avenues of control and domination were sufficient for their satisfaction.
Four young women similar in age and physical characteristics to those Fred was later charged with murdering in Gloucestershire are known to have disappeared during the time Fred lived in Glasgow—one of whom, Margaret McAvoy, Fred had been acquainted with via his employment as an ice cream van driver. He had also rented a garden allotment adjacent to his house and which he frequently visited, although only a small section of this plot was ever cultivated. To one neighbour, Fred remarked that he used the remainder for "something special", about which he refused to elaborate. Much of the supposed cultivation of this allotment occurred in the early hours of the morning.
Police were unable to investigate whether any further bodies were buried at this location, as these allotments were built over in the 1970s as a section of the M8 motorway.
Aftermath
Fred's body was cremated in Coventry on 29 March 1995 in a funeral that was attended by just four of his children. In a five-minute service, in which no hymns were sung, the Reverend Robert Simpson quoted sections of Psalm 23, then added a solemn reminder to those present that they must "also remember everyone else who has also suffered because of these tragic events". His ashes are believed to have been scattered at the Welsh seaside resort of Barry Island, a location he had regularly visited both as a child and as an adult with his family.
After the 1994 arrest of their parents, the four youngest West children (born between 1978 and 1983), were given new identities to protect them from the notoriety of their family. Each child remained in foster care.
The remains of Charmaine and Rena were cremated in Kettering. At the insistence of Anna Marie West, mother and daughter shared the same coffin, and no roses were to be brought to the service by any mourners.
As a direct result of her tenacity in investigating the Wests, DC Hazel Savage was placed upon the annual New Year's honours list. The following year, she was awarded an MBE.
Fred's younger brother, John, hanged himself in the garage of his Gloucester home in November 1996. At the time of his suicide, he had been awaiting the jury verdict in his trial for the alleged multiple rapes of his niece, Anna Marie, at Cromwell Street in the 1970s.
In March 1996, Rose announced her intentions to appeal against her sentence, contending extensive press coverage had rendered witness testimony unreliable, that no physical evidence existed to attest she had participated in any of the murders, that the final instructions delivered by the judge to the jury had been biased in favour of the prosecution, and that undue weight had been given to the similar fact evidence introduced at her trial. This appeal was rejected by Lord Chief Justice Taylor, who contended Rose had received a fair trial and efficient legal representation. In July 1997, then-Home Secretary Jack Straw subjected Rose to a whole life tariff, effectively denying her any possibility of parole. Rose again announced that she would appeal against her sentence via her solicitor Leo Goatley in October 2000; in September 2001, she announced her intentions to cancel her appeals, stating she would never feel free even if released. She maintains her innocence in any of the murders.
Both of Rose's oldest biological children and her stepdaughter, Anna Marie, initially visited her in prison on a regular basis, although by 2006, she had ceased contact with them after Mae began asking questions about her culpability in the murders. Rose justified her decision with the explanation: "I was never a parent [then] and could never be now." The sole visitor Rose continues to receive in prison is Anna Marie, who later changed her name to Anne Marie.
The body of the Wests' former friend and housemate, Terrence Crick, was found in his car in the Scarborough district of Hackness in January 1996. He was 48 years old. Crick had become acquainted with Fred while he had lived at the Lake House Caravan Park in 1969; he had reported Fred to the authorities on several occasions after having been shown surgical instruments Fred claimed to have used to perform illegal abortions, and Polaroid images of the subjects' genitals he claimed to have taken immediately after the procedures. Crick had further informed authorities Fred had asked him to assist in finding pregnant girls to perform abortions upon.
Crick had believed the information he had provided to police was ignored as Fred was a known police informant. The stress and guilt Crick had felt over the fact the information he had provided had not resulted in charges being brought apparently led him to take his own life. An inquest later recorded a verdict of suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning.
In 2004, one of the Wests' youngest children, Barry, claimed to have witnessed the murder of his sister Heather. According to Barry (who was seven at the time), Fred and Rose had restrained, then sexually and physically abused Heather, before Rose had repeatedly stamped upon her head until she ceased to move.
The Wests' house in Cromwell Street was demolished in October 1996, with every piece of debris destroyed to discourage potential souvenir hunters. It had been referred to in the press as the "House of Horrors". The site was later redeveloped into a public pathway.
In 1999, Anna Marie West attempted suicide by drowning herself in the River Severn. Stephen West is also known to have made a suicide attempt in 2002, by attempting to hang himself. In 2004, he was jailed for nine months for having unlawful sex with a 14-year-old girl on multiple occasions. The couple's youngest son, Barry, took his own life via a suspected drug overdose in October 2020 at the age of 40. He is known to have battled a drug addiction and psychiatric problems as a result of the abuse he witnessed and endured as a child.
Television
Channel 5 commissioned a three-part documentary series about the murders. The series, entitled Fred and Rose: The West Murders, was first broadcast in October 2001. This series includes extensive archive footage, interviews and imagery pertaining to the case. The series was screened a second time in 2014.
Discovery Networks Europe commissioned a documentary focusing on the West Murders as part of their Crimes that Shook the World series. Entitled Crimes that Shook the World: The Wests, this documentary was released in 2006 and is narrated by Tim Pigott-Smith.
The two-part crime drama television mini-series, Appropriate Adult, was screened in September 2011. Commissioned by ITV and directed by Julian Jarrold, Appropriate Adult concerns the role of Janet Leach, the woman asked by police to sit in interviews with Fred West as his appropriate adult.
A second documentary commissioned by Channel 5 about the West murders, When Fred met Rose, was screened in November 2014. This documentary includes interviews with family members of Fred West, and survivors of the couple's assaults.
The ITV documentary Fred and Rose West: The Real Story, narrated by Trevor McDonald, was scheduled for broadcast in the UK on 31 January 2019, although broadcasting of this documentary was postponed for what has been described as "legal reasons". The documentary was broadcast on 21 February 2019.
See also
List of murderers by number of victims
List of prisoners with whole-life tariffs
Notes
References
Cited works and further reading
External links
Crime & Investigation article upon Fred and Rose West
Detailed police report pertaining to the police enquiry into the West murders
The West Murders: A website transcribing a documentary pertaining to the murders committed by Fred and Rose West, first screened by Channel 5 in 2001
1996 City Journal article detailing the West murders
2016 BBC News article exploring the possibility of the Wests' link to wider sex abuse circles
1941 births
1995 deaths
1995 suicides
20th-century English criminals
British people convicted of theft
Crime in Gloucester
Criminal duos
Criminals from Herefordshire
English murderers of children
English people convicted of child sexual abuse
English people convicted of indecent assault
English people who died in prison custody
English rapists
English serial killers
Female murder victims
Filicides in England
Incest
Male serial killers
Murder in England
People from Gloucester
Prisoners who died in England and Wales detention
Rape in England
Serial killers who committed suicide in prison custody
Suicides by asphyxiation
Suicides by hanging in England
Torture in England
Violence against women in England
1967 murders in the United Kingdom
1968 murders in the United Kingdom
1971 murders in the United Kingdom
1973 murders in the United Kingdom
1974 murders in the United Kingdom
1975 murders in the United Kingdom
1978 murders in the United Kingdom
1979 murders in the United Kingdom
1987 murders in the United Kingdom
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200823
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collision%20domain
|
Collision domain
|
A collision domain is a network segment connected by a shared medium or through repeaters where simultaneous data transmissions collide with one another. The collision domain applies particularly in wireless networks, but also affected early versions of Ethernet. A network collision occurs when more than one device attempts to send a packet on a network segment at the same time. Members of a collision domain may be involved in collisions with one another. Devices outside the collision domain do not have collisions with those inside.
Only one device in the collision domain may transmit at any one time, and the other devices in the domain listen to the network and refrain from transmitting while others are already transmitting in order to avoid collisions. Because only one device may be transmitting at any one time, total network bandwidth is shared among all devices on the collision domain. Collisions also decrease network efficiency on a collision domain as collisions require devices to abort transmission and retransmit at a later time.
Since data bits are propagated at a finite speed, simultaneously is to be defined in terms of the size of the collision domain and the minimum packet size allowed. A smaller packet size or a larger dimension would make it possible for a sender to finish sending the packet without the first bits of the message being able to reach the most remote node. So, that node could start sending as well, without a clue to the transmission already taking place and destroying the first packet. Unless the size of the collision domain allows the initial sender to receive the second transmission attempt – the collision – within the time it takes to send the packet, he would neither be able to detect the collision nor to repeat the transmission – this is called a late collision.
Ethernet
On Ethernet using shared media, collisions are resolved using carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) in which the competing packets are discarded and re-sent one at a time. This becomes a source of inefficiency in the network.
Early Ethernet variants (10BASE5, 10BASE2) were based on a shared wire and inherently half-duplex, representing a single, potentially large collision domain. Collision domains are also found in an Ethernet hub or repeater environment where each host segment connects to a hub, and all segments represent only one collision domain within one broadcast domain. Collision domains are also found in other shared medium networks, e. g. wireless networks such as Wi-Fi.
Modern wired networks use a network switch to reduce or eliminate collisions. By connecting each device directly to a port on the switch, either each port on a switch becomes its own collision domain (in the case of half-duplex links), or the possibility of collisions is eliminated entirely in the case of full-duplex links. For Gigabit Ethernet and faster, no hubs or repeaters exist and all devices require full-duplex links.
Wireless networks
Most wireless LAN networks use the carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) method. In addition to the requirements of a shared wire medium, wireless networks add the hidden node problem where two senders can't hear each other's transmissions, but they cause a collision at the receiver between them. Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless is one such approach used and specifically in 802.11 RTS/CTS. A central coordination is another means of solving this problem for a collision domain. This technique is employed by Wireless Multimedia Extensions. Point coordination function and distributed coordination function are specific implementations.
See also
Channel access method
References
External links
Collision domain explained
Network architecture
Ethernet
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BHP
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BHP
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BHP, formerly known as BHP Billiton, is the trading entity of BHP Group Limited and BHP Group plc, an Anglo-Australian multinational mining, metals and petroleum public company headquartered in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
The Broken Hill Proprietary Company was founded on 16 July 1885 in the mining town of Silverton, New South Wales. By 2017, BHP was the world's largest mining company, based on market capitalisation, and was Melbourne's third-largest company by revenue.
BHP Billiton was formed in 2001 through the merger of the Australian Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited (BHP) and the Anglo–Dutch Billiton plc. The company is listed on the Australian Securities Exchange and is one of the largest companies in Australia by market capitalisation.
In 2015, some BHP Billiton assets were demerged and rebranded as South32, while a scaled-down BHP Billiton became BHP. In 2018, BHP Billiton Limited and BHP Billiton Plc became BHP Group Limited and BHP Group Plc, respectively. In the 2020 Forbes Global 2000, BHP Group was ranked as the 93rd-largest public company in the world.
History
Billiton
Billiton Maatschappij was founded 29 September 1860, when its articles of association were approved by a meeting of shareholders in the Groot Keizershof hotel in The Hague, Netherlands. Two months later, the company acquired mineral rights to the Billiton (Belitung) and Bangka Islands in the Netherlands Indies archipelago off the eastern coast of Sumatra.
Billiton's initial ventures included tin and lead smelting in the Netherlands, followed in the 1940s by bauxite mining in Indonesia and Suriname. In 1970, Shell acquired Billiton. Billiton opened a tin smelting and refining plant in Phuket, Thailand, named Thaisarco (for Thailand Smelting And Refining Company, Limited).
In 1994, South Africa's Gencor acquired the mining division of Billiton excluding the downstream metal division. Billiton was divested from Gencor in 1997, and was amalgamated with Gold Fields in 1998. In 1997, Billiton plc became a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index and in 2001 Billiton plc merged with the Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited (BHP) to form BHP Billiton.
Broken Hill Proprietary Company
The Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited (BHP), also known by the nickname "the Big Australian", was incorporated on 13 August 1885, operating the silver and lead mine at Broken Hill, in western New South Wales, Australia. The Broken Hill group floated on 10 August 1885. The first consignment of Broken Hill ore (48 tons, 5 cwt, 3grs) was smelted at the Intercolonial Smelting and Refining Company's works at Spotswood, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne. Historian Christopher Jay notes:
The resulting 35,605 ounces of silver raised a lot of interest when exhibited at the City of Melbourne Bank in Collins Street Some sceptics asserted the promoters were merely using silver from somewhere else, to ramp up the shares.... Another shareholder, the dominating W. R. Wilson had had to lend William Jamieson, General Manager, a new suit so he could take the first prospectus, printed at Silverton near Broken Hill on 20 June 1885, to Adelaide to start the float process.
The geographic Broken Hill, for which the town was named, was discovered and named by Captain Charles Sturt, stirring great interest among prospectors. Nothing of note was discovered until 5 November 1883, when Charles Rasp, boundary rider for the surrounding Mount Gipps Station, pegged out a 40-acre claim with contractors David James and James Poole.
Together with a half-dozen backers, including station manager George McCulloch (a young cousin of Victorian Premier Sir James McCulloch), Rasp formed the Broken Hill Company staking out the entire Hill. As costs mounted during the ensuing months of fruitless search, three of the original seven (now remembered as the Syndicate of Seven) sold their shares, so that, on the eve of the company's great success, there were nine shareholders, including Rasp, McCulloch, Philip Charly (aka Charley), David James, James Poole (five of the original syndicate of seven, which had previously included George Urquhart and G.A.M. Lind), Bowes Kelly, W. R. Wilson, and William Jamieson (who'd bought shares from several of the founders).
John Darling, Jr. became a director of the company in 1892 and was chairman of directors from 1907 to 1914.
Strongly encouraged by the New South Wales Minister for Public Works, Arthur Hill Griffith, in 1915, the company ventured into steel manufacturing, with its operations based primarily in Newcastle, New South Wales. The decision to move from mining ore at Broken Hill to opening a steelworks at Newcastle was due to the technical limitations in recovering value from mining the lower-lying sulphide ores. The discovery of Iron Knob and Iron Monarch near the western shore of the Spencer Gulf in South Australia, combined with the refinement, by BHP metallurgists A. D. Carmichael and Leslie Bradford, of the froth flotation technique for separating zinc sulphides from the accompanying gangue and subsequent conversion (Carmichael–Bradford process) to oxides of the metal, allowed BHP to economically extract valuable metals from the heaps of tailings up to high at the mine site. In 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy targeted the BHP steelworks during the largely unsuccessful shelling of Newcastle.
Newcastle operations were closed in 1999, and a 70-ton commemorative sculpture, The Muster Point, was installed on Industrial Drive, in the suburb of Mayfield, New South Wales. The long products side of the steel business was spun off to form OneSteel in 2000.
In the 1950s, BHP began petroleum exploration, which became an increasing focus following oil and natural gas discoveries in Bass Strait in the 1960s.
BHP began to diversify into a variety of mining projects overseas. Those included the Ok Tedi copper mine in Papua New Guinea, where the company was successfully sued by the indigenous inhabitants because of the environmental degradation caused by mining operations. BHP had better success with the giant Escondida copper mine in Chile, of which it owns 57.5%, and at the Ekati Diamond Mine in northern Canada, which BHP contracted for in 1996, began mining in 1998, and sold its 80% stake in to Dominion Diamond Corporation in 2013 as production declined.
BHP Billiton
In 2001, BHP merged with the Billiton mining company to form BHP Billiton. In 2002, flat steel products were demerged to form the publicly traded company BHP Steel which, in 2003, became BlueScope Steel.
In March 2005, BHP Billiton announced a US$7.3 billion agreed bid for WMC Resources, owners of the Olympic Dam copper, gold and uranium mine in South Australia, nickel operations in Western Australia and Queensland, and a Queensland fertiliser plant. The takeover achieved 90 per cent acceptance on 17 June 2005, and 100 per cent ownership was announced on 2 August 2005, achieved through compulsory acquisition of the remaining 10 percent of the shares.
On 8 November 2007, BHP Billiton announced it was seeking to purchase rival mining group Rio Tinto Group in an all-share deal. The initial offer of 3.4 shares of BHP Billiton stock for each share of Rio Tinto was rejected by the board of Rio Tinto for "significantly undervaluing" the company. It was unknown at the time whether BHP Billiton would attempt to purchase Rio Tinto through some form of hostile takeover. A formal hostile bid of 3.4 BHP Billiton shares for each Rio Tinto share was announced on 6 February 2008; The bid was withdrawn 25 November 2008 due to global recession.
On 14 May 2008, BHP Billiton shares rose to a record high of A$48.90 following speculation that Chinese mining firm Chinalco was considering purchasing a large stake.
As global nickel prices fell, on 25 November 2008, Billiton announced that it would drop its A$66 billion takeover of rival Rio Tinto Group, stating that the "risks to shareholder value" would "increase" to "an unacceptable level" due to the global financial crisis.
On 21 January 2009, BHP Billiton then announced that Ravensthorpe Nickel Mine in Western Australia would cease operations, ending shipments of ore from Ravensthorpe to the Yabulu nickel plant in Queensland Australia. Yabulu refinery was subsequently sold to Queensland billionaire Clive Palmer, becoming the Palmer Nickel and Cobalt Refinery. Pinto Valley mine in the United States was also closed. Mine closures and general scaling back during the global financial crisis accounted for 6,000 employee lay offs.
As the nickel market became saturated by both spiraling economics and cheaper extraction methods; on 9 December 2009, BHP Billiton sold its Ravensthorpe Nickel Mine, which had cost A$2.4 billion to build, to Vancouver-based First Quantum Minerals for US$340 million. First Quantum, a Canadian company, was one of three bidders for the mine, tendering the lowest offer, and returned the mine to production in 2011. Ravensthorpe cost BHP US$3.6 billion in write-downs when it was shut in January 2009 after less than a year of production.
In January 2010, following the BHP Billiton purchase of Athabasca Potash for US$320m, The Economist reported that, by 2020, BHP Billiton could produce approximately 15 per cent of the world demand for potash.
In August 2010, BHP Billiton made a hostile takeover bid worth US$40 billion for PotashCorp. The bid came after BHP's first bid, made on 17 August, was rejected as being undervalued. This acquisition marked a major strategic move by BHP outside hard commodities and commenced the diversification of its business away from resources with high exposure to carbon price risk, like coal, petroleum and iron ore. The takeover bid was opposed by the Government of Saskatchewan under Premier Brad Wall. On 3 November, Canadian Industry Minister Tony Clement announced the preliminary rejection of the deal under the Investment Canada Act, giving BHP Billiton 30 days to refine their deal before a final decision was made; BHP withdrew its offer on 14 November 2010.
On 22 February 2011, BHP Billiton announced that it had paid $4.75 billion in cash to Chesapeake Energy for its Fayetteville shale assets, which include of mineral rights leases and of pipeline located in north central Arkansas. The wells on the mineral leases are currently producing about 415 million cubic feet of natural gas per day. BHP Billiton planned to spend $800 million to $1 billion a year over 10 years to develop the field and triple production.
On 14 July 2011, BHP Billiton announced that it would acquire Petrohawk Energy of the United States for approximately $12.1 billion in cash, considerably expanding its shale natural gas resources in an offer of $US38.75 per share.
On 22 August 2012, BHP Billiton announced that it was delaying its US$20 billion (£12 billion) Olympic Dam copper mine expansion project in South Australia to study less capital intensive options, deferring its dual harbour strategy at West Australian Iron Ore and slowing down its Potash growth option in Canada. The company simultaneously announced a freeze on approving any major new expansion projects.
Days after announcing the Olympic Dam pull-out, BHP Billiton announced that it was selling its Yeelirrie Uranium Project to Canadian Cameco for a fee of around $430 million. The sale was part of a broader move to step away from resource expansion in Australia.
On 19 August 2014, BHP Billiton announced it would create an independent global metals and mining company based on a selection of its aluminium, coal, manganese, nickel, and silver assets. The newly formed entity, named South32, was subsequently demerged with listings on the Australian Securities Exchange the JSE and the London Stock Exchange.
In 2015, BHP Billiton spun off a number of its subsidiaries in South Africa and Southern Africa to form a new company known as South32.
BHP Billiton agreed to pay a fine of $25 million to the United States Securities and Exchange Commission in 2015 in connection with violations of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act related to its "hospitality program" at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. BHP Billiton invited 176 government and state-owned-enterprise officials to attend the Games on an all-expenses-paid package. While BHP Billiton claimed to have compliance processes in place to avoid conflicts of interest, the SEC found that BHP Billiton had invited officials from at least four countries where BHP Billiton had interests in influencing the officials' decisions (Congo, Guinea, Philippines and Burundi).
In August 2016, BHP Billiton recorded its worst annual loss in history, $6.4 billion.
Towards the end of 2016 BHP Billiton indicated it would expand its petroleum business and make new investments in the sector.
In February 2017, BHP Billiton announced a $2.2 billion investment in the new BP platform in the Gulf of Mexico. During the same year, as part of their plan to increase productivity at the Escondida mine in Chile, which is the world's biggest copper mine, BHP Billiton attempted to get workers to accept a 4-year pay freeze, a 66% reduction in the end-of-conflict bonus offering, and increased shift flexibility. This resulted in a major workers' strike and forced the company to declare force majeure on two shipments, which drove copper prices up by 4%.
In April 2017 activist hedge fund manager Elliott Advisors proposed a plan for BHP Billiton to spin off its American petroleum assets and significantly restructure the business, including the scrapping of its dual Sydney-London listing, suggesting shares be offered only in the United Kingdom, while leaving its headquarters and tax residences in Australia where shares would trade as depository instruments. At the time of the correspondence Elliott held about 4.1 per cent of the issued shares in London-listed BHP Billiton plc, worth $3.81 billion. Australia's government warned it would block moves to shift BHP Billiton's stock listing from Australia to the United Kingdom. Australian Treasurer Scott Morrison said the move would be contrary to the country's national interest and would breach government orders mandating a listing on the Australian Securities Exchange. BHP Billiton dismissed the plan saying the costs and risks of Elliott's proposal outweighed any potential benefits.
BHP
In May 2017, with much of the former Billiton assets having been disposed of, BHP Billiton began to rebrand itself as BHP, at first in Australia and then globally. It replaced the slogan "The Big Australian" with "Think Big", with an advertising campaign rolling out in mid May 2017. Work on the change began in late 2015 according to BHP's chief external affairs officer.
In August 2017, BHP announced that it would sell off its US shale oil and gas business. In July 2018, the company agreed to sell its shale assets to BP for $10.5 billion. BHP indicated its intention to return funds to investors. On 29 September 2018, BHP completed the sale of its Fayetteville Onshore US gas assets to a wholly owned subsidiary of Merit Energy Company.
In August 2021, BHP announced plans to exit the oil and gas industry by merging its hydrocarbon business with Woodside Petroleum, Australia's largest independent gas producer. It also announced its intention to delist from the London Stock Exchange and consolidate on the Australian Securities Exchange and, in January 2022, the company moved its main stock listing to the Australian Securities Exchange.
Corporation
BHP is a dual-listed company; the Australian BHP Billiton Limited and the British BHP Billiton plc are separately listed with separate shareholder bodies, while conducting business as one operation with identical boards of directors and a single management structure. The headquarters of BHP Billiton Limited and the global headquarters of the combined group are located in Melbourne, Australia. The headquarters of BHP Billiton plc are located in London, England. Its main office locations are in Australia, the U.S., Canada, the UK, Chile, Malaysia, and Singapore.
The company's shares trade on the following exchanges:
BHP Billiton Limited and BHP Billiton plc were renamed BHP Group Limited and BHP Group plc, respectively, on 19 November 2018.
Senior management
In 1998, BHP hired American Paul Anderson to restructure the company. Anderson successfully completed the four-year project with a merger between BHP and London-based Billiton. In July 2002, Brian Gilbertson of Billiton was appointed CEO, but resigned after just six months, citing irreconcilable differences with the board.
Upon Gilbertson's departure in early 2003, Chip Goodyear was appointed the new CEO, increasing sales by 47 percent and profits by 78 percent during his tenure. Goodyear retired on 30 September 2007. Marius Kloppers was Goodyear's successor. Following Kloppers' tenure, Andrew Mackenzie, chief executive of Non-Ferrous, assumed the role of CEO in 2013. Australia mining head Mike Henry succeeded Mackenzie on 1 January 2020.
Operations
BHP has mining operations in Australia, North America, and South America, and petroleum operations in the U.S., Australia, Trinidad and Tobago, the UK, and Algeria.
The company has four primary operational units:
Coal
Copper
Iron ore
Petroleum
The company's mines are as follows:
Algeria
Ohanet gas field
ROD gas field
Australia
New South Wales
Mount Arthur Coal mine
Queensland
Blackwater Mine (50%) BHP Mitsubishi Alliance
Broadmeadow (50%) BHP Mitsubishi Alliance
Goonyella (50%) BHP Mitsubishi Alliance
Hay Point
Peak Downs (50%) BHP Mitsubishi Alliance
Poitrel Metallurgical Coal Mine (Jointly owned with Mitsui)
Saraji (50%) BHP Mitsubishi Alliance
South Australia
Olympic Dam
Victoria
Bass Strait (50%)
Minerva offshore (90%)
Western Australia
Area C mine
Eastern Range mine
Jimblebar mine
Kalgoorlie
Kambalda
Kwinana
Leinster
Mount Keith
Mount Whaleback
Nickel West operations
Nimingarra Iron Ore Mine, Jointly owned with Itochu and Mitsubishi)
North West Shelf Venture, (16.67% LNG phase, 8.33% domestic gas phase.)
Orebodies 18, 23 and 25 mine
Port Hedland
Yandi mine
Yarrie mine
Brazil
Samarco: a joint-venture with Vale (50% ownership each). The project led to the worst environmental disaster in the history of mining in Brazil: the collapse of two iron ore tailings dams in Bento Rodrigues, a subdistrict of Mariana.
Canada
Jansen potash development project, Saskatchewan
Chile
Minera Escondida Copper, gold and silver mine jointly owned with Rio Tinto Group and Pan Pacific Copper
Cerro Colorado
Spence
Colombia
Cerrejón coal mine in Guajira department (33.3%)
Mexico
Trion
Peru
Antamina
Trinidad & Tobago
Angostura & Ruby oil and gas fields
United States
Gulf of Mexico, oil and gas field (Shenzi field)
Resolution Copper, near Superior, Arizona
Controversies
Responsibility for climate damage
BHP is listed as one of the 90 fossil fuel extraction and marketing companies responsible for two-thirds of global greenhouse gas emissions since the beginning of the industrial age. Its cumulative emissions as of 2010 have been estimated at 7,606 Mte, representing 0.52% of global industrial emissions between 1751 and 2010, ranking it the 19th-largest corporate polluter. According to BHP management 10% of these emissions are from direct operations, while 90% come from products sold by the company. BHP has been voluntarily reporting its direct GHG emissions since 1996. In 2013, it was criticised for lobbying against carbon pricing in Australia.
BHP reported total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 30 June 2020 at 15,800 Kt.
Ok Tedi environmental disaster
The Ok Tedi environmental disaster caused severe harm to the environment along the Ok Tedi River and the Fly River in the Western Province of Papua New Guinea between around 1984 and 2013. In 1999, BHP reported that 90 million tons of mine waste was annually discharged into the river for more than ten years and destroyed downstream villages, agriculture and fisheries. Mine wastes were deposited along of the Ok Tedi and the Fly River below its confluence with the Ok Tedi, and over an area of . BHP's CEO, Paul Anderson, said that the Ok Tedi Mine was "not compatible with our environmental values and the company should never have become involved." , mine operators continued to discharge 80 million tons of tailings, overburden, and mine-induced erosion into the river system each year. About of forest has died or is under stress. As many as may eventually be harmed.
In the 1990s the communities of the lower Fly Region, including the Yonggom people, sued BHP and received US$28.6 million in an out-of-court settlement, which was the culmination of an enormous public-relations campaign against the company by environmental groups. As part of the settlement, a (limited) dredging operation was put in place and efforts were made to rehabilitate the site around the mine. However, the mine is still in operation and waste continues to flow into the river system. BHP was granted legal indemnity from future mine related damages. Experts predict that it will take 300 years to clean up the toxic contamination.
Bento Rodrigues dam collapse
In 2015, the company was involved in the Bento Rodrigues tailings dam collapse, the worst environmental disaster in the history of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. On 5 November 2015, an iron ore mine tailings dam near Mariana, south-eastern Brazil, owned and operated by Samarco, a subsidiary of BHP and Vale, suffered a catastrophic failure, devastating the nearby town of Bento Rodrigues with the mudflow, killing 19 people, injuring more than 50 and causing enormous ecological damage, and threatening life along the Rio Doce and the Atlantic Ocean near the mouth of the Rio Doce. The accident was one of the biggest environmental disasters in Brazil's history.
An investigation into the disaster commissioned by BHP, Vale and Samarco found the collapse was due to a variety of construction and design flaws. In June 2018, Samarco, Vale and BHP signed an agreement to drop a US$7 billion lawsuit and allow two years for the companies to address the greater US$55 billion suit seeking social, environmental and economic compensation.
Sexual harassment
From 2019 to 2021, BHP registered six cases of sexual assault and seventy three cases of sexual harassment. A survey of 425 workers conducted by The Western Mine Workers' Alliance, showed that two-thirds of female respondents had experienced verbal sexual harassment while working in the FIFO mining industry, with 36% of women and 10% of men having experienced some form of harassment in the last 12 months. In response, BHP terminated or otherwise permanently removed forty eight workers from its sites.
Other significant accidents
Bad weather caused a BHP Billiton helicopter to crash in Angola on 16 November 2007, killing the helicopter's five passengers. The deceased were: BHP Billiton Angola Chief Operating Officer David Hopgood (Australian), Angola Technical Services Operations Manager Kevin Ayre (British), Wild Dog Helicopters pilot Kottie Breedt (South African), Guy Sommerfield (British) of MMC and Louwrens Prinsloo (Namibian) of Prinsloo Drilling. The helicopter crashed approximately from the Alto Cuilo diamond exploration camp in Lunda Norte, northeastern Angola. BHP Billiton responded by suspending operations in the country.
See also
Mining in Australia
References
External links
Mining companies of Australia
Coal companies of Australia
Iron ore mining companies
Nickel mining companies
Uranium mining companies of Australia
Non-renewable resource companies established in 1885
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
Dual-listed companies
Conglomerate companies of the United Kingdom
Broken Hill, New South Wales
Companies based in Melbourne
Economy of Western Australia
Companies listed on the Australian Securities Exchange
Mining in South Australia
1885 establishments in Australia
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] |
200827
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boileau
|
Boileau
|
Boileau can refer to:
Persons
Alexander Boileau, an early surveyor, census administrator and agent of the East India Company
Arthur Boileau (born 1957), Canadian Olympic distance runner
Boileau baronets, a title in the Baronetage of Tacolneston Hall in the County of Norfolk, United Kingdom
Boileau-Narcejac, pen name of Pierre Boileau and Pierre Ayraud, also known as Thomas Narcejac, French writers of police stories
Emmanuel Boileau de Castelnau (1857–1923), French mountain climber
George Theodore Boileau, American Roman Catholic bishop
John Theophilus Boileau (1805–1886), British army engineer
Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux (1636–1711), 17th century French writer
Places
Boileau, Quebec, Canada
Other
Boileau premetro station, a premetro station in the Etterbeek municipality of Brussels
|
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200835
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernice%20Rubens
|
Bernice Rubens
|
Bernice Rubens (26 July 1923 – 13 October 2004) was a Booker Prize-winning Welsh novelist.She became the first woman to win the Booker Prize in 1970, for The Elected Member.
Personal history
Bernice Ruth Reuben was born in Splott, Cardiff on 26 July 1923, the third of four children of Eli Reuben and his wife Dorothy, . Her father was a Lithuanian Jew who, at the age of 16, left mainland Europe in 1900 in the hope of starting a new life in New York City. Due to being swindled by a ticket tout, he never reached America, his passage taking him no further than Cardiff. He decided to stay in Wales, and there he met and married Dorothy Cohen, whose Polish family had also emigrated to Cardiff. Bernice was one of four children and came from a musical family, both her brothers, Harold and Cyril, becoming well-known classical musicians. Harold was forced to quit playing through illness, but Cyril became a violinist in the London Symphony Orchestra. Bernice failed to follow in her family's musical tradition, though she would later learn the cello. She was educated at Cardiff High School for Girls and later read English at the University of Wales, Cardiff, where she was awarded her BA in 1947.
She married Rudi Nassbauer, a wine merchant who also wrote poetry and fiction. They had two daughters, Rebecca and Sharon. From 1950 to 1955, Rubens taught at a grammar school in Birmingham, before moving onto the film industry where she made documentaries. In the 1960s the poet Jon Silkin rented the attic storey of their London house and sublet rooms to David Mercer, later a prolific West End and TV playwright, and Malcolm Ross-Macdonald, later an equally prolific writer of historical novels.
Professional career as a writer
Rubens' first novel, Set On Edge, was published in 1960. She became the first woman to win the Booker Prize in 1970, for The Elected Member.
Adaptations
Her 1962 novel, Madame Sousatzka, was made into a film in 1988, with Shabana Azmi and Shirley MacLaine. This book was based on the experiences of her brother Harold Rubens, a child prodigy pianist, and his teacher Madame Maria Levinskaya, who inspired the character of Madame Sousatzka. Harold Rubens was born in Cardiff in 1918, and studied with Levinskaya from the age of seven.
Her 1975 novel, I Sent a Letter To My Love, was made into a film (Chère inconnue) in 1980 by Moshe Mizraki, starring Simone Signoret and Jean Rochefort.
Her 1985 novel, Mr Wakefield's Crusade, was adapted for television by the BBC in 1992, starring Peter Capaldi and Michael Maloney.
Works
Set on Edge (1960)
Madame Sousatzka (1962)
Mate in Three (1966)
Chosen People (1969)
The Elected Member (1969) (Booker Prize for Fiction 1970)
Sunday Best (1971)
Go Tell the Lemming (1973)
I Sent a Letter To My Love (1975)
The Ponsonby Post (1977)
A Five-Year Sentence (1978)
Spring Sonata (1979)
Birds of Passage (1981)
Brothers (1983)
Mr Wakefield's Crusade (1985)
Our Father (1987)
Kingdom Come (1990)
A Solitary Grief (1991)
Mother Russia (1992)
Autobiopsy (1993)
Hijack (1993)
Yesterday in the Back Lane (1995)
The Waiting Game (1997)
I, Dreyfus (1999)
Milwaukee (2001)
Nine Lives (2002)
The Sergeants' Tale (2003)
When I Grow Up (2005)
References
External links
Bernice Rubens obituary – The Independent
1923 births
2004 deaths
20th-century Welsh educators
20th-century women educators
20th-century Welsh novelists
21st-century Welsh novelists
20th-century Welsh women writers
21st-century Welsh women writers
21st-century Welsh writers
Booker Prize winners
Jewish novelists
British Jewish writers
Writers from Cardiff
Alumni of Cardiff University
British people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
Welsh people of Polish descent
Welsh Jews
Welsh women novelists
|
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200836
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri%20de%20La%20Tour%20d%27Auvergne%2C%20Viscount%20of%20Turenne
|
Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of Turenne
|
Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne (11 September 161127 July 1675), commonly known as Turenne, was a French general and one of only six Marshals to have been promoted Marshal General of France. The most illustrious member of the La Tour d'Auvergne family, his military exploits over his five-decade career earned him a reputation as one of the greatest military commanders in modern history.
Born to a Huguenot family, the son of a Marshal of France, he was introduced to the art of war at a young age. He first served as a volunteer in the Dutch States Army under the orders of his maternal uncles Maurice of Nassau and Frederick Henry but later chose to continue his career in the service of France, where his noble origins and proven qualities soon saw him rise to the top of the military hierarchy. He rose to prominence during the Thirty Years' War by capturing the fortress of Breisach in 1638. Promoted Marshal of France in 1643, he striked against Bavaria the following year, defeating the Bavarian army in three years of campaigning and forcing the Elector of Bavaria to make peace. The Elector soon broke the treaty and in 1648 Turenne invaded again with Swedish support, subduing the Imperial army at Zusmarshausen and pacifying Bavaria.
Turenne initially supported the Fronde but returned to Royal service in 1651, emerging as France's foremost general by defeating the rebellious army of the Prince of Condé on the outskirts of Paris and re-occupying the city.
His triumphs against Spanish armies at Arras (1654) and at Dunkirk (1658) led to the overrunning of much of the Spanish Netherlands and brought the war against Spain to a victorious conclusion. Two years later, Louis XIV appointed him Marshal General of France. Although a supporter of absolute monarchy, he only converted to Catholicism in 1668, refusing to do so earlier despite political incentives.
During the War of Devolution in 1667 Turenne captured the Spanish Netherlands practically without resistance. In 1672 the French invaded the Dutch Republic and the Marshal General conquered the country up to Amsterdam. Checked by the Dutch flooding of the land, he invaded the Holy Roman Empire the next year, reaching the Elbe and compelling Brandenburg to abandon the anti-French coalition. Faced with the loss of Alsace to superior Allied forces, he crowned his career with a series of battlefield victories, most notably at Turckheim (1675) and a masterful strategic turning movement around the Vosges in mid-winter that drove the Imperials from Alsace. He was killed by an Imperial cannonball at the battle of Salzbach in 1675.
Background and early career
The second son of Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Bouillon, sovereign Prince of Sedan, by his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of William the Silent, Prince of Orange, he was born at Sedan. It is said that much of his money found its way to the poor during his early life. He received a Huguenot education and the usual training of a young noble of the time, but physical infirmity, and a speech impediment (which he never lost) hampered his progress, though he showed a marked skill at history and geography, and was greatly impressed by the exploits of Alexander the Great and Caesar. At first he was a lazy student but after his father started saying his intellectual laziness was as great a barrier to joining the army as his physical weakness, he began to study on his own accord. After his father's death in 1623, he devoted himself to bodily exercises and in a great measure overcame his natural weakness. Turenne and his mother were devout Calvinists and were suspicious of Cardinal Richelieu, so when Turenne went to study war at the age of fourteen he did so in the camp of his uncle, Maurice of Nassau, the Stadtholder of Holland and Prince of Orange He started as a private in Maurice's bodyguard during the Eighty Years' War.
Frederick Henry of Nassau, who succeeded his brother Maurice as Stadtholder and Prince of Orange in 1625, granted Turenne a captaincy in 1626. Turenne personally drilled his troops, as was the custom at the time, and won their respect with his charity and simple lifestyle. His company was alleged to be the best drilled and most disciplined one in the army, he required of his soldiers not only discipline but also high moral standards. His kindness made him well-liked among the entire army. The young officer took his part in the sieges of the period, learning much about fortifications and siege warfare. He won special commendation for his skill at the siege of Bois-le-Duc of 1629 but was reprimanded for recklessness. He also learned much about the details of leading an army, like posting guards and reconnaissance. In 1630 Turenne left the Netherlands and entered the service of France, motivated both by the prospect of military advancement but also because of his mother's desire to display loyalty to the French crown.
Cardinal Richelieu immediately made him colonel of an infantry regiment. Yet he continued to serve with the prince of Orange at short intervals, who at the time had an alliance with France. He took part in successful fighting near Antwerp and fought against Hendrik van den Bergh. He took part in an uneventful campaign under Schomberg in 1630 but his first serious service under the French flag occurred at the siege of La Mothe in Lorraine by Marshal de la Force (1634), where his brilliant courage at the assault won him immediate promotion to the rank of maréchal de camp (equivalent to the modern grade of major-general). In 1635 Turenne served under Louis de Nogaret de La Valette in Lorraine and on the Rhine. The French and their allies raised the Imperial siege of Mainz (8 August 1635), but the French army had to fall back on Metz for want of provisions. In the retreat he measured swords with the famous imperial General Gallas, and distinguished himself greatly. He managed to defeat his pursuers in battle but the Imperials were too numerous to be turned around. The reorganised army took the field again in 1636 and captured Saverne (Zabern), at the storming of which he was seriously wounded. In 1637 he took part in the campaign of Flanders, including the capture of Landrecies (26 July). In the latter part of 1638, serving under Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar (1608–1639), he directed the assault on Breisach (reputedly the strongest fortress on the upper Rhine), which surrendered on 17 December.
Turenne had now gained a reputation as one of the foremost of the younger generals of France, and Richelieu next employed him in the Italian campaign of 1639–1640 under Henri de Lorraine, count of Harcourt. On 19 November 1639 Turenne fought in the famous rearguard action called the battle of the "Route de Quiers", for which he received a lot of credit though he only gave himself a small role in his own description of events. At the battle of Casal 10.000 Frenchmen defeated 20.000 Spanish. The French commander Harcourt was almost encircled but Turenne used deception to scare off the enemy and the battle was won. In 1640 Harcourt saved Casale Monferrato and besieged Prince Thomas' forces in Turin, which meanwhile besieged in their turn another French force in the citadel. That winter he re-victualled the citadel of Turin, held by the French against the forces of Prince Thomas of Savoy. The French in the citadel held out, while Prince Thomas had to surrender on 17 September 1640, a fourth army which had invested Harcourt's lines being at the same time forced to retire. Turenne, by now lieutenant-general, played a major role in the victory. He himself commanded during the campaign of 1641 and took Coni, Ceva and Mondovì.
In 1642 he served as second-in-command of the French troops which conquered Roussillon. At this time Richelieu discovered the conspiracy of Cinq Mars in which Turenne's elder brother, the Duke of Bouillon, had become implicated.
Marshal of France
The relations of the principality of Sedan to the French crown markedly influenced the earlier career of Turenne; sometimes it proved necessary to advance the soldier to conciliate the ducal family, at other times the machinations of the ducal family against Richelieu or Mazarin prevented the king's advisers from giving their full confidence to their general in the field. Moreover, his steady adherence to the Protestant religion provided a further element of difficulty in Turenne's relations with the ministers. Cardinal Richelieu nevertheless entrusted him with the command in Italy in 1643 under prince Thomas, who had changed sides in the quarrel, and who was not trusted by Richelieu. Thomas, while in theory in command himself, quickly put Turenne in control of the campaign. Using deception to fool the Spanish into weakening the Trino Turenne took the town in a few weeks. He was promoted to Marshal of France (16 May 1643).
Turenne was recalled due to the intrigues of Cardinal Mazarin, who was sabotaging Turenne's career. This meant that he was available in case of sudden need for a good commander. After the French suffered a devastating defeat at Tuttlingen, Turenne was thrown back into action. The following campaign would greatly advance his career.
While molding the army back into fighting condition Turenne bought mounts for 5,000 cavalrymen and clothes for 4,000 infantrymen with his own money. The reorganization finished, Turenne began campaigning in June 1644, crossing the river Rhine at Breisach. He defeated Gaspard von Mercy killing 2.400 imperials. After this however, he was quickly joined by a force under the Duke of Enghien, later to be known as the Grand Condé. The Duke, as a prince of the royal house, took the chief command of the united armies of "France" and "Weimar". The desperately fought battle of Freiburg against Franz von Mercy's Bavarians (3, 5 and 9 August 1644) proved the chief event of the first campaign. In this battle Turenne distinguished himself with a well executed strike at the enemy flank. The French continued on by successfully besieging Philippsburg. Before the capitulation Enghien withdrew and left Turenne in command. With Condé and most of the army gone Franz von Mercy occupied Mannheim and tried to induce Turenne to abandon the Siege of Philippsburg by pretending to cross the river there but to no avail. At the same time the Duke of Lorraine moved to besiege nearby Bacharach. Turenne took 500 men and built a huge camp near Bacharach, believing Turenne had a large force Lorraine retreated. Turenne continued on by taking the important fortress of Kreuznach and blocking the route between the two armies.
Turenne began the 1645 campaign with a successful forward movement, but Mercy managed to deceive him into thinking the Bavarians were scattered and far away and he was taken by surprise and defeated at Mergentheim. While Turenne had quickly ordered his forces to unite one of his subordinates, general Rosen, was not informed on the situation, defied the order, leading to defeat while Turenne's main force was winning. Turenne's army lost all of its artillery and baggage and five sixths of its infantry. Turenne retreated to Hesse, which caused its forces to join the French, while a Swedish force and reinforcements under Condé, who took command once again. The Swedes soon departed, but Enghien commanded still 17,000 men. The French marched into Bavaria with facing little opposition until they caught up with Mercy's retreating army. Mercy inflicted casualties of the French in an artillery duel and outmaneuvered them in the march on Allerheim, buying time to fortify his position. Turenne advised not to fight but this was rejected by Condé. Turenne's plan of attack was accepted by Condé. The following battle was a French victory and Mercy was killed but the French had suffered heavily. Ill-health forced Enghien to retire soon afterwards, leaving Turenne for the third time in command of the French army. He was met by superior imperial forces and forced to retreat. At Philippsburg Turenne crossed the Rhine using a bridge made of boats.
A month after his retreat Turenne was able to recross the Rhine and march 120 miles to Trier which he recaptured for its elector after over a decade of imperialist occupation. Having taken control of the Moselle for France by this move he set upon improving the defence of that river. Turenne now returned to France where he was offered the Duchy of Château-Thierry, which had also been promised to his brother, by Mazarin, who was trying to drive a wedge between Turenne and his rebellious brother, but Turenne saw what the cardinal was doing and accepted only if the transaction to his brother was completed. In 1646 Turenne obtained more military successes. He decided to unite his forces with those Swedish under Wrangel. Mazarin however had made a deal with the Duke of Bavaria not to unite French and Swedish forces and not to cross the Rhine. In return the Bavarians would not join the Imperial army. He ordered Turenne to besiege Luxembourg but Turenne correctly suspected the Duke of Bavaria of foul play and procrastinated. Soon the Bavarian army linked up with the imperials, who sent forces to block the road in between Turenne and Wrangel. Turenne outmaneuvered an Imperial blockade and successfully linked up with Wrangel. The combined army marched down the Danube and advanced as far as Munich and Bregenz, plundering their way through Bavaria. This convinced the Elector of Bavaria to make peace. With these manoeuvres Napoleon said he displayed "great boldness, sagacity and genius; they are fertile in grand results, and ought to be studied by all military men". In 1647 he proposed to attack the weakened army of the emperor, but he was ordered into Flanders instead. Not only did France thus lose an opportunity, but a serious mutiny broke out amongst the Weimar troops, who had not received their pay for six months. Rosen, who had been recently promoted to high office on Turenne's insistence, convinced the Weimarian cavalry to revolt, pretending to be held prisoner by them. Turenne had already left for Flanders with his main force but rode back with a small contingent, surprising the mutineers. Instead of destroying them with a surprise attack he marched with them as if he was still in command and managed to secretly have Rosen arrested after which the mutiny died down. He then marched into Luxembourg but soon received orders to switch to the Rhine. As Turenne predicted Bavaria again joined the Imperial course in 1647. He compelled the imperials to list Siege of Worms and formally declared war on Bavaria. After joining with the Swedes, once again led by Wrangel, they moved together against the imperials. Scouts detected the imperials, during the following night Turenne secretly moved his troops close to the imperials. The following day, 17 May, the imperials marched off unaware of the danger resulting in their rearguard being caught isolated and defeated in a vicious battle at Zusmarshausen. Troops subsequently wasted Bavaria with fire and sword until a more secure pacification was obtained This devastation, for which many modern writers have blamed Turenne, appeared no more harsh a measure than the spirit of the times and the circumstances of the case permitted. Turenne planned on moving into Austria and take Vienna, a Franco-Swedish army had already captured Prague, but as the Peace of Westphalia had been signed this campaign never materialized.
The Fronde and the early reign of Louis XIV
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) brought little peace to France, which soon became involved in the civil war of the Fronde (1648–1653). During the first war, he refused to join either side. Mazarin had him removed as commander of the army of Weimar causing Turenne to flee to the Netherlands, where he remained until the treaty of Rueil (March 1649) put an end to the first war of the Fronde. Louis, Grand Condé had made many enemies at court, especially Mazarin, which would eventually lead to conflict. While Condé had expected to be rewarded greatly for his military service, which had turned the Fronde in Mazarin's favor, Mazarin did not have a high opinion of Condé's accomplishment. Condé had recently inherited the princely title of Condé, won great fame and influence through his military actions, was made prince of the blood and had built strong connections among the members of the first Fronde. Now he and Mazarin were busy plotting each other's destruction. The second war erupted when Condé and some of his allies were arrested. Turenne, intended for arrest with them, escaped in time, and with the duchess de Longueville held Stenay for the cause of the "Princes"—Condé, his brother Conti, and his brother-in-law the Duc de Longueville. Love for the duchess seems to have ruled Turenne's action, both in the first war, and, now, in seeking Spanish aid for the Princes. In this war Turenne sustained one of his few reverses at Rethel (15 December 1650); but the second conflict ended in the early months of the following year with the collapse of the court party and the release of the Princes.
Turenne reconciled and returned to Paris in May 1651, but the trouble soon revived and Condé again raised the standard of revolt in the south of France. In this, the third war of the Fronde, Turenne and Condé stood opposed to each other, the marshal commanding the royal armies, the prince that of the Frondeurs and their Spanish allies. Turenne displayed the personal bravery of a young soldier at Jargeau (28 March 1652), the skill and wariness of a veteran general at Gien (7 April), and he practically crushed the civil war in the Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine (2 July) and in the re-occupation of Paris (21 October).
Against Spain
Turenne still needed to deal with Condé, who was fighting alongside the Spaniards. The long drawn-out campaigns of the "Spanish Fronde" gave ample scope for the display of military skill by both the famous captains. In June 1653 Turenne and La Ferté marched against the Frondeurs. They had 7,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry (or 6,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, according to a different source). Condé controlled 30,000 troops. Hearing that the Spanish army camped in two positions 120 miles apart, he rapidly marche on and captured Rethel, which lay between them. Now a Spanish force, the one not commanded by Condé, of 16,000 infantry and 11,000 cavalry arrived in the area. Turenne decided to shadow this force to prevent it from taking Paris with Condé, and limit their freedom of action until winter. The Spanish intended only to take a few forts so Turenne was successful. At one point Condé was in a position to defeat Turenne but the Spanish commander didn't allow Condé to attack. Eventually the Spanish managed to evade Turenne and captured Rocroi, but while they were doing this Turenne took Mouzon. He also took Sainte-Menehould.
Turenne started the 1654 campaign by moving on Stenay, one of the centres of the Fronde and personal property of Condé. Turenne had received reinforcement for the campaign and prepared vigorously to defend against a relief attempt. Instead Condé and archduke Archduke Leopold Wilhelm outmaneuvered him by besieging the crucial fortress of Arras. As Condé and the Archduke had 25,000 troops, and Turenne could call on only 14,000-15,000, Turenne decided to wait until Stenay fell before moving against the Frondeurs in force. Turenne was not in sole command: the Duke of York, La Ferté, Broglie, and Hocquincourt all had authority as well. But he overcame opposition to his plan to deal aggressively with the more numerous Spanish army. Turenne had tirelessly prepared for the attack. He scouted the enemy positions in person, and realized the Spanish would take too long to decide whether to attack him or not. He provided religious services to his troops and explained to his officers the techniques to use against the elaborate Spanish defences. The Spanish were routed, losing 3,000 men and 63 cannons, while the French lost just 400 men. This victory was a turning point: from then on, the French had a marked advantage in the region.
Before the campaign of 1655 another important matter required Turenne's energies. Riots had broken out in Paris, combined with political disputes between the king and parliament; civil conflict threatened again. The king forbade parliament from meeting while parliament for their part ignored this demand. At invitation of the increasingly despotic Mazarin Turenne was invited to negotiate, which he did successfully.
Turenne started the 1655 campaign by taking Landrecies. Soon after, Turenne almost captured Condé but the failure of a subordinate led to the latter's escape. Turenne then took the fortresses of Condé and St. Guislain before being recalled to the court at Compiègne. Hocquincourt had been robbed of his important position by Mazarin and was now approached by Condé. If Hocquincourt surrendered Ham and Peronne, which he was in charge of, the French position would be much weaker. Turenne could not move forces to the place due to the Spanish dispositions, but convinced Mazarin to negotiate with Hocquincourt, which succeeded.
At this point Cromwell's England as well as Lorraine, up until now Spain's ally, joined the French side. Philip IV of Spain replaced the commanders who had been so unsuccessful in the last campaigns with the veteran commanders Marshal Caracena and Don Juan of Austria. In June troops under Turenne and La Ferté surrounded Valenciennes, beginning the siege of that place. The Spanish broke the nearby dikes to flood Turenne's position but Turenne had the water diverted to flood part of the city. When Turenne observed the Spaniards preparing for an attack, he gave orders to prepare for an afternoon or nighttime attack. But La Ferté didn't carry out the order, so when the Spanish attacked, his position was overrun in no more than 15 minutes. La Ferté and 4,400 troops were captured. Despite the confusion and darkness, Turenne managed to collect his forces and made an ordered retreat, though losing half his artillery. After twelve miles, Turenne ordered a halt. Seeing the French in battle array the Spanish suspected a trap and as a result failed to attack. Despite this, Turenne was unable to save Condé and Quesnoy, but he did take La Chapelle, which Condé failed to relieve, and prevented the fall of St. Guislain.
In his later commentary, Napoleon criticized Turenne for the defeat at Valenciennes. He wrote that Turenne should have marched against the Spanish because the river split his army, and so he could not support La Ferté if the latter needed help.
The war eventually concluded soon after Turenne's victory at the Battle of the Dunes near Dunkirk in 1658, in which a corps of English veterans sent by Cromwell played a notable part (3–14 June); a victory which, followed by another successful campaign in 1658, led to the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.
On the death of Mazarin in 1661, Louis XIV took the reins of government into his own hands, and as one of his first acts appointed Turenne "marshal-general of the camps and armies of the king". He had offered to revive the office of Constable of France (suppressed in 1627) in Turenne's favour if the marshal would become a Roman Catholic. Turenne declined. Born of Calvinist parents and educated a Protestant, he had refused to marry one of Richelieu's nieces in 1639 and subsequently rejected a similar proposal from Mazarin.
In 1652, Turenne married Charlotte de Caumont, a daughter of the Protestant Marshal de la Force, to whom he remained deeply attached. But he sincerely deplored the division of Christianity into two hostile camps. He had always distrusted the influence of many dissident and uncontrolled sects; the history of independence in the English army and people made a deep impression on his mind, and the same fear of indiscipline which drove the English Presbyterians into royalism drew Turenne more and more towards the Roman Catholic Church. The letters between him and his wife show how closely both studied available evidence on the matter, and in the end, two years after her death, the eloquence of Bossuet and the persuasions of his nephew, the Cardinal de Bouillon, persuaded him to become Catholic in October 1668.
In 1667 he had returned to the more congenial air of the "Camps and Armies of the King", directing (nominally under Louis XIV) the famous Promenade militaire in which the French overran the Spanish Netherlands. Soon afterwards Condé, now reconciled with the king, rivaled Turenne's success by the rapid conquest of the Franche-Comté, shortly before the end the War of Devolution in February 1668.
The Dutch War
In Louis XIV's Dutch War of 1672 Turenne accompanied the army commanded by the king which overran the Dutch United Provinces up to the gates of Amsterdam. The terms offered by Louis to the Prince of Orange only aroused a more bitter resistance.
The Dutch opened the dikes and flooded the countryside around Amsterdam. This measure completely checked Turenne, whom the king had left in command. News of this event roused Europe to action, and the conflict spread to Germany. Turenne fought a successful war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine while Condé covered Alsace.
In January 1673 Turenne assumed the offensive, penetrated far into Germany, and forced the Great Elector of Brandenburg to make peace; later in the year, however, the famous imperial general Montecuccoli completely outmanoeuvred Turenne: Montecuccoli evaded his opponent, joined the Dutch and took the important place of Bonn.
In June 1674, Turenne won the battle of Sinzheim, which made him master of the Electorate of the Palatinate. Under orders from Paris the French wasted the country far and wide, and this devastation with the sack of Türckheim usually counts as the gravest blot on Turenne's fame. In the autumn the anti-French allies again advanced, and though they again outmanoeuvred Turenne, the action of the neutral city of Strasbourg occasioned his failure by permitting the enemy to cross the Rhine by the bridge at that place. The battle of Enzheim followed; this proved a tactical victory, but hardly affected the situation, and, at the beginning of December, the allies remained in Alsace. The old marshal now made the most daring campaign of his career. A swift and secret march in mid-winter from one end of the Vosges to the other took the allies by surprise. Sharply following up his first successes, Turenne drove the enemy to Turkheim, and there inflicted upon them a heavy defeat (5 January 1675). As revenge for the active resistance the inhabitants of the city had shown, Turenne let his troops loot it and massacre the remaining population during two weeks. In a few weeks he had completely recovered Alsace.
In the summer campaign he once more faced Montecuccoli, and after the highest display of "strategic chess-moves" by both commanders, Turenne finally compelled his opponent to offer battle at a disadvantage at Salzbach. There, on 27 July 1675, one of the first shots fired killed him. The news of his death produced universal sorrow.
Legacy
Turenne's most eloquent countrymen wrote his éloges, and Montecuccoli himself exclaimed, "II est mort aujourd'hui un homme qui faisait honneur à l'homme" (A man is dead today who did honour to Man). His body, taken to St Denis, was buried with the Kings of France. Even the extreme revolutionists of 1793 respected it, and, while they ignominiously reburied the bodies of the monarchs in a mass grave, they preserved the remains of Turenne at the Jardin des Plantes until 22 September 1800, when Napoleon had them removed to the church of the Invalides at Paris, where they still rest.
Napoleon recommended all soldiers to "read and re-read" the campaigns of Turenne as one of the great captains. His fame as a general rivalled that of any other in Europe at a period when the populace studied war more critically than ever before, for his military character epitomized the art of war of his time (Prince de Ligne). Strategic caution and logistic accuracy, combined with brilliant dash in small combats and constancy under all circumstances—of success or failure—perhaps emerge as the salient points of Turenne's genius for war. Great battles he avoided. "Few sieges and many combats" he used as his own maxim. And, unlike his great rival Condé, who appeared as brilliant in his first battle as in his last, Turenne improved day by day. Napoleon said of him that, his genius grew bolder as it grew older, and a later author, the Duke of Aumale (Histoire des princes de la maison de Condé), took the same view when he wrote: "To know him, you must follow him up to Salzbach. In his case, every day signaled some progress”.
In his personal character Turenne showed little more than the nature of a simple and honourable soldier, endowed with much tact; but in the world of politics and intellect he seemed almost helpless in the hands of a skilful intriguer or casuist. His morals, if not beyond reproach, were at least more austere than those prevalent in the age in which he lived. He operated essentially as a commander of regular armies. He spent his life with the troops; he knew how to win their affection; he tempered a severe discipline with rare generosity, and his men loved him as a comrade no less than they admired him as a commander. Thus, though Condé's genius appeared far more versatile, Turenne's genius best represents the art of war in the 17th century. For the small, costly, and highly trained regular armies, and for the dynastic warfare of the age of Louis XIV, Turenne functioned as the ideal army leader.
During the French Revolution his reputation as a man of the people made his tomb one of the few nobles’ tombs not destroyed by the Revolutionaries. Napoleon rated him the greatest modern commander. Eugene of Savoy when praised above Turenne called ingratiating at the expense of Turenne. Turenne is one of the subjects of Morris’ work “Great commanders of modern times”. According to him the “powerful genius” of Turenne greatly contributed to shaping modern warfare.
In fiction
Marshal of France Turenne is depicted in several alternative history novels written by Eric Flint and David Weber. These include 1633 and 1634: The Baltic War. Turenne also appears in a historical novel by G.A. Henty called Won by the Sword.
References
Sources
Attribution:
External links
1611 births
1675 deaths
People from Sedan, Ardennes
Marshals General of France
Henri
French military personnel of the Thirty Years' War
French military personnel of the Franco-Dutch War
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Calvinism
French Roman Catholics
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis
French people of Dutch descent
Military personnel of the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)
People of the Fronde
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] |
200842
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Only%20Fools%20and%20Horses
|
Only Fools and Horses
|
Only Fools and Horses.... is a British television sitcom created and written by John Sullivan. Seven series were originally broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom from 1981 to 1991, with sixteen sporadic Christmas specials aired until the end of the show in 2003. Set in working-class Peckham in south-east London, it stars David Jason as ambitious market trader Derek "Del Boy" Trotter and Nicholas Lyndhurst as his younger brother Rodney Trotter, alongside a supporting cast. The series follows the Trotters' highs and lows in life, in particular their attempts to get rich. Critically and popularly acclaimed, the series received numerous awards, including recognition from BAFTA, the National Television Awards and the Royal Television Society, as well as winning individual accolades for both Sullivan and Jason. It was voted Britain's Best Sitcom in a 2004 BBC poll.
Lennard Pearce appeared in the first three series as Del and Rodney's elderly grandad. After Pearce's death in 1984, the show replaced Grandad with Uncle Albert, the boys' great uncle, played by Buster Merryfield. From 1988 onwards, the show features regular characters in Del Boy and Rodney's love interests, Raquel (Tessa Peake-Jones) and Cassandra (Gwyneth Strong) respectively. Other recurring characters include car dealer Boycie (John Challis), road sweeper Trigger (Roger Lloyd-Pack), lorry driver Denzil (Paul Barber), spiv Mickey Pearce (Patrick Murray), Boycie's wife Marlene (Sue Holderness), and pub landlord Mike (Kenneth MacDonald).
The show was not an immediate hit with viewers and received little promotion early on, but later achieved consistently high ratings, and the 1996 episode "Time on Our Hands" (originally billed as the last episode) holds the record for the highest UK audience for a sitcom episode, attracting 24.3 million viewers. The series influenced British culture, contributing several words and phrases to the English language. It spawned an extensive range of merchandise, including books, videos, DVDs, toys, and board games. Episodes are frequently repeated on UKTV comedy channel Gold.
A spin-off series, The Green Green Grass, ran for four series in the UK from 2005 to 2009. A prequel, Rock & Chips, ran for three specials in 2010 and 2011. A special Sport Relief episode aired in March 2014, guest starring David Beckham. In July 2018, John Sullivan's son, Jim Sullivan, announced that a
musical adaptation of the show was nearing completion and launched on 9 February 2019 at the Theatre Royal Haymarket, London.
Plot
Derek "Del Boy" Trotter (played by David Jason), a South London "fly" trader, lives in a council flat in a high-rise tower block, Nelson Mandela House, in Peckham, South London, with his much younger brother, Rodney (Nicholas Lyndhurst), and their elderly grandad (Lennard Pearce). Their mother, Joan, died when Rodney was young, and their father Reg absconded soon afterwards, so Del became Rodney's surrogate father and the family patriarch. Despite the difference in age, personality and outlook, the brothers share a constant bond throughout.
The situation focuses mainly on their attempts to become millionaires through questionable get-rich-quick schemes and by buying and selling poor-quality and illegal goods. They have a three-wheeled Reliant Regal van and trade under the name of Trotters Independent Traders, mainly on the black market.
Initially, Del Boy, Rodney and Grandad were the only regulars, along with the occasional appearances of roadsweeper Trigger (Roger Lloyd-Pack) and pretentious used car salesman Boycie (John Challis). Over time, the cast expanded, mostly in the form of regulars at the local pub The Nag's Head. These included pub landlord Mike Fisher (Kenneth MacDonald), lorry driver Denzil (Paul Barber), youthful spiv Mickey Pearce (Patrick Murray) and Boycie's flirtatious wife Marlene (Sue Holderness). After Grandad died following the death of actor Lennard Pearce, his younger brother Uncle Albert (Buster Merryfield) emerged and moved in with Del and Rodney, becoming a main character.
The plots of many early episodes were primarily self-contained, with few plot-lines mentioned again, but the show developed a story arc and an ongoing episodic dimension in later series. Del and Rodney's quest for love is a recurring theme, which eventually resulted in them finding long-term love in the form of Raquel (Tessa Peake-Jones) and Cassandra (Gwyneth Strong) respectively; Del also has a son with Raquel, Damien (played by five actors, most recently Ben Smith). The Trotters finally become millionaires, lose their fortune, and then regain some of it.
Cast and characters
Main cast and characters
Derek Edward "Del Boy" Trotter (David Jason) — Del is a smooth-talking South London market trader, willing to sell anything to anyone to make money. Possessing a quick-wit and confidence that his younger brother mostly lacks, Del is devoted to his family, taking care of Rodney and Grandad on his own from the age of 16. Del is also known for his penchant for cultural faux pas, in particular his misuse of French phrases. Del never settled down with a woman until he met Raquel, with whom he had a son, Damien.
Sullivan recalled that he had always been fascinated by the unlicensed traders who sold goods from suitcases in markets, and he based Del Boy on them. David Jason added other elements to the part, including Del's cheap gold jewellery and his camel coat. The inspiration was taken from a similar man he had known when working as an electrician. Jason was a relatively late candidate for the part: Jim Broadbent (who would later appear in a minor recurring role as DCI Roy Slater) and Enn Reitel were earlier preferences. At the time, Broadbent was appearing in Mike Leigh's play, "Goose-Pimples", at the Hampstead Theatre in north London. The play was due to transfer to the West End, and consequently, Broadbent thought he would be unable to fit in with the filming schedule and turned down the part. It was only when producer Ray Butt saw a repeat of Open All Hours that Jason was considered and, despite concerns that Jason had not previously had a leading television role, and that he and Lyndhurst did not look like brothers, he was cast.
Rodney Charlton Trotter (Nicholas Lyndhurst) — Rodney is Del's idealistic but socially awkward younger half-brother. Despite being more academically gifted than Del Boy (although only to the extent of two GCEs), Rodney lacks Del's charisma as well as the latter's duplicitous persona and as such is confined to being Del's dogsbody and sidekick. Orphaned when young, Rodney was raised by Del, and much of the friction between the two comes from Rodney's annoyance about his dependency on his brother and his sometimes immoral schemes, usually resulting in unsuccessful attempts to gain greater independence through girlfriends or through setting up his own businesses; he was only partially successful after marrying Cassandra and briefly going to work for her father. In contrast to Del, the part of Rodney was cast early, with Lyndhurst settled on quickly. Sullivan partly based Rodney on his own experiences: he, too, had a much older sibling and, like Rodney, claims to have been a dreamer and an idealist in his youth.
Edward Kitchener "Grandad" Trotter (Lennard Pearce) — Sullivan was fascinated by the idea of having a big age gap between Del Boy and his younger brother Rodney; the elderly character of Grandad, and later, Uncle Albert, gave the situation the voice of an old man who had seen it all. In casting the role of Grandad, Sullivan had in mind an actor similar to Wilfrid Brambell, who had played Albert Steptoe in Steptoe and Son, but chose not to use Brambell himself, thinking him too closely associated with Steptoe. After seeing Pearce's audition, Sullivan chose him immediately. Unkempt and absent-minded, although sometimes displaying a high intelligence, Grandad rarely left the flat or even moved from his armchair in front of two television sets. Despite his age he was invariably treated as a butler by Del and Rodney, often being assigned unsavoury jobs around the flat such as cooking meals. Pearce died in 1984 whilst filming the series four episode "Hole in One" (several scenes were subsequently re-shot with Buster Merryfield) and Sullivan wrote a new episode, "Strained Relations", which featured Grandad's funeral.
Albert Gladstone Trotter (Buster Merryfield) — Shortly after the death of Lennard Pearce, it was decided that a new older family member should be brought in, which eventually led to "Uncle Albert", Grandad's estranged younger brother. Merryfield was an inexperienced amateur actor at the time, but was selected because he appeared to fit the description of an old sailor, especially with his distinctive white "Captain Birdseye" beard. Albert first appeared at Grandad's funeral, and soon moved in with Del and Rodney. His wartime experiences with the Royal Navy became one of the show's running gags, usually beginning with the words "During the war...". Merryfield died in 1999 and Albert's death was written into the next episode.
Raquel Turner (Tessa Peake-Jones) — Raquel was introduced because Sullivan wanted more female characters and for Del to start meeting more mature women. Her first appearance, in "Dates", was intended to be a one-off, but she was written in again a year later and thereafter became a permanent cast member. A trained singer and actress whose career never took off, she met Del through a dating agency, but they fell out over her part-time job as a stripper, before getting together again. This time she moved in with Del, helping to calm him, and they had a son together, named Damien. As the character unfolded, it was revealed that she was previously married to Del's rival, DCI Roy Slater.
Cassandra Trotter (née Parry) (Gwyneth Strong) — Cassandra first met Rodney in "Yuppy Love". Their relationship blossomed, and by the end of series six the two had married. Cassandra's career-driven lifestyle caused fights with Rodney, and their troubled marriage was one of the main storylines later in the show's run.
Supporting cast and characters
Trigger (Roger Lloyd-Pack) — A dopey and slow-witted but good friend of Del, Trigger was initially portrayed as a small-time thief, supplying Del with dubious goods. In later episodes he came to adopt the "village idiot" role, and constantly calls Rodney "Dave", much to Rodney's chagrin. Trigger, apparently so called because he looks like a horse, was the principal supporting character earlier in the show's run, although his importance lessened as the series progressed. Lloyd-Pack was cast by pure chance: Ray Butt, who hired him to portray Trigger after seeing him in a stage play, had only attended that play to observe potential Del Boy actor Billy Murray.
Boycie (John Challis) — An untrustworthy used car salesman and a cultural elitist. Boycie, a freemason, was very selfish and prone to boasting about his wealth. Challis had played a similar character in an episode of Citizen Smith. Sullivan liked him, and promised to cast him in a future series, which led to Boycie. Boycie later featured in a spin-off series, The Green Green Grass, starting in 2005, in which he and his wife Marlene escaped from a criminal gang.
Denzil Tulser (Paul Barber) — An affable Liverpudlian lorry driver, Denzil was often on the victim of Del's scams. His inability to say no to Del's business deals frequently led to arguments with his controlling wife, Corinne (Eva Mottley), who was only sighted once, in "Who's a Pretty Boy?". Corinne eventually walked out on him, leaving Denzil depressed but with more time to go along with Del's antics.
Sid (Roy Heather) — Sid made sparse appearances throughout the show's run, mainly as the proprietor of the dirty and derelict local cafe. In the episode "The Jolly Boys' Outing", it is revealed that Sid fought in the Second World War. He was captured and imprisoned but escaped, only for the boat he was using to be hit and sunk by a Greek fishing trawler being steered by Uncle Albert. After Nag's Head landlord Mike was imprisoned, Sid took over and kept that role for the remainder of the series.
Mickey Pearce (Patrick Murray) — Mickey was a young, arrogant spiv and friend of Rodney's, known for his exaggerated boasts about his success in business or with women. Despite their friendship, Mickey often took advantage of Rodney's inexperience by stealing his girlfriends or making off with all the money from their business partnership.
Marlene Boyce (Sue Holderness) — Boycie's wife. Initially just an unseen character, Marlene was popular among the boys and extremely flirtatious, having had implied sexual relations with all of Boycie's friends. She and Del have a noticeably close friendship, dating back to when Marlene worked in a betting shop in Lewisham Grove. Despite their constant arguments and insults, she and Boycie are in-love and eventually have a child, Tyler, although there are light-hearted rumours that Del may be the father.
Mike Fisher (Kenneth MacDonald) — The landlord of the Nag's Head, although not from the very beginning; his predecessor was never seen, with just a succession of barmaids providing service. Friendly and gormless, he was often targeted by Del as a potential customer for any goods he was selling. When Kenneth MacDonald died in 2001, a storyline involving Mike's imprisonment for attempting to embezzle the brewery was written, and cafe owner Sid took over as the interim pub landlord.
Damien Trotter (various) — Damien was Del and Raquel's son. It was Rodney's mocking suggestion that he be named Damien. Six actors played Damien: Patrick McManus (1991), Grant Stevens (1991), Robert Liddement (1992), Jamie Smith (1993–96), Douglas Hodge (1996, as adult), and Ben Smith (2001–03).
Minor cast and characters
The most frequent roles for guest actors in Only Fools and Horses were as Del or Rodney's once-seen girlfriends, barmaids at the Nag's Head, or individuals the Trotters were doing business with. Del and Rodney's deceased mother, Joan, though never seen, cropped up in Del's embellished accounts of her final words or in his attempts to emotionally blackmail Rodney. Her grave – a flamboyant monument – was seen occasionally. Their absent father, Reg, appeared once in "Thicker Than Water" (played by Peter Woodthorpe), before leaving under a cloud, never to be seen again. Other members of the Trotter family were rarely sighted, the exceptions being cousins Stan (Mike Kemp) and Jean (Maureen Sweeney), who attended Grandad's funeral. In "The Second Time Around", the woman they believed to be Auntie Rose (Beryl Cooke) turned out to be no relation at all but the woman who had moved into Rose's house some years earlier. After Rodney met Cassandra, her parents Alan (Denis Lill) and Pam (Wanda Ventham) became recurring characters. Raquel's parents, James and Audrey (Michael Jayston and Ann Lynn), appeared in "Time On Our Hands", and it was James who discovered the antique watch which made the Trotters millionaires.
In some episodes, a guest character was essential to the plot. Del's ex-fiancée Pauline (Jill Baker) dominated Del's libido in "The Second Time Around", prompting Rodney and Grandad to leave. In "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire", Del's old business partner Jumbo Mills (Nick Stringer) wanted Del to return to Australia with him and restore their partnership, forcing Del to make a decision. An attempt by Lennox (Vas Blackwood) to rob a local supermarket set-up the "hostage" situation in "The Longest Night". Del and Rodney spent the whole of "Tea for Three" battling each other for the affections of Trigger's niece Lisa (Gerry Cowper), who briefly reappeared in "The Frog's Legacy". Abdul (Tony Anholt) in "To Hull and Back" and Arnie (Philip McGough) in "Chain Gang" were responsible for setting up dubious enterprises involving the Trotters in their respective episodes. Tony Angelino (Philip Pope), the singing dustman with a speech impediment, was the key to the humour and the storyline of "Stage Fright" and EastEnders actor Derek Martin guest starred in "Fatal Extraction".
Del's nemesis from his school days, corrupt policeman DCI Roy Slater (played by Jim Broadbent), made three appearances, in "May The Force Be With You", "To Hull and Back" and "Class of '62". Feared local villains, the Driscoll Brothers (Roy Marsden and Christopher Ryan) featured once, in "Little Problems", but were mentioned in two previous episodes ("Video Nasty" and "The Frog's Legacy"), and are important in the story of The Green Green Grass. A grown-up Damien (Douglas Hodge) appeared in "Heroes and Villains". Rodney and Mickey's friends, the smooth-talking Jevon (Steven Woodcock) and then, briefly, Chris (Tony Marshall), a ladies' hairdresser, featured sporadically during the sixth and seventh series and the intervening Christmas specials. The two-part 1991 Christmas special, "Miami Twice", saw Richard Branson and Barry Gibb make cameo appearances. Mike Read appeared as himself, hosting an episode of Top Of The Pops, in "It's Only Rock and Roll" and Jonathan Ross appeared as himself in "If They Could See Us Now".
While their characters were less significant, well-known actors who played cameos in the programme included Joan Sims, best known for her numerous roles in the Carry On films, who guest-starred in the feature-length episode "The Frog's Legacy" as an aunt of Trigger and old friend of Del's late mother; successful film actor David Thewlis, who played a young wannabe musician in "It's Only Rock and Roll"; John Bardon, who played the role of Jim Branning in the soap opera EastEnders, as the supermarket security officer in "The Longest Night". Walter Sparrow, who appeared as Dirty Barry in "Danger UXD", went on to appear in several Hollywood films.
Production
Development
In 1980, John Sullivan, a scriptwriter under contract at the BBC, was already well known as the writer of the sitcom Citizen Smith. It came to an end that year and Sullivan was searching for a new project. An initial idea for a comedy set in the world of football was rejected by the BBC, as was his alternative idea, a sitcom centring on a cockney market trader in working class, modern-day London. The latter idea persisted. Through Ray Butt, a BBC producer and director whom Sullivan had met and become friends with when they were working on Citizen Smith, a draft script was shown to the BBC's Head of Comedy, John Howard Davies. Davies commissioned Sullivan to write a full series. Sullivan believed the key factor in its being accepted was the success of ITV's new drama, Minder, a series with a similar premise and also set in modern-day London.
Sullivan had initially given the show the working title Readies. For the actual title he intended to use, as a reference to the protagonist's tax and work-evading lifestyle, Only Fools and Horses. That name was based on a genuine, though very obscure, saying, "only fools and horses work for a living", which had its origins in 19th-century American vaudeville. Only Fools and Horses had also been the title of an episode of Citizen Smith, and Sullivan liked the expression and thought it was suited to the new sitcom. He also thought longer titles would attract attention. He was first overruled on the grounds that the audience would not understand the title, but he eventually got his way.
Filming and transmission
Filming of the first series began in May 1981, and the first episode, "Big Brother", was transmitted on BBC One at 8.30 pm on 8 September that year. It attracted 9.2 million viewers and generally received a lukewarm response from critics. The viewing figures for the whole first series averaged at around 7 million viewers. According to an interview with John Challis in 2015, the viewing figure "today would be very good but in those days wasn't considered great at all, so it was sort of put on the back burner for a bit – no particular plans for a second series". The costumes for the first series were designed by Phoebe De Gaye. Del's attire was inspired by her going to car boot sales. She took Jason shopping in Oxford Street, and had him try a variety of suits. De Gaye purchased some gaily coloured Gabicci shirts, which were fashionable at the time and she thought "horrible". Del's rings and bracelet were made of fake gold and came from Chapel Market. Rodney's combat jacket came from the BBC's Costume Department, and De Gaye added a Yasser Arafat scarf purchased from Shepherd's Bush Market. De Gaye used Vaseline, make-up, and food to make Grandad's costume look dirty. The idea was that he never had his hat off, never dressed properly and usually had dirty pyjamas underneath his clothes.
A second series was commissioned for 1982. This fared a bit better, and the first and second series had a collective repeat run in June 1983 in a more low-key time slot, but attracted a high enough viewing figure for Davies to commission a third series. From there, the show began to top the television ratings. Viewing figures for the fourth series were double those of the first. In early December 1984, during the filming of Series 4, Lennard Pearce suffered a heart attack and was taken to hospital. He died on 15 December, the day before he was due to return. Sullivan wrote Grandad's death into the series with the episode "Strained Relations" which featured Del and Rodney's goodbye to Grandad. According to Sullivan, recasting Grandad was considered disrespectful to Pearce by the team, so it was decided that another older family member was to be cast. Buster Merryfield was then cast as Grandad's brother Albert. The scenes from "Hole in One" that featured Pearce were re-filmed with Merryfield.
Midway through the filming of the fifth series, Jason told Sullivan that he wished to leave the show in order to further his career elsewhere. Sullivan thus wrote "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?", which was intended to be the final episode and would see Del accepting a friend's offer to set up business in Australia, leaving Rodney and Albert behind. Plans were made for a spin-off entitled Hot-Rod, which would have followed Rodney's attempts to survive on his own with help from Mickey Pearce, but leaving open the prospect of Del's return. Jason then changed his mind, and the ending of the episode was changed to show Del rejecting the offer.
Sullivan had a tendency to write scripts that were too long, meaning a lot of good material had to be cut. Shortly before filming of the sixth series began, he and Jason requested that the show's time slot be extended and it was agreed to extend its running time to 50 minutes. This required a 40 per cent increase in the show's budget, and coincided with the show's becoming one of the BBC's most popular programmes. Robin Stubbs became the costume designer for the sixth series, and was responsible for getting Del's attire to match his new yuppy image. His new suits cost around £200 each and were purchased from Austin Reed in Regent Street. The rest came from stores such as Tie-Rack and Dickins & Jones. His jewellery was replaced each series because it was very cheap (the rings with "D" cost 50p each).
The seventh series aired in early 1991. Jason and Sullivan were involved with other projects, and it was confirmed that there were no plans for a new series. Despite this, the show continued in Christmas specials until 1993. Sullivan nonetheless wanted a final episode to tie up the show. In late 1996, three more one-hour episodes were filmed, to be broadcast over Christmas 1996. All three were well received and, due to the ending, were assumed to be the last. The show made a return in Christmas 2001 with the first of three new episodes which were shot together but ultimately broadcast over three consecutive Christmases from 2001 until 2003. Despite rumours of further episodes, in a 2008 interview, Sullivan was quoted as saying: "There will not be another series of Only Fools And Horses. I can say that. We had our day, it was wonderful but it is best to leave it now". Though Sullivan died in 2011, it returned for a special Sport Relief episode in 2014.
Theme music and titles
Only Fools and Horses has separate theme songs for the opening and closing credits, "Only Fools and Horses" and "Hooky Street", respectively. The original theme tune was produced by Ronnie Hazlehurst and recorded on 6 August 1981 at Lime Grove Studios. Alf Bigden, Paul Westwood, Don Hunt, John Dean, Judd Proctor, Eddie Mordue, and Rex Morris were hired to play the music. The tune was changed after the first series, and the new one was written by John Sullivan (he disliked the tune for the first series, and his new one explained the show's title), and Hazlehurst conducted it. It was recorded at Lime Grove on 11 May 1982, with musicians John Horler, Dave Richmond, Bigden, and Proctor. Sullivan had intended Chas & Dave to sing it because they had enjoyed success with the "Rockney" style, a mixture of rock n' roll and traditional Cockney music. Sullivan was persuaded to do it himself by Ray Butt. Despite the creation of a new theme tune, the original one remained in occasional use. Chas & Dave did later contribute to the show, performing the closing credits song for the 1989 episode "The Jolly Boys' Outing". Both songs are performed by Sullivan himself, and not – as is sometimes thought – by Nicholas Lyndhurst.
The opening credits see images of the three principal actors peel on and off the screen sequentially. These appear over a background of still photographs of everyday life in South London. The sequence was conceived by graphic designer Peter Clayton as a "metaphor for the vagaries of the Trotters' lifestyle", whereby money was earned and quickly lost again. Clayton had also considered using five-pound notes bearing Del's face. The action was shot manually frame by frame, and took around six weeks to complete. Clayton knew that it was important to have the characters established in the titles, and prepared a storyboard depicting his ideas using drawings. He photographed various locations with a photographer, and the titles were shot using a rostrum camera and not edited. Brian Stephens, a professional animator, was hired to create the labels' movement.
Clayton returned to the show when the closing credits were changed for "Christmas Crackers". He re-cut the entire sequence and added Christmas items. Another change was made necessary by Lennard Pearce's death and Buster Merryfield joining the cast, so the pictures of David Jason and Nicholas Lyndhurst were updated too. The sequence was shot on motor drive.
The closing credits for the programme varied series by series. The first series used peeling labels featuring the names of the cast and crew, mirroring the opening sequence, but these had to be updated with every new episode, making the process very time-consuming; from the second series the credits switched to a standard rolling format. The third series featured additional symbols. For the fourth series, these designs were replaced with white lettering on a black background. The fifth series had a black and white background, but the sixth series reverted to the black one. For the seventh series, the credits scrolled against a freeze frame of the final scene.
Filming locations
The original "Nelson Mandela House" in the titles was Harlech Tower, Park Road East, Acton, London. From 1988 onwards, Whitemead House, Duckmoor Road, Ashton in Bristol was used. The tower block is located behind Ashton Gate, the home ground of Bristol City Football Club, with some scenes filmed in the stadium's carpark.
Episodes
Sixty-four episodes of Only Fools and Horses, all written by John Sullivan, were broadcast on BBC1 from 8 September 1981 until 25 December 2003. The show was aired in seven series (1981–1983, 1985–1986, 1989 and 1990–1991), and thereafter in sporadic Christmas special editions (1991–1993, 1996, 2001–2003). All earlier episodes had a running time of 30 minutes, but this was extended after Series Six (1989), and all subsequent episodes had a running time ranging from 50 to 95 minutes.
Several mini-episodes were produced. An eight-minute episode aired on 27 December 1982 as part of a show hosted by Frank Muir, The Funny Side of Christmas, and attracted 7.2 million viewers. A 5-minute spoof BBC documentary was shown on Breakfast Time on 24 December 1985, with Del being investigated by a BBC consumer expert. An educational episode named "Licensed to Drill", in which Del, Rodney and Grandad discuss oil drilling, was recorded in 1984 but only shown in schools. A 5-minute 1990–91 Persian Gulf War special (dated 1 December 1990) has Del, Rodney, and Albert convey a message to British troops serving in the conflict. It has never been broadcast commercially, but a copy exists at the Imperial War Museum, London. A Comic Relief special showing Del, Rodney and Albert making an appeal for donations was shown on 14 March 1997, with 10.6 million viewers. A Sport Relief special was aired on 21 March 2014.
Only Fools and Horses had two producers: Ray Butt from 1981 to 1987, and Gareth Gwenlan thereafter. Seven directors were used: Martin Shardlow directed all episodes in series one, Bernard Thompson directed the 1981 Christmas special, Susan Belbin series four, and Mandie Fletcher series five. Butt directed series three and five, as well as the 1985, 1986 and 1987 Christmas specials. Tony Dow became the established director after 1988, directing all subsequent episodes, bar the first part of Miami Twice, which was directed by Gareth Gwenlan. John Sullivan was executive producer on seven of the final eight episodes.
Documentaries
A BBC documentary titled "The Story of Only Fools and Horses" aired in December 2002. A six-part documentary series also titled "The Story of Only Fools and Horses", began on 29 August 2017 on Gold and finished on 3 October 2017. The series features rare and unseen footage from the archives and specially re-created moments from Del Boy's family and friends. On 27 December 2020, a special called "We Love Only Fools and Horses" was broadcast on Channel 5 in which various fans, actors and crew recalled the story of the series and why the show is still popular.
Spin-offs
The Green Green Grass
A spin-off of Only Fools and Horses entitled The Green Green Grass, also written by John Sullivan and directed by Tony Dow, was first aired in the UK in September 2005. Sullivan had considered writing a sitcom around the popular characters of Boycie and Marlene (John Challis and Sue Holderness) since the mid-1980s, but it was not until the series finally ended that the idea came to fruition. The Green Green Grass saw Boycie and Marlene forced to leave Peckham by one-time Only Fools and Horses villains, the Driscoll Brothers, and included guest appearances by Denzil (Paul Barber) and Sid (Roy Heather). A second series of The Green Green Grass was broadcast in the UK in October 2006, a third in November 2007 and a fourth in January 2009.
Rock & Chips
In 2003, it was reported that Sullivan was developing a prequel to the original series, Once Upon a Time in Peckham, which would feature Del as a youngster in the 1960s, and have a prominent role for his parents. In 2009, it was again reported that the BBC were considering commissioning the show, although nothing was confirmed. On 5 April 2009, Sullivan said that he was planning a prequel to Only Fools and Horses which would star Nicholas Lyndhurst as Freddie "The Frog" Robdal, a local criminal and Rodney's biological father; Robdal was the focus of the episode "The Frog's Legacy".
On 3 July 2009, the BBC revealed that the title of the spin-off would be Sex, Drugs & Rock ‘n’ Chips, and would be a 90-minute comedy drama. The title was subsequently changed to Rock & Chips. Filming began in August 2009, and it was shown on BBC One at 9pm on 24 January 2010. In October 2009 it was confirmed that Lyndhurst would star as Robdal. The Inbetweeners and Off The Hook actor James Buckley played the role of the young Del Boy.
Home media
The show has been released on VHS, DVD and audio CD in several guises. A DVD collection containing every episode was issued, along with various other special edition box-sets, such as a tin based on their Reliant Regal. Videos and DVDs of Only Fools and Horses continue to be among the BBC's biggest-selling items, having sold over 1 million VHS copies and 6 million DVD copies in the UK.
The series made its debut on Blu-ray on 6 December 2021, with a three-disc set entitled Only Fools and Horses: The 80s Specials. It featured the five feature length Christmas specials broadcast from 1985 to 1989, restored and remastered in high-definition. For the restoration process, the original 16mm film elements were cleaned and rescanned, while the standard-definition videotape elements were "digitally reprocessed" and upscaled to HD. On the set, the episode "A Royal Flush" is featured both in its original and "writer's cut" versions; previously unreleased footage from "The Jolly Boys' Outing" is included; and various photo galleries, a booklet and artcards are also included.
In other media
Audio
Four episodes ("The Long Legs of the Law", "A Losing Streak", "No Greater Love" and "The Yellow Peril") were re-edited for audio purposes and released on audio cassette on 12 October 1998. The cassette was re-released in October 2000.
Theatre
A four-minute show named "Royal Variety Performance" was shown on 27 November 1988 (viewed by 18.14 million people) and had Del, Rodney, and Albert appear on the Royal Variety Show. It was staged on 24 November 1986, and the plot saw David Jason, Nicholas Lyndhurst and Buster Merryfield appear on stage in character, thinking that they are delivering boxes of alcohol to an associate of Del's, only later realising where they actually are. They also mistake the Duchess of York for Del's associate.
An idea of an Only Fools and Horses stage show was mooted by Ray Butt, following the success of other sitcom crossovers such as Dad's Army and Are You Being Served?. Sullivan was not keen, owing to his work on Just Good Friends as well as Only Fools and Horses, and inexperience with the theatre, so nothing came of it.
Stage musical
In July 2018, John Sullivan's son, Jim Sullivan, announced that an Only Fools and Horses musical was nearing completion, with a script by Jim Sullivan and Paul Whitehouse. Jim Sullivan said, "Back in 2010 my Dad had been toying with the possibility of a stage show but sadly didn’t get the chance to commit to it. In 2015 we met with the producer, Phil McIntyre, and agreed to develop the idea. Soon after that, Paul Whitehouse came on board and things have been bubbling away ever since. I am very pleased and excited to say that the show will be launching early next year." The musical launched on 9 February 2019 at the Theatre Royal Haymarket, London.
Books
Only Fools and Horses spawned many merchandising spin-offs. Several books have been published, such as "The Only Fools and Horses Story" by Steve Clark and "The Complete A-Z of Only Fools and Horses" by Richard Webber, both of which detail the history of the series. The scripts have been published in a three-volume compendium, "The Bible of Peckham".
In October 2015, He Who Dares..., a fictional autobiography, was published by Ebury Press. The book was written by John Sullivan's son, Jim Sullivan.
In August 2017, Only Fools and Horses: The Peckham Archives, was published by Ebury Press. The book was written by Rod Green, with the help of Jim Sullivan.
In November 2018, You Know It Makes Sense, Lessons From The Derek Trotter School of Business (And Life), was published by Ebury Press. The book was written by John Sullivan's son, Jim Sullivan.
Board games
Two board games based on the show were released: a Monopoly-style game, the "Trotters Trading Game", in which participants attempt to emulate the Trotters and become millionaires, and another game set in their local pub, entitled the "Nag's Head Board Game".
Reception
Only Fools and Horses is one of the UK's most popular sitcoms. It was among the ten most-watched television shows of the year in the UK in 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 2001, 2002 and 2003. The 1996 Christmas trilogy of "Heroes and Villains", "Modern Men" and "Time on Our Hands" saw the show's peak. The first two attracted 21.3 million viewers, while the third episode – at the time believed to be the final one – got 24.3 million, a record audience for a British sitcom. Repeat episodes also attract millions of viewers, and the BBC has received criticism for repeating the show too often.
Only Fools and Horses won the BAFTA award for best comedy series in 1985, 1988 and 1996, was nominated in 1983, 1986, 1989, 1990 and 1991, and won the audience award in 2004. David Jason received individual BAFTAs for his portrayal of Del Boy in 1990 and 1996. The series won a National Television Award in 1997 for most popular comedy series; Jason won two individual awards, in 1997 and 2002. At the British Comedy Awards, the show was named best BBC sitcom for 1990, and received the People's Choice award in 1997. It also won the Royal Television Society best comedy award in 1997 and two Television and Radio Industries Club Awards for comedy programme of the year, in 1984 and 1997. John Sullivan received the Writers' Guild of Great Britain comedy award in 1997.
The show regularly features in polls to find the most popular comedy series, moments and characters. It was voted Britain's Best Sitcom in a 2004 BBC poll,
and came 45th in the British Film Institute's list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes. It was 3rd on a subsequent viewers' poll on the BFI website. Empire magazine ranked Only Fools and Horses #42 on their list of the 50 greatest television shows of all time. It was also named the funniest British sitcom of all time through a scientific formula, in a study by Gold. Scenes such as Del Boy's fall through a bar flap in "Yuppy Love" and the Trotters accidentally smashing a priceless chandelier in "A Touch of Glass" are recognisable comedy moments, invariably topping polls of comedy viewers. Del Boy was voted the most popular British TV character of all time in a survey by Open.... and in a 2001 Channel 4 poll he ranked fourth on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters. A Onepoll survey found that Only Fools and Horses was the television series Britons would most like to see return.
Ratings
Cultural impact
In addition to its mainstream popularity, Only Fools and Horses has developed a cult following. The Only Fools and Horses Appreciation Society, established in 1993, has a membership of around 7,000, publishes a quarterly newsletter, Hookie Street, and organises annual conventions of fans, usually attended by cast members. The Society has also organised an Only Fools and Horses museum, containing props from the series, including Del's camel coat and the Trotters' Ford Capri. It was named one of the top 20 cult television programmes of all-time by TV critic Jeff Evans. Evans spoke of:
Only Fools and Horses – and consequently John Sullivan – is credited with the popularisation in Britain of several words and phrases used by Del Boy, particularly
"Plonker", meaning a fool or an idiot, and two expressions of delight or approval: "Cushty" (from the Roma word for "good") and "Lovely jubbly". The latter was borrowed from an advertising slogan for a popular 1960s orange juice drink, called Jubbly, which was packaged in a pyramid shaped, waxed paper carton. Sullivan remembered it and thought it was an expression Del Boy would use; in 2003, the phrase was incorporated into the new Oxford English Dictionary.
Owing to its exposure on Only Fools and Horses, the Reliant Regal van is often linked with the show in the British media. The one used by the Trotters has attained cult status and is currently on display at the Cars of the Stars exhibition at the National Motor Museum, alongside many other vehicles from British and American television and movies, such as the Batmobile and the DeLorean from Back to the Future. Boxer Ricky Hatton, a fan of the show, purchased one of the original vans in 2004. Another of the vans used in the series was sold at auction in the UK for £44,000 in February 2007.
During the media frenzy surrounding The Independent'''s revelations that the new bottled water Dasani, marketed by Coca-Cola, was in fact just purified tap water from Sidcup, mocking parallels were made with the Only Fools and Horses episode, "Mother Nature's Son", in which Del sells tap water as "Peckham Spring".
Rose Tyler's father Pete Tyler is referred to as "a bit of a Del Boy" in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "Father's Day".
In the closing ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics, the Trotters' yellow Reliant van appeared on stage, along with Del Boy and Rodney body doubles dressed as Batman and Robin, a reference to the Only Fools and Horses episode "Heroes and Villains".
International remakes Only Fools and Horses was sold to countries throughout the world. Australia, Belgium, Cyprus, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Malta, New Zealand, Pakistan, Portugal, South Africa, Spain and Yugoslavia are among those who purchased it. In all former Yugoslav countries in which Serbian or Croatian is spoken the title was Mućke (or Мућке in Cyrillic script), which can roughly be translated as "shady deals". This translation was also used in Macedonia, where the show was titled Spletki (Сплетки in Cyrillic). In Slovenia, however, the show was titled Samo bedaki in konji, which is a literal Slovenian translation of the original English title. The show has enjoyed particular popularity in the former Yugoslavia, and is regarded as a cult series in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia.
A number of overseas re-makes have also been produced. A Dutch version aired for one series in 1995, entitled Wat schuift't? ("What's it good for?"). The Trotters were renamed the Aarsmans and it starred Johnny Kraaykamp jnr. as Stef (Del), Sacco Van der Made as Grandad and Kasper van Kooten as Robbie (Rodney), and was shown on RTL 4. A Portuguese re-make, O Fura-Vidas, a local expression for someone who lives outside the law, ran for three series from 1999 to 2001. It was a literal translation of the British version, with all episodes based on the originals. It centred on the Fintas family, who live in Sapadores, a neighbourhood in Lisbon, and starred Miguel Guilherme as Quim (Del), Canto e Castro as Grandad, and Ivo Canelas as Joca (Rodney). In this Portuguese version the Reliant's equivalent was a 1988 Suzuki Super Carry. A Slovenian re-make, called Brat bratu (Brother to Brother), was broadcast from 2008 to 2009. All episodes were based on the original British storylines, and it was made in co-operation with John Sullivan. It featured brothers Brane (Brane Šturbej) and Bine (Jure Drevenšek), who moved from Maribor to Ljubljana. The series also stars Peter Ternovšek as Grandad. It was directed by Branko Đurić. The series was cancelled after thirteen episodes due to poor ratings.
There have been several plans to produce an American version. One was to be a star vehicle for former M*A*S*H actor Harry Morgan, with Grandad rather than Del becoming the lead character. The other, entitled This Time Next Year..., would have seen the Trotters renamed the Flannagans. A draft script was written for the latter, but neither show materialised. In 2010 Steve Carell, star of the US version of The Office, expressed an interest in making an American version of the series, with him to star as Del Boy. In January 2012 US network ABC commissioned a pilot of an Only Fools and Horses remake titled "King of Van Nuys", written by Scrubs writers Steven Cragg and Brian Bradley. It was developed, rejected and then redeveloped, only to be rejected again later in the year. The pilot starred John Leguizamo as Del, Dustin Ybarra as his brother Rodney and Christopher Lloyd as Grandad.
A parody called Only Jerks and Horses'' was written by David Walliams and Matt Lucas and directed by Edgar Wright in 1997.
Notes
References
External links
Only Fools and Horses at Facebook
Only Fools and Horses at UKTV Gold
Only Fools and Horses at British TV Comedy Guide
Only Fools and Horses Appreciation Society
Audio interviews with the cast, and photos from an Only Fools and Horses Day in Swindon in 2004 at ***BBC Wiltshire
Filming locations from Only Fools and Horses
1981 British television series debuts
2003 British television series endings
1980s British sitcoms
1990s British sitcoms
2000s British sitcoms
BAFTA winners (television series)
BBC Radio comedy programmes
BBC television sitcoms
English-language television shows
Peckham
Television shows shot in Bristol
Television series about brothers
Television series about dysfunctional families
Television shows set in London
Television series by BBC Studios
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200852
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love%20Thy%20Neighbour%20%281972%20TV%20series%29
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Love Thy Neighbour (1972 TV series)
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Love Thy Neighbour is a British television sitcom that was broadcast from 13 April 1972 until 22 January 1976. The show spanned eight series, lasted for 53 episodes (plus an unaired pilot) and was produced by Thames Television for the ITV network.
The principal cast consists of Jack Smethurst, Rudolph Walker, Nina Baden-Semper, and Kate Williams. In 1973, the series was adapted into a film of the same name, and a later sequel series was set in Australia.
Synopsis
The series was created and largely written by Vince Powell and Harry Driver; it was based around a white working class couple (Eddie and Joan Booth) living in Twickenham, in the outer London suburbs, and a black couple (Bill and Barbie Reynolds) as their next-door neighbours. One of the leads, Rudolph Walker, who played Bill Reynolds, wrote in an article for The Guardian in 2001 that the show is about "a black guy and a white guy being damned stupid".
Controversy
Since 1972, when Love Thy Neighbour was first transmitted, it has been criticised for its poor handling of issues of racism. It was made in an era when Britain was struggling to come to terms with mass immigration, and Love Thy Neighbour was said to exemplify those difficulties. According to writer Sarita Malik, this meant "comedies about race" were really about "blacks signifying trouble" so that consequentially "if the White characters did display prejudice, this was deemed funny or understandable given the 'difficulty of the situation'."
Its writers stated that each episode included both anti-white and anti-black sentiment. In Malik's opinion, in this "mutual racism", racist attitudes were "shown as a reciprocal, inevitable and petty process" rather than being faced with any challenge. As a result, academic Nora Plesske maintains that the premise continued without any change in attitudes or permanent resolution of the conflict.
The views of the main white male character (Eddie Booth, played by Jack Smethurst) were presented so as to make him appear ignorant and bigoted and were contrasted with the more tolerant attitude of his wife. "In nearly every show, the white neighbour was shown to be wrong", Rudolph Walker wrote in 2001. A contemporary reviewer in the Daily Mirror, Mary Malone, believed "the only characters who leave the screen with their dignity intact are the blacks. Now that's what I call prejudice."
The main male black character (Bill Reynolds, played by Walker) was better educated, although also stubborn and capable of using insulting phrases, such as the terms "Honky", "Snowflake", "Paleface" or "Big White Chief" to describe his white neighbour (often in response to being called "nig-nog" or "Sambo"). The comedy invariably fixated on the "Blackness" of Bill and Barbie or rather, as Malik expressed it, "television's interpretation of Blackness (limbo-dancing, voodoo/Black magic)." Other black stereotypes, such as regular references to cannibalism from the first episode onwards, became a running joke.
A contributor to the BFI Screenonline website wrote that "the characters and scripts of Love Thy Neighbour are flat, ramshackle, superficial and, because of the often careless and stereotypical exploitation of the central premise, intermittently offensive" while "the comic value of the clumsy and gratuitous slanging matches that were central to the show is difficult to comprehend today, and it all makes for glum viewing."
It has sometimes been considered that Love Thy Neighbour was an attempt by ITV (with inferior writing) to capitalise on the success of the BBC's Till Death Us Do Part (by Johnny Speight), also the source of great controversy for many of the same reasons. Repeats of Love Thy Neighbour have not been seen on British terrestrial television for many years. Rudolph Walker, who defends the series, regrets the programme's reputation in a "very politically correct climate" and asked in 2003 why "We can't take the piss out of each other and laugh". While Love Thy Neighbour was hugely popular at the time of its broadcast, its commissioner at Thames Television, head of light entertainment Philip Jones, acknowledged in 1972 that it received poor reviews.
The series has since been repeated on satellite television stations in the UK, although each episode begins with a warning about content. In 2003, DVDs of the series were reported to be selling well in Nigeria, parts of the Caribbean and Australia.
Theme music
The theme song, "Love Thy Neighbour", was composed by Mack Gordon and Harry Revel and sung by Stuart Gillies. It was first published and recorded in 1934 (using the American spelling, "Love Thy Neighbor"), when Bing Crosby performed it in the musical comedy film We're Not Dressing.
Characters
Eddie Booth (Jack Smethurst) is a white socialist. His world is turned upside down when Bill and Barbie Reynolds, who are black, move in next door. Eddie is even more annoyed when Bill gets a job at the same factory as him, and refers to him as a "nig-nog", "Sambo", "choc-ice" and "King Kong" among other things. He also has a tendency to call Chinese, Pakistanis or Indians names like "Fu Manchu", "Gunga Din" and "Ali Baba". He repeatedly insinuates that all blacks (and Bill in particular) are cannibals, and claims that "white always takes precedence over black". He is temporarily promoted to foreman in the episode "Clarky Leaves", but ends up being demoted after Bill complains he is running the factory like a forced labour camp; afterward, Bill gets the foreman's job. Eddie is a supporter of Manchester United. Notwithstanding his seeming contempt for Bill, the reality is that they drink together and are friends. Eddie's catchphrases include "Bloody Nora!", "Knickers!", "The subject is closed", "You bloody nig-nog!" and "Get knotted!"
Joan Booth (Kate Williams) is Eddie's wife. She does not share her bigoted husband's opinion of their black neighbours and is good friends with Barbie. She often responds to Eddie's complaints with a sarcastic remark. Her catchphrases include "Don't be ridiculous!", "Don't talk rubbish!", and "May God forgive ya", which she normally says in response to Eddie denying his bigoted ways. She and Barbie both become pregnant at the end of Series 3; Joan later gives birth to a son, Mark.
Bill Reynolds (Rudolph Walker) is a West Indian and a Conservative. He is a supporter of West Ham United. Whenever Eddie tries to outdo him, Bill usually ends up having the last laugh and rarely gets his comeuppance. He tends to have a very short temper, especially where Eddie is concerned, and has threatened him with a clenched fist several times. Although sophisticated and educated compared to Eddie, Bill is also stubborn and more than capable of using insulting phrases; he occasionally refers to Eddie as a "white honky" and "snowflake", and does not like catching Eddie staring at his wife. He also has a very high-pitched laugh. Bill is promoted to foreman at the end of the episode "Clarky Leaves". His catchphrases include "Hey, honky!", "Cobblers!" and "You talking to me, snowflake?".
Barbie Reynolds (Nina Baden-Semper) is Bill's wife. Barbie and her next-door neighbour, Joan Booth, instantly strike up a friendship that carries on throughout the series, and the two women are often seen drinking tea or eating or getting caught up in their antagonistic husbands' latest row. Eddie is sometimes fascinated by her, as in the pilot episode when she bends over while wearing hotpants. She and Joan both become pregnant at the end of Series 3; Barbie gives birth to a son, Terry. Unlike other characters, she does not have any catchphrases.
Jacko Robinson (Keith Marsh) is a socialist who works with Bill and Eddie. His catchphrase is "I'll have (a) half" (referring to a half-pint of bitter). He is not very bright, and often deviates from discussions between Eddie, Bill and Arthur.
Arthur Thomas (Tommy Godfrey) is another of Eddie and Bill's socialist co-workers at the factory, and is often seen in the local pub playing cards and talking about trade union issues. Arthur, like Joan, is also more tolerant of Bill than Eddie is.He is a supporter of Arsenal
Nobby Garside (Paul Luty) is the barman of the social club from series 4 onwards. Initially hostile towards Eddie, they gradually sort out their differences as the series goes on.He is a supporter of Leeds United.
Unaired pilot episode
The unaired pilot episode featured Jack Smethurst (Eddie), Rudolph Walker (Bill) and Nina Baden-Semper (Barbie) with Gwendolyn Watts as Joan Booth (instead of Kate Williams as in the series and film). The pilot episode script was modified slightly for the first episode of the series, which was titled "New Neighbours".
Filming locations
Exterior shots of the Reynolds and Booth residences for the unaired pilot episode were filmed at 90 and 92 The Alders, Hanworth, TW13 6NY. Series exteriors were filmed at 102 and 104 Bushy Park Road, Teddington, TW11 9DL. Interiors were filmed at the nearby Thames Television studios at Teddington.
Sequel and American remake
An Australian spin-off series, also called Love Thy Neighbour, was made in 1979, three years after the British series ended. Consisting of seven episodes, the series saw the character Eddie Booth transplanted to the Sydney suburb of Blacktown. The explanation given for the absence of Eddie's wife and child is Eddie has emigrated first and the family will join him after he has established himself. In this series, Eddie is a boarder with a married couple, Joyce (played by Sue Jones) and Bernard (Robert Hughes). Eddie's supervisor in his new job, Jim (Russell Newman), is also his neighbour. While the two men are initially hostile to each other, by episode three ('A Night to Remember') they are, essentially, friends. The series does not depict any racial tension, although Eddie remains typically pigheaded and prone to tirades about the racial superiority of the British.
An American version of the show, set in the suburbs of Los Angeles and titled Love Thy Neighbor, ran during the summer of 1973 on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) television network. This toned-down version of the British original ran for one series of 12 episodes.
Other appearance
Smethurst and Walker appeared as relaxing actors having a drink together in the studio bar when George Roper (Brian Murphy) walks in while searching the Thames Television TV studios in the 1974 film Man About the House.
Film
Episodes of the series
Pilot
0. "The Pilot" (unbroadcast pilot episode)
Series 1 (1972)
"New Neighbours" (broadcast: 13 April 1972)
"Limbo Dancing" (broadcast: 20 April 1972)
"The Petition" (broadcast: 27 April 1972)
"Factory Dispute" (broadcast: 4 May 1972)
"The Seven Year Itch" (broadcast: 11 May 1972)
"Refused A Drink" (broadcast: 18 May 1972)
"Sex Appeal" (broadcast: 25 May 1972)
All written by Vince Powell and Harry Driver
Series 2 (1972)
"The Housewarming Party" (broadcast: 11 September 1972)
"Voodoo" (broadcast: 18 September 1972)
"Clarky Leaves" (broadcast: 25 September 1972)
"The Bedroom Suite" (broadcast: 2 October 1972)
"The T.U.C. Conference '72" (broadcast: 9 October 1972)
"Religious Fervour" (broadcast: 16 October 1972)
All written by Vince Powell and Harry Driver
All Star Christmas Special
"All Star Comedy Carnival" (broadcast: 25 December 1972)
Series 3 (1973)
"The G.P.O." (broadcast: 19 March 1973)
"The Car" (broadcast: 26 March 1973)
"Eddie Returns From Holiday" (broadcast: 2 April 1973)
"Lion and the Lamb" (broadcast: 9 April 1973)
"The Lift" (broadcast: 16 April 1973)
"Barbie Becomes Pregnant" (broadcast: 30 April 1973)
All written by Vince Powell and Harry Driver
Series 4 (1973–74)
"Hines' Sight" (broadcast: 17 December 1973)
"Friendly" (broadcast: 24 December 1973)
"Working on New Year's Eve" (broadcast: 31 December 1973)
"Eddie's Mother in Law" (broadcast: 7 January 1974)
"The Ante-Natal Clinic" (broadcast: 14 January 1974)
"Two Weeks To Babies" (broadcast: 21 January 1974)
"To The Hospital" (broadcast: 28 January 1974)
"The Big Day" (broadcast: 4 February 1974)
All written by Vince Powell and Harry Driver
Series 5 (1974)
"The Mediterranean" (broadcast: 18 February 1974)
"Bananas" (broadcast: 1 April 1974 – see notes, below)
"Teething Problems" broadcast February 1974)
"Eddie's Birthday" (broadcast: 4 March 1974)
"Cat's Away – Part 1" (broadcast: 11 March 1974)
"Cat's Away – Part 2" (broadcast: 18 March 1974)
"Ghosts" (broadcast: 25 March 1974)
All written by Vince Powell
Series 6 (1975)
"Reggie" (broadcast: 2 January 1975)
"Jacko's Wedding" (broadcast: 9 January 1975)
"Duel at Dawn" (broadcast: 16 January 1975)
"The Darts' Final" (broadcast: 23 January 1975)
"Royal Blood" (broadcast: 30 January 1975)
"The Nannies" (broadcast: 13 February 1975)
"Club Concert" (broadcast: 6 February 1975)
All written by Vince Powell
Series 7 (1975)
"Famous Crimes" (broadcast: 17 April 1975)
"The Lady and the Tramp" (broadcast: 24 April 1975)
"Protection of the Law" (broadcast: 1 May 1975)
"The Opinion Poll" (broadcast: 8 May 1975)
"Manchester... United" (broadcast: 15 May 1975)
"The T.U.C Conference '75" (broadcast: 22 May 1975)
"The Coach Trip" (broadcast: 1 January 1976) (This was intended as the last episode of series 7, but for unknown reasons was not broadcast in that timeslot. It later appeared as the fourth episode of series 8, under the new title "The Coach Outing to Bournemouth".)
Episode 1 written by Sid Colin
Episode 2 written by Brian Cooke
Episode 3 written by Jon Watkins
Episode 4 written by H.V. Kershaw
Episode 5 written by Colin Edmonds
Episode 6 written by George Evans and Lawrie Wyman
Episode 7 written by Spike Mullins
Series 8 (1975–76)
"The Local By-Election" (broadcast: 11 December 1975)
"Eddie Becomes A Father Again" (broadcast: 18 December 1975)
"Christmas Spirit" (broadcast: 25 December 1975)
"For Sale" (broadcast: 8 January 1976)
"Power Cut" (broadcast: 15 January 1976)
"The Lodger" (broadcast: 22 January 1976)
Episode 1 written by Johnny Mortimer
Episode 2 written by Brian Cooke
Episode 3 written by Sid Colin
Episode 4 written by H.V. Kershaw
Episode 5 written by George Evans and Lawrie Wyman
Episode 6 written by Adele Rose
DVD releases
Until 2016, the series' DVD releases had been somewhat muddled. The earlier releases were superseded by the Love Thy Neighbour: The Complete Series nine-DVD box set from the Network imprint. It includes the unscreened pilot episode, all eight series in their intended running order, the Christmas 1972 short sketch for All Star Comedy Carnival, the 1973 New Year Special, and a new transfer of the 1973 feature film in its theatrical aspect ratio. It coincided with a standalone release of the feature film on Blu-ray.
Series 1–4 were originally released by Pegasus Entertainment, and Series 5–8 were released by FremantleMedia. Once Fremantle realised the issues with the DVD, it decided to completely release all the series in the correct order. The film has been released by Studiocanal. The following list shows the previous two sets of DVD releases:
Pegasus DVDs (no longer available)
Unbroadcast pilot episode and all 7 episodes from Series 1
All 6 episodes from Series 2 and first 4 episodes from Series 3
Final 2 episodes from Series 3 and all episodes from Series 4
Fremantle
Unbroadcast pilot episode – Series 1
Episodes 1–7 – Series 1
Episodes 8–13 – Series 2
Episodes 14–19 – Series 3
Episodes 20–27 – Series 4
Episodes 28–33 – Series 5
Episodes 34–40 – Series 6
Episodes 41–46 – Series 7
Episodes 47–53 – Series 8
Episodes 1–53 – complete series
The often quoted missing 'April Fool' episode does not actually exist. During the 1974 run of the show it was postponed one week which led to it running longer than intended and receiving billing in TV Times for more weeks than it should. The episode "Bananas" was delayed, and "Eddie's Birthday", scheduled to be broadcast on 25 February, was not actually broadcast until 4 March. "Bananas" was then added onto the end of the series on 1 April, for which TV Times added an April Fool reference to the description that appeared for the earlier screening. So the April Fools episode is actually "Bananas" which is included in the DVD set. "The Coach Trip" was due to be aired with series 7, but for unknown reasons was not broadcast. It later appeared as part of series 8, with the new title "The Coach Outing to Bournemouth".
The DVDs list eight series, which is now known to be accurate when Network checked through the original scripts whilst compiling the compete series DVD set. Series 4 is the pregnancy story arc, and contains the final episodes written together by creators Vince Powell and Harry Driver. Series 5 continued to be broadcast straight after series 4, following the illness and subsequent death of co-creator Harry Driver, and as such was solely written by Powell.
After the initial broadcast of "The Big Day" (Series 4), in which Jack Smethurst plays the new baby as well as himself, there was an extra film of Nina Baden-Semper and Kate Williams with their real newborn babies (the reason for the pregnancy theme of the series). This extra bit was not on the Pegasus DVD, but is on the Network DVD of Series 4.
See also
List of films based on British sitcoms
BFI.org
References
External links
Race and Sitcom
(TV series)
(film)
Episode Guide with descriptions on ComedySeries.info
1972 British television series debuts
1976 British television series endings
1970s British sitcoms
English-language television shows
ITV sitcoms
Race-related controversies in television
Racism in television
Television shows adapted into films
Television shows produced by Thames Television
Television series about marriage
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television shows set in London
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200853
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Green
|
Keith Green
|
Keith Gordon Green (October 21, 1953 – July 28, 1982) was an American pianist, singer, and songwriter in the contemporary Christian music genre, who was originally from Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, New York. His most notable songs are "There Is a Redeemer", which was written by his wife Melody, and "(Until) Your Love Broke Through".
Early life
Green took to music at a young age, as he "began with the ukulele at three, the guitar at five, and the piano at seven." His talents were noted by a major newspaper when he was eight, following a performance of Arthur Laurents' The Time of the Cuckoo. A local review by the Los Angeles Times wrote, "roguish-looking, eight-year-old Keith Green gave a winning portrayal" of "the little Italian street urchin, Mauro"; another review commented that he "stole the show". The show was Green's first appearance in live theater, which was held in Chatsworth, California in September 1962. According to the LA Times, he had already done a number of television commercials and made a TV pilot.
Green played the role of Kurt von Trapp in The Sound of Music starring Janet Blair in the opening production at the Valley Music Theater, a modern 2865-seat theater-in-the-round in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles when he was 10.
Green and his father Harvey signed a five-year contract with Decca Records in February 1965, with Harvey as business manager, having written 40 original songs already. The first song released on disc was "A Go-Go Getter" in May 1965, produced by Gary Usher, which he had composed and published before signing with Decca. He became the youngest person ever to sign with the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) upon publication of this song at age 11.
Decca Records planned to make Green a teen idol, regularly getting him featured in fan magazines such as Teen Scene and on television shows such as The Jack Benny Program and The Steve Allen Show. He was a guest on the television game show I've Got a Secret on May 3, 1965. His secret was "I just signed a five-year contract as a rock-'n'-roll singer." The segment included a live performance of "We'll Do a Lot of Things Together".
Green had written 10 more songs by the time that he was 12. Time ran an article about aspiring young rock-'n'-roll singers and referred to him as Decca Records' "prepubescent dreamboat". The national attention that had been envisioned by Decca Records failed to materialize for Green, however, as Donny Osmond captured the attention of preteens and teenagers, eclipsing Green's newfound stardom, and he was quickly forgotten by the public.
Spiritual experience
Green had a Jewish heritage and was raised in Christian Science. He grew up reading the New Testament and called the mixture of being Jewish and learning about Jesus "an odd combination" that left him open-minded but confused and deeply unsatisfied. As a teen perceiving his music career had failed, he ran away from home, began smoking marijuana, and used some psychedelics in hopes of finding spiritual truth. He became interested in eastern mysticism and the "free love" culture. After experiencing what Green described as a "bad trip", he abandoned drug use and became interested in philosophy and theology. After Green met Melody Steiner at age 19, they were inseparable, and married a year later.
Ministry
In 1975, the Greens, just new believers, began taking people who needed help into their small home in the suburbs of Los Angeles, in the San Fernando Valley. Both were staff songwriters for CBS Records in Hollywood and used their income to support all who came. Early on, their close friend and Christian recording artist, Randy Stonehill, who was struggling at the time, stayed for a while. Their home was later dubbed "The Greenhouse" – a place where people grow. The Greens continued to open their home but mostly to strangers in need. They eventually ran out of space and, purchasing the home next door to their own and renting an additional five in the same neighborhood, they provided a safe environment of Bible Studies and practical discipleship to young and old alike. The majority were teenagers and those of college age. Much to the consternation of neighbors, there came to be 75 people living in the Green's homes and traipsing down the suburban streets—including recovering drug addicts and prostitutes, bikers, the homeless, and many single pregnant girls needing shelter and safety. Some were referred to the Greens by other ministries and shelters, but most just crossed their path during their normal life at home and on the road. In 1977, the Greens personal outreach became a nonprofit ministry they called Last Days Ministries. Green also became an ordained minister.
Green's initial tone of ministry was influenced by the words of Jesus in the Bible. Later, he was also influenced by his friends Winkie Pratney, and Leonard Ravenhill, who pointed him to Charles Finney, a nineteenth-century revivalist preacher who preached the holiness of God to provoke conviction in his hearers. During his concerts he would often exhort his listeners to repent and commit themselves more wholly to following Christ. Through relationships with Loren Cunningham the founder of Youth with a Mission (YWAM), missions leader John Dawson, and a trip with his wife to overseas missions projects Green saw the worldwide need for missionaries. He realized he was often too hard on growing believers and believed that all Christians needed to have at least a brief stint on the mission field. His assurance of God's unconditional love for him grew as well. This transition is evident in his music beginning with So You Wanna Go Back to Egypt in 1980. He described the changes he went through in his next-to-last article for the Last Days Magazine.
Recording
Green was signed to Contemporary Christian music label Sparrow Records in 1976 and worked on the album Firewind (1976) with Christian artists 2nd Chapter of Acts, Terry and John Michael Talbot, and Barry McGuire. Prior to Keith's signing with Sparrow Records, and two years before the release of No Compromise, Tommy James, of Tommy James and the Shondells, recorded "Don't Wanna Fall Away from You," composed by Green, for his 1976 Fantasy album In Touch.
His first solo project, For Him Who Has Ears to Hear, was released in 1977 and topped the charts. His second solo release, No Compromise, followed in 1978. In 1979, after negotiating a release from his contract with Sparrow, Green initiated a new policy of refusing to charge money for concerts or albums. Keith and Melody mortgaged their home to privately finance Green's next album, So You Wanna Go Back to Egypt. The album, which featured a guest appearance by Bob Dylan, was offered through mail order and at concerts for a price determined by the purchaser. By May 1982, Green had shipped out more than 200,000 units of his album – 61,000 for free. Subsequent albums included The Keith Green Collection (1981) and Songs for the Shepherd (1982).
When his music was carried by Christian bookstores, a second cassette was included free of charge for every cassette purchased to give away to a friend to help spread the Gospel.
Last Days Ministries
In 1978, Last Days Ministries (LDM) began publishing the Last Days Newsletter from the Greens' garage. Originally printed on a few pages of loose paper, the newsletter grew in content to eventually become a "small, colorful magazine" and was renamed in mid-1985 as the Last Days Magazine. The magazine featured articles by Green and his wife Melody, as well as contemporary Christian authors David Wilkerson, Leonard Ravenhill, and Winkie Pratney, all of whom lived in the area. The publication also later included the reprinted works of classic Christian authors such as Charles Finney, John Wesley, and William Booth and his wife Catherine. Most of the articles were reprinted as tracts. After Keith's 1982 death Melody was appointed to lead the ministry. By the mid-1980s, the Last Days Magazine was sent out to over 500,000 people worldwide.
In 1979, the ministry relocated from the San Fernando Valley to a plot of land in Garden Valley, Texas, a crossroads community about west of Lindale, Texas. Within a few years, Last Days purchased additional land, bringing the total to .
Death in plane crash
Along with 11 others, Green died on July 28, 1982, when the Robertson STOL-modified Cessna 414 leased by Last Days Ministries crashed after takeoff from the private airstrip located on the LDM property. The small twin-engined plane was carrying 11 passengers and the pilot, Don Burmeister, for an aerial tour of the LDM property and the surrounding area. Green and two of his children, three-year-old Josiah and two-year-old Bethany, were on board the plane, along with visiting church planters, John and Dede Smalley and their six children. Green's wife Melody was at home with one-year-old Rebekah and six weeks pregnant with their fourth child, Rachel, born in March 1983.
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) determined that the crash was caused by the pilot in command (PIC) allowing the aircraft to be loaded beyond its operating limitations. The required preflight weight and balance computations responsibility of civilian pilots would have shown it was dangerously overloaded and also outside its weight and balance operating envelope. This responsibility with military pilots is the responsibility of the military loadmaster, and thus he may have, by force of habit, overlooked this responsibility. Don Alan Burmeister was a former United States Marine Corps aviator, but FAA records show he had very limited experience / training in flying conventional (vs. centerline thrust) twin-engine aircraft. Records show it was only a short time prior to the accident (6/9/82) that he completed a check-ride to remove the "centerline thrust" restriction from his pilot's certificate. This check-ride should have fully evaluated his ability to fly a conventional multi-engine aircraft throughout its designed range of operations, but the flight examiner was decertified the next month (7/10/82) by the FAA due to a "history of incomplete or substandard check-rides". Additionally, the insurance carrier (Ideal Mutual Insurance Co.) required Burmeister to log 1,045 hrs of flying time, attend a Cessna ground and flight training course, as well as log 15 hours in a Cessna 414 (C-414) prior to acting as the PIC of the leased aircraft. The NTSB record shows he failed to accomplish all of these requirements. With pilot and eleven passengers, the aircraft was overloaded by an estimated , and the location of the center of gravity was found to be beyond the maximum aft limit. Combined with an air temperature of , creating a condition known as "hot and high" (high density altitude, producing a lower climb rate on takeoff and greater danger of stalling), the C-414 could do little but struggle into the air within ground effect, and once airborne was left virtually uncontrollable. These factors prevented the aircraft from ever attaining sufficient altitude, and it crashed into trees less than a mile from the airport.
Keith Gordon Green, Josiah David Green (September 18, 1978 – July 28, 1982), and Bethany Grace Green (February 5, 1980 – July 28, 1982) are interred in the same coffin at Garden Valley Cemetery behind the Garden Valley Baptist Church, less than a half-mile from the LDM property. He was survived by his wife and two daughters, Rebekah Joy Green (b. 1981) and Rachel Hope Green (b. March 1983, eight months after Green's death).
Last Days Ministries continues
Melody Green continued to lead Last Days Ministries from Texas until 1996, when she moved to California and launched Last Days Ministries Online where all of Green's writings are free and his music can be found. The free monthly Last Days Ministries Newsletter is also sent out by request.
Melody maintains the Keith Green Facebook page to honor Keith and also shares her opinions on the Melody Green Facebook Page where she interacts with Green's fans and Last Days Ministries fans.
Legacy
Two full albums of original Green songs were released posthumously: The Prodigal Son (1983) and Jesus Commands Us to Go! (1984). Another release, I Only Want to See You There (1983) contained mostly previously released material. A compilation of his recorded work, The Ministry Years, was released as a two-volume set in 1987 and 1988 and included five previously unreleased songs.
Another unreleased Christian song "Born Again" by Keith and Melody was finally released in 1999, 17 years after his death, on the First Love compilation video and CD. Both feature a two-song tribute to Green by other Christian artists.
In 2008, Melody with her grown daughters Rebekah Joy and Rachel Hope partnered with Sparrow Records and released The Live Experience – Special Edition, a CD/DVD combination of 16 live recordings and 4 hours of DVD footage including video of live performances as well as details regarding Green's life and his passing. A greatest hits album was also released at the same time, including 17 of Green's most popular songs and one more previously unreleased Christian song, "Your Love Came Over Me".
On November 23, 2009, the EP Happy Birthday to You Jesus was released, containing a talk by Green about Christmas and another previously unreleased song, "Happy Birthday to You Jesus".
A prolific personal journalist, Green's writings were published as excerpts in the books A Cry in the Wilderness (Sparrow, 1993), If You Love the Lord (Harvest House, 2000), and Make My Life a Prayer (Harvest House, 2001).
Tribute recordings
In 1992, several artists joined together to re-record many of the Green's best-known songs for a tribute album called No Compromise: Remembering the Music of Keith Green under the Sparrow Records label. Artists contributing to the recording include Petra, Charlie Peacock, Susan Ashton, Margaret Becker, Michael Card, GLAD, Rich Mullins, Steven Curtis Chapman, Steve Green, and Russ Taff.
In 2001, BEC Recordings released a second tribute record Start Right Here: Remembering the Life of Keith Green. Produced by Derri Daugherty, the album included performances by new contemporary Christian artists MxPx, Joy Electric, Starflyer 59, among others.
At the 20th anniversary of Green's death, Sparrow Records released another tribute album, Your Love Broke Through: The Worship Songs of Keith Green. The 2002 album contains re-recordings by Rebecca St. James, Michelle Tumes, Chris Tomlin, Twila Paris, Darlene Zschech, Jason Upton, Martin Smith, Charlie Hall, Joanne Hogg, Matt Redman, Paul Oakley, and Sarah Sadler. The album contains contemporary Christian and mainstream artist Michael W. Smith's version of the song "There Is One", an unfinished work by Green. Composition of the song was completed by Smith, along with British songwriter and Christian music artist Martin Smith.
Honors
On November 27, 2001, Green was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame. Melody Green and their daughters Rebekah and Rachel attended to receive the honor for Keith.
On April 3, 2006, Green was honored with the ASCAP Crescendo Award at the 28th annual ASCAP Christian Music Awards presentation dinner. His widow, Melody Green, and their daughter Rachel were present to receive the award for Keith.
Documentary
The Keith Green Story - Your Love Broke Through, a 2002 documentary DVD about Green's life, was directed by Daren Thomas with Melody Green as executive producer. Narrated by Toby Mac, it was distributed by Sparrow Records.
Film
In 2011, Melody Green announced that a feature film about Green's life was in development. After the initial producers failed to exercise their final option to obtain long-term film rights, Melody began to gather a new production team. As of 2013, the film was under development.
Discography
Career releases: 1965–1982
Mainstream recordings
Besides the first disc release in May 1965 (pictured below), two more Decca disc releases occurred before Donny Osmond took the spotlight.
Christian albums
For Him Who Has Ears to Hear (May 20, 1977)
No Compromise (November 9, 1978)
So You Wanna Go Back to Egypt (May 7, 1980)
The Keith Green Collection (August 11, 1981)
Songs for the Shepherd (April 12, 1982)
Posthumous releases
Christian albums
I Only Want to See You There (March 21, 1983)
The Prodigal Son (August 15, 1983)
Jesus Commands Us to Go! (July 20, 1984)
The Ministry Years, Volume One (1987)
The Ministry Years, Volume Two (1988)
The Early Years (1996)
Best of Keith Green: Asleep in the Light (1996)
Because of You: Songs of Testimony (1998)
Here Am I, Send Me: Songs of Evangelism (1998)
Make My Life a Prayer to You: Songs of Devotion (1998)
Oh Lord, You're Beautiful: Songs of Worship (1998)
The Ultimate Collection (DVD/CD release) (2002)
Live Experience (CD) (April 29, 2008)
Greatest Hits (April 29, 2008)
Happy Birthday to You Jesus (November 23, 2009)
Icon (July 16, 2013)
20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection: The Best of Keith Green (February 3, 2015)
Mainstream albums
Keith Green Live (His Incredible Youth) (1995)
The Early Word (February 13, 2009)
Tribute albums
No Compromise: Remembering the Music of Keith Green (1993)
Start Right Here: Remembering the Life of Keith Green (2001)
Your Love Broke Through: The Worship Songs Of Keith Green (2002)
Bibliography
(All released posthumously)
No Compromise: The Life Story of Keith Green by Melody Green (1989)
A Cry in the Wilderness: Twelve Bold Messages About Uncompromising Faith (1993)
If You Love the Lord (2000)
Make My Life a Prayer (2001)
References
External links
Last Days Ministries
Aircraft Incident and Accident report (contains text of NTSB report and a great deal more information)
Famous People Who Died in Aviation Accidents, 1980s (This ties Keith Green to the Aircraft Registration Number in the NTSB report)
High Altitude Aerial Photo of Garden Valley, with a view of private runway inside the Last Days Ministries property (1995 satellite photo)
The Keith Green Story, video documentary
1953 births
1982 deaths
20th-century American singers
Accidental deaths in Texas
American child singers
American evangelicals
American people of Jewish descent
American performers of Christian music
Christian music songwriters
Former Christian Scientists
Jewish American musicians
Messianic Jews
People from Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1982
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States
Jewish rock musicians
20th-century American pianists
American male pianists
20th-century American male singers
Musicians killed in aviation accidents or incidents
|
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] |
200859
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politically%20Incorrect%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Politically Incorrect (disambiguation)
|
Politically Incorrect is a late-night U.S. political talk show.
Politically Incorrect may also refer to:
Politically incorrect, someone or something which does not meet a standard of political correctness
Politically Incorrect (blog), a German political blog
/pol/ or Politically Incorrect, a discussion board on 4chan and 8chan
See also
Politically Correct (disambiguation)
|
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200861
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Cisterna
|
Battle of Cisterna
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The Battle of Cisterna took place during World War II, on 30 January–2 February 1944, near Cisterna, Italy, as part of the Battle of Anzio, part of the Italian Campaign. The battle was a clear German victory which also had repercussions on the employment of U.S. Army Rangers that went beyond the immediate tactical and strategic results of the battle.
During this battle, the 1st, 3rd, and 4th U.S. Army Ranger battalions, the 83rd Chemical Mortar Battalion, and the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion, which had been brigaded as the 6615th Ranger Force (Provisional) commanded by Colonel William O. Darby, were assigned to support the renewal of an attack by Major General Lucian Truscott's 3rd Infantry Division, which had previously failed to take Cisterna from 25–27 January. The 3rd Division's attack was part of a large offensive by Major General John Lucas's U.S. VI Corps to break out of the Anzio beachhead before German reinforcements could arrive and concentrate for a counterattack.
Background
On 22 January 1944, the Allies launched Operation Shingle, the amphibious landing by the U.S. and British divisions of U.S. VI Corps in the area of Anzio and Nettuno. This was designed to unhinge the formidable German Gustav Line defenses some to the southeast which had been under attack from the south by the other three corps (one British, one French and one U.S.) of Mark Clark's United States Fifth Army since 16 January in the first Battle of Monte Cassino. Following the landings, which had been virtually unopposed, John P. Lucas—the VI Corps commander—had chosen a cautious strategy of consolidating the beachhead and building up his force strength, which also allowed time for the Germans to reinforce their defensive positions. By 29 January, there were 69,000 men in the beachhead but the Germans had also had time to react and move 71,500 troops to face them.
On 31 January, Lucas launched a two-pronged attack. The main attack, by British 1st Infantry Division, was to advance northeast up the Via Anziate toward Campoleone and the Alban Hills. In a secondary simultaneous attack, a Ranger force was to infiltrate Cisterna and clear the Conca - Cisterna road during the night preparatory to an attack in the morning by 15th Infantry Regiment on the town and supporting attacks by 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment on their right and 7th Infantry Regiment on their left. 7th Infantry was to cut Route 7, the main supply line to the German Tenth Army on the Gustav Line, at Cassino.
However, the plan had been based on the misinterpretation of reconnaissance intelligence, which had concluded that the main line of German resistance was behind Cisterna. In fact, the Wehrmacht had designated Cisterna as an assembly area for its reserve divisions and had begun moving units into the area. Although a Polish conscript in the German Army had deserted to the U.S. lines immediately before the attack, warning of the buildup, the message was not relayed promptly and the attack proceeded as planned.
The Rangers, who expected to encounter a line of thinly-held outposts advanced unknowingly towards a large enemy force.
Contrary to their designated function as an elite raiding force, the Rangers had been involved in much of the front line fighting around the Anzio beachhead. Ranger casualties meant many replacements were recruits who lacked the experience and quality of training of the original members. The growing presence of green troops in an otherwise skilled force degraded its ability to conduct successful infiltration and night operations.
Battle
The 1st and 3rd Ranger Battalions—preceding the main attack by the 4th Ranger Battalion and the 3rd Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment—attempted a night infiltration behind German lines into the town of Cisterna. Their objective was to seize the town in a surprise attack and hold it until the main attack came through.
The two battalions—totaling 767 men and supported by a platoon of 43 men of the 3rd Reconnaissance Troop—moved out at 01:30 and moved in the darkness along a drainage ditch (Mussolini Canal) in column formation. Although they were able to bypass numerous German positions, at first light they were still short of their objective and needed to cross open ground for the final portion of the approach. At this point the Rangers were attacked by strong German forces of the 715th Infantry Division and Hermann Göring Panzer Division, including at least seventeen German Panzer IV tanks. According to the Army history of the operation, the infiltration movement had apparently been discovered and an ambush prepared.
The 1st Battalion commander—Major Dobson—personally knocked out one tank by shooting the commander with his pistol, climbing atop the tank, and dropping a white phosphorus grenade down the hatch. Two other tanks were captured by Rangers, but then knocked out by other Rangers who did not know they had been captured. Despite fierce fighting, there was little chance of success once the Rangers were attacked on the open ground. German units put Ranger prisoners in front of their tanks and commanded other Rangers to surrender. Over 700 POWs were captured.
Attempted relief of the Rangers
The main assault also jumped off, now attempting to rescue the trapped battalions. Led by the 4th Ranger Battalion, it encountered serious opposition and failed to break through. However, the overall attack—which also included an attack by the 7th Infantry Regiment and 504th Parachute Infantry Regiments—did push the Allied lines forward on a wide front on 31 January and 1 February, although failing to achieve the desired breakthrough and Cisterna was to remain in German hands until May 1944. However, German counterattacks on 1–2 February—conducted by the Hermann Göring Panzer and 71st Infantry Divisions—failed to recapture any of the ground from the Allies and suffered severe casualties.
Aftermath
Later intelligence revealed that the American efforts had helped "spike" the planned German counter-attack on the Allied forces at Anzio.
Gen Lucas' employment of the lightly armed Rangers to spearhead the attack was heavily criticized. The shattered Ranger forces within Italy were subsequently disbanded, and as many as four-hundred surviving Rangers served as replacements in the US/Canadian First Special Service Force, an elite raiding force in need of qualified replacements.
William O. Darby had commanded the American Ranger Force during the battle. When the 179th Infantry Regiment of the 45th Infantry Division was nearly overrun on 18 February during the major German attempt to take out the beachhead, Darby was sent to take command and hold the ground. Darby later was assistant division commander of the 10th Mountain Division. He was killed in action on 30 April 1945, and was the only U.S. officer honored with a posthumous promotion to General during World War II.
A fictionalized account of the battle was depicted in the motion picture Anzio (1968) and at the end of the film Darby's Rangers (1958).
See also
Cisterna di Latina
Ivor Parry Evans
References
External links
Battle of Cisterna at Darby's Rangers website
Notes
Cisterna
1944 in Italy
January 1944 events
February 1944 events
Germany–United States military relations
Cisterna
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200863
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisterna
|
Cisterna
|
A cisterna (plural: cisternae) are all of the membrane-bound sacs that could be found in both the Golgi apparatus and in the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Cisterna are an integral part of the packaging and modification processes of proteins occurring in the Golgi. It is the flattened sac on the branch of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and the curved sac on the branch of the Golgi apparatus. The proteins begin on the cis side of the Golgi (the side facing the ER) and exit on the trans side (the side facing the plasma membrane). Throughout their journey in the cisterna, the proteins are packaged and are modified for transport throughout the cell. The number of cisterna in the Golgi stack is dependent on the organism and cell type. The structure, composition, and function of each of the cisternae may be different inside the Golgi stack. These different variations of Golgi cisternae are categorized into 3 groups; cis golgi network, medial, and trans Golgi network. The cis Golgi network is the first step in the cisternal structure of a protein being packaged, while the trans Golgi network is the last step in the cisternal structure when the vesicle is being transferred to either the lysosome, the cell surface or the secretory vesicle. The cisternae are shaped by the cytoskeleton of the cell through a lipid bilayer. Post-translational modifications such as glycosylation, phosphorylation and cleavage occur in the Golgi and as proteins travel through it, they go through the cisternae, which allows functional ion channels to be created due to these modifications. Each class of cisternae contains various enzymes used in protein modifications. These enzymes help the Golgi in glycosylation and phosphorylation of proteins, as well as mediate signal modifications to direct proteins to their final destination. Defects in the cisternal enzymes can cause congenital defects including some forms of muscular dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, cancer, and diabetes.
Function
The trans-Golgi network is an important part of the Golgi. It is located on the trans face of the Golgi apparatus and is made up of cisternae. The cisternae play a crucial role in the packaging, modification, and transport functions for the cell overall. The proteins and polysaccharides that get processed here within the cisterna will then be sent to their specified locations.
There are multiple types of cisternae which can be recognized from their distinctions in morphology. These distinctions include enzymes relating to glycosylation that have been identified in cisternae located in different regions of the Golgi. This difference in the localization of enzymes throughout cisternae can contribute to the functioning of the Golgi by regulating the pH, ion concentrations, and the amounts of substrate that are necessary. This also works to make sure that reactions are happening in the correct places within the Golgi and that proteins do not undergo the wrong modification if they are in the wrong location.
The cis Golgi network is the first step in the cisternal structure of a protein being packaged, while the trans Golgi network is the last step in the cisternal structure when the vesicle is being transferred to either the lysosome, the cell surface or the secretory vesicle. The medial cisternae is where the mannose residue and extra N-acetylglucosamine is removed.
References
Organelles
|
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200864
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9raud%20Duroc
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Géraud Duroc
|
Géraud Christophe Michel Duroc (25 October 1772 – 23 May 1813), 1st Duke of Frioul (Duc de Frioul), was a French general and diplomat who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was noted for his friendship with Napoleon Bonaparte, who appointed him as the first Grand marshal of the palace, the head of the Emperor's military household.
Early life and education
Du Roc was born in Pont-à-Mousson on 25 October 1772, to a family of the noblesse de robe from the Gévaudan. His father, Claude Du Roc, was a captain of the dragoons that retired to Pont-à-Mousson due to hearing loss. Du Roc entered the local military school in 1781, where he studied for eight years. He then entered the School of Artillery of Châlons as a second lieutenant, in March 1792, and around this time removed the nobiliary particle de from his surname, in the context of the French Revolution.
As a member of the nobility, Duroc felt in danger under the new Revolutionary government. This led him, in July 1792, to abandon school and become an emigré soldier in the counter-revolutionary Army of Condé, at the beginning of the Revolutionary Wars. However he soon changed his mind, and after the Battle of Valmy Duroc deserted the royalist army. Along with two other deserters, Duroc was arrested by the French in Fresnes-en-Woëvre in the aftermath of the battle, and in March 1793 was allowed to return to Châlons to finish his education.
Revolutionary Wars
Duroc joined the Revolutionary Army on 1 June 1793, being assigned lieutenant en seconde of the 4th Foot Artillery Regiment, and advanced steadily in the service. Captain Duroc became aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1796, and distinguished himself at Isonzo, Brenta and Gradisca in the Italian campaigns of 1796-1797.
He served in Egypt, and was seriously wounded at the Battle of Abukir. His devotion to Napoleon was rewarded by complete confidence. He became first aide-de-camp (1798), general of brigade (1800) then governor of the Tuileries Palace. After the battle of Marengo, Duroc was sent on missions to Vienna, St Petersburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen.
Napoleonic Wars
As Grand Marshal of the Palace, Duroc was responsible for the measures taken to secure Napoleon's personal safety, whether in France or on his campaigns, and he directed the minutest details of the imperial household.
After the Battle of Austerlitz, where he commanded the grenadiers in the absence of General Oudinot, he was employed in a series of important negotiations with Frederick William III of Prussia, with the elector of Saxony (December 1806), in the incorporation of certain states in the Confederation of the Rhine, and in the conclusion of the armistice of Znaim (July 1809).
In 1808, he was created Duke of Frioul: his duchy was made duché grand-fief for his widow in 1813, a rare - but nominal - hereditary honour (extinguished in 1829), created in Napoleon's own Kingdom of Italy. In 1813, after the Russian campaign he was appointed to the Sénat conservateur as a senator.
After the Battle of Bautzen (20–21 May 1813), the Grande Armée made a slow pursuit of Allied forces. At Reichenbach on 22 May 1813, a cannonball ricocheted off a tree-trunk, hit Duroc in the stomach, tore open his belly and spilled out his intestines in a gory mess over uniform, saddle and horse, which Napoleon witnessed. Whilst Duroc lay dying inside a farmhouse, he requested Napoleon's presence where he apologised to the Emperor for not being able to serve him further, asked him to be a father to his daughter, and then requested him to withdraw so that he was not present at the moment of death. Napoleon bought the farm and erected a monument to his memory.
Legacy
Duroc's remains were moved in 1847 to be buried in the Hôtel des Invalides, in Paris. His name is inscribed on the Eastern pillar of the Arc de Triomphe, on column 15.
The metro station Duroc of the Paris Métro is named after him.
References
- which names as chief source for Durocs biography the Moniteur Universel (French official state periodical - 31 May 1797, 24 October 1798, 30 May 1813, &c.).
Heraldica.org - Napoleonic heraldry.
An Historical Inquiry into the Principal Circumstances and Events relative to the late Emperor Napoleon in which are investigated The Charges Brought against the Government and conduct of that Eminent Individual, by Barclay Mounteney, Effingham Wilson, London, 1824, pg 168
1772 births
1813 deaths
People from Pont-à-Mousson
Grand Marshals of the Palace
Dukes of the First French Empire
French military personnel killed in the Napoleonic Wars
19th-century French diplomats
French commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Members of the Sénat conservateur
Ambassadors of France to Prussia
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
18th-century French nobility
|
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200870
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20W.%20Ryder
|
Charles W. Ryder
|
Major General Charles Wolcott Ryder CB (January 16, 1892 – August 17, 1960) was a senior United States Army officer who served with distinction in both World War I and World War II.
Early life and military career
Born in Topeka, Kansas in mid-January 1892 and was a Topeka High School graduate. In 1911 he entered the United States Military Academy (USMA), at West Point, New York. He graduated four years later as a second lieutenant in the Infantry Branch of the United States Army as part of the West Point class of 1915, also known as "the class the stars fell on". Among those he graduated with were Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, James Van Fleet, Joseph T. McNarney and many others who, like Ryder, would also attain general officer rank. Ryder's first assignment was with the 30th Infantry Regiment and, later, was on border duty near Fort Sam Houston, Texas. He then served with the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) in New York and, by the time of the American entry into World War I he was a company commander in the 16th Infantry Regiment.
Ryder, together with the rest of his regiment, which was now part of the 1st Infantry Brigade of the newly created 1st Infantry Division, was sent to the Western Front and arrived there in June 1917, one of the first units of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) to be sent overseas in World War I. Promoted to captain, commanding Company 'B' of the 1st Battalion, 16th Infantry, Ryder and his regiment, not immediately engaged in combat, spent almost a year being trained in trench warfare tactics from the French Army. He was promoted to major on June 17, 1918 and assumed command of the 1st Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment.
A month later, he led the battalion in the Battle of Soissons, suffering heavy casualties, including Ryder himself, who was wounded by German artillery but continued to lead his men. Of the 1,100 men of Ryder's battalion who went "over the top" on July 18, 1918, there were less than 50 remaining five days later. However, Ryder, in his first battle, had performed well and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the nation's second highest award for valor in the face of the enemy, the Silver Citation Star and the Purple Heart.
Wounded in the heart (which would affect him for the rest of his life), he spent the next few weeks recovering in the hospital and soon returned to the command of his battalion. He again led the battalion in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in early October 1918, where it captured Hill 272, a dominant terrain feature in the 1st Division's sector which had brought the division to a standstill for three days. After personally observing his battalion's objective, he gave verbal orders to his company commanders and outlined his plan of attack. On October 8 the division artillery concentrated fire on the hill and Ryder's battalion, with Ryder, as at Soissons, again leading from the front, attacked the hill at 8:30am the next day, under cover of a thick fog and supported by machine guns and a huge artillery barrage. Working in small units to outflank the enemy machine guns and mortars, capturing or destroying enemy positions, the battalion had, by 11:00am, secured all its objectives and captured more than 50 machine guns and began to consolidate its position. For his personal leadership in the battle Ryder was awarded with a second Distinguished Service Cross, two of twenty five to be awarded to men of the 1st Division. World War I came to an end just over a month later with the signing of the Armistice with Germany coming into effect on November 11, 1918 at 11:00am. Ryder's war was over and the personal lessons he learned would remain with him and serve him well in the future.
Between the wars
After the end of the conflict Ryder remained in the army, served on occupation duties in France and Germany. Ryder had been decorated with two Distinguished Service Crosses, a Silver Star and a Purple Heart for his service in the war.
Between the wars, Ryder served in various posts, including the Command and General Staff School, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; the 15th Infantry in Tientsin, China; Assistant Instructor of Tactics, Commanding Company of Cadets at West Point (1923-1924) and as Commandant of Cadets at West Point (1937–1941).
World War II
In 1941–1942, during World War II, he was chief of staff of the VI Corps. From May 1942 to July 1944, Ryder, promoted to major general, was Commanding General (CG) of the 34th Infantry Division, the first U.S. division deployed to Europe in World War II. He led the division through the Tunisia Campaign and the Italian Campaign, including the Operation Torch landings in French North Africa in November 1942 and many battles in Italy.
Postwar
From September 2, 1944 to December 6, 1948, Ryder served as commanding general of the IX Corps, preparing for the invasion of Japan. After the Japanese surrender, he continued to serve as commanding general of the IX Corps during the occupation of Japan.
Ryder retired from the Army in 1950 and died on August 17, 1960, at the age of 68.
Family
His son, Charles Wolcott Ryder Jr. was a USMA graduate in the Class of 1941 who served with the 90th Infantry Division, had an equally distinguished career and, like his father, also rose to the rank of major general.
Awards and decorations
References
External links
Papers of Charles W. Ryder, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Past USMA & WPAOG Leadership
100th Infantry Battalion Veterans
Hall of Valor awards
Generals of World War II
United States Army Officers 1939–1945
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United States Army generals of World War II
1892 births
1960 deaths
United States Military Academy alumni
Commandants of the Corps of Cadets of the United States Military Academy
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Graduates of the United States Military Academy Class of 1915
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Military Academy faculty
United States Army generals
Military personnel from Kansas
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200871
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36th%20Infantry%20Division%20%28United%20States%29
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36th Infantry Division (United States)
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The 36th Infantry Division ("Arrowhead"), also known as the "Panther Division", "Lone Star Division", "The Texas Army", or the "T-patchers", is an infantry division of the United States Army and part of the Texas Army National Guard. It was organized during World War I from units of the Texas and Oklahoma National Guard. As an all-Texas unit, it was called for service for World War II 25 November 1940, was sent to the European Theater of Operations in April 1943, and returned to the Texas Army National Guard in December 1945.
A unit of the 36th Infantry, the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery, was detached and sent to the Pacific just before the outbreak of war in late 1941. Captured by the Japanese and forced into slave labor, its fate was unknown for most of the rest of World War II, resulting in the name of The Lost Battalion.
The 36th Infantry Division was reconstituted in a May 2004 reorganization of the 49th Armored Division.
The division has been active in search and rescue efforts following natural disasters, as well as supporting the rebuilding of affected areas.
History
World War I
The 36th Infantry Division was activated as the 15th Division, an Army National Guard Division from Texas and Oklahoma. The new unit also received a new commander, Major General Edwin St. John Greble. The designation was changed to the 36th Division in July 1917, three months after the American entry into World War I.
The final composition of the 36th Division consisted of the 71st and 72nd Infantry Brigades, the 141st and 142nd Infantry Regiments belonging to the 71st. The 143rd and 144th Infantry Regiments were attached to the 72nd Brigade. Also belonging to the 71st was the 132nd Machine Gun Battalion. Similarly, the 72nd received the 133rd Machine Gun Battalion. The 61st Field Artillery Brigade, 131st, 132nd, and 133rd Field Artillery Regiments, 111th Regiment Engineers, 111th Signal Battalion and the 111th Supply Train comprised the rest of the 36th Division. The unit trained at Camp Bowie, Texas, then in Fort Worth.
Order of battle
Headquarters, 36th Division
71st Infantry Brigade
141st Infantry Regiment
142nd Infantry Regiment
132nd Machine Gun Battalion
72nd Infantry Brigade
143rd Infantry Regiment
144th Infantry Regiment
133rd Machine Gun Battalion
61st Field Artillery Brigade
131st Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
132nd Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
133rd Field Artillery Regiment (155 mm)
111th Trench Mortar Battery
131st Machine Gun Battalion
111th Engineer Regiment
111th Field Signal Battalion
Headquarters Troop, 36th Division
111th Train Headquarters and Military Police
111th Ammunition Train
111th Supply Train
111th Engineer Train
111th Sanitary Train
141st, 142nd, 143rd, and 144th Ambulance Companies and Field Hospitals
The unit was sent to Europe in July 1918 and conducted major operations in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. On 9–10 October, the unit participated in heavy combat near the village of St. Etienne. Following this victory, which included the capture of several hundred men and officers of the German Army, as well as artillery, the unit launched an assault near an area known as "Forest Farm." The eventual victory brought World War I to an end, yet during World War I, the division suffered 2,584 casualties, 466 killed in action and 2,118 wounded in action. The unit was inactivated in June 1919.
World War II
The 36th Division was called up again for active federal service on 25 November 1940, during World War II (although the United States was neutral at this stage), at San Antonio, Texas, departing for its mobilization station at Camp Bowie, Texas, on 14 December 1940. The division commanded by Major General Claude V. Birkhead, moved to Brownwood, Texas, on 1 June 1941, where it participated in the VIII Corps Brownwood Maneuvers until 13 June 1941. The division then returned to Camp Bowie.
The division then moved to Mansfield, Louisiana, and took part in both the August and September 1941 Louisiana Maneuvers. The division, now commanded by Brigadier General Fred L. Walker, a Regular Army officer from Ohio, then returned to Camp Bowie on 2 October 1941, where it was reorganized from a square division into a triangular division on 1 February 1942 and redesignated the 36th Infantry Division, just weeks after the United States entered World War II, as a result of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. As a result of this reorganization, the 144th Infantry, plus numerous supporting units, were transferred out of the division.
The division then moved to Camp Blanding, Florida, on 19 February 1942, and participated in the Carolina Maneuvers between 9 July 1942, and 15 August 1942. The division then was staged at Camp Edwards, Massachusetts, on 17 August 1942, for its port call to the European Theater Of Operations (ETO). During its time at Camp Edwards, the division conducted mock assaults of Martha's Vineyard Island in preparation for future amphibious operations.
The division departed the New York Port of Embarkation (NYPOE) on 2 April 1943, for service in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO).
Organizations
Pre-2 February 1942 square organization
Headquarters, 36th Division
Headquarters, Special Troops, 36th Division
Headquarters Company, 36th Division
36th Military Police Company
36th Signal Company
111th Ordnance Company (Medium)
71st Infantry Brigade
141st Infantry Regiment
142nd Infantry Regiment
72nd Infantry Brigade
143rd Infantry Regiment
144th Infantry Regiment
61st Field Artillery Brigade
131st Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
132nd Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
133rd Field Artillery Regiment (155 mm)
111th Engineer Regiment
111th Medical Regiment
111th Quartermaster Regiment
Post-2 February 1942 triangular reorganization
Headquarters, 36th Infantry Division
141st Infantry Regiment
142nd Infantry Regiment
143rd Infantry Regiment
Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 36th Infantry Division Artillery
131st Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm)
132nd Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm)
133rd Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm)
155th Field Artillery Battalion (155 mm)
111th Engineer Combat Battalion
111th Medical Battalion
36th Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop (Mechanized)
Headquarters, Special Troops, 36th Infantry Division
Headquarters Company, 36th Infantry Division
736th Ordnance Light Maintenance Company
36th Quartermaster Company
36th Signal Company
Military Police Platoon
Band
36th Counterintelligence Corps Detachment
1944–45 augmentations
191st Tank Battalion (26 August 1944 – 31 August 1944)
753rd Tank Battalion (15 August 1944 – 26 December 1944); (4 March 1945 – 29 March 1945); (29 April 1945 – 13 June 1945)
636th Tank Destroyer Battalion (15 August 1944 – 29 March 1945; 29 April 1945 – 13 June 1945)
822nd Tank Destroyer Battalion (29 April 1945 – 1 May 1945)
443rd Anti Aircraft Artillery Battalion (AW)(7 December 1944 – 13 January 1945)
442nd Regimental Combat Team (11 September 1944 – 13 October 1944)
Combat operations
The 36th Division landed in French North Africa on 13 April 1943, and trained at Arzew and Rabat. However, the training was hampered by the need to supply guards for some 25,000 Axis prisoners of war (POWs) who had surrendered at the conclusion of the Tunisian Campaign in May. It was assigned to Major General Ernest J. Dawley's VI Corps, part of the Fifth Army, but attached to the Services of Supply, North African Theater of Operations, United States Army (NATOUSA), for supply. The 36th Division was originally intended to take part in the Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, but Lieutenant General George S. Patton the Seventh Army commander, preferred to use experienced troops instead and the 36th Division remained in North Africa. The Fifth Army was commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, who knew the 36th Division well from his time as chief of staff to Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair, commander of Army Ground Forces, and specifically chose the 36th Division, rather than the more experienced 34th Infantry Division, together with the British 46th and 56th Infantry Divisions, to spearhead the Allied assault landings at Salerno, Italy, which was given the codename of Operation Avalanche.
The division first saw action, in the Italian campaign, on 9 September 1943. It was the first U.S. combat unit to fight on the European continent when it landed by sea at Paestum and fought in the Battle of Salerno against intense German opposition. The Germans launched numerous fierce counterattacks on 12–14 September, but the 36th, which at one stage during the battle was holding a 35-mile sector of the front (six times more than a full-strength infantry division was able to hold), repulsed them with the aid of air support and naval gunfire, and, with the help of paratroopers of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, advanced slowly, securing the area from Agropoli to Altavilla. After sustaining over 4,000 casualties in its first major action, the division spent the next few weeks behind the lines, where it remained in the Fifth Army reserve, absorbing replacements and training for future combat operations. Despite the heavy losses, the 36th Division was considered to have fought well, and four men were awarded the Medal of Honor.
The 36th Division returned to combat in mid-November, after six weeks of rest, now under Major General Geoffrey Keyes' II Corps command. It captured Mount Maggiore, Mount Lungo, and the village of San Pietro despite strong enemy positions and severe winter weather. This grueling campaign against the Bernhardt Line was marked by futile attempts to establish a secure bridgehead across the Gari River, erroneously identified as the Rapido on 1 January 1944, to 8 February. The division attacked across the Gari River on 20 January but was harshly repulsed by the 15th Panzergrenadier Division. The 141st and 143rd Infantry Regiments were virtually destroyed, and the attack was stopped on 22 January. In 48 hours, the 36th Division had sustained 1,681 casualties, 143 of them killed, 663 wounded, and 875 missing, out of almost 6,000 men who took part. Many of the casualties consisted of newly-arrived replacements who were poorly integrated into their units. German losses were minimal, with only 64 killed and a further 179 wounded. A company commander in the 143rd Infantry said, "I had 184 men. Forty-eight hours later, I had 17. If that's not mass murder, I don't know what is." 36th Division losses until the end of January 1944 was of 2,255 battle casualties and 2,009 non-battle, with the combat effectiveness of the 141st and 143rd Infantry Regiment lost.
Strong controversy flared among the officers of the division. Lieutenant General Clark, the Fifth Army commander, was severely criticized for having ordered a difficult frontal attack, and was accused of having caused the disaster. After the war Congress, urged by veterans of the division, conducted an investigation into the causes and responsibility for the defeat on the Gari River. Clark was absolved of blame and he personally believed the attack to be necessary, in order to attract German reserves from Northern Italy to prevent their use at Anzio, where an amphibious assault, codenamed Operation Shingle, was being launched by Anglo-American forces in an attempt to outflank the Winter Line, capture the Italian capital of Rome and potentially force a German withdrawal away from their formidable Winter Line defenses. However, the German reserves identified in Northern Italy had already been drawn forward onto the front of the British X Corps during the First Battle of Monte Cassino a few days before, thus making the 36th Division's assault unnecessary, although this was unknown to Clark at the time.
After assisting the 34th Infantry Division in the attack on Cassino and fighting defensively along the Gari River, the severely depleted 36th withdrew from the line on 12 March, for rest and recreation. The division arrived by sea at the Anzio beachhead on 22 May, under the command of Major General Lucian Truscott's VI Corps, to take part in Operation Diadem, with the breakout from the beachhead commencing the following day. It drove north to capture Velletri on 1 June, and entered Rome on 5 June 1944, the day before the Normandy landings. Pushing up from Rome, the 36th encountered sharp resistance at Magliano, but reached Piombino on 26 June, before moving back to Paestum for rest and recreation. In July Major General Walker, who had commanded the 36th Division since September 1941, was replaced by Major General John E. Dahlquist.
On 15 August 1944, as part of the U.S. 6th Army Group, the division made another amphibious assault landing, against light opposition in the Saint-Raphaël-Fréjus area of southern France as part of Operation Dragoon, the Allied invasion of Southern France. A rapid advance opened the Rhone River Valley. Montelimar fell, 28 August, and large German units were trapped. On 15 September, the division was attached to the French First Army. The 36th advanced to the Moselle River at Remiremont and the foothills of the Vosges. On 30 September, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team (442nd RCT, a Japanese-American unit) was assigned to the 36th to help shore up the division. The 442nd was subsequently used to spearhead the capture towns of Bruyères and Biffontaine where they faced stiff opposition. On 24 October the 143rd Infantry relieved the 100th and 3rd Battalion who were sent to Belmont, another small town to the north, for some short-lived rest. On 23 October the 1st Battalion, 141st Infantry were cut off just beyond the town or Biffontaine. On 27 October the 442nd RCT was called back in to save this Lost Battalion. On the afternoon of 30 October 3rd Battalion broke through and reached 1st Battalion, 141st, rescuing 211 T-Patchers at the cost of 800 men in five days. However, the fighting continued for the 442nd as they moved past the 141st Infantry. The drive continued until they reached Saint-Die on 17 November when they were finally pulled back.The 100th fielded 1,432 men shortly before, but was now down to 239 infantrymen and 21 officers. The 2nd Battalion was down to 316 riflemen and 17 officers, while not a single company in the 3rd Battalion had over 100 riflemen; the entire 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team was down to less than 800 soldiers. On 13 October 1944, when attached to the 36th Infantry Division, the unit was at 2,943 rifleman and officers, but in only three weeks 140 were killed and 1,800 were wounded, while 43 were missing. For this action, the 442nd RCT would earn 3 of its 7 Presidential Unit Citations.
In a grinding offensive, the division crossed the Meurthe River, breached the Ste. Marie Pass and burst into the Alsatian Plains. The enemy counterattacked, 13 December 1944, but the 36th held the perimeter of the Colmar Pocket. Two days later, the division was released from attachment to the French First Army, and returned to the control of VI Corps, now under Major General Edward H. Brooks, under the Seventh Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Alexander Patch. The German counterattacks out of the Colmar Pocket were so fierce, that at times, the field artillery was forced to fire over open sights at point blank range to stop them. On 20 December 1944, the division resumed the attack, advancing northward along the Rhine River to Mannheim meeting heavy resistance at Haguenau, Oberhöfen, and Wissembourg. In this action Company "G" of the 143rd Infantry received a Presidential Unit Citation. On 27 December 1944, the division was reassigned to Major General Frank W. Milburn's XXI Corps of the Seventh Army, and was pinched out and returned to Seventh Army reserve on 30 December 1944.
The division was taken out of the line for the first time since it had landed in the south of France. On 3 January 1945, the division was reassigned to Major General Wade H. Haislip's XV Corps. In January 1945, the division was reassigned to VI Corps. It returned to the line early March. The 36th was reassigned to the Seventh Army on 29 March 1945, and moved to the Danube River on 22 April 1945. The 36th Division has been recognized as a liberating unit for its work securing the subcamps of the Dachau concentration camp system.
The 36th Division was reassigned to the XXI Corps on 27 April 1945, and attacked the Künzelsau area on the 30th. Members of the 36th Division's 142nd Infantry arriving as reinforcements on 5 May tipped the Battle for Castle Itter in favor of a combined U.S. Army/Wehrmacht defense against a Waffen SS attack, the only time German and American forces fought side by side in World War II.
By 8 May 1945, otherwise known as Victory in Europe Day (VE-Day), the 36th Division was based in Kitzbühel, Austria where it captured Generalfeldmarschall- Gerd von Rundstedt, the commander of all German Armed Forces on the Western Front, and its final station was at Kufstein, Austria on 14 August 1945.
After 400 days of combat, the 36th Infantry Division returned to the United States in December 1945. It was returned to the Texas Army National Guard on 15 December 1945.
The Lost Battalions
The 36th ID suffered significant losses during World War II, twice earning the distinction of having "lost" a battalion during the war.
The European "Lost Battalion" refers to the 1st Battalion, 141st Infantry, which was surrounded by German forces in the Vosges Mountains on 24 October 1944.
They would be rescued by the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, a segregated unit composed of second-generation Japanese Americans. In five days of battle, over 800 men of the 442nd gave their lives in order to break through German defenses and rescue 211 survivors of the 141st.
Texas Governor John Connally would make the members of the 442nd honorary Texans in appreciation of their rescue of the 141st Infantry in 1962.
Earmarked as part of the reinforcements to U.S. Army troops in the Philippines, the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery, was detached from the 36th Infantry and deployed on 21 November 1941 to join in the Pacific War. The 131st took part in the Battle of Java and fought fiercely at Porong with several other Allied units until the battalion was captured by the Japanese in March 1942. Information on the unit's fate was unknown and considered "lost" as details following the Dutch surrender in Java failed to reach the U.S. government.
As prisoners, the men were forced to work in Burma and Thailand on the Burma Railway of The Bridge on the River Kwai fame, as well as coal mines, docks and shipyards in Japan and other southeast Asian countries. Conditions were poor, treatment harsh, and mortality exceptionally high. It was only through debriefing of survivors from Japanese POW convoys who had been sunk and rescued by U.S. submarines in September 1944 that the U.S. government would learn of the unit's fate.
Repatriated after the end of the war in August 1945, the surviving POWs of the lost battalion were scattered throughout Southeast Asia in Java, Singapore, Burma, Thailand, French Indo China, Japan, China and Manchuria.
Unit awards
Presidential Unit Citation: 12.
Personal awards
Medal of Honor: 14
Distinguished Service Crosses: 80
Distinguished Service Medals: 2
Silver Stars: 2,354
Legion of Merit Medals: 49
Soldier's Medals: 77
Bronze Star Medals: 5,407
Air Medals: 88
Casualties
Total battle casualties: 19,466
Killed in action: 3,131
Wounded in action: 13,191
Missing in action: 494
Prisoner of war: 2,650
Global War on Terror
On 1 May 2004, the 49th Armored Division of the Texas Army National Guard was officially deactivated and the 49th Armored Division was redesignated the 36th Infantry Division. After half a century, the "Fighting 36th" was reactivated and carried on the legacy of the 36th Division.
In January 2004, 74 soldiers from Alpha Battery (TAB), 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery were activated for federal service in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Alpha Battery commanded by CPT Alvaro Gomez entered federal service in Fort Sill, OK. Under the supervision of 1SG Alfredo Barrera, the soldiers trained and deployed to Iraq. While readying their equipment in Kuwait, Alpha Battery was given her mission and the five radar sections were split up. One AN-TPQ37 radar section (SSG Gonzales) was attached to the 1st Marine Division in Al Taqadum another (CW4 Earnest Metcalf) was assigned to the 1st Infantry Division at LSA Anaconda and the three AN-TPQ36 radar sections (CW2 Davidson, CW2 Bien, and SSG Johnson) were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division in Mosul. The headquarters and support platoon (1LT Christopher Galvan) operated out of Forward Operating Base Freedom in northern Mosul. In addition to the target acquisition mission, the support platoon supplemented patrols conducted by the 25th Infantry Division Fires Brigade FIST Team and provided security for the FOB's perimeter by manning the entrance gates and watch towers. At the conclusion of the battery's deployment, its members were awarded 3 Bronze Star Medals, 1 Purple Heart Medal, 47 Army Commendation Medals, 74 Combat Action Badges, several memorandums of appreciation from command staff, and authorized to wear the unit shoulder sleeve insignia for wartime service from the 2nd Infantry Division, the 25th Infantry Division, the 36th Infantry Division, or the 1st Infantry Division.
In 2005 approximately 100 soldiers of the 36th Infantry Division deployed to Bosnia for Enduring Mission 3 which was a continuation from previous IFOR and SFOR missions. When Task Force Strike left Eagle Base in Tuzla late 2006, it marked the end of an American military maneuver presence in Bosnia which had existed for almost a decade after the Dayton Accords.
In 2005, over three thousand troops from the 56th BCT, 36th ID deployed to Iraq. The 3rd Battalion, 133rd Field Artillery Regiment and 2nd Battalion, 142nd Infantry Regiment were both awarded Meritorious Unit Citations for their service in Iraq.
In 2005–06, 800 soldiers of 3d Battalion, 141st Infantry Regiment, 72d Brigade, 36th Infantry Division deployed to Afghanistan. The battalion was attached to the 504th Infantry Regiment of the 82d Airborne Division and earned a Joint Meritorious Unit Citation.
In 2006, the 1st Squadron, 124th Cavalry Regiment, 36th Infantry Division became the first cavalry unit to serve as peacekeepers in the Sinai Desert for the Multinational Force and Observers. The force was made up of soldiers from several units of the 36th Infantry Division including 1–112th AR, 2–112th AR, 3–112th AR, 3rd Mech, and C Btry 2-131 FA (MLRS).
In late 2006, Company B of the 3d Battalion, 144th Infantry Regiment deployed to Iraq after pre-deployment training at Ft. Dix, NJ and were actively engaged in combat operations. They returned in late 2007. 5 Army Commendation Medals with Valor Devices were awarded to soldiers of 1st Platoon, Second Squad in recognition of the defeat of an ambush on a State Department convoy in central Baghdad.
In late 2005 to late 2006, the 36th Infantry Division was the major leading force for KFOR7, the peacekeeping mission on Kosovo.
The Combat Aviation Brigade, 36th Infantry Division shipped to Iraq in September 2006 for a planned one-year deployment.
On 7 May 2007 3d Battalion, 144th Infantry Regiment mobilized as "Task Force Panther" in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. "Task Force Panther" trained at Camp Shelby, MS, and, after validation, deployed to Kuwait, and then into Iraq.
On 28 August 2008, more than 3000 soldiers of the 56th IBCT again deployed to Iraq. On 15 August 2009, the 3000 soldiers of the 56th IBCT returned to Texas after 10 months in Iraq. Two soldiers from Bravo Troop 3-124 Cav, and one from C Btry 4-133 were wounded during the tour.
On 10 April 2009, 136th Military Police Battalion deployed more than 150 soldiers to Afghanistan to command and run the Bagram Theatre Internment Facility. Task Force Lonestar transferred the detainees from the BTIF to the new detention facility in Parwan. 136th Military Police Battalion returned in May 2010.
On 1 October 2009, the 72nd IBCT mobilized for deployment to Iraq. Upon arrival in theater, the brigade headquarters assumed authority as the Joint Area Support Group-Conditional for the International Zone, with the brigade's subordinate elements distributed throughout the country conducting detainee operations. The brigade returned from Iraq in July and August 2010, with A Battery, 1-133 FA being the last element to return home.
In November and December 2010, the 36th Infantry Division Headquarters deployed to Basrah, Iraq, replacing the US 1st Infantry Division, where they provided command and control of US active Army, Reserve, and National Guard units. The 36th ID command covered 15,000 deployed military and contractor forces at 17 bases in the 9 provinces in southern Iraq. As part of the drawdown of US forces in Iraq, the division headquarters redeployed to the US starting in late August 2011, the main body following in September 2011 to Fort Hood, TX. No 36th ID soldiers were lost to combat operations during the deployment.
On 26 November 2011, the newly formed 1st Battalion (Airborne), 143rd Infantry Regiment mobilized as Task Force Walker for deployment to Afghanistan. The battalion, comprising companies from Texas, Rhode Island, and Alaska, was deployed across the country in support of provincial reconstruction teams. The headquarters element was located in Kabul serving under the 648th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade (Task Force Hydra) in the Kabul base cluster.
In the summer of 2012, both the 136th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade (MEB) and Task Force Arrowhead mobilized for service in Afghanistan. The 136th MEB took control of several bases in the Kabul area, while TF Arrowhead, composed of 31 security force assistance teams (SFATs), performed advisory duties with various Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) elements in Regional Command-South.
Also in the summer of 2012 the 3rd Battalion, C & D Company 144th Infantry regiment from the 56th BCT deployed to Afghanistan (RC West) as Task Force Bowie. TF Bowie provided Battalion Command Base Security, including but not limited to presences/combat patrols, assessment missions, checkpoint control and flight line security for Shindand Airbase and surrounding areas. Shindand Air Base is located in the western part of Afghanistan in the Herat province, 7 miles northeast of the city of Sabzwar. Other areas of operations included Herat city, as well as RC North. In the fall of 2012 a small detachment was sent to RC North to assist in base security operations in coordination with small regiment from the 3rd ID.
In the spring of 2013 B co 3-144th IN deployed in support of TF 3–10 to Afghanistan and served in Konduz, Kabul, Mazar-e-Sharif Camp Bashton, and BAF
In Afghanistan, 36th has deployed agricultural development teams helping build farming infrastructure, as well as security forces advising teams training Afghan national security forces to promote long-term success of the Afghan government.
The 36th Infantry Division is the first National Guard Division to command an active duty brigade as part of the Army's total force policy. This allows the active and reserve units to train together as they are preparing to fight together.
Currently, the 36th is in charge of an Afghanistan theatre; They will be in charge for 18 months (Two 9-month rotations). This is the first time a National Guard division has been in charge of an Afghanistan theatre this long.
During the Global War on Terror, the 36th ID has been involved in numerous military operations including Operation New Dawn, Enduring Freedom, Freedom's Sentinel, and Jump Start.
In February 2018, Army Times reported the 36th was deployed to Iraq to assist Iraqi forces against Islamic State.
2020–Present
COVID-19 Pandemic
The 36th Infantry Division assisted alongside other Texas National Guard units were activated to assist with the COVID-19 Pandemic. The 36th Infantry Division assisted with delivering over 7,000 pallets of protective equipment to testing facilities, decontaminating nursing homes, and distributing over 5,900,000 COVID-19 tests.
Civil Disturbance
More Servicemembers within the 36th Infantry Division assisted in preparation for civil disturbances triggered by the George Floyd protests. The Servicemembers were trained in crowd control tactics, including non-lethal responses and assisting civilian law enforcement agencies.
Unit Deployment on Behalf of Operation Spartan Shield
Throughout the other events of 2020, over 700 servicemembers of the 36th Infantry Division were Federally Activated and deployed to the United States Central Command for Task Force Spartan, Operation Spartan Shield in September 2020. Activated Soldiers serve in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. The deployment coincided with Kuwait's 30th Liberation Day, tasking the 36th Infantry Division with maintaining and continuing the United States' partnership and allied strength with Kuwait, culminating in a self-described complex live-fire exercise.
Insignia & Song
An insignia consisting of an olive drab "T" on a light blue flint arrowhead was adopted by the 36th Division in 1918. Light blue is the infantry branch color. The flint arrowhead represents the State of Oklahoma (once the Indian Territory) and the "T", Texas and commonly called the "T-Patch."
The song of the 36th Infantry Division is "The Eyes of World are on you 36th." Partial lyrics are as follow:
Current structure
36th Infantry Division exercises training and readiness oversight of a division headquarters and headquarters battalion, and eight brigade-size formations from the states of Texas, New Mexico and Tennessee.
Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion
56th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (IBCT) (TX ARNG)
Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 56th BCT (HHC)
1st Squadron, 124th Cavalry Regiment, Reconnaissance Surveillance and Target Acquisition (RSTA)
2d Battalion, 142d Infantry Regiment
3d Battalion, 144th Infantry Regiment
3d Battalion, 133d Field Artillery Regiment (FAR)
156th Brigade Engineer Battalion (BEB)
949th Brigade Support Battalion (BSB)
72nd IBCT (TX ARNG)
HHC, 72d BCT
1st Squadron, 112th Cavalry Regiment, RSTA
1st Battalion, 141st Infantry Regiment
3d Battalion, 141st Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 133rd FAR
536th BSB
278th Armored Cavalry Regiment (TN ARNG) (realigned with 36th ID 10/26/2020)
Headquarters and Headquarters Troop
1st Squadron
2d Squadron
3d Squadron (TX NG)
4th Squadron, RSTA
Field Artillery Squadron
Engineer Squadron
Support Squadron
Combat Aviation Brigade (CAB), 36th Infantry Division (TX NG)
HHC, CAB (TX NG)
1st Battalion, 114th Aviation Regiment (S&S) (AR NG)
3d Battalion, 131st Aviation Regiment (Assault) (AL NG)
1st Battalion, 149th Aviation Regiment (Attack/Recon) (TX NG)
2d Battalion, 149th Aviation Regiment (General Support) (TX NG) (Headquarters Grand Prairie, Texas)
449th Aviation Support Battalion (TX NG)
36th Sustainment Brigade
136th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade
Former Units
256th IBCT (LA NG)
HHC, 256th BCT
2nd Squadron, 108th Cavalry Regiment, RSTA
2nd Battalion, 156th Infantry Regiment
3rd Battalion, 156th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 173rd Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 141st FAR
769th BEB
199th BSB
Division commanders
Commanders
See also
549th Engineers Light Ponton Company
Notable people
Raymond S. McLain
References
DVIDS - News Division-Division Cuts Ribbon on New Intelligence Facility 12-04-2016
External links
Brigadier General John C. L. Scribner Texas Military Forces Museum
36th Infantry Division Association
GlobalSecurity.org: 36th Infantry Division
The Story of the 36th, the experiences of the 36th in the great War World War I
The Story of the 36th Infantry Division World War II
Home page
036th Infantry Division, U.S.
Divisions of the United States Army National Guard
Military units and formations in Texas
Infantry Division, U.S. 036
036th Infantry Division (United States)
Military units and formations established in 1917
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919
Military units and formations established in 1923
Infantry divisions of the United States Army in World War II
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
Military units and formations established in 2004
Texas Military Forces
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] |
200872
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapido%20%28river%29
|
Rapido (river)
|
The Rapido is a short river ( ) which flows in the Italian province of Frosinone. The river is known for the Battle of the Rapido River, despite it actually occurring on the Gari River.
Its source is close to the border between Lazio and Molise on the slopes of the Mainarde mountains. The river bathes the commune of Sant'Elia Fiumerapido after which it becomes known as the Gari.
Fed by numerous karstic springs, the river has a relatively high and reliable discharge: 25 m³/s on average and never dropping below 10 m³/s.
References
Rivers of the Province of Frosinone
Rivers of Italy
|
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200875
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Chester%20Beatty
|
Alfred Chester Beatty
|
Sir Alfred Chester Beatty (7 February 1875 – 19 January 1968)Seanad 1985: "Chester Beatty died at the Princess Grace Clinic, Monte Carlo, on 19 January 1968, [...]" (some sources give this as 20 January). was an American mining magnate, philanthropist and one of the most successful businessmen of his generation, who was given the epithet the "King of Copper" as a reference to his fortune. He became a naturalised British citizen in 1933, knighted in 1954 and made an honorary citizen of Ireland in 1957.
He was a collector of African, Asian, European and Middle Eastern manuscripts, rare printed books, prints and objets d'art. Upon his move to Dublin in 1950 he established the Chester Beatty Library on Shrewsbury Road to house his collection; it opened to the public in 1954. The Collections were bequeathed to the Irish people and entrusted to the care of the State in his Irish will. He donated a number of papyrus documents to the British Museum, his second wife's (Edith Dunn Beatty) collection of Marie Antoinette's personal furniture to the Louvre and a number of his personal paintings that once hung in the picture gallery of his London home to the National Gallery of Ireland. He also founded the Chester Beatty Institute in London which was later renamed the Institute of Cancer Research.
Early life
A. Chester Beatty, known to friends and family as Chester or "Chet", was born into a middle-class New York family in 1875 on the site of what is now Rockefeller Center, the youngest of three sons. Chester, Robert and Gedney, were born to Hetty and John Beatty, a banker and stockbroker. He graduated from Columbia School of Mines in 1898 and bought a one-way train ticket to Denver, Colorado. His first job in the mines earned him $2 per day as a "mucker", clearing away rock and soil from mine tunnels. He was quickly promoted to supervisor of the Kektonga Silver Mine. His first mentor was T.A. Rickard, one of the most respected mining engineers in the American West. Rickard also introduced Beatty to his sister-in-law, Grace "Ninette" Rickard, who Beatty married in Denver in 1900. In 1903 he joined John Hayes Hammond on the management team of the Guggenheim Exploration Company. This position soon made Beatty a very wealthy young man and in 1908, when he left the Guggenheims, he was regarded as one of the country's leading mining engineers. Beatty bought a house in the fashionable East Side of New York and set up an office on Broadway as an independent mining consultant. Ninette and their daughter (little Ninette) joined him during the summer of 1907, and in October their son, Chester Jr, was born. In 1911, Grace died suddenly of typhoid fever and this, no doubt, had an impact on his next big decision. In 1912 he purchased Baroda House in Kensington Palace Gardens and moved with his two young children to London the following year. Shortly after the move, he married his second wife, Edith Dunn, in the Kensington Registry Office. Both avid collectors, the two spend the next few decades travelling the globe and acquiring masterpieces for their unique collections.
In 1914, Beatty founded the London-based mining company, Selection Trust. The First World War delayed the company's expansion, but during the 1920s the business became an extraordinarily successful group of companies with interests in many countries, including the USSR, the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) and the Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone. It was in Northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia) and the Belgian Congo (present-day Democratic Republic of Congo) that Chester Beatty's fortune was made when he dared to exploit the Copper Belt. For this, he became known as the 'King of Copper'.
Collector
An early family anecdote recalls that, as a young boy, Chester caught the collection bug, bidding at auction for mining samples. He recalled attending an auction with his father at the age of ten, and bidding 10 cents on a piece of pink calcite. During his time in Denver he began collecting stamps, which grew into an award-winning collection. Before his move to London he had already started collecting Chinese snuff bottles and Japanese netsuke, inro and tsuba. During his first trip to Cairo in the winter of 1913/14, he became interested in papyrus and Islamic manuscripts. Due to a condition of the lungs called silicosis, which he had acquired through his years working in American mines, Beatty and his family would winter in Egypt until the outbreak of WWII and after in the south of France. In 1917, recovering from a bout of pneumonia and Spanish influenza, Beatty, Edith and his daughter Ninette, traveled by boat to Japan and China. During this trip he acquired painted albums and scrolls and he continued to purchase Chinese, Japanese and south-east Asian manuscripts, textiles and artefacts for the rest of his life.
In 1931 an announcement in the London Times cast Beatty as a great collector. He had acquired an immensely important collection of Biblical manuscripts, now known as the Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri. The discovery changed the existing understanding of pre-Constantinian textual history. With the New Testament books - Gospels and Acts (BP I), Pauline Epistles (BP II) and Revelation (BP III) - all dated to the third century, these documents were not only were surprising for having survived the Diocletian persecutions at the beginning of the next century, but the dating moved New Testament scholarship back by at least one hundred years. The dating specifically of BP I (p45) to the mid-third century moved the understanding of when Christians accepted the four gospels as canonical to earlier than had previously been presumed.
"Beatty's reputation as a collector grew, and so did his network of advisers and agents. As in his business life, Beatty relied on the advice of experienced specialists but made the final decision on any purchase himself. By this time Edith was also establishing herself as a serious collector in her own right. While she was buying Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings and French furniture, Beatty was acquiring important Islamic material, including an exceptional collection of illuminated copies of the Quran, and Mughal, Turkish and Persian manuscripts. His Western holdings were enhanced by acquisitions of Coptic, Syriac, Armenian and Greek manuscripts. To his Asian holdings he added Tibetan, Thai, Burmese and Sumatran manuscripts. His eye was drawn to richly illustrated material, fine bindings and beautiful calligraphy, but he was also deeply committed to preserving texts for their historic value. He concerned himself only with works of the finest quality, and this became the hallmark of his collection."
Initially Beatty was a competitive force in the burgeoning Orientalist art market of the early 20th century. The major library and museum institutions anticipated his presence when prospecting acquisitions. However, in 1925, Beatty began what would later become a robust partnership with the British Museum. Though in later cases he would purchase an object and simply donate it, for the manuscript now known as the Minto Album, Beatty amicably agreed to split the folios. The lot was sold to Sir Eric Maclagan, Director of the British Museum, as part of a joint-purchase agreement with Beatty for $3,950. Beatty had first pick of the folios, the museum bought the remainder for $2000, and Beatty charitably donated an additional folio. The Beattys were also patrons of the British Museum, donating 19 ancient Egyptian papyri to the Museum.
Between 1939 and 1949, Beatty acquired over 140 nineteenth-century paintings to display in the picture gallery of his London home. The gallery had been built as a result of the conversion of the stables to a library in 1934; the gallery linked the main house to the garden library. In 1940, Beatty packed up the paintings and shipped them to New York for safekeeping during the Second World War. In 1949, Beatty decided to donate part of his collection of French nineteenth-century paintings to the Irish Nation as a token of appreciation to the Taoiseach of the day, John A. Costello, for his support in facilitating Beatty's move from London. These are now part of the collection of the National Gallery of Ireland.
Move to Dublin
Beatty had supported the war effort, contributing a large amount of raw materials to the Allies. He received a belated knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II in the 1954 Birthday Honours List for his contribution to the wartime effort.
By the late 1940s, however, he had become disillusioned with Britain. Political deviations from his free-market values, coupled with increased foreign exchange restrictions impacted both his personal and collecting interests in Britain. Though he had initially envisioned deepening his relationship with the British Museum by donating his collection in its entirety (he had personally funded many of the museum acquisitions, and received expert consultations from the curators), he changed his mind when the new director insisted on deciding for himself if Beatty's collection met the museum's quality standards. The director also would not assure Beatty that his collection would remain intact, rather he would separate pieces out to different departments.
He bought a large townhouse for himself on Ailesbury Road in the Ballsbridge area of Dublin, and a site on nearby Shrewsbury Road, also in Ballsbridge, for the construction of the Chester Beatty Library, which housed the collection, the library opening on 8 August 1953. The library was moved to its current location at Dublin Castle in 2000.
Beatty spent the remainder of his life between Dublin and the south of France. He was made a Freeman of Dublin in 1954 and was the first person granted honorary citizenship of Ireland in 1957. He continued to collection in the 1950s and 1960s, acquiring important Ethiopian manuscripts and Japanese printed material during that period.
Beatty died in Monte Carlo in Monaco in 1968; his Irish estate was valued at £7 million. He was accorded a state funeral by the Irish government – the first private citizen in Irish history to receive such an honour. He is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin.
The Chester Beatty Library on Shrewsbury Road and the collection it housed was bequeathed to a trust on behalf of the people of Ireland. In 2000, it opened in its current location: the eighteenth-century Clock Tower building in the grounds of Dublin Castle.
Footnotes
References
External links
CBL.ie – Chester Beatty Library website
Obituary - Northern Mine Research Society
1875 births
1968 deaths
American emigrants to England
American emigrants to Ireland
American mining businesspeople
British art collectors
British emigrants to Ireland
British book and manuscript collectors
British mining businesspeople
Burials at Glasnevin Cemetery
Businesspeople awarded knighthoods
Columbia School of Mines alumni
Irish art collectors
Irish expatriates in Monaco
Irish philanthropists
Knights Bachelor
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
|
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200877
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maze%20generation%20algorithm
|
Maze generation algorithm
|
Maze generation algorithms are automated methods for the creation of mazes.
Graph theory based methods
A maze can be generated by starting with a predetermined arrangement of cells (most commonly a rectangular grid but other arrangements are possible) with wall sites between them. This predetermined arrangement can be considered as a connected graph with the edges representing possible wall sites and the nodes representing cells. The purpose of the maze generation algorithm can then be considered to be making a subgraph in which it is challenging to find a route between two particular nodes.
If the subgraph is not connected, then there are regions of the graph that are wasted because they do not contribute to the search space. If the graph contains loops, then there may be multiple paths between the chosen nodes. Because of this, maze generation is often approached as generating a random spanning tree. Loops, which can confound naive maze solvers, may be introduced by adding random edges to the result during the course of the algorithm.
The animation shows the maze generation steps for a
graph that is not on a rectangular grid.
First, the computer creates a random planar graph G
shown in blue, and its dual F
shown in yellow. Second, computer traverses F using a chosen
algorithm, such as a depth-first search, coloring the path red.
During the traversal, whenever a red edge crosses over a blue edge,
the blue edge is removed.
Finally, when all vertices of F have been visited, F is erased
and two edges from G, one for the entrance and one for the exit, are removed.
Randomized depth-first search
This algorithm, also known as the "recursive backtracker" algorithm, is a randomized version of the depth-first search algorithm.
Frequently implemented with a stack, this approach is one of the simplest ways to generate a maze using a computer. Consider the space for a maze being a large grid of cells (like a large chess board), each cell starting with four walls. Starting from a random cell, the computer then selects a random neighbouring cell that has not yet been visited. The computer removes the wall between the two cells and marks the new cell as visited, and adds it to the stack to facilitate backtracking. The computer continues this process, with a cell that has no unvisited neighbours being considered a dead-end. When at a dead-end it backtracks through the path until it reaches a cell with an unvisited neighbour, continuing the path generation by visiting this new, unvisited cell (creating a new junction). This process continues until every cell has been visited, causing the computer to backtrack all the way back to the beginning cell. We can be sure every cell is visited.
As given above this algorithm involves deep recursion which may cause stack overflow issues on some computer architectures. The algorithm can be rearranged into a loop by storing backtracking information in the maze itself. This also provides a quick way to display a solution, by starting at any given point and backtracking to the beginning.
Mazes generated with a depth-first search have a low branching factor and contain many long corridors, because the algorithm explores as far as possible along each branch before backtracking.
Recursive implementation
The depth-first search algorithm of maze generation is frequently implemented using backtracking. This can be described with a following recursive routine:
Given a current cell as a parameter,
Mark the current cell as visited
While the current cell has any unvisited neighbour cells
Choose one of the unvisited neighbours
Remove the wall between the current cell and the chosen cell
Invoke the routine recursively for a chosen cell
which is invoked once for any initial cell in the area.
Iterative implementation
A disadvantage of the first approach is a large depth of recursion – in the worst case, the routine may need to recur on every cell of the area being processed, which may exceed the maximum recursion stack depth in many environments. As a solution, the same backtracking method can be implemented with an explicit stack, which is usually allowed to grow much bigger with no harm.
Choose the initial cell, mark it as visited and push it to the stack
While the stack is not empty
Pop a cell from the stack and make it a current cell
If the current cell has any neighbours which have not been visited
Push the current cell to the stack
Choose one of the unvisited neighbours
Remove the wall between the current cell and the chosen cell
Mark the chosen cell as visited and push it to the stack
Randomized Kruskal's algorithm
This algorithm is a randomized version of Kruskal's algorithm.
Create a list of all walls, and create a set for each cell, each containing just that one cell.
For each wall, in some random order:
If the cells divided by this wall belong to distinct sets:
Remove the current wall.
Join the sets of the formerly divided cells.
There are several data structures that can be used to model the sets of cells. An efficient implementation using a disjoint-set data structure can perform each union and find operation on two sets in nearly constant amortized time (specifically, time; for any plausible value of ), so the running time of this algorithm is essentially proportional to the number of walls available to the maze.
It matters little whether the list of walls is initially randomized or if a wall is randomly chosen from a nonrandom list, either way is just as easy to code.
Because the effect of this algorithm is to produce a minimal spanning tree from a graph with equally weighted edges, it tends to produce regular patterns which are fairly easy to solve.
Randomized Prim's algorithm
This algorithm is a randomized version of Prim's algorithm.
Start with a grid full of walls.
Pick a cell, mark it as part of the maze. Add the walls of the cell to the wall list.
While there are walls in the list:
Pick a random wall from the list. If only one of the cells that the wall divides is visited, then:
Make the wall a passage and mark the unvisited cell as part of the maze.
Add the neighboring walls of the cell to the wall list.
Remove the wall from the list.
Note that simply running classical Prim's on a graph with random edge weights would create mazes stylistically identical to Kruskal's, because they are both minimal spanning tree algorithms. Instead, this algorithm introduces stylistic variation because the edges closer to the starting point have a lower effective weight.
Modified version
Although the classical Prim's algorithm keeps a list of edges, for maze generation we could instead maintain a list of adjacent cells. If the randomly chosen cell has multiple edges that connect it to the existing maze, select one of these edges at random. This will tend to branch slightly more than the edge-based version above.
Simplified version
The algorithm can be simplfied even further by randomly selecting cells that neighbour already-visited cells, rather than keeping track of the weights of all cells or edges.
It will usually be relatively easy to find the way to the starting cell, but hard to find the way anywhere else.
Wilson's algorithm
All the above algorithms have biases of various sorts: depth-first search is biased toward long corridors, while Kruskal's/Prim's algorithms are biased toward many short dead ends. Wilson's algorithm, on the other hand, generates an unbiased sample from the uniform distribution over all mazes, using loop-erased random walks.
We begin the algorithm by initializing the maze with one cell chosen arbitrarily. Then we start at a new cell chosen arbitrarily, and perform a random walk until we reach a cell already in the maze—however, if at any point the random walk reaches its own path, forming a loop, we erase the loop from the path before proceeding. When the path reaches the maze, we add it to the maze. Then we perform another loop-erased random walk from another arbitrary starting cell, repeating until all cells have been filled.
This procedure remains unbiased no matter which method we use to arbitrarily choose starting cells. So we could always choose the first unfilled cell in (say) left-to-right, top-to-bottom order for simplicity.
Aldous-Broder algorithm
The Aldous-Broder algorithm also produces uniform spanning trees.
Pick a random cell as the current cell and mark it as visited.
While there are unvisited cells:
Pick a random neighbour.
If the chosen neighbour has not been visited:
Remove the wall between the current cell and the chosen neighbour.
Mark the chosen neighbour as visited.
Make the chosen neighbour the current cell.
Recursive division method
Mazes can be created with recursive division, an algorithm which works as follows: Begin with the maze's space with no walls. Call this a chamber. Divide the chamber with a randomly positioned wall (or multiple walls) where each wall contains a randomly positioned passage opening within it. Then recursively repeat the process on the subchambers until all chambers are minimum sized. This method results in mazes with long straight walls crossing their space, making it easier to see which areas to avoid.
For example, in a rectangular maze, build at random points two walls that are perpendicular to each other. These two walls divide the large chamber into four smaller chambers separated by four walls. Choose three of the four walls at random, and open a one cell-wide hole at a random point in each of the three. Continue in this manner recursively, until every chamber has a width of one cell in either of the two directions.
Simple algorithms
Other algorithms exist that require only enough memory to store one line of a 2D maze or one plane of a 3D maze. Eller's algorithm prevents loops by storing which cells in the current line are connected through cells in the previous lines, and never removes walls between any two cells already connected. The Sidewinder algorithm starts with an open passage along the entire the top row, and subsequent rows consist of shorter horizontal passages with one connection to the passage above. The Sidewinder algorithm is trivial to solve from the bottom up because it has no upward dead ends. Given a starting width, both algorithms create perfect mazes of unlimited height.
Most maze generation algorithms require maintaining relationships between cells within it, to ensure the end result will be solvable. Valid simply connected mazes can however be generated by focusing on each cell independently. A binary tree maze is a standard orthogonal maze where each cell always has a passage leading up or leading left, but never both. To create a binary tree maze, for each cell flip a coin to decide whether to add a passage leading up or left. Always pick the same direction for cells on the boundary, and the end result will be a valid simply connected maze that looks like a binary tree, with the upper left corner its root. As with Sidewinder, the binary tree maze has no dead ends in the directions of bias.
A related form of flipping a coin for each cell is to create an image using a random mix of forward slash and backslash characters. This doesn't generate a valid simply connected maze, but rather a selection of closed loops and unicursal passages. (The manual for the Commodore 64 presents a BASIC program using this algorithm, but using PETSCII diagonal line graphic characters instead for a smoother graphic appearance.)
Cellular automaton algorithms
Certain types of cellular automata can be used to generate mazes. Two well-known such cellular automata, Maze and Mazectric, have rulestrings B3/S12345 and B3/S1234. In the former, this means that cells survive from one generation to the next if they have at least one and at most five neighbours. In the latter, this means that cells survive if they have one to four neighbours. If a cell has exactly three neighbours, it is born. It is similar to Conway's Game of Life in that patterns that do not have a living cell adjacent to 1, 4, or 5 other living cells in any generation will behave identically to it. However, for large patterns, it behaves very differently from Life.
For a random starting pattern, these maze-generating cellular automata will evolve into complex mazes with well-defined walls outlining corridors. Mazecetric, which has the rule B3/S1234 has a tendency to generate longer and straighter corridors compared with Maze, with the rule B3/S12345. Since these cellular automaton rules are deterministic, each maze generated is uniquely determined by its random starting pattern. This is a significant drawback since the mazes tend to be relatively predictable.
Like some of the graph-theory based methods described above, these cellular automata typically generate mazes from a single starting pattern; hence it will usually be relatively easy to find the way to the starting cell, but harder to find the way anywhere else.
See also
Maze solving algorithm
Self-avoiding walk
Brute-force search
References
External links
Think Labyrinth: Maze algorithms (details on these and other maze generation algorithms)
Jamis Buck: HTML 5 Presentation with Demos of Maze generation Algorithms
Maze generation visualization
Java implementation of Prim's algorithm
Implementations of DFS maze creation algorithm in multiple languages at Rosetta Code
Armin Reichert: 34 maze algorithms in Java 8, with demo application
CADforum: Maze generation algorithm in VisualLISP
Coding Challenge #10.1: Maze Generator with p5.js - Part 1: Maze generation algorithm in JavaScript with p5
Maze Generator by Charles Bond, COMPUTE! Magazine, December 1981
Mazes
Algorithms
Random graphs
Articles containing video clips
|
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